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THE LIBRARY

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The JOURNAL of HEREDITY

(Formerly the Americagg Breeders’ Magazine)

A MONTHLY PUBLICATION DEVOTED
TO PLANT BREEDING, ANIMAL BREEDING AND EUGENICS

PUBLISHED BY THE

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

(Formerly called the American Breeders’ Association)

VOLUME V

WASHINGTON, D. C.
1914

ee ee efor fee

Ce ee TTT SIMUL IML MULLS eM smn sin —

spn to Rone sear al of the

council, any person interested
in the improvement of the human
race or the creation of better plants
and animals is eligible for member-
ship. The Secretary will be glad
to correspond with those interested,
and to send a copy of the magazine
forexamination. Annual dues giv-
ing the right to attend the annual
and other meetings, and to receive
the magazine, are $2.00; for life
membership $50.00. Address all
communications to the Secretary.

ar TELL eT STOTT Te LTT LLL PTT TTI TTS TLL CTS TTT s MLS ULL DCL

American Genetic Association
511 Eleventh Street N. W.., Washington, D. C.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

EEE EEE _

INDEX TO VOLUME V
THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, 1914

Agriculture, Aryan. Dr. Dettweiler . .
Alaska’s Reindeer Industry. Levi Chubbuck .
Albinism in Man. A. E. Hamilton . . ‘
Alfalfa Hybridization. W. Southworth
Amateur Rose Breeding. Viviand-Morel.
Americans, Study of Old. Ales Hrdlicka
ae W.S. Coat Colorin Horses .
Apert, E. The Laws of Naudin-Mendel .
Apple Chimera, A. W. E. Castle . ?
Aryan Agriculture. Dr. Dettweiler .

Banana, Origin of the. The Editor .
Bare Necks, The. C.B. Davenport. .
Bean, Robert Bennett. The Philippine Negritos

Bell, ‘Alexander Graham. How to Improve the Race
Sex-Determination in Sheep.

Belling, John. A Study of Semi-sterility .
Inheritance in Plant Hairs .
Berry, James B. Tree Growth and seed
Bibliography, A Eugenics : :
Biological Eugenics, Leon J. Golestan.
Birth Rate, The Declining. F. H. Hankins
Bismarck’s Heredity. Dr. vee Siadonic ;
Bison and Cattle, Crossing. M. Boyd

Hybrids, My Be hce: with. C. Goodnight.

Bisset, Peter. The James River Walnut .

Blakeslee, Albert F. Corn and Men. ‘

Bos triceros . :

Boyd, Mossom M. ” Crossing Bison and Cattle .

Boyd, W. A. Hereditary Chorea . .

Boyle, H. H. The Siamese Pomelo .

Breeders, a New Oak for . re ene a ae

Breeding, Amateur Rose. Viviand-Morel
Australian Opossums. B. Harrison.
Karakul Sheep. C.C. Young. .
Wild Game. Paul Larsen. . :
Pueblo Indian Maize. G.N, Collins .

Canaries, A Race of White . .
Castle, W.E. An Apple Chimera. sass
Pure Lines and Selection . .
Cattle, Crossing Bison and: M.M. Boyd .
Chapin, W.S. Heredity in Chimeras . . .
Chase, John H. Weakness of Eldest Sons . .
Chestnut Bark Disease, The. Haven Metcalf
Blight Resistance. R.T. Morris. .
Breeding Experience. W. Van Fleet
Child, the First and Last. Alfred Ploetz.
Children of the HRbercu Cue, W. Weinbert,
Chimera, an Apple. W. E. Castle 5
Chimeras, Heredity in. W. S. Chapin
Plant. The Editor. . . :
Chorea, Hereditary. W.A. Boyd. . .
Chubbuck, Levi. Alaska’s Reindeer Industry
Classification, A Kaki. H.H. Hume .
Coat-Color in Horses. W.S. Anderson .
Pointer Dogs. C. C. Little
Coat-Pattern in Mammals. Q. I. Simpson .
Cole, Leon J. Biological ee
Collecting i in Turkestan. F. N. Meyer.
Colleges, Eugenics in the. .
Collins, G. N. Pueblo Indian Maize Breeding
Nature of Mendelian Units .
Color Inheritance in Pigs. G. Frohllich .
Committee, the Eugenics . é ; ;
International Eugenics
on Eugenics Research, Report of .
Immigration, Report of.
Congress, International Eugenics

Gannichre Eugenics. A Review by t the Editor r

Cook, O. F. Eugenics and Breeding.
Existence of Species, the .
Reticular Heredity i
Sexual Inequality in Hemp .

Corn and Men. A. F. Blakeslee ;

Crossing Bison and Cattle. M. M. Boyd.

Daniel, Lucien. An Explanation of Graft Aypude
Date Palm, Origin of the. The Editor.
Davenport, Charles B. Review by

Origin of Domestic Fowl.

The Bare Necks . .

a Skin Color of Mulattoes . .
Declining Birth Rate, The. F. H. Hankins. .
Degenerated Rose Blossom, A. J.C. Uhrlaub
Determination of Sex, The. P. J. Wester
Dettweiler, Dr. Aryan Agriculture . :
Differential Fecundity. Walter F. Willcox .

ili

Disease, the Chestnut Bark. H. Metcalf. ..... enw 2

Dogs, Coat Color in Pointer. C.C.Little.....

Editor, The. Meat Production in Swamps .
Sex-Determination in Sheep .
Three New Nuts. .
Extinction of Family Names . aig
Polynesian-Norwegian Metisse, A.
Origin of the Banana . At SY
Constructive Eugenics (a review) sor
Origin of the Date Palm.
Plant Chimeras. E A
Effects of Inbreeding. H.Kraemer... .
Eldest Sons, Weakness of. J. H. Chase . :
Engler, Arnold. Influence of Source of Seed .
Eugenics and Breeding. O.F. Cook. ...
Bibl sography A. ee ee
Biological. L. J. Cole.
Committee, The :
Constructive (a review by the Editor) ;
in Germany. G. von Hoffmann
International Congress of
International Committee of
in the Colleges . :
Italians take up :
Pioneers in. A. E. Hamilton.
Progress in Utah. E.G. Titus.
Research Association Meeting

Research Committee. Studies in Human Heredity ;

The Progress of. C. W. Saleeby Sa

The Reason for. aie Galton .

versus Cacogenics. E. Southard .
Exhibit of Hybrids, Foran. . E
Existence of Species, The. O. F. Cook... .
Explanation of Graft Hybrids, An. L. Daniel
Extinction of Family Names. The Editor .

Faces and Races. V.L. Kellogg .
Fecundity, Differential. Walter F. Willcox.
Fertility of Mixed Marriages. Thomas Guevara
Fischer, Eugen. Racial Hybridization . AP
Fowl, Origin of Domestic. C. B. Davenport .
Frohllich, Gustav. Color Inheritance in nig ‘
Fruwirth, C. Handbuch (reviewed) . :
Ziachtung, etc. (reviewed) .

Galton, Francis. The Law of Regression.

Reason for Eugenics .
Garrison, A. Jay. High Altitude Maize .
Genetics, The Science of. A. W. Gilbert .
Germany, Eugenics in. G. von Hoffmann .
Germ-cells, Injuries to. C.R. Stockard . >
Gilbert, Arthur W. The Science of Genetics . .
Gilbertson, Albert N. Negro-Ute Metis . .
Acoodnight, Charles. My Experience with Bison Hybrids
Graft ybrids, An Explanation of. L. Daniel -
Graphs, Standards for .
Gravatt, Flippo. A Radish- ete Hybrid .
Great Britain, Mendelism in Punnett .
Griffiths, David. Reversion in Prickly Pears . :
Guevara, Thomas. Fertility of Mixed Marriages .

Hairs, Inheritance in Plant. John Balbus
Hamilton, A. E. Albinismin Man . .
Appointed Lecturer
Pioneers in Eugenics. .
Hankins, F. H. The Declining Birth Rate. .
Hansson, Nils. Increasing the Richness of Milk
Harrison, B. Breeding Australian Opossums .
Hayes, H. K. Variationin Tobacco... .
Haynes, William. Inbreeding in Dogs. .
Hemophilia in Horses. J. B. oe :
Hemp, Sexual Inequality in. F. Cook
Heredity in Chimeras. W. S. Cina ae :
Recent Books on Human. Amey Eaton Watson .
Reticular. O. F. Cook

Studies in Human. Eugenics ‘Research Committee .

Heron, David. The Need of Accuracy
Hog, The Sapphire. J. A. McLean .
Holstein Milk Yield. F. R. Marshall
Horses, Coat Color in. W.S. Anderson .
Hemophilia in. J.B. Roberston. . é
How to Improve the Race. Alexander Graham Bell.
Hrdlicka, Ales. Study of Old Americans. :
Hume, H. Harold. A Kaki Classification
Planting Persimmons.
Hybrid, A Radish-Cabbage. F. Gravatt.
Hybridization, Alfalfa. W. Southworth .
Racial. Eugen st a Phy
Hybrids, For an Exhibition of. . me a Oh et eee
My Experience with Bison. C. Goodnight.

Immigration, Report of Committee on .
Inbreeding, Effect of. H. Kraemer .
Inbreeding in Dogs. William Haynes .

Increasing the Richness of Milk. N. Hansson
Influence of Monarchs. F. A. Woods Serene)
Influence of Source of Seed. <A. Engler
Influences, Prenatal. David Starr Jordan .
Inheritance in Plant Hairs. John Belling
Poultry. D.F. Laurie

of Milk Yield. J. Peters . .
Injuries to Germ Cells. C.R. Stockard .
International Eugenics Congress.
Italians Take up Eugenics

Jaboticaba, The. Wilson Popenoe. .
James River Walnut, The. Peter Bisset .
Johnson, R. H. Marriage Selection .

What Eugenics Means .
Jordan, David Starr. Prenatal Influences .

Kaki Classification, A. H. Harold Hume
Karakul Sheep, Breeding. C.C. Young .
Origin of. C.C. Young. .
Kellogg, Vernon L. Faces and Races . . ;
Knox, Howard A. Tests for Mental Defects .
Kraemer, H. Effects of Inbreeding .

Large Trees, Prizes Offered for PEED of
Larsen, Paul. Breeding Wild Game. .
Laurie, D. F. Inheritance in Poultry .

Laws of Naudin-Mendel, The. E. Apert.
Left-handedness. .

Little, C. C. Coat Color in Pointer Dogs

Maize Breeding, Pueblo Indian. G.N. Collins .
High Altitude. A. Jay Garrison aA
Mammals, Coat Patternin. Q. I. Sa eee
Man, Albinismin. A. E. Hamilton . .
Man’s Pedigree. G. Elliot Smith . .
Marriage, Results of git C. L. Redfield.
Selection. R.H. Johnson . :
Marriages, Fertility of Mixed. Thomas Guevara .
Marshall, F. R. Holstein Milk Yield . che
Material for Plant Breeders. . . des
McLean, J. A. The Sapphire Hog. Lie .
Meat Production in Swamps. The Editor .
Men, Corn and. A. F. Blakeslee . :
Mendelism in Great Britain. R.C. Punnett .
Mental Defects, Tests for. Howard A. Knox.
Metcalf, Haven. The Chestnut Bark Disease
Metis, Negro-Ute A.N. Gilbertson . .
Metisse, A Polynesian-N orwegian. The Editor
Meyer, Frank N. Collecting in Turkestan .
Seeking Plant Immigrants. .

My Experience with Bison Hybrids. C. Goodnight . Fi

Milk, Increasing the Richness of. N. Hansson .

Milk Yield, Holstein. F.R. Marshall . :
Inheritance of. J. Peters .

Missing Teeth Inherited. Sergio Sergi

Monarchs, The Influence of. F. A. Woods ( (reviewed)

Monod, Th. The Origin of Species . . Z
Morris, Robert T. Chestnut Blight Resistance .
Moussu, G. The Origin of Species Te ‘ae
Mulattoes, Skin Color of. C. B. Davenport

Names, Extinction of Family. The Editor .
Nature of Mendelian Units. G. N. Collins.
Naudin-Mendel, The Laws of. E. Apert. .
Negritos, the Phi ilippine. Robert Hennett Bean
Negro-Ute Metis. Albert N. Gilbertson . .

New Oak for Breeders, A. 3 j

New Publications . . ete
Nilsson, H. Hjalmar. Plant Breeding in Sweden .
Nuts, Three New. The Editor. .......

Oak for Breeders, A New
Oats, Origin of Cultivated. L. Trabut. ;
Opossums, Breeding Australian. B. Harrison.
Orchids, Register of Hybrid. . ....
Origin of Cultivated Oats. L. Trabut .
Date Palm. The Editor . 4
Domestic Fowl. C. B. Davenport
Karakul Sheep. C.C. Young . . ;
Species. Th. Monod and G. Moussu .
the Banana. The Editor . . :
Palm, Origin of the Date. The Editor... .
Pears, Reversion in Prickly. David Griffiths .
Pedigree, Man’s. G. Elliot Smith. ; oe.
Persimmons, Planting. H. Harold Hume
Peters, J. Inheritance of Milk Yield =
Photographs of Large Trees, Prizes Offered for
Pigs, Color Inheritance in. G. Frohllich .
Pioneers in Eugenics. A. E. Hamilton.
Plant Breeders, Material for .
Breeding in Sweden. H. Hjalmar Nilsson
Chimeras. The Editor. . :
Immigrants, Seeking. F. N. Meyer ;
Planting Persimmons. H. Harold Hume.
Ploetz, Alfred. The First and Last Child ...
Polynesian-Norwegian Metisse, A. The Editor .

154, 169, 304, 444,

vi

Pomelo, The Siamese. H. H. Boyle.
Popenoe, Paul. See Editor.

Popenoe, Wilson. The Jaboticaba

Poultry, Inheritance in. D. F, Laurie .
Prenatal Influences. David Starr Jordan ;
Prizes Offered for Photographs of Large Trees.
Pueblo Indian Maize Breeding. G. N. Collins
Punnett, R. C. Mendelism in Great Britain .
Pure Lines and Selection. W.E. Castle . .

Quail Breeding

Rahbaudetenne. ,lelegonw..) 2aeo c's sts ses
Race, How to Improve the. Alexander Graham Bell
Racial Hybridization. Eugen Fischer . .

Origin of Successful Americans. F. A. Woods
Races, Faces and. V.L. Kellogg .. .
Radish-Cabbage Hybrid, A. F. Gravatt .

Reason for Eugenics, The. Francis Galton. . .
Recent Books on Human Heredity. A. E. Watson
Redfield, Casper L. Results of Early Marriage.
Register of Hybrid Orchids . é :
Regression, The Law of. Francis Galton.
Report of Committee on Research in Boaenics
Immigration .
Results of Early Marriage. C. L L. Redfield .
Reticular Heredity. O.F. Cook . 7
Reversion in Prickly Pears. David Griffiths .
Robertson, J. R. Hemophilia in fee Aum ‘
Rose Blossom, A Degenerated. J.C .Uhrlaub .
Breeding, Amateur. Viviand- Morel

Saleeby, C. W. The Progress of ales fepviewed)
Sapphire Hog, The. J.A. McLean . .
Science of Genetics, The. A. W. Gilbert . ng b
Seed, Influence of Source of. Arnold Engler :

Tree Growth and. James B. Berry
Seeking Plant Immigrants. F.N. Meyer .
Segregation, Nature and ee of. William Bateson . .
Selection, Marriage. R.H. Johnson. . . : ;

Pure Lines and. W. E. Castle.
Semi-Sterility, A Study of. John Belling.
Sergi, Dr. Sergio. Missing Teeth Inherited. _
Sex-Determination in Sheep. A. G. Bell and the Editor . .
Sex, The Determination of. P. J. Wester ;
Sexual Inequality in Hemp. O. F. Cook .
Sheep, Breeding Karakul. C.C. Young. .
Origin of Karakul. C. C. Young
Sex-Determination in. A. G. Bell and the Editor.
Siamese Pomelo, The. H. H. Boyle . ¢
Simpson, Q. I. Coat Pattern in Mammals. .
Skin Color in Mulattoes. C.B. Davenport. .
Smith, G. Elliot. Man's Pedigree. :
Southard, E. E. Eugenics vs. Cacogenics oa
Southworth, William. pias Hybridization .
Species, The Existence of. bate Cook. vs
Origin of. Th. een and G. Moussu.

Standards for Graphs ;
Stockard, Charles R. Injuries to Genii Cells .

Studies in Human Heredity. Eugenics Research Committee :

Study of Old Americans. Ales Hrdlicka . .
Semi-sterility, A. John Belling .

Swamps, Meat Production in. The Editor .

Sweden, Plant Breeding in. H. Hjalmar Nilsson

Teeth, Missing, Inherited. Sergio Sergi .
Telegony. Etienne Rabaud he
Tests for Mental Defects. Howard A. Knox .
Three New Nuts. The Editor ; aout
Titus, E.G. Eugenics Progress in Utah .
Tobacco, Variation in. H. K. Hayes

Trabut, L. Origin of Cultivated Oats .

Tree Growth and Seed. James B. Berry.
Trees, Prizes Offered for Photographs of Large
Tuberculous, Children of the. W. Weinberg .

Uhrlaub, John C. A Degenerated Rose Blossom
Units, Nature of Mendelian. G. N. Collins
Utah, Eugenics Progress in. E.G. Titus. .

Van Fleet, W. Chestnut ete eapeneee
Variation by Loss of Inhibitors Bateson .

in Tobacco. H. K. Hayes. . ;
Viviand-Morel, J. Amateur Rose Breeding .
von Hoffmann, Geza. Eugenics in Germany ‘
yon Stradonitz. Bismarck’s Heredity .

Walnut, The James River. Peter Bisset .

Watson, Amey Edith. Recent Books on Human Heredity .

Weakness of Eldest Sons. John H. Chase . . - .

Weinberg, Wilhelm. Children of the Tuberculous.

Wester, P. J. The Determination of Sex .

Willcox, Walter F. Differential Fecundity .

Wisconsin Marriage Law, The. :

Woods, F. A. The Influence of Monarchs (reviewed)
Racial Origin of Successful Americans

Young, C.C. Breeding Karakul Sheep
Origin of Karakul Sheep

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. l January, 1914.

CONTENTS

How to Improve the Race, by Alexander Graham Bell........... 1
The Chestnut Bark Disease, by Haven Metealf................... 8
Debertannce oF Vist. rele 5 3 3.02 4c 8 tots be eh eee a ee 18
Chestnut Breeding Experience, by W. Van Fleet.................. 19
(he Orie mor Species. i a. oo Sod hae Re oor ae He Ee 25
An Explanation of Graft-Hybrids..............0..0..0 0c ccc cece eee 25
Chestnut Blight Resistance, by Robert T. Morris................. 26
Eugenics and Breeding, by O. F. Cook............. eee, EEE ae 30
Meat Production in Swamps, by the Editor...................... 34
Prenatal Influences, by David Starr Jordan....................... 38
Variation in Tobacco, by H. K. Hayes...............0............ 40

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Breeders’ Asso-
ciation (henceforth to be called the American Genetic Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1913 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and magazine.

Date of issue of this number, December 28, 1913.

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“VINGETT AO SOQINVLOdOddIH AWOId

HOW TO IMPROVE THE RACE

Success Possible, but not by Processes Employed with Lower Animals—Little
Gain from Preventing Marriage of Undesirables—Important Point Is
Formation of a Prepotent, Desirable Stock by Marriages of Desirable
People with Each Other—This Prepotent Stock Will Then
Raise the Level of the Great Bulk of Normals.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Washington, D. C.

IVING organisms have proven so

| plastic in the hands of scientific

‘breeders that we have learned

to improve our breeds of plants

and animals by suitable selection con-
trolled by man.

Human beings, also, are undoubtedly
capable of modification by selection;
but it is manifestly impossible to apply
to them the processes employed with
the lower animals.

The difficulties of the problem may
perhaps be appreciated if we consider
for a moment how far it would be pos-
sible to improve our breeds of domestic
animals under the conditions which
prevail among human beings.

Given, for example, a flock of sheep
to be improved, but under human condi-
tions.

First, we must not butcher any of the
animals. Ovine life is to be considered
as sacred as human life. We must not
mutilate the animals; nor do anything
to them that is inconsistent with the
humanitarian spirit of the age.

The weaklings are to be preserved
and given special care. In fact, all of
the animals, including the poor little
deformed lambs, are to be kept alive
as long as possible. They are to be
treated with kindness and consideration
until they die of old age, or from other
causes beyond our control.

To these condit ons we may add the
following: polygamous unions must not
be permitted; nor unions between indi-
viduals related in various ways.

A man, for example, may not marry
his grandmother; nor his mother; nor
his sister; nor his daughter; and if we
apply all the human restrictions to

sheep, we shall have our hands full
indeed in merely examining the ancestry
of the flock, and the relationships of the
individuals to one another, so as to
avoid the prohibited unions.

While we are forbidden to allow
certain classes of unions, we are not
permitted to select the individuals that
should be mated together to improve
the stock. Each individual of the flock,
under the restrictions referred to, must
be free to choose its own mate; and the
pairing shall be for life.

We may confidently assert that under
such conditions no scientific breeder
would undertake to improve the flock,—
it would not be possible.

THE HUMAN PROBLEM.

But these are the conditions we must
face in attempting to improve our own
race; and we may as well recognize,
first as last, that we have no power to
compel improvement.

A gleam of hope, however, appears in
this connection when we realize that
there is one great and fundamental
difference between a community of
human beings, and a flock or herd of
animals: The individuals of the human
community possess intelligence.

The individuals have power to im-
prove the race, but not the knowledge
of what to do. We students of genetics
possess the knowledge but not the
power; and the great hope lies in the
dissemination of our knowledge among
the people at large.

Another important difference be-
tween human beings and the lower
animals, arising from intelligence, is
that human beings give some thought

1

2 THE JOURNAL

to their unborn progeny. All desire
that their offspring may be of the best;
and no one wishes to have degenerate
or defective children.

The attitude of the public mind is
therefore favorable to voluntary com-
pliance with plans which appeal to the
intelligence of the community as reason-
able and right; and favorable to the
formation of a public opinion which
will compel compliance.

These are such hopeful conditions
that they will bear recapitulation.

The members of a human community,
both individually and collectively, de-
sire that their descendants may, if
possible, be better than themselves

They possess intelligence to under-
stand the laws of heredity as applicable
to man; and a willingness to adopt any
reasonable and practicable measures
that may be formulated for the benefit
of future generations.

All recognize the fact that the laws
of heredity which apply to animals also
apply to man; and that therefore the
breeder of animals is fitted to guide
public opinion on questions relating to
human heredity. Without power to
control, he has power to advise; and the
public generally will accept his state-
ments as sound, because based upon
special knowledge and experience in
the breeding of animals.

What an opportunity for the members
of the American Genetic Association
to benefit the human race! Most of
the disputed questions of human hered-
ity can be settled by them, and their
verdict will be acquiesced in by the
general public.

Statistics relating to the effect of
inbreeding among animals, for example,
could surely be made to guide public
opinion rightly on the subject of con-
sanguineous marriages among human
beings.

So, too, statistics relating to the effect
upon the offspring of maturity and im-
maturity in the parents of animals,
would seem to have a bearing upon the
question of early versus late marriages
among human beings.

The first thing for us to do, is to
make known to the public the processes
that are needed to improve the race; and

oF HEREDITY

then to show how, by intelligent co-
operation among the members of the
community, these processes may be
applied.

IMPROVING RACIAL STATURE.

In considering the question of im-
provement, it may be well to begin by
taking some specific quality of an in-
heritable nature and examining its dis-
tribution among the population at
large.

Take stature as an example. We have
pigmy races of men, and it is quite con-
ceivable that some such race might
deem it desirable to increase the general
height of the population.

The members of the race all possess
the desirable characteristic (height),
but in varying degrees; and upon this
variability depends the possibility of
improvement. The difference between
the extremes shows the amplitude of
the variation; and if we sort out the
population in accordance with the de-
gree in which they possess the quality,
we shall find a continuous series from
the lowest to the highest. Some in-
termediate point represents the average
degree in which the quality is possessed
by the race.

The people who are markedly above
the average height will, in this case,
constitute the desirable class; and those
who are markedly under the average
would be the undesirable.

We are accustomed to focus our at-
tention so exclusively upon the desirable
and undesirable classes that we are apt
to forget that there is an intermediate
class, the normal, which is many times
greater than both of the others put
together, constituting, indeed, the bulk
of the population.

The accompanying diagram may per-
haps be of assistance in realizing the
relative proportions of these classes.
Let the large square represent an en-
closure completely filled with the people
under consideration. The square then
represents by its area the whole popula-
tion to be improved in height.

Now if we look the people over, we
shall find here and there exceptional
individuals who stand well above the
general level. Collect them together

BELL: IMPROVING THE HUMAN RACE 3

DESIRABLE 7

NORMAL

UNDESIRABLE

THE MAKE-UP OF THE HUMAN RACE.

In discussions of eugenics, the relatively small part of the population made
up by the superior and the inferior is sometimes allowed to occupy
so prominent a place that we forget that the great bulk of the race
is made up of normal people, as the diagram clearly shows. Mr.
Bell points out that because of this overwhelming numerical pre-
ponderance of the normal people, the easiest, quickest and most
natural method of raising the level of the whole race is to raise the
level of this huge mass of normals, instead of devoting all our atten-
tion to reducing the relatively insignificant number of inferiors.

into a pen in one corner of the enclosure.
These constitute the desirable class
represented by the small shaded square
at the top of the diagram, which ex-
presses, by its area, the number of tall
people found.

In a similar manner, collect the mark-
edly undersized individuals, and place
them in a separate pen represented by
the shaded square in the lower corner
of the diagram. These constitute the
undesirable class.

The rest of the population, occupying
the unshaded portion of the large
square, are normal people of somewhat
about the average height.

Stature is convenient as a typical
illustration because in this case the
desirable quality, height, is capable of
measurement.

APPLICATION UNIVERSAL.

If, however, any other inheritable
quality be taken as an illustration, the

people can, in a similar manner, be
sorted out into the three classes shown
in the diagram:

1. The great normal class possessing
the quality in a normal or average
degree.

2. The desirable class, possessing the
quality in a markedly greater degree
than the average.

3. The undesirable class, possessing

it in a markedly less degree than the
average.

On the scale shown in the diagram
the desirable and undesirable classes
each constitute 1” of the population and
the normal 98%. Whatever may be the
actual relative proportions, the diagram
expresses the undoubted fact that the
normal class constitutes the bulk of the
population; and that the desirable and
undesirable classes are very small as
compared with the normal.

+ THE JOURNAL

In the case considered the people
generally have been of small stature as
far back as their history extends.
There has been no substantial change
in the average height of the race within
historical times. From this we may
conclude that the ancestors of the pres-
ent generation were mainly of the
present normal height; and that only
a few of them were much taller or
shorter than this.

The above diagram, then, represents
substantially the relative proportions
of the three classes at each successive
generation of the population. It typi-
fies the future distribution, as well as
the past, unless some means can be
found to change it.

The desirable and undesirable classes,
like the normal, are sprung mainly
from normal parents; so that it
is obvious that no process of inter-
ference with the marriages of these
classes could much affect the relative
proportions of the three classes in the
next generation of the community. If,
for example, the desirables and unde-
sirables should all decide to lead celibate
lives so as to leave no descendants, we
would have just about as large a pro-
portion of desirables and undesirables
in the next generation of the commun-
ity, born from the normal class.

SELECTION IN MARRIAGE.

The individuals belonging to the
desirable and undesirable classes are
not only few in number, but are scat-
tered throughout the community. They
appear only here and there as excep-
tional cases, and are not segregated
from the others in their actual distri-
bution in the population. If, then,
they decide to marry, it is obvious that
most of the desirable and undesirable
individuals will marry normal persons,
because normal people constitute the
bulk of the community with whom they
come in contact; and the offspring will
tend to revert to the normal type of
the race. From this it follows that, on
the whole, the offspring of the desirables
will be less desirable than themselves;
and the offspring of the undesirables

1 See appendix to Rep. Royal Comm. on

322; also Education of Deaf Children, Pt. II, p.

OF HEREDITY

more desirable; most of the offspring
will be of the normal type.

Given a large normal class, and two
small classes, the desirable and unde-
sirable, the problem is, how to increase
the proportion of desirable children
born from the normal population.

This can be accomplished by mar-
riage with members of the desirable
class.

In the typical case considered, this
would mean that persons of normal
height would increase their liability to
have tall children by marrying tall
people.

Where normals marry normals a small
proportion (say 1%) of the offspring will
belong to the Racine class.

Where normals marry desirables the
percentage of desirable offspring will be
increased (say to 10%).

Of course, it is only possible for a
small proportion of the normal popula-
tion to marry persons belonging to the
desirable class, on account of limited
numbers. The range of choice, how-
ever, may be extended by marriages
with brothers or sisters or close blood
relatives of desirable persons. That is
upon the assumption that we are here
dealing with an inherited character-
istic.

PROOF OF INHERITANCE.

The late Professor W. K. Brooks, of
Johns Hopkins University, said:'

‘An inherited characteristic may, or
may not, have been manifested by the
parents or other*ancestors. . . . If
it is more common either among the
ancestors or the brothers and sisters and
cousins of the organism than it is in the
race at large, this fact is scientific proof
that it is an inherited characteristic.”

Where a peculiarity manifests itsélf
in only one member of a family we are
dealing with a sporadic case; and the
peculiarity may,
mitted to the descendants: But where
a number of people in the same family
exhibit the same congenital peculiarity
we have good reason to believe that it

Blind, Deaf and Dumb, etc., London, 1889, ii,
104, Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C., 1892.

or may not, be trans-,

————

BELL: IMPROVING THE HUMAN RACE 5

is an inherited characteristic, and there-
fore liable to be handed down to some
of the descendants by any member of
the family, even by those members who
do not exhibit the peculiarity in their
own persons.

These considerations lead us to the
conclusion that persons of normal
height will increase their liability to
have tall offspring by marrying into
families containing a number of tall
persons. Insuch a family the tendency
to produce tall people is evidently
an inherited characteristic; and the nor-
mal and undersized members of the
family, as well as the taller members,
will have a tendency to transmit the
characteristic to some of their descen-
dants. The tendency is in the blood,
and the whole family possesses it.

INFLUENCE OF ANCESTRY.

In this connection the influence ‘of
ancestry is most marked:

(1). Where Normals (whose ancestors
on the whole were normal people) marry
Desirables (whose ancestors were chiefly
normal), the normal partners will prove
prepotent over the desirable partners in
affecting the offspring. The bulk of the
offspring will be normal; and only a small
proportion (say 10%) desirable.

(2). But where Normals (with normal
ancestry) marry Desirables (whose parents
were desirable) the proportion of desir-
able offspring will be increased (say 20%
desirable). The potency of the desirable
partner to have desirable children is prac-
tically doubled, because of inheritance
from both parents; and the prepotency of
the normal partner is correspondingly re-
duced.

(3). Where Normals (with normal an-
cestors) marry Desirables (whose grand-
parents as well as parents were desirable)
the proportion of desirable offspring will
be still further increased (say to 45%);
and the prepotency of the normal partners
will be reduced almost to zero.

(4). Where Normals (with normal an-
cestry) marry Desirables (whose ancestors
for several generations back were all desir-
able) it is the desirable partner who be-

comes prepotent over the normal partner
in affecting the offspring. The vast ma-

jority (say 90%) will be desirable.

The influence of the normal partner
will be less and less according to the
number of desirable ancestors possessed
by the desirable partner. With a suf-
ficient number of generations of desir-
able ancestors, the desirable partner
is what is known as “‘thoroughbred”’
in respect to the inherited characteris-
tic. The normal partners, on the other
hand, are not usually thoroughbreds for
the normal condition; for if we examine
their ancestors for the same number of
generations back, we shall find, as a
rule, that some of the ancestors were
not normal: Some few were desirable,
and some few even undesirable.

THOROUGHBREDS PREPOTENT.

We breeders are familiar with the
prepotency of the thoroughbred animal
over the normal animal; and we can
therefore confidently assert that the
human throughbred will be equally
prepotent over the normal human being
in affecting the offspring.

In spite of the smallness of the desir-
able class, its influence in improving the
normal population would be consider-
able should it contain a number of
highly prepotent individuals: For their
marriages with normal people would
result in the production of offspring
almost exclusively of the desirable type
(say 90 per cent. desirable). We should
also remember that the brothers and
sisters of the prepotent individuals will
also have a strong tendency to produce
desirable offspring where they marry
normals with normal ancestry.

The liability of normal persons to
have desirable offspring will be in-
creased by marriages with persons of
the desirable class; and diminished by
marriages with undesirables.

In the latter case the proportion of
undesirable children will be increased
and if the undesirable partner is de-
scended from undesirable ancestors the
proportion of undesirable children will
be still further increased.

The establishment of even a small

6 THE JOURNAL

body of prepotent individuals within
the undesirable class would exert a
considerable harmful influence, because
their marriages with normal persons
would result chiefly in the production
of undesirable children.

UPSETTING THE EQUILIBRIUM.

In considering the influence of mar-
riage in affecting the distribution of the
three classes in the next generation of
the community, we may notice that in
general the marriages of normals tend
to keep things just as they are. That
is, they tend to produce a large class of
normals and two small classes of desir-
ables and undesirables, in just about the
same relative proportions as in the pre-
ceding generation.

The marriages of the desirables, on
the whole, tend to raise the average of
desirability in the community; and the
marriages of the undesirables tend to
lower it. The desirables pull the average
upwards, the undesirables pull it down-
wards; and when these upward and
downward tendencies are just equal
they neutralize one another and a static
condition prevails: The race as a whole
neither advances nor recedes.

If the potency of the desirable class
to produce desirable children is greater
than the potency of the undesirable
class to produce undesirable children,
then we have a case of unstable equi-
librium, and the whole race begins to
move upwards.

Conversely, if the potency of the un-
desirable element is greater than that
of the desirable element, then the race
begins to move downwards.

Thus, it is the difference between the
potencies of the desirable and undesir-
able classes that controls and determines
the amount and direction of the racial
movement.

If, then, we wish to improve the race
the aim should be to increase the potency
of the desirable class to produce desirable
children; and this can be accomplished
by promoting the marriages of the de-
sirable with one another.

The moment we have a body of desir-
able persons whose parents were also
desirable, improvement of the race be-
gins through the marriage of such per-

OF HEREDITY

sons with the normal population: for the
proportion of desirable offspring born
from the normal partners will be greater
than in cases where the desirable part-
ner had no ancestors belonging to the
desirable class.

The improvement will be still greater
when we have a body of desirable
persons who had grandparents as well
as parents desirable; and still greater
with each increase in the number of
desirable ancestors.

Thus, the simple process of promot-
ing the marriages of the desirable with
the desirable will, through the mixture
of the descendants with the rest of the
population, inaugurate an improve-
ment of the whole race; and the move-
ment will advance with accelerated
velocity as we have more and more
potent individuals of the desirable
class. This process continued through
a number of successive generations

would ultimately result in the estab- —

lishment of a prepotent stock within
the desirable class, and then the im-
provement would be very marked
indeed.

CHIEF OBJECT OF EUGENICS.

Here it is to be noted that the elevat-
ing tendency is due to the desirable
class alone; and that improvement
depends upon increasing the number and
proportion of destrables born in successive
generations of the population. Hence, this
should be the chief object of eugenics;
and it is to be regretted that the efforts
of eugenists have been mainly directed
to the diminution of the undesirable
class.

So much has this been the case that
the very word ‘‘eugenics’’ is suggestive
to most minds of hereditary diseases
and objectionable abnormalities; and
of an attempt to interfere, by com-
pulsory means, with the marriages of
the defective and undesirable. This
relates to cacogenics (‘badly born’’)
rather than to eugenics (‘‘well born’’).

The utmost that could be even hoped
for from such a process would be to
lessen the tendency to retrogression
and degeneration; and even this result
would not be attained, at least in any
great degree, for the simple reason that

BELL: IMPROVING THE HUMAN RAcr 4

the undesirables, as a rule, are descend-
ed from normal parents.

Prohibition of marriage would not,
therefore, have much effect upon the
continued production of an undesirable
class. We would have just about as
many undesirable people appear in the
next generation, born from the normal
population.

Then again, the tendency to reversion
to the normal type of the race is so
strong that the children of undesirables
are mainly of the normal type; so that
prohibition of marriage would prevent
the production of very many more nor-
mal children than undesirable children.

Whatever processes may be employed
to improve the race, we shall always
have the undesirable with us, because
they are sprung mainly from the normal
class; and it 1s more practicable to 1m-
prove the undesirable strains than to
eradicate them.

If undesirables marry normal or
desirable partners they will not only
have fewer undesirable children than if
they married one another, but the
potency of the offspring to produce
undesirable grandchildren wiil be re-

duced. The undesirable blood is di-
luted, so to speak, by admixture with
normal blood; and most of the offspring
will be of the normal type.

CONCLUSION.

A public sentiment already exists
that persons possessing inherited char-
acteristics of a desirable kind should
marry and have large families. This
sentiment undoubtedly is favorable to
the improvement of the race; but it does
not go far enough.

We should impress upon the public
the point that one certain means of
increasing the prevalence of any hered-
itary characteristic in a community is
to induce the individuals who possess it
to marry one another; and thus produce
a more potent stock in the next genera-
tion.

It is neither practicable nor advisable
that the individuals referred to should
marry exclusively among themselves,
but only to a much greater extent than
now prevails; and the public policy
should be: Promote the marriages of
the desirable with one another.

Selection by Birth-Rate

The eugenist recognizes that selection is essential to the progressive improvement
of the human race, but he seeks to substitute a selective birth-rate for the selective
death-rate which has been the cruel instrument used by nature-—W. C. Marshall,
in the Eugenics Review.

Need of Eugenic Education

Recent investigations point with no uncertain hand to degeneracy rather than
racial progress as the probable result of our existing social system. How then is
‘this danger to be averted? The social reformer has long been busy in his attempts
to improve the environment of the people; and his efforts merit our warmest ap-
proval. Progress in the evolutionary sense is, however, not certainly thus promoted,
and may not be promoted at all. What we also need is an intellectual campaign,
which will make the path of eugenic reform stand out more clearly in front of us by
increasing our knowledge of the laws of heredity; and a moral campaign to make our
fellow countrymen now ready to accept the sacrifices necessary to insure the racial
progress of their country in the future-—Extract from presidential address (1913)
of Major Leonard Darwin before The Eugenic Education Society, London.

THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE

An Undesirable Immigrant Which Has Secured Firm Foothold in Eastern
United States—Breeding Resistant Species Probably the Only
Solution of Problem—Opportunity for Orchardists On
Pacific Coast to Build Up Industry.

HAvEN METCALF
In charge of Forest Pathology Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

China, in the province of Chili,
east of the Great Chinese Wall,
and four or five days’ journey by
bullock cart from Peking, there is
a little-known section of mountainous
country. Here a species of chestnut,
the exact identity of which is not yet
known, but which may possibly be
Castanea mollissima, grows wild on the
mountain slopes and valleys and is also
cultivated by the Chinese for its nuts
(fig.1). These chestnut trees have a
disease which in appearance is somewhat
like the European apple canker, as it
occurs in America on apple trees. So
far as we know it does relatively little
harm to the chestnut trees of China,
simply producing permanent cankers on
some of them, killing a few limbs, and
probably occasionally. killing young
trees. There is no reason to suppose
that the Chinese ever had any clear
cognizance of it as an especially harmful
agent, and it does not appear to be
conspicuous enough to have attracted
the attention of even the observing
traveler, until it was discovered this
summer by Frank N. Meyer, of the
United States Department of Agri-
culture. Probably it is not more con-
spicious than certain canker diseases of
junipers in America, which have only
recently been recognized and described.
It would seem at first thought that
such a condition, occurring in an un-
known corner of the Orient, was about
as remotely connected with any prac-
tical interest in this country as the com-
plexion of the Grand Lama. But the
world is rapidly becoming a small place,
and obscure facts of natural history in
one remote section may become of pro-
found significance on the other side of

[' A remote part of northeastern

8

the globe, affecting property, health,
and even life. The disease above re-
ferred to is what we now know as the
Chestnut Bark Disease, and iscaused by
the fungus Endothia parasitica. This
parasitic fungus appears to have been un-
wittingly introduced into this country,
probably in the 90’s or late 80’s, and to
have been distributed to various points
in chestnut nursery stock. The para-
site found the American-sweet chestnut
a wonderfully susceptible host, and has
spread and assumed characters on this
tree which, so far as we know, are wholly
unparalleled in its native habitat.
There were possibly many importations
of this disease. Its early history in
this country is obscure, and will prob-
ably alwaysremainso. By 1903 or 1904
it was in full blast in the vicinity of New
York City, and its subsequent spread
is authentic history. There were other
old centers, but the vicinity of New
York City appears to be the oldest.

ITS DISTRIBUTION

The disease is now generally dis-
tributed in native chestnuts from Merri-
mack County, N. H., and Warren
County, N. Y., on the north, to Albe-
marle County, Va., on the south. In
New York the western border of dis-
tribution is sharply delimited by an
area without chestnut trees—a natural
‘Immune zone’’—which extends south-
ward along the eastern borders of
Fulton, Montgomery, and Schoharie
Counties nearly to the Pennsylvania
line in Delaware County. Consequently,
in New York the range of the disease
is at present practically limited to the
valley of the Hudson. In Pennsylvania
the western limit of general infection is
roughly along a curved line extending

MetcaLF: Tue CHEstNutT Bark DIskasE 9

A CHESTNUT GROVE IN CHINA.
The Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima) has been cultivated for centuries by the Chinese

horticulturists.

This photograph, sent in by Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer

of the United States Department of Agriculture, shows the low-branching, open-headed

habit of the species.

seen plainly. Near San tun ying, province of Chili, June 1, 1913.

from the northwest corner of Susque-
hanna County to the eastern border of
Clearfield County and on to the south-
west corner of Fulton County. West
of this line the advance infections were
cut out by the Pennsylvania Chestnut
Tree Blight Commission. The disease
has not yet been found in Ohio or
Indiana. In general it appears to spread
northeastward and southwestward, fol-
lowing the direction of the ridges of the
Appalachians, much more rapidly than
westward, across the ridges and valleys.

Scattering infections occur outside of
this area. Of these, the outposts are two
infections on planted chestnuts in
Franklin and Androscoggin Counties,
Maine, and one infection in a nursery in
North Carolina. There is reason to
suppose that the North Carolina in-
fection, and an orchard infection in
British Columbia, owe their origin to
trees imported directly from the Orient.

Scars on the trunks caused by attacks of the bark disease can be

(Figure 1.)

The disease has not yet been reported
from Europe, but its appearance there
must be only a question of time.

It is difficult to estimate the financial
loss which the above distribution rep-
resents, as we have no exact statistics
on the value of standing chestnut tim-
ber. The estimate of $25,000,000 made
in 1911 as representing the loss up to
that time was probably much too con-
servative. But the total loss to date is
insignificant compared with the loss
which will ensue when the disease
attacks the virgin chestnut timber of the
South Appalachians. The bark disease
has killed all the chestnut trees in those
localities where it has been present long
enough, and there is not now the
slightest indication that it is decreasing
in virulence or that the climate of any
region to which it has spread is having
any appreciable retarding effect upon
it. Insects which eat the pustules of the

10 THE

JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

AMERICAN CHESTNUT ATTACKED.

This and the four following figures, showing stages in the progress of the bark disease, were

taken by Professor J. F. Collins at various points on Long Island.

This photograph

shows where the disease has secured a foothold on some of the smaller limbs, which are

quickly killed. When the infection is on
may survive for several years. (Figure

parasite have been considered as pos-
sible retarding agents, but as these
same insects appear to also distribute
the spores, their controlling influence
is not likely to prove important.

MANNER OF INFECTION

When, in the Chinese chestnut, any
spores of the parasitic fungus gain
entrance into a wound on any part of
the trunk or limbs, they give rise to a
canker which persists on the tree, be-
coming deeper year by year as healthy
wood formed around it. In the
American chestnut, however, the canker
rapidly enlarges until it girdles the tree.
If the part attacked happens to be the
trunk, the whole tree is killed, some-
times in as short a time as a single
If the smaller branches

is

season. are

the smaller limbs, however, the rest of the tree
2.)

attacked, only those portions beyond
the point of attack are killed, and the
remainder of the tree may survive for
several years. Ultimately, however, all
American chestnut trees that are at-
tacked, die completely (fig. 5). Figures
2, 3, and 4 show the typically ragged
appearance of such trees, due to the
fact that some branches are not yet
girdled and still have normal foliage,
while others are dead.

Limbs and trunks with smooth bark
soon show cankers in the form of dead,
discolored, sunken areas, which con-
tinue to enlarge and become covered
more or less thickly with the yellow,
orange, or reddish brown pustules of
the fruiting fungus (figs. 6 and 7).
From these pustules masses of minute
spores (conidia) are commonly extruded

Metcalf: THE CHEestnNut Bark DISEASE Aa

SECOND STAGE OF THE DISEASE.

One after another, the limbs are invaded by the parasitic spores, and quickly succumb. A
peculiar ragged appearance in the tree is produced, due to the fact that many branches
have not yet been girdled by the fungus, and therefore retain their normal foliage. When
the canker begins in the trunk, it rapidly extends until it girdles the whole tree, and death

quickly results. (Figure 3.)

in the form of long, irregularly twisted
strings or horns (fig. 6), which are at
first bright yellow to greenish yellow, or
even buff, becoming darker with age.
If the canker is on the trunk or a large
limb with very thick bark there is no
obvious change in the external ap-
pearance of the bark itself, but the
pustules show in the cracks (fig. 7), and
the bark often sounds hollow when
tapped. After the limbs or trunks are
girdled the fungus continues to grow
extensively through the dead _ bark,
sometimes, if conditions of moisture are
favorable, covering the entire surface
with the reddish brown pustules (fig. 7).
These pustules produce mostly the type
of spores called ascospores. If the
proper conditions of moisture are present
the fungus may grow on the bark of

chestnut logs and even upon bare wood.

When a branch or trunk is girdled the
leaves beyond change color and sooner
or later wither (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 8).
These prematurely killed leaves often
remain on the branches, forming, to-
gether with the persistent burs, the
most conspicuous winter symptom of the
disease (fig. 8). Suspicion has been
recently aroused in some quarters that
the dwarfed and abortive nuts in these
burs may under some circumstances be
unwholesome, or even poisonous, when
eaten. So far, however, the evidence
on this point is wholly inconclusive.

CONSPICUOUS SYMPTOMS.

The most conspicuous symptom at
all times of the year is the occurrence of
sprouts at the base of the tree, on the

12 THe JouRNAL OF HEREDITY

THIRD STAGE OF THE DISEASE.

Most of the limbs have been killed, although the withered leaves may remain on them for
some time afterward, and the bark may show few external symptoms of the disease.
Sprouts are put out thickly at the base of the tree and in various parts of the top where
there is still vitality. Any burs produced are dwarfed, but there is no evidence to prove that

nuts from them are poisonous,

trunk, or on the branches (figs. 2, 3, and
4). Sprouts may appear below every
canker on a tree, and there are often
many such cankers. These sprouts are
usually very luxuriant and quick grow-
ing, but rarely survive their third year,
as they in turn are killed by the
fungus. The age of the oldest sprout, as
determined by the number of its annual
rings, is an indication of the minimum
age of the canker immediately above.
The annual development of sprouts
from the base of a tree has been observed
to continue for at least seven years
after the death of the tree. If infection
of these basal sprouts could be pre-
vented, they would develop into a much
better type of coppice than is usually
seen, since they are well rooted in the
ground. After the tree is dead the dead
sprouts on the trunk, together with the

(Figure 4.)

scars left by cankers on the outer layers of
wood, serve to show what killed the
tree long after the bark has completely
decayed and fallen away.

The wood is not materially injured,
and may be used for all timber pur-
poses for which healthy trees might be
used, provided the diseased trees do
not stand so long after they are dead
that they become sap-rotted and check-
ed. This fact greatly facilitates the
prompt destruction of diseased trees,
which will do much to check the rapid
spread of the disease, and in localities
where such work is organized under
State control, as in Virginia and West
Virginia, may limit it entirely. If the
course of the disease is not thus checked
by human effort, the complete destruc-
tion of the present stand of chestnut is
a practical certainty. This will be

MetcaLF: THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE 13

FINAL STAGE OF THE DISEASE,

The entire tree finally succumbs, often within two or three years after the first infection.
The wood is not materially injured for timber purposes, but great care must be used in
disposing of it, that the spores are not carried into new regions and set free on trees

which have not previously been attacked.

followed by astruggle between the fungus
and the sprouts from the roots of the
killed trees. In this struggle the marvel-
ous regenerative power of the chestnut
may enable it finally to overcome its
subtle antagonist, but so far little hope
of this can be held out from observation.
Hundreds of chestnut trees have been
under the writer’s close observation
since 1907, and although some have
produced a new crop of sprouts each
year since that time, the sprouts have
rarely passed their second year without
becoming diseased, or their third year
without being girdled. North of the
Potomac River the main problem now
is how to dispose most profitably of the
timber of the dead and dying trees. In
Southern New England the proposition
has already been made on distinguished
authority, to replace the disappearing

(Figure. 5 )

chestnut stand as rapidly as possible
with white pine.

As has been indicated, diseased
chestnut nursery stock has been the
most important factor in the spread
of the bark disease. On account of the
well-grounded fear of this disease much
less chestnut nursery stock is being
moved now than formerly, but there is
still enough to constitute a _ serious
source of danger. It is therefore obvi-
ous that every State in which the chest-
nut grows, either naturally or under
cultivation, should as speedily as pos-
sible pass a law putting the chestnut
bark disease on the same footing as
other pernicious diseases and insect
pests, such as peach yellows and the
San Jose scale, against which quaran-
tine measures are now taken. Many
inspectors already have the legal power

“SUMMER SPORES” OF THE FUNGUS.

These strings or “horns’’ of conidia are extruded from the pustules of the fruiting fungus on
all the cankered limbs. At first the conidia are bright yellow or greenish yellow, but they
gradually turn darker with age. These conidia are by no means always present, however,
and in some cases, as in young nursery stock, it is exceedingly difficult for anyone except
an expert to detect the presence of the fungus. (Figure 6.)

14

ae

PUSTULES IN CRACKS OF BARK.

When the pustule attacks a large limb or the trunk, there is little obvious change in the
external appearance of the bark itself, but the pustules show in the cracks of the bark,
as can be clearly seen in this photograph. The bark often sounds hollow when tapped.
The fungus continues to grow after the trunk is girdled, sometimes covering the entire
surface with reddish-brown pustules, which produce the type of spores called ascospores.
(Figure 7.)

15

16 THE JOURNAL
to quarantine against the bark disease
on chestnut nursery stock, and they
should now take special care that no
shipment, however small, escapes their
rigid inspection.

A. PRACTICAL DIFFICULTY.

The most serious practical difficulty
in inspecting nursery stock for this, as
for other fungous diseases, les in the
fact that virtually all State inspectors
are entomologists and are usually not
trained in recognizing the more obscure
symptoms of fungous disease. Nursery
trees affected by the bark disease rarely
show it prominently at the time when
they are shipped; the threads of conidia
or the yellow or orange pustules are
rarely present, and usually all the in-
spector can find is a small, slightly
depressed, dark-colored area of dead
bark, usually near the ground, which 1s
easily overlooked or mistaken for some
insignificant injury. Upon cutting into
such a spot the inner bark shows
a most characteristic, disorganized,
‘“punky’’ appearance and characteristic
“fans’’ of the yellow mycelium of the
fungus. Occasionally a very characteris-
tic yellowish brown or reddish band or
blotch, either girdling or partly girdling
the young tree, may be seen.

If infected trees are set out they
develop the disease with its characteris-
tic symptoms the following spring. On
account of their small size such trees are
girdled and die before the end of the
summer. Meanwhile they become a
source of danger to neighboring orchard
and forest trees. Orchardists and nur-
serymen purchasing chestnut trees are
therefore urged to watch them closely
during the first season, no matter how
rigidly they may have been inspected.

In view of the uncertain future of the
chestnut tree the planting of chestnuts
anywhere east of Indiana, at least for
the present. can hardly be advised.
West of the natural range of the Ameri-
can chestnut, however, the situation is
quite different. Obviously the western
chestnut orchardist has before him a
great opportunity. No matter how
successful efforts to limit the bark
disease may be, the nut crop will be
reduced for some years, and the business

oF HEREDITY

of growing fine orchard chestnuts in
the East will be depressed for the same
length of time. There is no apparent
reason why, with rigid inspection of
purchased stock and of the orchards
themselves, all chestnut orchards and
nurseries from Indiana to the Pacific
coast can not be kept permanently free
from the bark disease; therefore, all
persons interested in growing the chest-
nut in the West are earnestly advised to
be sure that stock from any source is
rigidly inspected, to watch continually
and with the utmost care their own
nurseries and orchards, and to destroy
immediately by fire any trees that may
be found diseased. The discovery of
an infected orchard in British Columbia
indicates that other chestnut orchards
will probably be found on the Pacific
coast which have become infected by
direct importation from the Orient.

BREEDING NECESSARY.

Probably the most practical control
results in the long run will be obtained by
the breeding and propagation of varieties
of chestnut that are immune or highly
resistant to the bark disease. Else-
where in this magazine Dr. W. Van
Fleet has described his work in this
line. It appears that so far no immune
or even resistant individuals of the
American chestnut have been found, in
spite of strenuous search; so that we
must largely depend on the Asiatic
varieties. The slight resistance of the
chinquapin, as observed in the field,
may be due only to its comparative
freedom from bark insects. The species
of Chinese chestnut upon which the
disease occurs in China (fig. 1) is ap-
parently resistant to the disease in
that climate, but it remains to be seen
to what extent this resistance will
persist when the trees are grown in
America. The Japanese chestnut is
highly resistant, and certain strains
apparently immune; these strains form
at present the most hopeful basis for
breeding. At present we do not know
exactly what the Japanese chestnut is;
most of the trees that pass under this
name in the American market appear to
be hybrids with the American or other
varieties.

DWARFED LEAVES AND BUR.

These are borne on a branch girdled by the bark disease. It has been widely reported that
eating nuts from such burs produced symptoms of poisoning in human beings, and also
that cases of poisoning had occured when squirrels which had fed on such nuts were eaten.
There is not evidence, however, to prove either of these suppositions. These persistent,
dwarfed burs with their abortive nuts are the most conspicious winter symptom of the
disease. (Figure 8.)

17

18 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

All of the Asiatic varieties of chestnut
so far known are small trees and prob-
ably slow growing. The Chinese chest-
nut, or at least the variety shown in
figure 1, bears nuts that are about the
size of the American chestnut, or a
trifle larger, and of a delicate, sweet
flavor and fine texture. The Japanese
varieties are also small trees and in
general have large, coarse nuts, with a
bitter adherent inner skin; but there

type. But this may yet be found, as
the world-species of Castanea are not
yet assembled.

How much easier it would have been,
and how much loss could have been
avoided if importation of nursery stock
had been safeguarded in time to have
excluded this latest addition to our
collection of foreign diseases and pests.
Prevention is. cheaper than cure; this
is the first great lesson to be learned

appear to be some strains that are sweet. from the invasion of the chestnut bark
No European varieties have yet been disease. It is too late to exclude this
found that are appreciably resistant. undesirable citizen; but we can at
Perhaps the greatest desideratum at least redouble our efforts to see that no
this time is a resistant tree of the forest others get a foothold on this continent.

Inheritance of Milk Yield

Inheritance of the property of milk production in a registered herd of cows in
East Prussia is discussed by J. Petersin Nos. 11, 12 and 13 of the Deutsche Land-
wirtschaftliche Tierzucht, Hannover, Germany, 1913. His data show great
variations in the inheritance of milk yield. The offspring of the best mothers
yielded, on the average, the most milk and those of the inferior mothers least.
The range of variation was not, however, so great among daughters as among
mothers. First class cows produced both good and inferior offspring, and vice
versa. The inheritance varied around a center, which was somewhat higher in the
daughters of superior mothers than in those of inferior cows. The magnitude
of the variation was the same for all classes.

Peters then determined the milk production of the grandparents and of the
separate families of the herd. With regard to the families, he found that some
produced relatively many good animals, while the descendants of others were
usually inferior cows; in other families, again, he observed unusually large varia-
tions in the performance of the offspring. As a rule, however, the offspring of good
families were good milkers and those of inferior families unsatisfactory. Inheritance
varied in the case of mediocre families.

The writer comes to the conclusion that it is not sufficient to estimate the absolute
and relative yield of cows, and upon these data to select the offspring of the best
individual performers for further breeding, but it is necessary to select the best
families, for among the descendants of these will be found the largest number of
good milch cows. His data are summarized in the Bulletin of the International
Agricultural Institute, Rome.

The Improvement of the Human Race

The improvement of the breed of mankind is no insuperable difficulty. If every-
body were to agree on the improvement of the race of man being a matter of the very
utmost importance, and if the theory of the hereditary transmission of qualities
in man was as thoroughly understood as it is in the case of our domestic animals,
I see no absurdity in supposing that, in some way or other, the improvement would
be carried into effect.—Francis Galton, in Macmillan’s Magazine (1865).

CHESTNUT BREEDING EXPERIENCE

How the American Chestnut, Threatened by Extinction, May Be Saved to
Horticulture, Even if not to Forestry —Promising Crosses Between
Chinquapin and Asiatic Species—Trees Bear Early, Produce
Good Nuts and Show Resistance to Blight.

WALTER VAN FLEET
Physiologist, Office of Drug Plant Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

HE advent about twenty years
| ago of certain large-fruited and
early-bearing chestnut varieties
of the European and Asiatic
types, some appearing to be natural hy-
brids between the exotic species and our
native sweet chestnut, Castanea ameri-
cana, suggested to the writer the pos-
sibility of breeding all accessible species
of the genus in a systematic manner.
Between the years 1894 and 1911 many
careful pollinations of the native species,
including the bush or Virginia chin-
quapin, C. pumila, were made, using the
European and Asiatic varieties then
obtainable. Some cross-breeding within
the species for the purpose of improving
quality of nuts and accentuating the
early bearing propensities of the Japan
and European types was also attempted.
The result of these undertakings have
been successful, in the main. The ap-
pearance in 1907 among our plantings
of the terribly destructive new bark dis-
ease organism, Endothia parasitica,
put a summary termination to the ex-
periments with C. americana and its de-
rivatives, but selection work has since
continued with self- and chance-pollina-
ted individuals of the chinquapin and
Asiatic types.

The method pursued in hybridizing
was carefully to cut away, as they ap-
peared, all traces of the male catkins or
aments and to enclose the selected
branches as soon as pistillate blooms
were visible in roomy paper bags which
were kept on except during pollination
until the stigmas withered. The chin-
quapin crosses were made on a par-
ticularly productive and _ precocious
plant grown from seeds collected in
Virginia in 1889. The entire bush was

systematically emasculated each flower-
ing season, every branch being gone
over daily, so that no pollen whatever
was liberated, and protection from wind
and insect-borne foreign pollen was
further assured by covering the bush dur-
ing bloom with a cheese-cloth tent in ad-
dition to the paper bags on separate
branches. Pollen was secured by gather-
ing catkins in early morning from
desired species and varieties and allow-
ing the anthers to dehisce in a sunny
window protected from flying insects
of all kinds. Applications to the stig-
matic surfaces were made by means of
the brush, finger tip, and by flicking or
lightly drawing the catkins over the
stigmas where pollen could be plainly
seen coating the anthers. All these
methods proved measurably successful
but the latter gave, on the whole, the
best results.

HYBRIDS PRECOCIOUS

About thirty per cent. of these con-
trolled pollinations produced viable
seeds and practically all the seedlings
grown—over two hundred in number—
showed unmistakable evidence of hy-
bridity. Nearly all have fruited, the
chinquapin-Asiatic crosses often bearing
nuts the third year of growth, while
the combinations of Asiatic and Euro-
pean chestnuts with our native species
rarely set burs until five to twelve
years old. The cross-bred Japan vari-
eties show greatest precocity, frequently
blooming and occasionally ripening
nuts the second year after germination,
and in a few instances producing
several pounds of nuts the following
season, three years after planting the
seeds.

19

A VIGOROUS HYBRID CHESTNUT

The second generation, four years old from self-pollinated seed, of a hybrid between the
American chinquapin (Castanea pumila) and the Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata).
In addition to its blight resistance, the hybrid is valuable because it ripens its nuts early
in the year. (Figure 9.)

20

VAN FLEET: CHESTNUT BREEDING EXPERIENCES at

A HYBRID CHINQUAPIN

These nuts are produced by a seedling which was grown
from the cross between the shrubby American chin-

quapin and the Japanese chestnut.

Three nuts are

usually borne in each bur, and they are larger in size
than those produced by any of the native American

species.

The bark disease has been allowed
to work its will among the hybrids with
the result that trees having C. ameri-
cana in any combination have nearly
all disappeared. Seedlings of Paragon
Gesu. -the best variety of the
European type, pollinated with our
native species, attained an average
height of twenty-five feet and were
bearing excellent nuts when attacked
in 1910, but all have succumbed. The
crosses of Asiatic and native, fewer in
number, showed greater resistance but
all have been seriously affected. The
chinquapin-European hybrids are readily
affected but have great recuperative
powers, bearing nuts the second year
on suckers springing from the bases of
diseased stems. Chinquapin-native
crosses, with the exception of the Rush
chinquapin—a probable natural hybrid
found wild in Pennsylvania—appear
very susceptible and do not as readily
recover. The wild chinquapin itself ap-

Photograph natural size. (Figure 10 )

pears measurably resistant, several in-
dividuals, including two Rush chinqua-
pins, thriving for years with no signs of
disease though constantly surrounded
by infection.

The Asiatic chestnuts, and the
chinquapin-Asiatic hybrids, are plainly
highly resistant. Few have shown any
appearance of infection and when
noticeable the injury is quite local in
character. Second generation seedlings
of chinquapin-crenata crosses show no
disease at all though always exposed to
infection.

QUALITIES OF HYBRIDS

The material results of this breeding
work, other than the disease-resisting
features, are shown in the various
illustrations accompanying this article.
Hybrid chinquapins having varieties
of Castanea crenata for the pollen parent
form vigorous, small, much branched
trees, rarely shrubs, and come into

eo
J

THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

A FOURTH-GENERATION TREE.

This cross-bred Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata) is only twenty-three months old from
seed, but is blooming and bearing ripening nuts at the same time. Trees with this
pedigree usually flower the second season, showing greater precocity than any others
with which experiments have been made; in a few instances they have produced several
pounds of nuts in the third season after the seed was planted. (Figure 11.)

bearing at three to five years from the
seed. They bloom profusely, bearing
long chestnut-like catkins as shown
in plate 11. The burs are borne like
chinquapins in clusters or racemes of
three to five or more, rarely solitary,
and contain from one to three chestnut-
like nuts four to six times larger than
chinquapins.

Nuts of the various species and types,
freshly collected and without selection
as to size, averaged in weight as follows:

100 nuts Chinquapin........... 100 yrammes
‘“* Native Chestnut...... 395 ss
“Hybrid Chinquapins... 613 i
Pi Japan Chestnut

(pollen parent)..... .. 1024

The first second-generation hybrid to
fruit in quantity bears nuts weighing
416 grammes to the hundred. They
show a tendency to increase in size and
weight as the tree develops. The
appearance and relative sizes of the
various nuts are well shown in the ac-
companying plates.

The time of ripening is very early,
forestalling even the wild chinquapin,
as the first burs open late in August,
the crop being wholly mature by
October without frost, thus preceding
all other chestnuts of marketable size.
The nuts are handsome in appearance,
smooth, dark brown in color, with very
slight tomentum, and as they possess

7

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“GIHEHAH V GNV SLONISHAHD ATIMA OAL

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23

24. THE JOURNAL “OF HEREDITY

THE HYBRID AND ITS PARENTS

In the center is one of the first nuts produced by the cross between the wild American chin-

quapin (shown at the right) and the Japanese chestnut at the left.

The nuts of the

hybrid are midway in size between those of its parents, but in maturity and blight resistant
qualities, it seems to combine all the good characteristics of both ancestors. Photograph

natural size. (Figure 13.)

thicker shells than chestnuts, they keep
their fine appearance under exposure
much longer. The quality appears to
vary slightly according to the im-
mediate pollen parent, but is quite
comparable to that of our best wild
chestnuts—not quite as sweet as the
little wild chinquapins, but good enough
when cured to be enjoyed thoroughly
without cooking. There are none of
the starchy and tannin-like flavors so
common with the larger European and
Asiatic chestnuts and no hint of bitter-
ness in the inner skin as with the
immediate pollen parents.

TREES ARE VALUABLE.

The trees are vigorous growers, deco-
rative from their compact form at all
times, but especially so when in fruit
and flower. They should prove highly
desirable for lawn planting as well as
for nut growing. The size they would
ultimately attain, if continuously free
from disease, 1s problematical. The
tallest is about nine feet high and eight
in spread of branches at nine years from
but theseed, was once transplanted under
retarding circumstances. Their pre-
cocity and profusion in fruiting would
indicate that the trees are not likely to
attain large dimensions and that it
would be safe to plant them for orchard
purposes at least as near together as
peach trees—say twelve to fifteen feet
apart. Propagation of particular vari-
eties has not yet been attempted, but
it is to be expected that they may
readily be grafted on seedling chin-

quapins or resistant stocks of the
Asiatic types.

It is to seedlings of these hybrids,
however, that we may reasonably look
for greater variation than is likely to
be had from direct hybridization of the
species. The germination percentage
of the hybrid nuts is rather low—there
appears frequently a poor connection
between the embryo and the endosperm
—but about half produce vigorous seed-
lings with very diverse foliage, re-
sembling beech, oak and holly leaves
rather than chestnuts in the juvenile
stages. By the second year the foliage
segregates into the chinquapin type
with slight, light tomentum on the
under surfaces and that of the chestnut,
larger and clear green on both sides,
accompanied with the characteristic
branching of the respective types.

The pollen parents of the best chin-
quapin hybrids, with few exceptions,
were home raised varieties of C. crenata
and quite likely are themselves hybrids
with our native chestnut, as the two
species are believed to interersoss
readily when grown near together. The
slight susceptibility of the chinquapin

hybrids to the bark disease—not
greater, certainly than that of the
Keiffer pear to the bacterial pear

blight—can thus readily be explained.
The breeding of selected chinquapins
with pure Asiatics, particularly of the
Chinese forms that are thought to be

highly resistant, might afford even
better results than have yet been

secured in regard to this feature.

ee ee

oe ae ee

” - ./ es (eee

VAN FLEET: CHESTNUT

A very promising Chinese chestnut,
already given the provisional name of
Castanea mollissima, is now being es-
tablished through the efforts of the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant In-
troduction, and will soon be available
for breeding purposes. While scarcely
a timber tree as compared with our
native species, it is nevertheless of
good dimensions and apparently a
quick and thrifty grower. The nuts are
of really excellent quality, though of
only medium size, and are said to be
produced freely at a comparatively

BREEDING EXPERIENCES 25
quality, however, is a marked resistance,
as demonstrated by experimental in-
oculations that have so far caused
little harm, to the Endothia disease.
Chestnut breeding, though greatly
hampered by the advent of the new
disease, thus makes its appeal as a
highly promising occupation. It ap-
pears probable that the chestnut in its
most desirable form can be saved to
horticulture as a nut producer if not to
forestry as a profitable timber tree,
and there is even a chance that the
latter highly important feature may in

early age. The especially promising the end be spared.

The Origin of Species

How a three-horned species of bull (Bos triceros) “‘originated”’ in Senegambia and
was accepted by the leading scientists of the world,is amusingly told by Th. Monod
and G. Moussu in the Bulletin de la Soci’té Nationale d’Acclimatation de France,
15 September, 1913. The species was first announced by the distinguished zoologist
. de Quatrefages, in the name of Dr. de Rochebrune, in 1880.

In 1885 Dr. de Rochebrune discussed the possible origin of this third horn, which
was on the face of the animals. He decided that it was a typical specific character-
istic, and his opinion has always been accepted.

It now appears that this horn is merely the result of an inoculation which has
been practiced upon many of the cattle of Senegambia since 1864, as a preventive
against peripneumonia. An incision is made in the face of the animal and serum
injected; the resulting inflammation causes the appearance of a bony projection
covered by a horny mass, which has outwardly the appearance of a true third horn.
A dissection at once shows, however, that it is merely an excretion.

It will be necessary, then, for students to scratch Bos triceros off the list.

An Explanation of Graft-Hybrids

M. Lucien Daniel has made a communication to the ‘“‘Academie des Sciences”
from which it appears that the anatomical examination of grafts of Helianthus on
Helianthus and of Opuntia on various cacti has revealed to him the existence of
internal adventitious roots formed in the stock and penetrating to various depths
in its tissues. Occasionally these roots even reach the soil and bestow complete
independence on the graft. M. Daniel considers this to be the probable explana-
tion of certain cases of hybridization through grafting—Journ. Soc. Nat. Hort.
Fr., June, 1912, quoted in Journ., R. H.S., Aug., 1913.

Galton’s View of Eugenics

I take Eugenics very seriously, feeling that its principles ought to become one of
the dominant motives in a civilized nation, much as if they were one of its religious
tenets.—Francis Galton.

The Scope of Eugenics

Charity refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the nation; Eugenics cares for
both.—Francis Galton.

CHESTNUT BLIGHT RESISTANCE

Castanea Alnifolia and C. Mollissima Show No Signs of Blight—American

Chinquapin Seems Almost Equally Vigorous—Japanese Varieties
Usually Succumb—Experiments Prove Nuts Develop
Freely When Female Flowers Are
Not Pollinated.

RoBert T. Morris, M.D., New York, N.Y.

IGHT years ago, when the chest-
nut blight (Endothia parasitica)
began seriously to menace my
native chestnut forest, situated

in the towns of Stamford and Green-
wich, Conn., notes were made upon the
subject and a number of varieties and
species of chestnuts were added to the
collection. At that time there were
about five thousand old American
chestnut trees (Castanea americana)
upon my country place; there were also
half a dozen chinquapins (Castanea
pumila) about five years of age, and a
few grafted trees of named varieties of
chestnuts which had been purchased
from nurserymen at about the time
when the chinquapins were purchased.
There were two saplings of Castanea
mollissima, the Chinese chestnut, which
had been given me by Professor C. S.
Sargent.

None of these notes in relation to ages
of trees and numbers of trees, which
follow, are quite scientifically accurate,
because as a busy man with many kinds
of responsibilities, the matter of records
has been left to employees. Changes
in the meantime have taken place
among the employees. I am writing
from memory, rather than from notes,
when making this contribution.

When it became evident that the
American chestnut trees on my place
were seriously menaced, the question
of finding blight-resisting individuals
among species and varieties came up,
and I proceeded to add to the col-
lection various species and varieties

26

until it included twenty-six different
kinds. Among these kinds, species
were as follows: American sweet chest-
nut (Castanea americana), bush chin-
quapin (Castanea pumila), tree chin-
quapin (Castanea pumila arboriformis),
alder-leaf chestnut (Castanea alnifolia),
evergreen chestnut (Castanopsis chryso-
phylla or C. sempervirens—I do not
know which species). In addition to
these American species of chestnut
there were two specimens of Castanea
mollissima, and many specimens of
species not determined by me, from
England, France, Italy, China, Korea
and Japan. There were also a number
of grafted varieties of descendants from
European and Asiatic progenitors.

PROGRESS OF DISEASE.

The fate of these chestnuts may be
briefly summed up at the present time
about as follows :—

The evergreen chestnuts (Castanop-
sts) which I set out on several different
occasions, were always eaten during the
winter or spring by cattle or by rodents,
on account of their attractive green
leaves and tender shoots above the
snow, notwithstanding various attempts
at protection.

Every one of the five thousand old
American chestnut trees became blight-
ed, and they were removed. Younger
trees and stump shoots of the American
chestnut are now practically all dead or
dying with the blight.

Various grafted varieties of European
and Asiatic chestnuts have shown

lst iti at A meas ee ee aim

— so eS

Morris: CHESTNUT BrLicut REsIstaANcE 27

GIANT CHESTNUT IN EASTERN CHINA.
Although the bark disease is found in the groves of this region, the Chinese species (C. mollis-

sima) seems to have acquired a high degree of immunity to it.

This photograph, taken

at San tun ying, province of Chili, shows scars on the tree, where the disease has made

its appearance but been overcome.

A large number of seeds of trees of this species have

recently been introduced by the department of agriculture and distributed among

investigators in the United States.

different degrees of resistance to the
blight. Some of them which show an
occasional blighted limb may be pre-
served with a moderate degree of care.
This is also true of the seedlings of
European and Asiatic varieties. None
of them appear to be as vulnerable as the
American chestnut, but most of mine
are dead nevertheless.

Korean chestnuts and chestnuts from
the Aomori region in Japan resisted the
blight almost completely until they were
six years of age. Since that time they
have shown a marked tendency to
blight, but resist it better than does the
American chestnut.

Korean and Japanese chestnuts when
grafted upon American chestnut sprouts
all blighted in their second or third
year after grafting while their“ parents”’
remained unblighted, indicating that

(Figure 14.)

the sap of the American chestnut fur-
nishes attractive pabulum for Endothia.
American chestnuts grafted upon stocks
of Korean and northern Japanese chest-
nuts showed a marked tendency to
blight promptly, near the point of
union of the graft, while the stocks
remained unblighted.

One hybrid between the American
sweet chestnut and the chinquapin
blighted when about eight years of age
and is now dead.

None of the American species of
chinquapin, varying from five years to
about thirteen years of age, has blighted,
with the exception of two limbs, which
were injured by falling limbs of a
blighted American sweet chestnut tree.
These injured and blighted branches
were removed and there has been no
other blight among the chinquapins.

92
we

TREE SCRAPED TO PREVENT DISEASE

The Chinese method of warding off attacks of the bark disease from their commercial planta-
tions is to keep the trunk and larger limbs scraped clean, thus giving the spores o
Endothia little foothold. This photograph illustrating the application of this crude
method of prevention was taken at San tun ying, province of Chili, China, by Frank N.
Myer, June 1, 1913. (Figure 15.)

Morris: CHESTNUT

Of the two which were injured one was
a bush chinquapin and the other a tree
chinquapin.

I purposely allowed dying American
chestnuts to remain near the experi-
mental test species and varieties in
order to make the test severe. None
of the specimens of Castanea alnifolia
has blighted. None of the specimens of
Castanea mollissuma has blighted but
these latter include only five trees—the
two given me by Professor Sargent (now
eight years old) and three received since
that time from the Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, Washington.

BREEDING EXPERIMENTS.

In order to breed hybrid chestnuts
which would be resistant to blight, I
made various combinations between
staminate and pistillate flowers of Cas-
tanea alnifolia, C. pumila and C. mol-
lissuma. The most promising hybrid for
timber purposes would presumably be
one between C. mollissima and C. pumila
arboriformis, but my tree chinquapins
came into flowering this year for the
first time. Next spring I shall make
that combination. There are now grow-
ing in my collection various young
hybrids between C. mollissima, C. alni-
folia and C. pumila; likewise a number
of other hybrid chestnuts, but these are
at present from one to three years of age
only and are of no value for data in
reference to blight resistance.

When making hybrids between vari-
ous species of chestnuts, I incidentally
determined that parthenogenesis ap-
parently occurs among the Castaneas.
Three years ago a number of pistillate

BLIGHT RESISTANCE 29

we

flowers of Castanea pumila, which had
been covered with paper bags, were not
pollenized for the reason that I did not,
happen to have pollen enough to go
around. These paper bags were left
in place unintentionally. Some three
weeks later when they were removed
because of unsightliness, the branches
which had been covered with paper bags
were found to have set full comple-
ments of nuts. These nuts went on to
full development and were fertile—
sprouting later. Some of them showed
peculiar freaks. Cotyledons protruding
through the involucre before the nuts
were fully developed showed a trifle of
chlorophyll coloration similar to that of
the germ, which also protruded beyond
the involucre. Another peculiar feature
of the parthenogenic nuts was the dis-
parity in size between shoots which grew
from them in the following year, some
becoming much larger and some re-
maining smaller than chinquapins grow-
ing from normal gametes. In order to
make sure that no pollen had accident-
ally reached the pistillate flowers by
way of insects or wind, carefully checked
experiments were made in the following
year, and so far as I can judge there is
no doubt but the American chinguapin
may develop its fruit freely by par-
thenogenesis or by formative budding
from some cell.

Incidentally I may state that similar
experiments were tried with /uglans
cinerea, Hicoria ovata, H. glabra, and
H. minima, and all of these apparently
developed nuts by parthenogenesis,
Juglans cinerea freely, and the three
hickories sparingly.

The Supremacy of the Mind

We cannot raise the race by degrading individuals. Whatever lowers the human-
ity of fathers and mothers, whatever elevates the physiological above the psycho-
logical, the body above the mind, is an enemy of the race and no method for its
regenerators.—C. W. Saleeby: The Methods of Race-Regeneration (1911).

The Biometric Standpoint

General theories of society are of no use, verbal discussions are of no use, philo-
sophical reasoning is of no use. We need to observe, measure and record, to analyze
by the methods of exact science, before we can advance in our sociology, before we
can aid our working classes to a true insight of the factors which make for or mar
our national vigor.—Karl Pearson: Nature and Nurture (1910).

EUGENICS AND BREEDING

Methods Used In Improvement oi Plants and Animals Can Not Be Applied
Directly to Improvement of Human Race, Since Object is Different—
Diversity In Man To Be Encouraged—Cultivation of Eugenic
Instinct More Important to Future of Race Than
Weeding Out Defective Persons.

O. F. Cook,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

HERE is a popular idea that the

human race is to be improved

by a direct application of the

methods of breeding that have
given such valuable results in the im-
provement of plants and animals. It is
unfortunate that this idea should gain
currency, for a misleading impression of
eugenic reform is conveyed. The diffi-
culty of applying to mankind the same
methods of breeding that are used with
plants and animals has been considered
by some writers as an obstacle to human
progress, but in reality it would not be
desirable to apply breeding methods to
mankind, even if it were possible to do so.

The chief object of plant and animal
breeding has been to secure uniformity,
that is, to induce the expression of the
same characters in all the members of a
select group. In dealing with our
domesticated plants and animals, uni-
formity represents the ideal condition
of heredity because it means larger
crops or a more valuable commercial
product. Most of our boasted im-
provements of plants and animals are
of this nature, and represent higher
degrees of uniformity, rather than more
advanced stages of evolutionary prog-
ress.

Nothing may be said of uniformity
when breeders and fanciers are com-
peting in the production of superla-
tive, high-performance individuals, but
everybody understands that the breed-
ing value of a superior an#mal or plant
depends upon its “transmitting power,”
meaning the regular appearance of the
desirable characters in the descendants.
A variety with a low average would not
be popular even though it might pro-

30

duce occasional prize-winners. Plant
breeders have taken uniformity most
definitely into account, but the principle
has been recognized for a longer period
of time among animal breeders.

The development of an improved
variety begins with the finding of a
superior individual to serve as a parent.
The skill of the breeder is shown in
preserving the characters of this superior
individual and developing a uniform
race, all showing the same desirable
characters as the select ancestor. Thus
the art of breeding improved varieties is
to substitute uniformity for diversity.

DIVERSITY IN NATURE.

Whenever we gain sufficient famili-
arity with a wild species or an un-
selected stock, a condition of individual
diversity is found, like that with which
we are familiar in the human species.
It is this diversity that the breeder has
learned to suppress. The method is to
restrict descent to narrow lines, or even
to a single parent, when self-fertilization
or vegetative propagation can be prac-
ticed.

Viewed from this standpoint it is
obvious that there is no agreement or
even close analogy between breeding
and eugenics. The objects of the two
are almost diametrically opposed. The
difficulty of applying the breeders’
methods to the human race need not be
considered as an obstacle to eugenic
reform, because nobody would wish to
parallel the breeders’ results, so as to
substitute for the present individually
diversified human race a few uniform
varieties composed of duplicate indi-
viduals.

‘
4
‘
§
+
t
3
3
:
b
‘
?

Cook: EUGENICS AND BREEDING 31

Eugenic reform is not likely to attain
very wide popularity if it is expected to
result in a condition in which all the
children of a family are to be as much
alike as twins. Yet this is the ideal of
the breeder, and the end that is attained
by the application of the breeders’
methods of improvement. Hence we
may expect that a more adequate study
of the problems of eugenics will lead to
the development of methods altogether
different from those that are in use
among breeders of plants and animals.
Progress must be made in eugenics
without destroying or even seriously
diminishing the normal individual diver-
sity, that feature of human heredity
with which we are most familiar.

A clear understanding of the nature,
conditions, and causes of organic evo-
lution is even more important for the
eugenist than for the breeder. With
the condition of individual diversity
retained, the eugenic progress of man-
kind will have much more analogy with
the normal evolutionary progress of
wild species of plants and animals than
with the breeding of uniform domesti-
cated varieties. Too many writers on
eugenics overlook the need of.a broader
and more truly biological point of view,
and restrict their attention to the facts
of heredity that have been learned from
garden or laboratory experiments with
domesticated forms.

The select strains that breeders
develop from single superior individuals
do not represent permanent steps in
the evolution of the species, and often
endure for only a few generations. New
varieties are brought forward continu-
ally to take the places of those that drop
out. Thus from the standpoint of the
species, the breeder may be said to
destroy the best individuals when he
uses them as the parents of short-lived
varieties. We are now beginning to
appreciate the importance of preserving
the wild, unselected types of our domes-
ticated plants and animals, to serve as
storehouses from which vigorous new
varieties may be drawn as needed in
the future.

ELIMINATION NOT ENOUGH.

In the conscious improvement of
mankind the permanent interests of

whole nations or races have to be con-
sidered instead of the formation of
specialized short-lived varieties. It will
not be sufficient to eliminate the con-
spicuously defective individuals as a
plant breeder rogues out the “off”
plants in attempting to preserve a
variety from degeneration. Guarding
the fertility of the best is a much more
important issue than destroying or steri-
lizing the defectives. Galton’s master-
mind perceived this clearly enough, but
many of his avowed followers have been
impressed too much by the analogies of
breeding.

If the objects and methods of eugenics
are to be different, what have students
of eugenics to learn from the breeding of
plants and animals? The answer is
that the same natural laws or rela-
tions seem to be manifested in the
development of mankind as in the
heredity and evolution of the lowest
orders of plant and animal life. It is
through the study of breeding that
nearly all of our more definite know-
ledge of heredity has been gained in the
past and that increase of such know-
ledge may be expected in the future.
As far as eugenics is to be considered as
a branch of biological science, it can
not afford to neglect any facts or sug-
gestions that may be developed in any
other part of the biological field.

The time may come perhaps, when
eugenics can be studied as a separate
branch of heredity, without reference to
the breeding of plants and animals, but
for the present, and for many years in
the future, the plants and animals must
afford our best opportunities for gaining
new experimental knowledge of hered-
ity. It would be as far from the truth
to suppose that the plants and animals
can be neglected by eugenics as to sup-
pose that the plant and animal methods
can be applied directly to mankind.

The recently awakened interest in
eugenics means that the future progress
of humanity is to be aided by a conscious
recognition of heredity as another
chapter of the laws of nature that we
must learn to obey. Thus far we have
been content to float unconsciously, as
it were, down the stream of life, feeling
no creative responsibility for the future

32 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

of our race. Though often making
much of our moral responsibility, and
of the possibilities of attaining to some
other existence after the life of this
world, we have been accustomed to
think of the future of mankind as
something essentially beyond our con-
trol. That we have a biological re-
sponsibility for the generations that are
to come is a new idea for our race. In
this perception our wise men remained
far behind the sages of ancient Greece,
where racial improvement was recog-
nized as one of the chief duties of
patriotism.

IMPORTANCE OF HEREDITY.

But now we have begun to see that it
may be possible, by taking thought of
heredity, to navigate the stream of life
with greater safety and avoid some of
the whirlpools, rocks and quicksands
which have destroyed our predecessors.
And we see too that our race has reached
the stage of development where civiliza-
tion begins to be destructive, by inter-
fering with the processes of natural
selection that guide the progress and
guard the strength of primitive peoples.
Many forms of weakness and degenera-
tion are arising and being preserved
amongst us.

Yet the first stage of awakening to
our eugenic responsibilities even brings
new dangers. Anxiety to atone for past
neglect and zeal of a new cause may lead
eugenic reformers to attempt to seize
the rudder before they learn what
course to steer. This danger of pre-
mature interference with our social
system on the ground of eugenic reform
might be illustrated by many of the
suggestions that are made along the
line of direct application of animal
breeding methods to mankind, not to
speak of suggestions that are justified by
nothing that we know of plant or animal
breeding. Pity and prudence alike
demand that useless suffering be avoided
by reducing the proportion of deformed,
defective or constitutionally diseased.
However important this may be, it
represents, after all, only the first or
preliminary stage of eugenic responsi-
bility and may even misrepresent the
true objects and ideals of the eugenic
movement. Sterilization of criminals and

defectives would be one way to diminish
the populations of prisons and asylums
and thus reduce the taxes that future gen-
erations must pay, but to urge such meas-
ures on the ground of eugenics is like
recommending house-cleaning as a sub-
stitute for architectual skill in building
the houses. If our eugenic sensibilities
were more highly developed the pro-
gress of the race would not be endanger-
ed by the propagation of defects and
abnormalities.

The investigation of abnormal hered-
ity can be described as eugenics only
by way of contrast and precaution, and
should not be allowed to displace the
primary idea of eugenics as an investi-
gation of the possibilities of constructive
improvement of the race. It might be
better if the study of hereditary defects in
mankind were recognized as a separate
branch of biological science under such
a name as dysgenics or cacogenics, just
as teratology is treated as a special
branch of plant and animal morphology.
Dysgenics would relate more properly
to the study of defects as such, caco-
genics to the production of the bad
instead of the good, as when selection
is reversed and the weak multiply in-
stead of the strong.

EUGENICS NOT DYSGENICS.

Whatever the names, it is certainly
most unfortunate to allow the general
public to gain the idea that eugenics is
a study of diseases and abnormalities.
Yet this impression is frequently re-
flected in the public press and even in
the comic journals. The middle-aged
aunt is pictured as saying to the sweet
girl graduate, ‘““My dear, what a
great deal of unpleasant knowledge you
seem to have.” ‘Yes, Auntie, but you
know I’ve done a lot of work in eu-
genics.”’

Deformity, degeneration and disease
are unpleasant ideas, but progress and
perfectibility are not. The real ques-
tion, of course, is not whether facts are
pleasant, but whether we are giving
attention to the important facts, those
that will enlighten our judgment in
dealing with eugenic problems. To
dwell much upon the wrong facts may
be worse than leaving the whole matter
alone.

a
Cook: EUGENICS AND BREEDING 33

To specialize on the dysgenic features
and leave the constructive eugenic
ideas out of account is to neglect the
most important lessons of organic evo-
lution, as well as the best reasons for
taking interest in eugenics. Higher
appreciation of human nature in its
normal perfection might be trusted to
inspire the strongest motives of eugenic
behavior, both in the individual and in
ine race. ‘To ‘develop. eugenic per-
ceptions and instincts is even more im-
portant than to magnify the idea of
eugenic responsibility. There is no
reason why eugenic appreciation of the
perfection of human life should fall be-
hind the artist’s joy in painting pictures
or carving ideal forms in stone.

Young men and women who prize
life highly enough will not be tempted
to choose weak, diseased or defective

partners, or to take the risk of bringing
crippled or weak-minded children into
the world by marrying into families
that have shown hereditary abnor-
malities. If our young people saw
clearly and felt deeply that healthy,
intelligent, affectionate children are the
most precious of all possessions, they
would perceive also the suicidal nature
of dysgenic behavior. They would see
that in disregarding the facts of hered-
ity, now that the inheritance of de-
fects is definitely known, they are
forfeiting the right to the supreme
happiness of life that normal children
may bring. To the enlightened eugenic
conscience it will be plain that the sins
of the father are not visited on the
children alone, but upon the parents as
well.

More Knowledge Necessary

Except in very few cases, our knowledge of heredity in man is at present far too
slight and uncertain to base legislation upon.—Professor R. P. Punnett, Cambridge

University, England.

Eugenic Instinct Natural

The natural man and the natural woman are Eugenists at heart. Each of them
prefers, in members of the opposite sex, youth and maturity rather than senility,
beauty (which has a high degree of correlation with health) rather than ugliness,
straightness and efficiency of limbs and feature rather than deformity, optimism
rather than pessimism, intelligence, good temper, sympathy rather than their

opposites.

There is indeed, speaking in popular language, a eugenic sense; and the

business of those who undertake the great task of education for parenthood is to
educate—that is, to lead forth and develop—this sense, and, in the first place, to
oppose and if possible destroy all those agencies, chiefly servants of mammon, by
which the growth of this most precious element in our nature is vitiated or arrested.
—C. W. Saleeby: The Methods of Race-Regeneration (1911).

MEAT PRODUCTION IN SWAMPS

Introduction of Pigmy Hippopotamus Offers Opportunity for Utilization of
Large Areas in Southern States to Produce Excellent Meat at
Low Cost—Difficulties of Securing Breeding
Stock at Last Overcome.

HILE most of the work of
plant and animal breeders has,
in the last analysis, the pro-

duction of cheaper food by in-
creasing the supply, as its object, there
is one opportunity in the United States
which has been entirely neglected.
This lies in the large areas of swamp
land in the southern states, which at
present are economically almost worth-
less, and which cannot be reclaimed to
ordinary agriculture except at great
cost. If this land could be made
directly useful in the production of
meat, it would appear to be a desirable
enterprise from every point of view.
Such a possibility was clearly out-
lined by the late W. N. Irwin, before
members of the American Breeders’
Association’ several years ago, in a dis-
cussion of possible increase of meat pro-
duction in the United States by the
introduction of mammals not now
found in this country. He remarked:
“In selecting other species for in-
troduction, it is very important that we
consider the food supply that they will
require. We have several large areas
well adapted to certain kinds of animal
life, and not now producing, for the
reason that the animals are not there.
The area of greatest promise is in our
gulf states, and consists of over 10,000
square miles (6,400,000 acres) of water
and marsh surface, with a sufficient
quantity of marsh grass, water hyacinths

1 Irwin, W. A.

34

and other aquatic plants now growing
to support thousands of animals adapted
to those conditions. If properly seeded to
water hyacinth and other aquatic plants,
this vast region would be capable of pro-
ducing a million tons of meat per annum,
worth $100,000,000. This area should
be stocked with hippopotamus (Hippo-
potamus amphibius), the flesh of which
is highly esteemed, and when salted and
cured, is known in the Cape of Good
Hope as Zee-Koe Speck (lake-cow
bacon). The fatty mass lying between
the skin and the flesh or muscles is con-
sidered one of the purest of animal fats,
and is in great demand among the cape
colonists. These massive animals were
to the English settlers in Cape Colony
what the buffalo was to the pioneers in
the settlement of our great prairies, and
like the buffalo were almost heedlessly
exterminated.”’

DIFFICULTIES PRESENTED,

Mr. Irwin’s proposition never met
with acceptance, as it was immediately
pointed out that the hippopotami would
be impossible to control. The intro-
duction to the United States of the
pigmy hippopotamus of Liberia, how-
ever, offers an animal that can be easily
controlled and kept in fences, furnishes
excellent meat, and may have a real
economic future under such conditions
as Mr. Irwin outlined.

This hippopotamus (/. libertensis) is

Animals that should be introduced and bred for economic and profitable
meat production. A. B. A. annual report V, 214.

MEAT PRODUCTION IN SWAMPS 35

5 tee hae oe
BT a!

PAIR OF PIGMY HIPPOS IN NEW YORK PARK.
Although wild and difficult to capture, they have proved rather easily handled, and did not

suffer from the hardships of transport from inland Liberia to the United States.

Hans

Schomburgck, the envoy of Carl Hagenbeck who secured these specimens, managed to

tame a full-grown bull only a few days after he had captured it.

ignored in most scientific works’, and to
be found in few zoological parks. The
New York Zoological Society now pos-
sesses three, however, which have
aroused the interest of practical breeders
as well as zoologists.

The adult male, supposed to be ten
years old, is thirty inches high at the
shoulders, seventy inches in length from
end of nose to base of tail, with a tail
twelve inches long. His weight is about
420 pounds. The female is believed to
be only three years old, and when re-
ceived (1912) stood eighteen inches high
at the shoulders, weighing 176 pounds.
The Director of the New York park,
Dr. William T. Hornaday, describes

(Figure 16.)

them in the Zoological Society Bulletin
(July, 1912) as follows:

‘““The Pygmy Hippo is characterized
first of all by its midget size, which in
the adult animal is about equal to that
of a twelve-months-old baby hippo of
the large species. Its skull is more
convex, or rounded, on its upper surface,
than that of H. amphibius; its legs are
longer and more slender in proportion,
and its eyes do not “pop” out of its
head like those of the giant species.
Another striking character is the long
tail, which in proportion is about twice
as long as that of its only living relative,
amphibius.

“The face of the Pygmy is relatively

2 The principal references are Proceedings of the Phila. Acad. Sci., Morton in 1844 and
1849, Leidy in 1852; and Zoo. Soc. Bull., N. Y., Hornaday and Schomburgck, xvi, 877, July, 1912.

36 THE JOURNAL
smaller than that of the large species,
which brings the eyes nearer to the
median line of the skull. The lower jaw
of the Pygmy bears only two incisor
teeth, while the large species has four;
and while the orbits of liberiensis are
large, they are proportionally less
elevated than those of the large hippo.
As the latter swims nearly submerged,
the eyes seem to float on the surface of
the water like two shiny glass marbles.

“The color of the Pygmy is recorded
as ‘slaty black’ on the back, sides
greenish slaty gray, and under parts
grayish white. ~

NOT TRULY AMPHIBIAN.

“We await with keen interest Hans
Schomburgck’s account of the habits,
and life history in general, of this rare
and strange animal. We have been in-
formed, however, that it makes its home
in swamps and wet forests, often at a
distance of several miles from the
nearest river or lake, and that it is not at
all dependent upon large bodies of
water, as its colossal relative always
seems to be. We may confidently expect
to hear that it subsists on fleshy and
tender plants and reeds, and grass that
is not too coarse and tough to be masti-
cated by small jaws.”’

In the same issue of the Bulletin, the
capture of these animals is described by
Hans Schomburgck, Major and Military
Attache of the Liberian Legation at
London, who spent a year in Liberia
securing these hippopotami for Carl
Hagenbeck. His story forms an in-
teresting chapter in the romance of
zoological and botanical exploration.

“The greatest difficulty in hunting
the Liberian Hippopotamus,”’ he says,
‘Gs that, unlike their big cousins, they
do not frequent the rivers. They make
their home deep in the inhospitable
forest, in the dense vegetation, on the
banks of the small forest streams; but,
not satisfied with the protection the
forest affords them, they enlarge the
hollows which the water has washed out
under the banks, and in these tunnels,
where they are invisible from the bank,
they sleep during the heat of the day.

the Bush-cow or Bush-pig.
have created it a distinct genus for it.

oF HEREDITY

ANIMALS CAUGHT IN PITS.

“Tn spite of all difficulties, however,
I had not given up the idea of catching
a hippo alive. Wherever I found a
likely place I had a pit dug. It is easy
to catch the great East African Hippo,
which keeps continually in the same
water and uses the same tracks. With
the Pygmy Hippo, it is very hard even
to find a place where there is the
slightest chance of catching one, be-
cause this brute roams through the
forest like an elephant or a pig, mostly
goes singly, though sometimes in pairs,
and rarely uses the same track twice.

‘“Meanwhile over a hundred pits had
been made by my men, all carefully dug
seven feet deep and covered so that not
the sharpest eye could detect any sign
of danger.

“At last, two days after I shot my
first animal, and when I was still work-
ing on its thick skin, a boy rushed to
my tent breathlessly shouting from afar:

‘“‘*Massa! Massa! Dem Mwe done
catch!’

“On Nea Tindoa, an inhabited island
in the Lofa river, a big bull had fallen
into one of my pits. My sergeant,
Momoro, started at once with a few
boys, to reach the place the same night,
and keep guard to prevent the meat-
hungry natives from killing the Hippo.

“At last I had succeeded! Against
the prophecies of Europeans, Liberians
and natives! And only a few days be-
fore, Tawe Dadwe told me: ‘It is im-
possible to catch a Mwe!’ It has never
been done, and they have only been shot
after they have been caught in the pits.
They are too dangerous. Many a
hunter has been killed. You white men
know a lot, but here you are trying
something that is impossible.’

ANIMALS EASILY HANDLED.

‘Early the next morning I reached
the place. Before night a fence had been
built around the hole, and the animal
was let out. It was a beautiful full-
grown bull, in the prime of his life.

‘‘Nothing succeeds like success! Six
days after that, the second one was

MEAT PRODUCTION IN SWAMPS 37

caught; this time a two-year-old cow.
A week later, the third, a young three-
quarter-grown bull was taken.”’

The difficulties of transport to the
coast, and thence to Europe, were
great, but the animals stood them well,
and apparently are not troubled by
small discomforts or bothered by over-
sensitive nervous organization. There
is every reason to suppose that they
would be adapted to semi-domestica-
tion in the swamps of the south, unless
the supply of food in winter proved too
small for their needs. Such a question
can only be tested by actual experi-
ment. In case they proved unable to
live comfortably on the roots which
they could grub up during the colder
months, it might be entirely practicable

to pen them up and feed them.
As to their hardiness in the open air

-in the gulf states during winter, there

is no evidence, but it need not be
presumed that because they come from
a tropical country, they could not
adapt themselves to the southern
United States. Many of the domestic
animals in the temperate zone are of
strictly tropical origin.

At present the cost of breeding ani-
mals is prohibitive, the New York
Zoological Society having paid $12,000
for three, but if this difficulty is over-
come, animal breeders will have an
opportunity to try an experiment
that will be as certainly interesting as
it will be probably important.

|e ap oye es

The Control of Heredity

Natural selection and the survival of the fittest will not of themselves perform
miracles of regeneration. They represent the method followed by the workings of
heredity. Where the human race is concerned, men have now the power consciously
to direct them into barren or profitable channels. The whole fate of civilization
hangs on the question of whether this mighty engine of construction or destruction
is to be used for good or evil—W. C. D. and C. D. Whetham: Heredity and
Society (1912).

The Influence of Environment

I will not dogmatically assert that environment matters not at all; phases of it
may be discovered which produce more effect than any which we have yet been
able to deal with. But I think it quite safe to say that the influence of environment
is not one-fifth that of heredity, and quite possibly not one-tenth of it. There is no
real comparison between nature and nurture; it is essentially the man who makes
his environment, and not the environment which makes the man.—Karl Pearson:
Nature and Nurture (1910).

PRENATAL INFLUENCES

What We Know of Them Gives No Ground for Making Them a Basis of
Eugenic Teaching—Propaganda Must Be Kept on Absolutely Sound
Scientific Basis Unless It Is to Result in
More Harm Than Good.

Davip STARR JORDAN,
Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California.

mission of the sacred torch of hered-

ity undimmed to future generations

is the most precious of all worths
or values in the world.”

Accepting this statement from some
unknown writer as a substantial fact,
we may derive from it the enormous
value to the world of all facts which
bear on the question of Eugenics, the
art by which sound parentage may be
granted to the next generation. Every
fact relating to human heredity is a
precious fact. The aim of the Eugenics
movement is to make these facts mat-
ters of common knowledge as _ the
multiplication table is. This requires
a great deal of time and practice. It is
the work of teachers, and its methods
should be methods of science, not of
emotion.

Because the facts of Eugenics are so
incalculably precious, it is necessary
that their purity be guarded. To mix
up what scientific men really know with
what emotional people vaguely guess is
to destroy the value of the whole.
There are a great many things about
heredity and inheritance yet to be dis-
covered. There are many questions to
which we do not know the answer
until we find it out.

Many of these relate to the relation
of external conditions, maternal im-
pressions and the like, to the unborn
child. The occasion of writing these
lines is the reception of a number of a
journal which, with the best of in-
tentions, ‘‘holds as chief of the means
to be used the power of the parents to
determine pre-natally the character of
their children.”

|: HAS been said that “the trans-

38

In other words, it places above
actual knowledge of actual fact, a piece
of spurious science, partly based on old
wives’ tales and partly on disconnected
facts connected with the wholesomeness
of clean living.

““MATERNAL IMPRESSIONS.”

What can parents do to determine
before birth the character of the child?
Nothing, so far as we know, except so
to live that the germ cells are not en-
feebled, and the foetus checked in its
period of quiet nutrition. Most of the
stories of prenatal influences are pure
fables. No child was ever born with
a dog’s face, because its mother was
scared by a dog. No child ever ac-
quired gift of song, because its mother
yearned for music, nor because she
saturated her life with melody. The
child may be harmed, no doubt, by all
kinds of unsanitary life, by hysteria
most likely as well as by drugs. But
the injury is not rendered in kind—so
much liquor, so much tendency to
drink—but in reducing as it were the
momentum of child life.

The experiments of Dr. Charles R.
Stockard and others have shown that
germ cells may be actually weakened or
destroyed by the use of alcohol. Pre-
sumably defective germs would mean
defective growth, a matter not of hered-
ity but of development. Apparently
many cases of mental and physical
distortion have their origin in alcoholic
deterioration of germ cells. This line
of study opens a large field in which no
very great progress has yet been made.
It does only mischief to assume that we

a

JorpDAN: PRENATAL INFLUENCES 39

know what we only hope or fear that we
may sometime know.

There is no question of the trans-
mission of Syphilis from parent to child,
for the minute animal organism, Spiro-
chaeta, which produces the disorgani-
zation of tissues known as Syphilis,
flows with the blood. In like manner,
the plant organism, Gonococcus, may
be implanted in children, most of those
born blind receiving their affliction at
birth in the tender membranes of the
eyelids.

STORIES INCREDIBLE.

But taking current stories, it is

scientifically incredible that Jessie Pome-.
roy became a murderer because her,

mother went with the lunch basket to
the butcher’s shop. How medicines un-
successfully intended to produce abor-
tion may affect the unborn foetus is a
matter about which we know very little
and we may condemn the abominable
practice itself while admitting that the
‘ resultant mischief is beyond our calcu-
lation. The ‘lady,’ who confessed
that the destructive disposition of her
little boy was “inherited from her own
desperate efforts to rid herself of him
before birth,’”’ is not a competent judge
of the relations of cause and effect.
More likely the boy was bad through
inheritance of traits of a bad mother,
and we have no right to assume that
it was her vicious action, not her
vicious temper, that left their stamp on
the boy’s heredity. But it is still more
likely that the story itself is a pious in-
vention, told for the sake of the moral
it teaches.

It is asserted, in connection with this
story, that “‘common people are kept
in ignorance of the causes which pro-
duce human monsters.”’ Learned men
are also often ignorant in these matters,
until little by little they slowly find out
the truth, and this truth in general is,
“‘Like the Seed is the Harvest.”’ Clean,
wholesome men and women lead clean
and wholesome lives. Such people
create children from sound and potent
germ cells, and to foster this condition
is the function of eugenics. Lapses
from sound living are usually traits of
people of unsound character. Unwhole-

some traits exist in everyone, and some-
times these are transmitted or exag-
gerated in the children.

A MODIFICATION FOR WORSE.

A child is a mosaic of parental and
atavistic traits, one fourth, on the
average, from each parent, others from
characters latent in the parent but
going farther back. We know of no
way by which we can foretell the com-
bination or modify it for the better by
any line of action.. We may modify it
for the worse by intemperance, worry,
disease and in ways which prevent
normal development or normal nutrition.

To have really good children, the
parents must be of good stock them-
selves. Bad fruit is borne mainly by
bad trees, and the inheritance of bad-
ness springs from inherent tendencies
or perversities, just as strong in
heredity where they are latent as
where they have been actually called
into action. It must not be forgotten
that strong characters are not those
without temptation to evil, but those
in which the better elements are
triumphant.

Besides the myths of prenatal in-
fluence, we have also a series of myths,
more scientific in aspect, but equally
unfounded, under the name of Telegony.
The first mate of ,a female animal is
supposed under this theory to affect
or infect all her future progeny. This
idea is probably without any scientific
foundation either in man or beasts. It
is based on a misinterpretation of a
single experiment. A mare once mated
to a zebra, bore afterwards to a horse
father a colt with traces of dark bars
or stripes. But such bars occur among
horses not suspected of zebra parentage.
The original horse as a wild animal was
probably marked by dark stripes. In
the little Journal which suggested these
remarks, we read, “Ignorance is a
fruitful source of wrong in matters of
sex, hence the importance of pure
knowledge for all.” This is all well
stated. It needs the further insis-
tence that no knowledge 1s pure unless
it 1s true, and to be true it must be free
from all guess work, sentimentalism or
hysteria.

VARIATION IN TOBACCO

Change of Environment Seems not to Cause Breaking Up of Types—Crossing

the Only Means of Producing New

Types—For Commercial Breeding,

However, Both Heredity and Environment Must
Be Taken into Consideration.

H. K. Haves
Plant Breeder, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn.

N recent years many foreign types

of tobacco have been grown from

imported seed in the United States.

In most cases these have proved
very variable in their characters during
the early years of their development,
and this has led to a common belief
that a breaking up of type is caused by
the change of environment when seed
of southern tobacco is grown in the
north.

Shamel', in a brief review of some of
the phases of tobacco breeding work,
says: “The writer believes that the
two efficient means of inducing var-
iability as a source of new types are
change of environment and crossing.
So far as the writer is concerned the
change of environment—usually the
growing of southern seed in the north—
is the most effective means of inducing
variability.”

A recent article by Hasselbring’ on
Cuban tobaccos gives a logical reason
for the diversity of types which are
found when Cuban seed is grown in the
United States. This writer shows that
there are many types of tobacco in
Cuba. As the seed is saved from suck-
ers which grow from the base of the old
roots and as these suckers do not show
the characteristics of the parent plants,
no attempts at seed selection have been
made. Furthermore, as the seedlings
are generally grown in the mountains
and sold to growers in all parts of the

Ae:
2 Hasselbring, H.

1 Shamel, Tobacco Breeding Amer.
£

40

Types of Cuban Tobbacco.

island this diversity of types is con-
stantly maintained.

Hasselbring. also presents data on a
number of pure lines which were grown
both in Cuba and in Michigan, and
shows that in these pure lines no break-
ing up of type occurred and that what-
ever modifications did appear due to
the change of environment, appeared
alike in all of the plants of a given’
strain.

In 1908 the writer became interested
in the study of heredity in tobacco and
has had many opportunities to observe
the effects of enviranment on tobacco
characters. The results of these ob-
servations serve to corroborate the
belief that environment does not cause
a breaking up of type.

CUBAN VARIETIES USED.

In 1910 an experiment was begun to
determine how many years of se-
lection were necessary to develop
a type similar to the present Cuban
shade variety. During this season
about one hundred and fifty plants
were grown at the Windsor Tobacco
Growers’ Corporation in Bloomfield
from seed sent from Cuba to the planta-
tion manager, J. B. Stewart. _ This
original seed was given a selection num-
ber, 13. The variability this first year
was very large and only five or six of
the one hundred and fifty plants gave
promise of commercial value. Selfed

268-275, 1910.
113-126, 1912.

Breeders Report, Vol. 6:
The Botanical Gazette, Vol. 53;

CONNECTICUT HAVANA TOBACCO.

On the theory that a change of environment causes variation, Cuban tobacco grown from
seed in Connecticut should show wide diversity. A carefully controlled test, however,
convinces Mr. Hayes that the supposed variation does not appear, except as it
may be the outcome of the mechanical and germinal mixture of characters. When the
seeds from a single Cuban plant were sown in Connecticut, the row cultures had a very
uniform growth, and the number of leaves was comparatively constant. (Figure 17.)

41

; 4 mt me! jae
ne
We

St"
~ @

SUCCESSFUL PLANT BREEDING.

In order to produce a new strain of tobacco, the Connecticut Experiment Station crossed the

Cuban Havana type, which has very large leaves but only a few of them, with the Sumatra
type, which has numerous leaves, but only small ones. The offspring of this cross showed
the characteristics of both parents in a blend, but in the following, or second filial (F,)
generation, the characters segregated, in accordance with the usual Mendelian procedure,
so that some of the plants looked like the Havana grandparent and others like the Sumatra
grandparent, as is shown in the other photographs illustrating this article. Among the
forms produced by the cross were several that approximated the desired result, one of
which is shown in figure 20. In the above illustration is the final result—the sought-for
variety, which has been given the name of “Halladay Havana.” It retains the large size
of leaf of the Cuban Havana type to a marked degree, but, thanks to the infusion of Suma-
tra “blood” has more leaves than the Havana. Two distinct types of this variety are
recognized, as shown in the above photograph, the one at the left bearing smooth, droop-
ing leaves, and the one at the right erect, crinkly leaves. The photographs do not accu-
rately represent the number of leaves borne by this new variety, however, for the reason
that a first picking of five or six leaves has already been made from each one. (Figure 18.)

HAYES: VARIATION IN TOBACCO 43

seed was saved from the two most
desirable plants, which bore 19 and 20
leaves respectively. As a measure of
variability the number of leaves per
plant was noted and observations on
general plant habit were also made.
The two selfed plants were given the
selection numbers 13-2 and 13-1, and
their progeny was grown in 1911.

The variability was also large in the
second season, 13-1 being as variable
for leaf number as in the first year, but
there was a much larger percentage of
plants with good-sized leaves than in
the original lot. In 13-2 there was a
much larger percentage of desirable
plants. Two plants of strain 13-2,
bearing 18 and 19 leaves respectively,
were self-fertilized and grown the fol-
lowing season. The plants in this third
season proved very uniform both in the
number and shape of leaves. As far as
field characters go, these selections were
the equal of the commercial Cuban
tobaccos grown on the same field. The
quality of the cured leaf was also very
good, but no better than the present
Connecticut Cuban shade variety.

Much variation was shown in the
statistical results for number of leaves
per plant. It is this variation that has
caused the belief in the efficacy of en-
vironment as a means of inducing a
breaking up in type. More recent
knowledge of heredity convinces us
that the apprent breaking up of type is
simply an expression of the mechanical
and germinal mixture of characters.
Selection and inbreeding tend to pro-
duce homozygous forms, and the length
of time necessary to obtain pure forms
is largely dependent on the number of
row cultures which may be grown,

CAREFUL TEST MADE.

To determine whether the variations
observed in generations of the above ex-
periment had a connection with change
of environment, three seed pods picked
from different plants growing in Cuba
were carefully harvested and sent in sep-
arate compartments of a package from
Cuba to Mr. Stewart. The seed from
each pod was sown in sterilized soil, the
seedlings being marked respectively
C1, C2 and C3. A row of each of the

selections was grown on the same land
as the selections” 13-2-3 and 13-2-4,
previously mentioned.

Each of the row cultures had a very
uniform habit of growth. C1 and C3
grew to about the same height, but the

, average size of leaves of C3 was some-

what larger than for C1. C2 had about
the same average size of leaf as C3.

An examination of the results shows
that C1 and C3 both produced about
21.3 leaves per plant.and were not very
variable for leaf number. It is possible
that one 13-leaved plant of C3 really
belonged to C2 and was accidentally
mixed when sown. C2 only gave an
average mean of 13.83 leaves per plant
and a.range of variation from 11 to 18
leaves. These selections show about
the same variability, as determined by
eeu. andC2 Vi eas 13-2-3, 159d
the commercial Cuban, and indicate
that there has been no breaking up of
type due to changed environment.

In connection with a study of in-
heritance of separate characters of
tobacco, some observations have been
made on the effect of changed environ-
mental conditions. While all quanti-
tative characters are greatly dependent
on environment for their full develop-
ment, some characters are more notice-
ably affected than others. The most
uniform character of all was found to be
the number of leaves per plant. Each
of four selections was grown both at
Forest Hills, Mass., Bloomfield, Conn.,
and New Haven, Conn., from seeds of
a single plant.

In order to have the counts as uniform
as possible and yet allow the crop to be
harvested, the following method was
used. The number of leaves per plant
was counted from the fourth leaf from
the bottom to the leaf below the bald
sucker at the top, “bald sucker’”’ being
the farm name for the first sucker which
appears without true leaves. This
method allowed the selections to be
topped and also gave added interest, as
the leaf counts represented about the
average number of leaves which were
harvested.

The field at Forest Hills was very
fertile but in a region where tobacco

GRANDPARENT AND GRANDCHILD.

The Imported Sumatra type (shown at the left) was crossed with the markedly different Havana type
(shown in the preceding cut). In the first generation there was a general blending of characters,
which segregated in the second generation, so that a wide diversity of types resulted. The plant
shown at the right is one of this second generation of the hybrid, in which the characters of the
Imported Sumatra have so completely excluded those of the Havana type, that the grandchild can
scarcely be distinguished from the pure Sumatra which was one of its grandparents. (Figure 19.)

44

SECOND GENERATION FROM CROSS.

This is another specimen of the second generation cross between Connecticut Havana and
Imported Sumatra. It bore 30 leaves with short internodes, and was, therefore, a close
approximation to the desired result, combining the large number of leaves of the Sumatra
type with the large size of leaves of the Havana variety. Its contrast with the plant
shown in the preceding plate, however, vividly shows the wide diversity of forms pro-
duced when segregation of characters takes place. (Figure 20.)

45

46 THE JOURNAL

is never grown commercially. Bloom-
field is in the center of the tobacco-
growing region and the soil is perfectly
adapted to it and heavily fertilized.
The soil at New Haven is a poor gravel-
ly loam, only moderately dressed with
manure and chemicals.

The means of the different selections
compared with the average mean show
only a variation of 1.8 leaves per plant,
and as only about one hundred and
fifty plants were counted the results
appear very uniform.

STANDARD DEVIATIONS.

As a measure of variability the stand-
ard deviations of the selections were cal-
culated. A consideration of them shows
the variation to be very uniform and
little, if any, affected by different con-
dition of environment. We may also add
that these same selections have now
been grown at the three different locali-
ties for two later generations without
any evidence that environment very
strongly modifies the number of leaves
per plant.

Some observations have also been
made upon the effects of different en-
vironments on plant height. Two se-
lections were grown both at Bloomfield
and in New Haven from seed of the
same self-fertilized plants. These se-
lections were very variable, due to the
fact that they represent the second
generation of a cross between two
varieties. While difference in environ-
ment has very strongly modified the
heights of plants, a consideration of the
Standard Deviation convinces one that
such modifications of this character
as have appeared appear alike in all
plants of a selection.

Although no statistical studies can be
given showing the effects of environ-
ment on the same selection for leaf
area, we have some observations on
several pure lines of tobacco varieties
grown under cultural conditions differ-
ent from those under which the varieties
are normally grown.

These are pure lines of a Connecticut
Havana type grown under shade, of a
small-leaved Sumatra type grown in the
open, and a Broadleaf type grown on a
poor sandy soil. By means of a plani-
meter the area of the bottom, middle
and top leaves of one hundred and fifty

OF HEREDITY

plants of each of these pure lines was
taken. Of course, the area of leaf is a
character which is greatly modified by
cultural and environmental conditions.
The results, however, show about the
same variability for the three pure lines
given. Observations of these pure lines
when growing showed no _ variation
which could be considered as a breaking
up of type.

VARIATION DUE TO CROSSING.

The study of the heredity of separate
characters of tobacco shows that such
characters as shape and size of leaf,
size of stalk, and leaf number are in a
large measure inherited independently.
In brief, the results show that the first
generation of a cross between two pure
lines is of an intermediate nature in
those characters by which the parents
differ. In the second generation there
is a segregation and recombination of
characters and often new forms are
produced. Some of the second genera-
tion forms breed true in the third gen-
eration, others breed true for some
characters and are variable in the re-
mainder, and others are as variable as
the second generation itself. The
length of time which it takes to produce
a uniform type will depend largely on
the number of varieties which can be
grown in F2 and the number of row
tests which can be grown in F3.

The general conclusions from this
work are that environment is of great
importance in any system of tobacco
breeding, and quantitative characters
and especially quality of cured leaf are in
a large measure dependent on this
feature. Change of environment, how-
ever, does not cause a breaking up of
type, and whatever variations occur
due to environment appear alike in all
plants of a particular type.

Heredity is the second important
factor, and poor types will give unfavy-
orable results even under the best
environmental conditions. Any system
of tobacco breeding must take both
heredity and environment into account.

The only known means of producing
variability as a source of new types is
by crossing. The number of new forms
which will appear due to a particular
cross will depend on the number of
germinal characters by which the parent
plants differ.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 2 February, 1914

CONTENTS

Sex-Determination in Sheep, compiled by the Editor, from the

Records of Alexander Graham Bell......................... 47
Lecturer on Eugenics Appointed ..................... 5.000000 00- 57
Injuries to Germ Cells, abstracted from an article by Dr. Charles

BUSS LOC KATe yy chs Sune ene pene | ois ee. ae Ebene a Aen he 58
Plant Breeding Section to Meet..................... 0.000 e eee 64
A Study of Semi-Sterility, by John Belling ...................... 65
Origin of Cultivated Oats, by Dr. L. Trabut...................... 74
Plans for International Congress .....................00 000020 - es 84
Mendelism in Great Britain, by R. C. Punnett................... 86
The Influence of Monarchs, by Frederick Adams Woods, reviewed

by CBs Daven portions. om. eres tain oes too erate tee gs a 90
Breeding Wild Game, by Paul Larsen............................ 91
OniMarriace Certificates’: tio. wore se core 0 ue ie tnd eis Seas 91
Hereditary. honedc pe yege oe oe ns oot eras WG ets os hate eee ees 91
Register-of Hybrid: Orchids) 20 0)j. 016.0 42 codices we eae 92
Golor Inheritance Pigs). Select fists occas inenh 01s She Gane eels chaehenci renee ale 92

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and magazine.

Date of issue of this number, January 30, 1914.

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VILLOOS VAON ‘HOVANHA NNIAG LY daaHS Ga TddIN-ILTAW

L6

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP

Effect of Special Feeding on Ratio of Males to Females and on Fecundity of
Ewes—First Result Nullified by Addition of Data from Following Years—
Method of Handling the Multi-Nippled Sheep at Beinn Bhreagh.

Compiled by the Editor from the Records of ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL,
Washington, D. C.

INCE 1889, Alexander Graham
Bell has been engaged in sheep-
raising on his farm of Beinn
Bhreagh, near Baddeck, Nova
Scotia, in order to fix a breed possessing
supernumerary mammae, and exceeding
the ordinary breeds in fecundity. In
the course of this experiment (which, it
may be mentioned, has been a complete
success) he has had an exceptionally
good opportunity to test the theory that
the sex of offspring is dependent, in
part at least, on the nourishment of the
mother, and also to test another hypo-
thesis suggested in the course of his
experience—namely, that the degree of
nourishment had an effect in favoring
the production of twins—one of the
objects for which he was working.

On April 17, 1901, Dr. Bell read a
paper on ‘Conditions affecting the
Fertility of Sheep and the Sex of their
Offspring,’ before the National Academy
of Sciences at Washington, in which he
explained the circumstances which
favored his investigation of this problem
of the influence of nutrition on the sex
of offspring, as follows:

“For some years past my shepherd,
Mr. John McKillop, has attempted to
record periodically the weights of the
sheep entrusted to his care, for the reason
that weight has been found to give a
valuable indication of the general physi-
cal condition and health. Sheep, when
suffering from serious illness, nearly
always lose in weight—indeed loss of
weight is commonly the first indication
that anything is wrong. This fact has
been utilized to guard the Beinn
Bhreagh flock from infectious disease.
When a sheep is found to be losing un-
duly in weight, it is separated from the
others and given special attention.

““In some cases these sheep have been
found to be suffering from unsuspected
diseases; in others unknown accidents
had induced abscesses requiring surgical
treatment. A decline in weight affecting
a number of young lambs turned out
to be due to the presence of tapeworm,
and the lambs undoubtedly owed their
lives to the timely discovery of the
cause.

FLOCK WEIGHED FREQUENTLY.

“Experience having demonstrated
that variations in weight are sometimes
of great significance, the attempt was
made to weigh the whole flock at least
once a month.

“Unfortunately the summer and au-
tumn records are imperfect, for it is
not always easy or practicable to induce
sheep to come and be weighed—especi-
ally when they are roaming about on
a large pasture with plenty of cover.
Still, a large enough number of records
exist to enable us to ascertain the average
weight of a Beinn Bhreagh ewe at the
end of September, October, November,
and December—thus covering the breed-
ing season. Data were collected for
this purpose in the summer of 1899
and the results show that the average
weight increased rapidly up to the end
of October. Beyond this point there
was very little increase; and after the
end of November there was an actual
decline (which continued all winter
under ordinary conditions of feeding).

“Thus, in Cape Breton Island, when
mating occurs in October, the average
ewe is improving rapidly in condition at
the time of mating: When it occurs in
November the weight is about the max-
imum, but increasing slowly: And when
mating occurs in December the average

47

48 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

BELLY OF SIX-NIPPLED EWE.

In order to counteract the evil results of inbreeding, Dr. Bell has made it a habit to purchase
all the multi-nippled sheep which he could find among his neighbors on Cape Breton Island.
The photograph shows a ewe with six nipples, a natural ‘‘sport’’ which was found in a

farmer’s flock and added to the Beinn Bhreagh flock.

ewe is in failing condition, slowly losing
weight from day to day.”’

As careful record was kept of the
matings, and the births of lambs, this
record was then compared with the
weights of the ewes, at various times

during the period of gestation. Dr.
Bell’s conclusion was that:
WHEN TWINS ARE BORN.
“Three conditions favorable to the
productions of twins revealed them-
selves :—

1. Maturity in the Ewes—(Ewes four,
five and six years old yielding a
larger percentage of twins than
younger or older ewes);

2. Mating in October—(With con-
sequent lambing in March); and

3. A rapid increase of weight at the
time of mating with subsequent
loss of weight.

“The third condition seemed to be
eminently susceptible of control; and
in the autumn of 1899, the attempt was

(Figure 1.)

rade to influence the weight by special
feeding.

“Beginning in the latter part of
September, 1899, each ewe was given
a feed of oats twice a day in addition
to the grass picked up on the pasture.
After mating had been accomplished
the extra feed was discontinued.

“It was expected that under this
treatment the ewes generally would
gain abnormally in weight up to the
period of mating, after which the
weight would gradually fall (on account
of the discontinuance of the extra food)
until the normal weight had been
reached due to the natural condition
of the pasture. The weight-curve
characteristic of the twin-bearing ewes
might thus perhaps be simulated; and
the query arose:—Would the pro-
duction of twins be increased?

“The whole flock was subjected to
the experiment during the month of
October, 1899, after which the extra
feeding was discontinued with all. The
experiment therefore was only complete

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP 49

in the case of the ewes that were mated
in October—the mothers of the 36
lambs born in March, 1900.

“The weight records show that the
desired fluctuations of weight actually
occurred, and occurred—not only with
the twin-bearing ewes, but with the
single-bearing as well.

“The fluctuations of weight seem to
have been somewhat greater with the
twin-bearing than the _ single-bearing
ewes—which is consistent with former
observations.

“Forty-five lambs were born in the

spring of 1900; and of these, 16
or 36.6% were twins (eight pairs).

This was a smaller percentage than in
1899, although above the average for
the decade 1890-1899. Thirty-six of
these lambs were born in March 1900—
including all of the twins—16 in number
or 44.4%: This percentage was less
than the average for March lambs during
the decade 1890-1899: but four of the
single lambs were from two-year old
mothers. If we deduct these we find
that 32 lambs were born in March 1900
from ewes three years of age or older—16
single lambs and 16 twins (yielding the
maximum percentage hitherto attained).

“On account of the small size of the
flock, a very slight change in the
absolute numbers would make a con-
siderable change in the percentages.”

The data, then, were not conclusive
as to whether the extra feeding given
the ewes in the fall of 1899 had caused
them to produce a larger percentage of
twins than ordinary. But, continues,
Dr. Bell:

“While the effect upon productive-
ness was not well marked it would be
premature to conclude that no effect at
all had been produced by the special
feeding; for no less than 72% of the
March-born lambs were females—a
circumstance quite unprecedented in the
history of the flock.

“Of course the absolute numbers
were small—only 36 March-born lambs
in all (10 male and 26 female)—but the
preponderance of females was too mark-
ed to be entirely accidental, more
especially when we consider that the
average of the flock for ten years showed
males in excess.

“Both among twins and single lambs
females predominated in March 1900. '
Five pairs of male and female twins
were born in that month, and three
pairs in which both twins were female :—
Total eight pairs. No case occurred in
which both twins were male. Thus—
out of 16 twins, five were male and 11,
or 68.75% were female. Out of 20
single lambs five were male, and 15 or
75% female.

“Tf climatic conditions were involved,
or general causes of any kind affecting
the whole Island of Cape Breton, it
seemed reasonable to suppose that an
unusual proportion of female lambs
would be found in the Island generally
in the spring of 1900.

““My shepherd, Mr. John McKillop,
and Mr. Angus McInnis, of Beinn
Bhreagh, undertook an investigation of
this point; and, in May, 1900, they col-
lected statistics from the neighboring
farmers concerning the number of male
and female lambs born that Spring.
Thirty-two flocks were examined, con-
taining 371 lambs,—202 of these were
males and 169 females.

“In four flocks the males and females
were equally divided. In 14 flocks
males were in excess, and in 14 flocks
females. The summation of the whole
shows a majority of males (54.4%) :—
The large female percentage upon
Beinn Bhreagh was evidently, therefore,
a local matter.

“In flock No. 23, belonging to Mr.
Farquhar Macrae, an unusual proportion
of male births occurred. Out of
26 lambs born upon his place no less
than 23 (or 88.5%) were males, and
only three (or 11.5%) were females.

“This fact led to a special investiga-
iton of the treatment of his flock during
the preceding year (1899). It was found
that in the autumn of 1899 the ewes
were roaming at large upon an upland
pasture, unaccompanied by males, until
the middle of November, when the ram
was released and allowed to run with
the flock. The sheep received no care
until starvation drove them to the barn,
in the middle of January, 1900, after
which they were given a daily ration of
dry. hay. In this case, then, mating
occurred late in November, or early in

50 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

December, 1899, at a time when the
ewes were beginning to lose weight on
account of failing pasture—after which
they remained in reduced condition
until their lambs were born. Under
these circumstances 88.5% of the lambs
were males; whereas in the Beinn
Bhreagh flock, where the ewes had
been specially fed, 72.2% were females
(of the March-born lambs).

“These facts seem to indicate that
perhaps, after all, the special feeding in
the autumn of 1899, may have been
responsible for the large proportion of
females born in 1900.

DIFFERENCES IN WEIGHT.

“Tf the nutrition of the mother during
the early period of gestation is an ele-
ment in determining the sex of her off-
spring, we may reasonably hope to
observe some characteristic differences
of weight between the mothers of males
and the mothers of females at this
period. The records of the Beinn
Bhreagh flock are sufficiently volumi-
nous to enable us to examine this point.

‘“An inspection of the figures shows
that the differences of weight are slight,
but, on account of the considerable
numbers involved it may well be that
they are significant. At the beginning
of October, before mating had been
accomplished, the average weights of
the two classes of ewes (male-bearing
and female-bearing) were the same.

“The average male-bearing ewe in-
creased in weight up to the end of
October, after which there was a
decline: The average female-bearing
ewe, on the other hand, continued to
gain in weight all through November so
that by the end of that month the
average female-bearing ewe outweighed
the male-bearing—a superiority re-
tained during the subsequent decline.

“Such being the results in the case
of matings during the decade 1890-
1899, we added the data for the lambs
born in March 1900, from matings
which occurred in October, 1899. In all
these cases the mothers were specially
fed, as described above, up to the time
of mating.

“Here again we observe a reversal in
the relative weights of the two classes

of ewes. The male-bearing ewes, on the
average, outweighed the others at the
beginning of the period of gestation, but
after mating lost weight so much more
rapidly than the female-bearing ewes
that the latter soon became the heavier.

MOTHERS OF TWINS HEAVIER.

“In order to afford data for more
detailed examination of changes of
weight, these ewes were weighed once a
week during the whole period of gesta-
tion. We found that the mothers of
twins were above the average of the
flock in weight; and the mothers of
single lambs were below the average.

‘Among the single-bearing ewes the
mothers of males averaged less in weight
than the mothers of females. It was
noticed that the mothers of males were
losing in weight at the time of mating,
and immediately after mating, whereas
the mothers of females substantially
retained their weight for some time
after mating.

‘““Among the twin-bearing ewes there
were none who had male lambs ex-
clusively. Those who had male as well
as female lambs were losing in weight
at the time of mating and immediately
after; whereas those who had female
lambs alone were increasing in weight at
the time of mating, and, though the
weight dropped afterwards, did not
continue to drop but remained sub-
stantially on a level for several weeks.
Those who had twins, male as well as
female, were nearly 12 pounds heavier
than those who had twin females alone,
at the beginning of the period of gesta-
tion; but subsequently lost weight so
rapidly that seven weeks after mating
they had lost their superiority in this
regard.

‘‘ All these ewes were given a special
feed of oats twice a day up to the time
of mating, after which the extra feed
was discontinued, the ewes then deriving
their sole nourishment from the pasture.

“The aggregate and average weekly
weights, in the autumn and winter of
1899, of the 20 ewes who had single
lambs in March, 1900, and of the eight
ewes who had twin lambs, were also
compiled, with similar results. Not
only were the twin-bearing ewes very

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daqadHsS AO MOOT TWINKWTHHAd Xd AHL ONIGAA4

a2 THE JOURNAL

much heavier on the average than the
single-bearing ewes, but their weight
increased much more rapidly for some
time after mating.

SIGNIFICANT DECLINE.

“We then calculated the aggregate
and average weekly weights of the
mothers of the 10 male lambs born in
March, 1900, and of the mothers of the
26 female lambs born at the same time.

“The male-bearing ewes, on the
average, weighed more than the female-
bearing at the time of mating, but lost
weight so much more rapidly. after
mating, that in a few weeks the female-
bearing ewes were the heavier, a super-
iority afterwards retained throughout
the whole period of gestation.

“The male-bearing ewes were losing
in weight at the time of mating and
immediately afterwards, in a much
more marked degree than in the case of
the female-bearing ewes.

“In the above calculations, the
weights of the five ewes who had both
male and female twins were included
once among the mothers of male lambs,
and once among the mothers of female
lambs.

“A second computation was made,
from which these ewes were excluded,
so that it referred to ewes who had male
lambs exclusively, or female lambs
exclusively. It was found that the
mothers of males averaged less in weight
than the mothers of females; but the
characteristic changes of weight at or
about the time of mating are the same
as noted before. The mothers of males
were losing in weight at the time of
mating; whereas the mothers of females
retained their weight.”

On the basis of these figures, Dr. Bell
placed on record the following “Con-
clusion” :

“Tt is to be regretted that the number
of cases examined in this paper is too
small to enable us to feel full confidence
in the accuracy of the results, but the
indications seem to point to the con-
clusion that variations of weight oc-
curring at or about the time of mating
may have great significance.

“They reflect changes in the con-
dition of nutrition of the mother, at

oF HEREDITY

a critical period in the formation of the
unborn young; and suggest the possi-
bility of affecting the fertility of sheep,
and controling the sex of their offspring,
by suitable feeding for a short period of
time before and after the time of mating.”

INVESTIGATION RESUMED.

Such was the status of the investi-
gation at the close of Dr. Bell’s first ten
years of work with this breed of sheep.
He did not publish the paper abstracted
above, however, but merely placed it
on record among his own papers, making
a note that “‘Some of the conclusions
suggested were of so startling a char-
acter that it was thought better to
await the collection of larger statistics
before publishing the results.”’

In 1901 he returned to this subject,
and on October 17 dictated a memo-
randum of the above results, continued
by the following comment:

‘‘These results have afforded some
ground for the belief that there is a
sensible difference in the weight changes
of the mothers of male and female lambs
about the latter part of October or the
early part of November; and that loss
of weight is associated with the pro-
duction of male lambs; increase of
weight at this time associated with the
production of female lambs.

“T have always felt, however, that
the absolute numbers involved were too
small to give certainty to the averages
and I still feel that we must wait for
more numerous observations before
announcing definite conclusions.

“It has occurred to me that by
adding the lambs born 1900 and 1901 to
those born during the decade 1890-1899,
the absolute numbers involved would be
increased, and the averages resulting
therefore more certain.”’

The data made available in 1901 re-
sulted from the birth of thirty-two
lambs at Beinn Bhreagh, 14 male, and
18 female. The mothers of the 14
males weighed 1293 Ibs. at the end of
September, 1900; 1267 lbs. end of
October; 1238 lbs. end of November;
1221 lbs. end of December; average
weights 92.4 lbs. September; 90.7 Ibs,
October; 88.4 lbs. November; 87.2 lbs.
December.

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP

The mothers of the 18 female lambs
weighed 1561 lbs. end of September,
1900; 1667 lbs. end of October; 1535

53

92.6 lbs.; November 85.3 lbs; December
83.1 Ibs.
Dr. Bell therefore prepared a table

Ibs. end of November; 1495 Ibs. end of combining all the observations ac-
December. The average weights being: cessible from his records, as _ fol-
End of September 86.7 lbs.; October lows:
Weights of Mothers of Male Lambs
(Taken in Autumn preceding birth of lambs)
September 30 October 31
Date of Birth of Lambs No. of Weights No. of Weights
Cases. im lbs. Cases in Ibs.
SOD 1 ISM) ise aah alee oak eS, Sear ea Ree P 102 9029 | 108 | 10390
“SLND ooo oncy ot Ee occ ae cnn ee 10 1055 | 10 1105
ISIOIL. ec" GLAS Me eee Sean at Sen nee ate Re aI Sear 14 1293 14 1267
BIR hallserts Siaece cael Se tee es oe i vee 126 11377 132 12762
EN SGI Le SPN GAN i ERC EE Rag |r eae ae 9G2S) MbS..)2.. oe nie pe 96.6 Ibs.
November 30 December 31
Date of Birth of Lambs No. of Weights No. of | Weights
Cases. in Ibs. Cases | in Ibs.
LSS 3 SEES I 6 a ener 120 11502 Oe. We 7227
UE 6 5 cea Sey peed ean Oe ececis CRM ERS et mee aes 10 1023 10 957
CASLIVL 8s: cutas ec hoy 2 NR IN ed cao IES a ti ee 14 1238 14 1221
|
[3/5 ee ee ae oem 144 | 13763 100 =| +9405
Bone A Ei SR Te ae ee eee OSG T15S.s Gin epee. | 94.0 lbs.
Wertghts of Mothers of Female Lambs
September 30 October 31
Date of Birth of Lambs No. of Weights || No. of Weights
Cases im Ibs. Cases. im Ibs.
BS OO Meee wens Satie sper oe 2 Ree ow 81 7154 85 7948
LUD) o Srcktore cae ROS ako ect Renamer Sear rae nares 26 2680 26 2816
LOW: ah ae op So RR URIED pone a Bee ae 18 1561 18 1667
TeheTR A Stee ree ne ee 125 | 11395 129 | 12431
Pe Oa gee SM ace oo ad cs Aaa Etiocte ale al Mathes Oe OL Ser EN eee areoe 96.4 lbs.

54 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Weight of Mothers of Female Lambs (Continued).

November 30 December 31

Date of Birth of Lambs

No. of Weights No. of Weights
Cases. in Ibs. Cases. in Ibs.
99 9545 58 | 5553
26 2727 26 | 2536
18 1535 18 1495
143 13807 102 9584
ae ie 95:..2:Ibs..|::-.2..0.-24| Seas

DIFFERENCE DISAPPEARS.

“The results,’ as he notes “are
rather startling. It would be unneces-
sary to give a graphical diagram, for
it is obvious from inspection of the
tables that the average weights of the
mothers of male and female lambs
taken at the end of October, November
and December, of the year preceding
the birth of the lambs were the same.
So that the two curves would be abso-
lutely identical.

‘“What this means I do not yet know.
The first impression made upon the
mind is, that the former results were
fallacious because based upon small
numbers. In the above case the smallest
number of cases used in determining an
average is 100, so that the averages are
surely more reliable than any yet
obtained. It may be possible that
significant variations in weight may
occur within a period of two or three
weeks, without affecting the monthly
averages. If these significant variations
occur chiefly in the month of October,
this might account for the lower average
weight of the male-bearing ewes at the
end of September. The only difference
that I can observe is this, that the male-
bearing ewes increased in weight at a
greater rate than the female-bearing
ewes during the month of October.
They started lower and reached the
same point by the end of the month.

ae

The difference, however, is so slight that
it may not be significant.

“The only way to ascertain whether
there is any real difference in the average
weights of the two classes of ewes
(male-bearing and female-bearing) with-
in a short period of time, two or three
weeks, is to multiply observations at
short intervals of time.”’

Having found the apparent result of
the first calculation on determination of
sex nullified by the addition of further
data, Dr. Bell decided not to press the
investigation of the influence of the
same factor—special feeding—on the
fecundity of the ewes, until he had
larger figures on which to base his com-
putations. On this point he noted:

“In order to examine the results as
to twins I added together the weights
of the mothers of lambs born during the
decade 1890-1899, the year 1900, and
the year 1901. A marked difference
exists between the weight-curves for the
two classes of ewes, twin-bearing, and
single-bearing. In the case of the twin-
bearing, however, the absolute numbers
involved are too small to make me
certain of my results, especially after
the experience with the male and
female-bearing. The maximum number
of cases used in determining an average
is only 88, and the minimum 50 cases.
It would be well in this case also to have
the average of at least 100 cases before
announcing results.”

HANDLING THE MULTI-NIPPLED SHEEP

Dr. Bell’s final decision to publish
the results of the investigation was due
partly to the belicf that his own experi-
ence might serve as an example

of the danger of drawing conclu-
sions in such studies from anything
but a large mass of data. The report
has high value, however, merely as a

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP 55

record of a carefully conducted experi-
ment on an exceedingly interesting and
much debated subject, and in this con-
nection an account of the methods of
weighing and feeding the sheep which
took part should be of interest. The
following account is taken from a report
to Dr. Bell under date of September
10, 1908, made by Mr. J. C. Davidson,

1
2

fall experiments, I referred to the fact
that feeding of the sheep collectively
did not give justice to all sheep alike,
as some ‘sheep, like every other nel
are gluttonous when they are fed any-
thing suitable to their taste, and I
suggested that we feed all sheep
individually; which would necessitate
the building of a barn for that purpose.

Ha
ee
eee iy Si cy
< <1)
: PEN So
£7
(| Ai i
“ ZS sie
re a
2 ' eS

[iss
ith ze \ ;

SHEEP WITH EARS FULLY PUNCHED

By the use of all of the eight positions for punched holes, as shown
in the diagram, 256 sheep can be identified. In small ex-
perimental herds, it is usually necessary to use only a part of
the positions indicated. The sheep can easily be identified in
the field, if the shepherd walks in front of them and attracts
their attention; they then raise their ears, and the holes
punched can be made out readily. (Fig. 2a.)

Superintendent of Beinn Bhreagh
Nurseries, who has had charge of the
flock for many years past:

“In former years it has been the
custom every fall to do more or less
extra feeding before or during the mating
season. Hitherto this has all been
done with the whole flock collectively.
In the early part of the summer of
1907, discussing our arrangements for

“ Having a good idea of the amount of
time experimental work of any kind con-
sumes, I planned the feeding pens in
circular form with a large circular box
in the center to hold the feed, as a
labor saving device. This enables a
man to feed the entire circuit of the
pens, which hold 19 sheep at once, in
practically less time than it would
otherwise take to walk from the feed

56 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

room to the troughs in the ordinary
way of feeding, besides having the great
advantage of knowing that each animal,
gets the same amount of feed placed in
front of it; also if necessary, you know
the exact amount each consumes, which
might also be significant for various
reasons. The individual feeding pens
occupy the center of the building; on
one end is a storeroom for feed, and on
the other end is the weighing room; the
latter also is an enormous time-saving
device in comparison with the old
method of having a weighing machine
in every pasture enclosure.

FLOCK WEIGHED DAILY.

“A description of the daily handling
of this experimental flock of multi-
nippled sheep for a period of from ten
to twelve weeks every fall may, to
those who know the disposition of
sheep.give some idea of the disadvantage
this flock has in being disturbed at a
time of the year when they would
naturally be replenishing the lost energy
they had sustained during the period
of suckling their lambs.

“The sheep are collected from the
pasture daily and taken to the barn-
yard enclosures, and are driven into the
weighing room,—or rather, if allowed,
they rush—as after a day or two they
know the performance as intelligently
as their masters know it and become
very anxious to get to this end of the
building. The feed having already
been put in the troughs of the different
stalls, a man opens the door of the
weighing box, and the sheep enter one
at a time.

“Their ear marks, one, two, or three

small punch holes, as the case may be,
located in different positions in the ear,
each hole at a given place, represent a
figure from one to eight, which may
also count twelve to eighteen or so on
up into the hundreds. This is Dr.
Bell’s own invention of marking and
does away with the use of collars or
ear tags; and is also a sure means, to
those familiar with the markings, of
picking from large flocks any sheep that
might get astray.

“The ear mark being called out, I
examine same as a check. The ear
mark number refers us to a different
number which represents their register
number. The sheep is weighed, weight
recorded, and condition of wool or any
irregularities noted. The door of the
feeding stall being open in advance, a
man opens the door on the side of
weighing box and the sheep goes from
weighing box to stall, door is closed and
another opened, and by this time
another sheep is weighed ready for next
stall, where feed is consumed without
disturbance and all share alike.

“Tt is very interesting to see how they
keep their turns in going through the
weighing machine, as after a few days
the sheep that is weighed last, with few
exceptions, will remain the last daily
throughout the season; the whole per-
formance passing off like clock-work.
After coming from the feeding pens
they are then visited by the male sex
and any matings noted, which enables
us to have an accurate record of father
and mother, in every case. Besides, as
the lambs come mostly in the cold
month of March, we know when to
look for them.”

METHOD OF IDENTIFYING THE SHEEP

As the value of any experimental
breeding with animals depends on an
exact record of the individuals being
kept, it becomes a matter of first im-
portance to have a permanent and
inalterable tag on each sheep. The
ordinary tag fastened in the ear is easily
torn out on wire fences, nor are collars
wholly satisfactory.

After some experimenting, Dr. Bell
devised a method of punch-marks in

the lobes of the ears, which has proved
quite satisfactory. Each lemb is
marked before it is weaned, the ear
being placed on a block of wood and an
ordinary punch about one-fourth inch
in diameter, with a hammer, used.
The operation is all over before the
lamb knows what is going on, and
little pain is caused.

Dr. Bell described the operation, in
a letter to a friend in 1910, as follows:

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP

‘Each ear of a sheep as it faces you
presents two edges, an outer edge and
an inner edge, on which holes can be
punched in suitable positions to identify
the sheep. As my flock is small, and
simplicity is advisable, I do not find it
necessary to distinguish more than two
punch-places on the edge of the ear;
one as high up as possible, the other as
low down as possible. This gives us
eight well marked places where holes
can be punched. The shepherd is sup-
plied with the accompanying diagram
representing a sheep’s head looking at
him, and the punch-places are marked
1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7, and 8, as shown.

‘Each sheep has a certain combina-
tion punched in the ears as an identify-
ing mark. By punching only one hole
in the proper place, we identify eight
sheep. By punching two holes (for
example, punch 1 and 2; 1 and 3; 1 and
4: 5 and 8; and so on) we can identify
28 sheep. By not limiting ourselves to

EY

any particular number of holes to be
punched, we have the possibility’ of
identifying 256 sheep. This being am-
ply sufficient for any purpose, I have
not found it necessary to distinguish
more than two punch-places on the edge
of each ear. I formerly tried three,
one at the top, one at the bottom and
one in the middle, but I found that
my shepherd could not handle the
system successfully, for it was often
difficult to know whether a hole punched
in the middle was intended to be above
or below.

“For two years we have disting-
uished only two places on the edge of
each ear. This has turned out to be
perfectly satisfactory, for we can never
mistake the upper hole for the lower,
or vice versa.

“Given eight punch-places, as shown
above, we can, by combinational punch-

ing, identify 256 sheep, as_ fol-
lows:

Motalpsheepidentitied! by sO) holewe. 234).a.. nese ee 1

cS “A rats STS oe Le a ha a er RA eis be 8

os % eI Radey Pateuee AND a age eae aph f weoh Ogee At ae ee 28

“ ne BO i EO es ur vl kohler Be RM ed tee ae 56

“ re Bae Sorat cece ps eatlinns Sea Se PA A Se eer A 70

a . Re Ak Ee oO) Cie ait Oren UG Ae MEER Rghaty te SA 56

te ¢ ae rie AE Oe GALI MR An eS Cede oer RREEE a ne ae Rei 28

oi 4 ML Mine ote hee Me hne ae Sect aetna ee 8

‘i 4 adhe Ee AORN Ske rd eee a ene 1

Total sheep identified by 8 holes or less.............. 256
identifying binations out of a possible 256. I only-

‘For the purpose of
sheep that have lost their collars (I pro-
vide each sheep with a leather collar
containing a metal plate riveted to it,
bearing the name of the sheep), I have
an index to the punch marks, and
against the punch-mark I record the
name of the sheep that bears that
identifying mark. When a sheep dies,
or is killed or sold, I scratch out the
name of that sheep and give its punch-
mark to another, so that during the
two years that have elapsed since the
adoption of the above system, I have
only found it necessary to use 31 com-

mark these sheep that are kept; those
that are to be sold are left unmarked.”’

In practice, this combination of punch
marks is triplicated: that is, it is applied
to white ewes, black ewes and rams, as
there could be no possible confusion by
having the same number used on botha
white ewe and a black ewe. In this
way, the number of positions which it
is necessary to punch has been kept
down. The use of collars on the sheep
has now been abandoned, as the punch
holes are found to meet every require-
ment of indentification.

LECTURER ON EUGENICS APPOINTED

A. Edward Hamilton of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long
Island, N. Y., has been selected to serve in an educational capacity, and his sery-
ices are available for lectures on eugenics before colleges, clubs, medical societies

and other similar organizations.

He is a graduate student of Clark University.

Funds for this educational extension work were given to the Eugenics Record Office
by Mrs. Huntington Wilson of Washington, D. C.

INJURIES TO ‘GERM CEES

Effects on Offspring of Intoxicating the Male Parent—Experiments Carried
Through Several Generations Show that Results of Alcoholization
are More Marked in Filial than in Parental Generation.

Abstract of an article in the American Naturalist by Dr. CHARLES R. STOCKARD,
Cornell Medical College, New York City. !

Three years ago a series of experiments was begun with guinea-pigs in order to
test the possibility of modifying the type of development in mammals, so as to
produce definite monstrosities, as had been accomplished with lower vertebrates.
This primary object has not been fully attained at the present time, yet the experi-
ments have demonstrated several points concerning injury of the germ cells, and
have shown that an alcoholized male guinea-pig almost invariably begets defective
offspring even when mated with a vigorous normal female.

From the number of records available one might conclude that the effects of the
alcoholic treatment were as pronounced upon the offspring of the second generation
animals, although they had not been directly treated, as upon the offspring of
alcoholized individuals. The poison injures the cells and tissues of the body, the
germ cells as well as other cells, and the offspring derived from the weakened or
affected germ cells have all of the cells of their bodies defective, both soma and germ,
since each of the cells is a descendant of the injured germ cell combination. In this
manner the defects or degenerate conditions are transmitted or passed to subse-

quent generations.

N experiments to modify the germ

cells of mammals the first propo-

sition is to determine whether the

substances used reach the germ cells
directly. One of the best substances
for such experiments is alcohol, since
its action and distribution in the body
have been largely studied and since it
acts so decidedly to modify the develop-
mental processes, as many workers have
found on invertebrates, and as I have
shown by treating fish eggs with this
substance.

It is a well known and generally
accepted fact that alcohol does cause
changes and degeneration in many of
the tissues of animals and man. The
question arises, how, then, can the re-
productive tissues, the ova and _ sper-
matozoa escape’ Nicloux and Renault
have found that alcohol has a decided
affinity for the reproductive glands. In
the testicular tissues and the seminal
fluid an amount of alcohol is soon

present which almost equals that in the
blood of an individual having recently
taken alcohol. The proportion of alcohol
in the testis as compared with that in the
blood was as two to three, and in the
ovary of female mammals as three to
five. From these observations it must
follow that alcohol may act directly on
the ripe spermatozoon shortly before it
fertilizes the egg, and if this substance
injuriously affects the germ cells, then
one should expec to find an indication
of he injury in the resulting develop-
ment.

HUMAN CASES COMPLICATED.

There is an abundance of data bearing
on the effects of parental poisoning on
the human offspring, yet almost all of
it is complicated. The question arises
whether the defects of the offspring are
actually due directly to the parental
poisoning or to the often degenerate
condition of the parent. With lower

! The detailed report of the experiment is in the American Naturalist, XLVII, Nov. 1913,

from which this abstract is made.

58

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HLAOWSD AHL SINOLS TOHOOTVY MOH

59

60 THE JOURNAL
mammals this question may be con-
trolled, since vigorous individuals with
no physical weakness may be selected
for study.

One of the most interesting human
cases is that Forel cites as recorded by
Schweighofer. A normal woman married
a normal man and had three sound
children. The husband died and the
woman married a drunkard and gave
birth to three other children; one of
these became a drunkard; one had
infantilism, while the third was a social
degenerate and drunkard. The first two
of these children contracted tubercu-
losis, which had never before been in
the family. The woman married a third
time and by this sober husband again
produced sound children. This is a
logical experiment,—the female was
first tested with a normal male and gave
normal children; when mated with an
alcoholic male the progeny wer: de-
fective. She was later tested again with
a normal male and found to be capable
of producing sound offspring. A number
of such cases are on record but all are
open to the question whether the de-
fective offspring are actually due to the
effects of the poison on the parent, or
to the fact that the parent may have
been weak and degenerate from the
beginning.

ALL ANIMALS TESTED.

For our experiments to demonstrate
the effects of alcoholization in guinea
pigs, we take pains to select normal,
healthy animals, and in all cases they are
first tested by a normal mating in order
to establish their ability to produce
vigorous offspring. After such a test the
treatments are begun. During the
experiments the treated males and
females are mated from time to time
with normal animals, and in addition,
control matings of normal individuals
are made. Some of the specimens are
treated with alcohol and ether. These
substances were used since they readily
act upon animal cells and since I had
studied their effects on the development
of fish embryos and found them to cause
rather definite and easily recognizable
defects in the central nervous system and
organs of special sense.

OF HEREDITY

In the beginning of the experiments
alcohol was given along with the food,
but the animals ate less and the food
did not apparently agree with them. It
was then administered in dilute form by
a stomach tube; this method disturbed
digestion and seemed to upset the
animals considerably. It is certain that
alcohol given to animals through the
stomach deranges their digestion and
appetite to such an extent that the
experimenter is unable to determine
whether the resulting effects are due
to the alcohol, as such, or to the general
deranged condition of the animal.
When given in the drinking water they
take little or none of the water and
the treatment is insufficient. For these
reasons an inhalation method of treat-
ment has been resorted to which, as far
as experience goes, has no serious dis-
advantages and does not complicate
the conditions of the experiment.

METHOD OF INTOXICATION.

A fume tank of copper is made of
sufficient size to supply breathing space
for four or five guinea-pigs at one time.
The tank is arranged with four outlets,
so that definite amounts of the fumes
may be passed through in a given time
and the ventilation controlled. In this
way each animal could be given about
the same amount of the substances.
The individuals, however, differ so in
their resistance to the treatment that
it has been found better to treat all to
about the same degree of intoxication.
This physiological index is more re-
liable as each animal is thus affected in
a similar fashion each day. For this
purpose they are placed in the fume
tank on a wire screen, and absorbent
cotton soaked with alcohol is placed
beneath the screen, and the animals
inhale the fumes.

Ether is given in a similar manner,
except that the animals are much more
readily overcome and must be carefully
watched while inhaling even the most
dilute doses.

In order to avoid handling the females
during late pregnancy, a special treating
cage is devised. An ordinary box-run
with a covered nest in which the animal
lives is connected by a drop-door with

STOCKARD: INJURIES TO GERM CELLS 61

a metal-lined tank, having a similar
screen arrangement to that of the general
treatment tank. The pregnant animal
may be driven daily into the tank and
thus treated with alcohol fumes through-
out her pregnancy without being
handled in any way that might disturb
the developing fetus.

DIRECT EFFECTS OF TREATMENT.

Many of the animals have now been
treated almost to the point of intoxication
for six days per week for nearly three
years. They are affected by the alcohol
fumes in different ways; certain ones
become drowsy and stupid, while others
become excited and sometimes vicious
during the treatment, constantly fighting
and biting at others in the tank. One
male always had to be treated alone on
this account. The fumes are inhaled
into the lungs and pass directly into the
circulation, so that the animals show
signs of intoxication very soon after
being put into the tank, yet the intake
of alcohol is so gradual that they may
remain for one hour or more without
becoming totally anesthetized. The
mucosa of the respiratory tract is con-
siderably irritated during the first few
days or weeks of the treatment, but
later becomes hardened and little effect
can be noticed. The cornea of the eye
is greatly irritated and often becomes
milky white and opaque during the
first few months; but later this clears up
in most of the specimens and the
animal is able to see perfectly, though
one male that has been treated for 32
months is now entirely blind. The
general condition of the animals under
the treatment is very good; they all
continue to grow if treated before
reaching their full size, and become fat
and vigorous, taking plenty of food and
behaving in a normal manner in every
particular.

Certain of the animals have been
killed at different times during the
experiment and their organs and tissues
studied microscopically; all have seemed
entirely normal. The tissues of one
female were examined after she had
been treated for over a year, and the
heart, stomach, lungs, liver, kidney, etc.,
were all normal. She was generally fat

“comparison with the above.

but there was no fatty accumulation in
the parenchyma of any of the organs
except possibly a slight excess in the
adrenal glands.

As mentioned above several of the
animals, both males and females, have
been partially castrated during the
experiments and the ovaries and testis
have been found to be in healthy con-
dition.

The treated animals are, therefore,
little changed or.injured so far as their
behavior and structure goes. Never-
theless, the effects of the treatment are
most decidedly indicated by the type of
offspring to which they give rise, whether
they are mated together or with normal
individuals.

The animals have been mated in
various combinations. First, alcohol-
ized males are paired with normal
females, the paternal test, and also the
crucial test of the influence of the
treatment on the germ cells. Fifty-
nine such matings have reached term.
Twenty-five of these gave negative
results or early abortions. Thirty-four
of the fifty-nine matings resulted in
conception which ran the full term.
Eight, or about 24%, of these were
stillborn litters containing in all 15
dead individuals. Many of them were
somewhat premature. Twenty-six, or
only 44%, of the matings produced
litters of living young, containing a
total of 54. Twenty-one, or almost 40%,
of these young animals died within a few
days or less than four weeks after birth
and only 33 of them survived. Many
of the 33 survivors are small excitable
animals and though not treated them-
selves have usually given rise to defective
offspring in the several cases where
they have been mated with one another

WHEN FEMALE IS TREATED.

The second combination is between
alcoholized females and normal males,
the results of which are interesting in
In this
combination there are two chances to
injure the offspring; in the first place it
may arise from a defective egg cell, or
secondly, it may be injured by an
abnormal developmental environment
within the body of the alcoholized

TWO FOETUSES FROM A NORMAL MOTHER

The mother in this case was the offspring of a normal male and an alcoholized female. Although

weak and small at birth, she finally developed normally. She was not treated with alcohol,
but was mated to an alcoholized male. When she was accidentally killed, these two
foetuses were found in her uterus—one 32°mm. long and the other 33 mm. The upper one
has ill-formed hind legs, and a poorly developed posterior part of the body; the lower one is
normal. It will be noted that all the affected offspring of alcoholic guinea pigs are weak in

their hind extremities, and drag their legs; even to the point, as in this case, where the offspring
of a normal mother is born deformed, through the influence of an alcoholic father and grand
mother. { Fig 1.)

62

STOCKARD: INJURIES TO GERM CELLS 63

female. Fifteen such matings have
been made. Three of these, or 20%,
gave negative results, or were possibly
aborted very early. Three stillborn
litters of nine individuals were pro-
duced. Sixty per cent. of the matings
gave living litters, as against 44% in
the first combination between treated
males and normal females. The pro-
portion of surviving young is, however less
from the treated females than from the
treated males. Of 19 living young nine
died soon after birth and 10 survived.

BOTH PARENTS ALCOHOLIZED.

The third combination was between
alcoholized males and females. Twenty-
nine such matings gave in 15, or more
than 50 per cent., of the cases negative
results or early abortions. Three still-
born litters occurred, each consisting of
two individuals. Only 11 living litters
were produced containing 16 young,
nine of which survived while seven died
soon after birth.

All of the matings of the treated
animals may be combined and com-
pared with control matings as follows:
In a total of 103 full term matings,43,
or almost 42%, have given negative
results or early abortions, while 35
control matings failed in only two cases,
or about 6%, to yield a full term litter.
Fourteen, or 1314%, of the matings
gave stillborn litters consisting of 30
dead individuals. Only one stillborn
litter occurred in the 35 control matings;
this was a large litter of four individuals
and the mother seemed almost unable
to carry them. The 103 matings gave
only 46 living litters, about 45%, while
32 living litters, or 9114%, were pro-
by the 35 control matings.

The 46 living litters from the alco-
holic matings contained 89 young, 37
of which died shortly after birth and
52 survived. The 32 living litters from
the normal animals consisted of 60
individuals only four of which died
while 56, or 93 %,of them survived.

Of 119 full term young, living and
stillborn litters, produced by the alco-
holic animals only 52, or less than 44%,
survived as against the 56, or 8714%,
survivors among the 64 full term control
offspring.

The offspring derived from the alco-
holic individuals are termed second
generation animals and were not them-
selves treated with alcohol. In three
cases second generation individuals have
been mated with normal and have
given perfect results, although the
litters have been small. It might seem
as though the normal mate possessed a
strong tendency to counteract any
defect which may have been present in
the second generation animal.

Mating second generation individuals
with alcoholized guinea-pigs gave very
different results. Two out of three such
matings produced stillborn young, one
of which was grossly deformed. The
third mating gave two surviving young.

Nineteen matings have been made
between second generation animals, the
outcome of which compares very un-
favorably with that from the control
matings, while the data are closely
similar to those obtained from the
alcoholic matings. Seven, or almost
37%, of the matings gave negative
results. Twelve living litters were born
consisting of 19 individuals, six, or about
32%, of which died very soon after
birth and showed various nervous dis-
orders; one was entirely eyeless and
decidedly deformed.

These are the initial jexperiments with
mammals to show that an injury of the
germ cells may express tts effect on the
offspring and be passed through subse-
quent generations.

A STRIKING CASE.

The actual outcome of the experi-
ments may be more fully recognized by
a consideration of one of the most
striking cases. A large normal female,
weighing about 700 grams, had given
two normal young by a control mating
and had since given non-viable young
by a mating with an alcoholic male.
She was then mated with another large
strong alcoholic male which weighed 740
grams and which had given before this
mating apparently healthy offspring by
normal females. The mating resulted
in the production of four young, all
small and rather excitable in their
behavior. These individuals from the
normal mother and the alcoholized

64 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

father grew slowly, although they ate
freely and appeared to be well. They
remained small and below the average
in weight. Three were males and one
was a female.

One of the males was mated with a
normal female and two normal young
resulted. He was then mated with a
female from an alcoholic father and she
gave birth to two small young; one of
these offspring was only half size and
very excitable. He was then mated
with a female from an alcoholic mother
and one small young was produced.

A second one of the three males was
mated with a normal female which pro-
duced one large apparently normal
offspring. He was then mated with a
female from an alcoholic father and two
small young resulted, one of which
died within five days and the other is
weak and nervous. He was again
mated with a normal female and one
normal young was produced.

The third male was mated with his
sister and she gave birth to three young.
One of the young died when one day
old, having been in a constant tremor
since its birth; another lived for nine
days but whenever it attempted to
walk it was seized with spasmodic con-
tractions; the third specimen exhibited
the same nervous manifestations, and
was completely eyeless. This animal
died eight days after birth and an
examination of the brain showed an
entire absence of optic tracts.

In the development of this animal it
is probable that the optic vesicles were
suppressed and never arose from the
brain. Thus, no eyes, optic nerves, or
optic tracts could have formed. This
particular eyeless condition in these

experiments is of interest since one is
readily able to suppress the origin of
the optic vesicles in fish and chicken
embryos by similarly weakening the
embryo with treatments of alcohol,
ether, etc.

The mother of these offspring was
remated with her brother, but she died
six weeks later, not becoming pregnant.
She wasin an emaciated condition but had
always been less than half normal
weight.

The three extremely weak and de-
fective offspring were doubtless due to
the fact that both of their parents had
similarly weakened or injured con-
stitutions, having resulted from a single
mating of a normal female with an
alcoholized male. The eyeless offspring
and the other two nervous non-viable
individuals should not be interpreted as
due merely to the fact that their parents
were brother and sister. Several normal
matings of brother and sister have been
made during the experiment and _ per-
fectly healthy offspring have been pro-
duced. In the studies of heredity con-
ducted on guinea-pigs brother and sister
are crossed with impunity, in no way
weakening their offspring. The sig-
nificant point in the present considera-
tion is that the two animals coming from
the same mother and treated father
may have had similar weaknesses or
defects and the combination of two
such individuals resulted in offspring
which exhibited these defects to a more
decided extent. The three animals
were far more defective than their
parents and owed their defects to the
modified condition of the germ cells of
the grandfather from, which they de-
scended.

PLANT BREEDING SECTION TO MEET

A meeting of the Plant Breeding Section of the American Genetic Association
will be held on February 20 and 21, in connection with the National Corn Expo-

sition at Dallas, Texas.
butions will be welcomed.

It is open to all members of the association, and contri-
Those who wish to send or read papers should communi-

cate the titles at once to C. P. Bull, secretary of the exposition, at Dallas, together

with an estimate of the length.

Other information can be secured from A. W.

Gilbert of Cornell University, chairman of the research committee on plant breed-

ing.

ASS TOUDY “OF SEMLSTERILITY

Hybrids with Half their Pollen and Ovules Sterile—Semi-Sterility Inherited
in Half of the Second Generation—Progeny of Fertile Plants Remains
Fertile—Progeny of Semi-Sterile Plants is Half Fertile
and Half Semi-Sterile—A Demonstration of Gametic
Segregation—A Theory of Semi-Sterility.

JOHN BELLING,
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Fla.

YBRIDS between two allied
[4 species of plants are often
partially sterile. In three hy-

brids I have completed an
investigation of the exact degree of
such sterility, and of the inheritance
of such an exact degree of sterility in
the succeeding generations. I have
found what I regard as proof of the
causing of a definite degree of sterility
by the segregation of Mendelian factors
among the pollen-grains and embryo-
sacs, and the consequent abortion of a
definite percentage of these... The fol-
lowing brief description of the results
may, I hope, be of use to plant breeders.
The plants crossed were species of
Stizolobium. The Florida Velvet
“bean” (S. dzeringianum) was crossed
(both ways) with the Lyon ‘“‘bean’’
(S. niveum) a variety introduced from
the Philippines, and the fifth filial
generation (F5) has been grown. The
Velvet bean was crossed with the
Yokohama bean (S. hassjoo), and the
second filial generation (F2) has been
investigated. The Velvet bean was
also crossed with the China (or Chinese)
bean (S. niveum var.), of which cross
only the first generation has yet been
studied. Fig.5is-a photograph of typi-
cal five seeded pods of the Velvet, Lyon,
Yokohama, and China beans. When
seeds are missing in these pods, this is
usually due to the ovules dying before

maturity, and not to the abortion of
embryo-sacs.

FIRST GENERATION HYBRIDS.

The hybrid plants resulting from
these crosses were all similar in one
important respect, namely, semi-steril-
ity. Though the pollen-grains of the
four parent plants are, under normal
conditions, all sound; though their
ovules have normally perfect embryo-
sacs; yet this was not the case in the
Fi hybrids. The flowers of these
hybrids had uniformly one-half of
their pollen-grains quite empty and
collapsed, and one-half of their ovules
had no embryo-sacs. In the F1 hybrid
of the Velvet by China, counts gave
3917 perfect pollen-grains to 3388
empty grains. Some of the empty
grains are often hidden under the full
ones, or swept to one side by the
liquid in which the pollen is spread
under the microscope, so that it is
probable that the number of empty
grains is larger than the actual count.
Fig. 5a is a photograph of the pollen.

Counts of ovules in sections of 18
ovaries, from flowers of the same

-hybrid, gave 50 ovules with embryo-

sacs, to 49 ovules with aborted embryo-
sacs, proportions which were confirmed
by examination of the pollen and ripe
pods of the other hybrids. The empty
pollen-grains were uniformly mixed

1 Detlefsen’s valuable investigation in American Breeders’ Magazine, III. 4, pp. 261-5, of the
inheritance of sterility in crosses and back-crosses between the guinea-pig and a wild Cavia, may,
I think, be explained on the hypothesis of the segregation of factors among the spermatozoa, and
the consequent abortion of those spermatozoa with certain factorial combinations; but I do not
know whether this can be scientifically proved from the data.

65

66 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

a Hil Lue i

WIDE GROUP OF BEANS EMPLOYED

From left to right, the pods represent the ordinary Florida Velvet bean (Stizolobium deering-
tanum), the Lyon (S.niveum) a form which was introduced from the Philippines by the

Department of Agriculture;
(S.niveum var.).

the Yokohoma (5S. hassjoo), a Japanese variety; and the China
The genus producing these ‘‘beans”’

is found in nearly every part of the

tropics; its species can be aur into two groups—those which produce stinging hairs,

and those which do not.

with the full grains in the anther; and
the sterile ovules were distributed at
random in

‘he latter type is cultivated as a fodder, or to enrich the soil;
its pods are eaten by the nati of India and other countries.

(Fig. 5.)

distribution, such as would be caused
by the segregation of Mendelian factors,

the ovaries. The ovary and by no other cause known to me,

usually contains five or six ovules would give for five ovules, (counting

(rarely four or seven). A random _ from the tip of the ovary) and 18 ovaries:

Sterile Fertile Calculated Found
No;OL'Ovaries: With: o:.2 065 0s feo e tee eee 5 0 ovules 0.6 1
DAF Sy oie. wiaes Dove) detains orehcios See ay SRWEN Gok tal oo 5 AR eta oes { ager Ae 2.8 ]
PAP eae Ee SR he a Le 3 DS Svc aoe 5.6 7
Te Or We He OE Ee ite Poe ieee 2 CePA -," 5.6 5
RRS hare ew elcualaee. «/ Etopette K munlel skort ace ints SUERTE ee ete ] Ane aeagorie 2.8 a
bl gh sii hiew ene ys ton Ae av Ted ee Lee 0 Boe hate. 0.6 0

A random distribution would give for each position in the pod, counting

equal numbers of fertileand sterile ovules

Ist. 2nd,

BEPuue eo Ser bad Va Fe eons Oe 12 9
PIULIC he Ab euane Rie clvavte eisie oh 6) 9

from the tip. The actual numbers are:

3rd. 4th 5th. 6th.
10 6 9 4
8 12 9 5

POLLEN GRAINS OF SEMI-STERILE PLANT.

This remarkable photo-micrograph of pollen gra‘ns of a first generation Lyon x Velvet hybrid
shows strikingly the nature of the sterility, half of the sacs being empty. It was made by
staining the pollen yellow and then photographing it with blue glass on the condenser.
The size of the grains can be accurately measured by the scale at the side of the photo-
graph, which is graduated in tenths and hundredths of millimeters. (Figure 5a.)

67

68

HTT TTT ATRTTTRA UPA UAT AT,
Mal ey

FUUTTTTA TUTE EP
sh a

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

pay

Yn

ie in

Hi, DU
3 4) 3
1

THREE FIRST-GENERATION HYBRIDS

From left to right the pods represent the results of crosses of Lyon by Velvet, Velvet by Yokohama,
and Velvet byChina, respectively. It is easilyseen that these pods contain onlyhalf the normal
number of seeds—that is, they are semi-sterile, in spite of the fact that all the pollen grains
of their parertts are normally sound and their ovules have normally perfect embryo-sacs.
In the hybrids shown above, the semi-sterility is found, by microscopical examination, to
result in one-half of their pollen grains being empty and collapsed, and one-half of their

ovules being destitute of embryo-sacs.

The agreement is as near as is to be
expected with only 18 ovaries.

The sterile ovules do not grow in
size, and the place where they are can
usually be seen as a constriction from
the outside of the pod. On opening
the ripe pod, the aborted ovules are
seen as blackish specks, less than one
millimeter across. It is rare to find pods
containing as many as five or six seeds
in the hybrid (F1) plants, though this
is a usual number in the parents. The
seeds in the hybrid pods are as well
formed, and germinate as readily as
those of the parent plants.

Fig. 6 shows three selected pods of
the Lyon by Velvet, the Velvet by
Yokohama, and the Velvet by China,

(Fig. 6).

first-generation hybrids. Only about
one or two per cent of the pods of
these hybrids have no aborted ovules;
some pods have several aborted ovules,
some have few, but the commonest
numbers are two or three. I have
usually chosen pods for illustration in
which aborted ovules alternate with
seeds, but it is as common to find two
aborted ovules or two seeds contiguous.

Fig. 7 (left) depicts pods of the Velvet,
Yokohama, and their first-generation
hybrid. Three aborted ovules can be
seen in the hybrid pod.

Fig. 7 (right) illustrates pods of the
Velvet, China, and their first-generation
hybrid. The positions of two aborted
ovules are visible in the hybrid pod.

(‘Z Sty) ‘opra Jojo] suo uvyy sso] ‘syoods

ysrypor[q ynq Suryjou oq oj ‘pod ay} Suruedo uo ‘punoy are (a8eIaAe oY} UO) JequInU [e}0} 9Y} Jo Fey dn Suryeur ‘sapnao o[lo}s oy} ynq ‘sjuyd
juored ay} JO osoy} se ‘ATIpvor sv a} eUTUTIDS PUB ‘PoLUIOJ-][oOM sev ore [Te Ye MOIS YOIYAM spoos oY, “sps9es dy} UddMJoq oIqISTA ATureTd ore saT~nao
poytoqe om} Jo suorpisod oy} 4YSII JOMOT oY} YB 9UO dYy UT aTTYM ‘Uses oq US soTNAO payoge say} Jo suOT}Isod oY} ‘FJoT JOMOT OY} 4e prIqdAy, oy}

Uy ‘puqdy uolnesouss ysIy mey} pue ‘euryO ‘yoapaA Jo spod pousdo oie ‘premumop doz oy} Woy urese yYyst 94} FY “plqAY uoT}eIOUNS-ysIYy
lay} pue eueyoyOR yoApA (pIeMUMOP aAOqe WO) ore WoT VY} Ye spod pousdo 0y}4 ‘ayeos JopOUNTTTIUT B YTAA “s}[MsoI OM} Jo sydvssozoyd sAoqe
dy} UL “peapoAut sory muenb yeorouryje oy} sUTULIOJOp 0} Woy} JO SJequINuU 98Ie] YIM SuTYIoM Udseq sey oY pue ‘sjeuTUe Au Jo ‘syueTd ysour
ul UBY] WNIGoTOZI}g Jo sotoads asoy} UT a8eJUBAPP J9}}0q 0} poIpNys oq Uo UOUDWIOUAY oY} SUTATIOpUN SMET OY} Fey} SYUTYY suo “IP “APIL04s
—sorjoues jo surayqoid 4v013 oy} Jo ouO Jo oseyd suo syuaseider pure ‘systjoUes 0} IeTTWey UOUDIWOUOYd Bw st sIyy, “AUeU yey} J[ey ATUO 4ynq ‘spads
XIs 0} aAy you}SutureyuoD spod sesq syurid SurjMso1 oy, “passolo ore ‘spas XIs 0} sAY Sututeyuoo AT[eutou spod surre

SLNGYVd HIAHL GNV SGTHH#AH NOILLVYANYOD-LSuldt OAL

| | 8
bined tio! | mae

aq yore ‘suevaq Jo sotoeds OM]

69

‘(g ‘S8ty) ‘UoTjod ayL10}s-1wWes pry syur[d moj }se] aSeyT, ‘“poyoqe 9q OF ‘spod oy} Suruado uo ‘puno}j
mmo} oy} UT UMOYS qnsor"oyy YALA ‘a[Lojs-1Uas ulese ore sjurd oy} JO J[BY J9YyIO 9Yy APTY A “JOT 9YY
UOTPV1OUIS PUODYS STY} UT ‘a]H1o}S-TUOSs a1OA\ spod ayy [Je uoIyei9Uad 4sIy ay} Ut ety “Feyy potoq
‘sso1o puv UOT}eJOUIS OURS OY} JO syurd JoyjO MO} WOIJ Usaxe} ov YYSLI ayy UO Spr od INO}
‘uoyjod yeurou YIM sjuvyd aytyoy Inoj Wioly Spt 1d paposas-aay ‘feotdAy 1noj ale 439] OY} FV

oq [[IM saTnao ayy Jo Jey sToyA ‘yys11 oy} uo spod .
ye asoy} oy spod q~ny dojoaop sjur[d oy} jo yey
“WOW oq TIM I] “Spoos YIM poT[y-jyey Ayuo []e ore ynq
ayy, “BuoyoyoA Aq JAPA JO UoT}e1oUes PUodaS 94} WO]

NOLLVYWANGD GNOOUS GAL NE ALTIRIALS TAS

0

/

BELLING: A StupDyY oF SEMI-STERILITY

THIRD GENERATION FROM FERTILE PARENT

This photograph represents pods from six plants of the Lyon and Velvet third generation
(F3), grown from seed of a wholly fertile F2 plant, which was in turn grown from the
seed of a semi-sterile F1 plant (all of the F1 generation being semi-sterile, of course).
The above pods may fairly be taken to stand for the produce of half of all the plants of
the third generation: they all have normal pollen and ovules, because they were produced

by a F2 plant which was fertile.

semi-sterile plants give rise to plants which are half fertile and half semi-sterile.

SECOND FILIAL GENERATION.

In the second generation (F2) half
the plants have perfect pollen-grains,
and the other half have a mixture of
equal numbers of full and empty grains
in all their flowers. The plants with
perfect pollen have also perfect ovules;
the plants with semi-sterile pollen have
also half their ovules sterile. In the
F2 generation of the Velvet-Yokohama
cross, which was thoroughly investi-
gated, there were 180 fertile plants and
195 semi-sterile plants. Counts of the
numbers of seeds in the pods of the
second-generation plants of Velvet by
Lyon and Lyon by Velvet confirm
this ratio of 1:1.

Fig. 8 (left) shows typical five-seeded
pods of four fertile plants with normal
pollen from the second generation of the

In each generation, fertile plants give rise to fertile plants;

(Fig. 9).

Velvet by Yokohama cross. It will be
remembered that half of the plants of
this generation were normal, and half
were semi-sterile.

Fig. 8 (right) shows selected pods of
four fraternal plants of the same cross
and generation as the plants whose pods
are shown in Fig. 8 (left). These four
plants, however, had semi-sterile pollen.

THE THIRD GENERATION.

In the third generation (F3) all the
descendants of fertile plants have good
pollen and ovules; but the progeny of
the semi-sterile plants again separates
into equal numbers of fertile and semi-
sterile plants. In the F3 generation
of the Lyon by Velvet cross, which was
thoroughly investigated, the progeny
of 14 fertile plants amounted to 264
plants, all with good pollen and ovules;

~I

bo

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

ih.

ey may

3

THIRD GENERATION FROM SEMI-STERILE PARENT

The opposite cut showed the product of fertile F2 plants; this one shows the product of semi-

sterile F2 plants, in the same cross, Philippine Lyon by Florida Velvet. The plants
which bore the above pods are first-cousins of the ones which bore the pods on the
preceding page. These were all the product of one semi-sterile F2 plant, which was in itself
the product of the usual semi-sterile F1 plant. As is evident, half of these plants bore
pods, represented by the three at the left, which contain the full complement of beans;
the other half of the plants produced pods typified by the three at the right, which are
again semi-sterile, and contain only half as many seeds as they would have, if all their

ovules were properly developed.
second three had semi-sterile pollen.

the progeny of seven semi-sterile plants
consisted of 106 fertile plants and 102
plants with semi-sterility of pollen and
ovules.

Fig. 9 is a photograph of pods of
six third-generation plants. These be-
longed to the family of one fertile
second-generation plant. All had nor-
mal pollen. They descended from the
Lyon by Velvet cross.

Fig. 10 (to be compared with Fig. 9)
gives the pods from six third-generation
plants (first cousins to those in Fig. 9).
These belonged to the family of one
semi-sterile second-generation plant.
The first three had normal pollen, the
last three had semi-sterile pollen.

The first three of these plants had normal pollen; the
(Fig. 10).

FOURTH

No. semi-sterile plants have been
tested beyond the third generation, but
fertile plants remain fertile in pollen and
ovules in F4 and F5. Several acres of
those fertile plants which are of agri-
cultural value have been grown in F5,
and many flowers and pods examined,
all of which were fertile.

In this investigation the pollen of
over 2600 flowers has been examined
under the microscope, and about 2300
young pods and 3700 dry pods have
been opened, and the seeds and aborted
ovules counted. In 1910, two acres
of plants were grown; in 1911, the

AND FIFTH GENERATIONS

BELLING: A StTupDY

experiment extended over nearly seven
acres; in 1912, there were three acres;
and in 1913 over two acres of in-
dividually numbered plants, and several
acres of different families, were grown.
The results given here are based on an
individual study of over 2000 of these
plants, grown eight feet apart, and
(except in 1910) on eight-foot or four-
foot poles. ;

These plants are favorable for an
investigation of semi-sterility since no
complications arise from self-sterility,
incompatibility, or intercrossing by
insects. Also the dry pollen is easily
Squeezed in a mass from the closed
keel, and the seeds and aborted ovules
can readily be counted in the dry pods
as well as in the green pods. (Data
with regard to one complication due to
imperfect self-pollination and too short
style will be given in a forth-coming
paper).

The random abortion of half the
pollen-grains and half the embryo-sacs,
and the splitting of the progeny of the
semi-sterile plants into half semi-sterile
and half fertile, as well as the constancy
‘of the fertile plants, agree in all details
with a simple Mendelian hypothesis, in
which the pollen-grains and embryo-sacs,
not the zygotes, are the individuals
affected by segregation. If the Velvet
bean has a factor whose absence stops
the development of those pollen-grains
and embryo-sacs which lack it, and the
other three allied beans have another
similar factor segregating independently,
then those pollen-grains and embryo-
sacs of the hybrid which have both
factors will be abnormal, because
unlike the zygote, they normally have
single and not double factors. Hence
those pollen-grains and embryo-sacs

OF SEMI-STERILITY 73

which lack both factors, and those
which possess both factors, alike fail
to develop. This hypothesis can be
verified or disproved by appropriate
crosses between different fertile lines,
which I hope to undertake.

THE POINTS OF INTEREST.

The following are noteworthy points:

(1) Accurate knowledge of the exact
degree of sterility of some hybrid
plants can be obtained by microscopical
examination of the pollen of healthy
flowers, and of microtome sections of
the ovules.

(2) The explanation of the random
abortion of half the pollen-grains and
half the embryo-sacs must apparently
be by the segregation of Mendelian
factors among these individually, and
not by the action of these factors on the
zygotes.

(3) Semi-sterility resulting from cross-
ing is apparently one of the simplest
cases of sterility, and a knowledge of its
inheritance may help in the investiga-
tion of the probably more complicated
inheritance of the greater degrees of
sterility found in many first-generation
hybrids.

I wish to thank the Plant Physiologist
of this Station, B. F. Floyd, for verifying
my numerical results by an independent
examination of the pollen-grains and
the series of sections of ovaries of the
hybrid (Velvet by China); and also
C. D. Gunn, and C. W. Long, who
have done much careful work, especially
in counting seeds and examining flowers.
' Norte. I will send seeds of semi-
sterile plants to any member of the
American Genetic Association who may
require them.

Neglected Opportunities

If a tenth part of the labor and cost now devoted by leisured persons, in this
country alone, to the collection and maintenance of species of animals and plants
which have been collected a hundred times before, were applied to statistical
experiments in heredity, the result in a few years would make a revolution not
only in the industrial art of the breeder, but in our views of heredity, species
and variation——William Bateson: Mendel’s Principles of Heredity (1902).

A report from Berne, Switzerland, states that the Swiss Society of Public
Utility for Women has established a bureau for the medical examination and

certification of women for matrimony.

ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OATS

Difference in Ancestry has Vital Bearing on Adaptability of Varieties—Forms
Derived from A. Sterilis Best Suited to Southern Countries—Possibilities
of Hybridization—Indication that Environment is Factor in Causing

Variation—Influence of Culture and Result of Mutations

Dr. L. TRABUT
Director of the Botanical Service of the Government of Algeria, Algiers, Algeria.

of cultivated oat were descended from Avena fatua, research has now proved

that several species are to be found in the ancestry of these cultivated varieties,

and particularly that those grown in the Mediterranean region mostly trace
back to Avena sterilis. In future planting, therefore, and in attempting to extend the
region where oats can be successfully grown, it is absolutely essential that regard be
paid to the botanical affinities of the variety chosen, so that time and energy shall not
be wasted by attempts to grow descendants of Avena fatua of temperate climates in
subtropical regions where only A. sterilis will flourish, or in a dry region where
A. barbata zs best adapted to cultivation. The prevailing belief that oats can not be
grown in the southern United States is probably based on the fact that all the expert-
ments made there have been with cold-climate oats. A great deal of money has already
been lost by such attempts, foredoomed to failure because of the unsuitableness of the
material:—although suitable material might have been had, and the country’s wealth
thus enormously increased, had growers studied the genetic history of the cultivated
oats earlier. From this point of view, the interesting studies of Dr. Trabut have such
practical importance to plant breeders throughout the world that the council determined to
republish them from the Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of Genetics, to which body
they were communicated at the meeting in Paris in 1911. The translation 1s by
S. C. Stunts.

‘ LTHOUGH botanists have in the past usually considered that the many varieties

In studying the section Euavena of
the genus Avena with a little care, we
are impressed with the great number of
secondary forms which constitute the
species, often living in the midst of
cultivated crops in “outposts” estab-
lished as a result of their wide dis-
persion outside of the region of their
origin.

Without doubt these forms may be
ascribed to the influence of cultivation,
causing variations, or favoring forms
which would not find place under the
natural conditions of existence. I am
even convinced that it is by this in-

voluntary cultivation that man has
caused the appearance of the useful

races of the genus Avena.
But, not to depart from the realm of

74

fact, we know that on the Mediter-
reanean litoral we are able to bring
together the following very important
series of Avena Sterilis, beginning with
the most useless forms and ending with
an oat largely cultivated in the Mediter-
ranean region, and up to the present
wrongly confounded by both scientific
and practical writers with Avena sativa.

COMPLETE SERIES OF FORMS.

Avena sterilis maxima Perez Lara,
Fl. Gad. (fig. 11, No. 1). Inflorescence
few-flowered. Spikelets very large, the
glumes attaining 50 mm.; lemmae
covered with long hairs, and bearing
a strongly developed, geniculate and
twisted, often hairy, awn.

A. sterilis segetalis Bianca, Todaro

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED Oats

SERIES OF FORMS OF “ANIMATED” OR “FLY” OAT

All of the above are merely varieties of Avena sterilis, and a glance at them,

when they are side by side, shows plainly the mistake made by
writers who considered the two extremes as separate species, making
the Algerian oat a form of A.sativa, when it is really a form of A.

ve

sterilis, in which the awns have been reduced and the articulation
consolidated through a complete series of intermediate forms. The
varieties are as follows: 1. Avena sterilis maxima. 2. A.sterilis. 3.
A.sterilis ludoviciana. 4. A.sterilis micrantha. 5. A.sterilis segetalts.
6. A.sterilis pseudovilis. 7. A.sterilis calvescens. 8. A.sterilis pseu-

dovilis. (Fig. 11).

Exsiec. Sic. 712) (ig. 14, No. 5). Spike-
lets a little less voluminous, remarkable
because of the great reduction of the
not geniculate and barely twisted awn.
Sicily in cultivated fields. A form very
close to this is quite common in Algeria
in cultivated fields; the seed is large and
the lemmae are black.

A. sterilis calvescens Trabut and Thel-
lung, Vierteljahrssch. Naturf. Ges. Zur-
ich, vol. 56, p. 315, 1911; A. stertlts var. A.
Trabut (Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., vol.
491 p,. 227-229, 1909). Lemmae coria-

ceous, glabrous, awn twisted, geni-
culate, but the callus still very hairy
Gig tlio vA)

A. sterilis pseudovilis Hausskn. Kri-
tische Bemerkungen tiber einige Avena
Arten, 1894. A. sterilis var. B. Trabut,
loc. cit. This variety differs but little
from the cultivated form in which no
hairs are found except on the callus of
the lower flower, the awns are reduced,
but at maturity the spikelet separates
very easily from the glumes (fig. 11,
No. 8.).

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THE ALGERIAN OAT

Above is a head of Avena algeriensis, a single spikelet
of which is shown below, at the left. Next to this
isa photograph of the grains shown in more detail,
at the right of which the second seed is shown

alone.

On the extreme right of the photograph

(lower section) is shown the product of an

improved variety of this type.

A. sterilis byzantina (Koch) Trabut.
A. byzantina Koch (Linnaea, col. 21,
p. 392. 1848). A. sterilis var. Y. Trabut,
1910. B. A. Alg. Tunis. This form was
described by Koch in 1848. M. Thel-
lung has established the synonymy of
this interesting variety. Cosson (Bull.

(Figure 12.)

Soc. Bot. France, vol. 1, p. 15, 1854)
and the contemporary authors have
referred A. byzantina Koch to A. fatua,
more especially to the glabrous forms:
A. hybrida, A. fatua glabrescens Cosson.
Haussknecht published it as Avena
sterilis parallela in 1885. Avena sterilis

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED Oats 77

ARTICULATIONS OF A. STERILIS

1. A.sterilis maxima.—2. A.sterilis glabrescens.—3. A.sterilis byzan-
tina.—4. A.sterilis cultaa—5. The same, viewed from the front.—

6. The same, viewed in profile.

The articulation is perhaps the

most distinctive character of this species, and the progress of
amelioration in the cultivated varieties simply leads toward a

greater consolidation of the articulation.

byzantina, has largely lost the characters
of the sterilis type, and constitutes the
last stage before reaching the cultivated
form; the awn is reduced, the hairs of
the callus are reduced, the articulation
is still well preserved and the flowers
fall easily at maturity, and the lemmae
are also more lengthened than in the
cultivated races. In 1907 M. Hackel
wrote me that he considered this form
as intermediate between A. sativa and
A. sterilis and named it provisionally
A. sativa braristata (fig. 13, No. 3.)

(Figure 13.)

A. sterilis algeriensis Trabut, 1910.
A. sterilis culta. The Algerian oat is
the cultivated form of the sterile oat.
It is characterized by the reduction of
the awn and the consolidation of the
articulation.

THE ALGERIAN OAT.

The Algerian oat (fig. 12) is very
widely distributed in the whole Mediter-
ranean basin where it has long been
recognized by growers: MM. Denaiffe

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THE TWO SPECIES CONTRASTED

. 1, 2, 3, 4, are the ordinary cultivated oat of temperate regions, Avena

sativa. 1. The spikelet. 2. The lower flower with the fragment of the
axis which bore the second flower. 3. and 4. The second flower,
disarticulated. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8 are the Algerian oat, a cultivated form
of A.sterilis, which can be most easily distinguished by its method
of disarticulation, in which the second flower carries away its own
axis, as shown in 7 and 8. No. 6 shows the third flower without the
second axis (compare with No. 2, showing the same flower in A. sativa),

while No. 5 shows the whole spikelet of this Algerian oat.

and Sirodot' in their monograph on
oats, in connection with the Abruzzi
oat, indicate good characters and even
propose to separate the Abruzzi oat and
the Algerian and Tunisian oat as
sections of A. sativa. Haussknecht, who
studied the forms of sterilis very con-
scientiously, expressed the wish to see
a useful race arise some day from this
group which is so well adapted to the
Mediterranean region; in 1894 in the
Mittheilungen des Thtiringisches
Botanisches Vereins (n. f. no. 6, p. 39),
he expressed himself thus: “‘For the
countries of Southern Europe, Avena
sterilis, improved by cultivation, on
account of its larger yield, would pro-
duce a very desirable forage plant,
especially where our A. sativa will not
thrive well.’’ If Haussknecht had had
occasion to study the southern oats in
the field, he would certainly have de-
clared that his wish had for a long time
been realized, and that his Avena

'L’Avoine, pp. 181, 301, 1901.

(Figure 14.)

sterilis parallela was nothing more than
an escape from cultivation. The exis-
tence of a whole series of forms uniting
the most characteristic A. sterilis with
the oat which is cultivated in southern
countries, is a strong chain which can-
not be neglected, while a study of the
morphological and physiological char-
acters of the Algerian oat reveals
affinities which no longer leave any
doubt.

The section of Avena sativa char-
acterized by non-articulate flowers which
are separated only by the breaking of
the axis, is based on an_ artificial
character. It is because of cultivation
that the articulations have ceased to
function.

The group of A. sativa is made up only
of the hairless and ankylosed oats of the
other sections biformes and conformes.
Avena sativa has retained all the char-
acters of its ancestor, A. fatua. The
second flower still separates easily from

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OATS

THREE TYPES OF CARYOPSES

Reading from left to right, the first two are of
Avena sterilis maxima, the third and fourth
of A. sterilis culta (the ordinary Algerian
oat), while the last, at the extreme right,
is A.sativa, the ordinary oat of temperate
regions. It will be noted that the cary-
opsis of the Algerian variety is as volumi-
nous as that of the best races of A.sativa,

79

but a little more lengthened. (Fig. 15).

the axis which persists above the lower
flower, the articulation of the lower
flower is more completely obliterated and
it is a true rupture which permits it to
separate from the glumes.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS.

In the cultivated form of A. sterilis or
Algerian oat, the basilar articulation is
still very evident. The separation is
not as easy in the cultivated race, as in
the wild type, but the line of demar-
cation and the articular surfaces may
easily be recognized. The second flower,
which is not articulated in A. sterilis, as
in A. fatua, remains adherent for a long
time. It does not separate without
carrying away at its base the axis itself,
which constitutes one of its most
characteristic points (fig. 14, no. 7).
These two characters make it possible
to recognize at sight the cultivated oats
decended from A. sterilis, races which
otherwise are very little different, and
do not constitute so varied a series, as
do the forms of A. sativa derived from
A. fatua.

The caryopsis of the Algerian oat is
as voluminous as that of the best races
of A. sativa, but it is a little more
lengthened (fig. 15, no. 2).

Avena sterilis culta has the panicles
generally few flowered, of from twenty-
five to fifty spikelets; it suckers more
than A. sativa, and when cut green, the

2Of Maison Carré, near Algiers.

Algerian oat will even give a second crop
with rather numerous full panicles.

The importance of this distinction,
besides its interest as indicating the
origin of one of our most widely culti-
vated plants, rests above all in the very
peculiar aptitudes of the races derived
from A. stertlis.

Since 1895, in the oat experiments
undertaken at the Botanical Station’,

A WILD BLACK OAT

This form of the Algerian species is some=
times found growing spontaneously. It
has been named A. sterilis segetalis f.
nigra, and a commercial variety has been
produced from it, by selection to reduce
the awns. It has been introduced to the
United States. (Figure 16).

80 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

TYPES OF THE WILD, TEMPERATE OAT

Four forms of Avena fatua.
3. A.fatua subuniflora. 4.

1. A.fatua itself. 2.
A.fatua subuniflora inermts.

A.fatua glabrescens.
The

second has sometimes been supposed, without any proof, to be a

hybrid of A.fatua and A.sativa.

The third is found at con-

siderable altitudes in Algeria, and sometimes presents awnless
individuals (no. 4), which could easily be fixed to produce an

awnless variety of this subspecies.

I have proven that very few varieties
give satisfactory results in cultivation
along the coast. The few varieties
which have resisted drought and rust
were received under names Abruzzi
oats, Naples oats, Tunisian oats, Span-
ish oats, Greek oats. They all have the
Same appearance and are practically
indistinguishable. They are all Avena
sterilis culta.

This type derived from A. sterilis
does not seem to have acquired any
other characters than very secondary
ones; color more or less bright, awn
more or less reduced, hairs of the callus
more or less abundant. By careful
segregation, a form with shorter grain,
more swollen and of greater density
(fig. 1, 2, no. 4) is obtained, but the
lemmae remain hard, which is a very
serious defect. A form with three grains
may also be fixed.

ALKALI RESISTANCE.

The Algerian oat not only resists
heat and rust, but also to a certain
degree alkali in the soil. In the plains
of Oran, very extensive growths of
A. sterilis ludoviciana are often seen in
saline places.

[It is evidently from this form that it
will be pe issible to obtain a race suitable

for saline soils: there already exist

(Figure 17).

glabrescent variations with reduced
awns.

The results of my observations on the
resistance of the Algerian oat, have,
for a long time, attracted the attention
of the experiment stations of Cape of
Good Hope, Australia, and the United
States, which have checked my state-
ments and have made important dis-
tributions of seed of Algerian origin.
The results obtained have been good.

From the point of view of genetics,
it is interesting to show the great
uniformity of Avena sterilis culta, while
Avena fatua sativa has been almost over-
whelmed by the multiplicity of its
cultivated races.

I have tried hybridizing, after having
shown that no cultivated form could be
regarded as having the combined char-
acters of the two species. It will be
useful, by causing variations, to obtain
the following modifications of the
Algerian oat:

a) Reduction of the length of the
lemmae. There already exist elementary
forms showing this character, as well as
the reduction of the awns

b) Reduction of the hardness of the
lemmae which make this oat less diges-
tible. The weight of chaff in relation
to kernel is nevertheless no higher in

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OATS 81

TWO FORMS OF THE BARBED OAT

B The type (Avena barbata).

It has given rise

to a number of cultivated forms which seem

especially adapted to dry regions.

At the

right (S) is one of these, A.strigosa, which
has hitherto been grouped with A.sativa,
but is merely a glabrous form of A.barbata,
which has lost the fragility of articulations

which characterize the latter.

the Algerian oats. The proportion is,
in harvests made under good conditions,
71% of kernels to 29% of chaff. But
the experiments of Captain Bosnot, at
the Horse Breeding Station at Tiaret,
have shown that the Algerian oat has a
coefficient of digestibility a little lower:
thus with Houdan oats, 62 grams per
kilo escaped digestion and with Algerian
oats, 70 grams,—although the White
Canada oat, in the same trials, has 75
grams not digested. Histological ex-
amination of the lemmae does not reveal
any difference in thickness or consis-
tency from those which are observed
in A. sativa.

c) Selection by density quickly gives
a practical result, perhaps still more
evident in this species than in the
ordinary oat.

(Figure 18).

d) The Algerian oat is of bright color,
but there are also black races, derived
from the black forms of calvescens and
segetalis which are easily found at
harvest time. Avena sterilis segetalis f.
nigra (fig. 16) is such a race.

e) I have succeeded in fixing by
selection a race of this oat having only
a single awn, on the first flower, the
awn on the second flower not developing.

DIFFERENCE IN DISTRIBUTION.

Avena fatua has a very different dis-
tribution from that of A. sterilis; this
species is found on our high plains, the
steppes or on the slightly humid Oranian
and Tunisian littoral. Like A. sterilis,
A. fatua presents numerous transition
forms toward the cultivated type,—
A. sativa.

82 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

AVENA BARBATA TRIFLORA

A well-marked form of A.barbata.

This species is found

throughout much of northern Africa, the Abyssinian
varieties being closely allied to it, if not identical.

(Figure 19).

In 1854, Cosson (Bulletin de la
Société Botanique de France, vol. 1,
p. 15) distinguished an A. ‘fatua glabre-
scens which merges with A. hybrida
Peterm. (Flora Saxonica, p. 17, 1842).
These forms have been regarded as
hybrids of A. fatua and sativa, but with-
out any proof. In the Sersou (altitude
1000 metres) I have found a link uniting
A. hybrida with A. sativa.

This form (A. subuniflora) presents
the general characters of A. fatua; but
it is glabrous, the well indicated articu-
lation functions badly, the
flower is most often abortive and the
lower flower has a long twisted and
geniculate awn (fig. 17, nos. 3-4) like

second

the wild forms. In culture it main-
tains itself and presents at the same
time some awnless individuals which it
will be easy to fix. These transition
forms are sometimes regarded as returns
of a cultivated race to a wild state;
this is possible, but it is certain that the
supposed reversions of A. sativa lead
toward A. fatua.

It is quite evident today that A. fatua
has supplied the great majority of the
cultivated oats brought together under
the name A. sativa, and that it is still
possible to bring together the whole
series of intermediate forms between the
wild type and the forms adapted to
cultivation.

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OaTS

THE ABYSSINIAN OATS

1, 2,3, 4, Avena wiestii, a hairy form growing wild in Abyssinia, and seemingly adapted to

desert regions.
not for grain, but for forage.

5, 6,7, A. abyssinica, a cultivated form grown by the Abyssinians,
In cultivation, all the transition stages between these

two have been found. They offer a rich field to plant breeders, in the production of

varieties of oat adapted to severe desert conditions.

OTHER SPECIES EXAMINED.

A. barbata. The creation by Linnaeus
of an artificial species (A. sativa),
comprising all the forms of Avena not
disarticulating themselves, has for a
long time misled searchers wishing to
clear up the origin of A. sativa.

If we are able to admit as demons-
trated that A. sterilis and A. fatua have
transformed themselves into two culti-
vated oats, it remains for us to examine
the other species to see if they have not
undergone the same modifications by
cultivation and if they have not become
usable after having been weeds.

In examining A. strigosa Schreber,
which has also been included with
A. sativa, there is little delay in finding
all the characters of A. barbata, not
taking into account the functioning of
the articulations and the pilosity, two
fluctuating characters without value, as
we have seen in A. sterilis and A. fatua.
A. strigosa is indeed the glabrous form
which has lost the fragility of the articu-
lations of A. barbata.

Haussknecht (1. c. 1894, p. 20) has
observed the intermediate form, var.
solida, but it appears very rare. In
examining a great number of plants of
A. barbata, I have never found anything
other than a _ three-flowered, robust

(Fig. 20).

form with large spikelets, different from
barbata triflora Wilk, and from the two-
flowered forms with lagre spikelets
growing in grain fields.

In cultivating A. strigosa, I have
obtained transition forms towards A.
barbata, with the spikelets of the lemmae
almost as pilose as in the wild type, but
with more solid articulations.

A. brevis Rotl which has been des-
cribed as a form of A. sativa is connected
with A. strigosa, derived of course from
A. barbata.

THE ABYSSINIAN OAT.

Avena abyssinica. My study of
A. barbata for the Flore de 1’Algerie led
me to separate the southern forms and
those from the Sahara under the names
of varieties fuscescens and minor. Haus-
sknecht has since (1894) identified these
desert forms with Avena wiestit Steudel.

A. Wiestit differs little morphologi-
cally from A. barbata, but it is neverthe-
less a form interesting because of its
habitat. In northern Africa, it appears
very widely distributed in sub-saharan
localities. In Cyrenaica, Taubert col-
lected at Derna a. form solida (exsicc.
no. 507) which is the transition stage
toward cultivable forms. I have re-
ceived from Abyssinia, from Dr. Bald-

83

84 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

rati, director of the Office Agraire
Experimental, two lots of Abyssinian
oats; one, Dr. Baldrati writes me, is
made up of an abundant spontaneous
form, the other of the form cultivated
not for grain, but for forage. The wild
oat was hairy with very fragile articu-
lations. The other was glabrous or
pretty near it, and with articulations
retaining the grain better.

In cultivation at the Botanical Sta-
tion, I have found all the transition
stages between A. wiestu and A. abys-
sinica, which is the cultivable form of
it.

A. abyssinica has therefore been
wrongly connected with A. sativa. It
is a form still half-wild. It appears, also,
to be produced by the transformation of
a native Avena, developed and modified
in cultivation.

Although the differences between
A. barbata and A. wiestii may be of
little importance, it seems that these
two plants are unequally xerophilous in
dry places, A. barbata being simply the
oat of the arid places of the Tell (the
coastal region of Algeria), while A.
wiestit is purely a desert plant.

The domestication of A. wiesti is
as yet no more than outlined; it will be
necessary to perform a vigorous segre-
gation of the forms in the mixture and
by appropriate treatment, either quickly
or gradually by using patience, to
obtain cultivable races superior to the
A. abyssinica in use by the Abyssinians.

ORIGIN OF AWNLESS OATS.

In this study of the materials within
my reach I do not pretend to have
elucidated completely the question of
the origin of all our oats. The awnless
oats are also connectable with primitive
species. If all transitions between the
wild and the improved forms (inter-
mediate forms which one may regard as
the stages of a gradual improvement by
culture), are found in the series of
cultivated oats, it appears admissible
for the awnless. oats, that sudden
mutations might have intervened. These
oats are characterized by teratological
anomalies; they are monstrosities such
as produced Triticum polonicum.

The large Chinese awnless oat has

the closest analogy with A. sterilis.
I have been able to hybridize it with
A. sterilis culta.

The study of the domestication of
Avena presents, from the genetic point
of view, some rather substantial argu-
ments in favor of an ambient medium,
a modifying agent causing fluctuations
which end in the formation of varieties
well characterized and fixed by selection.

Avena fatua in cultivation loses the
fragility of its articulations, its hairs,
its awns. It becomes a domesticated
plant, but all the stages of its changes are
easily retraced. Cultivated in very
diverse surroundings, A. sativa has to-
day a very numerous and extremely
varied lot of domesticated descendants,
as should be the case if the environment
causes fluctuations.

A. sterilis culta has not been sub-
mitted to the same tests. This variety,
cultivated on the Mediterranean borders,
has until recently never been carried to
other climates. The influence of the
cultural environment appears to be
very rapid, since Buckmann according
to Darwin (Variations of Animals and
Plants under Domestication, p. 330,
New York, 1897) in a few years of care-
ful culture and selection, converted
A. fatua into two cultivable races,
almost identical with the races already
cultivated.

In oats, the modifications of the wild
types are in reality not deep. The
suppression of the fragile articulations
has been considered as having much too
great importance in Avena, as in Triti-
cum and Sorghum. The fragile rachis
may become tenacious by the simple
play of fluctuating characters. It is
nevertheless worth while to remark that
in the natural habitat, the fragility of
the rachis is never lacking in the wild
types. This transformation seems to
take place only under the influence of
cultivation.

Hybridization between the cultivated
species of oats has not yet been methodi-
cally attempted to my knowledge, and
there is here a very interesting open
field. It is true that we have yet to
determine in what degree a true hybridi-
zation will be possible. If Avena fatua
sativa may be crossed with A. sterilis

TRABUT: ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OaTs 85

culta, a progeny may be_ produced
having very useful mixed characters.
A. abyssinica will gain by being crossed
with the really superior A. strigosa.
But in the matter of hybridization there
is much more to be gained from experi-
mentation than from the mere discussion
of theoretical views.

SUMMARY.

Until recently, Avena fatua has been
regarded as the ancestor of the cultivated
oats comprised under the term Avena
sativa.

Study of the wild forms of Avena
sterilis has led me to consider that the
cultivated oats of the Mediterranean
countries are descended from this wild
species.

The Algerian oat, and the oats of
Italy, possess morphological characters
found in Avena sterilis.

Avena barbata has given rise to some
cultivated forms, such as Avena strigosa.

These three wild types of Avena
appear to have been modified by

of the cereals, of flax, etc., may be found
mutational forms which nearly approach
cultivated types. One series of forms is
characterized by the reduction of the
hairs on the glumes, in another series the
awn is reduced, and a third series is
distinguished by the solidity of the
rachis, which becomes gradually less
articulated. A variation of the nature
of a monstrosity may also be observed,
in which the glume is less compact, so
that the caryopsis falls out before
maturity. This mutation gives rise
to ‘naked oats.”

In conclusion, at least three wild
species of Avena, under the influence of
culture, may acquire characters fitting
them for cultivation. These three
species preserve the ancestral characters
by which they are adapted to different
climates.

Avena fatua gives rise to oats adapted
to temperate and mountainous regions;
Avena sterilis, to oats adapted to the
southern countries, and to saline soils;
Avena barbata to races adapted to dry

cultural influences. In various cultures countries.

PLANS FOR INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS

The American section of the international committee on arrangements for the
second International Eugenics Congress met last month. Bleecker Van Wagenen
and Frederick Adams Woods were the members present, while H. H. Laughlin,
W. Bayard Cutting and C. B. Davenport met with them by invitation. An organ-
izing committee for the next congress was selected, as follows: David Fairchild,
Frederick Adams Woods, Raymond Pearl, E. L. Thorndyke, Vernon L. Kellogg,
and C. B. Davenport, chairman, This committee met in New York city on Jan-
uary 2 and elected Henry Fairfield Osborne of New York as president of the
congress, which will be held in that city in September, 1915.

The Promise of Mendelism

When it is remembered that in wheat, for example, resistance and nonre-
sistance to the attacks of disease, earliness and lateness of ripening, good and
bad milling quality, are all pairs of Mendelian allelomorphs, and that it is now
possible to take a different example of each of these qualities from each of three
different strains, and to combine them together in a single new variety with
perfect certainty and in four generations, it does not require much imagination
to foresee that every department of the animal and plant breeding industries
must sooner or later benefit enormously from Mendel’s discovery.—R. H. Lock:
Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution (1906).

MENDELISM IN GREAT BRITAIN

Careful Experiments Being Carried on in Many Ways to Determine Operation
and Limitation of Laws of Heredity—First Researches Purely Experi-

mental, but Intensely

Practical Ones Now Being Made

by Numerous British Men of Science

R. C. PUNNETT
The Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics in the University of Cambridge, England.

HE dratnatic discovery of Men-
del’s work on plant-hybridiza-

tion in 1900 inaugurated a new

era for the breeder of plants and
animals, and the opportunities for ad-
vance in the knowledge of heredity were
in no country more rapidly seized than
in Great Britian. The seed here fell
upon prepared soil, for the problems to
which Mendel found a key had already
begun to engage the attention of Mr.
Bateson and of Miss Saunders in Cam-
bridge. The account of the experiments
which they had started in 1897 and
published as the well-known first report
of the Evolution Committee to the
Royal Society in 1902 was the most
important contribution to the subject
since Mendel’s own paper, and was the
first to open men’s eyes to the vast
possibilities latent in Mendel’s work.
A group of workers rapidly gathered
round Bateson in Cambridge, and the
contributions to be found under the
names of Doncaster, Gregory, Lock,
Staples-Browne, Miss Durham, Miss
Wheldale, and others bore witness to
the activity of the rising school of
genetics in the University.

All this work, like Mendel’s own, was
designed and carried out purely with
the desire to gain definite knowledge of
the workings of heredity, and little or no
attention was paid to the economic
results which might flow from the ap-
plication of this knowledge to the affairs
of those who bred animals and plants

for profit. The material for study was
selected on the ground of its cheapness,
of the ease with which it could be
worked, and of its suitability for giving
a speedy answer to the problems put to
it. Sweet-peas, mice, stocks, moths,
snapdragons, and poultry—such was
the material investigated, and except
for the last-named it could hardly be
said to possess much economic import-
ance.

CEREAL IMPROVEMENT.

But it so happened that the stimulus
to genetic work coincided with the
rapid rise of the School of Agriculture
in the University, and the enormous
practical importance of the new knowl-
edge was immediately appreciated by
Professor Biffen, who was then starting
his now-famous experiments in the
crossing of cereals. By making use of
the methods of Mendelian analysis he
was able to show that such qualities as
strength, yield, and immunity to rust
were transmitted in accordance with
Mendel’s law of segregation, and conse-
quently are under the control of the
investigator, who can now devise suit-
able experiments for combining them
together at will. Improved wheats of
this kind have already come into use in
ingland, and, judging by the competi-
tion there is to secure the seed, they
have already proved themselves a great
success. The analysis of the wheat-
plant is still being actively carried on

' Reprinted from the Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases of the In-

ternational Institute of Agriculture, Rome.

86

MENDELISM IN GREAT BRITAIN 87

in Cambridge by Professor Biffen and
his co-workers, and there is no doubt
that as time goes on even better and
more profitable varieties will be at the
service of the British farmer.

It is pleasant to be able to record that
the importance of the work has been
recognized by the Government, who
have placed a considerable annual sum
at the disposal of the School of Agri-
culture for research in plant-breeding.
This has rendered possible an increase
in the scope of the work, and experi-
ments are now being carried out on
other plants besides cereals. Among
investigations now under way are some
concerned with the transmission of
fertility in fruit-trees, while the strik-
ing success of Biffen’s work on the
nature of immunity to rust in wheats
has led to the search for naturally im-
mune individuals in other forms of
plant-life. Experiments with potatoes
have been in progress for several years,
and, thanks to the energy of Dr. Sal-
aman, working on his own estate near
Cambridge, and of Mr. Lesley, of the
School of Agriculture, the formation of
a decent potato, naturally immune
to Phytophthora infestans, seems within
measurable distance of realization.

WORK WITH POULTRY.

Nor are the researches at Cambridge
confined to plants. Poultry was one of
the first subjects of experiment by Bate-
son, and during the past ten years much
has been learned of the transmission of
various characters. Offering as they do
a number of features showing sex-
linked inheritance, poultry are of im-
portance for gaining an insight into the
nature of sex, and of studying the pe-
culiar influence of each sex in the trans-
mission of hereditary properties. Sev-
eral of these sex-limited characters are
now under investigation at Cambridge,
while parallel experiments are being
carried on by Professor Bateson at
Merton.

Two other series of experiments likely
to lead to knowledge of economic
value are also being carried on at Cam-
bridge. The first of these is concerned
with the inheritance of size, and consists
in carefully following out the result of

a cross between an ordinary fowl and a
bantam. The work is not yet sufficient-
ly advanced to permit of complete
analysis, but the nature of the F2 gen-
eration raised last year strongly suggests
that size depends upon definite factors
which exhibit ordinary Mendelian seg-
regation. The other set of experiments
mentioned concerns the inheritance of
the brooding instinct in the hen and of
the brown color of the egg-shell. In
England brown eggs are of greater value
than white, but hitherto no breed laying
brown eggs and in which the hens never
want to sit has yet been established.
It may be that brown eggs are incom-
patible with the non-broody habit, just
as it is sometimes stated that a breed of
cattle cannot be at the same time first
rate in both milk-production and beef.
It is hoped that the experiments in
progress will eventually give definite
evidence upon this point.

Experiments have also been under-
taken with sheep where the results of a
cross between merino rams (from Aus-
tralia) and Shropshire ewes are being
carefully followed. The experiments
have just reached the F2 generation,
and it is hoped that the knowledge
gained from them will eventually render
it possible to combine the fleece of the
merino with the good mutton qualities
of other breeds.

SWEET-PEA EXPERIMENTS.

Besides the work just mentioned,
there are other sets of experiments
being carried out at Cambridge and
Merton which may be regarded as
forming a group by themselves. Bate-
son in 1905 was the first to describe in
sweet-peas a remarkable case in which
two characters each exhibiting ordinary
Mendelian segregation nevertheless
showed a peculiar distribution with re-
gard to one another. In this particular
instance the characters dealt with were
color, blue being dominant to red, and
pollen-shape, long being dominant to
round. Blue long x red round gave blue
long in F1, and in F2 the expected ratio
3 blue: 1 red and also 3 long: 1 round.
But the proportion of rounds among the
blues was only about 1 in 12, whereas
among the reds the rounds were in

88 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

excess of the longs to the extent of
about 3:1. Since that date many other
cases of this peculiar association of
characters have been discovered in
other plants as well as in sweet-peas,
and certain generalizations have
emerged from the study of them. We
now know that if A and B represent
two factors respectively alternate to
their absence (a and b), then if the
original cross is of the nature AB x ab
the characters A and B will be more
or less completely associated in the F2
generation, so that of the four possible
classes AB : Ab : aB : ab the first and
the last will be the most numerous. If,
however, the original cross 1s of the form
Ab x aB, then of the four classes in F2
the AB one will be about twice as num-
erous as either of the two classes Ab and
aB, while the class ab will be very rare.
Where A and B go into the cross in
association they tend to remain asso-
ciated in F2, whereas when they go into
the cross dissociated they tend to remain
dissociated in F2. This peculiar phe-
nomenon is not as yet properly under-
stood, and it is with a view to obtaining
further knowledge that experiments are
being carried on at Merton by Professor
Bateson, and at Cambridge by Miss
Saunders with stocks, by R. P. Gregory
with primulas, and by the writer with
sweet-peas.

Recent work, more especially that of
Morgan in America, has shown that
similar phenomena occur in animals,
and there is no doubt that a proper
understanding of them will eventually
turn out to be of much importance for
the breeder of plants and animals. It
is a matter of common observation
that characters seem at times to be
transmitted in bunches, as it were, from
one parent or other to the offspring, and
it is likely that in such cases we are
dealing with phenomena of the kind
just outlined.

BATESON’S INSTITUTION.

The best-equipped institute in Great
Britian for the study of genetics is

undoubtedly the John Innes _ Horti-
cultural Institution at Merton, near
London. Started in 1909 with funds

derived from private bequest, it was

fortunate in securing Professor Bateson,
who left Cambridge in 1910, as its first
Director. Fortunately, also, its scope
is broad, and the experimental work
undertaken is concerned with the unrav-
elling of the principles of inheritance in
the widest sense, apart from considera-
tions of direct economic return. Num-
bers of experiments are at present
being carried out by Professor Bateson
and his staff, principally with plants,
not the least interesting being a series
of experiments dealing with fertility
and sterility in fruit-trees.

Besides Cambridge and Merton there
are several other places where genetic
research is being carried on. Mr.
Hurst, one of the pioneers in Mendelian
studies, has established an experimental
station at Burbage, near Leicester,
which aims at the production of eco-
nomically valuable varieties of plants.
and animals by working upon Mendelian
lines. Mr. Hurst is experimenting with
many different plants and animals, and
some of his most interesting experiments
concern horses, and aim at the produc-
tion of a pure race of steeplechasers—
1.e., of animals with a special aptitude
for hunting.

Genetic research is also being carried
on by Professor Keeble at University
College, Reading, the chief material
investigated being primulas. But per-
haps the most interesting work from
this source is that dealing with the
chemical side of genetic problems. It
is well known that in primulas there are
white flowers of two kinds—viz., those
dominant and those recessive to col-
ored. Professor Keeble and Dr. Arm-
strong have recently amplified the work
of Miss Wheldale and others, and have
demonstrated that these two forms of
white, though alike in appearance, can
be distinguished by definite chemical
tests. Such work opens up a new and
important field of study, and it is
possible that as this branch of knowl-
edge develops the genetic analysis of
plants and animals will be greatly sim-
plified by the substitution of direct
chemical tests for the elaborate series
of breeding-experiments which are at
present necessary.

Among the experimental work in
progress in England should be men-
tioned that of Mr. Staples-Browne, of
Bampton, near Oxford, who is con-
tinuing his researches with pigeons,
more especially with reference to sex-
limited characters; also the work of
Trow, of Cardiff, who has recently con-
tributed a valuable paper on inheritance
in Senecio. In this paper and in another
shortly to appear Dr. Trow has made
a definite advance in the understand-
ing of those peculiar cases of associa-
tion between characters to which ref-
erence has already been made.

In Ireland, Professor Wilson, of Dub-
lin, has lately brought together a

PUNNETT: MENDELISM IN GREAT BRITAIN 89

heredity of coat-color in cattle and
horses and with the milking-capacity
of cows.

Scotland has also made a start by
creating a Lectureship of Genetics in
the University of Edinburgh, to which
Mr. Darbishire was recently appointed.

In conclusion, it should be mentioned
that the study of genetics in Great
Britian is not confined to those who
work on these islands. Cambridge
sends her students all over the world,
and the value of genetic research to the
breeder is evidenced by the work of
Balls on cotton in Egypt, and by that
of Leake and of Howard on cereals,
cottons, and other plants in India.

number of records dealing with the

General Principles Not Enough

So far as practical results are concerned, it is not enough for men of science to
nvestigate the facts and the principles of heredity, and to attempt to lay down the
principles of eugenics, as the science which deals with the improvement of the race
is now called. It is not alone enough for moralists to preach. The hope of the
future lies in the slow development of those habits, those social instincts arising
inevitably out of the actual facts of life and deeper than science, deeper than morals.
The new sense of responsibility—of responsibility not only for the human lives that
now are, but the new human lives that are to come—is a social instinct of this fun-
damental nature. Therein lies its vitality and its promise.—Havelock Ellis: The
Problem of Race Regeneration (1911).

Scientific Knowledge Required

The question of improving the human race in this country has lately excited a
good deal of attention. But without a scientific knowledge of the factors on which
improvement and degeneration depend the discussion is not likely to be of much
profit, and in such a case misdirected energy may be even worse than apathy.
Without venturing to make any very positive suggestions, it may be at least pointed
out that our present practice in these matters is in almost every case the very worst
possible.—R. H. Lock: Recent Progress in the Study of Heredity, Variation and
Evolution (1906).

Careful Selection Necessary

The principles of heredity teach us that education and training, however bene-
ficial they may be to individuals, have no material effect on the stock itself. If
they have any effect at all, this is undoubtedly unimportant in comparison with the
effect which would be produced by the selection of individuals which exhibit desirable
qualities. The demand for a higher birth-rate ought to apply strictly to desirables.
Instead of this the cry is for education and physical training, processes which can
have no permanent beneficial effect on the race.—R. H. Lock: Recent Progress
in the Study of Heredity, Variation and Evolution (1906).

NEW PUBLICATIONS

THE INFLUENCE OF MONARCHS by Frederick Adams Woods, M. D. The Macmillan
Company, 422 pp. $2.00.

This is an attempt to gauge the influence of the hereditary qualities of a man
upon the history of his time; the man selected is the reigning sovereign.

The method of the study is to render a judgment, as objective and free from
bias as possible, concerning the position of the reigning monarch in one of the
three classes, plus, intermediate and minus. In the plus class one places the
monarchs of exceptional talents for leadership, in the minus class are placed
monarchs of feeble intellect and feeble moral control, in the intermediate class
are placed those of intermediate qualities. In the same way, the change in the
political condition and general prosperity of a country may be classified as plus,
if very progressive, intermediate, if stationary, and minus if retrogressive. An
agreement in the sign of the personality of the monarch and the prosperity of the
country counts one for the hypothesis of influence of the monarch; a disagree-
ment in sign counts against the hypothesis. The correlation in signs can be
calculated and affords a measure of the influence of the monarch.

This method is applied in successive reigns in the medieval history of France,
Spain, Portugal and the other leading nations of Europe. For example, the
reign of the brave, wise, virtuous Gustavus Vasa led to the independence of Sweden
and a vast development of her resources. In the following reign of the unwise,
suspicious, headstrong Eric XIV treasure was wasted, national distress entailed
and rebellion incited. Here the weak ruler permitted to decay what his strong
predecessor has built up.

Altogether Dr. Woods finds 105 instances of a superior ruler associated with
advancing conditions of his country as against only 11 cases where there is a
decline. There are 87 cases where a national decline was associated with a weak
ruler and 30 cases where there was progress with such a ruler but, in such cases,
there was frequently a strong power behind the throne. If 0 measures no cor-
relation and 1 perfect correlation, then the actual correlation found is measured
by .6 or three fifths of a unit.

It still remains to consider the significance of this correlation. Did the con-
ditions of national development determine the eminence of the king or vice versa?
Evidence for the conclusion that the qualities of the king determine the fate of
his country is found in three facts. First, the transition from + to — states
of prosperity in the country is usually abrupt, closely following the accession
of the king. Second, interregnums are almost always periods of national decline
unless some strong member of the royal family is in control. Third, if conditions
determined the rank of the monarch there should be less evidence of an inheritance
of the intellectual qualities of a monarch than of some other characters not capable
of being influenced by conditions, such as eye color; but the inheritance of in-
tellectual qualities is not less than that of others.

The main conclusion that Dr. Woods draws from this study is “that the royal
breed, considered as a unit, is superior to any other one family, be it that of noble
or commoner.” Proof that the superior quality of royalty is due to innate qualities
is found in the facts that younger brothers are just as eminent in intellect as are
those who succeeded to the crown; that many scions of royal houses have been
exceedingly precocious; that, on the whole, their genius has been for war and
government (for which the blood was selected in the first instance); and that 1 in
40 of royalty show intellectual preeminence of a grade not found in | in 4,000,000
outside of royalty. Royalty in Europe between the eleventh and eighteenth
centuries is a demonstration of the overwhelming importance to a country of
its “best blood.”

C. B. DAVENPORT.

90

LARSEN: BREEDING WILD GAME 91

Breeding Wild Game

What he considers the largest plant in the world for breeding and shipping
live game is described by Paul Larsen in the December number of the Game
Breeder. This is the estate of F. Horacek at Martinitz, Bohemia.

“The first day,” says Mr. Larsen, “I visited the park for haired animals located
in some high wooded hills. There are about twenty-five acres divided into five
inclosures. Three of these usually contain six thousand hares and altogether
twenty thousand are trapped in a season and brought to the inclosures. Mr.
Horacek owns for trapping the hares, nets which are about nine thousand yards
long, representing a value of over $8,000. During the season three thousand netters
are employed to trap game. The other two inclosures are filled with deer and
boars.

“The second day of my visit I enjoyed seeing the pheasantries and partridge
aviaries. The first named consist of fifty-four covered and three open pens
which will hold at one time about ten thousand pheasants. The second named
consist of two hundred and ninety-eight pens, and over sixty thousand partridges
pass through these inclosures during a season.

“While abroad I thoroughly studied the methods of distinguishing the sexes
of partridges,’”’ the writer continues. ‘“‘Most people believe that the reddish-
brown crescent on the breast of the bird is a distinguishing mark of the male,
but this certainly is not so. I observed that a large proportion of the hens have
this mark and even larger and more well defined. One day while handling about
two hundred birds, in order to investigate this subject, I ascertained that the
best way of determining the sexes is that the males have a red spot just back of
the eye which is especially prominent at the mating season. The general color
of the male, also, is brownish while that of the female is grayish. The feathers
of the first mentioned are marked lengthwise and crossed with brown stripes
while the feathers of the female are barred with ashy-gray and sometimes with
black stripes. The head of the male shows no pearl-like markings which can
be observed on the head of the female.”’

On Marriage Certificates

Editorially reviewing recent American legislation on the subject of health
certificates as a requirement for marriage, the Medical Record (New York,
December 6, 1913) remarks:

“In many of these the provisions of the law have far outrun the results of
scientific investigation. It is in fact still an open question whether confirmed
criminals and feeble-minded persons are especially apt to propagate their own
kind unless they mate with persons who, like themselves, carry a neuropathic
strain. With few exceptions the impediments to marriage, imposed by the new
legislation, appear to disregard the unsettled state of eugenic science, and assume
that the theories advanced by this or that particular school have correctly solved
the principles underlying the inheritance of good or bad germ-plasm.”’

Hereditary Chorea

Hereditary chorea, usually known as Huntington’s chorea, is described in the
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal for Nov. 6, 1913, by Dr. William A. Boyd
of the Westport, Conn., Sanitarium. He reviews the history, from the discovery
in 1842, of this disease, which is one of the most clearly marked and indisputable
of the disease-factors of cacogenics, and manifests itself, in general, only in adult
life. The disease has in recent years been studied by a number of genetists, all
of whom have borne witness toits.highly transmissible character; Dr. Boyd adds
a case from his own experience, and-gives an extended bibliography of the subject.

92 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Register of Hybrid Orchids

An undertaking which should prove of real value to genetists is the foundation
by the Royal Horticultural Society of London of an orchid register, to keep an
accurate record of crosses made, thus continuing the compilation of data started
by Rolfe and Hurst’s Orchid Stud Book, published by the Orchid Review of
London.

The new register will be international in character, and compiled in harmony
with the Vienna and Brussels Rules of Nomenclature. It is announced in the
following letter from the office of the Royal Horticultural Society in Vincent
Square, Westminister, London:

“November 28th, 1913.

“The President and Council, acting on the recommendation of a Sub-Com-
mittee of the Orchid Committee, have decided to establish a Register of Hybrid
Orchids at Vincent Square. Mr. R. A. Rolfe, of Kew, has been appointed Re-
corder. The Register will include all known Orchids.

“The President and Council accordingly invite Orchid raisers and growers
amateur and professional, to bring their Hybrids, when im flower for the first time
(even though they may not then be sufficiently developed to enter for award),
and to enter the name and parentage of the plant, together with the exhibitor’s
name and address, on a Registration Form, which can be obtained from the
R.H.S. Office, Vincent Square, S.W. This Registration Form should be sent
with the plant, and it will be placed before the Orchid Committee, who, after
satisfying themselves that the name is in order, will enter it on the Register.
Once so recorded the name must be recognized for all crosses of similar parentage
when subsequently shown, unless valid reason can be otherwise produced.

““W. WILKs, Secretary.”

Color Inheritance in Pigs

Reviewing the observations made in Germany and the United States on the
inheritance of color coat in pigs, Gustav Frohllich describes the general conclusions
in the Berlin Journal f. Landwirthschaft, LXI, 3, according to the Bulletin of
the International Institute of Agriculture, Rome: a

It appears that in the first filial generation of crosses the following are dominant:

I. White of Improved German Swine (Edelschwein) over:
white and black of Hanoverians
black of Berkshires
greyish-black of European wild pigs
greyish-black of Cornwalls
red of Tamworths.
black of Caucasian wild pigs.
II. Greyish-black of European wild pigs over:

red of Tamworth.

III. Black and white of Hampshires over:
red of Tamworth.

Importance of Genetics

I venture to express the conviction, that if the facts now before us are care-
fully studied, it will become evident that the experimental study of heredity,
pursued on the lines Mendel has made possible, is second to no branch of science
in the certainty and magnitude of the results it offers. This study has one
advantage which no other line of scientific inquiry possesses, in that the special
training necessary for such work is easily learnt in the practice of it, and can be
learnt in no other way. All that is needed is the faithful resolve to scamp noth-
ing.—William Bateson: Mendel’s Principles of Heredity (1902).

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 3 March, 1914.

CONTENTS

Pure Lines and Selection, by W. E. Castle........................ 93
i: Ht. Johnsomis, Chairman) 02.0022. -6s2c.0.26:. STD oP Ae 97
The James River Walnut. by Peter Bisset........................ 98
Marriage Selection, by Roswell Hill Johnson..................... 102
Annual Meeting of Association.................................. 110
Seeking Plant Immigrants, by Frank N. Meyer................... 111
Tests for Mental Defects, by Dr. Howard A. Knox................ 122
Planting Persimmons, by H. Harold Hume.......... ce EPs ep ees 131
Rtalians “Cake! Up Bugenices 9 V0.9 ee ne a, Beau ee oe 138
International:-Eugenics Congress...........................2.-... 138

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and Journal.

Date of issue of this number, February 28, 1914.

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PURE LINES AND SELECTION |

Practical Idea of Stock Breeder and Theoretical Ideal of Biologist Differ—
Evidence Advanced in Support of ‘‘Pure Lines’ Inadequate—Variation
in Asexual Reproduction—Experience With Hooded Rats Shows
Selection Possible in Either Direction.

W. E. Castle,
Professor of Zoology in Harvard University and Research Associate of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.

URRENT discussions among
students of heredity about pure
lines of animals and plants are
likely to be very perplexing to

those breeders of live-stock who pride
themselves upon the excellence and
purity to breed-standards of the animals
which they keep. “Selection within
the pure line,’’ we are told by the biol-
ogist, “is without effect.’’ But selec-
tion is the foundation principle of the
stock breeder and a statement addressed
to him that selection is useless in the
breeding of any sort of domesticated
animal, however pure, would be received
with incredulity.

It may be worth while therefore to
point out that the biologist, as quoted
above, and the stock breeder are talking
about very different things when they
speak of “pure - lines.” The stock
breeder has in mind a race of animals
bred as closely as possible to a recog-
nized standard. But he realizes that
some individuals conform more closely
than others to the standard of the
breed, and his experience indicates that
continual selection of the “‘some”’ rather
than the ‘‘others”’ is essential to main-
tain the purity of the breed. He under-
stands the biologist’s dictum that ‘“‘se-
lection within the pure line is without
effect”? to mean that one animal is as
good as another to breed from provided
both belong to the same pure race, and
his comment is ‘‘Nonsense’’, and he is
quite right too.

But that is not the biologist’s mean-
ing. The biologist’s “‘pure line’ is an
imaginary thing. I doubt very much
whether it was ever realized in any

actual race of animals or plants. — It
has no more relation to actual animals
and plants than a mathematical circle
has to the circles described by the most
accomplished draftsman. All the circles
of the draftsman have wiggles in them,
if you look at them carefully enough;
only the mathematician’s imaginary
circle is perfect. Now the biologist
undertakes to be the mathematician of
breeding and to construct an ‘“‘exact’’
system of heredity in which the ‘‘pure
line” concept holds a conspicuous place.
He reasons thus: Individuals of the
same parentage differ for two reasons,
(1) because of inherited differences and
(2) because of differences in environ-
ment. If differences of environment
(soil and situation of plants, care and
food of animals) could be altogether
eliminated, then animals of the same
heredity should be identical, and should
produce only offspring like themselves.
They would constitute a pure line,

THE BIOLOGIST’S REASONING.

The biologist reasons further; AlI-
though it is impossible to control the
environment completely and thus make
it uniform and so eliminate its effects
upon variation, nevertheless the effects
of environment are not inherited. Con-
sequently, if two germ-cells could be
brought together in fertilization to
form an individual, each of which germ-
cells was identical with the other in its
heredity, a pure individual would result,
so far as heredity 1s concerned, all of
whose germ-cells would transmit the
same inherited characteristics, and all
would look alike except as they were

93

94 THE JOURNAL
made to vary by the environment.
But as the effects of environment are
by hypothesis not inherited, all would
breed alike regardless of their appear-
ance, hence it would be useless to make
any choice among them.

The pure line theory, as outlined
above, like the theorems of the geometer,
rests upon the validity of certain postu-
lates, any one of which. being disproved,
the whole argument fails.

The pure line postulates are: (1) The
effects of environment are not inherited:
(2) inherited characteristics do not vary.
The first of these postulates is a bone of
unending contention among biologists,
and the last word has not been said upon
it yet. Practical breeders believe that
good care and feeding are not wasted
upon their stock, that not only the indi-
viduals so treated are benefited but
subsequent generations also. It must
be admitted, however, that the evidence
is not satisfactory that subsequent gen-
erations are given a better endowment
by better treatment of the present
generation. What is inherited is capac-
ity to utilize opportunities of the en-
vironment. It is doubtful whether
utilization of the environment by one
generation increases the capacity of the
next generation so to utilize it, though
we all optimistically hope for this out-
come. Plant breeders have shown that
plump, well-nourished seed produces
more vigorous plants and larger harvests
than shrunken ill-nourished seed, a
seeming inheritance of environmental
effects. But in reality the seed is only
part embryo; part of it is food stuff,
environment of the previous generation
carried over bodily to form the early
environment of the new generation. So
that when we select well nourished seed
we select, not only a bundle of inherited
plant qualities, but also a good initial
environment for the plant. On the
whole the first postulate of the pure line
theory stands, if not proved, at least
not disproved.

The second postulate of the pure line
theory is a much shakier one, but I must
hasten to qualify the form in which it
has been stated before it is disowned by

1The Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911.
2Vol. 46, No. 551, Nov. 1912.

OF HEREDITY

all supporters of the theory. The
Hagedoorns, who have championed the
theory in The American Breeders’ Mag-
azine (Vol. 4, No. 3), are careful to say
that inherited ‘factors, not characters”,
are constant. What they mean, I take
it, is this. An animal has some visible
character, such as black fur. The black
color of this fur may, however, result
from several independent: physiological
processes, or agencies, no one of which
by itself produces a visible effect. These
agencies, known or unknown, are factors
in producing a black coat. Some of
them may be inherited, others environ-
mental. Although the blackness of the
coat may vary (owing to variation in
environmental factors) its ultimate in-
herited factors do not vary.

EXPERIENCE WITH

What evidence is there for the idea
that the ultimate factors of inheritance
do not vary’ First let us inquire how
the idea originated. Ten years ago,
when the rediscovered Mendel’s law
was new, it was supposed that characters
which conformed with Mendel’s law did
not vary. They behaved as units in
heredity; how could they vary; how
could units vary’ The gametes were
‘pure’. Each one either contained or
did not contain a particular Mendelian
unit. Units could not be split or modi-
fied. This idea found its fullest devel-
opment in Punnett’s Mendelism.’ Later
investigations have shown beyond ques-
tion that Mendelian characters do vary.
Practically everyone has now abandoned
the idea of ‘‘gametic purity’, but the
idea of purity has been shifted from the
characters which can be seen to vary,
to factors which may be imagined to be
invariable, though they can not be seen.

We might at this point with propriety
end the discussion concluding that
factors which are imaginary, like the
circles of the mathematician, are of ne-
cessity perfect and constant. This is
practically the burden of East’s arg-
ument in The American Naturalist’.
But as the world has benefited by the
speculations of the geometers, so, let us
hope, it may profit by the speculations

MENDELISM.

CasTLE: Pure LINES AND SELECTION 95

of the biologist, especially if some means

can be devised to test their validity by’

experiment.

Since the supposed ‘‘factors’’ of in-
heritance are invisible, we can not hope
to deal with them directly by experi-
ment, but only indirectly. Our method
obviously should be to eliminate all en-
vironmental factors so far as possible
and also all factors of inheritance except
one. If then this one being present
gives a uniform result and being absent
gives a result also uniform but different,
we can conclude the factor constant.
But it is very difficult to apply this
method to specific cases, since when
variation is observed it is always pos-
sible to suppose that all factors but one
have not yet been eliminated.

From existing experimental work
what evidence have we for the idea of
factorial constancy’ Perhaps Johann-
sen’ has contributed more than any
other one person toward popularizing
the idea of factorial constancy. Select-
ing size variations in bean seeds, he
was sometimes successful in modifying
the racial mean, sometimes unsuccess-
ful. Whenever he was successful, he
attributes the success to variation in
genetic factors; whenever unsuccessful
he assumes that no variation in genetic
factors occurred, i.e., that a pure line
had been established, which could not
subsequently vary unless hybridization
occurred out of the race or a mutation
occurred within it. It would be of
much interest to know whether Johann-
sen’s pure lines were as pure for all
other characters as for size of seed and
equally unresponsive to selection in all
particulars of leaf and stem. For the
bearing of his observations on seed size
upon the question of the constancy of
Mendelizing characters is not very
obvious, since seed size does not Men-
delize.

NO CLEAR-CUT DEMONSTRATION.

Although extensive observations upon
the subject of size inheritance in both
animals and plants have been made,
they have resulted in the demonstra-
tion as yet of no single clear-cut Men-

delizing unit character (or factor either).
Dwarf plants, known to Mendelize when
crossed with tall ones, form only an
apparent exception; in reality they differ
in habit rather than in size from tall
ones.

The results of all observers, as regards
the inheritance of ordinary differences
in size, are closely in accord. When two
races differing in size are crossed, the
immediate offspring are intermediate in
size. The next generation of offspring
is likewise intermediate but more vari-
able as a rule, and it has been found
possible in some cases to select from
them forms as extreme in size as the
original parents. To interpret such
cases as Mendelian requires the assump-
tion that no single unit or factor is con-
cerned in the size difference, but many
wholly independent units. For a single
Mendelizing unit would produce a
wholly different result. But suppose
we allow the assumption that many in-
dependent Mendelizing units or factors
are concerned in the inheritance of size.
The pure line hypothesis is not bene-
fited by this assumption, unless we sup-
pose further that these hypothetical
factors do not vary. But this is an
assumption wholly without warrant.
For in all cases studied critically with
reference to the constancy of characters
demonstrably Mendelian, the charac-
ters have been found to be tnconstant
and subject to modification by selection.
What ground is there, then, for suppos-
ing that in a case where no factors are
demonstrable, such factors are 7invari-
able? This is like supposing that the
moon is made of cheese and that further
this cheese is green. The speculation
is harmless, if one chooses to amuse
himself that way, but it can scarcely be
called a valid scientific conclusion.

Aside from the size selection experi-
ments of Johannsen, which were made
on a self-fertilizing plant, the experi-
ments of Jennings’ are most often cited
in support of the view that selection
within the pure line is without effect.
In some respects the material used by
Jennings was even more favorable than
that of Johannsen. It consisted of a

3Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre, Jena, 1909.

4Am. Naturalist, Vol. 43, No. 510, June 1909.

96 THE JOURNAL
species of small animal (paramecium)
which ordinarily multiplies by dividing
into two parts, each of which becomes
an entire individual. Only at rare in-
tervals does it reproduce by a method
comparable with sexual reproduction in
the higher animals and plants. If
variation in genetic factors arises only
from sexual reproduction, then asex-
ually produced lines of paramecium
should be devoid of genetic variation
and so unaffected by selection. Jen-
nings believed this to be true. He re-
garded the asexually produced descend-
ants of a single paramecium as consti-
tuting a pure line, which selection could
not change, and recognized several diff-
ferent pure lines isolated from his mixed
cultures, each varying about a different
average of size. Within each pure line
he found selection ineffective.

IN ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

But considerable doubt is raised
concerning the soundness of these con-
clusions by the subsequent work of
Calkins and Gregory’ who find that
from a single ‘pure line’”’ as defined by
Jennings subordinate lines may be
isolated which differ in mean size from
each other more than the pure lines
which Jennings supposed to be geneti-
cally different. If this is so, it must be
possible for genetic differences to arise
in the course of asexual reproduction,
which on the pure line hypothesis is 1m-
possible; and if such genetic differ-
ences do arise, they afford material for
selection to act upon with effectiveness,
even within the supposed pure line.

Further evidence that racial differ-
ences may originate within an asexually
produced and so genetically “‘pure line’
is afforded by horticultural varieties of
plants propagated asexually. Examples
are found among apples and potatoes.
An orchard variety which has endured
for any considerable length of time is
apt to develop sub-varieties. The same
is true of varieties of potato which have
enjoyed wide and long continued popu-
larity. The Williams apple, widely
cultivated in the eastern United States,
occurs in two distinct strains, one con-
spicuously striped, the other nearly

oF HEREDITY

solid red. The Baldwin apple which
has been in cultivation for over a cen-
tury has developed sub-varieties differ-
ing in shape. The Early Rose potato,
formerly the favorite early variety in
the United States, developed sub-va-
rieties, some of which were more
elongated in shape than others.

So common are changes of this sort
within asexually propagated varieties
that botanists have given them a special
name, that of bud variations. East,
from his studies of bud variation among
potatoes, concluded them to be ordinarily
loss variations, or retrogressive varia-
tions due to the loss of some normal
racial character, as are most of the
germinal variations which arise as sports
in the course of sexual reproduction
among domesticated animals and culti-
vated plants. If so, we are led to con-
clude not only that variations may
occur within a “pure line” asexually
produced, but also that these variations
are of the same nature as those which
arise in the course of sexual reproduc-
tion. There can be no question of the
effectiveness of selection in either cate-
gory of cases.

The Hagedoorns think that evidence
in favor of the pure line hypothesis is
afforded by Vilmorin’s varieties of
wheat bred each from a single plant.
They figure four heads of wheat selected
each as typical of those produced by the
ancestral plant 50 years ago, from
which a pure variety has descended.
Beside these they figure a typical head
of each of the derived varieties at the
present time. A strong resemblance
exists in each case between the head of
50 years ago and the present day repre-
sentative of the same variety, though
this of course does not amount to
identity. We are, however, told that
‘““As can easily be seen from the photo-
graph, all these generations of selection
have not changed any one of the varie-
ties one little bit.”

EVIDENCE NOT COMPLETE.

The photographs afford a rather small
basis for so sweeping a conclusion. We
are not shown the entire plant of 50
years ago beside that of today; we know

‘Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 15, No. 4, Nov. 1913.

a

CasTLE: PurE LINES AND SELECTION 97

nothing about the appearance of its
leaves, stem, or root; we know nothing
of its physiological behavior under con-
trolled environment; yet we are asked
to believe the two plants, of 50 years
ago and of today, identical in genetic
character, because a selected head of one
can be roughly matched with a selected
head of the other. Does this prove that
selection is without effect? Rather it
proves that wheat can be selected to a
type. What. evidence have we that
any attempt has been made in these
50 years to change the type’? Not once,
I venture, has the shortest headed plant
been chosen in the long headed variety,
or the least branched head in the
branched headed variety. Yet on the
pure line hypothesis, this would have
made no difference in the result. How
do we know that it would have made no
difference, the experiment not having
been made? Doubtless the pure line
advocate would reply, because selection
in the opposite direction has effected
no change, the long headed race being
now no longer and the branched headed
race no branchier. But this assertion
is not established by the photographs of
matched heads, and even granting its
correctness, it might well be that a
physiological limitation had been reached
50 years ago which it has not been since
possible to remove. When selection
has attained the ultimate, it can go no
farther. If I select animals spotted
with white for increasing blackness and
obtain an animal black all over, the
task is accomplished. Nothing more
can be done 7m that direction. This does
not prove selection to increase or to
decrease the white spots of animals to

be ineffectual; indeed, the contrary has
been fully established. ars

The Hagedoorns think further to
strengthen the argument for the pure
line theory by a challenge to its oppon-
ents to modify a character within a
narrowly inbred line of animals by se-
lection and then to bring the character
back again to its original condition.
“For,” they say, “it is obvious that it
may be possible by selection to get rid
of such genetic factors as influence the
character selected in a direction oppo-
site to that in which we want to modify
it, and thus to make great progress. On
the contrary, if selection really might
change genetic factors, modification
of any character would be as easy in one
direction as in the other.” This test
(in all essential features) has been ap-
plied repeatedly in a series of selection
experiments with the hooded pattern
of spotted rats (a Mendelizing unit-
character) described in Publication No.
195 of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington.. The experiments show that
plus selection and minus selection are
both effective, and that selection away
from and back to any modal condition
of the pattern are equally easy of accom-
plishment.

If I were disposed to use challenges
for argument, I would make a counter
challenge in these words—Let him who
thinks selection ineffectual try it on any
character of any animal. If he is per-
sistent and critical in his experiments,
I am confident that he will be convinced
of the effectiveness of selection, as all
practical breeders are, and will thence-
forth regard ‘“‘pure lines’? as purely
imaginary.

6A preliminary account of certain of the experiments was given in Am. Breeders’ Magazine,

Vol. 3, No. 4.

R. H. JOHNSON IS CHAIRMAN

Professor Roswell H. Johnson of the University of Pittsburgh has been ap-
pointed chairman of the Eugenics Section of the American Association for the
Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, which will hold its next meeting at

Boston in November.

THE JAMES RIVER WALNUT

Probably Cross Between Butternut and English Walnut—Shows Remarkable
Vigor, Although Productivity is Slight and Nuts of no Commercial Value—
Promising as Bud Stock for Timber—Vigor of Root Stock

Increased When Scions of Hybrid are Used.

PETER BIsseET,
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

N VIRGINIA, between Portsmouth
and Richmond, on the south side of
the James River, there is located
the well-known and historical man-

sion of colonial days, ‘‘Lower Brandon.”’
Across the river, just opposite ‘‘Lower
Brandon” is ‘“‘Rowe Farm’’, another of
the old Virginia estates dating back to
colonial days. On Rowe Farm there
is growing one of the most remarkable
walnut trees of which there is any record
in this country.

The tree is of gigantic proportions,
reaching a height of 100 feet, with its
head, or crown of branches, towering
above all other trees in the neighbor-
hood. Its spread of branches was
formerly 134 feet, but during a recent
storm a large branch was broken off
reducing its present spread of branches
to 123 feet. At four feet from the
ground the trunk of this tree measures
31 feet three inches in circumference,
and at six feet from the gound, over 25
feet in circumference. At 12 feet from
the ground the trunk divides into four
large branches, three of which are
larger than any tree in the neighbor-
hood.

No one can tell how old this remark-
able tree is, and there is no record to
indicate its age. I am, however, in-
formed that the old farm house on this
place was built about 200 years ago and
the supposition is that the seed or
young tree from which this tree has
developed, was planted at the same
time. The size of the tree would lead
one to believe that it is from 150 to 200
years old, and it also shows that the
tree is of extraordinarily rapid growth,

98

which is no doubt due to its hybrid
origin, for if its rate of growth were the
same as that of our native walnut, it
would have had to be planted before
the settlement of Jamestown—1607—
in order to have attained its present
size.

I believe this tree to be a hybrid be-
tween our native butternut walnut
(Juglans cimeria) and the Persian, or
so-called English, walnut (/uglans
regia). The outer pericarp, or husk, of
the fruit resembles our common black
walnut (/uglans nigra). The nut also,
in many respects, resembles /uglans
nigra, but it is of larger size and of
elongated shape. The habit of the
tree, the growth of the branches, the
bark and the leaves, which are composed
of from five to seven pairs of leaflets,
their shape, entire margins and veining,
would indicate a very close relationship
to the Persian Walnut (/uglans regia).
The kernel of the nut is so small that
it is not considered of any value for
home use, and it certainly is of no com-
mercial value as an edible nut.

Prof. C. S. Sargent, of the Arnold
Arboretum, Jamaica Plains, Mass., who
has seen trees similar to this one, is
inclined to believe it to be a hybrid
between regia and nigra. I, however,
am lead to believe that it is a hybrid
between regia and cineria for the follow-
ing reasons:

The leaves of the hybrid have little
pubescent hairs at the base of and along
the veins of the leaflets that are entirely
lacking in any other species I know of.
The shape of the nut is more like cineria
than nigra, and upon examining a cross-

THE JAMES RIVER WALNUT TREE.

Professor C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum, Boston, called this the most remarkable
tree in the eastern United States. Vigor is its most marked characteristic—note its
size in comparison with the horse and buggy underneath. There is good reason to believe
that it is a hybrid, and Mr. Bisset finds strong evidence to show that it is a cross between
the common butternut and the Persian or so-called English Walnut. (Figure 1.)

99

(‘Z emmn31yq) “oyndsrp puodoq pojyyes oq pynoys weyqoid oy ‘vq 07 uiseq Aayy sv UOoOs sv pue ‘uUMOIS BUIAG MOU aIv Sd01} UOT eJoUes
puossg “Jo}JRT OY} JO JOARJ UL Soploop Jossig “APT ‘SYOHS-pnq jo aousosoqnd oy}-Jo pue ‘sadvay ay} Jo uostredutos v Aq ynq +ynuseyynq
poeyye Ajasopo oy IO ynuyTeA Yorrq oy} sem yuored Joy}O oy} JoYJOYM OF SB UOTPOTpUL o}es Aue dai8 yOu soop jfes}t ynu ayy jo souvivedde
ay ‘sjuered sjt jo ouo sem ynuyeA Ysysuq JO UvISIOg OY} JeY} JUIpR OF Apeai aymb st auo ‘yonpoid oy} Jo uoroedsur uv wory AToIOyy

“SLNANVd ATHISSOd SLI GNV Gia AH WELL

JON puqsy sJoAry souref (paaau1) *f) yNuUIEyNg
(p13a4 *f) ynUle A UPISIOdg (DAdIU * ff) WNULBM APL

100

4

Bisset: THE JAMES RIvER WALNUT

section of the nut it appears as if the
many fine lines, or divisions, of cineria
had become solidified in the nut of the
hybrid, thus causing the thick, hard
shell of the seedling.

There is a young walnut tree growing
a short distance from the old one (not
over 150 yards away), which is said to
have been raised from a seed borne by
the old tree and planted about 1860.
This is about the same height as the
parent tree, and has a trunk about two
and one-half feet in diameter. - Its
habit of growth, leaves, trunk, and bark
are similar in every respect to that of
the parent tree, with the single excep-
tion that the young twigs are heavily
covered with pubescent hairs, which it
would seem to have inherited from the
butternut parent (Juglans cineria.)

Neither of the trees are prolific bear-
ers, and what nuts they do bear seem
to be of extremely low vitality, as so
far we have not been able to learn of
any other seedling trees being grown
from them. The low vitality of the
seeds indicates a weakness that is not
at all uncommon in hybrids.

Professor Asa Gray was at one time
shown young fruits from the old walnut
tree, which he at once identified as
Juglans cineria; the shape of the nuts
being elongated and sharp-pointed, as
in that species; but much wider or
thicker. It is but just, however, to
say that no leaves accompanied the
specimen sent Professor Gray, to help
him in his identification.

There is one character in the leaves of
the old tree that resembles nigra, name-
ly, that the leaflets have the sickle-like
form of that species. Notwithstand-
ing this leaflet resemblance however, and
taking into consideration all of the
characteristics of the old tree, and
specially those of the young one (which,
I think, we may be permitted to call
the second generation) the shoots or
young twigs of which have reverted to,

101

or developed, the pubescent hairs of
cineria, I believe this walnut to be a
cross between regia and cineria, as
before stated.

Now as to the value of this tree and
similar hybrids, many have feared that,
owing to their rapidity of growth, there
would be danger of the scion overlap-
ping the stock, and a poor growth be ob-
tained as a result. Experiments being
carried on at the present time in Cali-
fornia, in grafting hybrid walnuts on
the native California Black, have shown
that the scion of the hybrid stimulates
the stock itself to a more rapid growth
and, therefore, we may find that the
rapidity of growth of the hybrids will
present no difficulties to the successful
propagation and utilization of these
hybrids for lumber production.

The soil upon which these two trees
are growing is an alluvial, rich, sandy
loam, of great depth, a soil well suited
to the best development of the walnut
tree.

In spite of this evidence, some of
my friends are inclined to doubt the
hybrid origin of this tree and to think
it probably an aberrant form of the
English walnut, as it is a well known
fact that this species presents many
variations or forms which yield nuts
with all kinds of shells varying from
that of the paper-shell variety, that can
be easily crushed between the fingers,
to the hard, thick-shelled varieties that
are used so extensively in Germany and
Switzerland in making small toys—the
toys being carved out of these nuts. If
the nuts borne by this tree were of
greater vitality we would soon be able
to determine without a doubt the par-
entage of the tree, for the young seed-
lings would show in their leaf characters
the usual variation of seedlings from
hybrids, but owing to this low vitality
of the seed, it will, I am afraid, be some
time before we can definitely decide
upon the parentage of the tree.

MARRIAGE SELECTION

Contribution of Superior People to the Race Much Diminished by Present
Educational System—Men Must be Made Independent Earlier and
Women’s Colleges Made Co-educational—Motherhood Should
Receive Greater Honor and Cynical Sex Teachings Be Avoided.

RoswELL HILL JOHNSON,
Professor of Biology and Geology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.

HE great principle of natural se-
| lection still furnishes the chief
| =motive power of evolution, even

though nowadays we believe the

lines are largely determined by the
nature of the variations which appear.
Now, in the study of human evolution
at least, it becomes necessary to dis-
tinguish three distinct kinds of natural
selection, for our social agencies affect
these three kinds differently. These
are lethal selection—that which oper-
ates by differential mortality; sexual se-
lection—that which operates by differ-
ential success in mating; and fecundal
selection—that which operates by dif-
ferential fecundity. Today it is sexual
selection, differential success in mating,
that I am to discuss under this title of
Marriage Selection. We may call it
marriage selection, inasmuch as the
extra-marital relations are largely ster-
ile, for one reason or another, which we
need not here analyze.

Sexual selection in man has one sharp
distinction from that in the inferior
species. In the latter, because of the
larger role of instinct and the lesser role
of social regulation and judgment,
nearly all the individuals mate. There
are very few unmated females and very
few unmated males, except in species
having severe male combat, when mate-
lessness is the result of defeat. Where
combat prevails, the main result of
sexual selection is to cause a disparity of
size and strength between the sexes and
to accentuate bodily weapons, such as
horns, canine teeth, spurs, and the like.

Since the disparity of size and

strength between the sexes in man is no
greater than that in the anthropoid
apes, there is no evidence that male
combat played a large role in the dawn-
man. Indeed, the great reduction in
the canine teeth indicates that combat
has played a smaller role as time has
passed, and fortunately so.

COULD NOT OPERATE ALONE.

Sexual selection in primitive man, as
soon as individual combat was reduced,
operated very slightly, if unaided. Its
effectiveness depended largely upon the
co-operation of lethal and fecundal selec-
tion. Thus in warfare, the males of the
defeated tribes were frequently killed,
and the females taken as additional
wives. Or, even when all eventually
mated, some, who possessed a specially
desirable characteristic to a higher de-
gree, were chosen earlier and thereby
had more progeny, or they were chosen
by the superior, whose progeny would
in some cases inherit a greater viability.

It is very probable that many of our
esthetic attributes, such as musical and
artistic ability, which are difficult to
account for by lethal selection, have
been produced by sexual selection.

In modern man we have the contrast
of an unprecedented number of un-
mated individuals. This condition has
developed with the growth of romantic
love, which is the exclusive preference
for a very long period for one mate
over all others. As Finck has pointed
out, this has been very much accen-
tuated from the time of Petrarch on.

Now if these unmated individuals

Address made before the National Conference on Race Betterment, Battle Creek, Mich.,

January 12, 1914.
102

JOHNSON: MARRIAGE SELECTION

103

GENERATIONS
—

Le >
THREE FOUR
( ’
ONE
CENTURY
8 16
43 %

THE EFFECT OF LATE MARRIAGES.

Given a population divided into two equal parts, one of which produces a new genera-

tion every 25 years and the other every 334 years, the diagram shows that
the former group will outnumber the latter two to one, at the end of a century.
The result illustrated 1s actually taking place with various groups of the popula-
tion of the United States. For economic reasons, many superior people are
postponing the age of marriage. The diagram shows graphically how they are
losing ground, in comparison with other sections of the population which marry
only a few years earlier, on the average. It is assumed in the diagram that
all persons in the two groups marry, and that each couple produces four

children. (Figure 3.)

differ from the others in any important
respect, sexual selection is very impor-
tant. Or if we can alter the percentage
of the unmated in different classes,
sexual selection may become very po-
tent. ;

It is obvious that the innately medi-
ocre individuals are most numerous,
and that both the markedly superior
and inferior by nature are far less com-
mon. I mean by superior those who
are individually happier and socially
more useful than the average. The
mental characteristics, at least in such
a category, are too complex for a unit
character treatment, even if such super-
iority is built up by unit characteris-
tics.

WHY MEN DO NOT MARRY.

We must consider then what causes
the failure to mate and what ‘s the
quality of each of these classes. Taking
the men we have:

1> The: cultivation of a taste: for

sexual variety and a consequent un-
willingness to submit to the restraints
of marriage.

2. Infection by venereal disease.

3. Pessimism in regard to women
from such experiences.

4. Deficiency in normal sexual feel-
ing or perversion.

5. Deficiency of one kind or another
causing difficulty in getting an accept-
able mate.

The persons in these five groups are,
as a class, inferior. This inferiority is
in part innate and in part the result of
bad environment. But since innate in-
feriority is so frequently a large factor,
we can conclude that the group as a
whole will average innately inferior.

Then there are two other classes,
largely superior by nature:

6. Those who seek some other end
so ardently that they will not make the
necessary sacrifice in money and free-
dom to marry.

7. Those whose likelihood of early

104 THE JOURNAL

marriage is reduced by a prolonged edu-
cation and apprenticeship.

We see that the action of sexual se-
lection in regard to males, while favor-
able in some ways, is in great need of
improvement. Such efforts may be
made along three lines.

MEANS OF IMPROVEMENT.

1. Try to lead all young men to
avoid a loose sexual life and venereal
disease. A general effort will be heeded
more by the superior than by the
inferior.

2. Hold up the role of husband and
father as particularly honorable, and
proclaim its shirking, without adequate
cause, as dishonorable. For a man to
say he has never met a girl whom he
can love, simply means he has not dili-
gently sought one, or else he has a
deficient emotional equipment, for there
are many, surprisingly many, estimable,
attractive, unmarried women.

3. Cease prolonging the educational
period past the early twenties. The
professional schools in our country are
steadily delaying the age of graduation
and thereby that of marriage. They
formerly asked for High School train-
ing, and many still ask no more. But
other schools have demanded more and
more, till now one requires a collegiate
bachelor’s degree for entrance. The
situation is made still more serious for
medical students by the frequent post-
graduate hospital practice without pay.
It is time to call a halt. This cannot
go on without serious loss to the race.
Our young men should not have their
marriage postponed by external cir-
cumstances past 25 years. This means
we must allow students to specialize
earlier. If there is need of limiting the
number of candidates, let us have com-
petitive entrance examinations. We
must have our superior men marrying
earlier, even at some cost to their early
efficiency. The high efficiency of any
profession can be more safely kept up
by demanding a minimum amount of
continuation work in afternoon, even-
ing or seasonal classes, laboratories or
clinics. No more graduate fellowships
should be established till those now

oF HEREDITY

existing carry a stipend adequate for
marriage.

WHY WOMEN REMAIN SINGLE.

Now we come to the consideration of
sexual selection in women. Are the
unmated inferior?

We do find some inferior individuals,
such as those unattractive in manner
and appearance, wholly as the result of
poor health. This may be either in-
herited or else the result of ignorance
frequently due to mental inferiority.
Others are unattractive because of the
absence of all sex feeling, or of some
physical abnormality. And still others
are unmated because they have fallen
into ways of loose living, some as the
direct result of innate defects such as
feeble-mindedness, unusual susceptibil-
ity to suggestion, or sexual hyperes-
thesia.

On the other hand, when we have
passed these groups of women, we find
large groups that are distinctly superior.
Some of these have had their chance of
marriage reduced by going to women’s
colleges, others through engaging in
preéminently feminine occupations, such
as the teaching of children, yielding
meagre opportunities to associate with
men, or others through living in those
cities that have an undue proportion of
women. Then there are besides these,
superior women who, because they are
brought up in families without brothers
or brothers’ friends, are so unnaturally
shy that they are unable to become
friendly with men, however much they
may care to. There are still others who
repel men by a manner of extreme self-
repression and coldness, sometimes the
result of parents’ or teachers’ over-
zealous efforts to inculcate modesty
and reserve, things valuable in due
degree, but bad in excess.

In order to present to you the serious-
ness of the situation I attach the results
of a study made by my student, Miss
Helen D. Murphey. This deals with
the graduates of Washington Seminary,
in Washington, Pennsylvania, a second-
ary school for women founded in 1837,
greatly antedating the first woman’s
college which opened in 1865. You will

>

JOHNSON: MARRIAGE SELECTION

see' that the marriage rate has de-
clined. The drop in the ’60s is due to
the Civil War. You will also notice
that the percentage engaged in
occupations other than housewifery
has increased progressively. It is
not clear which of these occurrences is
causal.

BIRTH RATE ALSO LOW.

The ominousneess of this declining
marriage rate is aggravated by the
low birth rate which these same women
are found to contribute. Now com-
bining these results to get the birth
rate of the graduates as a whole, we
have a most discouraging result.2, No-
tice that only the earliest classes, with
one or two exceptions, have enough
children to reproduce the class. And
this is not a college, and is not in New
England, but in the same small city as
Washington and Jefferson College, a
much larger institution for men. If
then under these favorable conditions,
the marriage rate is so low, and marriage
is so late,* we may infer that the low
rate is widespread.

Let us now examine some of the re-
sults thus far attained in a study of
Wellesley College data, made by my
student, Miss Bertha Stutzmann.

Taking the Wellesley graduates of

105

the classes 1905 to 1912 inclusive, it
was found that 19.1 per cent. of them
were already married in the fall of 1912,
when the facts were collected. But for
graduates whose scholarship was suffi-
ciently high to entitle them to member-
ship in the honor society, Phi Beta
Kappa, the ratio of marriage to that of
those who did not make this society
was as 15 to 19. In other words, high
scholarship in college women is (in this
case at least) not found to be an aid to
marriage, while in the normal school
girls the opposite was the case. It
seems fair to assume that intellectuality
in women is normally attractive to men,
if these women do not neglect their
social opportunities.

We see from this that the Wellesley
alumnae have a very low marriage and
birth rate. There is only one mitigat-
ing circumstance, that these women
have married superior men. Out of
the last 15 recently reported engage-
ments which I noted, seven are to
college or university alumni, although
college graduates make up but about
1% of the whole population.

That college women are superior to
the average woman is a safe inference.
However, we may use another criterion
of superiority. Eminence may be meas-
ured by space in collective biographies.

1The relation between the decline of the marriage rate and the number of women entering
professions is shown by the following figures taken at five year intervals, where A represents
the percentage married and B the percentage who have gone into some occupation other than

home-making:

"45 50 os) ‘G0, © “05
iN SA eRe ade ora me 78 80 74 is 67
LES: Lee eean o aan 20 14 13 20 12

70 13 "80 "85 OO 95 "00
63 72 63 99 56 57 58
14 19 17 30 26 30 39

2The figures, summed at periods of five years, are as follows, when A represents the years
in which the women graduated, B the total number of graduates, C the total number of their
children and D the number of children per graduate:

MADRE ee ttles Foes etek tote "45 "50 259 O05 65
Bebe Hee batetce oes 46 86 101 98 69
ONS Ae St Ae Tees LO an pl (3 81
1D eer aceare. Beare ah ei ead 74-118

70 75 "80 85 90 ‘O35, 200
62 43 98) oh 1S) S Sh00® 17, ds
70 29) 1097" S530 oko med lefihy 7/5:
DS LS, ea ACES S3> 21127 eGo

3A graph plotted to elucidate this point shows that a large majority of the women marry
four or five years after graduation, but the number of those marrying after 10 years is not very
much less than that of the girls who become brides in the first or second year after graduation.

4In this same tabulation, it was found that

the alumnz of Wellesley College who were

members of Phi Beta Kappa had an average of .065 of a child, each, while the rate for the girls
who had not attained similar distinction in scholarship was .085.

106

Miss Castle’s figures’ show a correlation
of eminence with a very late age at
marriage and a consequent decreased
racial contribution.

DELAY IS SERIOUS.

The objection has been made that
eugenists are too much disturbed by
this late marriage of superior women.
To postpone marriage seriously reduces
the likelihood of marriage. The critic
says that late marrying women will
have their children closer together and
so eventually have as many. But the
facts as collected by Miss Smith do not
bear this out. Furthermore, the late
marriage of superior persons cuts down
their contribution to the race stream,
because the years of fertility left to the
wife are reduced. (Now that the aver-
age of human life is prolonged, the cli-
macteric seems to come on startlingly
soon to many of these late married
women). Again, late marriages are
relatively ineffective because of the
lengthened generation. Suppose a gen-
eration to be 25 years or 33 1-3 years
respectively in two different stocks, and
that all persons marry and each couple
have four surviving children or two per
parent. The result (fig. 3) is that the
25-vear stock constitutes two-thirds
of the population at the end of a
century.

Is it not imperative that something
be done to raise the marriage rate of all
superior women? ‘To this end we must
dissuade superior men from shirking

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

marriage. If these superior men would
keep their sex records clean, they would
not suffer the severe depreciation which
they do sustain in the eyes of superior
women. But let us not take that am-
biguous shibboleth “‘the single standard
of morals’’ to mean a general sex strike,
that is, ostracizing every man who has
had illicit sex experience. This is too
extreme. Early offenses where infec-
tion did not occur or has been positively
cured, though properly considered a se-
vere drawback, should not be perpetual-
ly condemning when followed by reform
and real love. Such an unforgiving and
uncompromising position can not be ap-
proved, because it leads a very large
number of women into celibate lives,
with a serious dysgenic result. In addi-
tion it increases the temptations_of the
men left unmarried. These extremists
must remember that it is hard to get
men to marry at even a normal rate, as
current statistics abundantly prove.
Therefore, the threat of a sex strike will
never enforce chastity. Slow and hard
as it is, we must content ourselves to
build-up a sounder moral basis by better
attested methods.

HONOR FOR MOTHERHOOD.

Inappreciation of wifehood and
motherhood by misguided feminists
must cease, and greater honor and ap-—
preciation must be meted out to moth-
ers, in order to more than compensate
for the recognition that women earn
in rival occupations. Women should

‘The following table from C. S. Castle (Statistics of Eminent Women, in Pop. Sci., Mo., June
13) shows the age at which eminent women in history have married:

Century

Average Age Range No. of Cases

rae 16.2 8-30 5
Ey 16.6 12-29 5
ete se er 13.8 6-18 11
Re a Ae. LO 13-26 20
eae SB So Bilal 12-50 28
Sea 20.0 13-43 50
AERP ines ta: 23.1 13-53 127
26.2 15-67 189

It is to be noted, furthermore, that if the American women of the 19th century in this table
are separated, their average age at marriage is found to be 27.7 instead of 26.2.

Thorndike’s statistics on marriages among college women (1901) show that:
45 per cent. of college women marry before the age of 40.
90 per cent. of all United States women marry before the age of 40.
96 per cent. of Arkansas women marry before the age of 40.
80 per cent. of Massachusetts women marry before the age of 40.

_In Massachusetts 30 per cent. of all women have married at the age at. which college women

are just graduating.

(Marriage among college women.

Outlook, October 5, ’01.)

JOHNSON: MARRIAGE SELECTION

properly be permitted to do any work
they wish, not incompatible with their
well-being; but greater honor and esteem
is due those who have not shirked the
paramount function and_ responsibili-
ties of motherhood.

While waiting for separate colleges
to become co-educational, as they
eventually will, their present dysgenic
tendency can probably be reduced by
the gradual introduction of men teach-
ers into the women’s colleges. Women
professors tend to foster celibate career-
hunting, which, attractive as it is to
many young women at first, 1n most
cases 1s eventually unsatisfying. Fur-
thermore, the introduction of courses
dealing with the home and the child
would give college women increased
interest in and eagerness for that
noblest profession of home-making and
motherhood.

Let us not err in our efforts to teach
chastity by making sex appear an evil
thing. This is a terrible mistake and
all too common. One of my students,
referring to a widely read sex book for
young men, said one would infer from
it that all married men suffer a serious
sacrifice in health. I am confident that
much of the celibacy of women may be
blamed to ill-balanced mothers and
others who, in word or attitude, build
up an impression that sex is indecent
and bestial, and engender a general,
damaging suspicion of men.

CAUTION IN SEX EDUCATION.

It is necessary to keep our heads level
in the sex ethics campaign. The vene-
real diseases will probably, if we can con-
tinue our present progress in treatment
and prophylaxis, be brought under con-
trol in the course of a century, while the
problem of differential mating and the

6The following figures by Shinn (Marriage of college women.

107

fecundity of the superior stocks will be
with us as long as the race lasts, which
we may expect to be tens of millions of
years. Let us not present too luridly,
by drama, novel, or magazine story,
dramatic and highly-colored individual
sex histories. These often impress an
abnormal situation on sensitive girls so
strongly that aversion to marriage or
sex antagonism is sometimes aroused.

The facts should be presented in a
more dispassionate, scientific, propor-
tioned, and psychologically sound way
—not by cynics, but by competent, ex-
perienced, sweet-minded persons.

Eligible young people should have
their circle of acquaintances broadened.
Co-education,® I believe, is one of the
best means, as associating the best
groups. But many other means should
be encouraged. We have in this: a
further justification of cards, dancing
and theatres. That these may some-
times be pursued intemperately need
not condemn them universally. These
and other social devices extend the
range of acquaintance, and also give
the necessary time for mutual estimates
and friendships. Others besides par-
ents should feel some obligation to
afford these social opportunities to
young people. Surfeit for some indi-
viduals and dearth for others calls for
curtailment here and encouragement
there.

SELECTION CAN BE IMPROVED.

I now pass to the consideration of
the objection so frequently heard that
the selection of mates in man cannot
possibly be improved, because it is
wholly a personal and capricious thing.
But the objectors on this score ignore
the fact that three mental stages are
normally passed through in this mate-

Century, October, 1895) show

the marriage rate of college women, assuming graduation at 22 years of age:

Women Over

Co-ed. Separate
Fe am ee 38.1 | 29.6
Me yt RRA ee od 49.7 40.1
ge ALN eh coh 53°46 46.6
Veo, eee 56.9 Sues:

Women in general marry most frequently at 20-25 years of age.
College women marry most frequently at 25-30 years of age.

108 THE JOURNAL

choosing process. They fall into error
by concentrating attention on the last,
most obvious, emotional, ‘‘love-is-blind”
stage. The first involves the broad de-
termination of our associates. The
second is the narrowing of choice to
those whom we specially admire and
elect as friends. The last is the actual
“falling in love.”

One “of the chief factors in this first
stage is the structure of the social unit
to which we belong. How frequently
matings are determined by the school,
church, or neighborhood! Then there
is another group, composed of our par-
ents’ chosen friends, with whose chil-
dren we are naturally thrown. The
mother who sends her girl to the univer-
sity rather than into the thé dansant set,
determines largely the type of her
daughter’s fiancé, not only because her
associates are different in the two cases,
but because the girl’s ideals will be dif-
ferently built up. The young man who
goes with fast girls is indirectly deter-
mining the kind of girl he will marry
—if, indeed, he is not thereby led to
abandon marriage. During this second
stage of more intensive associations or
friendships, there is clear-headed dis-
crimination, before the emotions have
become imperious. I believe that the
period of mere friendliness is longer in
most cases than the period of conscious
loving before marriage. So we see the

oF HEREDITY

choice of a mate is not ordinarily
capricious.

ASSORTATIVE MATING.

To show you that marriage selection
does really operate, I have collected in
a table the cases so far observed show-
ing assortative mating’. This may be
defined as the degree to which like mates
with like. This does not have as great
a eugenic significance as preferential
mating, but the latter has not yet been
so well demonstrated. Assortative mat-
ing has the value, however, of building
up the unusually able brains the world
needs. In this table 1 expresses per-
fect assortative mating, that is, each
degree always mating with the corre-
sponding degree. O expresses random
mating. You will notice in the royal
families that assortative mating is low
because interfered with for _ state
reasons.

My student, Miss Carrie F. Gilmore,
has found a preferential mating in
facial appearance and class marks.

Thus in the class of 1902 of the South-
western State Normal School of Penn-
sylvania, where the marriage rate of
graduates is 43.7 per cent. (status in
1912), it is found that the marriage rate
among the girls who got marks of 90
or over in their studies is about 56 per
cent.

TASSORTATIVE MATING.

Trait

Stature (Eng. Mid. Class)
Stature

Age

Centalie iheka => Ren eta. a cree ate rae ee
1B echina lo Cee ret se OCC a Cae reer Mech oR Pia rec Pe
Normality (Fam. With Crim’ls)................
LON CVIEY perma ciee oh ere eee Fan one tier eas
Intelligence
MOM PER ors9) oie oF 6,77 Else a ae oe age wrk ate ayshecas
Excitability
Sympathy
FREED Cie 's. slate Wi doi 4 (Pentti ade oan WSL ies a eae ne ae
Success in career
Insanity
Intelligence (royal)

1= pole

Investigator Index | Probable Error
| Pearson-Galton + .09 | + .04
Pearson + . 2804 + .0189
| Lutz +.75 +,
| Boas +.15 +.10
Schuster + .90 +.
Goring +.11 +.
Warren et al + .22 + .02
| Elderton et al + .33 +.
Elderton et al +.18 +.
_ Elderton et al +.11 +.
Elderton et al +.15 +.
Elderton et al + .27 +.
Elderton et al + .48 +.
Elderton et al + .30 + .05
Woods + .80 + .076

JOHNSON: MARRIAGE SELECTION

Preferential mating is also indicated
in the data’ regarding college women
and their non-college sisters, cousins,
and friends as collected by Miss M. R.
Smith.

FORCE OF PUBLIC OPINION.

Marriage selection is under some de-
gree of legal control through marriage
and divorce laws. Those who main-
tain’ that mating is wholly capricious
forget the very considerable extent to
which social control has made itself
effective in the past. Indeed, many of
the prohibitions are now relaxed, such
as the notorious deceased wife’s sister
provision. It is obvious that marriage
laws should make as few restrictions as
possible without strong reason. A min-
imum age and a high degree of con-
sanguinity have been an almost uni-
versal matter for legislation or enforced
custom. And let it be noted, their ob-
ject has been primarily eugenic. A re-
lationship closer than that of cousin
should constitute a prohibition. Yet
cousin marriage need not be denied ex-
cept in the event of that branch of the

109

family, common to the cousins in ques-
tion, having individuals with certain
specified defects. The suggestion that
proposed cousin marriages should be
passed upon by a state eugenic board,
although biologically sound, does not
seem so from the sociological standpoint.
In case of an adverse decision, there
would follow either broken hearts or a
liaison, for the hope of a favorable deci-
sion would have engendered a strong
attachment. Freedom from venereal
disease—at least for men—must be at-
tested. to by competent physicians by
competent tests, the state assuming a
share of the financial burden. It does
not seem wise, however, to demand
freedom from all mental and physical
defects, for if the defect is very serious,
a surer method must be employed than
the withholding of a marriage license.
If it is less than very serious and not
pernicious, we are not justified in pro-
hibiting marriage, provided it is the
earnest intention of the couple not to
reproduce. In the event. of such a
marriage proving fertile, sterilization
would prevent a second offense.

8COLLEGIATE ALUMNAE Data, 1900.

M. R. Smith, Statistics of college and non-college women.

Pub. Amer. Stat. Assn., VII. p. 1.

Percentage of Married | College Neu Collec
(WnGerZShy Cars Ae Aeck eek dete Ole anand: sacle Se Raine cher ee 8.6 30.1
Sa CET aR Maid trea Pha Sta aoe Rete ir SM nn ERA Bete tea ths tie | 83.2 | 64.9
S15) EVAL OMONG S pelt eis Ss Ue ee CREE gent Na ee gi Beene aN aie eee 8.0 5.0

26.3 college

2 sisters |

2 friends

oat | |e
Age at Marriage\ 94 °7 cousins ies

(24.

| No. of Children | Per cent. Childless at time

Cintas cL heat ear HATE

251130
17.89

Where Wife ts

Occupations of Husbands per cent. College Equiv. Non-College
Wolpeleacherss. nel Sie Ol hods Laas Moot Sieet S a LS 65.9 51.4
(Oy HaVerPe NER Vel aver coed) 8 oni ch ai, bee eee MPR ies. Re cma Rie TSS 11.8
IL BINATEIS Aiphone Been obo: eee ta amen one Ena Sa EE geste 1527 11.2
IRV SICIATICH RN ter etn eerie Ais NNR Ae fuels Oh ee rd Shdatigienc ane Mie 9.0 8.6
SGLEMS Steg eh ORES MAC TEA ener Mee Penance arson eaten Sacre BAY | 0.6
Clkesrentaanvsidl ahve ord cr teks Gavede, Sel cho ete ee CR NOD ea Ce eee oir 7.0 4.8
TANTEI eee GEE it Ser ee Shay eee 0.9 0.3
Income of Husbands bh College made. NO ‘Childe
BERS tlic be Oe Own. Sralinad Un eee 2d BARS Sind 24.5 36;7
SPEOQOORG Oro a OOK ET. eee sc Aint Oho i var, agllog) Moat ee Lta scutes seeks. gh oo | 46.5 44.1
OVEEEBO OOD ae acvc tebe eevee. Bellew tee eS Bigs, see Ziel 16.9 :

110

Miscegenation of certain races may
properly be controlled as far as possible
by the refusal of marriage licenses and
by public opinion. This will unfor-
tunately result in cases of individual
injustice, but is nevertheless racially
necessary. The proposition to refer
doubtful cases of mixed blood to the
state eugenic board is objectionable, for
the same reasons as above.

THE DIVINE QUESTION

While society may deny the right to
marry only for grave cause, it should be
glad to divorce pairs whose progeny are
not desirable. This for the reason that
in one case society is acting against the
will of the two parties. In the second
case both the two parties concerned and
society profit by the divorce. Divorce
is far preferable to separation, since the
unoffending party should not be denied
the privilege of remarriage, as the race
in most cases needs his or her contribu-
tion to the next generation. Divorce,
it must be remembered, is ordinarily just
a legal recognition of a separation that
already exists. The time-honored and
justifiable grounds of adultery, steril-
ity, impotence, venereal infection,
desertion, non-support, and habitual
cruelty are no more worthy of legal rec-
ognition than the cacogenic grounds
of drunkenness, feeble - mindedness,
epilepsy, insanity, or other specified

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

serious mental, moral, or phys cal de-
fects.

For sexual selection to work at its
best, it is desirable that the mated per-
sons be as superior as possible to the un-
mated. Is it not, then, a social blunder
to deny divorce to a married pair, if one
of them at least is inferior? We hear
much of a divorce evil but we have in
reality a divorce remedy for the evil of
ill-mated pairs.

Dysgenic marriage we can not pre-
vent as frequently as would be desirable,
because we have not the co-operating
will of the couple. When, in such un-
desirable marriages, the individuals
come to see their mistake, society should
gladly welcome the prompt undoing of
the marriage bond.

In closing let me urge you to do all
in your power to correct this growing
tendency to postpone if not to abandon
marriage entirely, on the part of our
superior young people. Hold out mar-
riage as one of the ends of a useful,
normal, beautiful life. Help superior
young people to meet, and encourage
and further their early marriage. Give
more honor and appreciation to those
who have married well and have had
adequate children. And in whatever
ways you properly can, reduce this ap-
palling percentage of superior celibates
who are thus pulling down the quality
of the human race.

ANNUAL MEETING OF ASSOCIATION

The annual meeting of members of the American Genetic Association was held
in the Cosmos Club at Washington on January 8. The secretary reported that
more than 200 new members had been received during the last year, in spite of
the fact that the work of the association was suspended during the greater part
of the year. The membership on the first of January was 1837, of whom, however,
313 were delinquent in their dues. The membership at the present time is in-
creasing at the rate of more than a hundred each month. The number of foreign
members is increasing with exceptional rapidity.

The treasurer’s report showed that expenses of the year had just about been
met by the income, leaving the guarantee fund intact, to meet the increased
expenditures due to the publication of the magazine as a monthly.

The council for 1914 was elected as follows:

One-year term: Alexander Graham Bell, W. E. Castle, Bleecker Van Wagenen.

Two-year term: O. F. Cook, David Fairchild, Arthur W. Gilbert.

Three-year term: George M. Rommel, T. H. Kearney, W. C. Rucker.

At the annual meeting of the council, the present officers were all re-elected.

President Fairchild announced the make-up of the research committees for
1914, as printed on the back cover of the present issue of the Journal.

SEEKING PLANT IMMIGRANTS

Explorations in Asiatic Russia, in Search of New and Valuable Plants Suitable
for Introduction to the United States—Desert Flora not Rich
in Species—Small Forests Established in Pure and
Moving Sand—Fruits Mostly of Common-
place Character—Trying
Conditions of Work.

FRANK N. MEYER
Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington D. C.

Although plant breeders realize in a general way that new material is constantly
being furnished to them, and that new crops from time to time make their public ap-
pearance and assume a prominent place in our agriculture, while old ones are frequent-
ly being zmproved by the spread of newer and better forms, few understand in just what
way these new plant immigrants are secured. It has seemed, therefore, that an account
of some of the work done in Asiatic Russia by an American citizen of Dutch birth,
Frank N. Meyer of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, would prove of great interest
to American plant breeders, while his graphic pictures of these semi-civilized coun-
tries are certain to attract the general reader as well. The following article is made
up solely of extracts from Mr. Meyer’s letters to his chief, the scientific names being
in the form used by him and not neccessarily the form accepted by the botanists of
the Department. The illustrations are all from his original photographs—The Editor.

ASKABAD, TURKESTAN. Baku. In the afternoon we left again

June 7, 1910.

ELL now, you'll no doubt
be interested to know how
I got..into**@entral Asia.

We left Baku on Monday
night, May 30, and landed the next
afternoon in Krasnawodsk, where we
found a few police officers and gen-
darmes asking us for our passports.
My name had been booked already for
months and I was informed that all
my requests to explore and photograph
had been granted and that the various
authorities had been instructed to
assist me. On June 1, I received my
passport back and left in the afternoon
for Kizil-arwat, where according to
my interpreter’s belief many rare
Persian seeds could be obtained. When
we arrived there the next day, we didn’t
find it to be so, as most of the Persian
population had shifted to Askabad and

for Bachar-den, a small town near to
the mountains, where some fine native
vegetation, was said to occur.

To obtain a cart consumed the whole
next day (June 3) but we left at four
o’clock in the morning of June 4. Our
cartman, a conceited Armenian, pro-
fessed to know the country, but—at
eight o’clock we were quite at a loss
where we were and we camped in the
open. On June 5 we found a soldiers’
post, for we were close to the Persian
frontier, and made our headquarters
there for that day and on June 6 we
returned again to Bachar-den. I found
some interesting plants during these
days; an ornamental Eremurus, a few
species of Tamarix, an Acer, Cerasus
microcarpa, Prunus sp., Rhus sp., in-
teresting grasses, etc. We made a
goodly pile of herbarium material
which will reach you in due time.

111

WILD MAPLE OF TURKESTAN.

This unidentified species of Acer grows on the hottest, dryest and most arid slopes of the

112

mountains of Bachar-den, at elevations of 5,000 feet and over. Its small leaves vary
widely in shape, all forms being found from tri-lobed to entire. It probably has some
value as an ornamental in the most severe parts of the southwestern United States. (Fig. 4.)

,

MEYER: SEEKING PLANT

IMMIGRANTS 113

*

ae

PRUNUS MICROCARPA AT HOME.

Central Asia contains many varieties of hardy plums, some of which are already valuable
commercially, while others offer most promise as stocks on which to graft improved

varieties for propagation in desert regions.

Even in their wild state, the fruits are prized

by the natives of Turkestan, and with a little cultivation they are considerably improved.
This photograph of P. microcarpa (standing in the center of the picture) was made on June
4, 1910, in the mountains of Bachar-den, Russian Turkestan. (Fig. 5.)

IMPRESSIONS UNFAVORABLE.

I cannot say that my first impressions
of Central Asia are so very pleasant,
after having seen so much of the
beautiful Caucasus. There is much
heat, much dust, much vermin here,
and relatively little comfort—even
washing water is hard to get. The
vegetation too, is, as could be expected,
not very varied in general. Around the
houses and railway stations one finds
mostly our Acacias (Robinia pseud-
acacia), Azlanthus glandulosus, Ulmus
pumila, U. campestris, Populus bolleana,
Sophora japonica, Koelreuteria pani-
culata, Morus alba, Gleditsia triacanthos
and here and there an Osage Orange
(Toxylon pomiferum). All those trees
are periodically irrigated. If not, they

die within one or two years. In
Krasnawodsk, hc wever, where it is quite
mild in winter, !| noticed a beautiful
flowering bush, Poinciana gilliesit, which
thrives with very little irrigation;
Elaeagnus angustifolia, Populus diversi-
folia, and a species of Saxaul-bush
(Ammodendron?) also need very little
water. There are, however, apparently
few trees to be found that resist the
aridity of the Central Asian plains,
where hot summers are followed by cold
winters, while high winds blow very
frequently both winter and summer.
The trees that looked the best are the
native form of Ulmus campestris, the
Chinese Azlanthus glandulosa and the
North American Robinia pseud-acacia.

(‘9 Bt) ‘Butysory, Aq poseulep yeyMOLUOS st jt Jl UaA Lyle
dy} wo ATIPRat [IM speurvo ITaY} sous ‘soATyeU oy} 07 aIQeIYoOId ATpaprloop padoid sey apes} oy, “IeoA Yoo spunod jo spursnoyy
jO Spoapuny 0} SurjUNOU! poss Jo y10dxa Penuue oy} poyuadod jou sey sty Inq ‘paarf-j4oys JeYMOUIOS st vI[eI[e uvJsoyxIN | oy} ‘syodxo
URISSNY 0} BSuIpIosy ‘Sojye}g poyuUA oy} soop ueyy AyHUeNd Jo9sIe] ve soyxe] vooUy YINOG ‘ssos1o[dxo uvoLoUNy Aq peshea
-pe oJoM AIJUNOD 4YeY} OF DATVEU SoTJOTIVA JY} JO S}JOU! OY} DOUIS ‘URISOyIN], Ul payveId udeq sey poos BI[P}[B Ul opel} SNoWOUe UY

SVO AYHIN GAH WOW VAIVATY

114

”

MEYER: SEEKING PLANT IMMIGRANTS

115

SHORE OF THE CASPIAN SEA.

Various species of Tamarix, woody Chenopodiaceae and other salt-loving plants grow fairly
luxuriantly. These Central Asian tamarisks promise to have some value for the desert
of the south-western United States, as they grow vigorously even in moving sand, binding

it together, and furnishing a fuel supply to desert dwellers.

They often grow in soil of

which the surface is covered by a thick, white deposit of alkali, and many species produce

attractive flowers.

AGRICULTURE IN SAMARKAND.

SAMARKAND, TURKESTAN,
June 27, 1910.

Alone in Samarkand! My assistant
got tidings from home yesterday that
his presence was urgently needed, as the
man in charge of his farm was severely
injured by a horse, and he left me. The
interpreter had left the day before, as
his eyesight and general health had
become rather bad these last days on
account of the great heat, and so it has
come to pass that I am left alone in this
far-away land, with only a mere smatter-
fog of Russian and no knowledge at all
in the Sart language, which is much

Photographed at Krasnawodsk, Turkestan, June 1, 1910.

(Fig. 7.)

spoken here. I’ll get out of it, however.
We found a German, who may be willing
to go with me; his looks, however,
didn’t please me, and to go with a
stranger in some out-of-the-way places,
with the necessarily large amount of
money I generally have with me, is not
a safe proceeding.

Well, my last letter was from Ask-
abad, dated June 9, 1910, and it was
again a holiday, of which the Russians
only keep about thirty-eight a year.
The next day I went with the inter-
preter to the Experiment Station about
four werst from thecity. There wasn’t
much to see: some plots with cotton,
some alfalfa fields, various beans and
a tree-nursery, where somewhat more

116

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

DESERT POPLAR OF TURKESTAN.
Populus pruinosa in the city park at Krasnawodsk. Although it is difficult to propagate,

this tree is highly desirable for desert regions, as it needs almost no water.

The wood

is hard and lasting, but it does not attain great size. (Fig. 8.)

weeding could be indulged in without
any harm.

On Saturday, June 11, we wanted to
leave early, but I got a message from
the police to appear before them.
Something new, I thought. Well, we
went and the whole thing was nothing
but a curiosity to see me. The captain,
or whatever his rank was, asked my
interpreter whether I really was a bot-
anist, whether I only had interest in
plants, and more such suspicious ques-
tions. He then told us that permissions
had come from St. Petersburg, allowing
me to photograph trees and plants only,
and that for every locality I wanted to
visit, I had to get a special permission
either written or verbal, depending
upon the importance of the place. But

under no consideration would I be
granted permission to go to the Afghan-
istan frontier, as foreigners were not

allowed! Well, I knew already most
of these matters, having made enquiries
beforehand. We thanked the police-
officer kindly and I was glad to have my
pas-port back again, which they had
kept all the time I was in Askabad.

ARRIVAL AT MERW.

We left the same day for Merw,
where we arrived after midnight. The
next day, June 12, was exceedingly
hot, and the light so intense as to make
one almost dizzy. We took out the
collected herbarium material, which
wasn’t all dry yet, and gave it an airing
—much trouble herbarium material
causes on a journey! In Merw there is
a pretty park, where tall specimens of
poplars occur (Populus alba pyramid-
alis). I also saw there for the first time
in my life some fine large specimens
of the ‘‘Karakach”’ (Ulmus campestris

MEYER: SEEKING PLANT

IMMIGRANTS

S|

ih : Mo ee ae, Nw

IN THE CITY PARK AT MERW.

The most conspicuous trees, and the ones best adapted to arid portions of the United States,
are the white poplar (Populus alba bolleana) in the center, and the Karakach (Ulmus

campestris umbraculifera) at the right.

The white poplar is the principal lumber tree in

Turkestan and is widely planted, the trees being sometimes no more than five feet apart.

They are free from disease and grow rapidly, even on rather alkaline soils.

It can be

pollarded successfully. The species is doubtless native of Chinese Turkestan, and is there-
fore thoroughly accustomed to a severe desert climate. (Fig. 9.)

umbraculifera); very striking trees they
are, with their umbrella-like shape and a
dense mass of rather small foliage.
These trees will be highly appreciated
by our settlers in the desert regions.
These elms, although drought-resistant,
have to be watered. Other trees in that
park are Acer negundo, Robinia pseud-
acacia, Sophora japonica, Azrlanthus
glandulosa, Gleditsia triacanthos, Salix
babylonica, Toxylon pomiferum, Catalpa
bignonioides, Morus alba,Cydonia vulgaris,
Prunus armeniaca and Pirus communis.

A OERMAN SETTLEMENT.

On Monday, January 13, there was a
great market held in Merw; Turcomans,
Afghans, Kirghisians and many other
wild looking inhabitants of these re-

gions here, mingled through one another.
The products that were brought in
were mostly very poor, like the fruits
and vegetables for instance. I bought
some barley, millet and wheat, but
found little new. In the afternoon we
hired a cart and went to a German
colony thirty werst northeast of Merw.
The cultures are not in the pitch of
perfection, as it is a rather new colony.
The system of cotton-culture is as the
Turcomans have it, viz., a field is
divided into a number of square plots,
each plot with ridges all around. The
cottonseed is sown broadcast by hand
and the plots are flooded whenever they
get dry. Cultivation of the land is not
much practised beyond keeping the
weeds down.

118

Well, the results of this antiquated
system of culture are: First, that the
stand of the cotton is very irregular;
second, much water is wasted by not
cultivating regularly; third, by not
sowing in rows, all of the weeding and
cultivating has to be done by hand;
fourth, in case of failure of water, as
oceurs often, the small plots of land dry
out to such an extent, that the harvest
becomes almost nil. The alfalfa fields,
however, looked very nice and they
found this useful plant their steadiest
money-maker. In fruit and vegetable
culture one could clearly see that time
and knowledge were lacking. In general
one has to sympathize with such Ger-
man settlers who are willing to rough
it in such far-away corners of the Rus-
sian Empire, where they, at the utmost,
are able to become owners of small plots
of land, without having any of the
pleasures or culture of the more pro-
gressive races of men.

THE JOURNAL

THE USEFUL CAMEL’S THORN.

The desert around Merw is quite
interesting. The camel’s thorn, Alhagi
camelorum, covers tens of thousands of
acres of land. It was in full bloom and
its small pinkish-purple flowers, pro-
duced by the million, gave color to the
landscape, just like the heath in north-
west Europe does. This camel’s thorn
is a very useful plant here. Firstly, it
is a great feed for the camels, who are
said to love this plant better than any
other wild herb. Secondly, it is mown,
dried and used as a fuel. Nearly all of
the bricks in the oases are baked through
the heat of this plant. Thirdly, it is a
ereat sand binder, growing even in
pure, sterile sand and as it is legu-
minous, it prepares the soil, by enriching
it, for better vegetation. As I move
along I may find out still more about
this plant.

Beside the camel’s thorn there also
grows a very spiny acacia-like plant,
in the desert. It is not ugly as a soli-
tary plant, but it is a bad weed on all
untrodden places; some Lyciums I saw,
too, and a few minor things, but as a

whole the desert flora is not rich in
species. One finds, however, in the
desert around Merw many canals,

OF HEREDITY

some still in use, some dried up; they
say that some of these man-made water-
courses are 3000 years of age and, if so,
there is surely ‘little new under the
sun”’, so far as irrigation is concerned.
The present people here have a great
hope for the future as far as the bring-
ing-under-culture of desert land is con-
cerned. Large, new canals are being
dug, new settlements started, and with
present high prices of cotton, people
can be comfortably off in some years
time. —

AT THE IMPERIAL ESTATE.

On June 16 we went to the Imperial
Estate, “‘Murgab’’, where fine things
were reported to exist. We looked at
the very imposing avenues of the Kara-
kach, saw the fruit-orchards, where the
apricot trees were fully as heavily
loaded as in California, saw the nur-
series with fruit and ornamental trees
of many kinds. There are a few
varieties of apricots and of pears and
quinces, that seem out of the ordinary
and of which I hope to get scions or
plants. Well, after we had looked
around for a couple of hours we went
back to the police again and this time
found the chief himself, a tall, elderly,
soldier-like chap, who had looked up
all our references and had come to the
conclusion that when St. Petersburg
allowed me to take photos of trees and
plants, there wouldn’t be any crime
committed if he also permitted me to do
so, but to be on the safe side he gave a
swarthy policeman to show us the
beauties of the place

On Friday, June 17, we left Merw
again for Chartchui, this time with the
assistant, who had gotten his passports
into shape. He is an honest fellow, who
served his three years as a soldier, and
loves the mountains better than the
routine work of his little farm.

FOREST IN MOVING SAND.

On Saturday, June 18, we first paid
a visit to the police where we were in-
formed that, although photographing
was allowed in Central Asia, this district
was exempted from it, as it was in
Bokhara, and the Political Agent in the
city of Bokhara, alone had the power to
give that permission. No wonder that

MEYER: SEEKING PLANT IMMIGRANTS

119

s%e of
ciate’ i xe ee
7%,

AVENUE OF KARAKACH TREES.

This fine row of Ulmus campestris umbraculifera was photographed on the imperial estate

Murgab, at Bairam-Ali near Merw, Russian Turkestan, on June 16, 1910.

The tree

endures drought and a fair amount of alkali, and is as useful for shade purposes as is the
umbrella tree (Melia azederach) so widely cu!tivated in desert portions of North America.
Grafted forms of the Karakach are propagated by the rich in Turkestan, in order to

ensure a solid head of shade. (Fig. 10.)

-so few photographs of Central Asia are
to be had, is it? Well, I then called on
W. A. Palletsky, in charge of the sand-
binding work along the railroad in
Central Asia. I found him to be a most
pleasant man who had a railroad trolley
come before his house and off we flew
over the imposing Amu-daria river,
along whose level shores some of the
world’s finest melons grow, along sandy
hill and plains, all planted with sand-
binding plants until we were eight or
ten werst out, where the plantations
were the oldest. It is most interesting
to see how the tall bushes of Calligonum
caput-medusae, C. arborescens, Salsola
richtert and Haloxylon ammodendron
have grown into some sort of a forest in
a soil that is almost pure sand and,
worse than that, a moving sand! And

stranger, even, to see how a few seeds of
the Chinese Tree of Heaven (Azlanthus
glandulosa) have found lodging between
these real desert plants and have grown
vigorously, too, and are of fairly good
sizes now. Mr. Palletsky said the real
Saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) is
an aristocrat—in other words, it is not
a plant one can plant straight away ona
shifting sand. First other vegetation
has to make the soil firm, after that the
Saxaul will grow. To arrest a shifting
sand-hill, one first has to plant various
Calligonums, then Salsola_ richtert and
after that Haloxyon ammodendron. Of
the Calligonums there is an immense
mass. Up to the present fifty-seven
different species have been found, and
there are still more. However, only
thirty have been scientifically deter-

120

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

CITY PARK IN KRASNAWODSK.

The hedge

in the foreground is Poinciana gilliest,

and the tall shrubs are Ulmus pumila.

Both of these shrubs are valuable for arid climates with scorching summers and mild

winters;

mined and the others will come in the
course of a few years. Some of these
Calligonums are strictly local plants
and may not readily bear acclimatizing

—at least Mr. Palletsky found that the
species from around Oremburg and
Astrakhan do not stand the long, in-
tense heat at Chartchui.

WORK IN NURSERIES.

After having seen the large planta-
tions, where the plants are now spread-
ing rapidly and require practically no
care any longer, we paid a visit to the
nurseries where seeds are sown and
young plants raised. _They had exper-
ienced a very late frost and the stand
of the plants was not what they wished
it to be, still it was interesting to see
how the sand was held in check by long
straw stretched over it, this kept in place

the former has long been esteemed in the United States.
at Krasnawodsk, Russian Turkestan, June 1, 1910.

Photograph taken
(Fig. 11.)

again by little sticks set across it at the
ends. Hedges of Tamarix sp. and of the
wild form of Elaeagnus angustifolia kept
the great winds off. The seeds are all
sown in the autumn and have to be kept
moist as long as they haven’t ger-
minated; when once above the ground,
however, great care is necessary in keep-
ing them almost dry, as otherwise they
perish.

Then Mr. Palletsky showed me with
much pride an Opuntia cutting, which
he had obtained from us through the
St. Petersburg Botanical Garden, and
which cutting was growing nicely. He
was very grateful to have it, and had
six more distributed at different points
in Central Asia. But then we began to talk
about lowness of temperatures here and
he said that the minimum had been 14°
Reaumur (Zero F.). Well, then, I said

“ MEYER: SEEKING PLANT IMMIGRANTS

that all of his spineless Opuntias would
go, and even long before that, telling him
of the experiences at San Antonio,
where all the spineless forms of Opuntias
froze when it was 12° Fahr.

EXPERIENCES IN BOKHARA.
SAMARKAND, TURKESTAN,
June 28, 1910.

As I said, I arrived in New Bokhara
on Sunday afternoon. On Monday we
went to the police for passport and
photograph matters, but it was a hol-
iday again and we couldn’t do a thing,
so we went to Old Bokhara and had a
glimpse around. The interpreter pre-
tended to know all about the town, but
I found him to be misinformed, like I
had experienced several times these last
days, and his eyes had become so bad
these last hot days that when he passed
from the light into the shade we had to
assist him, otherwise he fell into holes
and ditches. So we returned in the
evening without having seen the grain
market or Mr. Parkinson.

The next day, Tuesday, June 21, we
went again to the police and saw the
Political Agent, a gentleman of shrewd
appearance and possessing much power.
He said that I would be permitted to
travel in the Hissar Mountains in
Central Bokhara and take photos of
botanical subjects; he thought it, how-
ever, advisable that I shouldn’t go alone
and wishes me to have a Bokharian
official go along, I having to pay him a
salary and sustenance. My route of
travel he also wishes me to send him.

I answered that I couldn’t decide
right on the spot how these matters
will go, as I expected important mail in
Samarkand and have to supply me yet
with a tent and some more camping
outfit.

That was all right, he said, he only
wished me to know that Bokhara is not
an easy country and travelling alone
without a native of some standing
would be extremely difficult. He also
said I will not be allowed to go near the

have to be buried, however,

121

Afghanistan frontier, as no foreigners
are permitted to go there.

'

PRODUCTS OF SART GARDENS.

In the afternoon we repaired again to
Old Bokhara, took a droshky and drove
to the office of Dtirrschmidt & Co.,
where Ernest Parkinson, of the Reich-
ardt Asiatic Trading Co., resides. We
found him and William Donohue at
home and had a long talk. The weather
was very hot, 114° Fahr. in the shade,
but Mr. Donohue went with us and
showed us the grain market, the medi-
cine shops and other points of interest.
As it became late, however, we made
arrangements to come back early next
day. And so we did. Then Mr. Park-
inson went with us, too; we bought
some seeds, like wheat, cowpeas, hemp
and poppy, and saw a real Sart garden
where grapes, apricots, apples, pome-
granates, quinces, peaches and figs were
grown. The pomegranates and figs
every
winter, but still they bear fruits.

In general, from what I saw, I cannot
say that there was much of interest to
be found among the seeds and plants.
They are apparently all well known.
For fruits I am apparently somewhat
early yet. Grapes are just coming in,
but they are small and not very fine.
The apples are greenish and, though
ripe, of a very insipid taste. Apricots
are small and apparently most times
seedlings, though a few of fine, melting
flavor are once in a while seen. The
plums one sees now are those of Prunus
insititia and perhaps also of P. divari-
cata and there is much variation among
them, although the fruits are small.
The muskmelons are just coming in
and two kinds there are, the one green-
ish and generally split open and the
other yellow ones, small in size, but of
very sweet and melting flesh. I was
assured that later in the season fine
large plums and still better grapes and
melons are coming, but that is a few
months later.

Eugenics Not Impossible

There is nothing either in the history of domestic animals or in that of evolu-
tion to make us doubt that a race of sane men may be formed, who shall be as
much superior, mentally and morally, to the modern European, as the modern
European is to the lowest of the negro races.—Francis Galton: Hereditary Genius

(1902).

TESTS FOR MENTAL DEFECTS

How the Public Health Service Prevents Contamination of Our Racial Stock by
Turning Back Feeble-Minded Immigrants—General Characteristics Noted
and Progressive Series of Tests Applied to Determine Exact Mentality.

Howarp A. KNox,
Assistant Surgeon, United States Public Health Service, Ellis Island, N. Y.

EFORE one enters upon a search
for a thing he must know defi-
nitely what he is seeking, else
the object of his quest may pass

him unnoticed. This is even more true
with regard to the various grades of
mental enfeeblement than in the case
of any physical infirmity because there
still exists considerable chaos in the
minds of many as to just what consti-
tutes mental deficiency.

Some have attempted to formulate
a social definition and hold that anyone,
not actually insane, who is unable to
reside harmoniously in the environment
to which he is accustomed, and in com-
pliance with its laws and customs, is
defective mentally. This definition,
while it includes many defectives, leaves
out nearly all the potential ones and the
majority of the higher ones that are not
criminally inclined. Its application
would necessitate turning all defectives
loose in the world to see whether they
can keep out of public institutions.
This is exactly what some of the doctors
and lawyers representing some of the
immigrants would like to have done in
the case of feeble-minded aliens who are
detained at immigration stations. For-
tunately the laws are such that feeble-
minded aliens may be certified and de-
ported before they have had an oppor-
tunity to contaminate the blood of the
nation or to commit any crime.

The United States Public Health
Service has worked laboriously and in-
tensively to determine the standards of
knowledge of the various races. The
standard. and definitions of feeble-
mindedness are based on what a given
subject can do, his previous environ-
ment, education and the stress under

122

which he may be laboring being taken
into account. In short, the tests are
functional tests of the brain used in
much the same way as functional tests
are used to determine the amount and
quality of work which the kidneys, for
example, are capable of doing. The
most successful test in use for the detec-
tion and classification of deficiency in
educated children, namely the Simon-
Binet Scale, is based on the same
principle, that is, to learn exactly by
experiment what normals can do with
ease and to use the result of this work
as a scale for weeding out defectives.

RECOGNIZING THE DEFECTIVES.

The public in the past has only
recognized as defective those persons
who are lacking in the intellectual
sphere, in other words those who are
stupid, dull and foolish. The emotional,
volitional and criminal defectives have
received scant attention. Yet, it is the
latter, perhaps, who are the greatest
menace. They are able to support
themselves yet they are also able to
reproduce the real old fashioned idiot
and imbecile which the state must care
for.

Now this being true, how may these
potential inferiors be recognized? In
the first place those who are themselves
not markedly defective, but who are
capable of transmitting weakminded-
ness to their progeny, usually possess
facial peculiarities,temperamental queer-
ness or both. For instance, as in the
case of the frontispiece, the mother may
possess many of the facial signs of a
Mongolian defective and yet have no
recognizable mental impairment. With
a healthy husband who had a clean

Knox: Tests FOR MENTAL DEFECTS

1S

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Be
t

9

THE “IMBECILE” TEST.

A normal six-year-old child can fit all the cut-out blocks into their places inside of five

minutes, with not more than six false moves.

All immigrants suspected of feeble-

mindedness are asked to perform this and other similar tests; their exact degree of
mental deficiency can thus be rated. For instance, if a ten-year-old boy requires five
minutes to fit the pieces in this block, and makes half a dozen false moves, it indicates

that he has only the mentality of a six-year-old.

family history, this woman produced a
typical Mongolian imbecile child. This
observation is so frequent that it is
worthy of note. Temperamental pe-
culiarities have been observed in the
parents of defectives so frequently that
these eccentricities are now regarded as
the precursors of actual deficiency in the
immediate or future descendants.
These peculiarities are cyclothymia
(alternate periods of hilarious joy and
deep depression), nerve storms, poorly
controlled grief, temper yielding to
minor excitations, untimely mirth, sen-
* sual morbidity and perversion, sullen-

(Figure 12.)

ness, facial tic and other minor neuroses,
sick headaches, hypochondriasis (fear of
bodily ills), signs of genius in certain
lines, the use of bywords, the formation
of-strong habits, mannerisms, speech
defects and other noticeable qualities
that brand the possessor as ‘‘queer’’ in
not only the eyes of the examiner but
also in the minds of associates who may
have known the individual all his life.
It has been suggested that these ill-
defined entities come in one generation,
while in the next two or three, definite
psychoses and mental deficiency appear
and in the generations succeeding the

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124

Knox: Tests FoR MENTAL DEFECTS

latter, organic diseases of the central
nervous system occur, with possible
extinction of the line unless a strong
new blood is introduced. No comment
need be made upon this but there must
be some good reason why we are not all
insane or deficient.

MARKED CHARACTERISTICS.

Before taking up the actual tests used
in detecting mental enfeeblement some
of the characteristics that are possessed
in whole or part by all such cases may
be enumerated. They are:

(1) Dullness and stupidity and an
inability to make use of such knowledge
as they may have acquired.

(2) Faulty reasoning and judgement
and an inability to correctly estimate
sizes, shapes and forms; difficulty in
understanding any new system of life
to which they may be subjected and
customs and methods of procedure in
the everyday routine, etc. They may
find it difficult to take the measure of
other people and therefore become the
butt for practical jokes and the prey of
confidence men.

(3) Lack of ingenuity and native
ability.. Defectives are usually only
capable of performing work that they
have already learned after painstaking
training in much the same way that an
animal is taught tricks. They are un-
able to meet emergencies and to act and
think for themselves. They therefore
follow others blindly into crime or
slavery without thinking of their danger.
Persons like these blindly follow the
mob leader, dynamite boss, gangster or
cadet.

(4) Faulty attention and memory.
The first of these renders it practically
impossible to learn anything compli-
cated. The second makes it unsafe to
depend upon such persons to perform
necessary acts with which they may be
entrusted, e.g., safety work for railroad
companies.

(5) Exaggerated egotism, which
gives them confidence in their own abili-
ties, often at the expense of others.
Defectives are frequently lewd, obscene
and quarrelsome. Sexual atrocities and
murder accompanied by torture and
mutilation have been committed by

125

them in the frenzies of temper and pas-
sion to which minor disappointments
will sometimes drive them.

(6) Selfishness and absence of the
altruistic sense are common attributes,
although the feeble-minded are at times
very faithful to those who care for and
protect them.

(7) Emotional instability and hys-
terical outbursts are seen in various
degrees. Illtimed mirth and grief and
unusual reactions to minor excitations
are common.

(8) Exaggerated suggestibility
which causes them to be easily led and
misdirected by more gifted persons.

(9) Inability to withstand tempta-
tion. The baser qualities of the sub-
conscious mind cannot be inhibited and
dishonesty and other crime is the fre-
quent result.

(10) Early brain fag and absence of
the power of sustained energy. Such
people are incapable of consistent effi-
cient work for any great length of time.
They are easily discontented and dis-
couraged with each new position they
obtain.

NOMENCLATURE VAGUE.

By this it is not-‘meant that all defec-
tives are possessed of all the above
mentioned characteristics but it is true
that every defective who is certified by
the United States Public Health Service
is possessed of a certain group of them
and perhaps in some cases all of them.
These ten are not all the peculiarities by
which defectives in general are distin-
guished, but the elements and mental
spheres enumerated here will serve to
give a clear idea of what constitutes
mental enfeeblement in the aliens who
are presented for examination. For-
tunately the term ‘‘feeble-mindedness’’
is regarded by most alienists as a sort
of waste basket for many forms and
degrees of weakmindedness, and since
it is incorporated in the law as a man-
datorially excludable defect, it is espe-
cially suited to the needs of the exam-
iners who for the sake of conservatism
and certain fairness include many imbe-
ciles under the term.

The commoner characteristics of de-
fectives have been given above. Know-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THE *“‘CASUIST” TEST.

Properly to fit into their places the blocks of this frame requires the intelligence of a normal

12-year-old child.
mistakes that are not reasonable.
spondingly less time. (Figure 14.)

ing the signs and manifestations, how
may they best be elucidated and brought
out in order to make a proper diagnosis
and certificate? This is probably best
accomplished by a graduated system of
performance tests, accurately stand-
ardized, and a system of test questions
of increasing complexity suited to the
age, education and previous environ-
ment of the subject. The examining
physicians are guided first of all by
plain common sense, enthusiasm and
personal feelings never entering into the
consideration of any case. It is well
for the sake of justice to the country
and to the immigrant that this is so.
The functions of the officers of the
Public Health Service are purely ad-
visory and not legal. Their duty is
done when the proper certificate has
been rendered; the people should not
hold them responsible therefore if de-
fectives are often admitted notwith-
standing adverse certificates.

This is as important perhaps in the

He should be able to do it in five minutes, or less, without making any
At an older age, he should be able to do it in corre-

case of the insane as in the case of defec-
tives and it is probably true that a
great number of alien insane would not
have become so had they not come ta
America. Such people are not fitted
to become citizens of this country,
although they may get along very well
at home.

MANY INSANE CONCEALED.

It is probably true that the number
of alien insane in the country is much
larger than is generally supposed;
in other words there are alien insane
who never find their way to hospitals,
their relatives knowing that if they do
they are liable to be deported. Only the
very dangerous and noisy insane reach
the public institutions. The simple
neuroses and milder forms of insanity
remain at home in the care of their
countrymen and friends, who, because
of race pride or for other reasons do not
wish the amount of insanity and disease
they harbor to become known.

KNox: TESTS FOR

The dull, stupid immigrant is not so
entirely because of his previous environ-
ment and opportunities. The environ-
ment and opportunities are the same
now as they have been for countless
centuries because of the immigrant’s
inability to change them. This country
is as it is simply because it has been
improved by men from _ prosperous
northern European countries, which
countries were prosperous simply be-
cause of the type of men who inhabited
them. The civilization in Mexico is in
its present state because of the nature
of the people who settled there. It must
be remembered that the form of govern-
ment is the same there as in our own
land and the natural resources are even
greater. These factors are not to be
blamed for the pitiable condition of the
class of people that are coming to our
shores at this time. They are simply
undesirables and can never be assimi-
lated to our advantage.

In a paper of this kind it is impossible
to detail all the principles that underlie
the deficiency tests used by the Public
Health Service, nevertheless an outline
can be given in such a way that one will
understand the rationale of the exami-
nation and just what factors each test
tends to bring forth.

In the higher and more refined grades
of deficiency, the most important ele-
ment in the diagnosis is the “‘human
test’”’ or the ability of one human being
to take the mental measurement of
another by conversing and associating
with him. This intuitive ability can be
very highly developed in persons of a
strong and pleasing personality and good
physique. It must be based on the ex-
perience of having seen and examined
many positive and also normal cases
and the examiner must be a_ broad-
minded, big-souled man keenly alive to
the frailties and shortcomings of the
human race in general, including him-
self.

SOME DEFINITE SIGNS.

At the various ages in the lives of the
simple minded there are definite signs
that may be observed and which should
aid one in forming a correct conclusion.
Those seen in infancy are the ones least

MENTAL DEFEcTS

127

commonly known. They are seen in
infants who are excitable or unusually
quiet and apathetic. The eyes may
roll about in an aimless stare. The
child may be slow in learning to sit up,
to walk or to use its hands. It may be
slow to recognize objects and it may not
respond to the caresses of its parents.
It may be restless and irritable (exclu-
sive of illness) and refuse to be pacified.
It may sleep long and fitfully and there
may be twitching of the face or limbs
during sleep as well as bed wetting (in
older children) and drooling both when
asleep and awake. This drooling and
failure to grasp the nipple properly are
due to lack of muscular tone, protrusion
of the lower jaw (prognathism), faulty
reflexes, and too much blood (hyper-
aemia) in the salivary glands. These
signs with clumsy use of the muscles are
very frequently seen in infant defec- -
tives. The lower the grade of deficiency
the greater the number and more
marked are the signs presented. ‘There
may be in addition developmental
digestive errors, vomiting without ap-
parent cause, diarrhoea, poor hearing
and delayed speech. It should be re-

“membered that normal children are

active, buoyant and playful while de-
fectives may be possessed of a general
inertia, sullenness and apathy that is
altogether unnatural in that period of
life. The child may be flighty and
changeable, frequently indulging in silly
laughter and chatter. The features
lack individuality. The head may be
malformed. The mouth may be coarse
and expressionless and the tecth de-
cayed and irregular. The breath and
secretions may have a foul odor.

These are some of the obvious signs
that would cause a child to be detained
and submitted to a more detailed exami-
nation. Suffice it to say that the signs
observed in older defectives are more
numerous and perhaps more definite.
It is true, however, that defectives are
detected nearly every day who possess
but few or no outward signs at all.
This variety of inferior is detected solely
by talking with him, and something is
said to every immigrant who passes
through Ellis Island or any other port
of entry. At the primary line-inspec-

128 THE JOURN:

AL

oF HEREDITY

THE MOST DIFFICULT TEST.

The “feature-profile’ test requires a degree of intelligence rarely found in
the feeble-minded: a 12-year-old child or an adult with corresponding
mentality may be expected to put it together in five minutes or less.
The profile head is made of wood, half an inch thick, and its greatest

measurements are six by ten inches.

There are seven pieces exclusive

of the main one, the eye, nose and mouth each comprising one, while the
ear is made up of four sections which can only be fitted together in one way.
Successfully to pass this test shows that the subject possesses ability
to read a diagram; however, it is an entirely fair test, because the object

is familiar to everyone.

tion questions are asked on the follow-
ing subjects: the journey, experience
during the trip, simple concrete addition
and the ability to count backwards,
facts of common knowledge that the
immigrant should know and his grasp
of his surroundings. This examination
must be brief, rapid and to the point
because from three to five thousand
people must be questioned in this way
each day. Those who do not answer
satisfactorily are detained for a more
detailed examination a few minutes later

(Figure 15.)

and if at this time their answers are
more nearly correct they are allowed to
go, otherwise they are detained for a
third or even a fourth or fifth examina-
tion on other days and if at this time
they are found to be defective they are
certified and deported, otherwise
they are allowed to depart.

SO

THE FINAL EXAMINATION.
The final examination will now be
outlined in the order that its respective

items are given to illiterate immigrants

Knox: Tests FoR MENTAL DEFECTS

over ten years old, it being modified
for younger ones:

1. Select a quiet, well lighted and
ventilated room, with a temperature of
not over 68 degrees Fahrenheit. There
must be no disturbing or distracting
elements and the room must not have an
official air, in fact it should look as
much like a ‘“‘den’’ in a private house as
possible. Only those concerned in the
examination should be present, that 1s,
the interpreter and the examiners and
in the case of children or timid people,
a relative. The subject must have had
good food and a bath previously and he
must be mentally as tranquil as possible.
The in erpreter should be kindly dis-
posed towards the alien and understand
him thoroughly and be understood by
him. First question the subject about
the ordinary occurrences and every-day
duties of his previous environment. If
he claims to have been a farmer ask
about that vocation, if a tailor ask about
that, framing the questions to the call-
ing and previous style of living. Fur-
ther than this ask about conditions as
they exist in the town or locality from
which the alien came.

2. Does he know the day of the
week, the date, the month of the year,
where he is, who he is, and who and
what the examiner is? This set of
questions determines his orientation
and grasp on his surroundings.

3. Common knowledge comes next;
the number of hours in a day, days ina
week, weeks in a month, months in a
year with their names, the difference
between certain animals with which he
is familiar, the names of flowers, musical
instruments, etc., with which he is
familiar, and brief descriptions of each.

4. Immigrants should be able to do
simple addition although they have
never attended school and all normal
immigrants over eight years old can do
it. After adding like numbers, they
should be able to add unlike numbers,
when one of the previously used like
numbers is increased or decreased by 1,
for instance, 4 and 4=, 4 and 5=, 4
and 3=, 6 and 6=, 6 and 5=, 6 and 7
=, or 8 and 8=, 8 and 7=; rapidly and
without difficulty. They should be
able to add the following numbers
rapidly, realizing in each case that each

129

succeeding problem is but 1 greater
than was the previous one; 7 and 1=,
(eandu2 =? f and3=; f and 4= sfand
5=, 7 and 6=, 7 and 7=,; 7 and 8=,
etc. The vast majority of defectives
excepting mathematical savants will go
through a most laborious mental process
in attempting to do this latter set of
problems only to emerge with a most
absurd answer, for instance, they may
give the answer to 7 and 2 as more than
the sum of 7 and 8.

MORAL TONE TESTED.

5. Ask questions which tend to
show the moral tone as ‘Why is it
wrong to kill?” and ‘“‘How should one
regard his parents as compared to other
people?’ and “Is it wrong to steal?”
and if so, ‘Why?’ Determine whether
he would try to resist temptation, how
he would meet evil suggestions and
other questionable things. Some most
astonishing answers have been obtained
to these questions as in the case of a
boy who, while he professed a love for
his parents, wished them dead that he
might inherit their property; he was 17
years old and was found defective by
the other tests.

6. Construct as nearly as possible
miniature problems and incidents of life
as the alien has lived it in his country
and ask what hawould doin each position.

7. If he can count from 1 to 20, as
all normal aliens usually can, he should
be able to count from 20 to 1 without
hesitation; he should have no difficulty in
naming the days of the week backward.

8. He should be able to repeat six,
or at least five, figures after the exam-
iner, as 2-9-8-7-5-6-4, or 5-2-9-7-3. The
figures should be given slowly and dis-
tinctly, not repeating each set more
than twice.

9. The subject should be able to
obey three or more simple commands
as ‘open the door, bring me that book,
and put this penny on the table.”

10. After looking at a picture for
thirty seconds, the picture containing
12 objects with which he is familiar, he
should be able to name six of them from
memory, without much hesitation.

11. A diamond or a square should
be copied with a lead pencil even though
he has never attempted this before.

130

12. The alien should be able to ar-
range in the order of their weights four
cubes of the same size, weighing re-
spectively 12, 15, 18, and 21 gms.

At this point comes the performing
test examination. Just as Binet has
evolved questions of increasing com-
plexity for his French school children,’
so the United States Public Health
Service has evolved a set of performance
tests of increasing complexity. These
are applicable to every age from three
years upward and the point in the scale
where an adult stops determines his
mental age and the grade of defectives
under which he will be classified. At
the following ages the tests named
under each should be performed within
the time limit stated.

THE PERFORMANCE TESTs.'

At three years—

Should recognize toys and simple ob-
jects as such.

At four years—

Put some of the pieces in Sequin’s
formboard and do line ‘‘a’’ of the cube
imitation test or touch any two of the
blocks.

At five years—

Put all the pieces in Sequin’s form-
board in three minutes and do line ‘‘b”
of the cube test or touch any three of its
blocks.

At six years—

Do the “‘imbecile’’ test in five minutes
with not over six false moves. Line
“ec” of the cube test is easy for normals
at this age. The construction blocks
may be started now; take three blocks
all the same shape and build a figure
with them, show this to the subject for
twenty-five seconds, then break up the
structure and ask him to build the same
thing. (See Fig. 12.)

At seven years—

Do “G” or jigsaw test in three to five
minutes, Sequin formboard in thirty
seconds and ‘imbecile’ test in less
time and with fewer false moves than
at six years. Add one block to con-
struction blocks.

' Dr. Knox is about to publish a more complete account of the special scale for the
ment of intelligence, classification of defectives, and performance tests, with report of

the Journal of the American Medical Association.

of the American Genetic Association the exact reference, or a reprint of the more

discussion of the subject.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

At eight years—

Do Healy frame test in five minutes
and imitate line “‘d’”’ of the cube test.

At nine years—

Do diamond frame test, in from five
to ten minutes; Healy picture in less
than four minutes, Seguin board in
twenty seconds and complexity of con-
struction blocks may be increased to
work with five blocks.

At ten years—

Do “moron” test in less than ten
minutes and all the details of the‘‘visual
comparison”’ test (see N. Y. Med.
Jour., Sept. 13, °13) inside of ten
minutes.

At eleven years—

Do the “‘e”’ line of the cube test with-
out being shown more than five times.
The eight, nine and ten year tests are
performed in less time and with fewer
mistakes.

At twelve years—

Do the ‘“‘casuist’’ test in five minutes
and any mistakes that are made must
be “sensible” and not absurd. (Fig. 14.)

At thirteen to fifteen years—

Do ‘“‘casuist’’ test in less time and
with fewer mistakes than at-12 years;
it should be done: without: first being
shown made up ~-or -assemmbled. The
“‘feature-profile’’ test should be cor-
rectly done in five minutes. The pic-
ture of a ship pasted to a board and cut
into ten equal sized pieces of the same
shape should be properly assembled in
ten minutes. The pieces are all cut
vertically. (Fig. 15.)

This concludes the performance tests
after which a story is told the subject;
the story contains five details and he is
expected to remember three of them.
A second story is told which contains
an obvious absurdity; if the alien sees
this absurdity it counts in his favor but
if he does not, that fact does not count
against him.

It is very evident that at the conclu-
sion of this examination the physician
is in a good position to give his subject
a mental rating, provided of course that
he tempers the tests with plenty of
every day common sense.

measure-

cases, in

He will be glad to send interested members

extended

The illustrations of performance tests published herewith illustrate

the general character of all, but are, of course, only a few of the whole number used.—The Editor.

PLANTING PERSIMMONS |

Japanese Variety Requires Pollinizers Under Most Conditions—Few Satis-
factory Pollinizers yet found—Native Persimmon Can Not be Used,
Because of its Incompatibility.

H. Harotp Hume,
Glen Saint Mary, Florida.

VER since Dutospyros Kaki
fe (commonly called the Japanese

persimmon) was introduced and

established in America about
1875, it has been noted in many
sections that though the trees produce
enough flowers to give good crops of
fruit, the young fruits or ovaries of
many varieties begin to drop shortly
after the flowers open, and continue to
drop, until, when the harvest season
arrives, no fruit remains to be gathered,
or so little that the planter is often
disgusted with their behavior. In some
seasons good crops are produced under
conditions quite identical with those
which prevailed in seasons when no
crop was produced. The cause of this
unfruitfulness and this sporadic fruitful-
ness remained very much of a mystery
for many years. Naturally the culti-
vation of D. Kaki is not regarded
favorably by many who have attempted
it.

As is usual in such cases, many theories
have been advanced to account for its
non-fruiting. Some said that the
trouble was due to too much cultiva-
tion, and that a system of weed or sod
cultivation would correct it. Others
said it was due to lack of potash in the
fertilizer and that heavy applications of
potash would correct the trouble. Still
others said that the growth and devel-
opment of the calyces forced the ovaries
off, andsoon. One theory after another

1Hume, H. Harold. Non-fruiting of Japan Persimmons due to lack of Pollen.
1909.

Vol. XXX No. 76. Sept. 3. 308-309.

2Berckmans, P. J. Persimmons.
Van Deman, H. E. The Kaki.
1888.

3Hume, H. Harold.

VolX.XI; SNo: 5. Dee: 3i., 125-135:

Cyclopedia American Horticulture, 3.
Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1887.

was put to test, but regardless of theories
and their application, the Japanese
persimmon (Diospyros Kakt) has con-
tinued to act in the same manner—
producing flowers abundantly, some-
times resulting in fruit, more often giv-
ing no harvest.

WHY FRUIT FAILS TO SET.

It was not until 1909 that attention
was called to the true cause of barren-
ness' in D. Kaki and the year follow-
ing, the cause of sporadic fruitfulness
was learned. It was known years
before to a few that. the flowers of D.
Kaki are of two kinds, pistillate and
staminate, but that this fact had any
practical bearing on the problem of
unfruitfulness did not seem to occur to
anyone. More recently® the existence
of perfect flowers, 1.e., those containing
both stamens and pistils, was brought
to light. These flowers have no prac-
tical bearing on the problem, as they
are rare and, from some cause or other
not yet clearly understood, their ovaries
very seldom develop into mature fruit.
Since 1909, the results of more than
twenty thousand hand pollinations have
fairly demonstrated that pollination
will cause fruit to set and grow to ma-
turity, when without it, no fruit would
be produced.

The fruitfulness of certain trees or
groups of trees in some seasons and not
in others even when pistillate flowers

Science, N. S.

1281. 1901; also

642-645.

The flowers of Diospryos Kaki L. F. Trans. Acad. Science St. Louis
Pl. XXV—-XXXI.

1913.
131

¢¥ .

V1

;

x

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

FRUITING BRANCH OF SIANG.

This variety (S. P. 1.

No. 21910) produces flowers of both sexes, and the persimmons here

shown are from pistillate flowers pollinated from staminate blossoms on the same tree.
So heavily fruited was the whole tree, that the fruit would have been much improved by

thinning. (Figure 16.)
were present in goodly numbers each
season can now be explained by the
fact that there are certain horticultural
varieties of D. Kaki which produce
staminate flowers at irregular intervals.
They may be found on certain trees one
season and not thenext. Many seasons
may elapse before they appear again.
It may even happen that never again
are they produced, or they may be pro-
duced every other season. Many com-
binations of intervals or skips in the
production of staminate flowers are
possible and probable. A number of
them have been observed and noted
with reference to particular trees. The
staminate flowers, when they occur on
these trees, are abundantly supplied
with pollen and fertilize not only the
pistillate flowers on the same trees, but
through the agency of insects the
flowers of many trees surrounding them.
Careful examination of many hun-

dreds of blossoms of the pistillate type
showed that the stamens of these
flowers are always abortive, and no
pollen is produced in them. It was also
learned that the flowers which contain
pollen-bearing stamens are always dif-
ferent in structure from these pistillate
flowers, so different indeed as to be
readily distinguished from them.

THE SEARCH FOR POLLINIZERS.

Having then arrived at the large
general cause of the unfruitfulness of
D. Kaki and having determined that
pollination would cause the trees to
hold their fruit, our difficulty was to
find dependable staminate flowering
sorts. So far as any one in America
knew, these did not exist, but it was
believed that there were such trees. By
accident one tree of unknown name and
origin was found near Eagle Lake,
Florida. It is dependable. One other

FLOWERS OF THE GAILEY TREE.

This Japanese Persimmon tree has been under observation since 1909, and each year has
produced a very large percentage of staminate (male) flowers of the type shown at
the right, wide open. The normal, pistillate (female) flowers are seen at the left, wide
open. All trees propagated from this parent have likewise borne staminate flowers,
and it may therefore be considered the most reliable pollen producer which has yet
been developed in the United States. (Figure 17.)

133

134 THE JOURNAL

from San Antonio, Texas, is -:promising
and a third, a seedling at Glen Saint
Mary, Florida, is known to have pro-
duced staminate flowers each season for
three years. Through the efforts of
David Fairchild, whose hearty interest
and co-operation in the work has been
of the greatest help, a number of other
promising sorts have been secured from
China and Japan. In a few seasons
more, it will be known whether these
sorts can be depended upon to produce
staminate flowers abundantly every
time they bloom.

Now, the question is not, ‘““‘How does
Kaki behave in Japan or China? And
are pollinizers necessary there?’ But
the question is, ““‘How does it act in the
United States?’ and to narrow it down
still further, ‘‘Is it fruitful in Florida, or
Georgia, or California?” Yes, and still
more, ‘‘How does it behave in a certain
county, on a certain farm, or in a cer-
tain dooryard?’’ And the answer must
be that while in some localities polliniz-
ers may not be necessary, under other
conditions the planting of them is an
absolute necessity, making, as it does,
the difference between success and fail-
ure in securing crops of fruit; and in all
cases the presence of pollinizers is an
insurance against unfruitfulness.

BEHAVIOR VARIABLE.

It must be emphasized that the be-
havior of D. Kaki in its relation to
pollination, or of any other fruit for the
matter of that, in any one locality, is
no index to its behavior under any other
set of conditions. Even though the
conditions may appear to be the same,
there are differences which we are too
dull to detect or too ignorant to under-
stand, but which nevertheless operate
on the trees and influence the results.
It is a matter of observation that under
certain local seasonal and climatic con-
ditions some varieties of D. Kaki will
set good crops of fruit without pollina-
tion (seedless of course) while under
another set of conditions they do not
do so. One season they may bloom
freely and set all the fruit the trees
should carry and with an equal amount
of bloom in another season the same
trees may bring no fruit to maturity.

OF HEREDITY

To sum up the conditions as they are at
present in the Lower South, and based
on numerous observations extending
over more than a decade, it is a fact
that trees of all varieties of D. Kaki, in
good health and which bloom under
normal weather conditions, can be de-
pended upon to bear good crops if
pollinated, and it is equally true (a few
varieties only excepted) that they will
not do so if pollen is not provided. In
the last two seasons it has been amply
demonstrated that all that is necessary
is to have staminate flowering trees in
proximity to the pistillate ones and
bees, wasps, flies and other insects will
take care of the problem according to
nature’s own plan.

POLLINATION NOT A CURE ALL.

It must not be concluded, however,
from these remarks that pollen bearing
trees in a Japanese persimmon orchard
are a cure for each and every case of
unfruitfulness. There are other factors
which enter into the problem of barren-
ness. The trees may not bear fruit be-
cause they are unhealthy—they may
be poorly nourished or they may be
suffering from attacks of insects, (the
flat headed borer, Dicera obscura, in
particular) or fungi or bacteria. Again
the trees may not even bloom, and the
forces which make for flower produc-
tion, intimately bound up as they are
with environmental pressure on the
activities of the protoplasm, are not well
understood. But if the trees are in good
condition, not starved on the one hand,
and not forced into too vigorous and
succulent growth on the other, they can
usually be depended upon to bloom.
Even though the trees may bloom pro-
fusely and both staminate and pistillate
flowers are present in the orchard, the
activity of insects, upon which pollina-
tion depends, may be greatly restricted
or completely suppressed by untoward
weather conditions. High winds and
heavy rains combined make a condition
particularly unfavorable for successful
and satisfactory pollination, both be-
cause the flowers or their essential parts
may be injured and because the insect
pollen carriers cannot work.

Neither must it be expected that

HuME: PLANTING PERSIMMONS

£35

FRUIT OF TAMOPAN VARIETY, ACTUAL SIZE.

This is one of the most valuable varieties in China, where it is practically seedless.

ticas

propagated on a large scale by native horticulturists and sold more commonly than any

other in some of the most important markets.

In the United States it seems never to

produce any staminate flowers, but, on the other hand, it seems not to require pollination

for successful fruiting.
certainty. (Figure 18.)

every pistillate flower on D. Kaki trees
will set fruit even though there is an
abundance of pollen nearby. Pistillate
flowers are produced singly in the leaf
axils near the base of the twigs of the
current season’s growth. There may
be anywhere from two or three to eight
or ten flowers in the lower nodes of a
new shoot, and if every one of these
flowers produced fruit, the trees would
be very much overloaded. Fortunately
this does not occur, however, and trees

It has not been widely enough tested to determine its behavior with

which are heavily fruited do not set more
than one fruit for every six or eight
flowers on an average. In very much
overloaded trees, the number sometimes
runs as high as one in three or four.
This percentage is too great in some
cases and it would be better to remove
a considerable portion of the fruit to
increase the size and quality of that
which is allowed to remain. The per-
centage of flowers which produce fruit
under proper conditions is higher than

136

on other fruit trees, where the flowers
are borne in clusters, as is the case with
apples, pears and plums.

NO HELP FROM D. VIRGINIANA.

In a very large part of the area in
which D. Kaki may be grown, the com-
mon American persimmon, D. Vir-
giniana, is native and very naturally
the question may be asked, will not
staminate trees of this species serve as
pollinizers? This the writer thought
possible a few year ago. The evidence
at hand so far proves that they are en-
tirely worthless for this purpose and

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THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

necessity of pollinizers for D. Virginiana
has been denied by some writers.

It follows therefore that to make
fruitfulness certain it is a wise plan in
all localities to include D. Kak polliniz-
ers in the planting, and with most horti-
cultural varieties of D. Kaki, in most
sections, it is a provision of fundamental
necessity. What varieties can be used
as pollinizers?

Quite a number of varieties of D.
Kaki are known to produce staminate
flowers. The list now known in this
country comprises Okame, Taber’s No.
23, Taber’s No. 129, Gailey, Masugata,

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PLANTING PLAN FOR JAPANESE PERSIMMONS.

In order that there may be pollinizers wherever wanted, but not else-
where, Mr. Hume recommends setting them in the positions indi-
cated by small circles in the above diagram, the crosses indicating

ordinary female trees.

the proximity of staminate D. Vurgini-
ana trees has no influence whatever on
the fruitfulness of D. Kaki. Moreover
out of many hundred hand pollinations
between D. Kaki and D. Virginiana us-
ing both species as the male parent no
viable seed has so far been secured.
They appear to be absolutely incom-
patible. It may be pointed out in
passing that evidence is accumulating
which shows that the presence of stam-
inate D. Virginiana trees is essential to
the fruitfulness of pistillate trees of the
same species in some localities. The

(Figure 19.)

Siang (S. P. I. No. 21910) New Sien
(S..P.'IT; No. 22368) and S. P. Tia
27037. <All of these have produced
staminate in addition to the pistillate
flowers, and occasionally perfect flowers
(i.e., those containing both stamens and
pistils) have been found.

Thus far the most painstaking and
careful examination of many hundreds
of trees, when in bloom, has failed to
reveal the presence of staminate flowers
on varieties Costata, Hachiya, Hya-
kume, Tsuru, Tamopan, Tanenashi,
Zengi, Triumph, Yemon, Yeddoichi and

Hume: PLANTING PERSIMMONS

Phelps. Under some conditions some
of these same varieties may produce
them.

CONFUSION IN NAMES.

It must be remembered, too, that
there is much confusion in the names of
varieties of D. Kaki dating back to the
time of their introduction into America.
The older varieties mentioned have been
under observation for many years and
are believed to be correctly named.
Particular reference must be made to
Tanenashi, a normally seedless variety
which fruits well without pollination.
It is very difficult to secure seed in its
fruits from the most careful hand polli-
nations. It would be a drawback to
have pollinizers near this variety if the
pollen from them caused seed develop-
ment. Fortunately pollination has
practically no effect on it in this par-
ticular. The ovules have so far proved
to be largely sterile. There is some
evidence to prove that Tamopan is very
similar to Tanenashi in its behavior
toward pollination.

Unfortunately very few of the varie-
ties which have produced staminate
flowers can be depended upon as pollin-
izers: Okame,. Taber’s No. 23 and
Taber’s No. 129, for instance, produce
staminate flowers one year and not the
next, though pistillate flowers are borne
each season. Of these three Taber’s
No. 129 is the most constant in its be-
havior. Gailey (as the tree found near
Eagle Lake has been named) is known
to be a constantly staminate variety, 1.€.,
it produces a good percentage of stam-
inate flowers every time it blooms. The
other varieties mentioned cannot be
placed at this time as they have not
been under observation long enough.
The lists will doubtless be largely in-
creased within the next few years as
the behavior of new introductions be-
comes known. Seedlings are also being
raised and doubtless they will add to
the number.

Hence the only variety which can be
recommended at this time, as a pollin-
izer, is Gailey. This variety has a long
flowering season, and the flowers are
abundantly supplied with pollen. The

137

fruit, however, is quite small, and con-
sequently not so valuable as the larger
sorts with which it would be planted. '

PLANTING PLANS.

For this reason, and for another
reason which will be touched upon later,
the number of Gailey pollinizers in the
orchard should be reduced to a mini-
mum, having in mind at the same time
that enough trees should be set to pro-
duce the pollen necessary to insure good
crops of fruit. While it is a recognized
fact that pollinizers are necessary in
plantings of other kinds of fruits such
as apples and pears, for instance, it is
also a fact that specific reecommenda-
tions as to the number of pollinizers re-
quired and their location in orchards of
these kinds have seldom been made by
writers on this subject. g

The full complement of seeds (eight)
is objectionable in fruit of D. Kaki, par-
ticularly in the smaller varieties. If
one seed develops in a fruit, its develop-

_ment appears to be quite as efficient in

causing fruit to hold as if the full num-
ber is formed. It has been observed,
moreover, that as the distance of a tree
from the pollinizers increases, the average
number of seeds in the fruit decreases.
Therefore to reduce the number of seeds
in the fruit to a miminum, the number
of pollinizers should be reduced to the
very least number which will provide
for effective fruit setting. This prob-
lem has not yet been worked out abso-
lutely and additional time will be re-
quired to decide it definitely.

Plantings made this winter have been
made according to the accompanying
diagram. It will be noted that the
pollinizers are placed every third tree
in every third row, in such a way that
the spaces in the pollination rows are
broken. The proportion is one to seven
or eight. In large plantings by this
plan, each tree requiring pollination
has a pollinizer, directly adjoining it on
one side. It may be that a lesser num-
ber will in the end prove satisfactory,
but there is no doubt but that this plan
will insure sufficient pollination for even
the most pronounced sterile varieties
such as Hachiya and Yemon.

138

TOP-WORKING.

What is the owner of an orchard
already planted to do if he desires to
place pollinizers in his orchard? It is
quite easy to bud over branches here
and there in properly placed trees.
No preliminary cutting back is neces-
sary as the buds may be inserted where
the bark is anywhere from one to three
years old. The work should be done

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

spring, using the ordinary method of
shield budding and tying the buds in
place with waxed cloth. The wraps
should be left on about three weeks and
as soon as the buds have taken, the
branches should be cut back, leaving
stubs five or six inches long to which the
shoots from the buds may be tied as
they grow out. These stubs should be
removed at the end of one season’s

just as the leaves are coming out in growth.

ITALIANS TAKE UP EUGENICS

On November 17th, the Roman Society of Anthropology organized an “Italian
Committee’ for the study of eugenics. The Directors are:
Prof. Giuseppe Sergi, President.
Prof. Sante de Sanctis, Vice-President.
Dr. Cesare Artom, Counsellor.
Prof. Corrado Gini, Counsellor.
Prof. Mangiagali, Counsellor.
Prof. Alfredo Niceforo, Counsellor.
Dr. F. Umberto Saffiotti, Secretary.

INTERNATIONAL EUGENICS CONGRESS

The Organizing Committee of the Second International Eugenics Congress
met in New York City, January 2,1914 and elected Professor Alexander Graham
Bell Honorary President and Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, President. The
nucleus of a General Committee was also named. Professor Osborn has accepted
the Presidency. It is probable that the Congress will hold its meetings in the
latter half of September, 1915, at the American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.

A. B. A. PUBLICATIONS WANTED

On the inside back cover of this issue will be found a list of the American
Breeders Association annual reports, and back numbers of the American Breeders’
Magazine, which the association still has for sale. There is a constant demand
for the other numbers and reports, particularly from libraries which wish to
complete files. Those who have any copies of the annual reports, or of the
magazine, other than are enumerated on the inside back cover, will confer a favor
by notifying the secretary, if they are willing to sell them.

The

Journal ol Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 4 April, 1914:

CONTENTS

Differential Fecundity, by Walter F. Willeox.... ..................... 141
The Need of Accuracy, by David Heron .............................. 148
Eugenic Civilization, by Francis Galton.............................. 148
Alaska’s Reindeer Industry, by Levi Chubbuck....................... 149
News bli cations sect ca eee Isp Bae ee ek aot ees Te ee 154
The Existence of Species, by O. F. Cook...........0....0....0.0.0..... 155
Collecting in Turkestan, by Frank N. Meyer......................... 159
tos yal EC IL NCCE C0) 6 tga sida SL tL cer ce air i Une tan a Weer re EPL 5 169
The Immigration Problem, by Robert De C. Ward.................... 169
Breeding Karakul Sheep, by Dr. C. C. Young ........................ 170
Quail Breeding (from ‘‘Forest and Stream’) ......................... 178
EhreeiINew: Nutss by. The Editor. Joie. ce pol acwees one oe aacktyss bee ee 179
Increasing the Richness of Milk, by Nils Hunsson.................... 183
Influence of Source of Seed, by Arnold Engler........................ 185
BagsenicsimgthetCollesess..:.2..4.% 2s she + ns) Aa ee ee toes 186

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and Journal.

Date of issue of this number, March 26, 1914.

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(‘ooordstyuo1 yy)

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days o1yeISW Joy}O 94} JO oUIOS JO Bis Jo aoUaseId afqissod ay} yo}ep 0}

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*TAMVUVM AO SSVTID IAVUV TIVINS ABL

10 94} o1B SAMA BSOY [,

DIFFERENTIAL FECUNDITY ;

How Various Races of the United States Are Altering Their Relative Positions—
Native Americans Dying Out in New England—Whites Supplanting
' Negroes in the South—Influence of Cities on the Birth-Rate.!

WALTER F. WILLCOx,
Professor of Economics and Statistics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

AVING been honored with an

= invitation to address you upon

the subject, of ‘differential

fecundity as one of the causes

of the need for race betterment,” I have

felt it both a privilege and a duty to
accept the invitation.

At the start it is well to define
fecundity. This is the more necessary
because the definition used in biology
and medicine differs somewhat from that
used in statistics. The definition pro-
pounded by Professor Raymond Pearl
in his paper before the First Inter-
national Eugenics Congress at London
in 1912 was as follows: “the innate
potential reproductive capacity of the
individual organism as denoted by its
ability to form and separate from the
body mature germ cells.” For human
statistics this definition is inapplicable
and useless. Statistics disregards poten-
tial as distinguished from actual or
realized fecundity and makes fecundity
a characteristic, not of men or women,
husbands or wives, but of marriages.
For present purposes, then, it is a
term applied to marriages which have
proved fruitful in the birth of at least
one child, and is thus the opposite of
sterility.

In some technical discussions a dis-
tinction is drawn between fecundity and
fertility, the former being applied indis-
criminately to every marriage which has
resulted in the birth of a child, the latter
taking into account also the number of
children born to the marriage. If we
were to accept this distinction, two
marriages, to one of which a single
child had been born, and to the other

1Address delivered before the First National Conference for Race Betterment.

Mich., January 10, 1914.

of which six children had been born,
would be equally fecund, for fecundity
has no degrees, but the marriage which
had resulted in six children would be
more fertile than the other. In the
present paper, which must be general
in character, the distinction between
fecundity and fertility will be ignored.
For our purposes, fecundity means the
yield of living births in any population
group in a unit of time, usually a year.
This yield can seldom be effectively
stated as a total number of births, for
such a number ignores variations in the
size of the group which produces it. To
avoid this difficulty fecundity is stated
ordinarily as a proportion or ratio,
called the birth rate.

WHAT DIFFERENTIAL MEANS.

The word differential also must detain
us a moment. The differences which it
implies are differences in the fecundity
of various population groups and, in
consequence, differences in the rates at
which these groups perpetuate them-
selves and multiply by nature’s pro-
cesses of birth and death. The real
things to be compared are the rates of
increase or of decrease resulting from
the balance between these natural pro-
cesses. The birth rate or fecundity gives
only one term when what is wanted is
the difference between two terms, the
birth rate and the death rate. A popu-
lation group may increase either by
excess of births over deaths, by excess
of immigration over emigration, or by
various combinations of these two kinds
of change reinforcing or antagonizing
each other. An increase by excess of

Battle Creek,
141

142

births, or what is called natural increase,
differs from an increase by excess of
immigration over emigration, or migra-
tory increase, in that it is more likely
to carry on into the next generation
through heredity the main characteris-
tics of the parent stock. Where the
group is increased by immigration there
is less warrant for supposing that its
qualities will be perpetuated.

My real theme, then, may be phrased
as ‘‘ Differences in the Rates of Natural
Increase,’ a more accurate title than
“Differential Fecundity.” In addition
to defining my subject more exactly,
this has an incidental advantage. The
fecundity or birth rate of the popula-
tion of the United States is unknown;
the fecundity of any of the numerous
groups into which that population may
be divided, with the possible exception
of a few states, is likewise unknown.
Neither do we know the mortality or
death rate of the population of the
United States, although we do know the
death rate of many states and are
rapidly advancing towards a determina-
tion of the rate for the entire country.
These facts might seem to make a paper
on “‘ Differential Fecundity ”’ or ‘“Natural
Increase”? almost impossible. But if a
group is unaffected by migration, its
total increase at one date over the
number at a prior date, determined from
two successive censuses, is a measure
of its natural increase. The population
of the United States is far from satisfy-
ing this condition, yet within it there
are certain groups, e. g., Negroes and
Indians, so little affected by migration
that we may measure their natural
increase from census returns, though
neither their fecundity nor their mor-
tality is known. Even for the whites
the effort to measure the natural in-
crease by allowing for the increase due
to immigration is not absolutely fruit-
less.

SCOPE OF THE PAPER.

My subject, then, assumes that the
population can be divided into groups,
the natural increase of which can be
determined and compared, and my aim
is to review the present state of statis-
tical knowledge regarding the natural

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

increase of such groups. The American
population groups of whose natural
increase I shall speak briefly are the
white and the Negro races, the native
and the foreign born, the several
nativity strains among the foreign born,
the urban and the rural population.
Among savage or semi-civilized people,
the overwhelming majority of whom live
little above the starvation point, there
is a reciprocal relation between births
and deaths. When the deaths increase,
the births decrease; when the deaths
decrease, the births increase. For
example, in European Russia in the
famine year, 1892, the deaths exceeded
the annual average of the years before
and after the famine by more than half
a million, and the births in that year
fell below the annual average for the
years before and after by more than
300,000. Conversely, in such countries
a bountiful crop lowers the death rate
during the time the food lasts, and
raises sharply the birth rate a few months
later. Most civilized countries have
emancipated themselves from this close
dependence upon food and in them no
relation can be traced between the crop
of grain and the crop of babies. In such
countries the only surviving relics of
this reciprocal relation between births
and deaths are found in cases of war and
pestilence. Thus, in Massachusetts,
the effect of the Civil War was appar-
ently more marked in reducing the birth
rate than in raising the death rate.
The first of the recent epidemics of
influenza, sweeping rapidly from Russia
over Europe and her outposts in the
winter of 1889-90, was the main reason
that in nearly every civilized country
1890 was a year with a very high death
rate. But no attention has been called
to the fact that the births in Europe
during that year were 200,000 below the
average of the preceding five years, and
that these losses of life by reduction of
the births came in each country from
eight to ten months after the mortality
from the epidemic reached its height.

DECLINE IN BIRTH RATE.

During the last fifty years or less
the most marked change in the birth
rates and death rates of civilized coun-

’

WILLCOX: DIFFERENTIAL FECUNDITY

tries has been the gradual decline and
almost complete disappearance of this
reciprocal relation between births and
deaths, whereby the most significant
changes were those between one year
and the next and these changes were
usually in opposite directions, and the
appearance in its place of a tendency
for birth rates and death rates to de-
crease slowly but steadily for a long
series of consecutive years. The annual
variations are much less, but the total
change in ten or twenty years much
greater than under the earlier condi-
tions. Usually the decline began with
the death rate and in that case its effect
would necessarily be to magnify the
natural increase. But a decline in the
birth rate soon began and is proceeding
now in most civilized countries about
aS, fst. as the death rate. Indeed;
such a change was inevitable, if the
natural increase was not to be more
rapid than the increase in wealth or
food. We must never forget that the
decline in the birth rate and that alone
has enabled mankind to hold fast the
advantages promised by the advance of
civilization and the sharp fall in the
death rate. The serious and disturbing
fact is not the mere decline in the birth
rate, but the differential decline. Appar-
ently many strains or lines of descent
which one might most desire to see
continued and increased are strains
which are losing ground relatively, if
not absolutely, by a decrease of the
birth rate more rapid than that of the
death rate.

The largest and in some respects the
most important population groups about
whose rates of natural increase I wish
to speak this morning are the great
races of man, the European, Asiatic,
and African. Their increase has been
and still is in the main dependent upon
differences in the certainty and suffi-
ciency of the food supply. The great
reason for the rapid multiplication of
the European folk and their descendants
in other parts of the world from per-
haps 130 millions in the middle of the
eighteenth century, to more than 550
millions now, while during the same
period the numbers of other races have
altered but little, is found in the fact

143

that new territorial discoveries and new
methods of stimulating agricultural pro-
duction and the transportation of per-
sons and goods have concurred to
increase enormously the supplies of food
available for the white race. There is
no reason to suppose that the fecundity
or fertility of this race is greater than
that of other races or greater than it
formerly was; its natural increase has
been unprecedented not because its
birth rate has risen but because its
death rate has tallen, and fallen more
rapidly than its birth rate.

HOW THE NEGRO LOSES GROUND.

In our own country and especially in
the southern states this divergence in
rates of natural increase 1s working out
results of interest for the two great
races. That the white race is slowly
displacing the Negroes in the United
States is now well known. That this
is due to differences in the rates of
total increase is equally familiar. But
the whites are being constantly rein-
forced by immigrants and the Negroes
are not. Where migration 1s a potent
factor, total increase is an untrust-
worthy clue to natural increase. For
this reason we may get nearer the truth
by confining attention to the southern
states. Under the slavery régime and
the saturnalia of reconstruction which
followed, i. e., from 1790 to 1880, the
increase of the two races in the South,
and, so far as we may disregard the
effects of migration and identify natural
increase with total increase, their natural
increase was at about the same rate.
During this ninety years, when the
Negroes were fewest relatively they were
35% of the total population of the
South; when they were most numerous
they were 38%, a difference of only 3%.
But since 1880 the southern whites have
increased much more rapidly than the
southern Negroes and as a result the
proportion of the latter is dwindling.
In 30 years that proportion has de-
creased more than 6%, or more than
2% in each decade.

In the United States as a whole the
more rapid increase of the whites is due
not only to the influx of hundreds of

thousands of white immigrants, but also

144 THE JOURNAL
to the fact that in the registration area
in 1910—an area including nearly three-
fifths of the whites and more than one-
fifth of the Negroes, and so a fair index
of conditions in the country at large—
the Negro death rate exceeded the white
by about two-thirds. If the fecundity
of the darker race likewise exceeded that
of the whites by two-thirds, the differ-
ence in the death rates would not entail
a different rate of natural increase.
Although no exact measure of fecundity
can be gained until there is an effective
registration of births, a rough substitute
for it has been found in the proportion
of living children under five years of
age to 1,000 women of child-bearing age.

NEGRO FECUNDITY.

Measured in this way, the fecundity
of the American Negro is and has been
for the 60 years since 1850 greater than
that of the white. During the 30 years
since 1880—and those are just the years
within which the proportion of Negroes
in the South has been falling—the
excess in the proportion of Negro chil-
dren over white children in the country
has likewise been falling. The present
difference in fecundity between the races
is little more than one-fourth of that in
1880, and at present rates of change it
will have disappeared entirely before the
next census is taken. In the South the
proportions of children in the total
population and in each race are notably
above the corresponding proportions in
the North. Indeed it is probable that
a main reason for the greater fecundity
of the Negro race is found in the fact
that this race, of which nearly nine-
tenths live in the South, has the high
fecundity characteristic of the South,
and the white race, of which the majority
live in the North, has the lower fecun-
dity characteristic of the North. For
in the southern states the proportion of
children to women among whites already
exceeds that among Negroes by 10%.

The evidence, then, points to a differ-
ential natural increase as an important
factor, a factor in my opinion at least
as important as immigration, in deter-
mining the present and future relative

oF HEREDITY

proportions of the two main races in this
country.

Among the whites, the main classes
whose differential fecundity has been
somewhat studied, are the native and
the foreign-born stock. This branch of
the inquiry is difficult not only because
of that lack of data which almost baffles
one in studying the differential fecun-
dity of white and Negro, but also because
the lines between the two classes are
fluid and variable. A son born of immi-
grant parents the day after their land-
ing is of the same stock as they, yet in
the statistical tables he stands as a
native American and they as foreign-
born or immigrant. Although efforts
have been made to measure the propor-
tion of the white population of the
United States at the end of the nine-
teenth century which sprang from the
whites who were in this country at its
beginning, and the proportion due to
immigration during the century, yet
none of the results seems to have won
or to be entitled to general acceptance,
and for that reason I must pass this
topic as still a happy hunting ground
for conjecture.

CHANGES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

A careful and illuminating study of
the comparative fecundity of the native
and foreign-born population of Massa-
chusetts and of the various strains of
the foreign-born in that state during
the 15 years, 1883-1897, was made in
1901 by Dr. R. R. Kuczynski2 The
proportion of married women who had
outlived the child-bearing age without
having borne any child was 9% among
the foreign-born, and 15% among the
native, indicating that the proportion
of sterile marriages is about two-thirds
greater among natives than among
foreign-born. The average annual num-
ber of births among 1,000 immigrants
was more than three times as great as
among 1,000 natives of the United
States. But a large proportion of the
natives and a small proportion of immi-
grants are children, and for this reason
a fairer comparison of fecundity was
secured by excluding the children both

*In the Quarterly Journal of Economics for November, 1901, and February, 1902.

*

WILLCOx: DIFFERENTIAL FECUNDITY

from the native and from the foreign-
born. After this correction has been
made, the fecundity of the foreign-born
was found to be a little more than twice
that of the native. The birth rate
varied with the place of birth of the
mother, the lowest rate being found
when the Massachusetts wife was born
in some other New England state; the
highest rate when the Massachusetts
wife was born in Portugal, the latter
rate being more than four times the
former. When all women over 50 years
of age and all younger unmarried women
were excluded, the birth rate of foreign-
born wives was found to: be greater than
that of the native by about three-fourths.

Another study of the fecundity of
married women in New Hampshire,
comparing native and foreign-born wives,
and introducing a classification by age,
added the interesting result that, while
the birth rate of foreign-born wives at
all ages was twice that of native wives,
this was a resultant or average of differ-
ences which grew steadily greater with
the age of the classes compared. The
birth rate of foreign-born wives at ages
under 20 exceeded that of native wives
by less than one-fourth, but at ages 25
to 34 it was more than double and at
ages 35 to 44 was almost treble that of
native wives. This suggests that a
large part at least of the difference
between the fecundity of the native and
the immigrant stock in New Hamp-
shire is due to psychological rather than
physiological causes, or causes which
express themselves in the voluntary
choice of small families rather than in
sterility. An attempt to estimate the
comparative fecundity in 1900 of native
and foreign-born women in the United
States, including wives and_ spinsters
and with no allowance for differences in
age distribution, indicated that the
fecundity of foreign-born women ex-
ceeded that of native women by more
than 50%.

145

The statistics of Massachusetts, al-
though they were probably as good as
those of any state, did not and do not
yet afford the information needed for a
thorough study of the death rates, and
so of the difference between birth rate
and death rate, or natural increase, of
the native and foreign-born, but a
comparison of the existing material with
that furnished in Berlin, where a similar
problem has been studied perhaps as
carefully as anywhere in the world, led
Dr. Kuczynski to conclude that the
native population of Massachusetts is
probably dying out at a rapid rate.

NATIVE POPULATION DYING OUT.

Since his articles were written, mater-
ial has accumulated making it possible
to compare the mortality of the native
and the foreign-born in 1900 in the
registration area of the United States,
which embraced two-fifths of the popu-
lation of the country and much more
than that proportion of the foreign-
born, and in 1910 in New York State.’
These results show that for ages be-
tween 10 and 40 there is very little
difference between the death rates of
natives and of foreign-born of the same
sex and age, and that what differences
do exist are quite as often in favor of
the foreign-born as the native. Since
the fecundity of the foreign-born is at
least 50% greater than that of the
native, and the mortality is about the
same, the difference between them, or
the natural increase of the foreign-born,
must be far above that of the native
population.

Another classification of the popula-
tion has been employed in studies of
differential fecundity, that into the
urban and the rural population. Under
urban is included all residents of cities
each having at least 25,000 inhabitants,
all the rest of the population being
treated as rural. The division line of
25,000 is much too high, but the form

3A. A. Young, ‘‘Birth Rate in New Hampshire,’”’ in American Statistical Assn. Quart. Pubs.,

IX: 280 (September, 1905).

4Tweltth Census, Supplementary Analysis, p. 420.

5This is the only fact brought out, I believe, for the first time in the present paper. The results
for New York State in 1910 will be found in my last report as consulting statistician to the New
York State Department of Health; the confirmatory results for about forty per cent. of the popu-
lation of the United States in 1900 have been computed from a ms. table kindly furnished me by

the Census Bureau.

146 THE JOURNAL

of the printed tables makes it impossible
to put the limit lower. The fecundity of
city women between 15 and 44 years of
age is only about two-thirds that of
country women. But in the United
States cities are massed at the North,
and the North has a low fecundity.
The low urban fecundity, then, may be
due to the northern location and not to
city life. To test this, a comparison
has been made between the cities of the
North and the country districts of the
North, and between the cities of the
South and the country districts of the
South. Such a comparison indicates
that in all main divisions of the United
States fecundity in country districts
is greater than fecundity in cities It
indicates also that the difference be-
tween city and country in this respect
is at a minimum of about 10% in the
North Atlantic group and at a maxi-
mum in the southern groups where rural
fecundity is about double urban fecun-
dity. This geographic difference may
be plausibly explained as due to the
numerous immigrants in Northern cities
and their high fecundity, and to the
numerous Negroes in Southern cities
and their low fecundity. For the fecun-
dity of city Negroes is only about two-
thirds the fecundity of city whites, but
the fecundity of country Negroes is
much above that of country whites.
The growth of cities, especially in the
South, and of a Negro urban population
seems likely to increase the differences
in the fecundity of the two races.

FECUNDITY OF IMMIGRANTS.

The twenty-eighth volume of the
Report of the Immigration Commission,
printed in 1911, contains a contribution
to our subject, entitled, ‘ Fecundity of
Immigrant Women,” the main conclu-
sions of which have been summarized
by its author in an article in the last
issue of the Quarterly Publications of the
American Statistical Association.’ The
tables were compiled from manuscript
data in the United States Census Bureau
and deal in the main with nearly 80,000
married women under 45 years of age

‘Joseph A. Hill,

Am. Stat. Assn. Quart. Pubs., XIII: 583-604.

OF HEREDITY

living in the second decade of married
life and with the number of children
they have had.

This is the most important American
study of fecundity, and supplements in
many ways what we previously knew.
It classifies white wives as native of
native parents, native of foreign parents,
and foreign-born, and adds scanty data
about Negro wives. Of the Negro wives
who had been married between 10 and
20 years, one in five had had no child;
of the native white of native parents,
one in eight; of the native white of
foreign parents, one in 16; and of the
foreign-born wives, one in 19. The
proportion of sterile marriages was
determined for the various nationality
classes of the foreign-born; it is highest
among wives born in Scotland or Eng-
land; lowest among wives born in
Poland, Bohemia or Russia; and the
proportion of sterile marriages among
those where the wife was born in one of
the first mentioned countries is about
four times as great as among marriages
where the wife was born in a country
belonging to the second group. Among
no group of foreign-born wives, however,
is the proportion of sterile marriages
as great as among marriages where the
wives were born in the United States.

With reference to the average number
of children born to these groups of wives
of various countries of birth, the small-
est number is to wives of native Ameri-
can birth and parentage. Ten such
marriages have resulted in 27 children;
10 Negro marriages in 31 children; 10
marriages in which the wives were born
in England, in 34 children; and at the
other extreme, 10 marriages with wives
born in Russia, in 54 children; 10 with
wives born in French Canada, in 56;
and 10 with wives born in Poland, in 62.

The average interval of time elapsing
between births is for wives born in the
United States, 5.3 years; for wives born
in Poland, 2.3 years. This interval
between births is uniformly greater in
the second generation of immigrants
than in the first. But the proportion
of sterile marriages does not rise simi-

“Comparative Fecundity of Women of Native and Foreign Parentage,” in

WILLCOx: DIFFERENTIAL FECUNDITY

larly. So the tendency is to a reduction
in the size of families rather than to a
larger proportion of sterile unions.

FEWER BIRTHS IN THE CITY.

The influence of rural conditions upon
fecundity is best measured by the state-
ment that among wives born in this
country of native parents and married
between 10 and 20 years, 10 living in
urban districts have had on the average
24 or 25 children, while 10 living in
rural districts have had on the average
34 children, indicating that the fecun-
dity of wives of a given nativity class
living in the country is about two-fifths
greater than it is in the city.

Perhaps the most important body of
information regarding differential fecun-
dity or comparative rates of natural
increase in the United States has been
secured as an immediate or remote
result of the addition to the Massa-
chusetts census schedule of 1875 of the
question, ‘“Number of children borne
by women,” the object of which ‘‘was
to ascertain the relative fecundity of
women of different nationalities and to
settle the question which con-
tinually arises concerning the growth
of our native population as compared
with that of our foreign born.”’ Ten
years later similar information was
sought in fuller detail by asking of each
married woman two questions: ‘‘Mother
of how many children’’ and ‘“‘ Number
of those children now living.” The
results of tabulating the answers to
these questions were carefully analyzed
in the state census and were also of
importance to Dr. Kuczynski in the
preparation of his articles. The interest
aroused in these questions and their
answers was so great that five years
later, in 1890, the same questions were
placed on the schedules of the United
States census, but unfortunately no
tabulation of the results was ever made.
In 1900, after much consideration by
the office, the same questions were asked
again, and again, after much prelimi-
nary work had been done upon the
answers, the work was discontinued and

™ass. Census of 1875, Vol. 1, p. xli.

8Report of the Director for 1909-10, pp. 45-6.

147

no results ever reached the public except
for the fragmentary tabulation made by
the Immigration Commission and apply-
ing to about 4% of the population.

VALUABLE DATA NEGLECTED.

Yet again at the census in 1910 these
questions were repeated a third time
and in the Report of the Director of the
Census to the Secretary of Commerce
and Labor for that year one may read
the following passage: “It is also pro-
posed to work out from the
returns on the schedules statistics with
regard to fecundity as indicated by the
number of children born and the num-
ber living for women of different classes
in comparison with their age and the
duration of marriage. : A con-
siderable amount of preliminary work
on this subject was undertaken at the
census of 1900 but the results were never
tabulated or published. [It is respect-
fully suggested that the Secretary
recommend to Congress that the Director
of the Census be authorized to tabulate
the more important information on this
subject for the 1900 census as well as
that for 1910. This subject is
one of profound importance and the
census schedules furnish data by which
conclusions of the utmost value can be
readily drawn. A plan has been devised
by which the expense of . tabu-
lating the results on this subject for the
census of 1910 will be much less than
would have been necessary to complete
the work on the lines begun in 1900.’’’

At the present time no funds are avail-
able for completing this work and there
is danger that for the third time the
inquiry will suffer shipwreck. This
investigation has been imitated abroad,
some of the most interesting and sig-
nificant results of the last French census
and also of the last British census
being derived from the answers to
similar questions. In my opinion the
failure to utilize the answers to these
questions was one of the main defects
of the census of 1890, was the most
serious defect of the census of 1900 and
now bids fair to be the most serious

148 THE JOURNAL
defect of the census of 1910. In Dr.
Hill’s paper already quoted, and written
a few weeks ago, we read: ‘“‘It is to be
hoped that the returns ob-
tained at the census of 1910 will not be
similarly neglected, but as yet no steps
have been taken towards their tabula-
tion.” If it had been the policy of this
conference to adopt resolutions or make
recommendations, I should have pro-
posed the adoption of some such resolu-
tion as the following:

Resolved, that the National Conference on
Race Betterment appoint a committee with
power

1. To memorialize the Congress of the
United States in the name of this Conference,
urging it to provide the funds needed for com-
piling the returns now on the schedules of the

census of 1910 and thereby measuring the fecun-
dity of the races and national elements within

oF HEREDITY

2. To attempt to secure the presentation of
similar petitions from other organizations or
from individuals interested in this subject.

Whether such a resolution would be
welcome or not, I sincerely hope that
individuals will write to individual con-
gressmen urging such action as is here
proposed.

In my judgment, no statistical result
could come from this conference more
valuable than a concerted effort to
increase the available information re-
garding the comparative fecundity of the
various strains in our population, for
this information lying unused in the
government files is of more value and
importance than the entire sum of
knowledge on differential fecundity
now possessed by the American people.

the United States:

The Need of Accuracy

Legislation with regard to the sources of racial degeneracy is certain to become
more and more frequent in the near future; the idea of race betterment is not the
monoply of a few faddists and cranks; it is growing to have an almost religious
significance with a large number of persons in this country [England] and the
movement foreshadowed by the present Mental Deficiency Act, is certain to
grow apace whether or no it be backed by a scientific study of degeneracy. Shall
there or shall there not be an accurate science of eugenics on which we can base
legislative action? Shall we be content with mere expressions of opinion, with slip-
shod data, and with inaccurate treatment of even such material? The only answer
possible is that we cannot be satisfied with such a condition of affairs in the case
of man. The service of man demands the very best that science can produce,
and those of us who have the highest hopes for the new science of eugenics in the
future are not a little alarmed by many of the recent contributions to the subject
which threaten to place eugenics with the older “social science’? and much of
modern sociology—entirely outside the plane of true science. Eugenics ought
to be an accurate description at worst, a quantitative and exact appreciation
at best, of the biological forces which control the evolution of national welfare.—
David Heron: Mendelism and the Problem of Mental Defect (1913).

Eugenic Civilization

The best form of civilization in respect to the improvement of the race, would
be one in which society was not costly; where incomes were derived chiefly from
professional sources, and not much through inheritance; where every lad had a
chance of showing his abilities, and, if highly gifted, was enabled to achieve a
first-class education and entrance into professional life, by the liberal help of
the exhibitions and scholarships which he had gained in his early youth; where
marriage was held in as high honor as in ancient Jewish times; where the pride
of race was encouraged (of course I do not refer to the nonsensical sentiment of
the present day, that goes under that name); where the weak would find a refuge
and a welcome in celibate monasteries and sisterhoods, and lasty, where the
better sort of emigrants and refuges from other lands were invited and welcomed,
and their descendants naturalized.—Francis Galton: Hereditary Genius (1869).

ALASKA’S REINDEER INDUSTRY

Peninsula Could Provide Grazing for Millions of Animals, in Region Where Cattle
and Sheep Will Not Thrive—Meat Excellent and Brings High Price Herd
of 40,000 Now Exists, as Result of Importations by Government.

Levi CHUBBUCK,

Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

was purchased from Russia by the

United States, Professor S. F. Baird,

in a paper printed in the Agricultural
Report of the United States Patent
Office, advocated the importation of the
domesticated European reindeer to
Alaska for the benefit of the natives,
whose means of subsistence by hunting
and fishing, were being greatly dimin-
ished by the white men. Professor
Baird expressed the opinion that the
American caribou, native in Alaska, was
as capable of domestication as the
European species, but to avoid loss of
time and save the people from the
vicissitudes that were rapidly sweeping
them off, he suggested the establish-
ment of herds of the imported animals.
Such a step, he said, would be of vast
benefit to the Indians of the North,
and might in the end lead them to
become a pastoral people.

Twenty years after the purchase,
which was in 1867, Charles H. Town-
send took up the matter and advised
that the government import reindeer,
teach the natives how to care for and use
the animals, and give them a start with
herds.

Forty years after Professor Baird
suggested the idea, the first move was
made to act on the suggestion, when,
in 1891, the late Dr. Sheldon Jackson,
general agent in Alaska of the Bureau
of Education, took hold of the proposi-
tion. Aided by donations from private
sources, he purchased a small herd of
European reindeer which arrived in
Alaska in 1892. Successive importa-
tions brought the total to 1,280 head,
which number has increased to about
40,000 at the present time.

; 1851, sixteen years before Alaska

W. T. Grenfell, the well-known mis-
Sionary in Labrador, has succeeded in
getting reindeer from Lapland intro-
duced in Labrador and northern New-
foundland, and W. J. Carroll, of New-
foundland, says: “It is to be hoped
that the introduction of reindeer will
be the first step towards the domestica-
tion of our own caribou.”’

THE REINDEER’S WILD RELATIVES.

David E. Lantz, in Bulletin No. 36, ot
the Biological Survey, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, speaks of several species
and local races of caribou or reindeer
that inhabit the northern part of North
America, which he divides into two
groups according to habitat. The more
northern group, which ranges beyond
the forests, is represented by the bar-
ren-ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus).
The second group is found in the
forested area south of the other, and is
represented by the woodland caribou
(Rangifer caribou). They differ but
little, Mr. Lantz says, from the old-
world reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in
habits and general appearance, although
no attempts to domesticate the Ameri-
can reindeer seem to have been made.

While, so far as the writer knows, no
systematic effort has been made to test
the matter, it is alleged that there have
been instances of cross breeding be-
tween the domesticated reindeer and the
native animals. This would not natur-
ally take place except when both species
were in captivity; but if such cross-
breeding is a fact, it indicates that the
blood of the wild caribou might be used
to good advantage, should there be need
of building up the reindeer herds. There
is evidently already need of work along

149

150

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

AN OLD MALE SIBERIAN REINDEER.

The reindeer is the only member of the deer family that has been domesticated, and shares
with the dog the honor of being the only domesticated animal of the far North. Its genus
(Rangifer) is the only one of the deer family in which the females, as well as the males,

regularly possess antlers.

and furnishes food, clothing and labor to its native owners.

Under ordinary conditions it lives to the age of 10 or 12 years,

It can draw 250 to 300 lbs. on

a sled and travel all day at the rate of 10 miles an hour: its pace is an awkward, straddling

walk, rarely a gallop. (Figure 1.)

this line in some districts where it
appears that from lack of care in the
selection of breeding animals, the domes-
ticated deer are decreasing in size and
developing other signs of degeneracy.
The native caribou are superior in size
and vigor to the imported animals.
There seems to be no evidence as to
whether they can actually be domesti-
cated, but there should be no difficulty

in employing them to infuse new blood
into the herd of tame deer, should that
seem desirable.

MUCH LAND AVAILABLE.

Here would seem to be an opportunity
for some broadly conceived scientific and
practical government work of large
economic possibilities: A region sparsely
occupied by a worthy and needy race,

CHUBBUCK: ALASKA’S REINDEER INDUSTRY

151

AN OLD MALE WOODLAND CARIBOU.

An adult buck weighs from 350 to 400 lbs., and at the beginning of autumn carries a thick
layer of fat on the back and rump, which furnishes a highly prized article of food to natives.

Sir John Richardson says:

“The flesh is tender and its flavor, when in season, is in my

opinion superior to that of the finest English venison; but when the animal is lean, it is
insipid, the difference between lean and well-fed caribou being greater than one can con-

ceive, who has not had an opportunity of judging.”

Zoologists now divide the caribou,

distinguishing a dozen species in North America; the one shown here is the Newfoundland

Caribou (Rangifer terranovae).
(Figure 2.)

the Eskimo, whose means of living have
become very much restricted in recent
years, and who make excellent reindeer
herdsmen; the nucleus of an animal
industry in the 40,000 reindeer now
owned largely by the Eskimo; and a
region practically unoccupied, with per-
haps 100,000 square miles of pasturage
suitable for the reindeer; at any rate
sufficient to sustain herds reaching into
the millions in number. In the April,
1903, number of The National Geo-

Photograph made at the New York Zoological Park.

graphic Magazine, the editor, in an
article on ‘‘Reindeer in Alaska,’’ said:
“In thirty-five years the number may
reach 10,000,000 head.”’

It may be worth while to note in this
connection, that in the two northern
countries of Sweden, Norrbotten and
Vesterbotten, comprising 63,000 square
miles, the Lapps own 230,000 reindeer.
Large herds are also owned in the north
of Norway and in Finland.

The western half of Alaska, including

hy THE JOURNAL
all the territory north of the Yukon
River, is the region best suited to the
reindeer, and it is also the section in
which other agricultural opportunities
are the most meagre and conditions for
home making least favorable. A develop-
ment of the reindeer industry can there-
fore be had without encroaching on
districts where other lines of farming
are more feasible. The white reindeer
moss (Cladonia rangiferina) is found in
all the arctic region of Alaska, on the
Seward Peninsula and the tundras of
the western portion of the territory, and
in the mountains of the Alaska range and
of the Alaska peninsula. Its existence
not only permits the occupancy of vast
regions that would otherwise be prac-
tically uninhabitable, but makes possi-
ble the production of a food supply of
large economic importance.

LITTLE CARE REQUIRED.

The existence of great herds of native
caribou that have grazed, and are yet
found in considerable numbers in re-
gions north of the Yukon River, and
in various other parts of the peninsula
as well, indicates clearly the kind of
animal husbandry feasible in that part
of Alaska. By building on nature’s
foundation, a great domestic animal
industry may be established in regions
where the climate does not favor the
introduction of cattle and sheep. The
reindeer subsist on the native herbage,
principally the reindeer moss, winter and
summer, require no shelter and little
care beyond being restrained by a herder
from wandering. The reindeer meat is
of excellent quality, and the skins are
valuable. Little attempt has thus been
made to use the deer for dairy’ or trans-
portation purposes, as is done in Europe.

The larger proportion of the reindeer
now in Alaska are within 200 miles of
Nome, and nearly one-half of all are on

OF HEREDITY

the Seward Peninsula. From that dis-
trict the herds are scattered as far north
as Point Barrow on the Arctic Ocean,
south to points on the Alaska Penin-
sula, and eastward up the Yukon River
to Tanana, which is about midway
between the Canadian boundary and the
west coast.

At present the individual ownership
of reindeer is restricted to Eskimos and
Indians, with the exception of a few
Lapps who were brought in with the
original importations as caretakers, in-
structors and herders. Some of the
missions are still in possession of herds,
and there are a few government herds.
No breeding deer are allowed to be sold
to whites. The Alaska Division of the
U.S. Bureau of Education, Department
of the Interior, has supervision of all
the herds, the teachers of the govern-
ment school for native children located
nearest a herd having immediate charge.
In 1911 one hundred carcasses of deer
were shipped to Seattle from Nome, and
the meat sold at 75 cents a pound.

INCREASE NOW SLOW.

Thomas A. Powers, of Unalakleet,
Alaska (near St. Michael), in a letter to
the writer dated August 16, 1912, says
the increase in number of reindeer is
only one-half that of cattle, due, he
thinks, to the unscientific management
introduced by the Lapps and followed
by the natives, and to permitting the
latter to dispose of young deer. He
expresses the opinion that the govern-
ment should, if possible, appraise the
deer held by the Lapps and missions,
buy them and distribute to the natives,
and then put the industry in charge of a
capable American cattleman, with a
corps of able assistants, who would
handle it on a scientific basis. ‘‘The
reindeer industry is, as you know,*in
its infancy,” he concludes, “and, not-

'The reindeer is milked by the Lapps once or twice a day, furnishing only a cupful at a time, and

this ‘‘comes hard.”’

ingly rich, but has a strong flavor and odor, somewhat like the milk of goats.
tastes like tallow, and is little used, but much cheese is made.
when they produce their fawns, one or two in number.

The milk is so thick that it must be diluted for drinking; it is correspond-

Butter from it
The does are fresh in the spring,
In Alaska the animal is rarely milked.

2Up to the present, local markets in Alaska have been able to use all the reindeer meat available,

butchers buying the animals dressed at about 25 cents a pound.

Reindeer may profitably be

killed at the age of seven or eight, when they have outlived their greatest usefulness for trans-

portation purposes.
about 130 pounds, dressed.

They are broken at the age of two.

The average Alaskan carcass weighs

(‘¢ onS1yy) ‘ApIsIOATU, TUreryAy “UT

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154

withstanding its early mismanagement,
gives promise of a mighty industry, and
should be carefully fostered so that in
years to come the states could rely upon
an ever-increasing supply of reindeer
meat. To do this, means should be
used to stop waste and decrease casual-
ties, and this will never be so long as the
Lapps and missions hold so large a num-
ber of deer, and the natives, who do not
look to the future, are permitted to
handle the deer as they will.”

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Japhet Linderberg, president of the
Pioneer Mining Company, Nome,
Alaska, a recognized authority on rein-
deer, says the tundra fires, in destroying
large areas of moss, are a great menace
to the reindeer industry. These fires
are very extensive all through the inter-
ior, where the light precipitation and
the peaty character of muchrof the area
permit them to smoulder and burn until
not only all the vegetation, but much
of the soil is destroyed.

NEW PUBLICATIONS

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO STUDY AND TO REPORT ON THE BEST PRAC-
TICAL MEANS OF CUTTING OFF THE DEFECTIVE GERM-PLASM IN THE
AMERICAN POPULATION, by Harry H. Laughlin, Secretary of the Committee. Vol. I,
The Scope of the Committee’s Work, Vol. II, The Legal, Legislative and Administrative
Aspects of Sterilization. Eugenics Record Office Bulletins Nos. 10A and 10B, Cold Spring
Harbor, Long Island, February 1914. Vol. I, 64 pp., 20 cents; Vol. II, 150 pp., 60 cents.

“The investigation reported in this series of studies was initiated at the second
meeting of the Research Committees of the Eugenics Section of the American
Breeders’ Association at Palmer, Mass., May 2 and 3, 1911.” Following the
reorganization of the American Breeders’ Association, the committee continued
its work independently under the chairmanship of Bleecker Van Wagenen. The
other members are now W. H. Carmalt, Everett Flood, H. W. Mitchell and H. H.
Laughlin, and they are assisted by a staff of 20 expert advisers on different phases
of the problem, which they have undertaken to study from every point of view.
The two bulletins under consideration are preliminary in nature; ‘‘in the subse-
quent reports of this committee,” it states, ““we propose by the means of first-
hand facts, a considerable body of which has already been secured and studied,
to present to the public data for weighing the several problems which appertain
to this investigation.”

According to the first volume of the series, the committee proposes that the
lowest tenth of the population of the United States be “cut off’’ during the next
two generations, by an extension of institutional care, i. e., “life-long segregation,”
complemented by sterilization wherever necessary. The second volume takes up
the latter part of the problem, and analyzes in an exhaustive way its present
status. All laws which have been passed with the object of dealing with this aspect
of cacogenics are quoted in full; opinions of experts are given as to their constitu-
tionality; in cases where they have been attacked before the courts, extended
accounts of the cases are given; and finally, the committee submits a “model
law’’ of its own.

It is interesting to note that in spite of the great amount of discussion of this
supposed cacogenic remedy, which has been carried on during recent years, and
the laws passed in 12 states to apply it, the committee estimates that less than
1,000 legal operations have been performed under these laws to date. It is declared,
indeed, that more operations ‘have been performed without the sanction of the
law than have been performed under its provisions, or even under its shadow.”
As is well known, California is the only state where the law is at present being
enforced, the other 11 states having formally or informally abandoned the project,
either in response to public sentiment, or because of adverse decisions of the courts.

TPoibsE IS LENCE OF SPECIES “7

Organization through Interwoven Lines of Descent a Characteristic of Species—
Biology Not Advanced by Ignoring this Fundamental Condition—
Eugenics a Problem of Maintaining the Species, rather
than of Separating Varieties.

O.-F. ‘Cook.
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

HAT all the plants and animals

| are organized into species is a

fundamental fact of biology. If

the organization of species were
confined to a few groups of plants or
animals it would have been considered
very remarkable and would have been
made the subject of special investiga-
tion. But being universal and altogether
familiar, the existence of species is
taken entirely for granted in some
branches of biology and as completely
disregarded in others.

Darwin had deeper insight into the
problems of evolution and heredity than
many of his successors, because he saw
that these problems relate to species;
that is, to species in the sense of natural
groups of interbreeding organisms. Tax-
onomic complications regarding species
have been allowed to confuse the issues
to such an extent that current writers
on general biological problems leave the
phenomenon of specific organization
entirely out of account or even deny that
species have any real existence. A single
instance may serve to illustrate this
tendency:

“We have devised a scheme whereby
we regard animals as segregated into a
series of groups—species, genera and so
on—subordinated one to another. We
arbitrarily separate these groups by sharp
lines. While the scheme expresses, to
some extent, our ideas concerning the past
history of animals, the groups themselves
have no real existence ‘in nature,’ as we
say. There these sharp lines do not exist.
The species or other group has no definite
limits in space, no form, no integrity. It
has no organization as a whole.”’

Plants and animals can be investi-
gated in many ways without taking

account of the organization of species.
The interwoven lines of descent that
bind the members of a species into a
coherent organization may be separated,
as in the breeding of varieties of our
domesticated plants and animals, and
endless experiments can be made with
such varieties without considering their
derivation from an ancestral specific
organization. Many investigators prefer
to study varieties rather than species
because varieties have more uniform
characters and more definite differences,
so that the results of experiments are
more readily reported in statistical form.
When this preference is taken into
account it is not surprising that theories
of heredity should have been based upon
facts drawn from the study of varieties,
without considering the organization of
the species.

THE SPECIES IN EUGENICS.

As long as our interest is limited to the
varieties that are brought into the gar-
den or the breeding pen for experimental
purposes, it may appear better policy to
avoid reference to species, but in the
study of eugenics this policy can hardly
be maintained, for eugenics does not
have the same purpose of develop-
ing specialized uniform varieties. The
problem of eugenics is to learn how to
improve the human species in other
ways, without destroying individual
diversity or the normal network of
descent. Human progress, to be perma-
nent and secure, must be made in normal
evolutionary ways, instead of by any
direct imitation of the method of pro-
ducing our short-lived varieties of
domesticated plants and animals. Hence

LOS

156 THE JOURNAL
a recognition of the existence of species
and an understanding of the organiza-
tion of specific groups would seem to
be necessary steps in the development
of a science of eugenics. To overlook
the specific organization of living matter
is to leave out of account the funda-
mental and unique condition of organic
existence and of evolutionary progress.

The obvious purpose of the study of
evolution and heredity is to understand
how the complex and highly specialized
bodies of plants and animals have been
built up, and how they are rebuilt in
each generation. From an evolutionary
viewpoint, it is apparent that the cellu-
lar organizations represented in the
bodies of plants and animals have
developed through the association and
differentiation of cells, and that pro-
gress in cellular evolution is dependent
upon the organization into groups of
interbreeding individuals, the groups
that are usually called species.

Among the lowest forms of life the
individual organisms are merely single
cells, and the cells are all of one kind,
and all of these cells taken together con-
stitute the species. Organization, in the
sense of building up cellular structures,
begins when the cells associate in
colonies, instead of living as separate
unicellular individuals. After the habit
of living in colonies has become estab-
lished, the species is thought of as made
up of colony individuals, rather than of
cell individuals. In other words, the
specific organizations of single-celled
organisms furnished the materials for
making colonies and building higher
types of cellular structures.

PROGRESS THROUGH DIVERSIFICATION.

The next stage of organization is
reached when the members of a colony
of cells are not all of the same kind, but
become specialized in form and func-
tion. The building up of the higher
types of cellular organization involves
the association of vast numbers of cells.
The specific organization and the cellular
organization have made mutual pro-
gress. Special systems of reproduction
have been developed, making it possible

1Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. -T.

oF HEREDITY

to build up these highly complex forms
of organization. It has not been suffi-
cient to have different kinds of cells to
make up individual organisms. Diver-
sification has been raised, as it were, to
the second power, in that different kinds
of polycellular individuals are repre-
sented in the specific organizations.
Sexual and other forms or diversity
among the members of species have
developed in all of the higher groups,
to accompany increasing specializa-
tions of cellular organization.’

The dependence of the cellular organi-
zation upon the specific organization
continues and becomes more apparent
as we ascend in the scale of the struc-
tural complexity, and is shown by the
need of crossing of lines of descent
through sexual reproduction. The
species and the individual are morpho-
logical facts, and sexuality the physio-
logical function that connects them. The
species is a network of interwoven lines
of descent and has as real an existence
in nature as an individual animal or
plant. The species produces the indi-
vidual and the individual adds its share
to the network of descent of the species.
To think of the individual as producing
itself without reference to the specific
organization is like assuming the spon-
taneous generation of a complex cellular
structure.

The true nature of a species as repre-
sented by a network of descent is not
apparent if we consider only the
few individuals that may be taken to
represent the species at a particular
moment of time. In order to see the
network we must visualize the past and
the future, in accordance with the facts
of organic succession. Narrowing our
view of a species to a short period of
time is like focusing our attention on the
cross-section of a fabric. This enables
us to examine the free ends of the indi-
vidual threads, or to study an occasional
knot, but we lose sight of the network
as a whole.

THE SPECIES UNDERLIES ALL.

There is no structural organization
without underlying specific organiza-

Evolution of Cellular Structures, Bulletin 81, Bureau of

Plant Industry, U, S. Department of Agriculture, 1905.

Cook: THE EXISTENCE OF SPECIES

tion. Organisms maintain their exist-
ence and make evolutionary progress
only in species. It is the species, rather
than the individual, that has a truly
biological existence. Evolution and
heredity are collective, superorganic pro-
cesses, hardly to be understood from the
standpoint of the individual organism.
Instead of disregarding species, students
of general biological problems should
consider the association of all plants and
animals in species, in other words, the
speciety of living matter, as one of the
most significant and fundamental facts.
That this condition or property of
speciety is not analogous to any of the
physical and chemical properties of
unorganized matter, should give it a
special interest for the biological inves-
tigator.”

The traditional analogy of the genea-
logical tree also gives a misleading idea
of the nature of organic succession. The
usual object of a genealogical tree is to
show descent from a single ancestor, and
unless consanguineous marriages occur,
all the branching lines of descent remain
separate and distinct. But this apparent
distinctness is maintained only because
each marriage is a grafting with a
branch of a different family tree. If all
these genealogical trees with their inter-
grafted branches could be represented,
we would have a diagram corresponding
to the network of descent of the species.

That the network of descent is lacking
in definite form or external morpho-
logical structure is not a reason for deny-
ing that the species has organization,
for amoebae and many other living
organisms lack definite form. This is
true even of some highly specialized
organs, such as the brain, whose func-
tions are not at all dependent upon
regularity of external form. Morpho-
logical specialization is, after all, only a
secondary result of protoplasmic special-
ization. The conditions that determine
protoplasmic efficiency must be recog-
nized before we can hope to understand
organization in the external, structural
sense.

Some have thought to gain a better
understanding of heredity by analyzing

2Cook, O. F. Physical Analogies of Biological Processes.

1917.

1S7

the diversified natural species into uni-
form pure lines, where the analogies of
the physical sciences more nearly apply.
Yet evolution is not an analytic process,
but highly synthetic. The specific
organization of interweaving lines of
descent provides for the accumulation
and combination of the desirable varia-
tions, those that render the species better
adapted to its environment. To un-
ravel the network of descent into sepa-
rate lines may kelp us to understand
some of the problems of heredity, but
it does not represent the essential con-
dition of normal, self-perpetuating or-
ganic existence, or of evolutionary
progress. None of the analytic experi-
ments in the propagation of single lines
of descent are permanently successful.
If the crossing of the lines of descent is
prevented, as by vegetative propagation
or by artificial breeding, the individual
structures become abnormal or weak and
eventually cease altogether. Our vege-
tative varieties and pure bred strains
are short-lived. None of the higher
types of plant or animal life are main-
tained without sexual reproduction in a
specific network of descent.

THE NETWORK OF DESCENT.

To say that the power of organization
is lodged in the individual germ cell
is not the whole biological truth. The
power resides rather in the specific
organization, the protoplasmic network
of the species, of which the individual
germ is but a fragment. The vitality
of the individual depends upon its
relation to the organization of the
species. The specific networks of des-
cent, rather than the individual lines,
have the power to develop and main-
tain the complex structures of the
higher animals and plants. Organiza-
tion in this sense of complex cellular
structures is not a general property of
protoplasm, for it is not manifested by
the lowest forms of life, but is rather to
be considered as an accomplishment of
the higher forms, those that have de-
veloped complex specific organizations
and correspondingly specialized sexual

The American Naturalist, 46: 493,

158 THE JOURNAL
processes for maintaining the networks
of descent of the species.

Why the interweaving of lines of
descent in specific groups is necessary to
maintain the power of cellular organiza-
tion we do not know, but neither do we
know why the overlapping of metal
plates generates the electric current ina
voltaic pile. The facts are established
by repeated observation, and should
not be disregarded in our attempts to
understand related phenomena. Of
course, these complexities of specific
organization and sexuality are very
unwelcome ideas to those who are about
to solve the problems of evolution and
heredity by simple experimental and
statistical methods, but no truly bio-
logical investigation can disregard the
fundamental fact that organisms exist
in species.

That categories of classification of
species are artificial is not an indication
that the groups themselves have no real
existence. As well might we say that
continents and islands have no real
existence because their shore-lines are
not definitely fixed and do not coincide
with parallels of latitude and longitude
which geographers use to determine loca-
tions. The object of biological classifi-
cation is to find our way about in the
endless diversities of organic nature,
and for this purpose many conventional
devices are employed, but these should
not be allowed to conceal the more essen-
tial facts.

FINDING THE LIMITS OF SPECIES.

Students of classification are always
seeking diagnostic differences between
the various species and higher groups,
for the task of discovering such charac-
ters and framing them into words is very
difficult. Hence taxonomy makes only
gradual progress, like other departments
of science. Yet the formal nature of the
concepts and categories of classifica-
tion does not affect the concrete nature
of the groups that are being classified.
The categories of the biologist are arti-
ficial like those of the geographer, but
not more so. Geographers do not agree
in the grouping of the archipelagoes of
the Pacific Ocean, but this is not con-

oF HEREDITY

sidered a reason for denying that islands
exist or that some islands are close
together and others far apart. Species
are biological islands, in a sea of non-
existence. The higher categories of
classification, such as genera, families
and orders, are more conceptual than
species, in that they do not form coher-
ent networks of lines of descent, but even
this deficiency does not render them pure
abstractions. They are to be considered
rather as collective entities, that is,
they are groups of species that stand in
certain phylogenetic relations to each
other, corresponding to the positional
relations that determine geographic
groups.

It is true that the boundaries of
species often appear less definite in
nature than in books, but the same is
true of islands where the shore lines
change with every tide, to say nothing of
the more extensive and permanent
changes by erosion of cliffs or elevation
of beaches. Yet these incidental limita-
tions need not destroy concrete ideas of
islands as continuous bodies of land, nor
of species as coherent groups of organ-
isms. The members of each species are
bound together by a network of lines
interbreeding into a physiological unity,
quite independent of morphological
similarities or diversities inside the
species. It is organization that con-
stitutes the species, not the characters
that may be ascribed to it.

The difficulties of classifying and dis-
covering diagnostic characters for the
several millions of species that exist on
the earth’s surface should not be allowed
to confuse the minds of physiological
and statistical workers, or to obscure
the reality of specific organization. The
specific structure or speciety of living
matter is as truly a fact as any other
biological phenomenon. That there
should be so many species, and so diffi-
cult to classify, adds annoying com-
plexities to biological investigation, but
the difficulties are not removed by dis-
regarding the existence of species.
Sailors encounter similar difficulties in
the navigation of archipelagoes, but do
not find it safe to overlook any of the
islands that lie in their courses.

COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN

Work of Botanical Explorer Hindered By Many Difficulties and Even Dangers—
Wild Vegetation Scarce and Flora Not Rich—Native Fruits of Mediocre
Quality But Extremely Hardy and Resistant to Drought and Alkali.'

Frank N. MEYER,

Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

TASHKENT, TURKESTAN.
Aug. 20, 1910.

LL this delay is, as you surely
will feel with me, of very great
annoyance and becomes really
depressing. There are moments

when the loneliness of this exploration
work becomes too great and I would
like to fly off to regions where I could
find more intellectual and social sur-
roundings. And I have such a long
journey yet ahead of me. Great Scott!
before I appear somewhere in Eastern
China, I'll have gone through many a
lonesome day! That’s one of the trou-
bles connected with exploration in out-
of-the-way places; this loneliness and
this great waste of valuable time and
energy. Of course it could be worse
yet. Polar expeditions are still way
ahead of our work in waste of all sorts
of things.

As I wrote you from Samarkand on
July 4, 1910, I had engaged a guide and
had had an interpreter already for a
few days. We had seen the police about
our trip and the chief had said every-
thing was O. K., but in Pendshikent we
would have to get a paper from the
police there.

On Tuesday, July 5, we had negotia-
tions with various horsemen and cart-

people and as we were assured that in
Pendshikent we would be able to get
cheaper and better horses, we went by
a large cart to that last named city on
the next day, where we arrived after a
hard ride at ten o’clock in the evening
of that same day.

A PLAGUE OF LOCUSTS.

On Thursday, July 7, we inspected the
grain market and seed stores, where I
bought some samples of various things
and in the afternoon we had conferences
with the police and with horse men. I
got a paper from the acting chief of
police and on Friday, July 8, we left
Pendshikent. We travelled first through
a dry, elevated plain, where scanty
growth of wheat, barley, linseed and
rape was to be seen, while tens of thou-
sands of locusts were devouring what-
ever they could find. In the afternoon
we went through some gullies and passes
and then mountain climbing had begun.
On a few places we saw some beautiful
Eremurus and yellow larkspurs, but in
general the mountains were devoid of
vegetation, save some Astragalus and
a Capparis spinosa and some Artemisias.
At 9 P. M. we stopped at last in a town
called Stood, about 5,000 feet above sea
level. We slept on the porch of the
Muhammadan temple and got but little

1The story of Mr. Meyer’s entry to Turkestan was told in the March issue of The Journal of
Heredity; the continuation of it, as told in letters to his chief, is given herewith. The accompany-
ing photographs are all by Mr. Meyer: the scientific names are in the form used by him, and not
necessarily in the form adopted by the department, when the material was distributed to plant
breeders in the United States. Mr. Meyer’s exploration of Turkestan resulted, as most plant
breeders know, in the introduction to the United States of many tons of material, including
hundreds of species of plants suited to desert climates, which are being tested in the southwestern
United States. His collection of alfalfas was perhaps the most valuable single contribution.
Mr. Meyer is now engaged in a three-year exploration of eastern China, where he has already
made important discoveries of chestnuts, jujubes and persimmons.—THE EDIToR.

159

160

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THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

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THE VALUABLE KARAGATCH TREE.

This dense-headed, desert shade tree ( Ulmus campestris umbraculifera) is found throughout
Russian and Chinese Turkestan, although the forms in the two countries are distinct,

according to Meyer.

The photograph shows a particularly beautiful specimen at Orono,
in the province of Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, July 13, 1910.

It has been introduced

to the United States, and promises to be extremely valuable in the arid Southwest.

(Figure 4.)

supper that night, it being too late to
find anything.

On Saturday, July 9, I went around
for several hours in the mountains,
collecting seeds and herbarium material
and at noon we left with our little cara-
van of six horses and six men (inter-
preter, guide, three horsemen and my-
self). We passed through a wild, moun-
tain valley, where a roaring torrent was
still eating out its bed deeper and deeper;
after having scaled a dangerous, dry
mountain, we arrived at sunset at a
beautiful but cold lake at 10,000 feet
altitude; this lake is called Kalikulan
and is fed from the eternal snows on the
mountains around.- The water was so
cold that one wouldn’t readily bathe in
it, and as for drinking, one could only
take a mouthful at the time. The soil
in these high regions is sterile and the

growing season very short, for the snow
melts away in early May and returns
again at the beginning of September.
Still one finds there masses of Junipers
( Juniperus foetidissima), Barberries,
bush honeysuckles (Lonicera sp.), yellow
roses (Rosa xanthina), a mountain ash
(Sorbus thianshanica), besides various
herbaceous plants like Eremurus sp.,
Gentiana verna, Leonurus: (?), several
Compositae, etc. We were lucky enough
to find at the lake an encampment of a
local Sart administrator and slept that
night in a tent made of carpets, but still
it was cold, after coming in two days
from the hot plains.

SCARCITY OF FOOD.

On Sunday, July 10, we left our lovely,
silent sheet of water and climbed over
one high and difficult mountain, where

MEYER: COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN 161

NATIVE PLUM IN FULL BLOOM.

Russian Asia is rich in native plums, some of which are valuable commercially, while others

are promising only as hardy stocks for grafting. Prunus insititia, shown in this picture,
is locally known as the alutcha, and is said to be extraordinarily prolific, as well as a regular
bearer. Some of the species are quite ornamental. Meyer mentions one found along a
watercourse in the mountains near Kulikalan, Samarkand, Turkestan, at an elevation of
6,000 feet, which had light green leaves and bore long racemes of small, oval, scarlet fruits

of a bitter-sweet taste.
as a result of his exploration.

the descent was at times even dangerous
and, horses and men all being tired, we
camped at 4 P. M. on a grassy, level
place, near a stream, and had a great
time in getting enough to eat, for there
are very few people in this elevated
region of Central Asia and food 1s scarce
and at times altogether unobtainable.
We got, however, sour milk and pea-
flour bread and, with some conserved
sausages which we had still with us, we
made a meal of it. The interpreter could
not stand the rarefied mountain air; he
had heavy hemorrhages from the nose
twice a day and felt quite weak. The
guide, who was addicted to strong drink,
could not get anything, of course, and
had become very sullen, so you may
imagine that I was not in a sociable
company.

Well, on Monday, July 11, we passed

It and many other species are now growing in the United States,
(Figure 5.)

through wild, rocky scenery, going along
precipices where the horses had to be
held by two men, one at the head and
one at the tail, so as to prevent acci-
dents. In the afternoon, about five
o’clock, while collecting wild cherries
on the mountain slope, we came all of a
sudden upon a caravan, consisting of 20
people and still more horses. It proved
to be the civil-administrator of the dis-
trict, accompanied by the chief of police
of Pendshikent, an interpreter, local
chiefs of villages, guards, scouts, etc.

Our meeting was somewhat remark-
able, as few white men ever travel in
these regions.

The first thing we were asked for was,
of course, our passports. The adminis-
trator (a Russian police-officer of high
rank) said that my papers were not as
they ought to be, as they were not defi-

162

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

SPIRAEA HYPERICIFOLIA.

One of the most ornamental wild shrubs of Asiatic Russia, found from the Caucasus region

and Persia eastward to Mongolia and the region of Lake Baikal.

It is able to stand great

heat and drought and is therefore recommended as an ornamental park and garden shrub

in the more arid sections of the United States.
hillside near Tiflis, Caucasus, Russia, April 24, 1910.

nite enough, but I told him I had
received them so from the acting chief of
police in Pendshikent. Well, he let us
go on. Half an hour later, however, a
messenger came to us, informing us that
we had to return, as the administrator
did not feel he could let us go on any
further. The acting chief of police in
Pendshikent had made a failure of the
document that he gave me, having for-
gotten to mention the exact date and
number of my permission from St.
Petersburg and he (the civil adminis-
trator), being held responsible for the
district I was travelling in, could, under
those circumstances, not allow me to go
on any further.

The above photograph was taken on a
(Figure 6.)

RETURN NECESSARY.

He said he would allow me to stay
there in this village, until a messenger
had arrived from Samarkand, as he
would investigate this affair; if things
were found to be O. K., I could proceed
farther on; if not, I would have to
return under guard. I had a short con-
ference with my men and then told this
administrator that as it might take a
messenger to and from Samarkand from
five to ten or even twelve days before I
could have been cleared of his suspi-
cions, and as my caravan alone cost me
from fifteen to twenty roubles a day,
I had to decline his offer, but wanted to
return by another road to Samarkand

MEYER: COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN

163

THE PARADISE APPLE AT HOME.

This bushy apple (Malus paradisiaca), apparently a native of the Caucasus, is now widely

grown all over the world as a grafting stock for dwarfing apples.

Mr. Meyer believes it

has still a useful future before it as a factor in producing a strain of bush apples suited
especially to regions where the summer temperatures are too high for ordinary apples.

Photograph made at Geok-Tapa, Caucasus, Russia, April 11, 1910.

and investigate this matter myself and
find out who was responsible for this
mishap. Well, he was kind enough to
allow this and as I promised him I would
not escape, I didn’t even get any guard
sent with me.

And so we left that village of Peki on
Tuesday, July 12, 1910, went for the
whole day along an extremely bad road
where often the path went simply over
sticks and poles, put slantingly in the
rocks and covered over with brush and
dirt. We wound along the roaring
Zarafshan river, sometimes level with
the water, then again several hundred
feet above it. Tales of accidents had
made us apprehensive of the great dan-
gers of this road, but, thank Heaven,

(Figure 7.)

nothing occurred save that the baggage
looked less respectable in the evening
than it had done at the outset. We had
to employ three porters at the most dan-
gerous points to carry the more valuable
baggage, for it was too unsafe to allow
it to remain on the packhorses’ backs,
especially my satchel, in which all pass-
ports and valuable papers are stored.
If, for instance, my letter of credit,
together with the passports, had gotten
down in the deep, I could almost as
well have shot myself, the more so as
1,000 roubles in paper money was also
among its contents. It is my policy to
have all my valuable belongings in only
one receptacle, which has to be strong,
not to be too heavy to be carried easily

164

by one person, but also not to be so
light that one can easily run away with
it; and this piece of baggage always has
to be taken care of the very first thing
and is always at night at my own head.
Well, we passed this road, which is one
of the worst I have seen in my life, safe
and sound, and slept that night beneath
old apricot trees in the court of a local
dignitary in the prosperous town of
Orono, situated in the rich valley of the
Zarafshan.

WILD VEGETATION SCARCE.

On Wednesday, July 13, we followed
the Zarafshan the whole day and passed
several villages, where orchards of apri-
cots, mulberries and walnuts inter-
mingled. Wild vegetation, however, is
almost absent. In a naturally dry
climate, the long occupation of men has
exterminated what little there formerly
grew upon the mountain slopes and in
the glens and today everything is
scorched and barren.

On Thursday, July 14, we left the town
of Langar, where we had stopped for the
night, and passed through a region where
almost no level spot was found at all;
everywhere mountains and precipices,
all rock and cliffs. Asa result no villages
have been established, and as distances
are too long for peasants to carry away
woody vegetation to their homes, we
found lots of interesting plants: Pis-
taches, almonds in three species, Prunus
divaricata, maples, junipers, coluteas,
etc. In the herbarium material I sent
off a few weeks ago, you'll find many
labels bearing the date July 14, 1910.
As I had to do all the collecting myself,
my men not being intelligent enough for
it, I was rather tired that day and was
glad to sleep again on the porch of a
Muhammadan mosque, notwithstanding
a strong wind blew all night through the
tall walnut trees and made one dream of
storms at sea and fights in forests.

Friday, July 15, saw us leave Wishist,
and late in the afternoon we came back
again in Pendshikent, where our early
return caused lots of surprise, since we
had said we would stay out at least one
month. And now we went to the police
again and found out my name had been
booked, but that the acting chief of

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

police was at fault. Then the horse-
men to whom I had paid 100 roubles
in advance, besides having lent them
money on the road, wouldn’t return the
money and we had to ask the assistance
of the police and a judge to get most of
it back; even at that I lost twelve roubles
on the transaction, besides finding it an
extremely unpleasant business which
lasted all through Friday evening and
Saturday, July 16. The guide, to whom
I had given some money, too, got dead
drunk and made troubles worse. Yes,
this whole trip was tragi-comical! It
is good that Iam sufficiently hardened off
to stand a wee bit of trouble, otherwise
such matters are able to make one lose
temper and sense.

SECOND DEPARTURE.

On Sunday, July 17, we left Pendshi-
kent again by cart and after a long day’s
ride we arrived in Samarkand at nine
De

On Tuesday next I went to the goy-
ernor of Samarkand and complained
verbally about this treatment I had
experienced at the hands of his subor-
dinates. He was a very kind man, had
investigations made straightway, and in
less than an hour I had a paper in my
possession giving me full rights to travel
in the same district from which I had
been chased out. The very adminis-
trator who had been so suspicious, was
smiles all over, and pointed out places
on the map where many plants were
found, and even offered to collect mate-
rial. And there the matter rests.

When in Samarkand, my interpreter
in the meantime had found out that cer-
tain things had been taken from his
dwelling, while he was absent, and he
made this as an excuse for not being
willing to go any longer with me,
although I knew that it was the hard-
ships and the want of the ‘“‘flesh pots of
Egypt” that made him stay back. He
promised, however, to accompany me to
Tashkent and find me another inter-
preter, but after having had private
troubles at home, he did not want to do
that either, and left me wholly alone.
Now I could have gone to the police and
forced him to stay with me, as I had a
witness that I had engaged him for at

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165

166 THE JOURNAL

least one month, but I had in mind an
old Dutch saying: ‘‘Mit onwillige hon-
den is’t slecht hazen vangen”’ (’tis a bad
job catching hares with unwilling dogs),
and in my work especially, if people
don’t put a little sympathy into it, one
gets almost nothing accomplished at all.

AT THE RAILWAY TERMINUS.

ANDISHAN, TURKESTAN, Russia,
Oct. 4, 1910.

As you see, I am now at the terminus
of the Central Asian Railway, and will
write you from here a short report of
what passed over our heads these last
weeks. We changed our plans and
instead of going alone on Monday, with
a Chinese interpreter, and taking the
train, we hired a wagon and went on
Tuesday, September 20, 1910. The
reasons for going by wagon were many.
Firstly, I have an awful amount of bag-
gage (close upon 1,200 lbs.), which is
very inconvenient to ship by rail, the
more so as some of it is not accepted by
the railroad unless crated, and that is
too much work; secondly, my inter-
preter is a new man, whom I know only
slightly, and there is no better chance of
learning a fellow’s characteristics than
by subjecting him to a roughing trip;
for the Chinese interpreter it was also
not bad to learn how to travel in Russian
Turkestan. Then in addition came the
fact that I could study the country
better by cart than from a train win-
dow, and last, not least, my health
hadn’t been of the best in Tashkent, and
such a cart trip would make me all
right again.

Well, all things went as well as they
could. In three days’ time we covered
the distance from Tashkent to Khod-
jent, passed through rice fields, fruit
gardens, deserts, etc. It is exceedingly
difficult, however, to inspect fruit or
vegetable gardens close by, as all the
plantations are surrounded with high
mud walls and strangers are not ad-
mitted. Then we also had difficulties in
obtaining sufficient food in daytime, as
Ramadhan, the Muhammadan month of
fasting, was in progress. This incom-
prehensible religious feast allows no
Mussulman to partake of food and drink

oF HEREDITY

as long as the sun is in the skies. As
soon, however, as that body sinks down,
then eating and drinking commences
and merriment is made until the break
of day. The main meal is eaten then
between eleven p. m. and one a. m.
What use this unhealthy rule has is as
yet a puzzle to me, but this is certain,
that it is most inconvenient to all travel-
lers and even to the believers themselves.
We often couldn’t get a cup of tea, even
in daytime, and ready food was quite out
of the question.

PEACHES UNDISCOVERABLE.

On Friday, September 23, we stayed
in Khodjent and wanted to find some
famous peach varieties. We were, how-
ever, unable to find anybody willing or
capable to show us around, and it was
a Muhammadan holiday besides, so we
had to give it up. Our wagon driver
had become dissatisfied with the expen-
siveness of feed for his horses and wanted
an extraordinary price before he would
go any further, although we had en-
gaged him for at least as far as Kokand.
Well, we wouldn’t give in, and engaged
two local two-wheeled carts and left
the next morning, September 24. On

’ Monday, September 26, we landed at

sunset in Kokand and had our first
clean-up in seven days. The last three
days we had passed most of the time
through sandy, stony and alkaline
deserts, going sometimes axle deep in
dust, so we and the baggage were simply
covered with gray and brown coats of
desert dust. At the Russian hotels we
tried to find accommodation; they were
suspicious of us and we had some trouble
of getting a roof above our heads. We
had to give our passports the very first
thing, apparently to satisfy the fear that
we were robbers, returning with loot!

In Kokand we stayed two days, in-
spected bazar, seed and grain market
and looked over the fruits. Kokand is
reputed to be the finest market in Cen-
tral Asia, and I really expected to find
many new things. There is, however,
not as much in our line as one might
wish to see. I got some samples of
unusual varieties of almonds and a large
brown chickpea which I had not seen
before. There were also very fine speci-

MEYER: COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN

167

WILD DESERT PEONY.

Unidentified species having medium large, carmine flowers and glossy, gracefully cut foliage
of a dark green color; found growing on rather stony and sterile places in Turkestan. Sent
to the United States by Meyer as a spring flowering plant for gardens and parks in the

northern United States. (Figure 9.)
mens of pomegranates to be seen; that
is, of fine color and size, but of very sour
taste. Of grapes, the beautiful rosy-
white Ghusaine table grape was very
fine with its long, translucent berries,
which taste remarkably sweet.

In the immediate neighborhood of
Kokand one sees field after field covered
with cotton, alternated with alfalfa and
“Sugara.”’ This last can stand consider-
able alkali and may be of some value in
alkaline regions with long and hot sum-
mers. One also notes the masses of
Oleaster trees that are everywhere around
the fields and along watercourses. These
Eleagnus trees exhibit a remarkable
variation in general habitus, productiv-
ity and sizes of fruits. The bigger part
of them all seem to be seedlings, and are
planted apparently only as_ shelter
material; at least the fruits of many are
too astringent to be edible, and even of
the larger fruited forms, only here and
there are the fruits collected. It is,
however, a beautiful tree in the land-
scape, especially the silvery-white forms
with the narrow, long leaves.

CHOLERA ENCOUNTERED.

On Thursday, September 29, we left
Kokand by train, after having packed
our baggage so that the railroad could
accept it. In the afternoon we arrived
in Margelan, a town where the governor
of the Ferghana Province resides. (The
name Margelan was changed last year
into that of Skobelevo, but men persist
yet in calling it by the old name,
although the native city of Margelan,
where only Sart people live, still retains
its old name.)

We left Margelan in the afternoon of
October 1, and arrived at evening in
Andishan, where I have been writing
these last days. We saw the police,
of course, or rather were requested to
come, and as my papers are in good
shape, the German interpreter is allowed
for the present to stay too, but we had
to whisk our Chinaman away to some
native inn, where he keeps company
with a few fellow countrymen and eats
with them. There is much cholera here
in this place, and we are very careful
with our food. Yesterday I believe

ae pads

AN ORNAMENTAL EREMURUS,

Unidentified species from Kulikalan, province of Samarkand, Russian Turkestan. Its spikes

of rosy pink flowers often reach a height of four feet. The plant is found at an altitude of
7,000 feet in rich, black soil, and is able to stand both drought and cold. (Figure 10.)

168

MEYER: COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN

seventeen people died here from this
dreadful disease, but in fact there may
die many more, for the fanatical Muham-
madan population persists in hiding
cases of sickness and drinks water from
polluted places as if there were not such
things as bacilli. The summer lasts very
long here. All the trees are still in full
leaf, and where some have fallen, it is
not from cold, but from drought. I hope
we'll soon get a cold spell, so that I can
send some scions and cuttings of various
things.

My present interpreter is not a genius,
but Ill see how we can plod along.
Turkestan certainly is an extremely diffi-

169

cult country to move about in; the
moment one leaves the railroad ques-
tions are being asked, and for every little
excursion special permits are necessary.
I wouldn’t advise any one to select this
land for a holiday trip, and I have to
restrain myself not to leave this whole
territory as it is and live somewhere in
more peaceful surroundings.

Well, one or two more days and I'll
leave by cart for Osh, from there by
packhorses to Kashgar. Some robbers
are reported to be on the road, and they
murdered some people here these last
twonights, but a botanical collectoris gen-
erally exempted from those annoyances.

New Publications

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY, by Carl W. Gay.

Philadelphia and London, J. B.
Lippincott & Company, 1914. Pp. xv. + 331, $1.50.

Professor Gay of the University of Pennsylvania states that his purpose in
writing this volume was “‘to emphasize industry as applied to horses.’ His treat-
ment of the principles of breeding is, therefore, summary and wholly practical.
The book should be of value to anyone taking up horse breeding as a business.

THE CULTURE OF BLACK AND SILVER FOXES, by R. B. and L. V. Croft.

Woodstock,
the Rod and Gun Press, 1913. Pp. 83, 60 cents.

This is the latest handbook produced by the amazingly rapid development of
silver fox breeding on Prince Edward Island, and is destined for those taking up
the work as a money-making proposition. Hence it is primarily of practical
nature, but the authors have inserted a considerable amount of theoretical dis-
cussion of heredity. They consider the silver fox the product of variation and
isolation, not of hybridization, and declare that the coat color is never blended in
inheritance, but either “particulate” or “exclusive.”’ Their data, however, show
that many factors must be concerned, and they admit that no systematic experi-
ments have been undertaken to discover the ancestry of the present valuable
breeds of foxes.

The Immigration Problem

We have an opportunity which is unique in history for the practice of eugenic
principles, immediately and on a vastly greater scale than is possible in the case
of any other nation. By selecting our immigrants, through proper legislation,
we can pick out the best specimens of each race to be our fellow-citizens, and to
be the parents of our future citizens. The responsibility which rests upon us in
this matter is overwhelming.—Robert DeC. Ward: The Crisis in our Immigration
Policy’: Ginst.Quare Me AV + 2= 1913):

BREEDING KARAKUL SHEEP

Industry Only Six Years Old in the United States, but Attracting Much Interest—
Difficulties of Securing Stock—-Six Classes of Karakul Recognized
in Asia, All Owing Their Origin and Color to the Small,
Black Danadar, Now Almost Extinct.

DrC.(C- Youre:
Belen, Texas.

r | NHE Karakul sheep industry is
one of the most recent enter-
prises in live stock in the United
States, but few branches of this

department of breeding are attracting

more attention today. I propose, there-
fore, to give in this paper a history of
the introduction of Karakul sheep into

North America, an account of the

present status of the industry, and my

belief as to the origin of the six classes
which, in Central Asia, are recognized
as making up the breeds known to the

Russians as Karakul and to the Bok-

harans as Arabi.

The industry in the United States
dates back only to 1908, when a letter
of introduction from President Roose-
velt to the United States Ambassador at
St. Petersburg enabled me to interest
his excellency A. S. Yermaloff, ex-
minister of agriculture of the Russian
empire, and now a life member of his
majesty’s council. Through his influ-
ence I secured the cooperation of the
Poltava Agricultural Society, which
obtained for me fifteen head of Karakuls
in Bokhara.'

The laws of the Khanate of Bokhara
prohibit the exportation of these
valuable fur bearing animals by for-
eigners, but a few flocks have been
gotten out by certain Russian societies,
who have received the support of the
Russian Foreign and Agricultural De-
partments. Although Bokhara is a
quasi-dependency of Russia, the czar
does not interfere in the international

administration of the emir’s empire,
which has an absolute monopoly of the
Persian lamb and Astrakhan fur in-

dustry.
The Russian government also pro-
hibits the importation of Karakul

sheep, and as the United States gov-
ernment generally does not permit the
importation of live stock from Asia we
have found it an almost impossible task
to start the industry on this continent,
although our efforts extend over a period
of fifteen years.

THE FIRST IMPORTATION.

In the beginning of 1909, five rams
and ten ewes arrived in New York ona
Saturday boat, which was scheduled to
return on Monday, and had it not been
for the prompt intercession of the Hon.
J. A. Tawney, whom we happened to
reach at the last moment, and who
secured the cooperation of the federal
authorities at Washington, my Karakuls
would have been slaughtered or returned
on the same boat.

The sheep were in quarantine for a
long time, and for three months were
kept in an absolutely dark barn, in
order to lower their power of resistance,
and to make it possible to trace in the
blood the parasite of surra. When
flash light photographs reached us,
showing the animals to be in a very
emaciated condition, we at once applied
to Mr. Roosevelt, who ordered their
release.

I returned in May last from a year’s

'Those interested may refer to the American Breeders’ Magazine (third quarter, 1912), Literary

Digest (September 30, 1911), and the New York Herald (September 10, 1911 and April 20, 1913)

for further details about my importations.

170

YouNG: BREEDING KARAKUL SHEEP

1p

A FULL-BLOOD KARAKUL RAM.

Teddy junior, shown above, is a son of Teddy senior, the famous ram of Dr. Young’s first
importation, who, after being kept at Wichita Falls and Middlewater, Texas, is now at
Prince Edward Island. Teddy junior died at the United States Department of Agriculture’s
experimental farm near Washington, D. C., last year, when accidentally kicked by a zebra.

(Figure 11.)

trip to Central Asia, and succeeded in
bringing with me another herd consist-
ing of seventeen Karakul sheep, one
four-horned,, fur-bearing Karachaev
ram, and one enormous red Kalmik fat-
rump ram. The quarantine regulations
were less rigidly enforced, but the dip-
ping of the sheep in cold weather cost
me the life of the best ram of the lot.

When the sheep of my first importa-
tion finally reached our ranch, near
Wichita Falls, Texas, we noticed that
the fourteen accompanying lambs
which were born in transit did not have
the expected lustre and tightness of
curl, the only exception being two of
them, which fully measured up to our
expectations.

My father, who has been raising

Bessarabian Tshushkas (grade Kara-
kuls) near the Black Sea for a great
many years, and who criticised me
severely for risking thousands of dollars
on a few sheep, remarked that I had
probably thrown my money away, as in
his opinion the climatic conditions of
Bokhara were essential to the best
lamb fur raising.

As the two ewes that produced the
best lambs seemed in a little better
physical condition than the rest, we
concluded that in another year when
all the sheep would be in better physical
condition, the result would probably be
more satisfactory.

During the entire year the sheep
were well fed, and in the summer
months they enjoyed the best of pasture,

172

but when spring came, notwithstanding
the fact that the ewes had been bred
to the ram which seemed in the best
physical condition, the lambs did not
show tthe improvement from a fur
standpoint which we expected, except
those lambs which came from the two
ewes that the previous year gave us two
good lambs.

FLEECES DETERIORATE.

A careful examination of the curls of
the lambs of the two good ewes showed,
however, that there was less lustre
than the year before, and less tightness
of curls, and my father remarked that
we would probably find that the same
Karakul sheep which gave us excellent
result in Bokhara would fail us in Texas,
where the climatic conditions were
different, especially as far as rainfall
is concerned.

The third year showed considerable
improvement, especially with the two
good ewes, which gave excellent results.
We then began to study the original
five rams and noticed that the character
of the wool was not the same, and that
Teddy, named in honor of Roosevelt,
and another ram had coarse long wool,
whereas the others had two classes of
wool fibers—a long coarse gray wool,
in which was hidden a fine lustreless
short reddish wool resembling micro-
scopically that of our Merinos. To our
great surprise we found that the two
good ewes also were free from the fine
underwool. The next year, we satisfied
ourselves absolutely that the fine wool
present in most of the sheep was
entirely responsible for their inferior fur-
producing qualities. We named sheep
which contained this fine wool ‘“‘Karakul
Finewools” but later, when we found
that this fine wool came into the strain
through the admixture of some fine-
wool-bearing Afghans, we changed the
name to “‘Karakul-Afghan.”’

It was quite by accident that I found
out that by breeding Teddy to the
Karakul ewes fairly good results were
obtained, especially from those ewes
that had less fine wool in them; and in
one case a Karakul-Afghan ewe that

*The second cross is greatly improved.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

had but little fine underwool, which
was bred to a son of Teddy, himself not
entirely free from fine wool, gave us a
fair lamb, which was exhibited in
Omaha in 1911 by Joseph F. Simonson.

A number of other tests finally con-
vinced me that a very small amount of
fine wool can be overcome, and con-
siderable fine wool in ewes can be
neutralized, where the ram is entirely
free from the short fine underwool.
Two crosses suffice to breed it out
entirely.

DIFFERENCE IN CROSSES.

Where we crossed Merinos and
Shropshires with Teddy, a very inferior
skin was produced,’ in which there was
great lack of lustre, and a very imperfect
curl formation, giving the skin a matty
appearance, valueless from a fur stand-
point, but excellent results were ob-
tained when the same ram was bred
to such of our lustrous longwools as
Lincolns, and such red Persian fat-
rumps as were entirely free from short
wool, and possessed very coarse wool.

Where Teddy was bred to longwool
ewes, free from fine wool, and the skins
of the lambs were obtained the first
few days after birth, they showed
tight curls uniform in size and posesssing
the required lustre. Such half-blood
skins were valued by Pretorius and
Thorer, assisted by Henry Basch of
New York, to whom we were referred
by the Department of Agriculture, at
from $8 to $12 per skin. In all cases
where the prices ranged from $3 to $4
the skins showed lack of lustre and curl
formation, which was easily traced
to fine wool, either in the Karakul rams
or grade native longwools. The
Middlewater Cattle Company, which
purchased all the so-called Persian
sheep of Col. Charles Goodnight, found
that these were valueless, except where
the ewes were free from fine underwool,
and only where Teddy was employed
were the results satisfactory—in fact,
most of the $12 skins were halfblood
Karakul-Persians.

The red Persian fatrump, erroneously
called broadtail, and sometimes fattail,

7
S

> waht Fs
+ ae RS ee

4S

THE CURLIEST LAMB BORN.

Full-blood Karakul lamb four days old. The father is Teddy senior, the property of the Middle-
water Cattle Company; the mother is a full-blood Karakul ewe, but has some fine wool in her
fleece. Little of this is evident in the lamb, however, bearing out Dr. Young's contention
that a small amount of fine wool in the ewe can be neutralized by a prepotent, decidedly
coarse-wool ram. Note the tight curls of the lamb, extending from the tip of its nose to
the end of each extremity. Photograph furnished by Joseph Simonson. (Figure 12.)

174 THE JOURNAL

is a very hardy mutton sheep, belonging
to the species of Ovis steatopyga, and
is closely related to the Kalmik, Mon-
gol, Khirghiz, Tshuntuk and other fat-
rump (Kurdiuk)* breeds, that have
very coarse, brittle, generally red wool
but possess no fur characteristics what-
soever, unless they are crossed at least
once with Karakul rams of the right
class. The furriers, who in their ignor-
ance call Karakul skins (either full-
bloods or grades) ‘‘Persians,’’ “Persian
Baby Lamb,” “Persian Broadtail,’’ or
‘‘Astrakhan,”’ furnish the opportunity
for certain breeders of red Persian fat-
rump sheep to dispose of their stock as
“Persian broadtails, the only genuine
fur-bearing sheep that produce the
famous Persian and Astrakhan furs.”’
To corroborate these statements readers
may consult a book on Russian breeds
of sheep, issued by the Russian Imperial
Department of Agriculture, also a
circular recently issued by the United
States Department of Agriculture.

From the two good ewes and Teddy
there were born three rams, one of
which was used one season by the
United States Department of Agri-
culture on the experimental farm near
Washington, D. C., and there lost his
life from the kick of a zebra. Another
good ram died on a ranch in Texas,
from eating green alfalfa. The third
ram became the property of the Middle-
water Cattle Company, controlled by
former Congressman Frank O. Louden
of Illinois, and was finally bought back
from them by ourselves, and is now on
Prince Edward Island, where we have
decided to establish our Karakul in-
dustry. The fourth ram, a grandchild
of Teddy, was sold by us to the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, but has not yet been
delivered.

KARAKULS IN AMERICA.

The father and grandfather of these
four rams——Teddy, Sr., the only good
ram of the first importation—is the
property of the Middlewater Cattle
Company, of Middlewater, Texas. The

8Kurdiuk is the Tartar word for ‘‘fat rump.’

OF HEREDITY

second coarse-wool ram of the first im-
portation, when crossed to good Lincoln
ewes, gave fair results, and is today our
property on Prince Edward Island

About three years ago, the entire herd,
with the exception of three Karakul
fine-wools that were purchased by R. J.
Rhome, of Texas, was divided equally
between the Middlewater Cattle Com-
pany and myself, but I have since sold
my share, telling the purchasers of the
urgent need of breeding out the obnox-
ious fine wool strain by the introduction
of new Karakul coarse-wool blood of the
second importation which landed in
Baltimore in March, 1913, before offer-
ing any for sale. My advice, however,
was disrezarded. I strongly urge breed-
ers to be cautious in buying rams. The
officials of the U. 5S. Department of
Agriculture at Washington seem fully
alive to this danger, and in a recent cir-
cular letter advise the purchase of
tested rams only.

Out of the second importation, six
rams and four ewes were purchased by
the Hon. Charles de Bremond of New
Mexico, I retaining an undivided half
interest in them; the balance are the
property of the writer and his associates
in. Charlottestown, P. E.-1., Canta
where black silver foxes and other fur-
bearing animals are raised with wonder-
ful success.

We find in Central Asia six classes of
Karakul’ sheep, all of which owe their
black pigment, tendency to tight curl
formation, and lustre, to the small,
black, and nearly extinct D inadar sheep.
These breeds are known as (1) Large
Arabi or Duzbai, (2) Small Arabi,
(3) Intermediate Arabi, resulting from
the crossing of the above mentioned
three classes, (4) Gray Shiraz, (5) Zigais
(of these classes there are very few),
(6) Karakul Afghans, which last class
unfortunately comprise 90°% of all the
fur-producing sheep in Bokhara, and
while possessing excellent mutton quali-
ties and wonderful hardiness, like all of
the other breeds, can hardly produce
profitable fur in America, where people

‘Kara Kul, “ Black Lake,” is the name of a town in Turkestan, where these sheep have long

been raised.

It has given its name to the whole breed, through its adoption by the Russians.

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176

demand the best quality of the Persian
furs, unless, as already explained, the
rams belonging to this class are elimi-
nated and the substitutes which give us
the best results are chosen from the
first mentioned three classes, thus enab-
ling us to breed out the obnoxious fine-
wool strain, if it exists.

Karakul-Afghan rams bred to English
longwools give us a better fur than when
crossed with Karakul-Afghan ewes—in
any event the dullness is in a large degree
overcome—but unfortunately, the curls
are not tight enough, and there is also
a lack of uniformity in the size of the
curls. The average price of these skins
is $3.50.

The following are the physical charac-
teristics of the Duzbai Karakul: A
large animal, the size of our Lincolns
and even larger; large head, with very
convex nose line; long, drooping, pendu-
lous ears; some have large horns, others
have none; strong, thick feet; immense
broad tail, consisting of some eighteen
vertebrae. At maturity it has coarse,
long, gray wool on body, with coarse,
stiff hair, that remains black even after
maturity and with absence of fine under
wool on head, face, feet and abdomen.
At birth the lamb has, for about two
weeks, beautiful, lustrous, black curls.
It is this breed that the Russian Govern-
ment bulletin, issued recently by Kar-
poff, mentions most prominently, speak-
ing of our work in connection with it.

THE SMALL ARABI.

The physical characteristics of the
small Arabi are: It is much smaller
than the Duzbai, has thin feet, small
head, straight nose line, short erect ears,
long, slender, triangular tail, coarse,

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

long, gray wool at maturity, with ab-
sence of fine underwool. At birth lambs
come with beautiful, tight, black curls.
Occasionally one of these animals re-
mains black, even after maturity, and
this led me to the discovery of the origin
of all the Karakul breeds, which is the
black, lustrous Danadar,’ a few of which
are still found in Khiva, Bokhara and
Thibet, according to native report which
I question.

Sometimes the coarse, hair-like wool,
is as fine as that of our Lincolns and has
great lustre, but when it lacks lustre it
may be easily mistaken for Afghan
short, fine wool. The difference in the
length, however, always tells the story.
So does the microscope. At birth the
lambs come with very tight and lus-
trous curls.

The intermediate class is, as its name
suggests, a mixture of the characteristics
of the Duzbai and Small Arabi. As
already mentioned, the Small Arabi is
the best of these classes; but as the
Duzbai is also highly satisfactory, and
when bred to our native sheep gives an
increase in weight and greatly improves
the mutton qualities, as is shown in
Armour’s test, it is probably advisable
to choose from these animals.

In selecting breeding animals, the
essential thing is to avoid those with
short, fine wool, that can be seen at a
glance. The coarse, gray, long wool
sticks out, and hidden in it is the short,
lustreless, fine-wool, from the Afghan
sheep, which I believe is the ancestor of
the Merino. Generally the fine wool
shows on the head, face and abdomen,
and is without lustre, and brown, in-
stead of black.

The few flocks that have been gotten

5That the Karakul breeds have not descended from the Small Arabi, as certain Russian investi-
gators state, I am absolutely sure. It was my good luck to find in England a furrier who sold
the last Danadar skin 47 years ago, at which time there were no Persian Lamb, Astrakhan or
Krimmer furs in the trade. F. N. Petrov, dragoman of the Russian embassy at Bokhara City,
secured for me a gray Danadar skin (produced by a cross between the original black Danadar
and the white Afghan fine-wool) and also sent me a photograph, made by him north of Bokhara
City near the border of the Khanate of Khiva, and an examination of this skin and photograph
will, I believe, convince anyone that my theory of the origin of the Karakul from the black Dana-
dar is correct. Mr. Petrov also sent me a photograph of a supposed black Danadar at the present
day; it does not convince me, however, that such an animal still exists. The tail of the sheep
photographed, although not typically broad, is not long, as it should be, while the curls of the
wool are excessively tight, resembling those of the Small Arabi. On my trip to Turkestan this
summer I hope definitely to settle the interesting question of whether the black Danadar yet
exists as a breed.

YouNG: BREEDING KARAKUL SHEEP

out of Bokhara in the past few years
were, without exception, taken from
settlements near the railway stations of
Tjardjui, Kara-Kul and Bokhara City,
where the chances of inbreeding are
great. Practically all of the Karakuls
were gotten out by representatives of
Russian agricultural societies, to whom
it did not seem to matter how many
good, unrelated animals they could get
for the meagre sum advanced them, but
what number they could bring back in
total, good, bad or indifferent, no matter
whether inbred or not. Their chief
anxiety seemed to be to avoid the re-
proaches of their fellow members, each
of whom wanted some sheep; and unfor-
tunately, these fellow members, although
much nearer to Bokhara than our
breeders, have nevertheless, just about
as hazy an idea of the expense and diffi-
culties to be overcome in the Kara-Kum
desert as the average American sheep
raiser of our Eastern states has.

DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVEL.

It is one thing to buy a few sheep in
the oases close to the railroad, where one
does not have to carry water, and quite
another when it comes to fitting up a
costly caravan and undertaking trips
into the interior for hundreds of miles,
carrying numberless burdiuks (water
sacks), provisions, ammunition, bedding,
utensils, and employing rather expensive
subordinate officials, who can make a
native sell one the sheep he desires, pro-
viding one 1s fortunate enough to know a
good Karakul when he sees one. I have
seen practically every sheep that has
been gotten out of Bokhara into Euro-
pean Russia, and the good animals
represent a negligible quantity indeed.
When I was asked to separate the largest
herd in European Russia, numbering
nearly three thousand, I found 112 head
among them that were more or less free
from fine wool; but they were too closely
inbred, which makes the wool fibre very
fine, resulting in a cheap, open-curled,
instead of tight-curled, high-priced skin.
From this, it must be evident that
European Russia at present is hardly the
proper place to buy unrelated breeding
animals, and as for those few Karakuls
that have been gotten into Germany and

177

Austria, I am sorry to say that they do
not even deserve mentioning.

It is the practice of the Russian socie-
ties to raffle off all specimens imported,
which makes it impossible for their
members to put even a short distance
between one ram and another. In fair-
ness, however, I must state that last
year Messrs. Karpoff and Ganko made
the first effort really worth mentioning,
when they went as far as to the steppes
Djom-Boss in the district of Kerki,
some 200 miles from Tyjardjwi, and
brought out quite a flock; but most of
them had the undesirable short under-
wool and again, they were raffled off
amongst the members of the Poltava
Agricultural Society. I was surprised
when I found that practically none of
Russia’s breeders understood the dan-
ger due to the presence of fine wool.

In Mr. Ganko’s excellent report,
delivered to the Russian Sheep Congress
at Moscow last October, which I
attended, no mention was made of this
all important fact until I reported the
result of my tests with finewool Ameri-
can sheep.

HINDRANCES TO FOREIGNERS.

Providing a Russian subject can secure
permission from the Russian Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and the Depart-
ment of Foreign Affairs gives its con-
sent, and providing his majesty the
emir permits him to enter the Khanate,
it is only a matter of being properly
financed, and a limited number of Kara-
kuls can be obtained, although, after
all, the proper Jigit (an official of the
district governor, who can do what he
pleases with his subjects) is indispen-
sable.

A foreigner can not get out Karakul
sheep for the following reasons: (1)
Even after securing permission from the
Russian war minister to enter west
Turkestan, which often means weeks of
delay in St. Petersburg, he is not per-
mitted to go very far away from the
railway station, and he absolutely can
not go to Takta Bazar, Kushk, Kerk,
Termez or Karshi.

(2) The emir does not permit a
foreigner to export Karakul sheep, and
should he get them into European

178

Russia through a third party, he can
not get them out lawfully.

(3) Most European countries pro-
hibit the importation of live stock from
Asia, on account of certain diseases, and
especially is that true of England, the
United States and Canada, where it is
nearly impossible to secure a permit to
land them. Even where an exception is
made for purely experimental or exhibi-
tion purposes, the most rigid quarantine
is imposed, lasting for months. Those
foreigners who have travelled in Russia
with proper credentials showing them
to be interested in scientific research
work will testify to the great courtesies
shown them by Russian officials, and
this explains why I have been able to get
out a few head of Karakuls. But on
account of the mistakes which I made
in my first and, to some extent, in my
second importation (for I suspect that
some of the animals in the latter were
related, after all), I hope to secure per-
mission to export a few more sheep
direct from Bokhara. During my last
visit there, I did not learn certain facts
about the source of the Karakuls which
I bought until after I had used the per-
mit given me by the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, and had already for-
warded to America the sheep which I

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

later discovered might possibly be in-
bred, in some cases at least.

I expect soon to leave for a third trip
to Asia, where I hope to secure permis-
sion from the emir to export a few more
sheep for scientific experiments, and I
trust that this time I will be permitted
to make my own selections over a vast
area, thus being able to put such a large
distance between the source of one
animal and another, that the chance of
getting related stock will be remote and
negligible. Of course, as a preliminary,
everything depends on my getting a
permit® from the U. S. Department of
Agriculture to bring the sheep into this
country—a privilege that has already
been denied to me by the chief medical
officer of the Canadian quarantine
department at Ottawa.

Though not permitted to enter the
forbidden zone of Bokhara.and Trans-
caspia last March, I hope to be able to
do so this time, as it is the opinion of the
Russian Department of Justice that
since I became naturalized in America
without the permission of the Russian
government, I am, technically, still a
Russian citizen, who needs but return
with a Russian passport in order to
enjoy all the rights and privileges of
Russian citizenship.

‘Dr. Young secured the desired permit and left for Asia in February, after completing this
paper.—THE EpiTor.

Quail Breeding

Experiments in the propagation of game birds have been successfully con-
ducted this summer on the estate of William Rockefeller at Tarrytown, N. Y.,
under direction of Herbert K. Job, State Ornithologist of Connecticut. A man
secured by Mr. Job was employed and carried on the work under his direction.
No attempt was made to raise a large number of any one species, the purpose
being to work out a practicable system for private estates. About 200 young
bobwhite quail were reared to maturity, with trifling loss and no outbreak of
any disease. The pheasant rearing was successful. A few broods of the Hungarian
partridge were raised, and of the tinnamou, a curious South American game
bird, also wood ducks and other waterfowl, and a considerable flock of guinea
fowl. Under Mr. Job’s system the young were hatched by bantams and the
broods allowed free range by day, being shut in at night. They were scattered
over the great estate, and the young broods of game birds with their foster mothers
were an attractive feature all summer on the wide lawns. Trapping and other
destruction of vermin was at the same time carried on.—Forest and Stream.

THREE NEW NUTS :

Pili Nut From Philippines and Paradise Nut From Brazil Becoming Favorites in
American Markets—Queensland Nut Promises to be a Valuable Commercial
Nut Well Adapted to Southern California and Regions of Similar Climate.

THE EDITOR

OLLOWING an increase of inter-
fe est in nuts as food among con-
sumers, and in nuts as a crop
among horticulturists, several
new sorts have appeared on the markets
of the United States, and by their excel-
lence give promise of attaining consider-
able commercial importance. The best
known of these is probably the Pili nut
of the Philippines, which is now com-
monly sold throughout the United States
at about twenty-five cents a pound,
although it has been in the trade for
only a few years.

Disregarding some confusion in
nomenclature, it appears that the Pil
nuts of commerce are the fruit of Canar-
zum ovatum and C. luzonicum of the
Philippines and to a slight extent of
C. commune of the Dutch East Indies,
belonging to the natural order Bur-
seraceae. The genus contains a hundred
or more species, and is of Indo-Malayan
origin, but has outposts in Africa, China
and Australia. It hardly appears prob-
able, from its distribution, that it is
adapted to culture in the United States,
but it might be made a valuable crop in
Central or South America, since in addi-
tion to nuts the trees yield a valuable
resin, the ‘‘gum elemi’” of the pharma-
copeia, whose stimulating properties are
valued in plasters and ointments.

* LHe texture of the kernel,” Barrett’
remarks, ‘‘is almost ideal: it is exceed-
ingly light without being spongy, brittle
without being hard, and highly flavored
without being oily. It is so easily
digested that a kind of infant food is
said to be prepared from it, the blanched

kernels probably being pressed to remove
excess col ‘oil, land uthen ground. — =>
Even the pulpy husk of thoroughly ripe
nuts 1s eaten by Filipinos in some dis-
tricts.

“Tt appears that nowhere in the
Philippines is the Pili actually culti-
vated, although in the Moluccas a
species which may also occur in Min-
danao (C. commune) is actually under
cultivation.”

BREAD MADE FROM THE NUTS.

The nuts of the latter species, although
little different from the Pili (C. ovatum?)
and perhaps sold in the United States
under the same name, are in the East
known as Java Almonds. Hogg says?
the tree attains a height of 50 feet, and
its nuts furnish an important article of
food to the natives; “‘but they are con-
sidered very unwholesome if eaten fresh,
which is known by the exterior pellicle
being of a pale white color with purple
streaks, instead of reddish; and then
they cause dysentery and diarrhoea.
They are eaten both raw and roasted,
and in Amboyna they are converted into
bread, which is made in rolls about a
yard in length and one inch thick; they
are also made into a sort of marmalade.
An oil is expressed from them which is
used at the table when fresh, and in
lamps when stale.” The fruits of other
species are pickled and eaten like olives.

The oil of commerce, known as Java
Almond oil or Canary oil, is secured from
a number of species,’ which are some-
times planted as shade in nutmeg plan-
tations, although the nuts are usually

1Barrett, O. W., in Philippine Agricultural Review, November, 1912.

*Hogg, Robert. The Vegetable Kingdom.

1913

254,
3Krause, M Eine neue Fettfrucht aus Deutsch Neu Guinee.

London, 1858.
Tropenpflanzer, XVII, 3, 147,

179

THE PILL NUT OF THE PHILIPPINES.

Commercially it is the most important new nut which has appeared on the American market
during recent years. The nuts (here shown natural size) have an excessively thick shell,
which demands attention from some tropical plant breeder; but the kernel is so delicate and
nutritious that an emulsion of it is frequently used as a substitute for milk in bringing up
infants. A valuable commercial oil is pressed from them, while the resin of the tree is the
“sum elemi” of pharmacists, used in plasters and ointments. The nuts shipped to America
are mostly from forest trees, the genus not being cultivated in the Philippines, although
it is in the Dutch East Indies. (Figure 14.)

180

THe Epitor: THREE New Nuts

gathered from wild trees. Pastrovitch

found! that 65.73% of oil could be
extracted with petroleum ether or

56.12% by simple pressure, and he
describes the oil as “bright yellow, odor-
less, of a pleasant, pure taste; it might
very well be used as a food fat.”

THE PARADISE NUT.

Somewhat similar to the Pili nut is
the Paradise nut, a near relative of the
more common Brazil nut, and grown in
Brazil, Venezuela and Guiana. Its
botanical genus is Lecythis, and the
species usually shipped to this country
is said to be usitata, but it seems prob-
able that several species are used, the
principal one being that usually known
as L. zgabucajo. The native name is
Sapucaia, and under this name it is sold
in Europe, the designation ‘Paradise
nut’’ appearing to have originated in
New York.

The natural order of Lecythidaceae,
which embraces not only the Paradise
nuts, but the Brazil nut (Bertholletia
excelsa) and the Cannon Ball tree
(Couroupita guianensis) 1s remarkable
for the character of its fruit, the seeds
being enclosed in hard, woody “pots”
or “‘urns,’’ provided with lids which fall
when the fruit is ripe, allowing the seeds
or nuts to drop to the ground. The
receptacle of the Brazil nut is fairly
familiar; that of the Paradise nut, shown
in the accompanying photograph, is six
inches in diameter, and the lid two inches
across. It is frequently called “‘monkey
pot,” as it is alleged that the monkeys
are able to open it while still on the tree.
Barring such agency, when mature the
lid opens by itself, the nuts drop, and
the pot remains on the tree for a year or
two.

FORMERLY A STOCK FOOD.

The tree is common in its habitat, but
it is only in recent years that the nuts
have attained a commercial value.
Writers early in the last century declare

181

they were used only for stock food, much
as acorns in the United States, and it is
even alleged that the vernacular name,
“‘sapucaia,’’ means ‘“‘chicken,’’ and points
to their former use for fattening poultry.
In earlier days, however, there is evi-
dence that they were highly esteemed
by the Indians as food, although William
Piso, who testifies to this, declares that
excessive indulgence in them causes
baldness.’

They have always been somewhat
scarce, because of the fondness of mon-
keys for them; and for this reason, and
the present commercial demand, they
now bring three times as high a price as
the Brazil nut—75 cents a pound. The
preference for them is due to the fact
that the meat is considered of a finer
flavor, as well as more digestible. The
shell, moreover, is thin, in pleasing con-
trast to that of the Pili nut, which has a
way of putting lightly-made nutcrackers
quite out of commission.

Most of the 30 or 40 species of Lecy-
this attain a large size and furnish
excellent timber, which is considered
particularly resistant to the attacks of
teredos and barnacles, in salt water.
L. ollaria, most commonly known as the
Monkey Pot Tree, is said to resemble an
elm in appearance. Its bark can be
separated into nearly a hundred layers,
about the thickness of writing paper,
which the Indians commonly use in
rolling cigarettes. Its seeds contain 39%
of oil; the pot which holds them is
widely used as a kitchen utensil. The
seeds of L. lanceolata are considered nar-
cotic, and usually roasted before they
are eaten; those of L. amara are too
bitter to eat, but furnish a valuable
industrial oil.6 The species is not, to
my knowledge, under cultivation, but
may eventually repay such culture.

THE QUEENSLAND NUT.

The Queensland nut is more interest-
ing than either of the two preceding, to

4Pastrovitch, P. Chem.-Zeitung No. 65, p. 781, 1907.
5Gulielmi Pisonis Commentarium in Iacobi Bontii Historiae Naturalis et Medicae Indiae
Orientalis Liber VI, p 135, Amsterdam, 1658. He calls the nut Iagapucaio and distinguishes two

species.

‘“‘In (calyces),’’ he says, ‘‘continentur nuces jucundi saporis

* * * & gratissimum

incolis aeque & animalibus suppeditunt alimentum. Sapore & excellentia Pistaceis adaequantur

& venerem sopitam dicuntur excitare.
ex illis comparantur.”’
SFlora do Brazil, p. 65.

Potiones & pultes, tam ad Medicinam quam ad epulas

(‘ST ems) ‘poysosrp ATIsvo pue ‘IoAvy oyvoTep ynq YoU v Jo ore synu ey] ‘[Isueyn pjoyasnoy v se aAias
0} suvIpuy oy} Aq UMOp yYysnorq St 41 ssoyuUN ‘9013 oY} UO suTeUIAI Jod oYY oTTYM ‘punoss oy} 04 TT?} 07 synu oy} Surmoyye ‘ammyeuw usym sdosp yor

‘punod ve
S}U9O ¢/ 7B SozVeYG popUy) 9Y} UT pjos A[qRIopIsuod MoU sI pue ‘UOZPLUY oY} JO S}So10J oy} pu uTeT YSstuedg oy Jo synu , jod-Aogyuour,

9u4 jo suo SI 1]

’

“VIVOONdVS HO LON ASIGVYVd AHL

fi

: ; fae

THE QUEENSLAND NUT.

A delicious nut of Australian origin, which is creating much interest in California. It is resistant
to drouth and fairly resistant to frost, and promises to be of much value commercially in
the warmer parts of the United States. Extensive plantings are being made, but mostly
in an experimental way, or for ornamental purposes. Thickness of shell is the only defect
of the nut, and this is one that is easily amenable to improvement by selection. In texture
and flavor, the kernel resembles that of a Brazil nut, and is universally liked; small ship-
ments from Queensland to London are said to have been sold at $2.50 a pound. Photo-
graph natural size. (Figure 16.)

183

184

the extent that it offers promise of indus-
trial value in Southern California and
some other parts of the United States,
where it is already being widely planted
on an experimental scale. Botanically it
is Macadamia ternifolia, of the order
Proteaceae, and takes its common name
from its home; it is also said to be called
the Australian hazelnut, although not so
known in this country.

The fruit is a drupe with fleshy exter-
ior; the brown kernel (the nut itself) has
a shiny surface that is particularly
attractive. Its meat closely resembles
that of the Brazil nut, but is richer and
better flavored; like the Pili nut, it has
the disadvantage of a very hard shell,
which selection alone will reduce. In
flavor it is first-class—small shipments
made from Australia to London are said
to have brought twelve shillings a pound

THE Epitor: THREE New Nuts

on the Covent Garden market. Few are
sold in California, because of the present’
small production.

The tree is moderately frost resistant,
and requires very little care or water,
wherefore it is highly prized in semi-
arid localities. Despite this, it will, like
other plants, give better results if well
irrigated. As the bush or small tree
which bears it is distinctly ornamental,
and has the advantage of evergreen
leaves, it is much favored for planting as
an ornament. For this purpose, as well
as for its nuts, it can be recommended
without hesitation in Southern Califor-
nia and similar regions where its charac-
ter exactly fits it for the needs of the
rapidly increasing number of people who
believe that economic value and novelty
should be combined with ornamental
qualities, in landscape gardening.

Increasing the Richness of Milk

The possibility of increasing, with economic advantage, the average fat content
of cow’s milk, is discussed by Nils Hansson in the Kungl. Landibruks-Akademiens
Handlingar och Tidskrift, LII, 5, Stockholm, 1913. After discussing the results
of feeding experiments carried on for twenty-five years at the Central Experi-
ment Station of Sweden, where he is chief of the animal husbandry section, the
writer summarizes the results of his investigations on the influence that the choice
of the bulls has on the fat content of the milk. He concludes:

1. It is possible to increase the percentage of fat content of the milk of a herd,
with economic advantage, by a judicious selection of the breeding animals.

2. By dividing a herd into families of descendants of the sires and of the dams, .
the influence of each animal on the development of the qualities of the herd may
be better demonstrated.

3. The influence of the males is demonstrated by the average production of
all their female descendants, or still better by a comparison of the average pro-
duction of their daughters with that of the dams of these daughters when they
were of the same age.

4. The influence of the bulls on the percentage of fat content of the milk of
their female descendants depends upon the qualities of the females of the preceding
generations.

5. The influence of the cows appears in the fact that a bull possessing a certain
genotype percentage of fat cannot increase the percentage of fat in the milk except
in the daughters of cows inferior to him in the percentage of fat content, whilst
the daughters of the same bull out of cows yielding richer milk will have a percent
age of fat inferior to that of their dams.

6. The males and the females transmit to their descendants the percentage of
fat which they themselves have inherited from their ancestors, the male and the
female having, as it appears, an equal influence on condition that they represent
the same constancy of results in this respect. But owing to its larger number
of descendants, the male has a greater influence on the development of the herd.

PeeWENCE OF SOURCE’ OF: SEED

Many Minor Characters Dependent on Habitat and Easily Changed Under New
Conditions—Apparent Example of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
In Pines Crippled by Growth in Poor Soil.

ARNOLD ENGLER, !

in Mitt. der Schweiz.

Centralanstalt. f. d. forstiche Versuchswesen,

(Contributions from the Swiss Central Station for Forest Research) Zurich, 1913; 153 pp., 12 tables.

OR many years foresters have
in been occupied with the question
whether the characters of cli-
matic races of trees are heredi-
tary, and whether they persist for longer
or shorter periods in seedlings which
have been raised under other climatic
conditions. Inmany different countries
experiments and observations have been
devoted to this practically important
question, and the work before us is an
important contribution to the subject.
More than 70,000 pine’ seedlings
were grown at 12 stations in Switzer-
land at successive altitudes from 370 to
1980 meters, the seeds having come
from localities in northern Europe, in
the Alps, in western Russia, in southern
France, and from intermediate locali-
ties. The seedlings are now from six
to seven years old. From data ob-
tained from these cultures and from
other observations the author is able to
show that characters such as the shape
of the scales of the cones, the resinous
coating of the buds and the age limit of
the needles are in large measure depend-
ent upon the habitat and soon undergo
change when the plants are grown in
another climate On the other hand he
demonstrates that there is an “innate
physiological disposition” of the plant
which is preserved by its progeny in a
foreign habitat and which is expressed,
for example, 1n a poorer growth in an
unsuitable climate. Thus, the poor
form of the pines grown in Livonia
from seed from southwestern Germany
is not due to the fact that the seeds
came from inferior trees but from the

inability of the race to adapt itself to
the climate of Livonia. The pine of
western Russia, the Riga pine, possesess
on the other hand a high degree of phy-
siological adaptability and consequently
retains its good habit of growth even in
southern France. In contrast to this,
pines from middle or northern Sweden
when grown no farther from their home
than northern Germany are inferior to
the native race in growth and in shape.

CORRELATION FOUND.

In the plantings at the Swiss station
it was found that in seedlings one to
two years old as well as those six to seven
years old, the growth in height de-
creased with increasing altitude or in-
creasing latitude of the locality from
which the seed came. An exception is
afforded by six or seven-year old seed-
lings of the Engadine pine (Pinus sil-
vestris engadinensis) which even at the
lower altitude made a much finer and
more vigorous growth than seedlings of
the same age of the common pine
(Pinus silvestris), obtained from lower
altitudes in the Alps. At the higher
stations this variety surpassed all the
other races included in the experiment.
Among these the plants grown from
seeds collected in France, in southwest-
ern Germany and in northern Switzer-
land showed an especially poor habit of
growth, and those from the two latter
localities suffered from dying of the tips
because they continued growth too late
in the fall. Especial interest attaches
to the observation that the seeds of
pines which had been crippled by un-

1Translation of a review by Bisgen in “Zeitschrift fir Botanik,”’ Vol. 5, p. 838, 1913.
2Pinus silvestris is the species referred to throughout this review, unless otherwise mentioned.

185

186

favorable soil conditions gave rise to
crippled plants in the experimental sta-
tions, so that here we have apparently
an example of the inheritance of ac-
quired characters.

Pines (P. vulgaris) two to six years
old, grown from seeds produced by trees
which in turn had been grown from
seeds collected 30 to 40 years ago at

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

low elevations and planted at high
altitudes, were distinct from the normal
lowland pines of this species only in the
smaller proportion of large individuals.
The parent trees had presreved in the:
new climate the habit of growth of their
original habitat and had transmitted
it to their progeny. In this case “‘after
effect’’ had become ‘“‘heredity.”’

EUGENICS IN THE COLLEGES

ORNELL UNIVERSITY is organizing a course in Genetics and Eugenics
to be given in the early part of 1914 by a number of specialists.
There are now 44 colleges giving either a complete course in eugenics
or some lectures on it as part of another allied course; 15 in the East,
14 in the Middle West, four in the South. Sixteen teach eugenics in their zoology
department, 11 in the biology department and 11 in the sociology department.
The following is a partial list of courses in eugenics (often combined with genetics)

given in the colleges of the United States

Agricultural College of Utah

Alfred University

Barnard College

Bryn Mawr College

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The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
y g

Vol. V, No. 5 May, 1914

CONTENTS

Crossing Bison and Cattle, by Mossom M. Poyd.................. 189

My Experience With Bison Hybrids, by Charles Goodnight....... . 197
Genetics Must Come First, by C. C. Hurst........................ 199
an Apple Chimeras. bby W.. Bc Mcastles 4 85 etc ig. es is 200
The Law of Regression, by Francis Galton........................ 202
Sexual Inequality in Hemp, by O. F. Cook........................ 203
Lectures Are'in'Dentand).-oi32.0 0 le a. ee oe ee ee 206
The Determination of Sex, by P. J. Wester........................ 207
Nature and Time of Segregation, by William Bateson............. 208
Weakness of Eldest Sons, by John H. Chase....................... 209
Extinction of Family Names, Compiled by the Editor............. 212
Possibility of Quick Returns, by William Bateson................. 215
What Eugenics Promises, by C. W. Saleeby....................... 215
The Philippine Negritos, Extracts from Two Articles by Robert
Bennett Reames, 12.04 yeh ae eke ee ho ey ee 216
AGRace-of Wihite: Canaries? ys. - ies jcc beg Cs ee ee 220
A Bugenics Bibliography: 32.2.0.5.46 400 cee fh er a ee 220
The Reason for Eugenics, by Francis Galton...................... 221
**Reversion”’ in Prickly Pears, by David Griffiths.................. 223
Variation by Loss of Inhibitors, by William Bateson............... 225
The Importance of Genetics, by Karl Pearson..................... 225
Effects of Inbreeding. by H. Kraemer............................. 226

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called. the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and Journal.

Date of issue of this number, April 25, 1914.

“THE BASIC STOCK OF ALL HUMANITY’?

Negritos of the Phillipine Islands. Dr. Bean thinks they are a fusion of the three funda-
mental races of mankind, the Australoid, Iberian and Primitive, the former pre-
dominating. This Australoid stock, he suggests, may be the original one from
which the other two are derived, unless it is itself a result of the fusion of the Iberian
and Primitive somewhere in eastern Asia in prehistoric times. The Australoid stock
is that which is chiefly responsible for the American negro. (Frontispiece.)

(See “The Phillipine Negritos,” page 216.)

CROSSING BISON AND CATTLE ©

First Cross Dangerous But Results are Better ia Each Succeeding Genera-
tion—Hope of Taking Fur and Hump of Bison and Placing Them
Upon Back of Domestic Ox.

Mossom M. Boyp, Bobcaygeon, Ontario, Canada.

HEN in 1908 I gave an
account’ of my firm’s (Mos-
som Boyd Co.) experiment

up to that date in crossing
the American bison with domestic
cattle, we had just begun the third
stage of the experiment; and although
four years’ in a work of this kind is too
short a time in which to accumulate
much data of interest, I will nevertheless
report what little there is to tell.

The first stage of the experiment was
the crossing of the two species.

The second consisted of crossing the
hybrids thus produced with pure-bred
animals of both species.

And the third stage, in which we are
now engaged, consists of breeding from
parents, both of which are of mixed
blood.

the. produce of the “first stage in
which both parents were pure, we call
hybrid buffaloes or half-bred-buffaloes,
or for short, hybrids. The produce of
the second stage in which one parent
was pure and the other of mixed blood
we call three-quarter-buffaloes, or one-
quarter-buffaloes, or one-eighth-buffa-
loes, as the case may be, reserving for
the sake of distinction the term ‘“‘cat-
talo’’ for the produce of the third stage
in which both parents are of mixed
blood; and we put before the word
cattalo a figure to denote the proportion
of bison blood; for example, one-half
cattalo (containing 50% of bison blood),
one-quarter cattalo (containing 25%),
and so on. Breeders will readily under-
stand that there is a radical difference
between what we now call cattaloes
and three-quarter, one-half, one-quarter

and one-eighth-buffaloes. | Excepting
two or three, we have not been raising
animals carrying less than one-eighth
of buffalo blood.

CHARACTERS OF THE HYBRIDS.

In the first stage the hybrids, of which
we succeeded in raising about 30, were
all of one type; so uniformly alike that
individuals of the same color were as
hard to distinguish from one another
as are Polled Angus cattle. Those from
Hereford dams had white faces, but
almost no other white; and excepting
these, all were practically whole-colored,
and were either brindled or black. The
black was not the jet black of the Polled
Angus but had a rich tinge of brown.
The brindled varied between a tawny
red and brown.

The hybrids were larger than the
bison; of “smoother” build; wider
chested, had better hind quarters, stood
straighter on their hocks, and had coats
of a better color, with more lustre and
less tufted. Altogether they were much
finer-looking animals than the bison.

The three-quarter-buffaloes, got by
using a bison bull on the hybrid females,
were likewise all of one type; as much
like one another as are Polled Angus
cattle; and they were about midway in
appearance between their parents. The
five we raised (one bull and four females)
were in color very much like the bison,
but of a somewhat darker shade. One,
whose dam was half-Hereford, had the
front of its face white.

The one-quarter-buffaloes, got by
using Polled Angus and Hereford bulls
on the hybrid females, were all of one

1A Short Account of an Experiment in Crossing the American Bison with Domestic Cattle, by
Mossom M. Boyd. American Breeders’ Association Annual Report, vol. IV, p. 324 ff.

*This paper was prepared in January, 1913. Mr. Boyd writes that at present his company has
31 head of grade buffaloes and catialoes in its herd.

189

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STH

190

Boyp: CrosstInc Bison AND CATTLE

~ ) i aoe

191

A “HEREFORD” WHO IS FIVE-SIXTEENTHS BUFFALO.

‘Huron,’

son of ‘Quinto Porto” (shown on preceding page), out of a pure Hereford cow. It

is from such crosses as these or one generation further removed (say 10% to 15% buffalo
blood) that it is hoped to improve the range cattle of the colder parts of the west, increasing
their hardiness and improving their meat-producing and fur-producing qualities. (Figure 2.)

type in form, but varied in color, and
likewise were about midway in appear-
ance between their parents. The same
remarks apply to the one-eighth-buffa-
loes, got from a second cross by the
same breeds of domestic bulls.

An ordinary observer might mistake
the three-quarter-buffaloes for bison;
and he would scarcely distinguish the
one-quarter-buffaloes from domestic cat-
tle, except for the finer quality of hair.
The one-eighth-buffaloes he would not
distinguish at all from domestic cattle.

Accordingly, in stage one we got
animals that were all of one type. In
stage two, animals that were all of one

type or all of another, according as we
used the bison bull or the domestic
bull; and the proportion of bison blood
always determined the measure of
likeness to the bison.

In stage three, as was expected, the
proportion of bison blood no longer
determines the likeness to the bison.
We have two one-half-cattaloes, year-
lings, quite as like the bison as are our
three-quarter buffaloes; and among 12
cattalo calves of 1912 are a one-half-
cattalo, a three-eighths-cattalo and a
one-quarter-cattalo, which, notwith-
standing their difference in grade with
respect to bison blood, show equally the

A FIRST-GENERATION HYBRID.

This cow represents the most difficult achievement of hybridizing buffaloes—namely, the first
cross, between a pure buffalo bull and an ordinary cow.

(The reverse cross cannot be
made.)

The percentage of failures in this cross is extremely high, and almost no male
calves are produced, partly, at least, because their height just back of the shoulders pre-
vents them from passing through the cow’s pelvis. Hybrid cows of the sort shown in the
photograph are often barren, but fertility is gained at each subsequent cross back to cattle
blood. (Figure 3.)

192

Boyp: CrossiInc BIsoN AND CATTLE

HEIFER WITH HALF BUFFALO BLOOD.

The hybrids average rather larger in size than either parents (buffalo cows weighing only 1,000

to 1,200 lbs., while the buffalo bulls weigh from 1,800 to 2,000).

Their meat is said to be

indistinguishable from beef of the same age and quality, but they produce more of it, and

the cuts are considered choicer.

The first hybrids of this sort were produced as far back

as the revolutionary period; in 1908 W. T. Hornaday estimated that there were 260 of them
in the United States, 57 in Canada and 28 in Europe, a total of 345, while the number of

pure bison in the world at that time barely exceeded 2,000

bison characteristics. The one-quarter-
cattalo has, we think, somewhat the
best coat of the three.

HOFE FOR THE FUTURE.

This is encouraging, especially in
these early matings, and seems to war-
rant the expectation that in later genera-
tions, after there has been time for
selection, there may be seen on cattaloes,
having say 10% or less of bison blood, as
good fur as is now seen on the one-half
and three-quarter-buffaloes.

Moreover, there is a promising pros-
pect of greatly improving the beef
carcass also, for the bison carries an
exceedingly high percentage of beef on
his back, which is the most valuable
part of. a beef carcass; and the inheri-

(Figure 4.)

tance of this quality may well be
encouraged by selection. The hump of
the buffalo is not a mass of fat as some
people suppose, but is formed by neural
spines in length fully double those of
domestic cattle, and by the huge mus-
cles which lie alongside and fill up the
angle between these neural spines and
the ribs. In a rib roast of beef, these
muscles constitute the upper cut, and I
have had on my table a hybrid roast
with an upper cut nine inches deep.

I give the measurements of the
length (measured from the centre of the
spinal cord) of the neural spines of the

smallest of our three bison bulls. They
are in inches respectively: 11, 16%,
16%, 16, 15%, 1444, 13,—, 10%,

914, 8, para ta? 6%, Tye 434, a 1G

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THREE-QUARTERS-BUFFALO BULLS.

’

Bulls of this type are larger and ‘“‘smoother”’ in build than the average full-blood bison bull;
they are wider between the front legs and thicker between the quarters, and stand straighter
on their hocks. Frequently they are not fertile, or only imperfectly so. In the hands of
the butcher they will cut about 70% net of their gross weight, according to Col. Goodnight.
The bull here shown was bred by the Mossom Boyd Co., and is by a pure buffalo out of a

hybrid (first generation) cow.

DANGERS OF FIRST CROSS.

The most remarkable and the most
disastrous feature of the first stage was
the abnormal secretion of the amniotic
fluid which was excited without excep-
tion in every cow and which proved
fatal in a large percentage of cases.
This feature was so calamitous that
others should be warned against at-
tempting this severe cross. We began
without any suspicion of the evil and
had we not gone to work unwittingly
on a large scale, the experiment would
probably have failed in the first stage.

Fortunately no trouble of this sort
was experienced in the second stage and
none to date in the third stage; but we
had an interesting reminder of it
through crossing our five-eighths-buffalo
bull on three domestic cows in 1911.
One of these cows swelled to proportions
which indicated the former trouble, but
it did not prove serious and it is possible
that the diagnosis was wrong. The

(Figure 5.)

other two cows did not attract any
notice in this respect.

FERTILITY OF BULLS.

On the subject of fertility or infer-
tility of bulls I have not much data.
The percentage of male births in the
first stage was so small as to be remark-
able and excite curiosity as to a possible
cause. Out of forty-five hybrids only
six were male, i.e., about 15%, and we
may add to this experience that of
Charles Goodnight, who wrote me in
1900 that he had raised many female
hybrids but had never one male born
alive. Of our six, three died at birth,
one within 24 hours, and of the two
raised one proved barren after having
been thoroughly tested. The other
was killed at an early age without
having been tested.

In the second stage the proportion of
male births rose to 40%. Out of 26
one-quarter-buffaloes, ten were males.

Boyp: Crossinc Bison AND CATTLE

Of these only four were tested and one
of the four was found normally fertile.
The other three were barren up to
36 months, 32 months, and 25 months
of age, respectively, but should have had
a longer trial.

Of five three-quarter-buffaloes one
only was a bull and this bull, born in
March, 1905, was killed by an accident
in September, 1908, i.e., at the age of
three and one half years. Although
given a fair opportunity during the
seasons 1907 and 1908 he did not
appear to be fertile, but should have
been further tested.

Of one-eighth-buffaloes, the
one tried was thoroughly fertile.

One five-eighths-buffalo bull was bred
in 1905 from the cross of a bison bull
upon a one-quarter-buffalo cow. This
cross was interesting as being our
nearest approach to a repetition of the
Severe, serOss <1) juhe. sirsh = Stase, -<— ly
proved that the 25% of bison blood in
the cow was sufficient to make the cross
perfectly successful; for gestation was
normal and the bull is more or less
fertile. We had one calf by him in 1911
and four in 1912. His pedigree is
interesting and I give it here:

only

195

having to their credit nine, ten and
twelve calves respectively.

Of 12 one-quarter-buffalo cows got
by using domestic bulls on the fertile
hybrids only one was barren, four were
irregular breeders, and seven normally
prolific.

Of four three-quarter-buffalo cows
got by using a bison bull on the hybrid
females only one proved barren, and
this one was by a sire which was himself
a very poor breeder, for he got no other
produce although he had the run of the
herd for four months.

The tables on page 197 are given for
comparison with the table for the
hybrids given in my former report.

The average age at which the hybrids
produced their first calf was four years.

Of five one-eighth-buffalo cows, one
was beefed at four and one-half years of
age without having bred, and four
were found normally fertile.

As to the fertility or infertility of
cattalo bulls we have no information at
all. Of 73 cattalo births to date. 30
were bulls. Six of these are being kept
for testing but no testing has been done
yet. The first females have just come

QUINTO PORTO

Brindle with white face
dam Quarto Prettymaid
g. d. Hybrid Prettymaid
3 d. Prettymaid 19th

Record

55397

It will be seen that he is a mixture of
pure buffalo and pure Hereford blood.
He is a whole-colored brindle except
for the white front to his face; and like
the hybrids he is larger and “‘smoother”’
in build than an average bison bull; is
wider between the front legs and
thicker through the quarters; stands
straighter on his hocks, and has an
immense back.

We have a yearling bull by ‘Quinto
Porto’ out of a registered. Hereford.
cow.

FERTILITY OF COWS.

Of 24 hybrid cows, 15 were barren
and of the remaining nine only three
were regtilar breeders. These three, all
born in 1895, are now 18 years old, and
were regular breeders up to last year;

Born May 23, 1905

Sire Banff 2nd (a pure Bison)

by Tecumseh 63518 Am. Hereford Record

Am. Hereford by Bonie (a pure Bison)

by Cherub 4th 32333 Am. Hereford Record

to the breeding age. Of two born in
1907, one gave a calf in 1911 and the
other was sent to the butcher December,
1912, as being probably barren. Of
four born in 1908, only one has given a
calf as yet. We have besides a calf
from a three-year-old, and one from a
two-year-old. This is sufficient to
indicate that even if not so much so as
the grade buffaloes (hybrids excepted)
which were just about normal, the
cattalo females will be fairly fertile;
and there is little doubt as to finding
a sufficiency of fertile bulls. Complete
fertility, if it is not found at once, will
doubtless come through selection, as
will early maturity.

It does not seem unreasonable, there-
fore, to suggest that the fur of the bison
and his great back may be carried by

A TRUE CATTALO CALF AND ITS MOTHER.

The sire was a grade buffalo (exact pedigree unknown), while the mother is three-quarters
buffalo from a first-generation hybrid cow by a pure buffalo bull. This heifer having mixed
blood in both lines of ancestry, is therefore a true “‘cattalo.’’ The photograph, like all those
preceding, was made on the ranch of the Mossom Boyd Co., in Ontario, (Figure 6.)

196

GoopNicHt: My ExperteENcE WitH Bison Hyeprips

means of selection without any diminu-
tion through succeeding generations of
diminishing bison blood until the coat

BREEDING RECORD OF ONE- CS BUFFALO Cows, DECEMBER 31,

197

and hump have been practically taken
from the bison and placed upon the
back of the domestic ox.

1912.

Al | Age of dam
| | | | | when she
Cow Born (1902 1903 1904 1905, 1906 1907/1908 19091910 19111912) produced her
| first calf.
| | | Yrs. | Months
July 1899 ease 1c beefed Diec. 11905 2 9
Aug. 1899 |beefed Dec. 1903 | | | |
Apr. 1900 be Gabbe Be, ONG shea lLe: Ts MG 2 3
June 1900 bankas tae doeer. |) ibected se, NOT 3 6
Mar. 1901 B be Bi dept a. | 2G) 4 UB obec Bop oC 2 2
Apr. 1901 Sele, PG eS an RES oo Age tec oF Cal eee D, 1
May 1901 eae Online eae ae oeetledeyiat a l|900p 2
Mar. 1902 eae ee he C || B | C |beefied Diec. 1/911 2 2
Air O00 oN Se era ye rept ae HS ss is By eee ilk eee 4
May 1904 Bode le Sine bales foetal HSRC aA eoete cE ec. 1/908
June 1906 FEE Sadie a ners tS eh eee | tLe , 1B 2 2
June 1906 ce needs ee se oo ‘|....| B |beefle Apes dls 2
|

| | 2 6M

\ | } )
B—Bull calf. C—Cow calf. A—Abortion.

The double line divides the grade buffalo calves from cattalo calves.

BREEDING RECORD OF THREE-QUARTER-BUFFALO COWS, DECEMBER 31, 1912.

| Age of dam
when she
Cow Born 1909 1910 1911 1912 | produced her
| | first calf.
| he Ware? | Months
Nene LO Ogee retinal heret sees Slide. craton ment vtec a Lee nee a Bannrene snes lta sexy ane owes AGS
Mar. 1905 fee ey reve A Corel anager 5 Raper oases
Mar. 1905 Re ig alleen ere rk, | Bee 3 oo SY Bor Ce eater ned
May 1905 Pesta: i ALS TB Fern eg | Hoe 9d
| | | er eee:

MY EXPERIENCE WITH BISON HYBRIDS.

CHARLES GOODNIGHT, Goodnight, Texas.’

CAN summarize my experience in
| crossing Texas buffaloes with native
cattle, as follows:

I take a male buffalo calf, put him
with a native cow and let him suck her
until weaning time. I let him run with
common cattle until large enough to

8See also ‘Breeding Cattelo”’
Report, vol. III, p. 161, 1907.

serve. He will then cross with any
kind of domestic cattle. In making
the first cross, no male calves have
ever been born; cows conceiving them
either suffer abortion or die, hence I
only get heifer calves and a small per
cent. of them. There is no trouble

by C. J. Jones, in American Breeders’ Association Annual

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“SVNXGLL NI HONVYH LHOINGOOSD FHL LY FONVY AHL NO

HOTV LLVO

Aaa bk ict ; ‘ wR ’
sOary gorse eet . -

198

GOODNIGHT: My EXprrRigNcE WitH Bison Hyerips

whatever in giving birth. The cause of
abortion and death is unknown to me.
The heifer calves obtained breed readily
to either the buff:lo or the cattle.
When bred to th2 buffalo, the males,
which are three-quarters, are not fertile.
The females are perfectly fertile and will
breed to either race. I breed them
back to the polled Angus stock from
which they come, and get males which
are fertile and which are half-breeds.

The type or race of hybrid cattle is
now virtually established in a small
way and I herewith give you a few of
the points of advantage which the
“cattelow’* have over common cattle.

First, they are immune from all
diseases as far as I have tested them. I
know they are immune from Texas
Black-Leg and Texas Fever. I have
shipped three bulls, one-eighth buffalo,
to our coast, the worst tick-country we
have. One died and two are living, so
I have reason to believe that if they
were a little higher in the buffalo blood,
they would be entirely immune.

Second, the “cattelow’’ are much
greater in weight, eat much less and
hold their flesh better under more
adverse conditions. They will easily
cut about 70% net of their. gross
weight. They have a better meat, clear
of fibre, and it never gets tough like
beef.

199

They have long and deep backs,
enabling them to cut at least 150
pounds more meat than other cattle.
More of them can be grazed on a given
area. They do not run from Heel
Flies nor drift in storms, but like the
buffalo, face the blizzards. They rise
on their fore feet instead of their hind
feet. This enables them to rise when
in a weakened condition. They never
lie down with their backs down hill, so
they are able to rise quickly and easily.
This habit is reversed in cattle.

When a herd on range gets weak and
poor towards spring, their lying down
with their backs towards slopes and on
sides of hills causes a loss of from 1% to
6%. Every weak cow which so lies
down can never get up, unless she is
found by the herder.

The buffaloes have 14 ribs, giving
them a longer and deeper loin. As we
get them higher and deeper in the
buffalo we get the extra rib on the
“cattelow.”’ They can exist on less food
or salt than cattle, as before stated.

They could do without water much
longer than cattle, without inconven-
ience. They are docile, easily broken
and never fight. They put on flesh
faster than any cattle and will live and
appear to do well where cattle will
perish. They have many other points
in their favor too tedious to mention.

Genetics Must Come First

In studying the inheritance of the more simple physical charactars in man, it is
evident that we are as yet only feeling our way toward the solution of certain
larger and more complicated problems which are of vital importance to the human
race. The future of eugenics depends very largely on the solution of these prob-
lems. I do not wish for one moment to suggest that the art of eugenics has been
born before its time, but I do feel that before we can venture to apply the scien-
tific principles of genetics to human life, we must first make our foundations sure.
For this reason, I am convinced that a good deal of spade work in human genetics
will have to be done before any considerable amount of practical good can be
accomplished in eugenics. Eugenics is simply applied genetics, and sound eugenics
can only be founded upon sound genetics —C. C. Hurst: Mendelian Heredity in
Man (1912):.

‘The word is so written in Col. Goodnight’s manuscript. The spelling ‘‘cattalo’’ has now been
generally accepted, after some years of confusion, and is adopted by practically every authority.
It is the preferred spelling of this Association.—The Editor.

AN APPLE CHIMERA

Two Varieties Combined in One as Result of Grafting—Fruit Does Not Seem
to Fall Wholly in Either of General Divisions of Chimeras—An
Explanation of the Phenomenon.

WE. CASTLE:
Bussey Institution, Harvard University, Forest Hills, Mass.

BOUT five years ago, S. A.
JB Starratt casually mentioned to
me having seen in Nova Scotia
apples which individually con-
sisted of two very distinct varieties of
apple separated by a sharp line of
demarcation. The statement interested
me much as I recalled Darwin’s descrip-
tion of such fruits and his uncertainty as
to whether they were to be regarded as
graft-hybrids or eversporting seedling
hybrids. Upon my expressing this in-
terest Mr. Starratt kindly volunteered
to secure me fuller information about
the peculiar apple tree. As a result I
received in the spring of 1909 from W.
W. Clarke of Bear River, Nova Scotia,
a letter, from which I quote below, to-
gether with a package of scions cut
from the freak apple tree (or rather
trees, for Mr. Clarke’s letter indicated
that there were several of them and of
two different sorts). Some of the scions
I was able to graft successfully upon
trees in my orchard, but they have not
yet borne fruit. In the letter already
mentioned, Mr Clarke says:

“About a month ago S. A. Starratt,
Esq., wrote me concerning some apples
of a peculiar growth I showed him a
few years ago. The peculiarity was.
that of the apples grown upon the
same stem, portions, perhaps, would
indicate different varieties. For in-
stance, one end of the apple would have
all the characteristics of the Boston
Stripe; the other end would be Russet;

and where the joining took place
there generally was a small ridge,
seemingly, because one variety was

larger than the other, and that Nature
was doing her best to make a good job
of a misfit. I did not grow the apples

200

myself, but do know different trees in
the orchard, say ten or a dozen, pro-
duced the kind of apple referred to.
The man who grows these apples says
the parent tree was grown from seed
and grafted with Boston Stripe, except
one tree which was grafted with Green-
ings, but grown from seed. Mr.
Starratt wished me to send you some
scions, which I have done today by one
of our schooners that is due to arrive
in Boston about the 24th to 26th inst.
I have instructed the Captain to express
direct to you immediately he arrives.

“The scions are in one package but
separately tied; the ones marked Green-
ings are off the limb that produced the
hybrid apples last autumn, the Boston
Stripe are off the trees that produced
the freak apples, but cannot say if the
same limbs. No one tree produces any
great quantity of the apples referred to,
perhaps two or three dozen on the
whole tree, the balance will be Boston
Stripe or Greening pure and simple.
I will undertake to send you some of
these apples this autumn when grown.”

Apparently Mr. Clarke was unable
to secure any of the peculiar apples in
the fall of 1909, but two years later, in
November, 1911, I was pleased to
receive a package containing half a
dozen of them, three of which are
shown in the photograph kindly made
for me by E. W. Nelson. With the
apples came a letter as follows:

PARENTAGE OF THE FREAKS.

“T am mailing you today a sample
of the Freak Apples. I understand the
parent stock was what is known as
Boston Stripe into which was grafted
Golden Russet. You have the result.

201

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202

I notice these all show the G. Russet
at the stem end. I have seen the blossom
end Russet. I may say the whole tree
does not produce all like the sample,
since the Russet predominates. The
fruit is not as large as it should be, for
the trees lack the necessary culture.”’
The account given in this letter does
not agree altogether with that given in
Mr. Clarke’s earlier letter, as to the
parent varieties. The earlier account
stated that Boston Stripe grafted on a
seedling gave rise to the parent tree; in
this account Boston Stripe is the stock
and Golden Russet the scion. It is
impossible at present to decide between
the two accounts. The photograph
shows very well the sharply marked
division of the apples into regions very
different in appearance. The stem end
of the apple was in each case of ‘‘russet”’
and without stripes; the blossom end
was smooth skinned, of a light red color
striped with yellow or green (uncolored).
When one of the apples was cut open
the flesh was found to be different in
texture and flavor in the two regions.
Underneath the russet skin the flesh
was coarser grained. One end of the
apple was distinctly sour, the other
insipid, almost sweet, but I neglected
to note which region was sour, the russet
or the striped portion, but I think the
former. The line of demarcation within
the flesh was sharp, as on the surface.
Since the time when these ‘‘freak’’
apples first came to my attention the
nature and origin of such plant creations
has been investigated with brilliant
success by Winkler and Baur in Ger-
many. As a result we now call such

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

things plant-chimeras, and we know that
they arise in consequence of grafting,
in cases wherein the original buds of
the scion have failed to grow, but an
adventitious bud has arisen exactly at
the junction of stock and scion and
including cells derived from both.
Each of these two kinds of cells repro-
duces its own sort, though they remain
side by side but quite distinct in the
same stem.

Winkler has produced several different
sorts of chimeras by grafting the tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum) and the night-
shade (S. nigrum) one upon the other
and then decapitating the graft. In
some of these the stem is divided right
and left between tomato and _ night-
shade tissue, the stem on one side bear-
ing tomato leaves, on the other night-
shade leaves. Such plants are known
as sectorial chimeras. In other cases,
tomato cells form the one or two outer
layers of the entire plant, while under-
neath occur only nightshade cells; or
these relations may be exactly reversed.
Histological study fully confirms this
view. Such chimeras are known as
periclinal.

In the apples figured the chimera
would seem to be sectorial rather than
periclinal, if the line of demarcation
ran lengthwise of the apple rather than
across it. But as it is, they resemble
more a periclinal chimera which has
everted its deeper lying tissue at the
blossom end of the fruit. Does the fruit
of the apple develop in that way?
Will such fruits give us a clue to the
answer’ They certainly merit further
study.

Galton’s Law of Regression

The law of regression tells heavily against the full hereditary transmission of
any gift. Only a few out of many children would be likely to differ from medioc-
rity as widely as their mid-parent, and still fewer would differ as widely as the
more exceptional of the two parents. The more bountifully the parent is gifted
by nature, the more rare will be his good fortune if he begets a son as richly endowed
as himself, and still more so if he has a son who is endowed yet more largely. But
the law is even handed; it levels an equal succession tax on the transmission of
badness as of goodness. If it discourages the extravagant hopes of a gifted parent
that his children will inherit all his powers, it no less discountenances extravagant
fears that they will inherit all his weakness and disease.—Francis Galton: Natural
Inheritance (1889).

SEXUAL INEQUALITY IN HEMP ©

Male Plants Die While Females Grow Vigorously Under Same Conditions—
Possible Sex-Limited Environmental Character Suggested—Advantage to
Females of Death of Males—Reversal of Usual Effects of Selection.

Oe COOK
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

STRIKING example of sexual
dX inequality was noticed in August,
1912, in a plot of hemp that
was being grown on the Vir-
ginia Truck Experiment Station, near
Norfolk. The nature of the inequality
will be apparent by reference to figures
9 and 10. All of the male plants were
very slender and spindling, and the
foliage was of a pale yellowish green
color, in strong contrast with the deep
blackish green of the female plants. In
addition to their more robust form, the
female plants were often a foot taller
than adjacent males, the largest of the
female plants attaining about three
feet. Many of the male plants had
already died at the time the photo-
graphs were taken, August 13, and the
others were evidently to follow shortly.
But all of the female plants were still
fresh and vigorous, and were growing
and flowering under conditions that were
bringing the male plants to an early
death.

To describe the female plants as
stronger and more resistant than the
male plants seems a rather inadequate
statement of so great an inequality
of behavior. If twospecies were tested
and were found to react so differently
we would say that one of them was
adapted to the conditions, and that
some essential character was lacking in
the other. With two sexes of the same
plant behaving so differently, the idea
of a sex-limited environmental character
is suggested. Certainly there is no
general reason or analogy for believing
that sex alone would explain so great
a difference of behavior under the same
conditions.

In the perennial plants that have the
sexes represented by separate individ-
uals, as among the dates, figs, carobs,
poplars, rubber trees, etc., the male
individuals appear to have greater
vigor and longevity than the females.
No doubt it would be an advantage in
an annual plant like the hemp to have
the males die out after they have shed
their pollen. The early death of the
males means less competition with the
adjacent female plants while these are
engaged in maturing seed. The more
unfavorable the conditions the more
desirable that the males die early in
order to increase the chances that the
seed be matured. But the advantage of
having the males die earlier would *not
of itself cause them to die. Some other
specialization or intensification of the
sexual differences must have arisen. On
account of the factor of competition
between the sexes the usual effects of
selection would be reversed. Under
extreme conditions short-lived male
plants would be likely to leave larger
progenies than long-lived males, for the
female plants that stood next to short-
lived males would be able to ripen more
seed. The natural result of such varia-
tion and selection would be the devel-
opment of a plant with short-lived,
ephemeral males corresponding to drone
bees and similar specializations of the
sexes among insects and other inverte-
brate animals.

WHY THE PLANTS DIE.

It would be interesting to determine
the extent to which the presence or the
competition of the female plants may
be responsible for the early death of the
male plants. This could be learned by

203

FEMALE AND MALE HEMP PLANTS.

The three females (at the left) are growing vigorously, while the three males (at the right),
under identical conditions, are dying or already dead. The difference in behavior 1s so
extreme that Mr. Cook suggests a possible sex-limited environmental character to account
for it, since it seems improbable that sex alone would explain so great a difference of behavior
under the same conditions. (Figure 9.)

204

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Tue JOURNAL

raising some of the male plants in plots
by themselves. If male plants were
found to live longer alone than with
the female plants, it might be inferred
that they are starved or strangled by the
female plants, just as the dwarf male
spiders are often killed and eaten by
their huge and hungry mates. In both
cases the death of the maies contrib-
utes incidentally to the welfare of the
progeny, whereas their continued exist-
ence would not.

OTHER VARIETIES LESS UNEQUAL

In the ordinary varieties of hemp
grown for fibre or drug purposes there
is no such striking inequality of the
sexes. Though the male plants die
somewhat in advance of the females,
they attain nearly the same stature and
live through most of the season. The
variety that shows this extreme inequal-
ity of the sexes is recognized by L. H.
Dewey as the so-called Russian or
Manchurian hemp, which is extensively
grown in Europe and Asia, not for the
fibre, but for seed. The oil extracted
from the seed is used for food and also
has rapid-drying qualities that render
it of interest to manufacturers of paint
and varnish. The plant has not been
grown on a commercial scale in the
United States, but attention is now being
given to this possibility. The seed crop
is much larger than with the varieties
grown for fibre, for which the earlier
mortality of the males may be partly
responsible. Indeed, if the sexes had
an equal development it would be hard
to believe that a dioecious plant could
compete with a bisexual species in
seed production. This may be a reason
why there are relatively few dioecious
plants among annuals.

oF HEREDITY

With perennial plants there could
be no corresponding advantage in having
the males short-lived. The existence of
perennials 1s not so acutely dependent
upon the production of seed every year
as upon the ability to gain and hold
ground against the competition of
other species. In this struggle, large,
long-lived male plants doubtless have
advantages that more than counter-
balance the factor of competition be-
tween the sexes. But even with peren-
nials the general tendency of selection
is probably in favor of the bisexual
types and against the separation of the
sexes in different individuals.

SHORTENING OF INTERNODES.

Another peculiarity of the oil-seed
hemp is that the lateral fruit-bearing
branches have extremely short inter-
nodes, analogous to those of the so-
called cluster varieties of cotton. The
shortening of the fruiting branches may
also be connected with the earliness
and productiveness of the crop, from
which high yields of seed are obtained.
This form of hemp, according to Mr.
Dewey, is probably the same as that
described by Pallas as Cannabts erratica,
though it is not usually considered as a
species distinct from the ordinary
Cannabis sativa. It has probably been
cultivated in China since a very remote
period. References to the sexual diver-
sification of the hemp plant in Chinese
literature are dated as far back as
2700°B: C.

NOTE.—The Editor has called my attention
to a paper that is to be published in the same
issue of the Journal, in which a theory of sex-
determination appears to have been based
largely on experiments with hemp. The in-
equality of the sexes naturally suggests the
question whether the results ascribed to sex
determination might not be due to other
causes, such as unequal susceptibility of the
seedlings to adverse environmental conditions.

Lectures Are In Demand

Announcement in a recent issue of the JOURNAL oF HEREDITY that a lecturer was
now available for talks on eugenics, has led to a gratifying demand for the services

of A. Edward Hamilton, of the
Long Island, New York.

Zugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
He can be secured by clubs, colleges and other organiza-

tions which wish to give serious attention to eugenics; his services are made avail-
able through the liberality of Mrs. Huntington Wilson, of this association.

THE DETERMINATION OF SEX

Botanist of Lemburg Professes to Have Found That Age of Pollen at the Time of
Fertilization is Determining Factor—Claims High Percentages in Experi-
ments—Has Tested Discovery in Animals and Man, He Says.

P. J. WESTER,

Horticulturist in Charge of Lamao Experiment Station, Philippine Bureau of
Agriculture.

HE determination of sex is a
| riddle that for ages has puzzled
the minds of men and numerous
are the theories that have been
advanced in an attempt to explain
which factors determine the sex in the
progeny—theories advanced only to be
abandoned as untenable in the light of
further experimentation. It has long
seemed and by many been asserted
that sex determination was a mystery
held in trust by Nature that was forever
to remain unravelled*. It now appears
that while it has continued to occupy
the minds of many scientists, the prob-
lem may in reality have been solved for
some years. This remarkable discovery,
which unquestionably will mark a new
epoch in animal breeding no less than
in the eugenics of the human race, if
the apparently simple law involved is
upheld by thorough tests and becomes
generally diffused, was made in 1878
by Prof. Theophilus Ciesielski in Lem-
burg as a result of continued experimen-
tation begun in 1871.

The earliest investigation by Ciesi-
elski was conducted on Indian hemp
(Cannabis sativa) and garden spinach
(Spinacia oleracea.) It is not here
necessary to go into detail regarding
the earlier years of experimentation
which yielded negative results to the
investigator. In a paper published

first in Latin and later translated into
English, in which form it appeared in
International Clinics, Vol. 3, 22nd
series, 1912, prefaced by a review by
Dr. S. W. Carruthers, of Norwood,
England, Ciesielski thus relates the
circumstances under which the dis-
covery of the law of sex determination
was made:

‘““As soon, then (1876), as the sex of
the plants Cannabis satwa ....
could be determined I took out all male
plants from the garden, leav-
ing only female ones, There-
after, as soon as the female plants were
mature I fertilized them with pollen
from the male plants simply
by shaking the male plants over them.
The female plants in the upper garden
I fertilizea daily at sunrise, but those
in the lower garden just before sunset.

HIGH PERCENTAGE SECURED.

“The seed collected from those divi-
sions I sowed again in 1877, separately
in the upper and lower portions of the
garden, but in new plots, to avoid
any possible fallacy from seeds of the
former experiment casually and spon-
taneously shed in the old plots. The
result was that from seed derived from
plants fertilized at sunrise I obtained
85.5% of male plants, while the seeds

1For the benefit of readers who are not in touch with recent biological researches, it should
be said that many of the investigators who have given the most study to the question believe
the determination of sex depends on the inheritance of a Mendelian factor differentiating the
sexes. Microscopical studies of the cell indicate that the presence of an accessory or “x’’ chromo-
some in the sperm or egg (usually the latter) is the deciding factor, in some species. If sex does
Mendelize, the proportion of males and females is thus subject to the laws of chance—in other
words, an equal number of each will be produced, if the quantities involved are large enough to
furnish accurate statistical results, and if differential mortality does not take place.—The

Editor.

207

208 THE JOURNAL

gathered from plants fertilized at sunset
produced 92% of female plants.

“In view of the success of these
experiments in fertilization I took up,
in 1877, six female plants with their
roots, before they had fully produced
their flowers, and transplanted them
into pots; as soon as the plants were
well rooted I transferred the pots to
the windows of two rooms looking south,
three pots in each room. Thereafter,
with a brush, I fertilized the three
plants in one room with pollen which I
collected from anthers just dehiscing
and not yet fully open (this pollen I
shall refer to as fresh), and the three
pots in the other room I also fertilized
by means of a brush, but with pollen
taken in the morning and kept in paper
till evening. The three plants fer-
tilized with ‘fresh’ pollen produced 120
seeds; the three fertilized with ‘stale’
pollen produced 96 seeds.

“In 1878 I sowed in my garden with
great care the seeds of the two lots
separately at distances of 20 centi-
meters. The 120 seeds derived from
fertilization with fresh pollen produced
112 plants, of which only six were
female, all the rest being male. But
the other 96 seeds. sprung from fer-

OF HEREDITY

plants, every one of which was female.
I have several times since repeated the
experiment, always with a similar
result.”’

Having reached this result in plants,
Ciesielski extended his investigations to
animals, and tested his theory in
numerous experiments with rabbits,
dogs, horses, and cattle, an over-
whelmingly large number of which, he
states, served to verify his previous
results. Finally, Ciesielski declares
that he has repeatedly recorded the
application of the same law in man also.

To sum up: According to Ciesielski
the sex of the progeny is governed by
the conditions of fecundation and the
law discovered by him applies to all
living beings, whether plants, animals
orman. In dioecious plants fresh pollen
produces male seeds, while the effect of
stale pollen is the production of female
seeds. Similarly the sex in animals is
determined by the age of the sperma-
tozoa at the time they unite with the ova.

In plants this discovery will be of
more or less academic interest, but in its
relation to animals and man the results
are sure to be important and far-
reaching—f it endures the light of the
continued experimentation to which this

”

tilization by stale pollen, produced 89 new “law” is already being subjected.

Nature and Time of Segregation

That segregation of unit characters may occur in somatic divisions is the con-
tention of William Bateson. Discussing the subject before the seventeenth Inter-
national Congress of Medicine, he said:

“First, as to the nature of segregation. This, I think, we must regard as a
process comparable with the mechanical separation of substances which will not
mix, or mix imperfectly; whereas some factors are continually transmitted in
their entirety, others are liable to be broken up by what I regard as a process of
quantitative fraction occurring in the mechanical dissociation of the elements at
certain critical cell divisions. As to which are the critical cell divisions, we have
no clear indication. I cannot agree with those of my colleagues who think segre-
gation must occur exclusively in the maturation processes. The case of the double
stock, in which the whole male side of the plant differs genetically from the female
side, as proved by Miss Saunders, shows almost conclusively that segregation

may occur in somatic divisions. It is also difficult otherwise to interpret the fact
that in certain cases the parental combination influences the distribution of factors
among the gametes so that the distribution among the grandchildren is different
according to the way in which the characters were combined in their grandparents.”

WEAKNESS OF ELDEST SONS —

Statistics of Physical Examinations at Amherst College Seem to Bear Out Theory
That Younger Sons are Physically Superior to the First-Born—Age of
Parents Does Not Appear to Exercise Much Influence.

Joun H. CuHaseE,

Youngstown, Ohio.

EW factors in constructive eugen-
ics have been more emphasized

during recent years than the

desirability of large familiesamong
superior people; and this factor received
particular attention when English bio-
metrists published studies purporting
to show, as one reason for the advantage
of large families to society, that the
elder children were inferior to those
who followed; and, consequently, that
the general average of the family, if
small, was considerably below what it
would have been if larger.

Karl Pearson, of London, the most
noted proponent of this theory, was
convinced that first and second born
children are on the average inferior to
their later born brothers and sisters,
not only physically, but mentally and
morally as well. In his pamphlet on
“The Problem of Practical Eugenics,”’
Pearson said:

‘If our observations are correct, and
I believe them to be so, then the mental
and physical condition of the first and
second born members of the family is
differentiated from that of the later
members. They are of a more nervous
and less stable constitution. We find
that the neurotic, the insane, the tuber-
culous and the albinotic, are more fre-
quent among the elder born. Dr.
Goring’s results from criminality show
the same law. In the tuber-
culous, the insane and criminal stocks,
the first few members are weighted.
But the result of this new law is remark-
able. It means that if you reduce the
size of the family, you will tend to
decrease the relative proportion of the

mentally and physically sound in the
community.”

A proposition of such direct applica-
tion and popular interest naturally
aroused widespread attention. T. B.
Macaulay, a Montreal member of the
American Genetic Association, critically
analyzed the statistics,’ and declared
that the conclusions drawn from them
were a mere statistical fallacy. Others
followed him, until the method of com-
piling the statistics on which the theory
rests was to a large extent discredited.

This method was to take the records
of some institution—a sanatorium or
penitentiary, for example—as a basis.
The inmates were questioned as to the
number of children in the families to
which they belonged, and their own
order in the families. The number of
first-born inmates was compared with
the total number of first-born children
in the families; and so on with the
second, third and later born. The per-
centages thus found have been higher
in the case of early born inmates than
of later born. It has been pointed out,
however, that this result has no sig-
nificance, and must necessarily follow,
because the younger members of fami-
lies are, quite naturally, not as numerous
as the older ones in groups of adults,
whether such groups be undesirable, as
the tuberculous, the insane or the
criminal, or unobjectionable, as doctors,
lawyers, clergymen, heavyweights, mar-
ried men or fathers. By statistics com-
piled in this way, it is argued, it would
be possible to “prove” that elder born
children are superior to the younger
born, quite as easily as that they are

1In the American Breeders’ Magazine, Vol. II, no. 3, p. 165, July, 1911. He also called atten-
tion to the matter at the Eugenics Congress in London, 1912.

209

210

inferior. The theory thus falls to the
ground, in the cpinion of many, from
lack of proof.

With the desire to test the theory by
a method which would obviate the ob-
jections raised against that of Pearson
and his co-workers, I investigated the
records of the physical examinations of
students who have entered Amherst
College for a number of years past. At
this institution Dr. Edward Hitchcock
was the first man in charge of a collegiate
physical department in America to
establish anthropometric measurements
and strength tests. He worked out a
system of examination which was so
thorough that there has been found no
reason for changing the tests in more
than 40 years. Each incoming freshman
class has been measured and tested in
the same way during all that time.

Thus a disinterested and reliable
means of making an investigation as to
the comparative strength of brothers
was furnished; and as all those included
in the data are adults, to the extent at
least of being old enough to enter college,
the fallacy pointed out by Macaulay in
Pearson’s studies is here obviated.

With the cooperation of Amherst
authorities, I secured a list of 58 sets of
brothers, from the physical examination
charts. A correspondence was conducted
with these individuals, particularly with
a view to learning the ages of their
parents, and their own order in the
fraternities. Some of these sets of
brothers included three individuals;
most of them only two. Some of the
sets I was obliged to disregard, in var-
ious computations, for various reasons.

In grouping the records of strength
tests, I found first-born brothers strong-
est in four cases, second-born brothers
strongest in 12 cases, and third-born
strongest in 28 cases. As the individuals
concerned came to college at about
the same age, on the average, it seems
clear enough that first-born brothers
who came to Amherst were weaker
than their younger brothers who fol-
lowed.

Handling the figures in a different
way, it was found that first-born brothers
made a total of 11,361 points in the
strength tests, second born had 12,510,

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

and third born 13,251. The average
strength of each individual in each
class was: first born, 494 points; second
born, 544 points; third born, 576 points.
Of course, with such a small group of
men, a few exceptional individuals
would make a considerable change in
the totals, and we know that there were
exceptional individuals. Nevertheless,
the results are so consistent as to make
me confident that in this case the com-
parative strength of the brothers is
faithfully represented by these figures,
which seem to indicate that second-
born sons were about one-tenth stronger
than first-born sons, and that third-
born sons were correspondingly stronger
still.

Out of all the records taken, there
were only 20 boys who made more than
600 points in the strength test on their
entrance to the college, while there were
only 14 who were below 450. Suppose,
then, we say that those below the 450
mark are weaklings, those about 525
normal, and those above 600 strong.
This makes 75 points as the difference
between a normal young man and a
weakling on one side, and an exception-
ally strong man on the other side.

And this is just about the difference
in the average strength of the first-
born and third-born sons who entered
Amherst College.

Taking only the two older of each
of these sets of brothers, I added three
more similar pairs for which the same
data were available, and tested them
on height and weight, as well as strength.
Without going into details, I give the
results:

Younger brothers were heavier in 24
cases; older brothers were heavier in
23 cases.

Younger brothers were taller in 22
cases; older brothers were taller in 25
cases.

Younger brothers were stronger in 30
cases; older brothers were stronger in
17 cases.

The interpretation of these results
may afford room for some dispute; but
as the disparity in strength is still
marked, it seems to me merely to indi-
cate that height and weight have little
bearing on the question of strength or

CHASE: WEAKNESS OF ELDEst Sons

constitutional superiority. I believe
this conclusion is not out of harmony
with our observations on those about us
in daily life.

Of course, statistics on this point are
always open to the obvious explanation
that children of immature parents are
likely to be of inferior physique. That
is an entirely different question, which
depends on the age of the parents, and
not on the order of birth, or the size
of the family. However, in order to
find whether any light was thrown
on my results, I secured information
from as many of the brothers as possi-
ble—30 pairs or 60 individuals—as to
the ages of their parents, and then com-
pared the records of the individual
students with the ages of their parents
when the individual was born.

Out of the 60 different cases, there
were seven men who had records of over
700 points in their strength tests. The
strongest man in the group totaled 859
points; I learned that his father was
40 years old and his mother 42, at his
birth. The second strongest had 809
points to his credit; the age of his father
at the time of his birth was 49 years,
and of his mother, 35. Of the other five
strong men, in order of rank, the ages
of the parents were as follows:

Father 50, mother 30; father 33,
mother 31; father 28, mother 28; father
47, mother 33; father 42, mother 28.

The average age of the fathers was
41 and of the mothers 32.

I should be the last one to attempt to
lay down any conclusions from such a
small number of cases, but I may at
least point out that these figures are
unusual, if we accept the widely-quoted
view that the best period for the pro-
duction of children is between 20 and 30.

Summing the ages of the parents of
the students whose strength I have
called ‘‘normal,’’ I found that the
fathers averaged 38 and the mothers
31 years of age, at the birth of the sons
in question. When the weakest students
in our list were considered, their parents
were found to have been, on the aver-

yal

age, 36 years old (father) and 30
(mother) at the time of their birth. In
such a small group, the slight decrease in
age of parents, correlated to weakness
in sons, can hardly be held to have any
significance; and that it has no signifi-
cance in these figures is further indicated
by another test I made to check it. I
picked out all the parents who had their
first child after they were 30 years old,
and compared the strength records of
these first children with the records of
the other first born, who were born
before their parents reached the age of
30. The children of older parents
averaged 500 points against 494 for
the children of younger parents—a
difference so slight as to amount to
identity. It is obvious, then, that as
far as these cases are concerned, the
age of the parents has little appreciable
effect on the strength of their children;
but it must be noted that practically
all the parents under consideration were
mature, and even considerably beyond
the usual age for the beginning of parent-
hood.

The question whether first-born chil-
dren are inferior is still far from settled.
Assuming for the moment that they are
inferior, we still have to seek a cause
for such inferiority. One of the most
popular explanations does not concern
itself with heredity at all, but supposes
that the younger children profit by
being kept constantly on their mettle,
in order to make a favorable showing in
comparison with the older ones; the
eldest, on the other hand, are not
obliged greatly to exert themselves in
competition with the younger ones.
My investigation of these Amherst
students does not, of course, pretend to
settle any of the questions involved,
but I offer it as a contribution which at
least avoids the fallacy charged to Pear-
son. Summing up, it indicates that the
eldest sons are physically weakest, and
that this weakness has no relation to
their weight or height. If the ege of
their parents at birth has any influence
on the figure, it is slight.

EXTINCTION OF FAMILY NAMES

Algebraical Computation Shows That if World Lasted an Infinite Length of Time,
All Inhabitants Would Have Same Surname—Investigation of German Vil-
lagers Shows That Process of Extinction, Although Certain, is Slow.

Compiled by the Editor.

’ | NHAT every family name must
die out sooner or later, was sug-
gested by Alphonse de Candolle
many years ago. Sir Francis

Galton caught up the suggestion and
proved its truth by mathematical com-
putation. A German investigator has
lately analyzed the data from 1400
marriages, in order to find out exactly
in what way the extinction takes place,
and reaches the conclusion that the
probable extinction of any family can
be foreseen one or two generations
before the line actually runs out, and
that as a general rule, when the decline
has set in, nothing can stop it.

“In the accurate information and
sensible statements of Benoiston de
Chateauneuf, Galton and other statis-
ticians,’’ said de Candolle in his Histoire
des Sciences et des Savants (1873), “I
have not noticed the very important
conclusion which they ought to have
made, on the inevitable extinction of
family names. Obviously all names
must finally disappear. A mathema-
tician could calculate how the reduction
in the number of names and titles takes
place, according to the probability of
wholly female or wholly male births, or
births of both sexes, and according to
the probability of the absence of births
with any given couple.”

Galton’s own reflections on the sub-
ject were as follows!:

IMPORTANCE OF THE

“The decay ofgthe families of men
who occupied conspicuous positions in
past times has been a subject of frequent
remark, and has given rise to various
conjectures. It is not only the families
of men of genius or those of the

PROBLEM.

‘Galton, Francis," Natural Inheritance, p. 241.

212

aristocracy who tend to perish, but it
is those of all with whom history deals,
in any way, even such men as the
burgesses of towns, concerning whom
Mr. Doubleday has inquired and writ-
ten. The instances are very numerous
in which surnames that were once com-
mon have since become scarce or have
wholly disappeared. The tendency is
universal, and in explanation of it, the
conclusion has been hastily drawn that
a rise in physical comfort and intel-
lectual capacity is necessarily accom-
panied by diminution in ‘fertility’—
using that phrase in its widest sense and
reckoning abstinence from marriage as
one cause of sterility. If that con-
clusion be true, our population is chiefly
maintained by the ‘proletariat,’ and
thus a large element of degradation is
inseparably connected with those other
elements which tend to ameliorate the
race. On the other hand, M. Alphonse
de Candolle has directed attention to
the fact that, by the ordinary law of
chances, a large proportion of families
are continually dying out, and it evi-
dently follows that, until we know
what that proportion is, we cannot
estimate whether any observed diminu-
tion of surnames among the families
whose histories we can trace, is or is not
a sign of their diminished ‘fertility.’

* * Although I have not hitherto
ithe anything on the matter, I
took considerable pains some years ago
to obtain numerical results in respect to
this very problem.”

A MATHEMATICAL SOLUTION.

Galton then quotes the solution of the
problem worked out for him by Rev.
H. W. Watson, supposing N to repre-

London, 1889.

THE Epitor: Extinction oF FAmMiny NAMES

sent the number of adult males in a
population, each with a different sur-
name. After complicated computa-
tions, which represented five genera-
tions, and are far too abstruse to be
understood by anyone but a mathema-
tician, he successfully solves the prob-
lem algebraically, concluding:

‘“‘As, therefore, time proceeds indefi-
nitely, the number of surnames extin-
guished becomes a number of the same
order of magnitude as the total number
at first starting in N, while the number
of surnames represented by one, two,
three, etc., representatives is some
infinitely smaller but finite number.
When the finite numbers are multiplied
by the corresponding number of repre-
sentatives, sometimes infinite in number,
and the products added together, the
sum will generally exceed the original
number N. In point of fact, just as in
the cases calculated above to five
generations, we had a continual, and
indeed at first, a rapid extinction of
surnames, combined in one case with a
stationary, and in the other case an
increasing population, so it is when the
number of generations is increased
indefinitely. We have a _ continual
extinction of surnames going on, com-
bined with constancy, or increase of
population, as the case may be, until at
length the number of surnames remain-
ing is absolutely insensible, as compared
with the number at starting, but the
total number of representatives of those
remaining surnames is infinitely greater
than the original number.”’

Mathematics, then, indicates that if
the world would only last an infinite
length of time, all its inhabitants would
have the same surname. It is interest-
ing to see how rapidly the process
proceeds in actual experience, even
among a people where the birth-rate is
high.

A SOLUTION FROM LIFE.

The investigation has been followed
out by Dr. Fr. von den Velden’ from a

PAN

statistical point of view, on the basis of
figures compiled by Riffel* concerning
1400 marriages of peasant families in
Baden. Considering the nature of the
material, it will be admitted that the
number of family lines which ran out is
much smaller than would have been the
case had the data been secured in a
large city, or among people of a higher
social class. The writer’s figures may
fairly be considered to represent the
extent of family-extinction under the
most favorable circumstances for con-
tinuation.

He begins by pointing out that we are
accustomed to speak of a family as
becoming extinct when the male line,
and with it the family name, disappears.
This is misleading physiologically, be-
cause the female line is of equal impor-
tance with the male line, to the biologist.
He therefore investigates his data in
regard to both lines.

Considering the various causes which
may contribute to the extinction of a
family, Dr. von den Velden says, ‘‘The
simplest case is when a family remains
absolutely childless. The causes of
this rather rare occurrence (in the
material here used 3% of the marriages
are unfruitful) are to be sought in a
minority of cases in the fact that one of
the partners is of advanced age; more
often—probably in two-thirds of the
cases—the reason is that one of the
partners is weighted by heredity. It is
not to be understood that he or she
inherits sterility; but sterility ensues as
a result of some disease, a tendency to
which has been inherited.

MARRIAGES WITH ONE CHILD.

“Equally rare with unfruitfulness is
the case when, although children are
born, none of them reaches marriage.
In the material at hand we find 33 such
marriages, or 2.3% of the whole. The
average number of births in these
marriages is 3.8. Marriages which
result in only one child predominate,
but on the other hand we find one with

2““Aussterbende Familien,’’ von Dr. Fr. von den Velden (Frankfort a M.),in Archiv. f. Rassen

u. Ges. Biologie, VI, 3, 340.

Riffel’s well-known genealogical-nosological tables were published in Mitt. tiber die Erblichkeit
und Infektiositat der Schwindsucht (Braunsch. 1892) and Schwindsucht und Krebs (Karlsr.

1905).

214

11 children, all of whom died before the
twentieth year, a second with 10 chil-
dren, eight of whom died young, while
the other two were feeble-minded. Of
the 87 children included in the class
under discussion, 80% died before
reaching the twentieth year, 8% are
phthisical, and only a single one of the
number passed the sixtieth year. This
lamentable constitution of children finds
its explanation, with the exception of a
few cases, in the condition of health of
the parents.”

“Up to this point we have dealt with
the entire extinction of a whole genera-
tion, whether due to the production of
no offspring at all, or the production of
no fruitful offspring. It is more interest-
ing to consider the extinction of the
male line alone, since that is commonly
identified with the extinction of the
family.”

“Inthis connection,’ says Lorenz’, ‘‘the
cases are particularly noteworthy where
the deficient production of boys is
balanced by an over-production of them
in the immediately preceding genera-
tions. This happens so _ frequently
that one is inclined to suspect a causal
relation.”’ He cites many instances to
prove it, and Riffel’s tables allow a
striking confirmation of his remark.
If one groups the fathers of families
which consist only of girls (or at least,
no boys which reached more than five
years of age), the brothers and sisters
of these fathers show the following sex
proportion:

197 boys to 100 girls (Huttenheim)

146 boys to 100 girls (Stupfaich)

149 boys to 100 girls (Herlsdorf)

160 boys to 100 girls, the average in
such cases, taking the total for the
three villages.

DISPROPORTION OF

Since the average for the whole
population is 106 boys born, for every
100 girls, the disproportion of boys in
the generation of the father whose
family is about to become extinct in the
male line, is altogether surprising.

“Very different, on the contrary, is the

BOYS.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

sex-proportion in the generation of the
mothers of families which consist only
of girls (not counting boys who died in
infancy). Here the girl births are in the
majority, and in the two Riffel tables in
question we find a proportion of 93
boys to 100 girls, in place of the 106
boys to 100 girls which the general
average of births in the empire would
require.

“We see, then, that extinction of the
male line is preceded (as a rule, and in
the average) by a great disproportion
of male births in the father’s generation,
and an overweight of female births in
the mother’s generation. Using a
figure of speech, we may say: The male
line blooms itself to death, and the
excess of boys is suddenly transformed
to an excess of girls, through marriage
with a woman in whose family girl
births have been in excess. So long as
one regards such a statement merely as
an aid to memory of the facts, it will
not be misleading.”

As to the frequency of extinction of
male lines in the 1400 marriages now
being considered there ‘“‘are 84 (6%),
among the offspring of which only
daughters attained marriage. Extinc-
tion in the male line therefore seems to
have about the same frequency as the
complete extinction of a family, since
there were found 3% of childless mar-
riages and 2.3% of marriages which
produced no fruitful offspring. That
only daughters married, in these 84
families, is by no means to say that
there were no sons in the same families;
but those who existed died before the
age of marriage or remained celibate;
the latter, however, is an extremely
rare occurrence in these villages of
Baden. As a matter of fact, a large
majority of the families, from which
only daughters married, also produced
sons—in only 20 out of the 84 were sons
completely lacking’. In the rest, the
sons died young.

USUAL FORM OF EXTINCTION.

“Out of these 84 families which be-
came extinct in the male line but con-

4), Lorenz, Lehrb. der gesamten wissensch. Genealogie, p. 482, Berlin, 1898.
‘In 44 families only sons married, but in only 14 of these were no daughters born at all.

Tue Epitor: ExTINCTION oF FAMILY NAMES

tinued in the female line, we get 44 in
which only one son married, and 18%
of these families died out completely in
the following generation. In the fam-
ilies where no son married, but one or
more daughters married, we find that
33% became totally extinct in the
following generation. We can then
conclude that the usual form of gradual
extinction of a family (as opposed to
immediate extinction through childless-
ness, or through the production of
wholly unfruitful children) is usually
preceded by the extinction of the male
line: first, no more boys are born; later,
no more children of either sex—at least
none which reach marriage.”’

“Tt will now be interesting to compare
the children produced during these two
different kinds of gradual extinction:
first, where the male line is reduced to
one individual, and, second, where the
male line is extinct, leaving the family
to be carried on by daughters alone.
The condition of the children is about
equally unfavorable in each category.
The average number of children is
higher, however, when there is still

215

a son who reaches marriage—thus:

With marriage of a single son+—6.2
children, 10.3 grandchildren.

With marriage only of daughters—
4.8 children, 6.8 grandchildren.

From a survey of all the cases® it is
further evident that the average condi-
tion of health in families whose extent
is decreasing, is inferior, and further
deteriorates with each generation. In
cases where there was only one man in
the fraternity who married, there are
still 4.6% of the children of such
individuals, who passed the sixtieth
year without inherited defects; but in
the grandchildren the proportion is
reduced to 1.6%; and thus the male
line runs out.”

“Accordingly, where a family has
once started to die out, the deterioration
of its constituents is progressive—well-
marked, on the average, although of
course single cases may offer exceptions.
That a family threatened with extinc-
tion during one or two generations can
recover itself, is a matter of every-day
knowledge to us: but such a recovery is
the exception, not the rule,”

Possibility of Quick Returns

The want of systematic study of heredity is due chiefly to misapprehension.
It is supposed that such work requires a lifetime. But though for adequate study
of the complex phenomena of inheritance, long periods of time must be neces-
sary, yet in our present state of deep ignorance almost of the outlines of the
facts, observations carefully planned and faithfully carried out for even a few years
may produce results of great value. In fact, by far the most appreciable and
definite additions to our knowledge of these matters have been thus obtained.—
William Bateson: Mendel’s Principles of Heredity (1902).

What Eugenics Promises

There can be no question that among the promises of race-culture is the possi-
bility of breeding such things as talent and the mental energy upon which talent
so largely depends. Eugenics can reasonably promise, when its prin-
ciples are recognized, to multiply the human and diminish the vegetable type in
the community. In so doing it will greatly further the production of talent, and
therefore of that traditional or acquired progress which men of talent or genius
create. Such a result will also further, though indirectly, the production of genius
itself. For, as Mr. Galton points out, “‘men of an order of ability which is now
very rare, would become more frequent, because the level out of which they rose
would itself have risen.’’—C. W. Saleeby: Parenthood and Race Culture (1909).

6Dr. von den Velden sums up his cases in a table, which is here omitted because of its length.

THE PHILIPPINE, NEGREFOS

Three Fundamental Types of Mankind Seem to Enter Into Their Make-up, but the
Australoid Predominates—This May be Either the Basic Stock of All
Humanity, or a Product of the Fusion of European and Oriental
Stocks, the Iberian and the Primitive.

Extracts from two articles by Robert Bennett Bean of Tulane University, New Orleans, La.,
in the American Anthropologist.'

r | ‘HERE are three fundamental
types which are found among all
the peoples of the Philippines,
and the three types I have desig-

nated Iberian, Primitive and Austra-
loid. The Iberian is of the classic Greek
mold, thin, wiry and trim, and may be
differentiated from the other types by
the ear form, cephalic index and nasal
index. The ear is characterized by the
eversion of the concha, the rolling out
of the helix, and the spiral shape of the
outer rim, as seen from behind; the
cephalic index is low the nose long and
aquiline. The type is called Iberian
because the purest living representatives
are to be found in Spain, the Iberian
peninsula.

The Primitive is in direct contrast
to the Iberian because of the stocky
build, usually short, squat and fat; theear
is distinctly bowl-shaped, with depressed
concha and rolled-in helix; the head is
short and broad, and the nose is short,
broad and flat, with depressed root.
The type is called Primitive, because
it is infantile, because it is called
Primitive by Hagen, and because it is
found largely among the _ so-called
Primitive peoples of the earth.

The Australoid is neither thin and
delicately molded nor squat and fat,
but is rather lanky and heavy in body
and limb. The ear is large, somewhat
bowl-shaped, with a sloping shelf for
lobule, and the helix is horizontal in its
upper part, making a square bowl in-
stead of a round one asin the Primitive.

The head is long and narrow, but the
nose 1s broad, long, high and large in all
dimensions. This type is called Austra-
loid because it is believed to be the
fundamental type of Australia and of
all negroid peoples.

The Australoid is the fundamental
Negrito type and it is found purest
among the Mariveles Negritos and
along the eastern coast of Luzon. It is
also found elsewhere throughout the
islands in populations that are not
Negrito, where it is somewhat modified
but has a form that is clearly recogniz-
able. It has been found by me where-
ever I have observed Filipinos, and is
one of the three fundamental types of
the islands.

ORIGIN OF THE THREE TYPES.

The origin of the three types is not
entirely clear. There can be no doubt
that the Iberian is the same as the
Mediterranean race of Sergi, derived
originally from Europe. The Primitive
has a wide range of distribution accord-
ing to Hagen, being found in South
America, Africa, the Pacific islands, and
on the mainland of Asia. Wherever
found it has associated with it a type
resembling the Australoid, therefore
the two may have originated together,
If they did not, they have at least
drifted together over the world and are
found together at present over a large
extent of the earth’s surface. The
Australoid type is a large element in
the composition of the negro people,

'This article is a mosaic of extracts from the concluding portions of two papers by Dr. Bean:

“Types of Negritos in the Phillipine Islands’ (Am. Anthropologist, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1910) and

“Philippine Types” (Ibid., Vol. 12, No. 3, 1910).

tion of these extracts.

216

The Editor is wholly responsible for the selec-

BEAN: [THE PHILIPPINE NEGRITOS

FRUIT VENDERS FROM NEGROS ISLAND, P. I.

“Tt has been asserted repeatedly that the body color of the Negrito is black,” says David P.
Barrows, ‘but this is a gross exaggeration. It isa dark brown.” ‘The hair of the Negrito

is typically African.

It is kinky and grows in the little clusters or ‘peppercorn’ bunches

peculiar to negro races.’ Dr. Bean says this kinkiness of the hair behaves as a Mendelian
dominant in crosses. The Negritos shown in this picture (taken at Camp Jossman) are
selling fruits of the Jak (Artocarpus integrifolia), the largest fruit known, and closely related

to the commoner bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa).

judging from observations on many
hundreds of American negroes.”

The Negritos in the Mariveles moun-
tain appear to be the purest Negritos
in the Philippine Islands, judging from
the photographs. All other groups of
Negritos are more like the surrounding
population. The Negritos of Mariveles

(Figure 11.)

should therefore represent the funda-
mental Negrito type, and as they are
largely Australoid the fundamental type
of the Negritos should be Australoid.
Modified Primitive and Modified Iberian
Negritos are also found in the Mariveles
group. The women are more Primitive
than the men, who are more Iberian

2“The photographs of the Mariveles Negritos were all placed upon a large table before me,
and when I scrutinized them carefully I realized that I was looking into the faces of a familiar
people, among whom I was born and with whom I grew up, the American negro. Practically
every face recalled youthful associations, and every individual of the Mariveles group has its

counterpart among American negroes.’’—Bean.

218 THE JOURNAL
and Australoid than the women. The
Primitive and Iberian characteristics of
the Mariveles Negritos are of such a
nature that they should be considered
as remnants of the fusion that must
have progressed for many centuries or
even thousands of years to have pro-
duced so homogeneous a blend.

The origin of the Negrito may never
be known, but it seems plausible that
the Australoid is the true Negrito type
on which the Iberian and the Primitive
vypes have been grafted. The Iberian
came from Europe by way of India in
prehistoric migrations, and their com-
binations with the Australoid are repre-
sented by the Negritos of Mariveles
mountain and those of the eastern coast
of northern Luzon. The Primitive
came from the Orient, and has mingled
with the Iberian-Australoid Negrito
throughout the Philippines, altering the
form and straightening the hair of the
purer Negritos that existed before.
The more recent European contact with
the Negrito has had very little apparent
effect, although an occasional pure
Iberian may be found with dark skin
and kinky hair. The Negrito element
has entered to a considerable extent
into the present Filipino population,
although it may not be recognized with
ease because of the absence of kinky
hair. The Negritos have been losing
their identity by becoming incorporated
into the body of the surrounding
population. Where once the Negrito
was found in all parts of the archipelago,
the only remaining centers in which they
exist in anything like their original
purity are the two already mentioned,
Mariveles mountain and the eastern
coast of Luzon. In all other parts the
kinky hair has practically disappeared
and the Negritos have taken on the
form of the surrounding population,
distributing their own forms throughout
the regions roundabout.

CHARACTERS IN HEREDITY.

Any conclusion reached after a study
of the photographs presented’ must be

3This refers to the photographs presented by

OF HEREDITY

tentative and subject to revision. It
does appear, however, that there are
many inseparable factors in the com-
position of the individual, such as the
ear-form, nose-form and face-form, and
length of the extremities, that constitute
a ‘“‘character-complex”’ which exists as
an entity and in inheritance may act as
a unit character.

A “character-complex”’ is that group
of characters, such as the broad head,
broad nose, broad face and character-
istic ear, that, combined with small
stature, constitute the Primitive species,
which character-complex usually hangs
together in heredity, but may break up
when crossed with alien forms to create
new character-complexes.

There is blending of one character-
complex with another, but this blending
probably does not take place at once
upon crossing two extremely different
character-complexes such as the Iberian
and the Primitive, or the Iberian and
the Australoid, but results in the reap-
pearance of one or the other character-
complex in pureform. .. .

From this follows the second con-
clusion, which is that the kinky hair is
dominant over the straight hair when
the cross takes place among the Ne-
gritos; therefore a character-complex
may be obscured by kinky hair, so that
an otherwise pure Iberian may appear
to be a Negrito because of the character
of the hair.

The following conclusions are tenta-
tively made from observations of Euro-
peans, Filipinos and negroes. The
Iberian is the fundamental European
type, but modified Primitive and Aus-
traloid types may be found among Eu-
ropeans besides the composite types,
such as the Alpine, B.B.B.,‘ etc. The
Australoid is the fundamental negroid
type, but a great many Iberian and
Primitive forms are found among
negroes, and the composite types are
also present. The Primitive is the
fundamental type of the Orient and of
the Pacific peoples, but both Iberian
and Australoid as well as the composite

Dr. Bean in his original articles. He is not in

any way responsible for the photographs in these pages.
'The B. B. B. is the big-cerebellumed, box-headed, Bavarian of Ranke, so-called by Beddoe.

—Bean.

BEAN: THE PHILIPPINE NEGRITOS

A NEGRITO-TAGALOG CROSS.

Although this man (25 years old, 4 feet, 434 inches high) claimed to be half Tagalog, his type is
purely that of the Mariveles Negrit., the purest of the Philippine Negritos and most

resembling the original Australoid stock.

“The only other undisputed members of the

Negrito race, besides those found in the Philippines,” says David P. Barrows, “‘are the

Andaman islanders and the Semang of the Malay peninsula.”

“He is a scattered survivor

of the pygmy negro race, at one time undoubtedly far more important and more numerous;
brachycephalous, platyrhinian, woolly headed, and, when unaffected by the higher culture
of the surrounding peoples, a pure forest dwelling savage.”” This photograph of an inmate
of Bilibid Prison, Manila, is from the ‘‘Album of Philippine Types’”’ by Daniel Folkmar,

Manila, 1904. (Figure 12.)

types are to be found there. Among
Europeans the other types resemble the
Iberian; among negroes the other types
resemble the Australoid; and among
Orientals the other types resemble the
Primitive.

May it be presumed that the Primi-
tive and Iberian types conjoined in
prehistoric times at some place in the

East of Asia or nearby, and produced by
fusion the Australoid. From this union
innumerable offshoots have sprung in
Southern Asia, the islands bordering
that region, and in Africa. The Primi-
tive type remains pure in parts of the
East, and the Iberian type in Europe.
If this hypothesis be untrue, the reverse
of it should be considered; viz., the

220

Australoid forms the basic stock of all
humanity, and the Iberian of Europe
on one side and the Primitive of the
Orient on the other are derivatives. If
neither hypothesis be true, at least the
Negrito of Mariveles has Primitive and
Iberian characteristics ingrafted from
without.

ANCIENT TYPES STILL EXIST.

The composition of any group of
people, large or small, depends on the
relative proportions of each type that
entered into the composition of the
group, the time during which the types
have been in contact, the conditions of
food, water, air, habits, etc., and other
factors. There is no evidence that any
type of man that ever existed has dis-
appeared entirely, although there 1s
evidence that the types have become
somewhat modified in different parts
of the world.

My recent discovery. of paleolithic
man in the Philippines (Homo philip-
pinensis) may throw light on the origin
of the Australoid type among the
Negritos and among the inland tribes
as well as in the littoral population of
the archipelago. Homo philippinensis
is Australoid in form yet somewhat
different from the Negrito Australoid,
the Igorot Australoid or the Australoid
of the coast, but not so different as to

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

preclude all relationship. Homo pluil-
ippinensis is also related to the earliest
forms of man in Europe: Homo mon-
steriosts and Homo Heitdelbergensis; it

‘is of the Neanderthal type, and is not

greatly different from the Negro Austra-
loid. The following hypothesis is
plausible. Primordial man remained
practically unaltered in form in Africa
and the Pacific, and Homo philippinensis
is this unchanged form; but in Africa
the kinky hair and black skin of the
negro may be added features due to
environment, and the Australoid negro
is a further modification of the negroid
form, due also to environment. What-
ever the cause may be, there are at
present three types found among the
Negritos—the Australoid, the Primitive
and the Iberian; and these three types
are found also among the other peoples
of the Philippines wherever I have
examined them. The Primitive and the
Australoid, and doubtless the Iberian,
are found in all the islands of the Pacific
where search has been made and careful
analysis of the people has followed, the
first two types often among more or
less pure Negritos.

The more profound the study, the
more profound becomes the impression
that the Primitive, the Australoid and
the Iberian are the three fundamental
types of mankind.

‘A Race of White Canaries

Establishment of a race of white canaries is described in a recent number of

Knowledge, by Maud S. Martin.

It started with a hen from a much in-bred buff

strain, that sported to pure white, and was mated with an unrelated buff male.
All of the offspring were buff, but when bred together gave 48 buff chicks and 18
white ones. Matings carried through the third generation seemed to prove that
the color was subject to Mendelian laws, buff being dominant and white recessive.
Twenty-five extracted recessives were secured and are now breeding pure in every
generation. They seem to be fully as vigorous as the type, and have black, not
pink, eyes.

A Eugenics Bibliography

The Russell Sage Foundation Library of New York City has published (as
number three of its bulletin, February, 1914) a useful selected list of works on
eugenics, from the material represented in its own collection. It is interesting
to note that only 24 out of the 57 entries are due to Americans. Unfortunately,
the list does not, for the most part, include the subjects of heredity and genetics,
unless they deal solely with the eugenics phase.

THE REASON FOR EUGENICS »

Religious Duty of Man to Assist. the Course of Evolution and Endeavor to Make it
Less Slow and Painful—His Power to do so Shown by the
Results of His Half Unconscious Efforts in the Past.

FRaANcIsS GALTON.!

UR ignorance of the goal and

purport of human life, and the

mistrust we are apt to feel of

the guidance of the spiritual
sense, on account of its proved readiness
to accept illusions as realities, warn us
against deductive theories of conduct.
Putting these, then, at least for the
moment, to one side, we find ourselves
face to face with two great and indis-
putable facts that everywhere force
themselves on the attention and compel
consideration. The one is that the
whole of the living world moves steadily
and continuously towards the evolution
of races that are progressively more and
more adapted to their complicated
mutual needs and to their external
circumstances. The other is that the
process of evolution has been hitherto
carried out with, what we should reckon
in our ways of carrying out projects,
great waste of: opportunity and life,
and with little if any consideration for
individual mischance. Measured by
our criterion of intelligence and mercy,
which consists in the achievement of
result without waste of time or oppor-
tunity, without unnecessary pain, and
with equitable allowance for pure mis-
take, the process of evolution on this
earth, so far as we can judge, has been
carried out neither with intelligence
nor ruth, but entirely through the
routine of various sequences, commonly
called “‘laws,”’ established or necessitated
we know not how.

An incalculable amount of lower life
has been certainly passed through
before that human organization was
attained, of which we and our genera-
tion are for the time the holders and

transmitters. This is no’ mean heri-
tage, and I think it should be considered
as a sacred ‘trust, for, together? with
man, intelligence of a sufficiently high
order to produce great results appears,
so far as we can infer from the varied
records of the prehistoric past, to have
first dawned upon the tenantry of the
earth. Man has already shown his
large power in the modifications he has
made on the surface of the globe, and
in the distribution of plants and ani-
mals. He has cleared such vast regions
of forest that his work that way in
North America alone, during the past
half century, would be visible to an
observer as far off as the moon. He
has dug and drained; he has extermi-
nated plants and animals that were
mischievous to him; he has domesticated
those that serve his purpose, and
transplanted them to great distances
from their native places. Now that
this new animal Man finds himself
somehow in existence, endowed with a
little power and intelligence, he ought,
I submit, to awake to a fuller knowledge
of his relatively great position, and
begin to assume a deliberate part in
furthering the great work of evolution.
He may infer the course it is bound to
pursue from his observation of that
which it has already followed, and he
might devote his modicum of power,
intelligence and kindly feeling to render
its future progress less slow and painful.
Man has already furthered evolution
very considerably, half unconsciously,
and for his own personal advantages,
but he has not yet risen to the convic-
tion that it his religious duty to do so
deliberately and systematically.

1These words of the founder of the science of eugenics are part of his chapter on ‘‘The Observed

Order of Events” in Inquiries into Human Faculty, first published in 1883.

The book is now

obtainable at a cost of 35 cents, in ‘‘Everyman’s Library’’, and should be in the possession of
everyone who has even the slightest interest in eugenics.

221

“REVERSION INSPRICKIGY “Pisin

Origin of All Spineless Varieties of Opuntia to be Sought in Long Selection From
Spiny Ones—Plant May Produce Spiny Joints on One Side
and Spineless Ones on the Other.'

Davip GRIFFITHS,

Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

N THE economic handling of the

prickly pear as a farm crop in

southern Texas great differences

have been found in the ease with
which spines are burned from different
species, and the differences are to a
considerable extent matters of geo-
graphical position. Native species from
the immediate vicinity of Brownsville
have been employed in our economic
plantings, because it was early recog-
nized that these were the best adapted
to the conditions and would make the
largest tonnage of any that could be
grown.

All species of this region are exceed-
ingly spiny. They are even more spiny
than those of the San Antonio region;
moreover, the spines remain green for
a longer period and are consequently
much more difficult to singe properly
preparatory to being fed. This is a
serious economic consideration and one
which is difficult to prevent. Under
the humid conditions of the coastal
region the tendency is for the spines
(fig. 13, a) and the spicules (fig. 13, b) of
all species to become dry much more
slowly than in the more arid atmosphere
of the regions farther inland.

In the cultivation of this crop it 1s
therefore necessary for one to choose
between the spineless forms not needing
singeing and the much more productive
spiny native varieties, which are not
only difficult but often impossible to
singe properly. It may be possible in
time to breed varieties better adapted
than the native ones, but the develop-
ment of such forms from the spiny

'This article is an extract from Mr. Griffith’s Bulletin No. 31, U. S. D.

native prickly pears of the delta of the
Rio Grande is an almost hopeless task,
the variation in the number of spines
produced being so trifling as to scarcely
warrant selection, while they do not
appear to hybridize readily with the
spineless forms.

In June, 1905, the Office of Foreign
Seed and Plant Introduction of this
Bureau received from Dr. G. Borg;
San Giovanni, Island of Malta, a few
cuttings of a large spineless species, to
which was assigned S. P. I. No. 14807.
The plant passes in both this country
and the Mediterranean region as spine-
less. About half a dozen cuttings of
this importation were planted and grew
for two and a half years at the plant
introduction field station at Chico, Cal.
They were then cut up into individual
joints and re-established in nursery form
in a plantation as extensive as the stock
thus produced would permit. It was
noticed that one of the original plants
had on one of its joints three or four
spines in one or two pulvini on one side.
No heed was paid to this, however, and
this joint was lost sight of in the plant-
ing, which was made in nursery form.
In other particulars this did not differ
from the other plants.

This prickly pear belongs to what
commonly passes for Opuntia ficus
indica and is nearly spineless. Fre-
quently short spines are produced, but
they are very few in number; there is
but one in an areole, and they are
usually only two to five or six milli-
meters in length. It is on the whole an
average of the spineless forms. When

A., “Behavior, under

Cultural Conditions, of Species of Cactus Known as Opuntia,’’ Washington, December 30, 1913.

222

GRIFFITH: “REVERSION” IN PRICKLY PFARS

SPINES AND SPICULES

A pulvinus, or cushion of spines (@) and spicules (b), from the edge
of a joint of Opuntia lindheimeri from the San Antonio region of Texas.
Ordinary ‘‘spineless cactus,” although it may lack spines, often pos-
sesses spicules, which make it equally worthless for many of the

purposes for which it is sold.

It is oniy the most highly improved

varieties that are absolutely free from spicules as well as spines, and
hence suitable for feeding to live stock, without first being singed.

(Fig. 13.)

the first planting of this stock was
grown, one plant which was normally
vigorous showed a few rather long
spines, as stated above, similar in char-
acter to the shorter ones more commonly
produced, but much longer and stouter.

The establishment of the nursery
plantation took place in April, 1908.
‘The following spring all of the spineless
forms (especially S. P. I. No. 14807)
were cut back to the original cutting
for stock. At this time it was noticed
that one side of one plant of this number
was very spiny and the other side as
spineless as the remainder of the
importation. With the rest, this plant
was cut loose, but the spiny cuttings
were rejected. In the spring of 1910
the new growth was again in part spiny,
and it was again cut back, but one joint
was left attached to the original one.
At that time neither joint left on the
plant showed any spines.

In the spring of 1911 it was found
that the previous season’s growth had
come mainly from the upper cutting,
which grew in the season of 1909. From
the original cutting two joints had
sprung, one from each side. All new
growth on one side of the plant, whether
from the original cutting or from the
younger joint, was practically spineless,
while the other side was exceedingly
spiny, the latter resembling the more
common forms of some of the mission
pears grown in all of the collections in
southern California and bearing two to
four white spines two-thirds of an inch
to one and one-half inches long. The
whole plant is shown in fig. 14.

The appearance of the plant in the
spring of 1911 was so striking that it
was pruned back but very little, simply
enough to shapeit up. Several of both
spiny and spineless joints were planted,
but owing to the condition of the

224

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

A CASE OF **DEMI-REVERSION”

This supposedly spineless Opuntia from the Island of Malta, when planted at Chico, Cali-

fornia, began to develop spines—but only on a part of the plant.

Sections taken from the

spiny part produce spiny plants; cuttings from the spineless side produce plants which are

spineless.

ground when the planting was done all
made a very poor growth. However,
the small amount of growth that was
made came true to the characters of the
individual cuttings planted. In the
spring of 1912 the previous season’s
growth was again spiny on one side of
the plant and spineless on the other,
the contrast producing a very striking
appearance.

This habit of reversion or bud varia-
tion, whichever it may be considered,

Mr. Griffiths considers this to be a case of reversion which indicates that the
original ancestor of the modern Opuntias was spiny.

(Fig. 14.)

is a very important characteristic, and,
while more striking in the above variety
than any other which has been cultivated
in these investigations, appears to be
not at all uncommon. A plant of
another spineless variety on hand now
bears promise to be just as conspicuous
a few years hence as this one. It
started to vary in the same direction last
year.

All this relates, however, to the devel-
opment of characters economically un-

GRIFFITH: ‘REVERSION’ IN PRICKI,Y PEARS

desirable. It is well known that lack
of spines is also a character which can
be maintained by vegetative propaga-
tion, but being usually of slight variation
is not as striking as the case mentioned
of variation in an opposite direction.
This phenomenon is an important one,
for it furnishes a possible suggestion
regarding the origin of the spineless
varieties.

Both of these variations appear to

225

the writer to point to the origin of the
spineless species of the so-called fitus-
imdica group from the spiny ones, the
spineless forms being the result of a
long series of selection, both upon this
continent and in the Mediterranean
region, subsequent to their introduction
there. Thestriking variation of certain
spineless forms to a spiny condition is
looked upon as a reversion to an original

type.

Variation by Loss of Inhibitors

A hypothesis to explain variation by the appearance of new dominant characters
as due to the loss of some single inhibiting factor, is put forward by William Bateson,
director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution at Merton, Surrey, England,
and the most distinguished exponent of Mendelism in England, in an address
before the seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, reprinted in the
Lancet.

“We have been accustomed,” he remarks, ‘to speak of characters as added
to or subtracted from the sum total of an individual composition, but as to the
actual origin of new dominants there is very little contemporary evidence.

“In the case of those animals, such as the fowl, the wild original of which we
think we know, many factors exist in our domesticated breeds which are not
possessed by any of the wild species. No wild species, for example, has the com-
plicated combs that are possessed by our domestic breeds. None has the dominant
white color of the leghorn; and many other such instances might be given. How
have these elements been added to the composition of the fowl?

x but for one feature in the descent of dominants we might be tempted
to suggest that they also arose through the introduction of some element from
without into the system. I see no a priori impossibility in such a belief, but in
these dominants we know that the distribution among the germ-cells is approxi-
mately symmetrical, and nothing that we know of animals or plants justifies the
suggestion that a foreign element can be so treated in gameto-genesis. Perverse
as such a suggestion may appear, I do not think we should close our minds to the
possibility that these dominants arise by a process of some inhibiting factor.
Until we have some far more direct method of recognizing the presence of factors
this suggestion cannot be positively gainsaid.”’

The Importance of Genetics

Evolution, selection, heredity, environment, differential fertility, are not mere
vague terms of biological science having no application to human life. On their
right understanding depends the stability or collapse of human society in general
and of our nation in particular—kKarl Pearson: Nature and Nurture (1910).

EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

A Valuable Instrument, But Fraught With Danger—Experiment Shows That if
Long Continued, Its Effects are of Themselves Evil, Regardless of
the Strength of Constitution of the Animals Involved.'

H. KRAEMER,

Professor in the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule of Hohenheim, Germany.

URING the past few months I
have been receiving a con-
tinually increasing number of
inquiries about the present
status of inbreeding. People are now-
adays constantly reading and hearing of
its absolute harmlessness, while until
a short time ago it was held up to them
as utterly unpermissible. It seems
desirable, then, to review some of the
results of experience, and to state my
own views as to whether consanguineous
breeding really results injuriously.

The reliable observations made for
many years past in every possible
branch of breeding and in all kinds of
herds, have thoroughly illuminated the
question for anyone who is able to
follow the truth when he sees it. But I
must conclude, from the great number
of letters I receive, that men are not
able to follow the truth very often.
And although the conclusions justified
by these breeding experiments be
known, yet some emphasis should be
laid on the other side as well. The new
and better knowledge of the great value
of properly-directed inbreeding will
surely not cause anyone to go astray.
And certainly it is not for a minute my
intention to lead anyone astray on this
subject.

The present age has directed re-
searches about consanguineous breed-
ing in the right direction. If we are
thereby led to indorse in all branches of
stock-breeding a procedure so much
feared in earlier times, that lies in the
nature of things. Our delight in the
discovery of the high importance of a

principle always leads us too easily to
pass by the darker sides, the aspects
which should cause us to hesitate; and
the serious results following inbreeding
are now too lightly regarded in hand-
books of stock-breeding. And when
isolated breeders go so far as to declare
that inbreeding produces no_ serious
consequences whatever, then it is again
time to recall the innumerable cases
recorded from the experience of well-
known breeders of the past. In this
retrospect, the literature of the various
civilized countries in earlier days furn-
ishes a picture that can not be misin-
terpreted, and I shall therefore attempt
to present it here. Such a literary
review will perhaps be able to correct
our viewpoint while broadening it, now
that the English breeders have become
such unconditional friends of inbreeding.

DARWIN’S INVESTIGATIONS.

Among the English writers who have
dealt with the subject, Darwin naturally
comes first to mind. We are too much
accustomed to think of his work as going
wholly backward and dealing only with
origins. I want, therefore, at this point
to commend most warmly to breeders
the perusal of his book on “The Varia-

tion of Animals and Plants under
Domestication.’”” What a mass of
stimuli to us in our work! What a

mighty faculty for observation! What
a surpassing talent for bringing innum-
erable details together to make a unified
picture! This book should be in the
possession of every breeder who wishes

'Translation of ‘Uber die ungtnstigen Wirkungen naher Inzucht,’”’ in Mitteilung der
Deutsches Landwirtschafts Gesellschaft, 6 and 13 September, 1913.

226

KRAEMER: EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

to deepen his knowledge of all branches
of stock-breeding.

In the seventeenth chapter Darwin
discusses “‘The Good Effects of Crossing
and the Evil Effects of Close Inter-
breeding.”’ He states his own observa-
tions and cites a long list of English
authorities, both theoretical and prac-
tical. In following his outline of the
case, I shall also cite some of the older
French and German breeders.

Since the time of von Lehndorff, we
have become more exact in defining the
closeness of inbreeding. Darwin himself
complains that a definition of close
breeding is difficult because the same
degree of consanguinity in different
species of animals is reached in different
manners, yet today we hold gladly to
the idea of ‘‘free generations” and the
“line of ancestors,’’ and apply it to all
kinds of animals. Such an accurate
measure is highly desirable here, and
according to it the pairing of father
with daughter or of mother with son is
the closest degree of consanguineous
breeding. Not improperly, however,
does Darwin himself note on this point
that as Sebright has remarked, the
pairing of brother and sister is really
the closest degree of family mating,
because here like blood is mated to like,
while father in mating with daughter
unites with only half his own blood. If
evil results occur from inbreeding, they
must, therefore, be the most serious
when siblings or members of the same
fraternity (full brother and sister) are
paired.

But can any evil results be proved
from inbreeding itself? ‘‘That any evil
directly follows from the closest inbreed-
ing has been denied by many persons,”’
says Darwin, “but rarely by any
practical breeder; and never, so far as I
know, by anyone who has largely bred
animals which propagate their kind
quickly. Many physiologists attribute
the evil exclusively to the combination
and consequent increase of morbid
tendencies common to both parents;
and that this is an active source of
mischief there can be no doubt. It is
unfortunately too notorious that men
and various domestic animals endowed
with a wretched constitution, and with

a

a strong hereditary disposition to dis-
ease, if not actually ill, are fully capable
of procreating their kind. Close inter-
breeding, on the other hand, often
induces sterility; and this indicates
something quite distinct from the aug-
mentation of morbid tendencies com-
mon to both parents. The evidence
immediately to be given convinces me
that it is a great law of nature, that all
organic beings profit from an occasional
cross with individuals not closely re-
lated to them in blood; and that, on the
other hand, long-continued close inter-
breeding is injurious.”

PROOFS NOT ALL CONVINCING.

When the proofs that Darwin gives,
many of which have already found their
way into our textbooks, are examined
most carefully, it must be admitted that
it is sometimes very difficult clearly to

. recognize the evils of inbreeding sup-

posed to be shown by them. The results
are often only too general in their
nature, and admit of being strongly
influenced by the constitutional sound-
ness or unsoundness of the animals con-
cerned. And finally, a considerable
decrease in strength of constitution
may be accompanied with so much of
advantage to the breeder that he will
completely overlook it in many
instances. Whenever, therefore, the
statements of breeders are subjective,
they offer no proof, in the biological
acceptation of the word; and often
inbreeding may be credited with such
and such results, when these results are
due solely to breeding for high per-
formance without regard to the consti-
tution and vitality of the animals. As
Darwin strikingly showed, an actual
increase in vigor is clearly enough evi-
dent when cross-breeding is practiced.
If this is undisputed, the conclusion
ought to be well-established, that con-
tinuous line-breeding must finally call
forth the opposite result.

Sebright, Knight, Youatt and Low
have unanimously borne witness that
continued close interbreeding is impos-
sible. Prinsep also found that despite
the best feeding, the growth of the
animals steadily decreased, and John
Sinclair expressly testifies that Bake-

228 THE JOURNAL

well’s method of breeding could not be
carried on for any length of time with
good results—although it was long in
fashion because of Bakewell’s great
influence.

If Darwin did not appeal to these
sources of evidence, it was not, of
course, because they were not entitled
to command respect. Besides, he refers
only casually to Culley, although the
latter is one of the most positive of the
older English writers, on the absence of
danger from inbreeding. The greatest
hindrance to the improvement of breeds
of live-stock, Culley declares, is due to
the superstition that because of the
danger of inbreeding, one should use the
same bull only three years at the longest.
Weak and delicate produce is feared,
and many have fallen into the belief
that inbreeding is abhorrent to reli-
gion. Happily, however, there are still
people in England who have no regard
for such superstitions, and the experi-
ence of many years justifies them. By
the example of the half-wild cattle in
Chillingham Park in Northumberland-
shire, Culley seeks to demonstrate that
even long-continued inbreeding is harm-
less. This race, the purest-bred in
Europe, is hardy, sound and of good
form, and has not changed in color for
more than 500 years.

THE CHILLINGHAM CATTLE.

The Chillingham cattle are so often
quoted in German literature that it
seems worth while to give Darwin’s
remarks on the subject verbatim.
Notice that according to his view even
here inbreeding has not proved wholly
innocuous:

“The half-wild cattle, which have
been kept in British parks probably for
400 or 500 years, or even for a longer
period, have been advanced by Culley
and others as a case of long-continued
interbreeding within the limits of the
same herd without any consequent
injury. With respect to the cattle at
Chillingham, the late Lord Tankerville
owned that they were bad_ breeders.
The agent, Mr. Hardy, estimates (in a
letter to me dated May, 1861) that in
the herd of about 50 the average number
annually slaughtered, killed by fighting,

or HEREDITY

and dying, is about 10, or one in five.
As the herd is kept up to nearly the
same average number, the annual rate
of increase must be likewise about one
in five. The bulls, I may add, engage
in furious battles, of which battles the
present Lord Tankerville has given me
a graphic description, so that there will
always be rigorous selection of the most
vigorous males. I procured in 1855
from Mr. D. Gardner, agent to the
Duke of Hamilton, the following account
of the wild cattle kept in the Duke’s
park in Lanarkshire, which is about 200
acres in extent. The number of cattle
varies from 65 to 80; and the number
annually killed (I presume by all
causes) is from 8 to 10; so that the
annual rate of increase can hardly be
more than one in six. Now in South
America, where the herds are half-wild,
and therefore offer a nearly fair standard
of comparison, according to Azara the
natural increase of cattle on an estancia
is from one-third to one-fourth of the
total number, or one in between three
and four, and this no doubt applies
exclusively to adult animals fit for con-
sumption. Hence the half-wild British
cattle which have long been interbred
within the limits of the same herd are
relatively far less fertile. Although in
an unenclosed country like Paraguay
there must be some crossing between
the different herds, yet even there the
inhabitants believe that the occasional
introduction of animals from distant
localities is necessary to prevent ‘de-
generation in size and diminution in
fertility.’ The decrease in size from
ancient times in the Chillingham and
Hamilton cattle must have been pro-
digious, for Professor Rutimeyer has
shown that they are almost certainly
descended from the gigantic Bos primi-
genius. No doubt this decrease in size
may be largely attributed to less favor-
able conditions of life; yet animals roam-
ing over large parks, and fed during
severe winters, can hardly be considered
as placed under very unfavorable con-
ditions.”’
GAME IN PRESERVES.

The question whether sustained close-
interbreeding in game preserves leads to

KRAEMER: EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

degeneracy is also of great interest. One
reads so much on this question without
getting a distinct impression, that a real
proof for the degenerative effects of
inbreeding seems to be obscured by the
very form in which it is presented.
Darwin went into the question of deer
at some length, and he finally comes to
the general conclusion that continued
interbreeding here, too, leads to harm.

“As some of our British parks are
ancient,’ he says, “it occurred to me
that there must have been long-con-
tinued close interbreeding with the
fallow deer (Cervus dama) kept in them;
but on inquiry I find that it is a com-
mon practice to infuse new blood by
procuring bucks from other parks. Mr.
Shirley, who has carefully studied the
management of deer, admits that in
some parks there has been no admixture
of foreign blood from a time beyond
the memory of man. But he concludes
‘that in the end the constant breeding
in-and-in is sure to tell to the disadvan-
tage of the whole herd, though it may
take a very long time to prove it; more-
over, when we find, as is constantly the
case, that the introduction of fresh
blood has been of the very greatest use
to deer, both by improving their size
and appearance, and particularly by
being of service in removing the taint
of “rickback”’ if not of other diseases,
to which deer are sometimes subject
when the blood has not been changed,
there can, I think, be no doubt but that
a judicious cross with a good stock is of
the greatest consequence, and is indeed
essential, sooner or later, to the pros-
perity of every well-ordered park.’ ”

In referring to the longhorns of
Bakewell, Darwin also takes the view
adopted by Youatt. Continued in-
breeding led in this case to a weakness of
constitution not compatible with good
management, and reproduction became
uncertain. At the very commencement,
however, Darwin naturally mentions
the Shorthorns, among which the most
extended use of inbreeding was notori-
ously made. So, says Darwin, ‘“‘the
famous bull Favourite (who was himself
the offspring of a half-brother and sister
from Foljambe) was matched with his
own daughter, granddaughter and great-

229

granddaughter, so that the produce of
this last union, or the great-great-
granddaughter, had 15-16ths or 93.75%
of the blood of Favourite in her veins.
This cow was matched with the bull
Wellington, having 62.5% of Favourite
blood in his veins, and produced
Clarissa; Clarissa was matched with the
bull Lancaster, having 68.75% of the
same blood, and she yielded valuable
offspring.”

RESULTS WITH SHORTHORNS.

The numerous examples from Short-
horn herds show that consanguineous
breeding of a very wide extent may be
practiced without leading to the extinc-
tion of a herd. ‘They do not show, how-
ever, that continuous inbreeding is in
general uninjurious. Darwin himself
well shows that even Collins practiced
crossing. And while Bates, that success-
ful breeder, practiced close inbreeding
for 13 years, and had, as Darwin re-
marks, “‘the most exalted idea of the
value of his herd,’’ yet during the next
17 years he was obliged three times to
introduce new blood into it. Bates
himself said, according to Darwin’s
account, ‘“‘that to breed in-and-in from
a bad stock was ruin and devastation;
yet that the practice may safely be
followed within certain limits when the
parents so related are descended from
first-rate animals.’’

With sheep also, according to Darwin,
inbreeding has been much practiced.
Messrs. Brown are said never to have
introduced new blood into _ their
Leicesters during 50 years, and we have
of course no right to question the truth
of the breeders’ statements in such
instances. Mr. Barford, in the course
of a half century, had come to the con-
clusion that inbreeding did no harm, if
practiced on animals quite sound in
constitution, but on the other hand he
does not claim to have practiced breed-
ing in the closest degrees of affinity.
He adds, however, that most great
breeders of sheep have protested against
continued close interbreeding. Jonas
Webb is said to have kept five separate
families to work on, in order to retain
the requisite distance of relationship
between the sexes.

230

As concerns swine, Darwin also cites
a long list of English witnesses, part of
whom had written on the subject, and
part of whom had given him their views
orally. ‘With respect to pigs,’’ Darwin
says, “there is more unanimity amongst
breeders on the evil effects of inter-
breeding than, perhaps, with any other
large animal. Mr. Druce, a great and
successful breeder of the Improved
Oxfordshires (a crossed race), writes,
‘without a change of boars of a different
tribe, but of the same breed, constitution
can not be preserved.’ Mr. Fisher
Hobbs, the raiser of the celebrated
Improved Essex breed, divided his
stock into three separate families, by
which means he maintained the breed
for more than 20 years, ‘by judicious
selection from the three distinct families.’
Lord Western was the first importer of
a Neapolitan boar and sow. ‘From this
pair he bred in-and-in, until the breed
was in danger of becoming extinct, a
sure result (as Mr. Sidney remarks) of
inbreeding.’ Lord Western then crossed
his Neapolitan pigs with the old Essex
and made the first great step toward
the Improved Essex breed.

A REMARKABLE CASE.

“Here is a more interesting case.
Mr. J. Wright, well-known as a breeder,
crossed the same boar with the daugh-
ter, granddaughter, great-granddaughter,
and so on for seven generations. The
result was that in many instances the
offspring failed to breed; in others they
produced few that lived; and of the
latter many were idiotic, without sense,
even to suck, and when attempting to
move could not walk straight. Now it
deserves especial notice, that the two
last sows produced by this long course
of interbreeding were sent to other
boars, and they bore several litters of
healthy pigs. The best sow in external
appearance produced during the whole
seven generations was one in the last
stage of descent; but the litter consisted
of this one sow. She would not breed
to her sire, yet bred at the first trial to a
stranger in blood. So that, in Mr.
Wright’s case, long-continued and ex-
tremely close interbreeding did not
affect the general form or merit of the

THE JouRNAL OF HEREDITY

young; but with many of them the
general constitution and mental powers,
and especially the reproductive func-
tions, were seriously affected.”

With regard to dogs an attempt has
often been made to show that inbreeding
has no influence, according to Darwin,
Meynell’s famous foxhounds, for ex-
ample, being cited as having been bred
closely in-and-in without the least trace
of injury being discernible. J. Sebright,
however, declares that he had seen “‘the
offspring of strong spaniels degenerate
into weak and diminutive lapdogs,” as
a result of the pairing of brother and
sister. And W. D. Fox noted that with
consanguineous breeding of blood-
hounds a visible degeneracy took place,
and that almost all the animals had an
enlargement of the bones of the tail.
A single crossing with foreign blood-
hounds restored their fecundity and
drove away the tendency to malforma-
tion in the tail. “Considering how
rapid is the natural increase of the dog,”
Darwin reflects, “it is difficult to under-
stand the large price of all highly im-
proved breeds, which almost implies
long-continued close interbreeding,
except on the belief that this process
lessens fertility and increases lability
to distemper and other diseases.”

DATA FROM FOWLS.

Of the greatest importance for the
question of inbreeding are, finally, the
authorities gathered by Darwin relating
to the breeding of fowls. According to
Sebright’s statements his bantams_ be-
came almost infertile through inbreed-
ing, and the cocks, losing the secondary
sexual characters, approached a female
type; but the slightest degree of rever-
sion to the proper male type—for
example, the elongation of the two
principal tail feathers by only*half an
inch, brought with it ‘“‘an improved
probability of increased fertility.”

According to Wright’s testimony Mr.
Clark’s fighting-cocks were so much
affected by prolonged inbreeding that
they allowed themselves to be knocked
over without showing fight. Their
weight decreased, to the great injury of
their prize-winning power. Through a
crossing with Mr. Leighton’s stock,

KRAEMER: EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

they regained both weight and spirit.
If the evils of inbreeding are over-
emphasized here, Ballance, the success-
ful breeder of Malays, stands on another
platform. Inbreeding does not neces-
sarily involve the deterioration of the
stock, he believes; “‘but all depends on
how this is managed. My plan has
been to keep about five or six distinct
runs, and to rear about 200 or 300
chickens each year, and to select the
best birds from each run for crossing.
I thus secure sufficient crossing to pre-
vent deterioration.”’

“With pigeons,” says Darwin in con-
clusion, ‘“‘breeders are unanimous that
it 1s absolutely indispensable, notwith-
standing the trouble and expense thus
caused, occasionally to cross their
much-prized birds with individuals of
another strain, but belonging, of course,
to the same variety. It deserves notice
that, when size is one of the desired
characters, as with pouters, the evil
effects of close interbreeding are much
sooner perceived than when small birds,
such as short-faced tumblers, are valued.
The extreme delicacy of the high fancy
breeds, such as the tumblers and im-
proved English carriers, is remarkable;
they are liable to many diseases, and
often die in the egg, or during the first
moult; and their eggs have generally to
be hatched under foster-mothers.

“Although these highly prized birds
have invariably been subjected to much
close interbreeding, yet their extreme
delicacy of constitution can not perhaps
be thus fully explained. Mr. Yarrell
informed me that Sir J. Sebright con-
tinued closely interbreeding some owl-
pigeons, until from their extreme steril-
ity he as nearly as possible lost the whole
family. Mr. Brent tried to raise a breed
of trumpeters, by crossing a common
pigeon, and recrossing the daughter,
granddaughter, great-granddaughter
and great-great-granddaughter with the
same male trumpeter, until he obtained
a bird with 15-16th of trumpeter’s blood;
but then the experiment failed; for
‘breeding so close stopped reproduction’.
The experienced Noumeister also asserts
that the offspring from dove-cotes and

2Sanson, Traité de Zootechnie, Paris, 1896.

231

various other breeds are ‘generally very
fertile and hardy birds’; so again, MM.
Boitard and Corbié, after 45 years’
experience, recommend persons to cross
their breeds for amusement; for, if they
fail to make interesting birds, they will
succeed under an economical point of
view, ‘as it is found that mongrels are
more fertile than pigeons of a pure race.’”’

CONCLUSIONS WARRANTED.

I have here gone back to literal quota-
tions from Darwin, because the views
of this great naturalist, who was also
an expert breeder, so exactly coincide
with the general experience of practical
men. I will freely admit that some of
the evidence given in his examples is of
damage done by inbreeding, and some
of it merely of the results of pairing two
animals which are not of first-class
strength; the effects of bringing together
two strains of weakness are thus mis-
taken for the effects of inbreeding. But
if one admits that famous breeders
thoroughly understand the necessity of
breeding only from sound animals, then
it must be admitted that these numerous
examples prove that continued inbreed-
ing 7m itself is injurious. As far as the
practical production of farm animals
goes, inbreeding does not offer itself as
a desirable method; but this, however,
is well understood. I might easily quote
a great number of further instances from
Darwin, which lead one to want to use
caution in the practice of inbreeding.
At the same time, however, I must say
that in England the question has been
illuminated just as it has for us, and it
is absolutely wrong to believe, as we
are so often told, that the English un-
conditionally advocate and_ practice
inbreeding in their herds.

Things went the same way in France.
If we examine Sanson, Baron, Magne,
Cornevin and other important writers
on the question of inbreeding, we find
that here again views are decidedly
diverse. Sanson’ fully recognizes the
potency of inbreeding, and the right
places for its application, without suffi-
ciently defining the different grades of
close interbreeding. Baron takes a

232

slightly different view, pointing out
that farmers finally get a glimpse of the
fact that their animals are getting to be
altogether too similar. Sexual differen-
tiation gives place to a sort of neutrality,
which may finally lead to sterility.
Magne admits that it is very difficult to
decide whether there is an actual power
for evil in inbreeding as such, or whether
any damage is wholly due to the union
of two strains of weakness or the inheri-
tance of a double dose of tendency to
some disease. In practice, however, he
advocates proceeding on the assumption
that inbreeding does lead directly to
injury. Cornevin alone, the most
important of all, looks on inbreeding
somewhat more leniently. And as he
bases his views on a lot of first-hand
observations, I will consider his views
in a little more detail.

THE DEFINITIONS OF CORNEVIN.

Cornevin vigorously demands a dis-
tinction between the different grades of
consanguinity. It makes a great deal
of difference, he declares, whether one
makes a ‘direct’ pairing, ‘‘for
example, father or grandfather, with
daughter or granddaughter” or a “‘col-
lateral’’ pairing (for example, uncle and
niece). If inbreeding is held in so little
esteem, it is because hasty generaliza-
tion from single instances has been
allowed to throw blame on all forms.
The results of lateral pairing can not, in
general, be compared with those of
direct mating. Well, both now and in
the past we have been accustomed to
make the same distinction; only we
were accustomed to speak more gener-
ally merely of ‘closer’ or. “‘wider’’
inbreeding; and today we have a meas-
ure for it, as has already been said, in
the line of ancestors, or free generations.
The plausibility of Cornevin’s view can
be proved by actual experimental
breeding.

Next he alludes to the closeness and
frequency of consanguineous marriages
in antiquity, pointing out that these
have not been wholly injurious. But
against such a conclusion, drawn from
human society, innumerable examples
may be quoted, particularly where inces-
tuous marriages were considered allow-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

able. The Veddas of Ceylon, among
whom marriage between brother and
sister is said to be the rule, are really
incapable of civilization, and also physi-
cally degenerate. As for the ancient
Greeks, it is true that they permitted
consanguineous marriages of very close
degree, but we have no evidence as to
the frequency of such unions with them.
But after all: the results of close in-
breeding often show themselves only
after it has been continued a long time.
Experiments in human society can cer-
tainly be quoted to throw light on the
question of inbreeding, but not in the
sense Cornevin understands.

HIS EXPERIMENTS.

Cornevin made limited experiments
in inbreeding his own cattle, sheep and
swine very closely. His Hollanders were
inbred for 12, his Jerseys for seven years
in this manner, without showing any
evil results, and the prizes which the
animals won each year at district shows
certainly indicate that they did not
present evidence of degeneracy. The
Merinos Chdatillonais had been inbred
for 11 years at the time that Cornevin
wrote his Traité de Zootechnie générale
(1891) and were as little degenerated as
the cattle. On the other hand, this
ardent defender of inbreeding admits
that it can not be practised with York-
shire and Essex swine for more than two
or three generations. These animals
have such an inclination to lay on fat,
that it leads to sterility and lack of milk
on the part of the sows, when their
tendency is accentuated by line-breed-
ing. Indeed, adds Cornevin, the mere
necessity of keeping them in a pen and
feeding them highly became harmful,
and it is questionable whether the result
would not have been very different
under more favorable circumstances.

Pigeons regularly multiply adelpho-
gamically—that is, brother mates with
sister; and so do swans, geese, guinea-
fowl and ducks very often, according to
Cornevin. He pursued inbreeding for
11 years with pigeons and geese, and
there was no perceptible change of color,
weight or fecundity. Guinea-fowls also
showed no change, but Houdans and
Crevecoeurs suddenly developed a strong

KRAEMER: EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

tendency to albinism. From experi-
ments with rabbits it was decided that
solid-colored animals with golden-brown
hair, showing occasional spots of white,
began to turn entirely white after the
fourth generation. Cornevin therefore
suddenly jumped to the conclusion that
the effects of inbreeding differed with
different animals, and that one could not
dogmatically assert, for all species, that
it was wholly harmless. He does not
specifically state whether he was select-
ing the strongest animals to breed from,
but his indorsement of inbreeding gives
us good reason to believe that he was
anxious, in his experiments, to keep the
two factors carefully separated. He
wanted to observe the results of in-
breeding in itself—par elle méme—and
not to throw additional light on the
well-known fact that an increased ten-
dency to degeneracy may take place
through the union of two tendencies to
weakness and blemishes, when consan-
guineous matings are made.

MANY DIFFERENCES OF OPINION.

It is, accordingly, a mistake to think
that only among us Germans is there
such a diversity of opinion on the sub-
ject of inbreeding, and it is equally
exaggeration to think that it is we alone
who are so doctrinaire in these matters.
In all civilized countries, the views on
inbreeding and hybridization used to be
based on the haps and mishaps of
experiments and actual breeding. We
have indeed carried on the controversy
about pedigree-breeding and individual
potency with the greatest keenness, and
in the side-issues of this controversy
inbreeding of course occupies a promi-
nent place. But the heart of the ques-
tion, whether inbreeding, in and by
itself, results in evil, is warmly debated
not only among us, but everywhere else.
If our old theories about blooded stock
were one-sided on that point, if they
did not sufficiently distinguish between
pure breeding and inbreeding, we can
also reproach the individual-potency
theory nowadays with very often being
too general and disregarding the various
aspects of the question, when it argues
its conception of “‘crossing.”’

Buffon had published precepts that

233

were—speaking as a breeder—simply
crazy, but he did not lack followers.
Hartmann, for example, supports him.
“Never,” he says, “must one give to a
stallion mares of the same breed, nor
must he permit the mating of two
animals from the same stud. It cannot
be too strongly recommended that one
should endeavor as much as possible to
cross his breeds of horses.’”’ Such views
won the day, and they created a real
danger. When experienced breeders,
such as Wollstein, Ammon, Justinus,
Mentzel, von Weckherlin, and others
took a unanimous stand in sharp opposi-
tion, they performed a great service.
But the too wide application of their
own doctrines had a doubtful side.
Though one might apply their prin-
ciples, in an extensive practice of in-
breeding, and secure satisfactory results,
yet the laws underlying the whole ques-
tion were not properly made clear, and
the theorizers on pedigree-breeding did
not even then get a full view of certain
items which we now think must be
considered in the technical application
of the principles of inbreeding, if success
is to be had or failure to be avoided. He
who started in to practice the principles
they laid down, often had to pay the
consequences. And although von Weck-
herlin, thinking that the prejudice
against inbreeding arose solely as the
result of experience with sheep, ques-
tions whether these consequences are
appreciable, the resultant careless prac-
tice of inbreeding was unfortunate.

IT WORKS BOTH WAYS.

Computations can indeed be made,
that the practice led to fineness of wool,
but the disease—the actual failure of
many breeders—can also be traced very
easily to the same practice. The wide-
spread creation of definite herd-types
through line-breeding has led to many
damaging results in the sheep industry,
and on general princip.es we ought to
anticipate in all other branches of live
stock breeding, that the building up of
herds characterized by certain very
definite traits would have a tendency to
limit variation and thereby to destroy
the prerequisite of evolutionary pro-
gress. Such a feeling has naturally

234

existed among breeders, so that from
hoary antiquity to our own days it has
always been recognized that one should
attempt inbreeding only with the very
best stock. Hermann von Nathusius
has publicly expressed himself in a
masterly manner ‘On Inbreeding or
Pairing in Close Relationship.’’*’ As a
reaction against much of the one-sided
pedigree talk, his declarations had their
place as an expression of the period,
just as Hermann von Nathusius himself
was a child of the period. Today he
would express himself very differently
on many points could he familiarize
himself with the evidence as to the
dangerous possibilites of inbreeding
which has been acquired by many of
the younger experimenters; but he is,
unfortunately, no longer with us. All
the more must it be recognized how
objectively he expressed himself in his
clear, simple and logical way, on the
main point of our thesis, the evil results
of inbreeding. As the Thoroughbred
advocates dared to assume without
qualification the position that aversion
to consanguineous mating’ was not
founded on natural considerations, but
derived from moral ones and bolstered
up by a false deduction from the evil
effects of pairing diseased and blemished
animals—then it was high time to state
the facts in the case, in the form of
general principles. For criticising these
extremists and for pointing out the
actual status of the question, Hermann
von Nathusius is highly to be com-
mended. But we of today must take
with a grain of salt the ideas that he
put in the form of five propositions, to
end his discussion of the case:

1. The mating of closely related animals
can result in good progeny; some of the best
improved breeds have been built up by that
method.

2. Up to date no indisputable example has
been given of close family-breeding carried on
among animals for even 30 years.

3. Among many of the most fortunate and
exemplary breeds, in-and-in breeding has
resulted in deviations from the standard.

4. Consanguineous breeding alone, there-

THE JouRNAL OF HEREDITY

fore, can not be laid down as an adequate
method of breeding.

5. On the other hand, it would be equally
undesirable to abandon it bodily.

Had Hermann von Nathusius known
the studies going on as to the origin of
prominent breeds and herds, he would
have qualified his first statement to
say that not only some, but most, of the
best breeds of improved live stock
resulted from line-breeding. But in-
deed, he has expressed this idea more
strongly elsewhere. And his last two
propositions he would undoubtedly
change, to the disadvantage of close
interbreeding. For today we have
learned through the studies of von
Lehndorf, von Oettingen, de Chapeau-
rouge, Rau and younger writers, how
important it is that a herd should have
a widely-spreading pedigree. But I will
not place this side of the question in the
foreground just at this time.

Pusch, too, who was unhappily taken
from us so prematurely, endeavored to
show the dangers of inbreeding experi-
mentally. More and more I am con-
vinced that all trustworthy and properly
controlled experiments in this direction
lead us to the same conclusion: Con-
tinued inbreeding always must result im
weakened constitution, through its own
influence. The more we realize today
that high transmissible performance
seems to be bound to individual animals,
and the more we endeavor to make use
of the blood of these individuals through
inbreeding, so much the more must we
anxiously guard against deterioration
of strength and shape. Otherwise we
shall fall into the error made by the
early enthusiasts for pedigree breeding,
who by taking an unduly narrow view
spoiled an idea which in and by itself
was sound. Knowledge and experience
will guide our great breeders in the
right way. If, however, the idea that
inbreeding is never harmful begins little
by little, and in ever wider circles, to
spread, then the evils which it involves
must once more be adequately pointed
out.

3Kleine Schriften und Fragmente tber Viehzucht, Berlin, 1880.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 6 June, 1914

CONTENTS

The Science of Genetics, by Arthur W. Gilbert_______-___ ________ 235
Two Contributions to Eugenics __________-_________-___--__- si tee “24S
German Progress in Genetics___.___________---------.----- oa ZAG
Coat Color in Pointer Dogs, by C. C. Little __________-____________ 244.
Pusenics Progrant in- Utah, by E. G.’Vitus_..2_.- 225-2222. = 248
Benefits of Eugenics, by Leonard Darwin ____________ bk Oe ee 248
Faces and Races, by Vernon L. Kellogg. ________________________- 249
A Polynesian-Norwegian Metisse, by The Editor _________________ 249
Bismarck’s Heredity, by Dr. von Stradonitz______________________ 254.
Pueblo Indian Maize Breeding, by G. N. Collins ____-____________ 255
The First and Last Child, by Dr. Alfred Ploetz___________________ 268
A Radish-Cabbage Hybrid, by Flippo Gravatt____________________ 269
Origin of the Banana, by The Editor __________- CA oe 2 ae eel 273
Fertility of Mixed Marrieges, by Thomas Guevara ______________- 280

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 hy the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and Jvurnal.

Date of issue of this number, May 25, 1914.

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SIH.L AMIT WONO AHAM SVNVNVE TIV

TOE DeRINCE OF GENETICS

Too New to be Accurately Delimited—Represents an Empirical Study of Problems
Which Have Been Treated Philosophically for Centuries—Its Importance to
Agriculture—Its Application to the Improvement of the Human Stock.’

ARTHUR W. GILBERT

Professor of Plant Breeding, State College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
Tthaca, “NAY.

r | \HE science of genetics is so new
that it is impossible to say at
present just what it comprises

j and what its boundaries shall be.
Until very recently, it did not even have
a name, but the word ‘“‘genetics’’, sug-
gested by Professor William Bateson,
has now been universally adopted. He
says this word “sufficiently indicates
that our labors are devoted to the
elucidation of the phenomena of hered-
ity and variation, in other words, to the
physiology of descent, with implied
bearing on the theoretical problems of
the evolutionist and the systematist,
and application to the practical prob-
lems of breeders, whether of animals or
plants.”

The science of genetics deals with
evolution in all of its phases, as well as
with the science and art of breeding.
It makes contact with other sciences,
especially biology, which lies at its
foundation, as well as chemistry and
sociology.

I think it may be truly said that in
the development of the science of
genetics our people, as human organ-
isms, are more vitally concerned than
in any other science. We look with
great admiration, which becomes almost
reverence, at the workers: who are
applying the physical and chemical
sciences. But as great and wonderful
as their achievements are, they do not
necessarily concern all of the people.

Genetics, however, takes part in the
life of every man, woman, or child,
every plant or animal, in fact, every
living thing. All organisms are the
product of two forces acting together to
determine what that individual shall be.

Neither acts without the other and they
are equally important. These are
environment and heredity. Whatever we
are or do, or whatever an animal or
plant becomes, these two factors are
constantly acting—the one, the external
conditions surrounding us, the other
the inherent constitution within us.

HEREDITY LONG OVERLOOKED.

Until very recently the factors which
have received the greatest amount of
study have been those of environment.
We have looked upon plants and animals
as controlled very largely by external
forces, and even the study of man has
centered around his environn.2nt, while
the greatest force, heredity, has been
largely overlooked.

The development of the study of this
force has naturally been very slow,
because it is more intangible, more
subtle, more difficult to measure and
determine accurately, than the more
visible external conditions. The former
cannot be measured in pounds, grams
or degrees. It is impossible, further-
more, to draw a sharp line between
heredity and environment and say
exactly where one stops and the other
begins. They are very closely linked
together. To say which is more impor-
tant in any organism requires very keen
analysis and a history of the individual
for many generations.

Nevertheless, problems of heredity
and evolution have occupied the minds
of men from the beginning, although
any conclusions reached have been
largely speculative and not based di-
rectly or indirectly upon experimental
data. “It is true that until 1858, when

'Paper no. 44, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

239

236 THE JOURNAL
Darwin’s Origin of Species was pub-
lished, speculation far outran fact, and
the development of the idea was at times
arrested and even retrogressive. The
Law of Evolution was reached not by
any decided leap, but by the progressive
development of every subordinate idea
connected with it, until it was recog-
nized as a whole by Lamarck, or later
by Darwin.”

Many evolutionary ideas trace back
to Greek natural history literature,
which from beginning to end is a con-
tinuous source of pleasure and surprise.
Amid wide differences of opinion as to
how far the Greeks actually anticipated
later discoveries, the true conclusion is
that they anticipated many of our
modern theories by suggestion; thus
they carried the idea of evolution well
into its suggestive stage, which was so
much ground gained for those who took
it up in Europe. Greek speculations
greatly hastened the final result, al-
though judged by modern scientific
standards they arose mainly as a series
of happy conjectures.

As early as six hundred years before
Christ, Anaximander wrote that the
earth was, at first, a fluid. Gradually
this fluid began to dry and grow thicker,
and here and there dry land appeared.
When this dry land had become firm
enough to serve as his home, man came
up from the water in the form of a fish.
Slowly and gradually the fishes, strug-
gling about on the land, gained for them-
selves the limbs and organs they needed
for their new situation, and their devel-
opment into men.

After them, other animals came up
in much the same way, then the plants,
until the whole world was clothed with
its present inhabitants.

THE GENETICS OF EMPEDOCLES.

Empedocles, a century and a half
later, added a new thought. He said
that in the beginning there were all
sorts of strange, incomplete, and mis-
jointed monsters which swarmed upon
the earth, having sprung up and out of
the earth itself. Each was a chaos of
limbs which were to belong afterward to
other animals which needed them more.
An interchanging came about slowly and
gradually by which appropriate limbs

oF HEREDITY

fastened themselves to the proper ani-
mals. The last of these mis ointed
creatures is the one known as the
centaur, half man, half horse. After a
while, when all of the members had
found their proper places, the animals
were complete.

Later came Anaxagoras, who was the
first to believe that there was intelligent
design back of the creation of animals
and plants. He believed there had
originally been a slime in which there
was mixed, in a chaos, the germs of
all the later plants, animals and min-
erals. Out of this mixture, order slowly
arose by the minerals settling first,
forming the earth, with the air floating
over it and the ether above. The germs
of plants settled out of the air upon the
earth and vegetation covered the min-
eral floor. From the ether came the
germs of animals and men.

The greatest scientific thinker of
early Greece was Aristotle. He had
spent his life by the seashore and knew
better than any other man of his time
the exquisite seaweeds and still more
beautiful marine animals. He was the
first to think of them as a related series,
the higher developing out of the lower
under the pressure of what is called a
perfecting principle. Out of the inani-
mate rocks had sprung the marine
plants—the seaweeds. From these had
developed first ‘plant animals’ like the
sea-anemones and the sponges. These
grew attached to the rocks, as plants
do. With higher development came
locomotion with ever increasing energy.
At last man arose, the Crown of all
Creation.

During the long middle ages, the
evolutionary idea made no advance.
Finally it began to retrogress, when
Greek natural philosophy shared in the
general suppression of the rationalistic
movement of thought of Arabic origin.
Later the hard and fast conceptions and
definitions of species developed in the
rapid rise of systematic botany and
zoology, and were grafted upon the
Mosaic account of the Creation, estab-
lishing a Special Creation theory for
the origin of each species. Later still,
when it was discovered in paleontology
that species of different kinds had suc-
ceeded each other in time. the ‘‘special”’

GILBERT: THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS

THE FIRST MUTATION ON RECORD

At the right is the Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus) a plant of the poppy family

found in Great Britian and throughout Europe. At the left is a “‘sport,’’ or mutant form,
markedly different in the shape of the leaves, which appeared in 1590. Such sudden
changes or mutations in plants and animals have been widely studied since the declaration
of De Vries, at the beginning of this century, that evolution was mainly due to them; and
they are still the subject of continual debate among genetists. Their origin is so mysterious
that many biologists think they may be merely the effects of undiscovered hybridization

in the ancestry of the plant producing them.

mentally have failed. (Fig. 1.)

theory was again remodeled to cover a
succession of creations extending down
almost to the present day.

After the middle ages, evolutionary
theories were again revived, first by the
natural philosophers and rashly specu-
lative writers and finally by the working
and observing naturalists. The climax
was reached in the work of Lamarck
and finally of that greatest of natural-
ists and philosophers, Charles Darwin.

THE INFLUENCE OF DARWIN.

The publication of the “Origin of
Species”’ had a profound influence upon
thought in all fields of human learning,
but more especially in biology. The
work of Darwin made such a deep
impression upon biologists, in fact,

All attempts to produce mutations experi-

that problems of evolution were con-
sidered to be settled for all time. For
nearly thirty years inquiry into the
methods of evolution was almost at a
standstill.

This long silence was broken, however,
in 1900, when Hugo De Vries, a Dutch
botanist, published his monumental
work, ‘‘Die Mutations Theorie.’’ Many
years before, it had seemed to De
Vries that Darwin’s hypothesis of the
origin of species by natural selection
and the gradual accumulation of varia-
tions was inadequate to explain all of
the facts, and that the method -of
origin as postulated by Darwin was too
slow to account for the origin of our
present species within geological time.
For the purpose of proving whether

238

this was true or not De Vries began a
series of carefully planned experiments
to demonstrate whether species may be
produced experimentally. These tests
and many subsequent observations
demonstrated that species-formation is
not always a slow and gradual process,
but that new species may be formed at
a single step.

These experiments have had great
influence in stimulating research in
genetics, not by the Darwinian method
of collecting facts, but by carefully
planned experiments with their proper
checks. De Vries’ reputation, indeed,
will last longest not from his elaboration
of the mutation theory, which was
already suggested by Darwin, but by
his introduction of the experimental
method into the study of evolution.
To the worker in practical genetics the
experiments of De Vries also have great
value. By dealing with vast numbers
of plants or animals the breeder seeks to
discover the mutants, as De Vries called
the suddenly appearing new forms,
or exceptional individuals, and produce
new and valuable races from them.

PRESENT POSITION OF GENETICS.

The new science of genetics holds
today a very prominent place among its
sister sciences. Around it are clustered
many great problems now occupying
the attention of thoughtful men, while
upon it is based the practice of the
producer of animals or plants to bring
forth better varieties and strains for
the use of mankind. Problems of
eugenics, furthermore, are receiving
wide consideration, and in order to be
sane and in accordance with the laws of
Nature, they must be kept close to the
foundation principles of genetics.

The laws of heredity were applied
empirically by the shepherds of the
flocks and the tillers of the fields centur-
ies before their full import was known.
Scientific and philosophic minds have

long sought to solve the problems
involved in the apparently simple
truths, ‘‘like begets like’, and ‘“‘the

sins of the fathers shall be visited upon
the children unto the third and fourth
generations.’ From the sum total of
this knowledge, empirical and scientific,
practical and theoretical, has been

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

evolved much of definite significance
concerning racial and individual devel-
opment. But the most important and
most attractive single contribution was
the mathematical formula of heredity
discovered by Gregor Mendel half a
century ago. It is not exaggerated to
speak of his discovery as leading into a
new world, the very existence of which
was unsuspected before.

“In research as in all business of
exploration, the stirring times come
when a fresh region is suddenly unlocked
by the discovery of a new key. The
conquest is easy and there are prizes for
all. We are happy in that during our
own time not a few of such territories
have been revealed to the vision of
mankind.” “I do not dare to suggest,”
says Bateson, “that in magnitude or
splendor the field of genetics may be
compared with that now being disclosed
to the physicist or the astronomer; for
the glory of the celestial is one and the
glory of the terrestrial is another. But
I will say that for once, to the man of
ordinary power who cannot venture
into those heights beyond, Mendel’s
clue has shown a way into a realm of
nature which for surprising novelty and
adventure is hardly to be excelled.”

To Gregor Mendel, monk and abbott,
belongs the credit of founding the
modern science of heredity. Through
him there was brought into these
problems an entirely new idea, a fresh
conception of the nature of living things.
Mendel demonstrated by a carefully
planned series of experiments that
plants and animals are not indivisible
entities, but that every individual con-
tains an enormously large number of
smaller units, each separately heritable.
And furthermore, he demonstrated that
these units are transmitted in a definite
and regular manner.

GREGOR MENDEL’S INFLUENCE.

The rediscovery of Mendel’s Law
some fourteen years ago has led to a
complete change in our attitude towards
the problems of variation, heredity and
evolution; and the new method of study
thus introduced has rendered possible
a renewal of the attack upon these
problems with renewed vigor and with
remarkable results.

GILBERT: THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS

In systematizing any body of facts
to form a science, it is first necessary to
determine the underlying units out of
which the facts are made up. _Alchemy
could not become chemistry until its
fundamental units were discovered and
identified. So the science of genetics
could not exist until the conception
was developed that the individual is
made up of smaller heritable units
called ‘‘unit characters.’”’ Thus we are
concerned with the inheritance of unit
characters and not with the individual
as a whole. This gives us a method of
analysis hitherto little employed in
biology.

The observed phenomenon of varia-
tion is merely the manifestation of
different combinations of these unit
characters. Obviously, when individ-
uals are made up of many unit charac-
ters, say five hundred to a thousand,
the possible combinations of these units
are almost limitless and thus there
appears the variability which we ob-
serve.

The external manifestation. of a
plant or animal is, furthermore, little
criterion of its actual genetic composi-
tion. Animals may be the same in
appearance but differ widely in their
offspring. Gray rabbits, for example,
may be synthetically produced by
bringing together a number of entirely
different combinations of unit charac-
ters. Yet these gray rabbits look the
same. Every organism has its peculiar
formulae of body cells and germ cells,
or as genetists say, its own genotypic
and phenotypic formulae.

This principle was recognized many
years ago by Jordan of France, who
believed that species should be classified
according to their method of transmis-
sion and not according to their exter-
nal appearance. Thus we have the so-
called ‘“‘Jordan’s Species.”’

THE QUESTION OF “PURE LINES.”

Another problem which is puzzling
the genetist at present is the theory of
the pure line, projected by Johannsen.
This deals with another phase of the
unit character idea. If all organisms
are made up of unit characters, these
must exist as homogeneous combinations
or heterogeneous ones. The offspring

239

of a self-fertilized plant having similar
unit characters is called a ‘‘pure line.’’
According to this theory, the process of
selection as we ordinarily consider it is
a process of isolating pure lines. When
this is done, according to Johannsen, no
further progress in changing the race
is possible unless a mutation or the
sudden manifestation of a new unit-
character appears. According to this
notion, selection is a process of isolation
and elimination and has no power to
cause advancement. This leads us to
consider another and greater problem,
perhaps the greatest of all—the cause
of variation and mutation.

If evolution takes place by the ap-
pearance of new unit characters or
mutations—where do these come from?
and can they be controlled? This is
the eternal mystery. Experiments give
us little clue. Many experimental
attempts have been made to produce
mutations but all have failed. All
apparent successes have turned out to
be illusory, when subjected to rigid
tests. Most have proved to be not new
characters at all, but merely new com-
binations of old ones. Of course, we
can produce such new combinations, in
many cases, at will, but that is a far
different thing from actually producing
a new character. At present, our only
means for getting a new character is to
sit down and wait until it appears—
whence or how we know not. Even
when it has appeared in this way, it is
quite as likely to disappear again, if it
proves disadvantageous to the individ-
ual carrying it. In such an event
natural selection eliminates it (by
destroying the individual carrying it)—
unless it should happen to be useful to
man. In the latter case, we artificially
preserve it by removing the individual
carrying it from competition with its
wild relatives, and putting it to our
own use. That is why domesticated
races of animals or plants differ from
their wild relatives.

One of the greatest problems, even
yet, before the student of genetics is
that much discussed subject, the inheri-
tance of acquired characters. Are the
qualities which an organism receives
during its lifetime passed on to its off-
spring? If so, by what mechanism is

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GILBERT: THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS

this done? These are the ever-present
questions which have been worn thread-
bare by biologists and evolutionists
who have based their so-called argu-
ments upon philosophical speculations
and have not arrived at these conclu-
sions as the result of experimentation.
The present tendency of genetics, how-
ever, is to base its conclusions upon the
results of controlled experimentation
only, and the empirical method is being
applied to this time-honored contro-
versy with the hope of obtaining some-
thing tangible and definite.

To prove experimentally the inheri-
tance of acquired characters, suggests
Walter, three things are necessary:
first, a particular variation must be
called forth by a known external cause;
second, it must be something new and
not merely the awakening of latent
qualities; and third, this induced varia-
tion must exist and reappear in subse-
quent generations after the original
exciting cause has been removed. Up
to the present the so-called “acquired
characters’? which seem to be inherited
have failed to fulfill all of the require-
ments.

COMMERCIAL VALUE OF GENETICS.

The thrill of discovery is not dulled
by a suspicion that the discovery can
be commercially applied. ‘With rarest
exception the discoveries which have
formed the basis of physical progress
have been made without any thought
but for the gratification of curiosity.
Of this there are few examples more
conspicuous than the work of Gregor
Mendel. Untroubled by any itch to
make potatoes larger or bread cheaper,
he set himself in the quiet of a cloister
garden to find out the laws of hybridity,
and so struck a mine of truth, inex-
haustible in brilliancy and profit.”’

Nevertheless, the work of Mendel
had very great practical application.
The discovery known as Mendel’s Law
enables the breeder, if given sufficient
time, to construct an animal or plant
almost at will. He can take a bit here
and a bit there and by hybridization
unite them to produce whatever is
desired. For example, suppose there is
desired on the market a plant with a
red flower, dwarf stature and smooth

241

leaves. A breeder goes about the pro-
duction of this plant by taking a
variety containing the red color ‘and
another variety having the dwarf stat-
ure and crossing them together. When
the hybrid is produced, he crosses that
with a third parent having smooth
leaves. Asa result, he will have brought
together in some one of the offspring all
of the qualities desired.

You will see that the claims put forth
by students of genetics are high, but I
hope to be able to show you that their
claims are not unfounded. Any body
of science has immediately an added
fascination when its supporters are
aware that their labors are somewhat
in the main stream of progress. The
science of genetics can boast of this
position.

With an understanding of the facts of
transmission of plant characters from
generation to generation, we are enabled
to control the forces of heredity almost
at will. Biologists are learning how to
harness and use heredity as electricians
are learning how to harness and use
electricity. The one ‘uses the great
network of heredity by taking a bit
here and a bit there and putting them
together, creating a valuable new plant
or animal, the other takes our water-
falls which have little use and converts
them into greater sources of power for
the benefit of mankind.

Hays says, “‘It is fair te estimate that,
of the twenty-seven billion dollars of
our annual national production, elec-
tricity and breeding may each be
credited with one billion dollars. It is
also reasonable to expect that each will
have added another billion annually by
the time our total production reaches
thirty-seven billion dollars. As count-
less waterfalls along our streams are
waiting for the electrical engineer to
bring them into service of man, so the
choicest blood streams of heredity in
the various species of plants and of
animals are waiting for the plant breeder
or the animal breeder to segregate them
and make them available.”’

Scientific breeders believe that every
species is amenable to improvement by
breeding; that every species has in it
individuals with rare value for produc-
ing progeny along desired lines. Breed-

242

ing power, projected efficiency, or the
power of the individual plant or animal
to beget valuable progeny, has come
forward as a central idea in plant and
animal breeding. Careful breeders are
searching each species for the occasional,
the phenomenal individual—when that
one in many thousands is found, all the
rest are discarded. This individual of
superior blood is then multiplied and
sent to the growers to take the place
of their half-civilized kinds, and thus
these varieties are superseded by the
improved kind. This is the method of
improving plants and animals by simple
selection.

Breeders have worked out a yet more
radical method of producing improved
varieties, the method of crossing or
hybridization, followed by selection.
Once those rare forms with heredity
strongest in the lines in which improve-
ment is desired are secured, new and
more pronounced varieties are created
by bringing together from widely sep-
arated sources, those of the same
variety, and crossing or hybridizing
them. The resulting progeny diverge,
or vary, more widely than the progeny
of forms more closely related. The
exceptional individuals among these are
searched out and tested, in the hope of
securing an unusual or phenomenal
individual of much stronger breeding
ability than any found in either of the
stocks used as parents of the cross.
Thus is created an occasional plant or
animal which combines the best in each
parent stock and has the rare power of
projecting this new combination of
values into its progeny. To illustrate,
Dr. William Saunders, of Canada, by
crossing the two varieties of wheat
known as Fife and Lagoda, produced
Preston wheat, more valuable than
either of its parents; Webber and
Swingle, by crossing the sweet oranges
with their wild relatives, produced
valuable new species called citranges
and tangelos; and Burbank, by hybrid-
izing the black walnut and the English
walnut produced hybrid walnuts of
great value.

CHANCE FOR PRACTICAL MAN.

In the case of numerous species of
plants, as wheat, flax, carnations and

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

sugar beets, scientific breeders have
already devised effective plans for
ferreting out individuals with rare
breeding ability along desired lines, and
for thus creating new types or improv-
ing existing forms by using the subtle
forces of heredity.

Such results are not beyond the
practical breeder, as the history of
countless varieties attests. In the
middle of the last century, in France,
Louis Vilmorin set out to increase the
value of field beets as a forage crop.
With strong faith in the unity of Nature,
and the underlying principles of organic
development, he seized upon some of
the methods already in use in the pro-
duction of blooded live stock, and
adapted them to the production of
“blooded” beets. This was a great
departure in plant-breeding, and this
method, elaborated and adapted by
modern breeders, is one of fundamental
importance in the creation of new
types or the improvement of existing ~
forms of life. Vilmorin’s work with
beets resulted in raising the sugar con-
tent of the sap from seven per cent. to
15 percent. This change in the heredity
of an humble plant was the basis of a
new industry in France and in other
European countries—the _ beet-sugar
industry—and one which has now
become thoroughly established in this
country. The potency of that subtle
character in Vilmorin’s selected beet
plants, chosen for their peculiar power
to increase the sugar in the sap of their
progeny, has added millions to the
wealth of the world.

There is no lack of utility and direct
application in the study of genetics. If
we want to raise mangels that will not
run to seed, or to produce a cow that
will give more milk in less time, or milk
with more butter and less water, we
can turn to genetics with every hope
that something can be done in these
directions.

But the science of genetics is con-
cerned with another field to which I
have but briefly alluded—the field of
eugenics, the improvement of the human
stock. Eugenics is the application, to
the human race, of the principles about
which I have been speaking. This
subject will be so well covered in the

GILBERT: THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS

Journal by experts better qualified
than I, that I will say nothing more
than to quote a few sentences from
Professor Bateson. He says, ‘““But here
I would plead what I cannot but regard
as a higher usefulness in our work.
Genetic inquiry aims at providing
knowledge that may bring certainty
into a region of human affairs and con-
ceptions which might have been sup-
posed reserved for ages to be the domain
of the visionary. We have long known
that it was believed by some that our
powers and conduct were dependent on
our physical composition and that other
schools have maintained that nurture,

243

mon knowledge—not a_ philosophical
speculation, but a certainty—that liabil-
ity to a disease, or the power of resisting
its attacks, addiction to a particular
vice, or to superstition, is due to the
presence or absence of a specific ingred-
ient, and finally, that these character-
istics are transmitted to the offspring
according to definite, predicable rules,
then man’s view of his own nature, his
conceptions of justice, in short his
whole outlook on the world, must be
profoundly changed. Yet as regards
the more tangible of these physical and
mental characteristics there can be
little doubt that before many years

not nature, to use Galton’s anthithesis have passed the laws of trans-
had a preponderating influence on our mission will be expressible in simple
careers; but as soon as it becomes com- formulae.”

Two Contributions to Eugenics

The need which has long been recognized for compilation of the sources avail-
able for students of eugenics, is gradually being met. A. Edward Hamilton of the
Extension Department, Eugenics Record Office, has published a paper in the
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XXI, pp. 28-61 (March, 1914), in which he lists 100
of the most important works which have appeared, and precedes them with a full
commentary, on chronological lines, which makes an excellent history of the progress
of the science. The demand for a more complete bibliography has been largely
satisfied by the publication of a bulletin of 131 pages by the State Board of Chari-
ties of New York, through its Bureau of Analysis and Investigation, in charge
of Dr. Gertrude E. Hall. This Bibliography (Bulletin No. III, November, 1913)
covers ‘‘Eugenics and Social Welfare,” and is reasonably complete from a genetics
point of view, while its cacogenics references are remarkably full.

German Progress in Genetics

An institution for the experimental study of heredity (Institut fur Vererbungs-
forschung), the first of its kind in Germany, will be established in the next summer
semester at the Royal Agricultural High School in Berlin. The Institute, which
is divided into a zoological and a botanical section, comprises three acres of ground
for experimental breeding, a row of greenhouses, and a building for laboratories.
It will be built up on the remaining land of the High School in Potsdam during
the course of the next year. Professor E. Baur, Ph.D., M.D., hitherto director
of the Botanical Institute of the Royal Agricultural College, Berlin, has taken
the direction of the new institution, while the zoological department will probably
be entrusted to Dr. B. Klatt, privatdozent of the high school.—Mitt. der Deutsch.

Landwirthsch. Ges.

COAT COLOR IN POINTER DOGS

Examination of Stud Book From Mendelian Viewpoint Suggests That Relation
of Brown to Black is the Same in Dogs as in Other Small Mammals
Which Have Been Investigated, and That There are Two
Types of Yellow—Practical Breeding Rules.

C. . sLarree
Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Massachusetts.

HE time and expense necessary
| to conduct, on any considerable
scale, a series of breeding experi-
ments with pedigreed dogs, has
led to few efforts to investigate the laws
of inheritance in their case. The work
done by geneticists with other small
mammals has, however, shown that if
Mendel’s Law can be used successfully
in the breeding of dogs, a large number
of new and interesting forms might
well be produced.

Since the actual breeding experiments
with dogs are not likely to be undertaken
for some time, the question naturally
arises as to whether it is possible to
obtain from already existing data any
information which would be of use to the
scientific breeder.

Knowing that the American Kennel
Club has for years registered and re-
corded pedigreed and full-blooded dogs
of almost every recognized breed, I
obtained their stud book (Vols. 11-29
inclusive) to ascertain whether or not
they contained available data on color
inheritance. I found that in nearly
every animal color was recorded, and
that in several breeds the colors were
simple and distinct enough to serve as
fair material for tabulation. As E. N.
Wentworth has recently pointed out in
this journal, it is advisable to avoid,
in so far as possible, stud book records
which would be apt to b2 distorted as
a result of favoritism to one color at the
expense of one or more others.

After some hesitation, with this fact
in mind, I chose pointers as a breed
combining the greatest number of
advantageous points with a minimum of

244

disadvantageous ones. Some of the
points may now be considered in detail.

ADVANTAGES OF THE MATERIAL.

First: The colors of pointers are dis-
tinct, being black, brown (liver), and
yellow (lemon, orange or tan), on a
white ground. Between these three
colors—black, brown and yellow—there
is little or no chance of confusion.

Second: The pointer is a well-estab-
lished breed supposed to have been
imported to England from Spain early
in the eighteenth century, and then to
have been crossed with the ‘‘brach”’ or
the foxhound. From this cross the
modern pointer is supposed to have been
evolved by a process of inbreeding and
selection. On the authority of Shields,
a French encyclopedia, in defining the
‘“‘brach” or ‘“‘braque,” states that it
possessed the spotted coat, short hair
and colors of the modern pointer; facts
of considerable importance and _ evi-
dence in favor of the braque as one of
the ancestors of the pointer.

Third: No one of the colors is desired
for breeding or showing to the exclusion
of the others. Of course there are
doubtless local preferences for one or the
other color and these are probably well
marked, but for the most part it can be
said that pointers are as free from such
preferences or prejudices as any other
breed. It is at least sufficiently free
from them to assure the absence of any
wilful deceit in describing the color of
any one animal. Lee, Compton and
Westbrook all state that at the present
time liver is the most popular color,
then comes yellow next in favor, and

LITTLE: Coat CoLor IN PoINTER Docs

then black. That such is the case the
relative proportions of the three records
in the stud book seems to show.

STUD BOOK STATISTICS.

Stud book statistics are all of them
open to the objection that, at their
best, they represent part of the truth
rather than the whole truth, in that the
animals recorded are not the total
count of offspring produced by any
mating, but are rather those that reach
saleable age or maturity and are reason-
ably close to the standard of the breed
to which they belong. Such circum-
stances bring about a somewhat dis-
torted view of the actual phenomena
of inheritance in this case, but if proper
allowance is made for probable inaccura-
cies it seems likely that stud book
records of a standard organization like
the American Kennel Club are accurate
enough to give valuable statistics.

In collecting the data for this paper
certain points had to be considered.
Each mating of registered dogs was
recorded on a separate card and filed
according to the dam’s registration
number. On this card the offspring of
the mating were recorded one by one
as they were met with. No mating was
used in compiling results unless it
contained two or more offspring. Fully
two-fifths of the pointers listed in the
American Kennel Club stud book are
from unregistered parents. None of
these matings were recorded, since they
were less valuable and less accurate in
nature than those of registered parents.
The earliest volumes of the stud book
(Vols. 1-10) were not accessible to me
from the same source as the later ones.
This is not of any great importance,
however, since the number of animals
included in them is not large and since
the chance of technical errors is un-
doubtedly greater in the earlier numbers
than in the later ones.

LANG'S WORK WITH DOGS.

One of the few investigators to pub-
lish work on inheritance of dogs since
the rediscovery of Mendel’s Law is
Professor A. Lang. Lang experimented
with a pair of F1 hybrid dogs which he
obtained through Herr Pfister-Kupfer.

245

The dogs thus obtained by Lang were
black in color, and had been produced
by crossing a brown-spotted female,
somewhat hound-like in appearance,
with a pure-bred black Newfoundland
male. Fourteen puppies were thus pro-
duced, all of which were black in color.
This is excellent evidence that black
is epistatic to brown, thus coinciding
with the work of many investigators: of
inheritance in mice, rabbits and guinea-
pigs.

Lang wished to inbreed the F1
animals in order to ascertain whether
or not alternative inheritance existed.
If such was the case, brown puppies
would reappear in the F2 generation.
He therefore mated together his two
F1 animals and obtained a litter of
eight puppies. Of these, five were black
and three brown, six to two being the
theoretical Mendelian ratio in this case.
This shows that in all probability,
black and brown, in dogs, will follow
the same order in inheritance that they
do in mice and guinea-pigs.

A careful record of the extent of
pigmentation also revealed that solid
and spotted coat were, in all probability,
a pair of Mendelizing units as they are
in the other small mammals already
investigated.

OBSERVED FACTS IN POINTERS.

If one turns to the case of pointers as
recorded in the stud books, one finds
this same pair of characters, black and
brown, showing the same relation to
each other. In pointers, as in most
hounds and spaniels, brown is often
spoken of as “‘liver.”” The brown or
liver-colored dog is very distinct from
black or any of its modifications, such
as blue or gray. The nose and feet of
the liver-colored dog are pigmented with
rich chocolate brown pigment, with no
trace of black pigment present.’

It is well known to breeders of dogs
that yellows are of two very different
types. This holds true in the case of
pointers. One type is a bright, vivid
yellow with dark eyes and black nose.
The other type is duller and often lighter
yellow with pinkish-brown nose and light
eyes. The latter are considered inferior
in many breeds and are, therefore, seldom

‘In the table and test following, liver is used interchangeably with brown.

246 THE JOURNAL
used for breeding purposes if it is possible
to avoid them. The significance of
these two types of yellow is already
known in the case of rabbits and
guinea-pigs and will, I believe, become
apparent to all who breed dogs with an
eye to testing the validity of Mendel’s
Law of heredity.

If we now turn to the tabulation of
the matings of pointers from the Ameri-
can Kennel Club stud books, the follow-
ing results are obtained:

OF HEREDITY

sions as to the relative position of the
various factors involved.

Hagedoorn has stated that, in the
case of dachshunde, yellow is epistatic
to black, that is to say that restriction
of brown and black pigment is dominant
over the extension of these pigments.
This is a point of very great interest,
for if carefully executed experiments
could be carried out we should have a
chance to investigate the behavior of a
dominant and of a recessive yellow in

Color of Offspring

Nature of Mating Number of |
Matings | Black Yellow Liver

Liver x Liver 97 | 0 21 305
Black x Black 8 23 0 5
Yellow x Yellow 1 0 4 0
Black x Liver 56 itl 9 95
Yellow x Liver 1S 8 10 46
Yellow x Black 9 6 10 2

+ ‘Totals | © 186 114 54 453

From an examination of this table
it will be seen that liver appears to be
lypostatic to black, and yellow, in
turn, hypostatic to liver. We know,
however, that there are two visibly
different types of yellows and _ this,
together with the facts stated above,
suggests the hypothesis that we are
here dealing with two pairs of Mendelian
factors. These factors we may designate
as:

B: The factor for black pigment
which is absent from brown (liver)
animals.

E: The factor for extension of
brown and black pigment in the
hair. In the presence of this factor,
animals have spots of brown or
black pigment on a white ground;
in its absence the colored spots on
the coat are yellow of various
shades.

The table given above shows that
black crossed with black produces occa-
sionally brown young. On the other
hand, brown crossed inter se give no
black offspring in a total of over 300
young. This last mentioned type of
mating does, however, produce some
yellow young as well as brown ones.
These facts seem to justify the conclu-

forms that were perfectly fertile when

crossed. This would afford an oppor-
tunity to obtain data of great importance
on a point of considerable theoretical
interest in genetics.

To return to the case of pointers, we
should then expect to find the four
following visibly different zygotic types.

1. BE—Black;

2. bE—Brown (liver);

3. Be—Yellow (black nose) ;

4. be—Yellow (brown nose).

We may now consider in detail cer-
tain matings which indicate the} exis-
tence of these four types.

SOME INTERESTING MATINGS.

Type 1—Black. That black is of this
constitution is shown first by the black
x black matings (see table) which pro-
duce liver young; and second, by the
fact that black by liver may produce
yellow young. The appearance of
these two hypostatic forms in crosses
in which at least one parent is black,
and the fact that no black animals are
formed as the result of mating liver x
liver or yellow x yellow, show that
blacks possess factors which both yel-
lows and livers lack.

Type 2—Brown. That these animals
lack the factor B is shown by the fact

LITTLE: Coat CoLor IN PoINTER Docs

that they have not the ability to produce
blacks when mated inter se; while the
formation of yellows in liver by liver
matings shows that liver animals may
possess the factor E in half or all their
gametes.

Types 3 and 4—Yellow. The. dis-
tinctness of these two types of yellow
is seen by the following matings:

Female 40471 yellow was _ crossed
with male 47940 liver. It is known from
the 97 matings of liver-colored animals
that no liver-colored animal can carry
the factor for black. If this mating
produced any black young, therefore,
it would be certain that it was the
yellow parent; in this case female 40741
that carried the factor for black. The
actual result was seven brown, five
yellow, and szx black young. The yellow
parent was accordingly of the formula
be:

The other type of yellow is seen in a
mating between female 46990 yellow
and male 54357 brown, which gave only
brown (liver) young, eight in number.
Here the yellow parent was of the for-
mula be.

In the case of certain animals it is
possible to form a more or less definite
idea of their gametic constitution. Thus,
for example, male 41525, black, is
undoubtedly BbEe in formula. When
crossed with females of formula bbEE
(homozygous liver), he has sired 10
black and 16 liver-colored puppies, the
Mendelian expectation being equal num-
bers of these two colors. When crossed
with yellow females he has sired four
yellow and six non-yellow young, equal-
ity being again expected. When crossed
with liver-colored females heterozygous
in E (formula bbEe), he has sired eight
blacks, two browns and three yellows.
In this case a 9:3:4 ratio is expected.

Another famous sire, 40708 black,
is probably of the formula BbEE. Thus,
when crossed with brown females, he
has sired 17 black and nine brown young;
13 black to 13 brown being the theoret-
ical proportions. When crossed with a
yellow female he has given a total of
seven young, all non-yellow in character.

IMPORTANT PRACTICAL POINTS.

Several points of importance to the
practical breeder now became apparent.

247

In order to purify a strain from black
individuals it is only necessary to go on
breeding liver to liver and yellow to
yellow indefinitely. As long as this is
carefully done there should be no
blacks produced. Yellows from two
liver parents may safely be crossed with
liver-colored animals. If, however, any
other yellows are used, the breeder may
expect a certain number of black young
among the progeny. To obtain a pure
black strain is not so simple, requiring
for its certain completion a separate
breeding test tor each black individual
by crossing it with yellows coming from
two liver parents. If among the progeny
any liver or yellow young are found, it is
certain that the black in question is
not of the formula BBEE, and will,
therefore, not breed true. Among the
liver animals there should theoretically
be found two types; one homozygous
for the factor E and one heterozygous
for this factor. The former type should
in crosses with yellows produce only
non-yellow young. To this class belong
the following liver animals, 54357,
52793 and 47456, which have produced
by yellow mates, eight, six and five
liver-colored young respectively. The
other type of liver animal carrying
yellow as a recessive, is seen in such
animals as 44135 and 41348. These
animals when mated to yellows have
produced a total of three liver and two
yellow young, the Mendelian expecta-
tion being equal numbers.

Before considering the data in this
paper as conclusive, breeding experi-
ments should be made. The writer
believes, however, that the data is
worthy of publication, since it hints
strongly that the methods of color
breeding, used so successfully in the
case of the smaller mammals, may be
of value in breeding dogs. It also shows
that the stud books of the American
Kennel Club may be used as a source
of information as to color inheritance
in the case of several breeds of dogs.
In addition it shows tentatively that
there is a recessive type of yellow dog,
analogous to the recessive yellow of
guinea-pigs; and that the relation of
brown to blackis the same in dogs asin the
other small mammals in which the matter
has been experimentally investigated.

248 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

In closing I wish to express my in- wife, Katharine D. Little, for her
debtedness to my father, James L. assistance in collecting the data and
Little, for the chance to use the Ameri- in preparing the paper for press.
can Kennel Club stud books, and to my

REFERENCE CITED

CastTLe, W. E. (1909) Studies of Inheritance in Rabbits. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Publ. No.
114, 68 pp.

Compton, H. (1904) The Twentieth Century Dog. Vol. 2, Grant Richards London. 456 pp.

HaGepoorn, A. L. (1912) On Tri-Color Coat in Dogs and Guineapigs. Am. Nat. Vol. 46, pp.
682-683.

Lanc, A. (1910) Uber Alternative Vererbung bei Hunden. Zeit. fur Indkt. Abst. u. Vererb.
Bd. 3, pp. 1-32.

Ler, R. B. (1893) A History and Description of the Modern Dogs of Great Britain and Ireland.
Horace Cox, London, 584 pp.

WEntTWwortH, E. N. (1913) Color in Shorthorn Cattle. Am. Breeders Mag. Vol. 4, pp. 202-208.

WEsTBROOK, C. K. (1891) American Book of the Dog. Rand McNally Co. 702 pp.

Eugenics Program in Utah

Dr. Frank M. Driggs, superintendent of the Utah School for Deaf and Blind.
was elected president of the Utah Eugenics Society, at its annual meeting in Salt
Lake City during April. The following papers were read: Eugenics and the
Nation, by Mathonihah Thomas; Eugenics and the Profession, by Dr. J. Edward
Day; Popular Misconceptions of Eugenics, by Dr. Joseph Peterson; Menace of
Social Diseases, by Dr. W. R. Tyndale; Reforms Eugenics Can Not Accomplish,
by Dr. E. G. Peterson; Eugenics and Legislation, by J. C. Wheelon; Education for
Parenthood, by Dr. Ada E. Faust. The secretary, Dr. E. G. Titus, of the Uni-
versity of Utah, writes:

“The general trend of the discussions was all to the effect that we are not ready
for many of the odd and peculiar bills which have created enthsiasm in several
of the states. That is, it is much better at the present time to devote our energies
to education along eugenics lines, endeavoring to reach all the people possible and
give them an idea of what we consider a proper trend of eugenics; to have all the
lectures possible delivered before schools, church organizations and other general
assemblies; to endeavor to secure cooperation of libraries in order that they may
introduce eugenics books; to secure the cooperation of the various woman's clubs
especially those belonging to the Utah Federation of Woman’s Clubs, and if
possible, to secure at least one place on the program of each club for the coming
year; to endeavor to secure better care and protection for the classes of people
who are unable to properly care for themselves.”’

Benefits of Eugenics

The effects of eugenic reform, if successful, would be to lower taxation, to
raise real wages, to facilitate commercial competition, and to increase the security
of the country in time of war. In things wholly immaterial, great benefits would
moreover be felt; for a diminution in the number of the insane, the feebleminded,
the criminal, and the wastrels annually brought into the world would mean the
removal of a terrible burden of unmerited misery; whilst an increase in the output
of men and women of character and ability would not only add to the reputation
of our country, but would also add to its happiness in many ways. These are the
benefits we hold to be in the power of this generation to bestow on our country
in the future by now resolutely grappling with the problem of human heredity.—
Extract from presidential address (1913) of Major Leonard Darwin before the
Eugenics Education Society, London.

FACES AND RACES

VERNON L. KELLOGG
Stanford University, California.

HE Mid-Pacific Institute of
| Honolulu is the result of the
~ amalgamation in 1910 of several
boarding and mission schools for
boys and girls. Oldest of its included
schools is the Kawaiahao Seminary,
primarily intended for the education of
Hawaiian young women and girls. It
was founded in 1846 and has a record
of much effective and beneficial work.
But its pupils are by no means all
Hawaiian although they are all, for the
moment, of Hawaii. This is strikingly
shown by the photograph, reproduced
herewith, of 26 of the 127 girls now in
the Seminary.

This interesting photograph, which
was made by Miss Roselle F. Faast,
one of the teachers in the school, is
réndered accessible to the readers of the
Journal of Heredity by the kindness of
E. M. Ehrhorn, entomological super-
intendent of the Hawaiian Board of
Agriculture, who sent it to me recently
with the data of the races and race
mixtures represented by the faces pic-
tured in it.

The grouping for the photograph
was made by Miss Faast for the sake of
picturing the extraordinary melange of
races represented in the school, and
includes, with one exception, all of the
pure and mixed race types occurring
in it. It reveals, therefore, the extra-

ordinary conditions in a school under
the American flag in which every fifth
student is of different race or race
mixture. More than that, some of
these mixtures are of most unusual
character, as Irish-Chinese-Hawaiian,
and Alaskan Indian-Japanese-Hawaiian,
and Guam-French- Mexican.

The faces in the photograph are so
clear, and the racial traits so well
shown, that its careful study under a
reading glass (granted that it does not
lose too much of its sharpness of defi-
nition in the process of reproduction)
will enable any interested reader to
determine for himself, in some measure,
the dominating characteristics in these
results of certain experimental human
hybridizations.

The distribution of the parentage of
numbers 16, 17, 23 and 25, which are
given in the caption of the illustration
as including three races each, is as
follows:

No. 16: Father, half Alaskan Indian,
half Hawaiian; mother, half Japanese,
half Hawaiian.

No. 17: Father half Portuguese and
half Hawaiian; mother, half French and
half Hawaiian.

No. 23: Father, pure Guam; mother,
half Chinese and half Hawaiian.

No. 25: Father, Irish; mother, half
Chinese and half Hawaiian.

A POLYNESIAN-NORWEGIAN METISSE

THE EDITOR.

HE behavior of the Polynesian
| stock, when crossed with a
Germanic one, is more plainly
shown in the accompanying
photograph by Miss Faast of a girl of
South Sea (Nauru)-Norwegian ancestry,
who is also included in the group
picture (No. 15).

The Polynesian race, which is widely
scattered over the South Pacific, is a
comparatively late arrival, having
spread throughout the islands in suc-
cessive migrations since the Christian
era, and up to historic times—the
largest of these waves may have taken
rise in the fifth century. It is now

249

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THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

NORWEGIAN-POLYNESIAN GIRL

Unions between European men and native women are common in the South Seas, and accord-
ing to the missionary, George Brown, they are, in Samoa at least, more fertile than those
between natives. The offspring is characterized by exceptional vigor, in accordance with
the law of hybridizing so familiar to those who work with plants and animals; there

seems to be insufficient evidence as to the value of succeeding generations.

The cross

in this case is not a very “‘wide’’ one, according to De Quatrefages’ analysis of the Poly-
nesian race, but it appears that most of the noticeable Polynesian traits are dominant

over those of the Norwegian father.

pretty generally agreed that the race
is of Malayan origin, although it reveals
traces of other strains of blood, not now
found in the Malay archipelago.

“This is evident in their physical
appearance’, says Daniel G. Brinton,
‘in “Races and Peoples.” “They are
uncommonly tall, symmetrical and hand-
some, a stature over six feet not being

(Fig. 4.)

unusual among them. Their features
are regular, their color a light brown.
Their hair is black, smooth and glossy,
sometimes with a crisp or curl in it,
which betrays a touch of Papuan
blood.”

This Papuan blood was_ probably
gained while the race inhabited the
small island of Buru or Boru, between

Tae Epitor: A PoLyNEsIAN-NORWEGIAN METISSE

Celebes and Papua, where the emigrants
lived for a time after leaving their home
in the western group of islands, accord-
ing to Brinton. ‘Leaving Boru, they
passed to the North of New Guinea
(Papua), colonizing the Caroline and
Solomon Islands, but their vanguard
pressing forward to take possession of
Savai in the Samoan group and Tonga
to its south. These two islands formed
a second center of distribution over the
western Pacific. The Maoris of New
Zealand moved from Tonga—'holy
Tonga’ as they call it in their songs—
about 600 years ago. The Society
Islanders migrated from Savai, and
they in turn sent forth the population
of the Marquesas, the Sandwich
(Hawaiian) islands, and Easter Island.”

ULTIMATE ORIGIN OF RACE.

As to the ultimate origin of the race,
before its residence in the Malay
archipelago, many hypotheses have
been put forward, and there is scarcely
data available, it seems, to raise any of
these above the level of a hypothesis.
On the basis of a supposed large Semitic
element in the Polynesian language, it
has been alleged that they came from
Arabia; the most generally received
opinion, however, is probably one
which places their first home in south-
eastern Asia.

The French anthropologist, De
Quatrefages, held that the Polynesians
were essentially a hybrid race, and sus-
tained his thesis as follows:

“Everything indicates that the Poly-
nesian race is a mixed race, that is, that
it has been formed by means of crosses
between populations which differed
widely in their physical characteristics.

“Furthermore, all the facts indicate
that this race is the product of elements
borrowed from the three fundamental
types, white, black and yellow, and this
preliminary proposition, which all our
later study will confirm, shows itself at
once and clearly in a study of the traits
which characterize the Polynesians.’

253

“In a Tahitian head which belongs
to the Museum, and ‘which may be
considered as an excellent type of the
race, the skull, properly speaking, is
high, moderately elongated from back
to front; the curve which it describes
from forehead to occiput is at first
regular, but suddenly flattened at the
back. The parietal prominences at the
sides of the head are not very pro-
nounced. The forehead is rather reced-
ing, although the frontal bone is well
developed. The orbits are moderately
far apart, the cheek bones slightly
prominent, the bones of the nose raised
and of medium development. The
upper jaw is slightly protruding, in
other words it is a little bit prognathous,
and presents a somewhat massive ap-
pearance; the lower jaw is curved
below and presents a prognathism that
is little marked.

“The ensemble which I have just
sketched indicates a fusion of the
characters which one finds among the
white, yellow and black races. They
modify and efface each other recipro-
cally.

“On the other hand, we find in other
skulls much more accentuated traits.
In one, belonging to a native of the
Marquesas islands, the general form of
the skull approaches that of the Hindu;
the forehead is raised, the nose more
prominent, the upper jaw is hollowed,
and the lower one does not protrude.

““Here the characters of the white
race are incontestably most evident.

“In still other skulls, coming either
from the same locality or elsewhere, the
skull is lengthened and narrowed, the
bony ridges become more pronounced;
the forehead is decidedly receding, the
superciliary ridges very prominent, the
cheek ‘bones thrust forward; the nasal
bones, small and concave, are welded
together like those of the Hottentots;
the protruding jaws and teeth are as
marked as among pure negroes.

“Here the predominance of the
Melanesian type’ becomes indisputable.

1A. De Quatrefages, ‘‘Les Polynesiens et Leurs Migrations,” pp. 6-9, Paris.
2The word Melanesians is commonly used to designate the negroes who populate a part of

the South Sea Islands.

The double maxillary prognathism, that is, the protrusion of both jaws,

is one of the traits which distinguishes them from the negroes of Africa, among whom the upper
jaw alone presents this appearance, as a general thing. On the other hand, the negroes of Guinea
have a double dental prognathism, while the negro of Oceania often has the teeth of the lower

maxillary almost vertical—De Quatrefages.

254 THE JOURNAL
“If one passes from osteological
characters to those furnished by the
living man, we find a complete concor-
dance. Generally the dome of the head
is high, a little short from back to front,
and flattened at the back [from artificial
causes]. The forehead is well-devel-
oped, but ordinarily a little low; it
often becomes beautiful, and the facial
angle equals that of a European. The
nose, although a little too short, and
flattened by manipulation during in-
fancy*®, is often straight and prominent
too; in some islands, it is almost always
aquiline, a character which belongs
essentially to the white race. The eyes,
rather small, are almost always hori-
zontal, rarely oblique; and black in
color. The cheek bones are prominent,
but usually protrude forward, as with
certain white populations, rather than
on the sides. The mouth is well formed
and its expression agreeable, although
the lips are slightly too thick, and usually
present that pecuhar clamminess which
indicates negro blood; but sometimes
they are as fine and thin as those of a
European. The chin often projects
forward to an exaggerated degree, and
then becomes narrow and pointed. The
color of the skin varies from a very pale
bistre yellow, recalling that of certain
Southern Europeans, to a dark brown,
which sometimes passes into a copper

oF HEREDITY

color. Finally the black or light or dark
chestnut hair usually has a tendency
to roll into curls and is often enough
wavy but never woolly. The characters
of the hair alone attest that the yellow
element forms an inconsiderable part
in the composition of the Polynesian
race, for hair invariably black, straight
and impossible to curl is one of the
most general traits of Mongolian popula-
tions, without a single exception, to my
knowledge.

“To sum up, the Polynesian race
offers characters belonging individually
to the white, yellow and black; but the
influence of these respective ethnological
elements is quite different. The yellow
element hardly shows itself except in the
color; it seems to have little part in the
formation of the facial appearance.
The black element has more effect on
the face, and often tends to darken the
color of the skin. To it also must be
attributed the waviness or disposition
to curl which the hair often shows.
But the element which is by far the
dominant, at least in a part of the
population, is the white. This assertion
will probably surprise many readers;
nevertheless, all that is necessary to
recognize it for true is to read the nar-
ratives of travelers, in particular those
which complete the voyages of Dumont-
d’Urville and his companions.”

5A flat nose is a great perfection and beauty for a woman.—Moerenhout.

Bismarck’s Heredity

The heredity of Prince Otto von Bismarck, the ‘Iron Chancellor,” is studied
by the genealogist Dr. St. Kekule von Stradonitz in the Mitt. der Zentralstelle f.
deutsche Personen-und Familien-geschichte (Heft 7, 1910). The results are
briefly as follows: Bismarck’s paternal ancestry shows two peculiarities: A rather
badly obscured line of ancestry, and a derivation through the female line from
the famous field marshal Derfflinger. The maternal line is unbroken in its exhibi-
tion of literary character (the Mencke family); the maternal great-grandmother
of Bismarck, wife of the younger Gottfried Ludwig Mencke, professor at Helm-
stadt, belongs to one of the most noted families of the period. But uncertain
links are also found in her ancestry. The great-grandmother referred to was the
grand-daughter of Johann Witten, syndic of the Damenstift of Gandersheim,
and son-in-law of the chairman of the syndics, Michael Bittner. He is the most
noteworthy figure in Bismarck’s maternal line; he died in 1677. The account of
this man, given by Dr. von Stradonitz, shows, as he says, a remarkable correspond-
ence to the character of Bismarck himself. And when one follows back Bismarck’s
ancestry until he has included 128 of his progenitors, he is inclined to admit the
author’s explanation, that Bismarck was ‘‘the atavistic product of a cross between
the Derfflinger and Michael Bittner <trains of germ-plasm.”’

PUEBLO INDIAN MAIZE BREEDING

Varieties Specially Adapted to Arid Regions Developed by Hopis and Navajos—
Their Work Not Sufficiently Appreciated—Probably
Much Yet to be Learned from Them.

G. N. ‘Coriins

Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.

MONG the many gifts that the
white man received from the
American Indian, maize is un-
doubtedly the most valuable.

In the mythology of the Indian this
cereal occupies a central position as the
most important gift of the gods.

The power of minute observation
commonly possessed by primitive people
is highly developed in the agricultural
Indian tribes of the Southwest. These
Indians spend much of their time in
their maize fields and it is only natural
that the plant which supplies their
principal food should come to be known
in great detail. Every character of the
plant, every operation in its cultivation
and every stage in its growth are
observed by the Indian with a minute
attention in which he is seldom equalled
by his white brother.

The ceremonies and care with which
maize is cultivated by the Indians of
the Southwest are well illustrated in a
series of articles on ‘“‘Zuni Breadstuff,”’
by the late Frank Cushing, who showed
that the importance of selection, care of
seed, and cross-breeding, though not
appreciated as such, are all given care-
ful and conscious consideration by the
Zunis.

According to Cushing, “In each corn-
room or granary of Zuni, are preserved
carefully, four objects; an ear of yellow
corn full to the tip of perfect kernels,
called a yd-po-to; an ear of white corn
which has resulted from the inter-
growth of two or more ears within a
single husk-fold, called, from its dis-
proportionate breadth and flatness, a
mi-k'1ap-pan-ne; a moderately large
normal ear of corn which has been
dipped by a Seed-Priest, in the waters

of the great sacred Salt Lake far south
of Zuni (Las Salinas of New Mexico),
and a bunch of unbroken corn-soot.
The latter two objects are laid side by
side on the floor in the middle of the
corn-room, and upon them also side by
side, usually connected by a bandage of
cotton filaments, the yd-po-to and the
mi-k'tap-pan-ne.

“The significance of all this is both
interesting and poetic. The corn-soot
is held to symbolize the ‘generation of
life,’ the salted and sanctified ear of
corn, the material given by the gods and
prepared by man, as the means whereby
generated life is sustained, and finally,
both these are regarded as the resting
place or couch of the Father and Mother
of corn-crops or seed; the yd-po-to
being the male, the m1-k’tap-pan-ne,
the female.

EARS SELECTED WHILE GROWING.

“In a field of growing maize the
owner selects such hills as give promise
of speediest maturity. These receive
his special care. No sooner have a few
ears ripened on them than he picks the
most perfect, as well as a bunch of soot
from some neighboring stalk, and
tenderly carries them home in his arms.
Arrived at the entrance-way of his
house he calls to the women within:

~ “We come!’

‘““*Ah! How come ye?’ say they.

‘“ “Together, happily,’ he replies.

““*Then enter ye!’ calls out the chorus
of women’s voices, whereupon the man
goes slowly in. One of the women
beckons his attention to the ‘sitting
place,’ which, in this instance, is a
decorated basket-tray in the center of
the room. Thither he proceeds and

255

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MESOCOT VL. <

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THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

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—_— FiIlPST TAUE
LEAF

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SECONDARY
SEMINAL POOTS

THE PARTS OF A SEEDLING MAIZE PLANT

This diagram will furnish the non-botanical reader with the names needed to understand the

story of Pueblo Indian maize breeding.

places, one by one, the ears of corn in
the tray—using care that they shall all
point eastward—and lays the bunch of
soot over them. The women of the
house flock to the mantel whereon
stands the family bowl of prayer-meal,
each taking a pinch of the sacred sub-
stance, while one of their number, the
‘corn-matron,’ hastens away to the
granary, and carefully. lifting the ya’-
po-to and mi-k’iap-pan-ne, brings them
forth. As she nears the tray, she says,
across the objects in her hands (address-
ing the new corn), ‘My children, how
be ye these many days?’ Then the

(Fig. 5.)

new corn is supposed to reply through
the voices of the other women, now
gathered near, ‘Happily, our old ones,
happily!’ With this the corn matron
deposits her burden on the new bunch
of soot, and all present say little prayers
significant of the occasion and setting
forth their wishes for ‘age of life, happy
fortune and the health of strength born
of the food of maize.’ This ceremonial
is called the ‘Meeting of the Children,’
and is performedin commemoration of the
return of the lost corn maidens under the
guidance of Pav-a-tu-ma, and their wel-
come by the Seed-Priests of ancient Zuni.

COLLINS:

“With the closing of the prayers, the
right hand of each worshipper is passed
gently over the tray—while scattering
prayer-meal—and breathed from. The
corn-matron then returns to the gran-
ary, bearing both the old corn and the
new. She replaces the old bunch of soot
with the new, laying the former away
with the fresh ears of corn, and return-
ing the ya’-po-to and mi-k'iap-pan-ne
to their resting place.

EARS CAREFULLY

“When all the harvest has been
gathered, dried, sorted and corded up,
around and over the ‘Father and
Mother’ in the corn-room, the cere-
monial interrupted at the beginning is
resumed. While the corn is_ being
classified as to color and grade, the
finest ears of each kind are selected and
laid aside. These, and the ears of ‘new
corn’ are together laid along the outer
edge of the corn- pile. Next morning
the corn-matron takes a basket tray
perhaps the same one used before, or at
least one like it—and goes to the door of
the corn-room. Here she slips off her
left. moccasin, then enters. As she
passes the threshold she looks around
as though she were about to address a
group of waiting friends and exclaims:

“ “My mothers and children, how be
ye, and how have you come unto the
morning?’ and after a moment herself
replies: ‘Happily!’

“Reverently, for she is in the presence
of the conscious and the benign—so it
seems to her—she approaches the cord
of corn and with her left hand takes of
the selected ears along the top, an ear
for each finger (that is, four), then with
the right hand an equal number, plac-
ing them in the tray. She brings these
forth and assisted by the male head of
the household, shells them with such
care that not a kernel is lost. Dust
from the old bunch of soot is scattered

SORTED.

over the shelled corn, and a curious
sacred pigment is prepared, in an

earthen ladle, of yellow paint and a
kernel of salt, from the mountain near
the lake of the dead, and the salt lake
in the South. To these ingredients are
added two or three kinds of little yellow
flowers, the principal variety being
precious in the eyes of the Zuni, as that

PUEBLO INDIAN MAIZE

i)
wn
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3REEDING

Seedling of Hopi maize planted eight inches underground.
The first permanent roots can be seen sticking out seven
and one-half inches above the seed. (Fig. 6.)

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

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SUPERIORITY OF NAVAJO MAIZE FOR DEEP PLANTING

Test plantings of the Navajo dry-land maize, and Chinese and Boone County White, - were

made in a box at the depths shown in the diagram. The Navajo surpassed its competitors
in growth at all depths; but from the lower levels it was the only one to emerge, due to its
extraordinary adaptation for such growth, through the elongation of its mesocotyl. The
diagram shows that at intermediate depths the Chinese and Boone varieties could not
force their coleoptyles to the surface, and weré obliged to make the last few centimeters of
the distance by the aid of the true leaves, which in general are ill-adapted to pushing

through solid earth. (Fig. 7.)

which was left over of the seed stores of
the gods. All this is mixed with pollen
and water, and the whole tray of
kernels is thoroughly sprinkled and
anointed by stirring. The corn grains
thus treated are bright-yellow in color
and pleasantly odoriferous. All this is
done that the ‘seed’ may have the power
of reproduction, rapid growth and
strength, and that it may bear fruit
possessed of the properties of food,
which fruit shall mature with the season
when thrive most and bloom the little
yellow flowers,—early autumn.

SUCCESSFUL SEED SELECTION.

“We are at first surprised when we
learn that to a remarkable degree the
corn thus treated has vigor and the
quality of ripening early; but our won-
der may be lessened when we reflect
that the ‘se seeds are the most perfect of

M Zuni Breadstuff,”’ V, Frank H. Cushing, The Millstone, Vol. IX, Nov.

the whole harvest, selected mostly
from among those ears which soonest
reach maturity. Still, with the Zuni
all these things are living testaments of
faith, proving the infallibility of his
theory of Medicine or Fetichism and of
his practice of religion.’”

Mr. Cushing lived with the Zunis for
a number of years and became a member
of the tribe. He succeeded to a remark-
able degree in attaining the Indian
point of view, but appreciation of the
Indians did not lessen his zeal for
accuracy. This series of articles written
in a charming literary style tells not
only what the Zunis eat and how they
secure their food, but gives a tantalizing
glimpse of the character and personality
of the Zuni.

In other articles of the same series
the cultural methods of the Zunis are
described. Though mixed with super-

5, 1884.

Co.iins: PuEBLO INDIAN MaizE BREEDING

stition, the methods employed are seen
to be admirably adapted to supply
fertility to the soil and to conserve
moisture, enabling these Indians to
produce maize under conditions that
prohibit the growing of this crop by the
methods ordinarily employed by whites.

The many incidental references to
peculiar agricultural practices in Mr.
Cushing’s articles suggest that careful
study of the agricultural practices of
the different Indian tribes might dis-
close many facts of economic impor-
tance to agriculture. The results des-
scribed in the present paper show one
such fact: that we must thank the Indian
for calling our attention to deep planting
as a factor in drought resistance and
for having developed a type of maize
with peculiar characteristics that per-
mit the utilization of this factor to an
extraordinary extent.’

VALUABLE LORE NEGLECTED.

The development of maize as a culti-
vated plant must have involved a long
series of unconscious experiments which
resulted in important agricultural dis-
coveries. That the results of these
experiments are clothed in the language
of myths and legends should not obscure
the fact that in many instances they
reveal sound agricultural principles.
The study of this primitive agricultural
lore has too long been left to the eth-
nologist. We have accepted the Indian’s
gift of maize but have hastened away
without stopping to learn its full value
or how best to utilize it.

Had we taken the trouble to learn
and appreciate the Indian’s discrimina-
tion in the choice of varieties, the
differences in flavor and adaptability to
different methods of cooking, we would
not have assumed this valuable human
food to be useful chiefly for the nourish-
ment of our domestic animals.

Indians of the Southwest have pre-
served from pre-Columbian times a
type of maize able to produce fair crops
in regions where the better-known
varieties of the East fail for lack of
sufficient water. An important factor

259

in the drought resistance of this type of
corn is its ability to force the growing
shoot of the seedling to the surface of
the soilwhen planted at a depth of a foot
or more. At such depths less specialized
varieties die before reaching the surface.

The literature of corn contains reports
of many experiments conducted to
determine the proper depth of planting,
but the results are confusing and con-
tradictory. It has generally been
realized that the optimum depth is
influenced by differences in soil and cli-
mate, but that the proper depth might
vary with different varieties seems not
to have been appreciated. The varying
behavior of types when planted at
different depths is additional proof that
it is unsafe and unscientific to generalize
with respect to cultural factors without
taking type, varietal and even individual
differences into account.

The primary root or radicle which is
the first organ to emerge from the
germinating seed is soon followed by the
shoot or plumule. Enclosing the shoot
is the cotyledonary sheath or coleoptyle,
a tubular organ which is closed and
pointed at the upper end. Between the
base of the coleoptyle and the seed, the
axis is somewhat elongated (see Fig. 5).
With seeds germinated in the laboratory
this elongation is so slight that it might
easily be overlooked. Nevertheless,
this small organ has not escaped the
notice of morphologists and its nature
has been the subject of much discussion.
It has been called variously hypocotyl,
mesocotyl and epicotyl. By some it
is held to be an internode, by others
merely an elongated node.

HOW THE SHOOT REACHES DAYLIGHT.

When a grain of corn germinates in
the ground this usually insignificant
organ is of vital importance to the
life of the plant, for it is through the
elongation of this mesocotyl that the
shoot is enabled to reach the surface.

So long as a maize seedling remains
below ground away from light, the
mesocotyl will continue to elongate,
until it reaches a maximum length that

The description of the drought resisting adaptations of this type of maize has been pub-
lished in The Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 1, No. 4, Dept. of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C., January 10, 1914, where the subject is treated in a somewhat more botanical way.

SPECIALIZATION IN HOPI SEEDLINGS

varieties bred by the Indians of the southwest have but one seminal root, as shown in
the three seedlings at the left (fig. 8); and they are able to throw their entire energy into
the prolongation of this single radicle, so that they can force it down into moister ground,
as the moisture recedes during periods of drought. Ordinary varieties like the Chinese,
two seedlings of which are shown at the right (fig. 9), throw out several seminal roots
and are obliged to divide their energy; thus they can not reach to the depths which the
ingle radicle of the Hopi variety attains. In the struggle for existence during drought,

the Hopi variety thu possess a decided advantage.

260

CoLiins: PuEBLo INDIAN MaizE BREEDING

varies in different varieties of maize.
As the mesocotyl elongates, the coleop-
tyle with its firm, sharp point is pushed
upward through the soil. As soon as
the coleoptyle emerges from the soil the
elongation of the mesocotyl ceases and
elongation of the internode bearing the
first true leaf begins, forcing open the
coleoptyle.

If the seed ts planted so deep that the
maximum elongation of the mesocotyl
fails to bring the coleoptyle to the
surface the task of penetrating the soil
and reaching light devolves upon the
first true leaves. In comparison with
the sharp coleoptyle, these leaves are
but poorly adapted for forcing their
way through the soil, and if the tip of
the coleoptyle stops more than a few
centimeters below the surface these
leaves usually crumple and never reach
the light. -*—

In the varieties of maize commonly
grown the mesocotyl can seldom be
forced to a length greater than four
inches, while in the Hopi and Navajo
varieties this usually minute organ may
reach the relatively enormous length of
10 or even 12 inches, thus making it
possible for these Indians to plant their
maize deep in the ground where the soil
is moist and germination is assured.

The mesocotyl is a beautiful con-
trivance for removing the young seed-
ling from the seed and planting it at the
proper depth from the surface. The
true base of the plant is the base of the
coleoptyle, the point from which the
permanent roots arise. Since elongation
of the mesocotyl ceases when the tip
of the coleoptyle reaches the light, the
length of the coleoptyle determines the
depth at which the first permanent
roots develop.

Figure 6 shows a seedling of Hopi
maize as it developed when planted
eight inches below the surface of the
ground. The first permanent roots can
be seen developing at the base of the
coleoptyle 71% inches above the seed.

GERMINATION OF NAVAJO MAIZE.

In the fall of 1912, W. T. Swingle
and K. F. Kellerman of the Bureau of
Plant Industry visited the region about
Shiprock, N. M., in the Navajo reserva-
tion, and secured specimen ears of the

261

maize grown by the Navajos. This col-
lection was kindly placed at the dis-
posal of the writer. Additional seed
was later secured through the courtesy
of Wm. T. Shelton, agent at Shiprock.

It has been frequently stated that
the Navajos, like their neighbors the
Hopi and Zunis, plant maize at unusual
depths, 6, 12 and even 18 inches
having been reported. Since planting
at such depths was known to be im-
practicable with other varieties, an
experiment was planned to test the
ability of the Navajo maize in piercing
the soil. A box, 70 cm. by 33 cm. and
34 cm. deep was sunk in the ground. A
quantity of sandy loam soil sufficient to
fill the box was slightly moistened and
carefully sifted. At one end the box
was filled to within one cm. of the top,
the soil sloping in a straight line to
within one cm. of the bottom at the
other end.

Five seeds each of Navajo, Boone
County White, and Chinese maize were
placed in a row transverse to the
inclined surface of the soil, two cm.
from the top of the box.

A similar row was planted at four cm.
from the top, and so on at the following
depths: 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28 and
32 cm. The box was then filled with
the soil and struck off level with the
top.. The seeds germinated promptly,
and when the most advanced seedling
had reached a total height of about 60
cm. the plants which appeared above
the surface were dug up and the
mesocotyl and coleoptyle were measured
(see Fig. 7).

Twelve cm. was the _ greatest
depth from which Chinese seedlings
appeared at the surface. Boone seed-
lings appeared from all depths up to
20 cm. while Navajo plants appeared
from all plantings to the very deepest,
32 cm.

There were numerous instances where
the combined length of the mesocotyl
and coleoptyle was less than the depth
at which the seed was planted. This, of
course, means that the upper layers of
the soil were penetrated by the true
leaves. The maximum depth of scil
thus penetrated by the true leaves of the
plants of the Chinese variety was five
cm. One Boone plant forced its leaves

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VNOZIYV NI AZIVI AO NOLLVINVId INDZ

262

CoLuins: PuEBLO INDIAN MaizE BREEDING

through eight cm. of soil. In all of the
Navajo plants the coleoptyle reached
the surface. .

The extent to which the Chinese and
Boone seedlings were able to penetrate
the soil by means of the true leaves was
doubtless much greater in the carefully
prepared soil of the experiment than
would be the case under field conditions
where any slightly compacted lump of
soil would deflect the tender leaves and
cause them to crumple. On the other
hand, many seedlings failed to come up
where there was less than two cm.
between the top of the coleoptyle and
the surface of the ground. The results
clearly show that the coleoptyle is the
proper organ for penetrating the soil
and where this office devolves upon the
leaves, germination is uncertain.

It has been observed in many field
plantings that the spatulate first leaf,
formerly called the cotyledon, is the
first evidence of the germinating plant.
When this occurs in any considerable

proportion of the plants, it is safe to.

assume that the seed has been planted
too deep for the best results.

In examining these experimental
plants it was observed that the root
system of the Navajo variety differed
from that of the other varieties. The
roots of the Navajo seedlings extended
to a greater depth, but there was only
a single root arising from each seed,
while in the Chinese and Boone seed-
lings the roots were shorter and more
numerous. Further experiments with
Hopi and Zuni varieties showed them
to be like the Navajo variety in pro-
ducing but a single root from the seed.

The roots of maize are of two kinds,
those that rise from the embryo or seed,
called seminal roots, and those produced
from the nodes of the plant. Of the
latter class, those that arise from the
nodes above the ground are often called
brace roots or aerial roots. In the
varieties commonly grown in the United
States there are, in addition to the
primary root or radicle, from two to
six additional roots that arise from the
base ‘of the cotyledon. These secondary
seminal roots, though appearing some-
what later, usually equal or exceed the
radicle in size. In the Pueblo varieties
of maize these secondary seminal roots

263

have been absent in all seedlings thus
far examined, the radicle being the only
root arising from the seed (see Figures
8 and 9).

FIELD. STUDIES OF PUEBLO MAIZE.

In September, 1913, opportunity was
afforded for a short visit to the Zuni,
Navajo and Hopi Indian reservations
of Arizona and New Mexico. It was
thus possible to form some idea of the
agricultural significance of the peculi-
arities and habits of germination of this
type of maize.

The value of deep planting made
possible by the greatly elongated meso-
cotyl was obvious. In the localities
selected by the Indians for planting
maize the soil is sandy and in the
absence of spring rains the surface
layers are, of course, very dry. The
seed, to germinate at all, must be
planted deep enough to be in contact
with the moist soil. In Navajo fields
near Tohachi, N. M., plants were dug
up and the remains of seeds were found
at depths ranging from five to seven
inches below the surface. Similar
depths were found in a Zuni field near
Black Rock, Arizona (see Figure 10.)
In a Hopi field at Polacca, Arizona,
near the first mesa, where the conditions
are extreme, the seed had been planted
at 10 inches from the surface. It thus
appears that there is no fixed depth for
planting, the custom being to plant
deep enough to place the seed in moist
soil. If the seed were planted at or-
dinary depths, germination might be
delayed until the latter part of June or
the first of July, at which time the rains
usually occur, or if the seeds germinated
as a result of one of the occasional
showers occurring in May, the plants
would die from subsequent dessication.

Like the long mesocotyl, the simple
radicle of the Pueblo maize may be
looked upon as an adaptation to the
extreme conditions that exist where
this type is grown. For six or eight
weeks after planting no rain can reason-
ably be expected and during this time
the moisture is constantly receding
from the surface. By concentrating the
energy of the seedling into a single root
the latter is forced to greater depths and
consequently kept in soil that is more

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AZIVIN MOYD SNVIGNI IdOH AHL MOH

64

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SHLLTOAOMAIG YWAGNA ONIMOWD AZIVIN

*%

266

moist than would be the case where a
number of seminal roots developed.
Thus under ordinary conditions where
moisture is distributed through the
entire seed bed the seminal roots be-
come of little importance as soon as the
seedling is established and nodal roots
have developed. If a half grown or
nearly mature corn plant is carefully
dug up, the seminal roots and traces of
the seed can still be found but they are
usually dry and shrunken and are
obviously of little use to the plant.
This was also the condition found in
Navajo and Zuni maize fields, though
the seminal roots were more strongly
developed than in the eastern varieties.
But, in the more extreme conditions
existing in the fields near the Hopi
villages, where, as stated, the seeds were
planted deeper, it was found that the
seminal roots were relatively much
larger and were still alive and fresh,
making it apparent that they retain
their function of supplying moisture,
and are able to play an important part
during the entire life of the plant.

HOW THE MAIZE IS GROWN.

In one field at the base of the first
Hopi Mesa the hills of maize were
planted about 20 feet apart with from
10 to 20 plants ina hill (see Figure 11).
The soil was apparently pure sand
washed down by the winter rains and
entirely destitute of vegetation other
than the planted maize. An average
hill dug up in the field was found to
contain 15 plants ranging from 60 to
90 cm. in height. The remains of the
seeds were found at 25 cm. from the
surface and from each seed there de-
scended a single large seminal root.
These seminal roots were traced to a
depth of 35 cm. and extended even
farther down. They were still fresh and
densely covered wich fine branches.
This mass of 15 seminal roots, while
less in volume than the nodal roots
arising near the surface, was apparently
playing an important part in the sup-
port of the plants. The mesocotyls
connecting the seminal roots with the
plants above, while dry on the outside,
were filled with live tissue quite unlike
the dry and shrunken mesocotyls found
in plants of similar age grown under
more favorable conditions.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

When planted by the Indian methods,
the Hopi and Navajo varieties of maize
have been found superior to the more
improved eastern varieties for these very
dry regions. At the time of our visit
there was a small field near Keams
Canyon that had been planted by east-
ern methods. The plants were in rows
and thinned to one stalk to the hill.
There had evidently been a fair germina-
tion but the plants had died without
reaching maturity and had produced
no seed. At the same time in the
nearest Indian fields at Polacca the
plants were dark green and maturing a
fair crop, though the season was said
to have been unusually dry.

Under extreme drought or other
unfavorable conditions the persistent
tendency of this type of maize to pro-
duce seed is very striking. Where any
growth is possible it seems to be
expended in the production of seed.
Many plants were seen where the
length of the ear was equal to one-half
the height of the entire plant. A plant
of this kind is shown in Figure 12.
With most of the improved varieties of
maize the ear is the first instead of the
last part of the plant to suffer when
unfavorable conditions are encountered.

Even under irrigation the somewhat
larger strains grown by the Navajos
have been found to compare-very favor-
ably with eastern types. Several acres
of Navajo maize were seen at Shiprock,
N. M., under irrigation. The fields
were very uneven, apparently the
result of alkali, but in the better por-
tions the yield was good. The plants
were standing about two feet apart in
the row, the rows four feet apart, and
nearly every plant was bearing from
two to four fair sized ears (see Figure
13). The ears from 36 plants repre-
senting a number of distinct types were
collected. The 36 plants bore in all
94 ears weighing 37.6 lbs., an average of
15.2 oz. per plant. The plants produc-
ing these ears averaged only a little
over five feet in length.

CONCLUSIONS.

American agriculture is under obliga-
tion to the American Indian for having
developed the maize plant toa high state
of efficiency and for having adapted
it to a wide range of environment.

Ms

4

be ba }

gitnigesz
AE]
aN ‘

FAY}

Mus

pW hds, ry

ste i
PEEP 0:

Mb) y
iy

NAVAJO MAIZE GROWN UNDER IRRIGATION

<, New Mexico.
-farming, their
1 varieties.

maize are particularly adapted to dry
orably with that of the ordinary commercia

with the leaves and husks removed, at Shiproch

’

Indian types of

yield under irrigation compares fav

(Fig. 13.)

gh these

A single plant photographed
Althou

267

268

The importance of the unconscious
pioneer agricultural work of the Indian
has not been adequately appreciated.
Many of the agricultural requirements
of maize laboriously ascertained by
experiment might have been learned
from a study of the agricultural prac-
tices of the Indian.

The agricultural Indians of the South-
west have continued, from prehistoric
times, to grow maize successfully in
regions where drought, and especially
the absence of spring rains, make the
growing of the common varieties impos-
sible. A study of the varieties grown
by the Hopi and other agricultural
Indians shows that these varieties
possess two special adaptations: (1) A
greatly elongated mesocotyl that per-
mits deep planting and (2) the develop-
ment of a single large radicle that rapidly
descends to the moist subsoil and supplies

THE JOURNAL

oF HEREDITY

water during the critical seedling stage.

This indigenous type of maize seems
to have attracted little attention, per-
haps because it has been included in
the popular mind with a series of
inferior varieties commonly known as
“squaw corn.’”’ But the Pueblo Indians
of Arizona and New Mexico have
strains sufficiently productive to com-
pare favorably with improved varieties
even when grown under irrigation. The
peculiar adaptations of this type defi-
nitely indicate its value for the semi-
arid regions, and warrant experiments
to determine the possibility of its utili-
zation.

It is believed that a canvass of the
varieties of maize grown by the Indians
and a careful study of the agricultural
practices of the different tribes will dis-
close much of interest and value to
American agriculture.

The First and Last Child

With a view to throwing light on the question whether the first-born children,
or the last-born children in large families, are inferior in vitality to the rest of their
fraternity, Dr. Alfred Ploetz of Munich, Germany, compiled the returns from a
large number of families of the nobility, and published them in the Archiv fir
Rassen und Gesellschafts-Biologie (VIII, 761). He does not interpret his figures,
but they seem to show very little difference in the viability of children in a family,
with regard to their order of birth.

He grouped all the first-born children together, all the second-born children
together, and so on, and then found how many of them had died before the fifth
year of life. The results, so grouped, are as follows:

Number of
Children
Included

Per Cent.

Order of Birth | That Died

|

EerStaDort Chil Gren sa-ag tie sicle tbete ess Sy. RIAN abe. tim clay oon ier netic ala 614 26.4
SBCONC-DOET CHUGTED hare. cic. o Ware cate cools sere Gre seco ISe ce CRI eee arial he ke 539 24.9
Miaird=pOrt CHUGTETI. ir. ss oists aade she «rocatess Wiapsuer whe. + Setar ie cae 455 26.4
MOmEcb=DoOri -CHIren {.5 5. 2. cr s.o Mkele es CC w¥e.aule bieic, « Sa eee eer 386 25.6
Batth=pord “Childrens ge cas wiv tis capa nidiot anette fers os eee ab eeate Stake ee 311 26.0
SIM prl- DOLE MCLILGL OE: Aa. aus gat aceuiere aisle Rteieia coca cen aay eek eaters 249 | » 2628
Sevento- tO si bh-DOLt CHILGTEt .diniy.alas outa eet oa ame bios Gatien ake 463 26.3
Téenth- to nineteenth-bort Childrens. dca ea, o st cvs peilions ns iv ees 302 34.4

ET OSUSALS ons is erate DTRTN RN ete eon Ak eee ei us POR Ua Te eee af /

A RADISH-CABBAGE HYBRID

Cross Between Two Genera Shows Extraordinary Vigor but Absolute Sterility—
Pollen Irregular Both in Size and in Shape—Two Extra
Stamens Present in Some of the Flowers.’

Fuirppo Gravatt, Blacksburg, Va.

forms that whenever their system-

atic differences are very great, they

will not hybridize with each other.
A large number of species will hybridize
with other species of the same genera,
though the product obtained is usually
sterile. The great majority of species
will not hybridize with other species
of the same genus. In regard to crosses
between different genera a good many
have been reported. Each of these
successful crosses represents hundreds
of unreported failures, owing to the
great difficulty in effecting such a
cross. These generic crosses have been
effected in various different families,
both in the Dicotyledons and in the
Monocotyledons.

In the Cruciferae, mention was found
of one generic cross, that between the
garden radish, Raphanus sativus, and
the garden cabbage, Brassica oleracea.
This cross was made by Segeret, a
German, many years ago, although there
seems to be doubt about it in the mind
of Fockle, who reports Segeret’s work.

The chief distinction between the
genera Raphanus and Brassica are that
the pod of the former is one celled or
with spongy transverse partitions, while
that of Brassica is longitudinally two
celled and dehiscent. Between the two
species there are a number of differ-
ences, but these will be noted later.
The radish and the cabbage have both
been developed in cultivation for hun-
dreds of years.

In the greenhouse during 1910 a large
number of flowers cf three different
varieties of radish were emasculated
and bagged. Two days later, when most
of the stigmas were in receptive condi-

[ IS a general rule with organic

tion, they were pollinated with pollen
from a cabbage ‘plant which was a first
generation hybrid between the varieties
“Volga Russian” and “‘Curled Savoy.”
Perhaps the fact that the cabbage plant
was a hybrid had something to do with
the success of this generic cross. The
bags were left over the pollinated
flowers for two weeks. At the end of
that time all had dropped off except
two small pods of the variety ‘Long
Scarlet Short Top.” A large number of
cabbage flowers were emasculated and
pollinated with different varieties of
radish, but no fruit set.

In September, 1910, the contents of
these two pods, consisting of several
small, shriveled seeds, were planted.
Only one came up and from the first
it could be seen that it was a cross. It
was very vigorous and grew rapidly,
finally being transplanted from a 20
inch pot to a central bed.

CHARACTER OF THE HYBRID.

The hybrid produced a great abun-
dance of large leaves. In size and shape
they are nearer to the cabbage, but are
much larger than those of either parent.
The largest leaf of the cross was five
feet nine inches from tip to point of
attachment, and one foot seven inches
broad. The leaf was measured at the
time the plant started blooming.

In color the hybrid leaf is a mean
between the light green of the radish
and the dark or blue green of the cab-
bage. In taste it 1s more like the
cabbage, but one can still detect some
of the radish pungency. The radish
leaf is pubescent with stiff hairs, while
the cabbage leaf is glabrous. Leaves of
the cross are nearly glabrous. The

1This work was carried on during post-graduate studies at Virginia Polytechnic Institute

under Prof. H. L. Price and Prof. E. A. Smyth.

269

bo
~I
=)

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

RADISH-CABBAGE HYBRID WHILE YOUNG

The growth habit of both parents is similar to that here shown, when they are young. Later
the cabbage ‘‘heads up’’ and the radish does not; the hybrid followed the radish in this

respect, but did not develop any tuberous root such as the radish produces.

cabbage leaf is much thicker than that
of the radish: leaves of the cross are in-
termediate between the two.

It would seem likely that the hybrid
would inherit some tendency towards
tuberous root formation from its radish
parent, but such did not seem to be the
case. The hybrid does not even show a
well developed main tap root, but
divides into numerous branches at a
short distance below the surface.

»aThe stem of this hybrid is several
times larger than the combined stems
of the two parents. When the hybrid
reached the size shown in figure 15, the
circumference of the stem was 131%
inches, measured at a distance of one
foot from the ground. ‘The stem holds
its size for some distance from the root.
The lower part or about the first two
feet of the stem is very thickly beset
with leaves, thus resembling the cabbage
in habit. These leaves drop off on

(Fig. 14.)

account of shade from above, leaving
large and prominent scars. Starting
from the surface of the ground, the
major portion of the stem is a purplish
red color just the same as that of the
radish, but this purplish red color
covers the stem of the hybrid much
more thoroughly and extends further
up than it does on the radish parent.

GROWTH HABIT.

When still young the general growth
habit of the radish and of the cabbage
is quite similar. It is a spreading, diffuse
growth. It is not long, however,
before the cabbage begins to head up
and packs most of its leaves into a solid,
bud-like formation. Some time after
this head reaches maturity, the bud
begins growing in the center, by its
development breaks the head open, and
then grows upward rapidly, being nour-
ished on the food stored in the thick leaves.

GrRavaTT: A RaApIsSH-CABBAGE HYBRID ZTL

AN EXAMPLE OF HYBRID VIGOR

Hybrid forms usually excel either of their parents in vigor, and agriculturists have long taken
advantage of this fact, in the production of both plants and animals. It is seldom, how-
ever, that so much extra energy is shown as by this cross between radish and cabbage,

neither of which ordinarily reaches great size.

The cross continued growing for five

months after the above photograph was taken, and at the time it was killed by bacterial
rot, it had gone through the ventilator of the greenhouse and was traveling down the roof

on both sides. (Fig. 15.)

The radish differs from the cabbage
in that it retains its open diffuse habit
of growth. Instead of forming a solid
head of leaves, it develops a tuberous
root and in this stores its surplus food.
Then when the radish reaches maturity,
a bloom stalk is sent up, being nourished
chiefly on stored food from the root.

The hybrid hasan open, diffuse growth
habit. During the stage in which the
radish develops its root and the cabbage

its head, the hybrid continues to develop
numerous large leaves. These leaves
are so thick that a large number of the
lower ones die and drop off, due to
lack of light.

At first there is a single elongated
shoot, but sometime before blooming,
numerous side branches start out. In
figure 14, the side branches are just
starting. The main shoot develops into
a bloom stalk just as in the case of the

272 THE JOURNAL
parents. This one is shortly followed
by others from the side shoots. These
bloom shoots attain a much greater
length than those of either of the
parents. The side shoots make a growth
of several feet before any buds are
developed. Figure 15 shows the enormous
growth of this hybrid. It continued to
grow for nearly five months after this
photograph was taken, finally being
killed by a bacterial rot of the root and
stem. At the time of its death the hybrid
had grown out through the ventilator
and for a short way down the roof of
the greenhouse on both sides.

FLOWERS.

The pediceled flowers of this hybrid
are borne on a greatly elongated rachis,
which in some cases attains the length
of three feet. The flowers of the parents
are borne in the same way, though the
flowering axis or rachis does not grow to
such a length as with the cross. Per-
haps the greater length of the rachis
was due to the fact that no pods set
and therefore all the food went to the
development of the flowers.

The buds of the radish are obovate
in shape, while those of the cabbage are
oblong-elliptical and much larger and
longer. The buds of the cross are a
mean between those of the two parents
in shape and size. Near the top of the
bud of the radish, there are several
promiment hairs growing out from the
sepals. The cabbage and the radish-
cabbage cross do not have these hairs.

The cross has four petals, intermediate
in size between the two parents. The
radish parent was dominant in regard
to color of the petals, the background
color being white with a purplish tinge
and veins. There was no sign of the
rich yellow color of the petals of the
cabbage parent.

The radish and cabbage flowers each
have six stamens. Most of the flowers
of the cross had six stamens but a good
many had two extra well developed
stamens, making eight. There were
about 15% of the flowers which showed
this variation. These two extra stamens

oF HEREDITY

bring up some interesting questions
which will be discussed in another
article.

It was noticed that the pollen from
this cross was not powdery and light
as that of the radish and cabbage, but
stuck together and had a tendency to
ball up. There was often difficulty in
spread ng the pollen out on the stigma.
On examination it was found that the
pollen from the radish and that from the
cabbage were very regular in size and
shape, while that of the hybrid was very
irregular in both respects. Attempts
to germinate the pollen from the
hybrid in various solutions all failed.

Most of the ovaries of the hybrid
appear to be two-celled like those of
the cabbage parent. One slide of a
hybrid pistil showed sections of an
ovary with three cells.

STERILITY OF THE HYBRID.

About crosses between species De
Vries says: ‘‘Whenever their systematic
differences are too great, the crosses
will be infertile, even with the pollen
of their parents. . Repeated crosses are
impossible and no _ practical results
can be obtained.’”’ Generic crosses are
nearly always sterile. Most of them do
not even produce flowers and if they
do, the flowers are usually aborted in
some way.

In March, 1911, this hybrid started
blooming in great profusion. Nearly
every day during March, April and May,
pollen from different varieties of radish
and cabbage, including the parents,
and from cauliflower, collards, Brussels
sprouts and their crosses, was tried on
the flowers of the radish-cabbage hybrid,
but nothing resulted. The hybrid was
also sterile to its own pollen. Flowers
of the radish, cabbage and various
Brassica crosses were emasculated,
bagged and pollinated with the hybrid
pollen, without results. The same
process of pollination was gone through
in the winter of 1912 with a root cutting
of the hybrid and again resulted in
failure.

ORIGIN OF THE BANANA

One of Earliest Crops Cultivated by Man—Perhaps Valued at First Only for its
Roots—Doubt as to Time of its Introduction to America—Prehistoric
and Allied Forms—Irregularities of its Behavior in Cultivation.

THE EDITOR.

HERE seems little reason to

| doubt that the banana was one

of the first foods of man, and

that it was one of the first plants
cultivated.

“Wild bananas and their botanical
relatives,’ says O. F. Cook,’ “‘are natives
of the rocky slopes of mountainous
regions of the moist tropics, where
shrubs and trees prevent the growth of
ordinary herbaceous vegetation.’’ It is
probably in a similar region that the first
appearance of Man is to be looked for.
“Everything leads. one to believe,’ as
Beccari’ says, “‘that the principal culti-
vated fruits originated in the region
where man first acquired a high grade of
civilization.’’ Primordial man of the
tropics was undoubtedly an agricul-
turist rather than a live-stock breeder.
He lived on the resources most readily
furnished him by nature, and among
these, few would be more readily avail-
able than the banana. It is permissible,
then, to suppose that the banana was
one of the first fruits which attracted
his attention; that he soon brought it
under cultivation, and that he at once
began to submit it to that long process
of improvement which has continued
for some hundreds of thousands, per-
haps, of years, and is more active today
than ever before.

If Man appeared in the Indo-Malayan
region, as is widely believed at present,
it seems natural to seek for the origin
of the banana in the same region; and
such a location for it is accepted by most
botanists. This primitive banana prob-
ably did not differ widely from the wild
bananas found today in many parts of
the tropics, although none of the latter
can be confidently pointed out as repre-

senting the ancestral type. Beccari,
indeed, considers that all the wild forms
known today are merely cultivated
forms which have escaped from cultiva-
tion at some time in the past. He found
in Borneo four new species which grew
only in regions deforested by man
Whence were they brought? he asked
himself, and was obliged to conclude,
after a survey of the whole problem,
that probably each region develops its
own well characterized species of Musa
—a conclusion which finds support in
the fact that no species yet known has a
very wide geographical distribution.
At present the genus seems to be de-
pendent on man for its possibilities of
development: it can not make its wav
in the primitive forest, he concludes. It
is one of the many crops which have
been so changed by man to meet his
own needs that they are no longer able
to hold their own in the free competi-
tion of nature.

ROOTS AND HEART EATEN.

The original form of banana must
have been of little value as a fruit.
Cook has therefore concluded that it
was first a root crop, the roots even yet
being used by the natives of some
regions, while the tender heart was
doubtless also an article of food, as it is
today in Abyssinia. Cultivated for its
roots, the banana began to produce
better fruits, by chance, or as a result
of asexual propagation, and at a very
early day must have become more
prized for the latter than for the former.

“The wild varieties are almost wholly
seeds,’’ Beccari observes, “but what
pulp exists is sweet and agreeable. It
therefore only requires some agent to

1Annual Report Smithsonian Inst., p. 481, Washington, D. C., 1903.

*Beccari, Odoardo, Nelle Foreste di Borneo, p. 611.

Firenze, 1902.
2S

274

inhibit the growth of seeds and promote
that of pulp to produce good bananas.
Effective causes are sterility produced
by hybridization, and improvement by
asexual reproduction.”” Both of these
means may have been used by the pre-
historic plant-breeders of the tropics.
Cross-pollination between different spe-
cies would easily take place, and would
result in at least partial sterility of the
product. These hybrids, asexually
propagated either by man or by nature,
would retain their sterility, and a
“horticultural variety’? would be estab-
lished. Beccari’s own idea is that all
the bananas of today are, in fact, the
results of hybridization of various
original wild forms whitch have now
disappeared. This in itself would be
sufficient to explain the seedless condi-
tion of the fruit of commerce; while the
numerous seed-bearing species found
wild at present are accounted for by
Beccari’s hypothesis that they repre-
sent the product of one of the normally
sterile forms pollinated from some
species sufficiently distinct to cause
the production of normal seed.

VAGARIES OF POLLINATION.

This hypothesis, although somewhat
unusual, is given color by recent work
in Jamaica, described by Fawcett.’
2xperiments in pollenizing the ordin-
ary, sterile varieties, at the Hope
Gardens, were unsuccessful until pollen
from the distinct but equally sterile red
banana (var. rubra) was used; the
normally seedless commercial bananas
then set a full complement of seed. He
quotes a similar observation from A.
d’Angremond': ‘‘Most of the pollen of
the Jamaican and Apple bananas is
sterile, and only a few of the ovules in
those plants have an embryo sac. How-
ever, dusting the ovaries of these culti-
vated fruit plants with pollen of Musa
basjoo and M. ornata |two wild species]
was sufficient to produce seeds.’”

3Fawcett, William. The Banana.
4Ber. Bot. Ges. XXX, 686.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Seeds may be produced in an ordi-
narily sterile variety as a result of
environmental conditions, if there is
any basis of fact in the story given to
O. W. Barrett’ by a Porto _Ricam
native, who advised: ‘‘Get a stool of
bananas growing rapidly in shallow soil
by the addition of artificial fertilizers;
let one bunch of fruits set; but before
that ripens, cut down all but one of the
stems in the clump. The remaining
shoot, ‘thinking it has but one more
chance to perpetuate its kind before
being killed,’ on account of the tre-
mendous shock to the more or less con-
nected stem bases in the clump, at once
produces a small bunch of somewhat
abnormal fruits, some of which will
contain seeds.” ‘‘As a matter of fact,”
Barrett adds, “it is a usual thing to
find seeds in the commonest of the
Philippine bananas, the Saba.”

The origin of the present seedless
varieties is explained by many writers
as a matter of simple selection, rather
than of hybridization. The knowledge
which we are gradually acquiring of the
results of plant-hybridization, however,
makes it seem plausible that some cross
was the starting point from which the
tropical native began his process of
selection. The little knowledge we have
of the agricultural skill of primitive man
gives abundant reason to believe him
intelligent enough to propagate choice
strains of his staple crops by offshoots.
In the banana Nature herself showed
him the way: for in addition to seeds,
which must always have been the nor-
mal method of reproduction, the banana
could propagate itself rapidly by suckers
—unless the primitive types were very
different from those we know today.
Around the base of the plant numerous
small suckers are thrown up; these, it is
believed, finally separate themselves
from the parent, by the formation of a
layer of abscission-cells, and roll down
hill (when the plant is growing on a

London, 1913.

5 owe to A. B. Stout, Director of the Laboratories at the New York Botanic Garden, the

following reference:

“G. Tischler, Archiv. Zellforschung 5:622-670, 1910.

Tischler investigated

three races of Musa sapientum and found that the chromosome numbers were respectively 8,

16 and 24, and that the volume of the nuclei was proportionately 1:2:3.
Some chromosomes lagged behind and formed extra nuclei.

in the development of pollen.

He found irregularities

Often eight pollen grains are formed from a single-mother cell. I believe this is all the cytological
work that has ever been done on any of the bananas.”

6Philippine Agric. Review, V, 383, 1912.

CLUSTER OF WILD, SEED-BEARING BANANAS

The fruit is concealed by huge bracts, part of which have been raised to show the ‘“‘tingers.”’
This was probably the original habit of the plant, although these bracts have disappeared
in the cultivated forms, so commonly seen in fruit stores. The banana here photo-
graphed (by the Bureau of Agriculture, Philippine Islands) is known as Virgen; it is
possibly Musa glauca, or perhaps a new species not hitherto described; natives of the
Philippines propagate it, but only by seed. (Fig. 16.)

275

276 THE JOURNAL
slope) until their progress is arrested by
some obstacle; then they take root and
reproduce their parent form.

ANTIQUITY OF ITS CULTURE.

To sum up, we find the banana estab-
lished as an important crop as far back
as we can see. Beccari, indeed, does
not hesitate to suggest its cultivation in
the Pliocene epoch, although there is
by no means agreement of paleon-
tologists as to whether Man existed as a
distinct species in that epoch. In the
Miocene, Beccari recalls, we find a wide
variety of strange forms; in the Pliocene,
we meet forms similar to those which
we know today. “It is only in the
Pliocene that we find forms of mammals
identical with those of the present.
; It is possible that it was in that
epoch that man, clearly established as a
species with the characteristics he now
shows, had begun to domesticate plants
and animals,’ and if so, we must
certainly put the cultivation of the
banana in that epoch: first, perhaps, as a
root crop, and then as a fruit crop, when
man seized and perpetuated in the plant
the variations favorable to his needs,
which chance inter-specific hybridization
may have offered.

From the Indo-Malayan region, ac-
cording to the generally received ac-
count, man must have carried the
banana on his migrations, both east-
ward to the islands of the Pacific
Ocean, and perhaps to America; and
westward to India, the Mediterranean
region, and finally on to America. The
plant is admirabiy adapted for trans-
portation over long distances, because
its suckers can be dried and carried
without difficulty in that condition for
several months, to take root at once
when placed in the deep, rich soil which
they love.

Of the eastward travels of the banana
from the Indo-Malayan region we have

oF HEREDITY

little knowledge, but its westward
travels are interestingly shown by its
names, with an _ occasional written
record.

PLINY’S DESCRIPTION.

Pliny’ is commonly held to be the
first writer to describe the banana,
although his account, at second hand, is
inaccurate enough to have caused some
doubt whether he was describing the
banana or not. ‘‘There is another tree
in India,’’ he writes, ‘‘of still larger size,
and still more remarkable for the size
and sweetness of its fruits, upon which
the sages (Brahmins) of India live. The
leaf of this tree resembles, in shape, the
wing of a bird, being three cubits in
length and two in width. It puts forth
its fruit from the bark, a fruit remark-
able for the sweetness of its juice, a
single one containing sufficient to satisfy
four persons.’ The name of this tree is
pala, and of its fruit ariena. They are
found in the greatest abundance in the
country of the Sydraci, a territory
which forms the extreme limit of the
expedition of Alexander.’’ The name
pala is said still to be found as a vernac-
ular name of the fruit in India, while his
remark as to its being the food of the
sages has given the specific name to the
ordinary cultivated banana— Musa
sapientum, ‘‘the Musa of the wise men.”’

As to the generic name Musa,’ we
may conjecture that it represents the
name by which the fruit was received
in India from its more southerly tropical
home. It comes to us from the Sanscrit
Moca, through the Arabic and Latin; a
course that prettily illustrates the
gradual dispersal of the fruit itself from
India through Persia, Arabia, and
Syria to the Mediterranean. The old
Persian form, which represented the
first transition from the Sanskrit, is
not known to us. It was _ probably

7Caius Plinius, Historia Naturalis, XII, 12 (6), Rome, A. D. 67.

’This can not be taken too literally; yet Stanley (Darkest Africa, I, 252) mentions specimens
of plantains 22 in. long, 21% in. diameter, nearly 8 in. around.

%\ number of authorities. have given credit to the ridiculous story that the genus was named

after Musa, a physician of the Emperor Augustus.

This etymology is no better than the one

put forth by a certain unnamed Franciscan friar who declared ‘‘chiamasi questo gentil frutto

Musa, percioche le (nine Grecian) Muse usano tal cibo.”’
Venetia 1582) justly remarks, “‘E cosa da muouer
A legend that the banana was the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil of the Garden

Cose che Vengono portate dall’ Indie, p. 206.
le risa.”’

As Dottor Nicolo Monardes (Delle

in Eden led to the name of Apple of Paradise or Adam's Fig.

THE EpITor: ORIGIN OF THE BANANA ap

A “HAND” OF WILD BANANAS

Although the seeds are numerous and fully developed, they are much fewer in proportion
to the amount of pulp than in the African species shown in the frontispiece. This fruit
is from Cavite, Philippine Islands, where it is colloquially known as Alinsanay. Botan-

ically, it is probably an undescribed species.

On Beccari’s hypothesis, it is to be regarded

as a once cultivated form, that escaped from cultivation long ago and has regained fertile

seeds through cross-pollination with some distantly related type.

Bureau of Agriculture. P. I. (Fig. 17.)

taken from Persia by the Aramaic, whose
form for it would have been Moza, and
the Arabs borrowed it from the latter
language, as Mauz or Muz. It was
spelled Musa by the Romans, and one
or the other of these two forms—Muz
and Musa—was the accepted English
name until comparatively recent times.”
In 1578, for instance, Lyte writes in the
Dodoens (VI, 38, 704) ‘‘of musa or mose
tree. The Mose tree leaves be so great
and large that one may easily wrap a

Photograph from the

childe in them.” Sixteenth century
writers commonly call the fruit Apples
of Paradise or Adam’s Fig. The name
banana gradually came into use in that
century; it is the vernacular name given
to the fruit by a tribe in the African
Kongo. De Orta mentions it in 1563,
while Hartwell (Pigafetta’s Congo
(1597) in Coll. Travels (1746) II, 553),
says, ‘Other fruits there are, termed
Banana, which we verily think to be the
Muses of Egypt and Suria.”’

10C. C. Torrey, professor of Semitic languages at Yale University, kindly aided me in tracing

the travels of this word.

278

Thus the fruit, carrying with it the
name which may have come all the way
from its first station in the Indo-
Malayan region, reached the Mediter-
ranean and—after the colonization of
those islands—the Canaries. From
the Grand Canary it was introduced to
the New World in 1516, according to
the very definite statement of Captain
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes,”
who heard the story “from many
people.’’ He ascribes the introduction
to Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) to the
“reverendo padre fray Thomas de
Berlanga, de la Orden de los Predica-
dores’’; ‘‘and from here,’’ he continues,
‘it has spread to the other villages of
the island, and to all the other islands
populated by Christians, and has been
carried to the mainland; and in every
region where it has been established, it
has yielded excellent results.”’

INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA.

This circumstantial account has
always failed to satisfy a certain number
of botanists, whose belief that the
banana was found here long before the
arrival of Columbus is based partly on
tradition, more on the belief that it
could never have spread so rapidly in
the years following the conquest, as to
account for its abundance in the many
localities where it is reported by early
writers; partly on the large number of
distinct varieties to be found in the
tropical parts of America, and partly
on the finding of leaves resembling those
of the banana, in pre-Columbian graves
in South America. The first considera-
tion seems to have weighed heavily with
von Humboldt, who did not hesitate to
declare the fruit a native of America,
saying, “It is a constant tradition, in
Mexico and on all the mainland, that
the platano arton and the Domenico”
were cultivated there long before Euro-
peans arrived.”’ Most of the botanists
who have studied the subject have not
considered tradition a sufficient ground
for judgment: De Candolle contented

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

himself with a verdict for ‘a pro-
digious antiquity of cultivation; in
consequence, a primitive existence in
Asia and a diffusion synchronous with
that of the races of mankind, or even
earlier.”’

QUESTION STILL DISPUTED.

As to the evidence afforded by the
exhumation of leaves, those who uphold
the Asiatic origin of the banana contend
that knowledge that these leaves were
really Musa is lacking, and that they
were more probably leaves of some such
plant as Heliconia, a South American
relative. O. F. Cook has brought the
case prominently forward during the
last few years by championing the
theory of American origin, but the
majority of writers on the subject are
still on the other side.

Whether the Musa, as we know it
today, was actually cultivated by the
natives of the Spanish Main when Col-
umbus found them, there seems reason
to believe that it or a closely related
plant existed on this continent several
millions of years ago. Researches of
paleontologists in North America have
resulted in the identification of a genus
which has been named Musophyllum,
and bears extraordinary resemblance to
the bananas, although of course there is
not sufficient evidence available to
decide the exact degree of relationship.
The best known of these finds in the
deposits of the Eocene epoch are from
the vicinity of the Yellowstone National
Park. Leo Lesquereux, who described”
Musophyllum complicatum as a new
species in 1873, writes:

“Though the specimens representing
this species are very numerous and
very large, I could not obtain one show-
ing exactly the size and form of these
leaves. They appear either folded
around a thick stem, from which they
diverge, or on both sides of a thick
rachis, extending along it like two wings,
two or three centimeters wide on each
side. From the fact that large speci-

NQviedo, Hist. Gen. y Nat. de las Indias, Lib. XXX, cap. I, pub. in 1535.
Names given by natives to two of the principal forms of the cultivated Musa. The word
platano is Spanish, from the Latin platanus, and is the origin of the English plantain, by which

bananas fit only for cooking are generally known.

Unnatural as such an etymology may seem, it

appears to be a fact that the name is due to some confusion with the oriental plane tree (Latin,
platanus), wrongly called sycamore in the western United States.
Annual Rep. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories, p. 418, Washington, D. C., 1873.

THE EpiItor: ORIGIN OF THE BANANA

mens are covered by fragments of these
leaves crushed and folded upon one
another, without any trace of middle
nerves or peduncles, the leaves must
have been of great size. Their sub-
stance is not very thin. The surface is
perplace covered with an epidermis
which shows the veins are crossed by
veinlets at right angles. When the
epidermis is destroyed, this character is
not observable, it may, therefore, result
of a wrinkling of the epidermis. The
species is related to Musa Brilinica Ett.,
differing, however, by essential charac-
teristics.”

FOSSILS IN YELLOWSTONE PARK.

Fifteen years later F. H. Knowlton”
collected the same species on the north-
east side of Crescent Hill, opposite a
small pond, in the Yellowstone Park, and
wrote:

“This species was described by Les-
quereux from a ‘shale over a thin bed
of coal, eight miles southeast of Green
River Station, Wyoming’, in what he
at first regarded as the Washaki group,
but which he later decided was the
true Green River Group. This locality
has not since been visited, and in fact
can not now be satisfactorily located.
It is more than probable, however, that
the former determination of the horizon
is correct.

“So far as I know, this is the second
time this species has ever been found.
It is represented by five or six fairly
well preserved specimens, which agree
perfectly wich Lesquereux’s descriptions
and figures.

“On one of the specimens there are a
number of thick stems or stipes. They
are longitudinally striate, as described
by Lesquereux, and bear only fragments
of the leaves preserved. In the specimen
figured we have a narrow leaf preserved
almost entirely. It is about five centi-
meters broad and seven centimeters
long, as preserved, with perfectly entire
margins. In still another specimen the
stipe, with portions of lamina attached,
is fully 20 cm. long. There is no evi-
dence from these specimens of the

279

leaves having been as broad as described
in some of the original specimens, but
Lesquereux also speaks of narrow leaved
forms.”’

In addition to this remnant of a
remote epoch, we still have in America
members of the natural order Scita-
minaceae, to which the tribe Museae
belongs. The most conspicuous is the
Traveler’s Palm (Ravenala guianensis),
representing an interesting genus which
is known to most people only by the
other of its two species, the larger
Ravenala madagascariensis. The pres-
ence of these two closely related species,
one confined to the northern part of
South America, and the other to the
East African island of Madagascar,
affords an interesting problem in the
geographic distribution of plants,” and
brings vividly to mind the antiquity of
the order. Other members of the same
order are the arrowroot, turmeric,
cardamom and ginger plants and the
strikingly beautiful Bird of Paradise
flower, Strelitzia reginae, which is often
seen in gardens in California and
Florida, as well as in its tropical home.

GENUS MUCH CONFUSED.

The present distribution of the
banana, then, appears to be no wider
than the distribution of its order
throughout its history. At present the
genus Musa comprises 32 or more
distinct species and at least a hundred
subspecies, many of them badly con-
fused, and many of them probably
representing only the escape of culti-
vated varieties, or the result of natural
hybridization. The Philippines and the
Indian archipelago are richest in forms,
followed by Ceylon; America is, by
comparison, rather poor in them—a
fact that has often been adduced to
show that the cultivated banana was
not known before its introduction by the
Spaniards. The genus is divided into
two broad sections: Eumusa, with
edible fruits, and Physocaulis, with
inedible fruits; the former is, for com-
mercial purposes, divided into bananas
and plantains, the latter being larger

“Monographs of the U. S. Geol. Survey, XXXII, pt. II, p. 686. Washington, 1899. Plate

LXXXIII, fig. 1.

‘Another striking instance is the well known sassafras (S. officinale) of the eastern United

States.

The only other species of its genus is found in the interior of China.

280

and coarser fruits which are widely
cultivated in the tropics, and eaten
only after cooking. The cultivated
varieties are innumerable, and in con-
fusion, partly due to their great vari-
ability and tendency to bud variation.
Dr. George V. Perez, for example, has
called attention to a very recent muta-
tion of the Canary Island banana
(Musa cavendishi1) which reaches double
or treble the height of its dwarf parent.
The inflorescence is identical, the fruit
somewhat larger and better, in his opin-
ion, than that of the parent. It is called
by the natives a ‘‘male banana.’’ Another
sport of a different nature is described
from Grenada, in the West Indies, by
W. Malins-Smith (Agr. News, Vol. VI):
“A few days ago I picked a bunch of
‘claret’? bananas which contained two
hands of green colored fingers and one
hand of claret and green fingers There

l6Baker, J. G., in Ann. of Bot. VII, 204.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

was one finger which was one-half green

and one-half claret. The green fingers
ripened yellow. The bunch when ripe
presented a very curious appearance.”’
There is no doubt but that a study of
the plantations in the tropics would
reveal an immense number of similar
cases. Baker" mentions that Musa feht,
which grows widely in Tahiti, is seedless
at the lower levels of the forests, but
bears seeds when found at higher alti-
tudes, say 3,000 or 3,600 feet. The
sexual irregularity of the flowers also
deserves attention. Altogether there
is reason to believe that this genus,
which has received the attention of
plant breeders ever since man appeared
on the earth, can yet furnish a great
deal of valuable data throwing light
on many of the most important prob-
lems of heredity.

Fertility of Mixed Marriages

Interesting, even though inadequate, data with regard to the fertility of mixed
marriages, are given by» Thomas Guevara in his work on Psicolojia del pueblo
Araucano (Santiago de Chile, 1908). Dr. Rivet, reviewing it in L’Anthropologie
(XXI, 590, Paris 1910), gives the following table showing the results of 58 mar-
riages between Araucans (remnants of the ancient stock of Chile) and Spaniards,
with similar data from 248 marriages between Araucans, by way of comparison.
It appears, if these figures represent the true state of affairs, that mixed marriages
are less fertile than those in which both parties are of the same stock:

Marriages between Marriages between
Araucan and Spaniard Araucans

Per Cent Per Cent
Martmaces without ichildrens). 5... 0:00 ee wots = 39.66 0.00
NiArrIA ges (With dr Chl Gi. ates cle whcn erat a eee 3.45 27.76
WATrIA CES iWwitil, 2 cil kena: meta ares aetna 22.41 21.63
Marriages with ‘3’ childen 33), 6... 01.3; veces oho ok 3.45 22.45
Marriages with 4 childrenin3 6.8% cn SS? nati 2 10.34 13.47
Marriaces:withr Sremildreny 6.6 sctesu dh. dos ote. me 6.90 8.16
Marriages with.6 Children. 5). colo ken) ce cows e 12.07 4.08
Marniacves witht. / Chiugren: ©. ce..siciane ea ee ot 2 iL 122
Martiages with 3 children ct. c.cs sue pe baee Pons ss 0.00 0.41
Marriages: with’ Ov children. sian tien pate ets ities 0.00 0.51

Marriages with 10 childrens ....<. 8.0% )n2 + mh oe 0.00 0.41

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 7 July, 1914

CONTENTS

Plant Breeding in Sweden, by H. Hjalmar Nilsson................ 281
Second Report of the Committee on Immigration of the Eugenics
Section of the American Genetic Association. ................. 297
Association Meeting in August, 1915.......................252.0.5. 300
International Genetics Conference...................0 20000020005 300
The Sapphire Hog, by J. A. McLean.........................2.04.. 301
New Publications: Handbuch der landwirtschaftlichen Pflan-
zenziichtung, by C. Fruwirth................. 00.00 e eee eee 304
Biological Eugenics, by Leon J. Cole.......................0.055.5: 305
Wweft-hand edireser ies sens ek oe ae Oe ee LE oan IROL es 312
The Origin of Domestic Fowl, by C. B. Davenport................. 313
Racial Origin of Successful Americans, by Frederick Adams Woods 313
Results of Early Marriage, by Casper L. Redfield.................. 316
The Eugenic Ideal, by C. W. Saleeby.................... 00.00.0005. 317
The Jaboticaba, by Wilson Popenoe........................02005. 318

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly: called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents. |

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and Journal.

Date of issue of this number, June 27, 1914.

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PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

Pioneer Work of the Svalof Institute has Resulted in Revolution in Breeding
Methods Throughout the World—The Theory and Practice of
Pedigree Cultures—Hybridizing now being Taken Up—

New Varieties Put in the Trade

H. Hjatmar NILsson

Director of the Sveriges Utsddesférening, Svalof, Sweden.

INCE its foundation, the Insti-
tute of Svaldf has had the satis-
faction of drawing attention, not
only from the Swedish public,

but from foreigners. In the course
of time many accounts have also
been published in technical journals,
concerning its special line of work.
Although they are marked by a spirit of
admiration and good-will, these judg-
ments of strangers rarely show a correct
understanding of what is actually going
on here, since that can hardly be known
without a knowledge of the motive for
the creation of this establishment, its
development, and its standing in its
own country.

The founding of the station at
Svalo6f is wholly due to the private
initiative of the agriculturists them-
selves. Its purpose was to furnish new
and improved seed to Swedish agri-
culture. The realization of this purpose
and its development have up to the
present remained under essentially the
same agricultural control, in spite of the
fact that the largest part of the necessary
funds have been furnished by the public.

The primary and sole object of this
enterprise was, then, to arrive at
absolutely practical results. Scientific
research was therefore only carried on in
special cases, directly connected with
some practical question in hand.

Nevertheless, it was fortunately
understood from the beginning that
only expert botanists were able to direct
the variation and creation of new forms
in the directions indicated, that is, to
arrive at the creation of real cultural
varieties, well suited to the country and

more productive than those formerly in
use. It was also understood that strict
specialization was necessary, and that
we must concentrate all our energies on
this one point, eliminating all foreign
activities, such as teaching, comparative
field trials, commercial analyses, etc.,—
activities which, elsewhere, too often
weigh down the program and the staff of
experiment stations.

SECRETS OF ITS SUCCESS.

It is in this unrestricted organization,
with its well-selected program, its close
contact with practical agriculture, and
its men accessible to the latest and best
methods and resources of science—it is
in these points that one should seek to
find how it happens that a humble
provincial institution in a poor country
like Sweden, under an unfavorable
climate, has been able to contribute to
the reorganization and improvement of
plant breeding to the extent shown by
the results of its work during the last
quarter of a century. Another cause of
its success can be found in its organi-
zation, wholly agricultural, which results
from the origin indicated above, and
from the character of the directors of
the work.

The question of seed had been long
discussed among Swedish agriculturists,
when M. B. Welinder, a young farmer at
Svalof, seconded by Baron F. Gyllen-
krook and many other enlightened
agriculturists of the province, founded,
in 1886, a local society for the improve-
ment of seed. Ina short time it aroused
so much interest throughout the country,
that it soon grew into the Plant Breeding

281

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

WHAT “ELEMENTARY SPECIES” MEANS.

These six forms of barley (Hordeum distichum nutans) were all isolated from the same mixture of
types—a mixture, however, which under the old system was a commercial variety, and was

sold by seedsmen as such.

When the many forms in these mixed varieties are separated,

distinct types or ‘“‘Elementary Species’’ like those above pictured are found; and if they are

propagated separately, each one comes true to type, forming a ‘‘pedigree culture.”’

Society: “Sveriges Utsadesf6rening.”’
Little by little, it received subsidies
from all the Swedish agricultural associa-
tions, even those in the extreme north,
and finally also from the government.
At the same time, about one thousand
members from all parts of the country
gave it their financial and moral
support.

Care had been taken from the begin-
ning to join this enterprise with an
independent association of agriculturists,
in order to interest its members directly
in the work being carried on, and at the
same time to obtain their regular sub-
scriptions. There are two groups of
members: those who are permanent
after having paid $28, once for all, and
those who pay annually $1.40. A

(Fig. 1.)

directorate of seven persons, composed
of agriculturists and others interested,
has charge of the administration and the
finances. According to a rule adopted
this year, five of the directors shall be
elected by the government and two by
the society itself. The society issues
a periodical publication, and _ special
bulletins when necessary. In giving
advice and expert opinions, in directing
comparative local trials, in examining
local varieties and other ways, the
society strives as far as possible to
fulfil its purpose of raising the general
level of agriculture in the country.

SOURCES OF INCOME.
The money necessary to carry on this
work is secured from various sources.

NILSSON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

The annual subscriptions of members
give, on the average, $740 a year. The
agricultural associations have contrib-
uted about $4,460 a year, and even
more in recent years. Finally, the
government has, ever since 1890, granted
$4,200 a year and, since 1905, this
subsidy has increased to $11,200. At
present the yearly subsidy has been
raised to $21,500; this sum includes the
contributions of the agricultural associa-
tions, which will shortly be discontinued.

Finally, receipts from the sale of new
creations—of which I will speak later—
give a profit which has increased
yearly. During the period 1901-1906 it
averaged $1,450 a year, afterwards it
increased to $4,400 a year, and at present
it exceeds $16,000. Thus, the budget
of the society for 1913 is not less than
$30,000 and for 1914 $40,000.

From the payments of life members—
about $10,000 in total—a fund has been
set aside for buildings, much increased
by donations from patrons of agriculture,
which indicates the keen interest that
this patriotic enterprise has awakened.
The total of these donations amounts
so far to $77,000.

Accordingly the society now has at
its disposal a large and well-equipped
establishment, comprising two connected
buildings serving as laboratories, a
house for preparatory work, with a
little farm and a dwelling-house; it
also owns 40 acres of land, of which
special cultures and seed-multiplication
plots occupy 25 acres. Despite this, it
has been found necessary to make most
of the cultural experiments on the wide
fields of the huge property adjoining, in
order to give the different cereals,
occupying in total about 30 acres a
year, their proper place in the rotation
of crops, which is found absolutely
necessary for a normal development.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS.

Considering that the work at Sval6f
was started by farmers, and that it is
the first time an attempt was made to
interest theorising scientists in a question
so frankly practical, you will understand
that the program of work could not be
otherwise than vague and fluctuating, at
the commencement;it is only as the result

283

of experience that a suitable method
was by degrees found and adopted.

It is, then, evident that the history of
this task ought to offer a picture of
successive improvements, of new series
of experiments, of changes and, finally,
of progress; it is the more instructive
because it has gone at least ten years
ahead of contemporary institutions with
similar purposes.

The starting point of the work was
naturally the ‘‘methodical selection’”’
accepted and practiced universally at
that time, in direct accordance with the
selection theory of Darwin, which was
still recognized as the probable solution
of the problem of the formation of
species in nature.

These ideas were set forth in a way
typical of the epoch by K. Ritmker in
his “‘Getreideztichtung” (Berlin, 1889),
which was looked upon, from 1890 to
the end of the century, as a classic
résumé of experiences relative to the
question of improving agricultural
plants. ©

It will be sufficient here to recall that
we believed a methodical selection, long
continued, of plants characterized by
a certain common quality or disposition
would lead to the creation of a new
variety which would be constant and
which would have exactly that quality
desired as a distinctive and hereditary
characteristic. The result, it was said,
would be just what was seen as the
result of natural selection.

It was not until ten years later that a
profound criticism of these ideas was
made by Hugo De Vries in ‘Die Mu-
tationstheorie”’ (vol. I, Leipzig, 1901),
where he seriously questioned, whether
the progress in plant improvement
which had been attained was really
obtained by the method supposed, the
insufficiency of which he pointed out
both on theoretical grounds and by
citing his own experiments. The new
method of operation, by which he pro-
posed to replace the ancient method
previously employed, had at that time
already been in use at Svalof for ten
years, as we were able to prove by the
hundreds of genuinely new varieties
which had resulted from its application.
But, because of the frankly practical

J

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HH ANY I\ a
VA J Oe! fo Mt]
185

THE PRODUCE OF A SINGLE OLD SORT.

q

The four constant, ‘‘pure lines” of barley (Hordeum distichum nutans) shown on

this and the opposite page, represent cultures isolated from a trade variety
that has long been sold as homogeneous. A trial proved that it was in reality
composed of a great number of different “elementary species,’ each of which,
when isolated and propagated by itself, proved constant. These photographs
show four types which differ widely in habit. Taken by themselves, each
one can be used according to its individual value; under the old system,
which existed universally up to 20 years ago, and is still in effect in many
countries, these four types would have been planted mixed together as one,
and the cultivator would have had corresponding difficulty in profiting from
them. (Fig. 2.)

“In employing the old method of ‘selection in mass,”

MAR?

ADVANTAGES OF “PEDIGREE CULTURE”

’

says Mr. Nilsson, “‘we were working
blindly without knowing how or when or even whether we would some day reach stability
of the type, which was more important than any other quality.’’ It is obvious from an
inspection of the photographs. on these two pages, showing four types differing so widely
in habit and yet taken from the same old sort, that the problem was not to be easily solved
as long as they were mixed together. When they are isolated as pedigreed cultures, as
here shown, ‘‘all fear of failure because of insurmountable variations is eliminated. The
varieties are already there, and fixed from the beginning of the work; the only difficulty
is to learn to recognize them and to place the proper valuations upon them.” (Fig. 3)

285

286 THE JOURNAL

character of our organization, we had
been so much. occupied with the practi-
cal application of our discovery that
we had never had time to elucidate the
theoretical question or to lay the result
of our observations before the public.

METHODS IMPROVED.

It was not without deliberation that
the engineer von Neergaard, the first
scientific director of Svaldf, based the
work on methodical selection. He sim-
plified methods as much as _ possible,
made the experiments more practical,
replaced ‘‘approximate’’ measurements
of certain characters of the plants by
numerical valuation of weight, number,
measure, size, etc. In pursuit of this
aim he invented special instruments
and introduced new methods of research.
He was thereby able to control ob-
jectively the resulting variations and
their relative constancy. Thus, me-
thodical selection was for the first
time made the object of critical scien-
tific study, the results of which quickly
appeared.

In 1890, when I became director of
the work, I had to meet the desires of
the authorities who were subsidizing us
by making a hasty general survey of
the notes which we had compiled. In
spite of the extent and intensity of the
selection experiments which had been
made, that inspection did not show me
the results which we had a right to
expect. Rigorous selection pursued
during five years had produced only a
relative uniformity; we could not show
a single new and constant variety-
character. And most of all, it was
evident that our selected varieties, left
to themselves for a year or two, unques-
tionably fell back to the condition of a
mere mixture of the original varieties.

Evidently, we were unable to produce
what the Swedish farmers wanted
better varieties, which would be con-
stant. It was obvious that we must
find a new method of operation which
would give better results.

Such, then, was the desperate situa-
tion at the beginning of 1891.

But by the summer of 1893 the diffi-
culties had been overcome; a new method
of work was in use at Sval6f, which

oF HEREDITY

promised perfect results in carrying
out the program which the society had
laid down.

During the second year of my resi-
dence at Svalof (1889), my botanical
instinct had led me to study attentively
the numerous strange forms which were
found among the old cultivated varie-
ties; by planting these strange forms,
would it not be possible to produce new
varieties as good as those which we had
tried to create by the slow and system-
atic improvement of the original variety ?

START ON NEW PLAN.

The work was started without delay.
Preparatory experiments made in 1890
with 30, and continued in 1891 with
291 different types of spring wheat and
vetch had not given satisfactory results,
so I increased the number to a thousand
in 1892, including all the cereals, peas
and vetches which we were studying.
At first the result seemed none too
encouraging; yet I had occasion to
observe, here and there, some novel
autumn wheats, which at once opened
interesting perspectives to me; they
represented only five per cent. of the
whole collection. They showed a uni-
form and characteristic type, such as
we had never previously found in our
plantings; it was evident that they
differed wholly from the rest in value.
The office records showing the origin
and treatment of these plots were
accordingly examined, and we found
that each one of these lots came from
a single head of grain, or else, what
amounts to the same thing, from a
single plant. Our attention was by
this means drawn to the importance
which the progeny of a single individul
has in the plant breeding. It was a
novel idea for us; appreciated from the
scientific point of view, it did not fail
to inspire us with great hope.

In order to obtain a definite solution
of this problem, we made a general
experiment with separate cultures, in
our 1893 planting, using 2000 different
numbers and letting each number repre-
sent the planting of the seeds of a single
well-marked individual plant. The
result was convincing. It left no doubt
as to the fact we had discovered in our

NILSSON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

preceding work, that the only true
starting-point for the fixation of differ-
ent types must be plants taken one by
one; the only unity with which we
should work must be the living plant
itself and not at all—as had thitherto
been supposed—its individual organs:
the ear, the grain, etc., to which different
hereditary dispositions had been at-
tributed.

SVALOF METHOD OF PLANT BREEDING

This discovery completely changed
our outlook on the problem of plant
breeding, and also—as we realized very
clearly—on the methods of selection.
No sooner had we obtained sufficient
proof than our operations were changed
and immediately directed in accordance
with the new principles.

In the first place we demonstrated
the existence, in our material, of a
large number of independent forms,
having widely divergent qualities and a
practical value that was quite variable.
Thanks to our separate cultures, each
one deriving from a single plant—
“pedigreed culture’—which was easy
to control, we have found that most of
the descendants are constant, and only
in rare cases are they in the heterozygous
condition resulting from crossing. Thus,
while we had formerly been absolutely
incapable of producing a single variety
which would really breed true, we found
ourselves from then on able to produce
as large a number as we pleased of new
and stable sorts, suitable for extended
culture.

In employing the old method of
“selection in mass”? and methodical
order of choice, we were working blindly
without knowing how or when or even
whether we would some day reach
stability of the type, which was more
important than any cther quality.

On the other hand, if we commence
by a pedigreed culture, as at present, all
fear of failure because of insurmountable
variations is eliminated. The varieties
are already there, and fixed from the
beginning of work; the only difficulty is
to learn to recognize them and to place
the proper valuations upon them. The
principal and only decisive work thus
comes after the fixation, and when the

287

variety is already established and in our
possession. ;

The long series of selection-operations
which we had previously been obliged to
make each year on thousands of plants
and for their different organs—on the
plant as a whole, on its straw, on its
various ears, on the haulms and on the
grains—all that was now superfluous,
since we recognized that the plant itself
was the ultimate unity, to be treated by
a comparison with all the other in-
dividuals of its generation. The in-
genious instruments which had previous-
ly been indispensable in our researches
have now been set aside as museum
exhibits, to be used at most for an
occasional control-examination: the field
of experience is from now on the place
for appraising our results.

THE MOST ESSENTIAL WORK.

It will be understood, also, that
although this simple operation created
a complete revolution in our methods,
pedigree-culture has nevertheless re-
ceived only a secondary place among
the operations at Svalof. It has be-
come only a preparatory and practical
auxiliary for getting out properly the
material which we desire to utilize. The
greatest interest and the most essential
work, on the contrary, remain in further
investigation of the practical value
of the innumerable little elementary
species.

The decisive qualities of each species
being surprisingly numerous, and com-
bining with each other in related forms
according to a fabulously rich scheme,
the determination of their comparative
values becomes an extremely arduous
task, the more so since it is necessary
to start with as large and varied a
collection as possible, if we want to
have a chance really to find the best.
Accordingly, since that time the principal
work of Svalof has been connected with
these problems. That is why it has
become so preponderant, why it has
stamped its character on the whole
system at Svalof.

The first thing to do was to divide up
the work among the competent persons
available, in such a way as to give to
each one a limited field, comprising one

i)
Co
ie °)

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THREE TYPES OF TIMOTHY

Under the old system of seed production, a commercial variety containing all three of these sorts
of timothy (Phleum pratense) would have been given to the farmer, in spite of the fact that

they differ so widely in habit and blooming time.

Under the modern system, the commercial

material is sorted out (by actual planting tests) and each component part isolated, and made

to stand on its own merits. (Fig. 4.)
or two cereals. Then, by profound
study of his own material, by rigorous
research and field trials, each one was
able to become an expert in his special
branch, training his eye to distinguish
first of all the different forms, and next
the relative value of existing characters.
Thus prepared, we became able to
establish an exact systematic classi-
fication of the different species, the only

means applicable to obtain a compre-
hensive survey necessary to the study
of polymorphous material. The first
comparison was. between the groups
thus limited; and the second an exami-
nation of the different sorts inside these
groups.

The fact that we have usually suc-
ceeded in making natural systems out
of these classifications, where char-

NILSSON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

acters which are clearly morphological
indicate to us the absence or presence of
qualities determining the practical value,
is an advantage which can not be over-
estimated. It makes it possible for us
to make some progress, at least, toward
the desired goal, from the moment that
the first generation is examined.

THE USE OF PRACTICAL TRIALS.

For the final and decisive determina-
tion of agricultural value, we ‘have had
on the contrary to depend on practical
trials. It was thus a great advantage
to our Institute to have a strictly
agricultural organization and equip-
ment, due to its close relations with
practical men. It is solely the progeny
of these “‘élite’’ parents, cultivated in
an ordinary field under normal agri-
cultural conditions, that determines the
practical value of the inherited qualities
of the numerous new forms. To reach
the final decision, cultivation and careful
examination during a long series of
years are ordinarily necessary.

In order to be able to apply all these
processes with exactitude, and with the
order necessary when thousands of
forms are dealt with (in 1912 there
were more than 9500 numbers in our
trial grounds) we have had to invent
numerous practical arrangements. We
have had to establish special genealogical
tables, corresponding to the systems of
fixed forms, with a numerical arrange-
ment applying to the parallel genea-
logical co‘lections which we made, as
well as to the trial grounds, the records,
the labels, etc. The interior arrange-
ment of the work rooms, and the whole
organization of the laboratories, had
also to be on lines which were abso-
lutely systematic and easily inspected.
We have reached the point where we
have at Svaldf an establishment that is
probably unique in its complete adap-
tation to its own method of independent
work. Our institution and our method
thus comprise, together, a unity which
promises to perpetuate both our special
system and the intensity which has
always marked our application of it.

Inits broad outlines, this order of work
was established in a very few years; so
we were able to demonstrate its opera-

289

tions for the first time at the general
congress of Swedish agriculture in, 1896,
by several hundred varieties which were |
new and stable, and under comparative
observation. During the course of our
work it was also obviously stated how
numerous and decisive the lines of
progress were which we had already
utilized practically for the benefit of
Swedish agriculture, before it had been
even realized in other places what we
were trying to do.

WORK ON WIDE BASIS.

By the infinite number of stable forms
which: with this came to light in our
culture material, the amelioration of
economic plants had a basis far wider
than the old method could give, with
its limited number of chosen varieties;
the possibilities of producing valuable
novelties were increased, because the
qualities at our disposition varied widely,
and among them—as our experience
soon showed—are included the season
of maturity, cold-resistance, disease-
resistance, etc., qualities which are of a
great practical value, but which had
previously been quite inaccessible to the
work of plant breeding.

Since the forms which we regard as
varieties are systematic and independent
unities, although of secondary order, the
fact that they breed true considerably
extends their possibilities, for they can
be propagated without the necessity of
renovation too often by the purchase of
new seed.

The constancy which distinguishes
them concerns many characters and
qualities, as to whose transmission we
had never dared to depend. As it
persists in a notable degree among all
the nlants—at least, during the early
yenerations—whatever there is in the
variety in question of a particularly
inheritable nature becomes more obvious
than before, a circumstance which
greatly facilitates the expertising and
the control.

It is very true that the most special-
ized- kinds demand more judgment and
care on the part of the cultivator, but
they equally increase his chance of as
large a financial profit as possible, when
he has learned to make a judicious

290

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

SUCCESSFUL BARLEY HYBRIDIZATION

In the center is shown a new and constant form of barley with stiff, erect ears, which resulted
from a cross between two very “nutant”’ old sorts: Hordeum distichum nutans (at the left)

and H.d.erectum (at the right).

Hybridizing experiments on an extended scale at Svaldéf

only date from the beginning of this century, but it is evident that much of the future progress

will be by that means. (Fig. 5.)
choice among the strains, in accordance
with local conditions. Considering the
keen competition of our days, this
judgment becomes more and more a
vital question for modern agriculture.
It is especially for the people of the
North, who, because of their climate,
the’r isolated situation and the varied
character of their soil, can only rarely
get their seed supply from more favored
countries—it is for these people that a
method of selection, based on the very
heterogeneity of the material, necessarily
must have an inestimable value. It is
only by this means that we shall be
able to use the eventual values of our
old, native races; inferior as sorts,

they nevertheless offer, by their most
serious defect—polymorphism—excep-
tional chances for the selection of a
better variety.

With the same motive, we can handle
the species and native races of all
countries by this method, no matter
from what climate they come or what
their nature may be, for we everywhere
find a_ diversity of forms offering
ample room for selection.

INSTITUTE REACHES ITS GOAL.

In establishing this method of work,
the order of procedure in which has
been reversed since the valuation of
qualities is made on varieties already

NILssON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

fixed and with the aid of the auxiliary
associations whom we serve, we may say
that the Institute of Svalof has reached
its essential and peculiar goal, and that
it has attained for itself a memorable
and incontestable place in the history of
plant improvement. Following its ex-
ample, all analogous contemporary oper-
ations have successively passed from
selection in mass to the utilization of the
qualities of hereditary character, studied
on an isolated plant, although some-
times under different names, such as
“individual selection,” “selection by
families,” etc. Separate culture and
separate judging have also been, and still
are, conditions necessary to the practical
application even of discoveries made
later concerning the value of different
qualities as mobile, hereditary units.

I would certainly not wish to be
understood as saying that propagation
of separate plants had not previously
been made by cultivators like Shirreff,
Vilmorin and Hallet. But it is certain
that not one of them, not even Vilmorin,
had ever realized such great possibilities
of this simple procedure, as we had dis-
covered and applied in practice here
at Svalof 20 years ago.

Furthermore, their experiments in this
direction were, at the beginning of our
experience, so completely forgotten and
ignored in practice, that it was necessary
for us, as I have already said, to discover
the fact anew.

The reader may well ask of what
nature are all these little elementary
species, which have aliowed the old
material to be sorted out into inde-
pendent new sorts? Do they come from
mutations, from natural cross-polli-
nation, or from both together?

It is a fact well authenticated at
Svalof that mutations appear from
time to time in our cultivated plants.
Furthermore, we have found that spon-
taneous fecundation is much commoner
than we had supposed. But it must not
be imagined that we can discover with
certainty, in each particular case, the
origin of all the forms—and anyway, the
knowledge of how they originated does
not trouble our practical work, for which
the fact of their existence is sufficient.
Finally, it must be noted that the sig-

291

nificant results furnished by diverse
methods of origin are the same: in the
two cases, that is to say, they lead to
the possession by each group of a multi-
tude of systematic unities, differing
from each other in the way their char-
acters, often few in number, are com-
bined. They are all what have been
called ‘‘minute species”’ or ‘‘elementary
species.” Mr. Johannsen, who later
examined them carefully, has described
them as “pure lines.’”’ Here we have
retained for them, for practical reasons,
the English name of “ pedigrees.”’

IN CROSS POLLINATION.

Although we did our first work of
this kind with self-pollinating species
(wheat, barley, oats, peas, vetch), we
have later, in dealing with rye, clover,
forage grasses, beets, etc., had occasion
to convince ourselves that the existence
of these small species, quite analogous,
is clear in plants which are not self-
fertilized. With these, of course, we
do not find the pure lines immediately
upon isolation. They require syste-
matic treatment during some years, to
offer a satisfactory degree of purity and
stability, which even then can never
become so perfect as among self-
fertilized species. But it is already
proved that by the aid of such forms we
can reach the same practical results as
by the aid of the elementary species.
The extension of Svalof Institute has
as its principal object to make the
treatment of these groups of crossed
lines more intense by the fixation of the
forms, followed by their careful valua-
tion.

Among the means of securing new
forms of cultivated plants, I must also
also mention artificial hybridization.
About 20 years ago, when we were
entirely occupied in profiting from the
precious forms which an exploration
of our old varieties had given us, we had
no chance to study this method seriously.
Furthermore, the extended experiments
with cereal-hybridization which we made
some years later (1897-9) did not give
encouraging results. Nevertheless, the
fall wheat Svalof Extra Squarehead II,
finally so famous, dates from that first
series of crossings.

MENDELISM IN OATS

In the upper row are Svaldf’s Klock Oats II (at the left) and Svalof’s Stormogul Oats (at the
right). Each of these ‘‘pure line’’ sorts has one mendelian factor which causes spreading
panicles. The factor in Klock Oats (A1) is, however, distinct from that in Stormogul (A2).
When the two sorts are crossed, the genetic formula will be Ala2 x alA2, capital letters
denoting presence of the factor for spreading panicles, and small letters absence fit. When the
factors are distributed and combined in the germ-cell, one combination will arise lacking both
positive factors, and represented by ala2. As this oat will lack altogether a factor to spread
the panicle, its appearance will necessarily be quite different from that of either parent; as a
matter of fact it grew up to be a ‘‘sideway panicle’’ oat, shown at the right in the lower row.
Another combination of the factors brought both px sitive factors (A1A2) together in the same
cell: and the oat with this ‘‘double dose” of spreading-panicle factor appears to be even more
spre ading than « ither parent. It is shown in the lower row, at the left. The rest of the oats
from this cross were represented by the factors Al al or a2 A2—that is each possessed one factor
for spreading. These two types, when grown, were indistinguishable, and looked about like
their parents, as shown in the center of the lower row. (Fig. 6.)

19?

NILSSON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN

Gradually, as we obtained a large
enough collection of new and. well-
known lines, characteristic and stable,
each one with a superior quality of
practical worth, it was natural for us to
seek to obtain still more valuable com-
binations among these qualities by
hybridization experiments, well planned
and systematically executed. That is,
accordingly, what we have had in
hand since the commencement of
this century.

HYBRIDIZING IMPORTANT.

Since the researches of Mendel, so
fundamental for the study of hybridi-
zation in general, have again become
accessible, this sort of work has been
much increased at Svaldf. It is es-
pecially by the widely-known studies on
oats and wheat of Dr. Nilsson-Ehle that
remarkable contributions have been
furnished by actual investigation of the
phenomena of this category. The new
light thrown by them on the problems
of heredity and variation has a really
great influence on improvement. The
new laws which teach us to think of
the different characters of the plants as
behaving like autonomous unities from
the very beginning, are also important
in our work.

It is incontestable that these dis-
coveries still further increase the possi-
bility of progress. It appears that,
particularly in Sweden, it will finally
be possible for us to create by this
means an agricultural material adapted
to the most northern latitudes, which
will add to general good qualities
a greater cold-resistance or earlier
maturity.

However, the application of this
method in a widespread way at Sval6of
shows that the combination and break-
ing-up of qualities, ordinarily very com-
plicated in products of hybridization,
makes very illusory the hope of reaching
results based solely on theoretical calcu-
lations. That is an inconvenience which
we must endure, however, since hybridi-
zation offers so many chances, even if
they are vague, which we could not
otherwise obtain.

In any case, hybridization as we
practice it at Svalof with our varieties

293

already fixed, must be considered only
as a supplement of our original method
of selection in pure lines, and not at all
as replacing it. Every hybridization
experiment demands as starting point a
pure and constant material with well-
known qualities—consequently, that is
what we must first produce. Besides,
the final evolution of the process of
hybridization depends on the continual
creation of new material superior to that
which preceded it. To produce these
two types of indispensable material, we
must continue to employ our method of
selection, which is the best and most
efficacious for the discovery of the most
precious and most constant components
in the old, mixed varieties. In addition,
selection in the extremely variable
products of hybridization is practiced
indiscriminately with the older style of
selection in our work at Sval6f.
Although the Institute of Svalof has
already given, and probably will still
give, as rich contributions to Mendelism
as any of its contemporaries, it must
never be forgotten that its main work,
its specialty, will always be the hunt for
novelties by its own, original method,
which must never be set aside in favor
of the other work of improvement fol-
lowing this. Furthermore, for a large
and important part of the material
treated, such as the forage plants and
root crops, the time for hybridization
will only arrive in the distant future.

GROWTH OF THE WORK.

The crops dealt with at Svaldf have
been fall and spring wheat, rye, barley
and oats and also, since 1889, peas and
vetch. Oats were, however, not given
intensive study until after the adoption
of the new method in 1893 and rye only
in 1900. The original program in-
cluded other crops, but these have had
to wait until larger subsidies are avail-
able. It was not until 1905, when the
government made an allowance of
$7,000, that we were able to take up the
improvement of forage crops, clover and
potatoes. The root crops have not yet
received any keen attention, although
they will be given it as soon as the
financial reorganization, of which I have
already spoken, is completed. It is true

294 THE JOURNAL
that they have been studied, for some
time, but principally after the simplest
pedigree method and by selection in
mass. With these, all the Swedish crops
will have become the object of improve-
ment at our institute.

As I have already remarked, the
intensive studies which our new method
necessitated led to a division of labor in
such a way that each specialist received
a limited field for which he was respon-
sible. Thus I took charge of oats and
wheat in 1890, and in 1899 turned them
over to Dr. H. Nilsson-Ehle. P. Bolinhad
barley from 1892 to 1896, when he was
replaced by Dr. H. Tedin, who since
1892 has also had charge of the Legum-
inosae. J. Walldén was in sole charge of
rye from 1901 to 1904 when he divided
it with E. Ljung, who since 1908 has
been in entire control of it. Dr.
Lundberg has worked with the potatoes
since 1905; forage plants were taken by
me in 1904, but turned over in 1907,
with clover, to Dr. H. Witte. Root
crops have been handled since 1907 by
I. Karlsson. Mr. Walldén has directed
the work of controls and germination
since 1892.

It is evident that the final results
have no practical value except in the
same conditions under which the ex-
periments were made, and that a change
of climate and soil might entirely
change their value. In a country like
Sweden, which extends over thirteen
and two-thirds degrees of latitude, that
is to say, over a distance from north to
south as great as that from our south
coast to Rome, it is absolutely necessary
to make numerous tests in different parts
of the country. As soon as we had pro-
duced at our institute, situated in
southern Sweden, a large number of
varieties which we thought suited to
the central part of the country, we began
to arrange numerous local trials each
year. Soon we had to form special
branches, in order to make serious and
properly-directed tests. We have now
two branches, one since 1894 in central
Sweden, near Upsal, and the other near
the arctic circle at Lulea, which was
organized particularly for the study of
forage plants. Our plans contemplate

OF HEREDITY

the creation of other branches in the
most important agricultural provinces.

NEW VARIETIES OBTAINED.

As I have already pointed out, the
Swedish agriculturists, in founding their
breeding station at Svaldf, intended
principally to obtain new varieties
suited to their country. In passing
judgment on the work of the institute,
it is therefore necessary to limit one’s
self to a consideration of the varieties
put in the trade, and their success.

First, it can be said that our varieties
have become established throughout the
country to a surprising extent. In the
principal agricultural districts, and for
certain cereals, they have almost en-
tirely supplanted the old varieties, as
well as those later introduced from
abroad. The only explanation of this
is that the institute and its specialists
have always kept in the closest touch
with the farmers, who are, in fact, in a
majority on the directorate. Thus the
real needs of the farmers were known,
and the attempt to supply them has
always been the guiding principle of
the work. It has been our principle
and practice to introduce into the trade
as few varieties as possible, letting
nothing go out that was not absolutely
superior. However, the wide range of
climatic, cultural and industrial con-
ditions has made it necessary for us to
furnish a group of varieties of each
cereal, rather than a single superlative
one. I can best make this clear by
surveying the varieties of Sval6f origin
which are now actually in the trade;
but it must be remembered that some
sorts placed on sale, although meeting
with public favor, have been withdrawn
when it was possible to replace them
with a variety of the same type but
better quality.

TWO SERIES OF WHEAT.

There are two series of fall wheat, one
for the southern provinces, where the
climate is favorable and we have bent
our energies to producing varieties with
large yield (Grenadier, Extra Square-
head II, and Sol), and the other for the
more rigorous climate of the central
provinces, where cold-resistance was the

NILSSON: PLANT-BREEDING IN SWEDEN 295

y

VivvWWVVOVON ven Y

ORIGIN OF A GRAY LINE OF OATS

The principles of Mendelism were prettily exhibited in a cross of black and white oats (shown in
the top row, above). The first generation was all black, like one of the parents; it is shown as
a single seed in the middle row. The second generation, shown in the lower row, segregated
as was expected into the Mendelian formula: 12 black, 3 gray and one white. The genetic
explanation as given by Dr. Nilsson-Ehle is that the black parent strain (BG) had one factor
for black (B) and also one factor for gray (G); but the gray color was covered by the black.
The white sort, of course, lacked both black and gray, and is therefore represented by the
symbol bg. Among the possible combinations of factors in hybridization, is bG, the plant of
which will lack the black factor but possess the gray: its color, then, will be pure gray, without
any trace of overlying black, just as is shown in the three seeds of the lower row. The one
white seed is known as the ‘‘extracted recessive’; according to the prevailing theory, it is
white because, lacking factor for either black or gray, it could not be anything but white:
in other words, it is a mere case of presence or absence of color, which is shown to be heritable

by purely mathematical formulae, based on the Laws of Chance.

preéminent requirement (Renodlad
Squarehead, Bore, Pudel). In the south
our varieties have already supplanted
the native ones, but in the center, the
old ones are still much employed, since
we have not wholly gained the hardiness
necessary. From our new series of
hybridizations we hope to produce the
ideal. For spring wheat in that latitude
an early maturity is the prime requisite,
and we can point to great progress in
that direction (Parl), but still have some
hybridizations to make with the native
varieties before attaining perfection.

As for barley, the breweries have
dictated the qualities needed, not only
as to general good quality (Chevalier IT)
but also for the amount and stiffness of
straw (Prinsess) and for precocity
(Hannchen, Gull) which allows culture
in the more northern provinces. A
second group is composed of varieties
adapted to solid, moist soil, and satis-

(Fig. 7.)

factory for brewing (Primus) as well as
for forage (Svanhals).

In oats we have to meet the needs of
certain provinces which require black
varieties early (Fyris), with stiff straw
(Klock II) or late, productive sorts
(Stormogul) and on the other hand, to
satisfy the demand for white or yellow
varieties, yielding heavily although
rather late (Seger, Kron, etc.), and others
more precocious for northern provinces
(Guldragn, Dala). In order to meet the
requirements of provinces still further
north, where oat growing is still im-
portant, we have had again to fall back
on hybridization, and have already made
enough progress to inspire us with great
hopes.

In rye, we have combined high yield,
great hardiness and good commercial
quality (Stjarn).

As for peas, we have produced both
the kitchen varieties (Concordia, Kapi-

296 THE JOURNAL

tal) as well as forage varieties for use in
ripe state (Grép) and as green fodder
(Solo.) In vetch, there is need of
varieties for fodder, and for seed (Gra
and Sat).

Among the forage grasses, we possess
various varieties taken from early,
medium and late wild forms to produce
meadows of uniform development. Here
the natural flora of the country has
furnished us material far superior to that
of the tradesmen. In dealing with
clover, we have principally utilized the
indigenous varieties, which are peren-
nial, hardy and highly productive. Our
demands in respect to potatoes differ
widely from those of the continent,
since the alcohol industry is highly
localized here. In general, however,
precocious varieties are required.

Finally, it is universally admitted that
the society has contributed in many
other ways to the progress which
Swedish agriculture has made during
the last twenty years: for example, by
its propaganda in favor of more scientific
agriculture, by its advice and directions,
its demonstrations, field trials, etc., but
most of all in raising the standards of the
seed trade throughout the country, an
elevation made possible by its control of
the wholesale trade of its own sorts.
By all these means, the real value of the
perfected seeds has been made known,
and the farmers have learned to raise
their demands to an _ extraordinary
height.

OUR INFLUENCE ABROAD.

As we have seen, the Institute of
Svalof was founded by Swedish farmers

to serve their common interests. In
organizing and achieving this task,

therefore, the society had in view, as
it still has essentially in view, only
the needs and possibilities of Sweden.
Furthermore, it is obvious that varieties
selected for their adaptation to as peculiar
and northern a climate as ours would be
valuable only to a limited extent in a
country with different physical con-

OF HREEDITY

ditions. Nevertheless, in so far as
concerns the continent of Europe north
of the Alps, excepting central Russia and
certain parts of Austria, it seems that a
considerable number of our productions
are well adaptated to foreign conditions.
Accordingly, they have been propagated
there to by no means an inconsiderable
extent. It has been proved that varieties
like the barley Hannchen and the oat
Guldrdgn, maturing early, have ac-
commodated themselves to an unexpec-
ted degree, even to extreme conditions.

Thus, to cite only a few examples,
the new oats are widely employed and
much appreciated, particularly in Rus-
sia. Most of our varieties are much
cultivated in Germany, Denmark and
Holland, and more lately in England.
In France our brewing barleys, and also
our oats, are regarded with great favor.
In Canada and the United States many
varieties are in use, in definite and
circumscribed areas. And in all the
rest of the world isolated experiments
have been made with our productions,
under the most diverse conditions, and
with the most diverse results, as was to
be expected.

Beyond this, it becomes daily more
evident that the method of organization
of plant improvement which was origi-
nated at Svalodf has been studied by
practically every civilized country and
adopted as amodel. The questionnaires
which arrive from all directions, and the
frequent visits of specialists of all
nations, are sufficient proof of this
foreign interest.

But I would be going too far, if I
entered into a discussion of this subject.
Let me conclude by recalling that se-
lection in mass, which was generally
employed even ten years ago, is at
present abandoned. Both young and
old breeders have now adopted the plan
of separate culture, starting with single
plants—that is to say, the very principle
on which we established here at Svalof,
in 1893, our new method of plant
improvement.

Second Report of the Committee on Immigration of

the Eugenics Section of the American

Genetic Association

Alexander E. Cance, Amherst, Mass.

James A. Field, Chicago, Ill.

Irving Fisher, New Haven, Conn.

Prescott F. Hall, Boston, Mass., Chairman.
Robert DeC. Ward, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary.

HERE has been one change in

| the membership of this Com-

mittee since the last report,

Professor Franz Boas having

left the Committee and Professor Irving

Fisher, of Yale University, having
taken his place.

A second year of study of the prob-
lem of immigration on the part of your
Committee has resulted in a renewed
and more profound conviction of the
necessity of arousing intelligent and
unprejudiced public opinion in this
country to the need of strong and con-
certed action in favor of a more effective
immigration law.

We have- hitherto left the choice of
the fathers and mothers of the future
Americans largely to the selfish interests
which care very little whether we want
the immigrants they bring, or whether
these people will be the better for com-
ing. Steamship agents and brokers all
over Europe, and even in Asia and
Africa, are today deciding for us the
character of the American race of the
future. The steamships and railroad
companies, and the large employers of
cheap labor, have vast financial interests
at stake. They want unrestricted and
unselected immigration. They are well
organized, and have very great influence
in Washington. Noneof these “‘inter-
ests’ care in the least for the sanity
or for the physical soundness of our
race. If their pocketbooks are well
filled they rest content.

To counteract these influences and
to point out wherein our immigration
laws need strengthening for the better
protection and preservation of the race

is a duty which the American Genetic
Association may well take the lead in
performing.

This Committee finds that, in spite
of the present law which prohibits the
admission of insane and mentally de-
fective aliens, our institutions are filling
up with these very persons, and what is
still more serious, there is a rapidly
increasing number of mentally defective
aliens at large in our communities, in no
way segregated, and free to reproduce
their kind. Abundant evidence and
statistics of the serious conditions which
now exist, and are rapidly becoming
worse, is contained in the Report of the
Committee on Inquiry into the Depart-
ments of Health, Charities, and Bellevue
and Allied Hospitals in the City of New
York (1913), and in the Report of the
Special Commissioner on the Alien
Insane in the Civil Hospitals of New
York State (1914), to which this Com-
mittee would call special attention. It
appears that while the foreign-born in
1910 constituted 30.2% of the entire
population of New York State, the
foreign-born insane constituted 43.4%
of the patients in the State hospitals
Sept. 30, 1912. Furthermore, there is
a gradual decrease in the native-born
percentages of the admissions and a
corresponding increase in the foreign-
born percentages. Dr. Spencer L.
Dawes, the Commissioner on the Alien
Insane, says, “If the increase in the
percentage of the foreign-born be con-
tinued at its present rate for about 10
years longer, the foreign-born admis-
sions will equal in numbers the native-
born.”” Dr. Dawes points out very

297

298 THE JOURNAL
clearly the defects in our present immi-
gration law in the matter of the admis-
sion and deportation of alien mental
defectives, and suggests the amend-
ments necessary to improve existing
conditions. Many of these proposed
changes, this Committee is glad to note,
have been adopted by the Committee
on Immigration of the United States
Senate, and are included in the Immi-
gration Bill which has been reported
to the Senate. Dr. E. K. Sprague, of
the U. S. Public Health Service, has
estimated that probably only 5% of
mentally defective aliens who come to
our shores have been detected, and
about 25% of those who are or who will
become insane. This Committee is
entirely in accord with Dr. T. W. Sal-
mon, also of the U. S. Public Health
Service, and now Director of Special
Studies of the National Committee for
Mental Hygiene, when he says: ‘‘There
is no reason for the acceptance of a
single insane or mentally undesirable
alien: except inability to determine his
condition. This does not require re-
striction of immigration, but a sensible
selection of individual immigrants, in
the interest of our own country and
wholly without reference to the interests
of foreign countries or foreign steam-
ship companies.”

SENTIMENT BEING AROUSED.

Each year brings increasing evidence
that those who are most concerned
about the maintenance and the improve-
ment of the physical and mental well-
being of our race are turning more and
more to the regulation of immigration
as one of the most obvious means of
accomplishing their purpose. Thus, in
the Report of the Committee to Study and
Report on the Best Practical Means of
Cutting off the Defective Germ-Plasm in
the American Population (Eugenics
Record Office, Bulletin No. 10B, 1914)
we note the following: ‘The Federal
Government must co-operate with the
states to the extent of excluding from
America immigrants who are potential
parents and who are by nature endowed
with traits of less value than the better
90% of our existing breeding stock.’’

; “The Federal Government
which has control of immigration owes

OF HEREDITY

it . . . to the American people on
biological grounds to exclude from the
country this degenerate breeding stock.”’

A serious situation which arises from

the non-enforcement of the law for
reasons of ‘“‘sentiment’’ and of “human-
ity”’ deserves attention. No one who is

not acquainted with existing conditions
can possibly realize how strong, how
steady and how effective is the “pull”
which is exerted by the families and the
friends of aliens who by the laws of the
United States ought clearly to be
debarred, to have those aliens landed.
The steamship companies; the societies
to which the alien’s relatives belong;
sentimental but woefully misguided
“philanthropists,” and Senators and
Congressmen who are trying to please
their foreign-born constituents—all
these interests unite to bring pressure
to bear upon the immigration officials to
whom appeals are referred. Obviously,
the oftener such appealed cases are
admitted, the more lax does the pre-
liminary inspector tend to become, and
the less frequently do the Boards of
Special Inquiry, in the first instance,
recommend deportation. Those who
want our incoming aliens to be sane and
sound and fit ought to stand behind
every honest immigration official who
does his duty well; and ought to see to
it that there is no relaxation in the
enforcement of our laws, to the detri-
ment of the race. Former Immigration
Commissioner Williams well said: ‘“We
are not called upon to endanger the
future of our country or its institutions
for the sake of the distressed of other
countries, however much their condi-
tion may arouse our sympathy. The
time has come when it is necessary to
put aside false sentimentality in dealing
with the question of immigration . .

and in determining what additional
immigrants we shall receive to remember
that our first duty is to our own
country.’’ Another has stated the case
thus: ‘‘These (immigration) authori-
ties should be made to understand that
in their attempts to be kind to the immi-
grant they may be cruel when they help

‘to fasten upon this country a never

ending burden of the care of a mentally
defective strain for which we as a people
are in no way responsible.”

COMMITTEE ON IMMIGRATION OF THE EUGENICS SECTION

Under the vote of the Association by
which the Committee on Immigration
was organized, it was given “‘authority
to co-operate with similar Committees
of other organizations in securing laws
which will be more effective in securing
immigrants who bring good health and
normal and superior heredity to this
country.”’ Following these instructions,
the Secretary of this Committee at-
tended a Conference held in New York
City, Nov. 15, 1912, at which the most
important scientific bodies in the United
States which deal with the treatment
and prevention of insanity were repre-
sented, viz.: the American Medico-
Psychological Association; National
Committee for Mental Hygiene; New
York Psychiatrical Society; New York
State Charities Aid Association; Com-
mittee of 100 on National Health; New
York State Hospital Commission. At
this conference the whole question of
the more effective detection, exclusion
and deportation of insane and mentally
defective aliens was discussed. The
results of these deliberations were
embodied in a series of Resolutions
which were transmitted to the President
and to Congress. The Immigration
Bill which passed Congress during the
winter of 1912-13 embodied several of
these recommendations. Two members
of this Committee (Messrs. Hall and
Ward) went to Washington to attend
the hearing which was given by Presi-
dent Taft on the Immigration Bill, and
urged that the Bill should become a law.
The President, as will be remembered,
vetoed the bill, which was at once
passed over the veto by the Senate
(72 to 18) and failed by half a dozen
votes of being passed over the veto by
the House.

ATTITUDE OF EUGENISTS.

The Chairman and the Secretary of
the Committee have further carried on
a considerable correspondence, and had
many conferences with immigration and
other public officials, and officers of the
Public Health Service, in regard to the
workings of the present law, and have
also given numerous addresses on the
eugenic aspects of immigration.

In the present agitation concerning
pending immigration legislation the

299

question naturally arises what attitude
those who are most interested in the
eugenic aspects of alien immigration
should take in regard to any proposal
for a further restriction of immigration
by means of such a requirement as the
“reading test,’ embodied in the immi-
gration bill which was vetoed by
President Taft. It is clear that the
sentiment in Congress is strongly in
favor of combining more effective regu-
lations in regard to the mental and
physical condition of our incoming
aliens with a further amendment which
will be somewhat restrictive. When a
further restriction of immigration is
recommended, because ‘‘demanded by
economic, moral and social considera-
tions,” by an unprejudiced and com-
petent body of experts like the U. S.
Immigration Commission, eight out of
nine of whose members recommended
the “illiteracy test,’ and by Congress, as
evidenced by the large majorities in
favor of such measures, then we must
have very excellent reasons for disagree-
ing with those conclusions. A decrease
in numbers, especially of those aliens
who are unskilled laborers, and who are
the most ignorant, will have a very
important and direct eugenic result in
relieving the congestion in our over-
crowded cities; in diminishing economic
stress, and therefore in improving the
mental and physical conditions of the
aliens who come to us. The more
skilled and the more intelligent the
alien, the less he tends to crowd into
our cities; the less liable he is to become
insane or mentally unstable from the
strain and stress of the life in our con-
gested city districts. Dr. T. W. Salmon
has clearly pointed out that ‘More will
be accomplished in the exclusion of
insane immigrants, and of those destined
to become insane a short time after
their arrival, by measures which broadly
restrict immigration than by any meas-
ures, however effective, which are
directed specifically against insane immi-
grants, for any measure which will
check the flow of immigration in
general must necessarily result in the
admission of fewer undesirable immi-
grants.’”’ Those who are particularly
interested in the eugenic aspects of our
immigration problem have many reasons

300 THE JOURNAL
for joining hands with those who
have the economic aspects of it most at
heart, in the campaign for the better
regulation of alien immigration to our
sho es. This committee, however, has
not deemed it within the scope of its
own work to consider the economic
aspects of our immigration problem.
On Feb. 4, 1914, the House of Repre-

sentatives by a two-thirds vote, passed
an immigration bill (H.R. 6060) which
is essentially the same as that which
was vetoed by President Taft. A
similar bill is now before the Senate.
Regarding the present legislative situa-
tion a majority of the Committee has
agreed upon the following resolution:
Resolved: That the Committee on

(Signed)

OF HEREDITY

Immigration of the American Genetic
Association respectfully urges upon the
Senate of the United States the impor-
tance of the passage, at the present
session of Congress, of an Immigration
Bill similar to that which passed the
House of Representatives on Feb. 4,
1914 (H.R. 6060), embodying provi-
sions which, if enacted into law, would
unquestionably result in a more effective
detection, exclusion and deportation of
mentally and physically defective aliens,
and in a general improvement in the
character of our immigration.

Resolved: That copies of these resolu-
tions be sent to the President of the
United States, and to the members of the
Committee on Immigration of the Senate.

Alexander E. Cance, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.
Irving Fisher, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Prescott F. Hall, Boston, Mass.

Robert DeC. Ward, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary.

April 24, 1914.

Association Meeting in August, 1915

Pursuant to an invitation from the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, the American Genetic Association will hold its next annual meeting in
connection with the meeting of the American Association at Berkeley, California,
in the week of August 2—-7,1915. The program of the American Genetic Association
will occupy a number of half days, to be selected later. Details will be in charge
of the chairmen of the three committees on research.

International Genetics Conference

September, 1916, has been set as the date for the next International Genetics
Congress, and it will be held in Berlin. This is the decision of the international
committee which was named at the last conference (in Paris) to select the place of
the next meeting. Arrangements for the meeting are being made by a Berlin com-
mittee consisting of Dr. Thiel Exzellenz (president of the German Gardening Society)
chairman; Dr. Boenisch and Dr. Kniebe as representatives of the German Minister
of the Interior; Dr. Scroter and Dr. Oldenburg as representatives of the Minister of
Agriculture; Prof. Dr. Kriiss representing the Minister of Education; Kammerherr
von Freier-Hoppenrade (President of the German Agricultural Society), Oekono-
mierat Hosch (president of the German Breeding Association), L. Kihle, (repre-
senting the Society for the Improvement of German Plant-breeding), Prof. Dr. von
Rimker and Prof. Dr. E. Baur. The latter two are in charge of business arrange-
ments. The address of the committee is: Berlin N. 4, Invalidenstrasse 42, Kgl.
Landwirthsch. Hochschule.

THE SAPPHIRE HOG

A New Breed in Process of Formation—Origin a Mixture, Selection the Method
of Procedure—Approximation to Type Already Secured, and Large
Percentage of Pigs Breeding True.

J. A. McLean

Head of Department of Animal Husbandry, Massachusetts Agricultural College,
Amherst, Mass.

E are rather loth to believe
that there can be anything
new under the sun. Especi-

ally is this true with live
stock. Old things with valuable char-
acteristics may be discovered in un-
frequented corners of the earth and
introduced, or new features not hitherto
found in a particular breed may be
embodied in its requirements. But live
stock men, both breeders and teachers,
have generally not advocated the crea-
tion of new types but have emphasized
improvement of old stocks.

In plant breeding, hybridization has
been one of the fruitful methods of pro-
ducing new varieties, and plant breeders
generally have not been slow to make
use of this method of advancement. Is
it not possible that animal breeders
have worshipped pedigree too long and
faithfully? Why might it not be pos-
sible, for instance, to combine the good
qualities of the two breeds, Holsteins
and Guernseys, and from them evolve a
new breed distinctly superior to either?
When we go back over the history of
our breeds of horses, we find that each
is of a more or less conglomerate origin;
some of these breeds today permit to a
certain extent, if they do not encourage,
the introduction of outside blood. In
most of our breeds of cattle the same
conditions are found, as to origin.
Crossbreeding, it is generally conceded,
gives a greater vigor, a more rapid
growth and consequently distinct market
advantages. By careful selection, might

not these features be retained in the
succeeding generations from these hy-
brids? These are a few of the questions
which demand a fair answer. Some
experiment stations have undertaken to
solve the many problems of this char-
acter, while a considerable number of
breeders are also delving for the truth
along these lines; and now one of the
latter is coming to the surface with a
so-called new breed of hogs. Time will
reveal the true merit of this breed. In
the meantime, let us see what we can
See: HE ORIGIN OF A GENETIST.

About eight years ago, George C.
Griffith, lawyer, Harvard graduate and
younger scion of a Virginian family, was.
given but one more year’s lease on life.
He was enjoying his tenantry and,
disliking very much to quit it so soon,
he undertook to disappoint the prog-
nostications of his medical servants. He
bought a couple of New England stone
piles with a very narrow valley and a
stream between. He liked solitude, so
he selected his hills three miles from
town and well away from the main
roads. Here he built a bungalow of
most simple structure about the size of
a box car, well up on the highest hill,
from whose glass front he could see the
mighty ocean. Here he began to win
back life.

Since little of the land was arable,
dairy cattle were scarcely feasible;
poultry he disliked, and sheep were
impracticable, so that swine production

1The breed was at first known as the Blue Hog. Mr. Griffith sent out an appeal far and wide
for suggestions as to a permanent name, and that finally chosen was the idea of August Belmont
of New York, himself a highly successful breeder as well as financier. The color, as livestock men

will understand, is in fact a roan; the description of “‘blue-jay blue,

”

which has been given in

periodical literature, must be taken only as a figure of speech.

301

302

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

“VIRGINIA,” A SAPPHIRE SOW
This animal, bred by the New England Live Stock Company of Peabody, Mass., weighed 408

pounds at 11 months.

She is an excellent specimen of a new breed in the making. As

Mr. McLean explains, this breed is made by selection from a mixture of Yorkshires, Hamp-
shires, Berkshires, Essex and Chester Whites, and is now breeding fairly true, although the

breeder finds it difficult to eliminate the white markings.

became the only possible line of farm
endeavor. A_ swill contract from a
neighboring town gave a large supply
of feed, so that this hog industry
received a marked impetus. Within a
couple of years, the man was well and
found himself with a large hog business
on his hands. He still retains his law
office in Boston, but contrary to the
usual practice, he finds time to visit that
office only on Saturdays.
Almost from the very
Griffith had the distinct purpose of
evolving a new breed of swine. In his
first couple of years’ work, with many
hogs of all kinds, he saw many defects
which helped to evolve the type of his
new breed. Weak backs, pendulous
bellies, broken down pasterns, heavy
ears, were defects common and serious.
The new breed should have none of
these undesirable traits. Then, too,
the color must be distinctive. Black,
red, white—this had been the entire
spectrum of hog shades. The new

first Mr.

(Fig. 8.)

breed must have a new color, and Mr.
Griffith chose blue from the very start,
and without knowledge of the blue
grays of the Shorthorn-Galloway cross.
Lastly came the matter of head. The
erect, trim ear of the Berkshire pleased,
—but not the pug nose; long snouts
were too often associated with narrow
bodies, and narrowness between the
eyes; while lopping ears obstructed the
sight, which is surely not desirable.
Thus has evolved briefly the conception
of the type. The hogs of this breed
shall be blue. They shall have trim
bellies and be a trifle more upstanding
than the average run of fat hogs; they
shall have distinctly the fat hog form
associated with excellent length of
body; they shall have excellent strength
of bone and be free from broken down
pasterns; they shall mature earlier than
any other breed of swine; they shall
have erect, fine, rather small ears. The
line from the poll to the end of the nose
shall be medium short and the forehead

McLean: THE SAPPHIRE Hoc

high; the top of the neck shall be
slightly arched. They shall breed true
to these characteristics. This, if you
please, has been Mr. Griffith’s con-
‘ception of the breed before ever the
Sapphire Hog was.

THE MEASURE OF SUCCESS.

To what extent has he succeeded?
First let it be stated that the work is
still in progress; none realizes better
than the workman that his work is not
complete. Yet he feels that much has
been accomp‘ished and that the end is
in sight. There are now seven hundred
Sapphire Hogs on his farm. He sells
practically none of these, with certain
exceptions. This gives him a large
choice in selection of both sows and
boars for breeding purposes. In these
the color is variable, although the blue
predominates. In a great many of
these sapphires there is a white belt of
variable width just back of the shoulder
similar to that in the Hampshire. This
white belt is accompanied by white on
the belly, white nose and face, and white
feet. Many lack the white belt but
have the other white markings, while
still others have blue body, legs and
feet, but are lighter colored about the
snout. The blue color seems to advance
by degrees and the hardest white
marking to eliminate is that of the
snout, and next, that of the feet, and
next to that the ‘“‘ Hampshire belt’’ and
white belly. But there were a large
number of “all blue” pigs, though
generally with them the face was a
trifle lighter in shade and in the fore-
head invariably there was a slightly
darker spot. The shades of blue vary
from quite light to almost black. This
is due to the proportion of white to
black hairs, for the blue color is due to
the free intermixture over all parts of
the body of black and white hairs.
There is no shading of the individual
hairs. The skin is pigmented wherever
the roaning occurs, but is not as fully
pigmented as is that of a pure black hog.

Several peculiar patterns occur in the
uniformly blue pigs. There are some
pigs which have a mackerel pattern in
the blue, due to areas containing a
larger proportion of black hairs. These

303

present very much the same marbled
appearance that is seen in some pPray-
colored cats. There are quite a few
pigs that have distinct dark stripes
about half an inch wide running length-
wise of the body, and from one to two
inches apart. In some these stripes
persist through life.

SOURCE OF THE NEW BREED.

The source from which this new breed
is being evolved is conglomerate. York-
shires medium and large, Hampshires,
Berkshires, Essex, and Chester Whites
have been freely used; Tamworth and
Poland Chinas have not been used,
though it is probable that some Duroc
Jersey blood was mingled in the earliest
crossing; but the pure black, the pure
white, or the black and white breeds
have been distinctly the basic stock.
Pigs of good individuality have always
been selected and while money has
never been thrown away in high
prices, yet it has never been withheld
when a desirable hog for breeding
purposes was found.

The first departure towards the blue
color occurred about five years ago.
This was a white sow with a very slight
tendency to roaning upon her sides.
Necessarily in the selection for color at
first, some leniency in regard to other
characters had to be exercised, but now
only uniformly colored boars are used
that have a good percentage of the
other characters demanded. In the
boars, the type of head, the strength
of bone, the color and the conforma-
tion are all insisted upon. In the
mature sows more variation still exists.
One sees the old fashioned Berkshire
snout and lop ear, and the white belt
and other white markings quite gen-
erally.

There are a good many litters upon
the place that are all blue, though they
vary in the shading. A sapphire boar
from sapphire dam and sire was mated
to twenty-seven sows of other breeding
carrying no sapphire tendency. Thirty
per cent. of the offspring were sapphire
and the highest per cent. in any one
litter was 40.

It is to be expected that vigor and
early maturity will appear in these

304 THE JOURNAL

hybrids. Mr. Griffith has obtained
sows weighing 600 pounds at 16 months,
and thinks his hogs mature about two
months earlier than any of the pure
bred breeds which he carries on an
equally large farm not far away.
“When we get through with them,
they shall be uniform and breed true,”
was one of Mr. Griffith’s last remarks
to me, and one felt that if it can be
accomplished at all, it will be. It might
seem that perhaps these sapphire hogs
can not be more ‘‘true blue” than can
the Blue Andalusian fowls. We know
that in certain fancy breeds of rabbits
there are many wasters in every genera-
tion. Judging from a day’s visit at the
farm, this would not seem to be the
case with the hogs, for from sapphire
sows bred to sapphire boars, there
were very few litters that carried pure
whites or pure blacks. There were,
however, litters from spotted sows that
had only one cross of sapphire in the

OF HEREDITY

ancestry, that had in their litters pure
blacks, spotted ones like the dam, and
mackerel-marked sapphires.

There were other exceedingly inter-
esting variations in color which, if they
will breed true, will some day also
appear as breeds; from a_ hereditary
standpoint, they are now exceedingly
interesting. There was, for instance, a
Titian coated young sow of unusual
beauty and a shade of color I have
never seen in Tamworth or Duroc
Jersey. There were a half dozen very
uniformly and peculiarly marked black
and white pigs, which promise interest-
ing results.

No claim for immunity is made for
the breed, but it is an interesting state-
ment of fact that although these pigs,
by the thousand for the last five years,
have been raised almost entirely on
city swill, yet there has never been
any outbreak of cholera.

Suchis the Sapphire Hog in the making.

NEW PUBLICATIONS

HANDBUCH DER LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHEN PFLANZENZUCHTING, Band I,
Allgemeine Zuchtungslehre (Handbook of Agricultural Plant-Breeding, Vol. I, General
Principles of Breeding) by C. Fruwirth. Pp. xxiii+442, price M.14. Berlin, Paul Parey, 1914.

The first volume of Professor Fruwirth’s encyclopedic work on plant breeding
has been rewritten and issued in its fourth edition. As a compendium of knowledge
on every aspect of plant breeding, it stands unrivaled; it must be admitted that
nothing equaling it has been produced in the English language. It is difficult
to think of any subject connected with plant breeding which the author has not
discussed fully and profoundly. Pains have been taken to keep the practical
work of the breeder in mind, but from its nature, the volume is highly technical,
and will be of value only to professional students of genetics. To the great body
of them who are teaching genetics in colleges or practising it at experiment stations,
the book would seem to be almost a necessary part of their equipment.

Vol. III, A. B. A. Reports, Wanted

A member of the American Genetic Association wants a copy of Vol. III, annual
reports of the American Breeders’ Association, to complete his file, and has ex-
pressed a willingness to pay $5 for it. Any member willing to dispose of his copy
at this price is requested to notify the secretary. Copies of Vols. I, Il and V are
also in demand, and the secretary will be glad to learn of the whereabouts of any
of these volumes which the owners are willing to relinquish.

BIOLOGICAL EUGENICS |

Relation of Philanthropy and Medicine to Race Betterment—Study of Genetics
Shows that no Race Can be Bred Immune to All Diseases or
Defects—Nevertheless, Medicine and Charity Must
Pay More Attention to Heredity’

LEon J. CoLe,

Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin.

speak before this Conference on the

subject of The Relation of Philan-

thropy and Medicine to Race Bet-
terment, I wish to make it clear that I
do so with no special knowledge of
medicine or of sociology. But if by
Race Betterment is meant in this
instance the production of an inherently
better race rather than simply the bet-
tering of conditions—if it means bio-
logical improvement rather than social
improvement—then I may _ perhaps
avoid the charge of presumption, since
neither medical science nor sociology
has as yet amassed sufficient data for a
very clear understanding of what their
biological effects upon the race may be.
Consequently the subject may be
regarded to a considerable extent in the
light of biological analogy, and if such
facts as are known fit in with biological
theory and deductions in other lines,
we may from this gather some assurance
that we may apply the reasoning of
biology, in its narrower sense, to the
destiny of mankind, which is, of course,
a cognate field of biology in its broader
meaning.

For we must not forget that man is
still an animal, however much he may
specialize socially; and although he
may by his superior knowledge abrogate
many of the laws which bind his more
lowly kin, the bird, the fish, the maggot,
or ameba, he cannot hope to escape
from the operation of certain of nature’s
methods, and one of the most funda-

[: ACCEPTING the invitation to

mental and tyrannical of these is that of
reproduction. The heritage of society
is passed in an uninterrupted flow from
one generation to the next; but not so
the biological inheritance, for between
the individual of one generation and
that of the next there is a rearrange-
ment, a shuffling of the cards face down,
leading to an indefiniteness of results
which has long made this problem one
of the most difficult of biological
questions.

So it is as a biologist that I propose
to discuss the question before us, and I
believe you will agree that until we
have enough facts to enable us to see
definitely what medicine and_philan-
thropy are actually doing for the race,
we shall have to predict as best we can
what they will probably do from our
knowledge of general biological laws;
and our predictions will have value di-
rectly in relation to the correctness and
extent of our knowledge of these laws.
This becomes at once apparent when
we consider the diametrically opposed
attitudes of certain biologists, sociolo-
gists and social reformers. One believes
that the human race already possesses
the potential factors for a richer and
fuller life, that this more or less latent
potentiality is rather universally dis-
tributed, at least within certain group
limits,” and all that is needed is a
better environment to bring it out.
Such maintain that biological evolution
has largely stopped in the case of civil-
ized man, and that social evolution,

1Address (here abridged) delivered before First National Conference for Race Betterment,

Battle Creek, Mich., January 8, 1914.

*See for example Smith, S. G., “Social Pathology,’’ New York, 1911, section on Eugenics,

especially pp. 308 and 309.

305

306 THE JOURNAL
the evolution of the environment, has
completely taken its place. Thus
Smith in his Social Pathology, asserts
that while ‘‘Charles Darwin may learn
important lessons from pigeons and
pigs, and a brood of lesser men may talk
about human marriage in the terms of
the stock farm, the men of
our generation who are studying the
problems at closer range will more and
more discuss them in terms of social
psychology.’* Another holds that evo-
lution and selection, or evolution by
selection, is in effect as always; that the
potentialities of individuals differ, and
that they develop differentially accord-
ing to this inherited potentiality and to
the limiting influence of the environ-
ment. Furthermore, that such individ-
uals as are able to survive the environ-
ment and to produce offspring, bequeath
to their successors only that which
they themselves inherently possessed.
Or still others, while believing that
Natural Selection is biologically opera-
tive, attribute to the environment
an ameliorating effect upon the germ
plasm, which means the “‘inheritance of
acquired characters.”” When men differ
to this extent in their interpretation of
natural laws, is it surprising that they
fail to agree on specific means for race
betterment ?

PHILANTHROPY AND MEDICINE.

At first thought it might seem odd
that philanthropy and medicine should
be classed together in a discussion of
this nature. The former draws upon
the resources of the individual, or of
the state, if we use the somewhat
broader word charities, while the latter
is ordinarily a source of income and
livelihood to the individual practicing
it. In this sense the same might be
said of agriculture or manufacture.
But medicine and philanthropy have
this in common—the one tends to
relieve the want, the other the suffering,
and both often to prolong the life of
the recipient.‘ And for this last reason
they are both of the same immediate

‘Loc. cit., p. 304.

OF HEREDITY

eugenic importance. I shall therefore
treat of them together in general,
discussing specific instances from one
or the other as the case may be.

Almsgiving and charity are as old as
history, and it is generally conceded
that these give advantage to the
biologically and_ sociologically unfit
which enable them to live longer and to
propagate more than they normally
would. But with one or two exceptions,
until recently, no thought was given, so
far as we know, to the possible influence
of this upon the race. Nevertheless, to
quote Warner,’ “‘Plato, more than two
thousand years ago, warned his country-
men of the degradation in store for any
nation which perpetuated the unfit
by allowing its citizens to breed from
enervated stock; and he sketched for
them an imaginary republic in which no
considerations of inheritance, of family
ties, or of pity were permitted to stand
in the way of the elimination of the weak
and the perfection of the race.”

With the rise of the study of economics
these questions often came to the fore,
and then the whole matter was given a
new turn by the revolutionary ideas of
Natural Selection which permeated so
many fields after Darwin’s publication
of the “Origin of Species.’ Biologists
and others were not slow to apply the
new ideas to man’s racial development, .
and from this time really dates the
period of active discussion, and often
violent disagreement, on the relation
of social advance to race improvement
or degradation.

As social reformers were concerned
with bettering the environment, a work
which could often be seen to produce
immediate and marked results in adding
to the health and material comfort of
the populace as a whole, the gradual al-
most complete acceptance by biologists
of Weismann’s doctrines as to the non-
inheritability of environmentally pro-
duced modifications naturally led to a
widening of the breach between those
who placed their faith in social measures
and those who foresaw the direful effects

“The most obvious result of charity as a selective force has been to lengthen the lives of the
individuals cared for.’’-—Warner, A. G., ‘‘American Charities,’’ New York, 1908, p. 23.

5“ American Charities,’’ 1908, p. 20.

See also, Pearson, K.

“The Scope and Importance to the

State of the Science of National Eugenics,’’ Eugenics Lab. Lect. Series, L., 1909, pp. 23, 24.

CoLeE: BioLoGicaL EuGENICS

of what they believed to be the increas-
ingly disproportionate ratio of defective
racial germ plasm. The social reformer
was accused of being shortsighted, like
a mariner driving his ship ahead because
the wind is fair and the weather looks
pleasant, but utterly regardless of
hidden shoals. Or he might be likened
to the unscientific farmer who, because
a particular crop is profitable, grows it
year after year in the same ground with-
out rotation until the land is depleted or
“sick” and will no longer produce. Or
again, like the capitalist who razes the
forests or despoils the earth of minerals
with all thought to his present gain, and
none for future generations.

On the other hand those who called
attention to the biological consequences
of the withdrawal of selection were
called ‘‘dismal scientists’? and alarm-
ists; it was maintained *that ‘‘the
mutilation or destruction of the unfit
would make society as a whole increas-
ingly cruel. It would produce a despot-
ism of pseudo-science that would be
more crushing to all the gentler virtues
of men than any political despotism
ever known.’”

WARNER’S ATTITUDE.

Between the views outlined above
we find that intermediate positions have
been taken by a large group both of
social workers and of biologists. A few
examples may serve to illustrate. War-
ner, who during his short life was one of
the foremost social workers in America,
far-sighted and discriminating, though
primarily interested in practical chari-
ties, clearly recognized the importance
of heredity in racial progress. He
nevertheless emphasizes the value to
the race of altruistic sentiments, though
he recognizes the necessity of pre-
vention of multiplication of the unfit.
Thus he says:’ ‘Could we cheaply rid
ourselves of incapables and close our
hearts to the appeals of distress, we
might never have the compulsion put
upon us of seeking out the wiser plans,
which may eventually give us a more

®Smith, ‘‘Social Pathology,” 1911, p. 294.
Woe: p. 25. ‘es

SoG Git. p: oll.

*Eugenics Lab. Lect. Series, IX, 1912.

307

uniformly healthy race. Extermination
might be an easy cure for pauperism, but.
it would be a costly remedy biologically ;
and if we allow our instincts to compel
us to forego the use of it, we may
ultimately be driven to preventive
measures.’’ He is doubtful, however, as.
to the efficacy of sterilization, and is
inclined to the view which is now gaining
wide acceptance that the most efficacious.
remedy is going to be segregation. He
points out that in many of our alms-
houses there are sometimes inadequate
means of separating the sexes, and ‘“‘the
breeding of paupers goes on upon the
premises,’’ and even that ‘‘formal mar-
riages between almshouse paupers have
very frequently received the sanction of
both church and_ state.’’ He con-
cludes his chapter with the following
very sane statement:** ‘Certain it is.
that while charity may not cease to
shield the children of misfortune, it.
must, to an ever increasing extent,
reckon with the laws of heredity, and
do what it can to check the spreading
curse of race deterioration. The desire
to prevent suffering must extend to the
desire to prevent the suffering of un-
born generations.”’

Among those who have in their
treatment of this subject emphasized
the importance of the Natural Selection
viewpoint may be mentioned especially
Herbert Spencer, Francis Galton and
Karl Pearson, the director of the
Galton Laboratory for National Eu-
genics, though many other names might.
be mentioned as well. The last named
has turned the energies of his labora-
tory to studying by means of highly
developed statistical methods the in-
heritance of various diatheses, traits
and defects, as well as the effects of
ameliorative measures. In his Cavendish.
Lecture for 1912, entitled ‘‘ Darwinism,
Medical Progress and Eugenics,’ we
find his position well set forth.
After marshalling the data of his.
laboratory to prove that “general
health is inherited and that the in-
fantile death-rate is selective,’ he sums.

308 THE JOURNAL

up so well that I cannot refrain from
quoting. He says: “ . . . these
are individual illustrations of what is
happening, because the intensive se-
lection of the old days has been sus-
pended. That suspension is partly due
to medical progress; you are enabling
the deformed to live, the blind to see,
the weakling to survive—and it is
partly due to the social provision made
for these weaklings—the feeble-minded
woman goes to the workhouse as a
matter of course for her fourth or fifth
illegitimate child, while the insane man,
overcome by the strain of modern life,
is fed up and restored for a time to his
family and paternity. In our insti-
tutions we provide for the deaf-mute,
the blind, the cripple, and render it
relatively easy for the degenerate to
mate and leave their like. In the old
days, without these medical benefits and
without these social provisions the hand
of Nature fell heavily on the unfit.
Such were numbered, as they are
largely numbered now, among the un-
employables; but there were no doctors
to enable them to limp through life; no
charities to take their offspring or
provide for their own necessities. A
petty theft meant the gallows, un-
employment meant starvation, feeble-
mindedness meant persecution and
social expulsion; insanity meant con-
finement with no attempt at treat-
ment. To the honour of the medical
profession, to the credit of our social
instincts, be it said, we have largely
stopped all this. We have held out a
helping hand to the weak, but at the
same time we have to a large extent
suspended the automatic action where-
by a race progressed mentally and
physically.

MEDICAL PROGRESS VS. EUGENICS.

“Surely here is an antinomy—a
fundamental opposition between medical
progress and the science of national
eugenics, or race efficiency. Gentlemen,
I venture to think it is an antinomy, and
will remain one until the nation at large
recognizes as a fundamental doctrine the
principle that everyone, being born, has

oF HEREDITY

the right to live, but the right to live
does not in itself convey the right to
everyone to reproduce their kind.

“Our social instincts, our common
humanity enforce upon us the con-
ception that each person born has the
right to live, yet this right essentially
connotes a suspension of the full in-
tensity of natural selection. Darwinism
and medical progress are opposed forces,
and we shall gain nothing by screening
that fact, or, in opposition to ample
evidence, asserting that Darwinism has
no application to civilized man.”’

I have made these quotations frankly
and at length because I believe they will
show you, more faithfully than I could
perhaps have done it in my own words,
the positions held by various students of
race progress and betterment. I believe
that any reasonable person must agree
with Pearson that in spite of the masking
influence of the increasingly complex
social heritage which is passed on from
generation to generation in our customs,
beliefs, books, laws—in fact in all our
increasing knowledge of science and the
arts—nevertheless biological inheritance
is operating in man now on the same
principles that it did when he swung the
stone axe, or scuttled through the trees
with his simian congeners. The de-
tailed studies of individual lines of
inheritance which have in recent years
been made from the Mendelian view-
point” leave no doubt of this. Further-
more, this being true, it must be con-
ceded by all thinking persons at all
conversant with biological principles
that selection plays the same role in
directing the course of heredity, that is
the surviving line of germ plasm, that
it always has. Note that I say selection
here rather than Natural Selection, for
the latter term is associated in many
minds with the crude methods of Nature
uninfluenced by sentient forces. Will
anyone deny that the animal or plant
breeder utilizes the same principles of
selection in breeding his cattle or his
corn that have in Nature brought about
the evolution of one form from another?
The difference is that instead of being
Natural selection it is now comnsctous

“For a summary treatment of these see Davenport, C. B., ‘Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,”

New York, 1911.

CoLeE: BIoLoGicaL EUGENICS

selection on the part of the breeder, and
he directs the processes of change, in so
far as his art enables him, along the
lines which his needs or his fancy direct.

Now as man’s mental capacities began
to develop the course of selection shifted
’ increasingly on to these, and they
became more and more important as
his social relations and capacities grew.
I am not prepared to assert that the
minds of the highly civilized ancient
peoples, such as the Greeks, the Egyp-
tians, or even more remote cultures
might not be capable of assimilating
and utilizing to the full the complexities
of our present social and political con-
ditions, our inventions and our scientific
knowledge—indeed recent Japanese his-
tory would be argument in favor of
such a view; but certainly this cannot
be said of the more primitive races, and
therefore some mental evolution must
be postulated from such a condition.
To my mind the course of evolution
presents a picture somewhat like that
of a small stream of water making its
way down an almost level but slightly
irregular surface. Tongues are sent
out this way and that as slight depres-
sions lead here and there, and at times a
considerable course may be made more
or less consistently; but then a higher
obstruction is reached and a new course
started, determined by the point of
lowest level. No matter how well one
branch has progressed, if another finds
a lower spot it diverts the stream. Just
so races and civilizations have arisen and
prospered and flourished until others
superior in brute strength, in organiza-
tion, or in equipment in arms, have
come in and superseded them.

DEFECTIVES GROW IN NUMBER.

Until social customs became com-
paratively highly developed individual
physical prowess was as necessary to
existence as among the lower animals.
This was in the stage of individualism.
With specialization, as particular classes
in a community took up certain special
tasks, and especially as armies were
formed not including the total popula-
tion, physical selection became relaxed
for some of the individuals. These con-
ditions have become more pronounced

309

until modern philanthropy and medical
science are bringing them to a point
where they can no longer be ignored.
Neither the greater diligence in seeking
them out nor the fact that they remain
in institutions for longer periods will
account for the disproportionately in-
creasing number of defectives and crimi-
nals in our population. This fact seems
demonstrated and one does not merit
the epithet of alarmist for pointing it
out. And if true, must we not give
thought to its remedy?

Just as, when the human race de-
veloped from the savage, artful means
of preservation superseded purely physi-
cal, and as the breeder has replaced
fortuitous natural selection by conscious
selection, so I believe the time is at
hand when mankind will find it necessary
to substitute some form of rational
selection for the hit-or-miss, happy-go-
lucky way they have drifted along in the
past. Exactly what this method shall
be I do not think we are in a position at
the present time to say. Two chief
lines seem open, restrictive and con-
structive—sometimes called negative
and positive eugenics. The quotations
which have been made in the earlier
part of this discourse show clearly, it
seems to me, that the former measures
may be adopted under certain con-
ditions without doing violence to the
finer instincts of the race, without in
any way destroying or lessening altruism
or humanitarianism. In our nation-
wide agitation for conservation we are
just beginning to realize our duty to
future generations. The case is a close
parallel, for we are saying that the
material benefits of our forests, our
minerals and our water power must be
conserved for the benefit of all the
people, and not reaped now to enrich a
few individuals and to be passed on only
to their families. Shall we have less
foresight in the heritage of defectives and
cripples that we pass on to the next and
future generations? Is not the social
reformer who does not take this into
consideration spending all his thought
on bettering the present generation,
just as exhausting our national re-
sources might enrich this generation but
pauperize the next?

310

Now, if it is going to be necessary for
us to practice some degree of rational
selection, we must be sure that it is
rational—it must be based upon positive
knowledge. What has modern _bio-
logical research to offer in the way of
contribution to such knowledge? In the
first place we can readily see that a large
part of the disagreement which has been
mentioned is due to difference in opinion
as to the influence which the environ-
ment may have on the individual and
on the offspring. It is the old question
of Nature and Nurture. While I am
free to admit that in its abstruse aspects
this is one of the most difficult questions
confronting the biologist, I believe that
much unnecessary confusion and need-
less discussion has resulted from the
tendency of writers to exaggerate their
views either on the one side or the
other, and not to accord the question
fair treatment. When I am asked, as
often happens, which I consider of
greater importance, heredity or en-
vironment, I commonly give a Yankee
reply by asking in return, Which is of
more importance for sustaining life,
food or air?

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT.
Although we may concede what is
the almost universal biological opinion
of today, that the effects of environment
are not in the crude sense heritable, we
must not, nevertheless, lose sight of the
fact that the environment is a most
inportant determining factor in evo-
lution and in selection. This may
perhaps best be illustrated by an
example. Let us suppose two cows,
one of which is inherently a low pro-
ducer, and is incapable of producing any
considerable quantity of milk beyond
that necessary to raise her calf. The
other, on the other hand, has inherited
the capacity to produce a large quantity
of milk under certain conditions, namely
proper feeding, care and handling. Now
let us first consider these animals under,
say, range conditions, where they re-
ceive no special care, and where they
have to hustle for their own mainte-
nance. So far as milk production is
concerned they will measure up about

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

the same—each will produce enough to
raise her calf and no more—and very
likely the inherently low-producer will be
at an advantage under these more
severe conditions. But now take the
two animals and place them in a modern
dairy with scientifically prepared rations,
and the best treatment that modern
dairy practice can provide. What is.
the result? The animal which inherited
the capacity to respond to such treat-
ment does respond at once by a sus-
tained increase in the flow of milk; but.
the other does not. The former was
hampered by conditions in the first.
place, but the latter is now absolutely
prevented by her nature from the
possibility of a response to the improved
conditions. We see therefore that these
conditions were necessary to make
apparent the differences which existed
in the hereditary make-up of the two.
animals. Is not the same true of the
human race? It is only by giving
opportunity to all, that we may know
which are capable of profiting by that
opportunity. The good environment.
then is necessary for differentiation, and
without differentiation how may we
hope to make selection?

Two other biological concepts are of
importance. These have grown out of
recent Mendelian investigations. The
first is the idea of hypothetical factors,
which are definite heritable units, and
upon the presence of one or more of
which all the characters of an organism
depend. Since the factors behave for
the most part independently in in-
heritance, the problem of handling them
in selection becomes an extremely com-
plex one. Where only two factors are
concerned, any desired combination as
to their presence or absence may be
expected in at least one of sixteen
individuals in the secgnd generation.
But as the number of factors to be dealt
with increases, the number of indi-
viduals necessary to give all the com-
binations increases at a most dispro-
portionate rate, as is indicated in the
following table, which shows the number
of individuals which according to ex-
pectation would be necessary to pro-
duce at least one individual with each

CoLe: BIoLoGicaAL EUGENICS

of the possible combinations under the
conditions most favorable for bringing
them about:

1 factor, 4 individuals.
2 factors, 16 .

3 ae 64 ae

TS ts 256 <
Os es 1,048,576 ve

Certain conditions, such for example
as certain striking defects or abnor-
malities, may depend upon the presence
or absence of a single factor, and it
might be comparatively simple to deal
with such cases singly. But the diffi-
culty of dealing with any considerable
number, especially in the case of man
where conditions are very different from
those of animal or plant experimentation,
may be readily appreciated. It might
be possible by prohibiting by law
certain marriages and encouraging others
to breed a race of mankind free from the
diathesis toward a particular disease, let
us say; but think of the number of
diseases alone with which man has to
contend and consider again the above
table. And then tell me how soon
eugenics is going to produce an “‘ideal
trace,’ made to order, as the news-
papers would have us believe is 1ts aim.

Such speculations may do for the
visionary who likes to speculate what
the world may be like a century or
twenty centuries hence; but the practical
eugenist is merely trying to determine
how what knowledge we have gained to
the present may be turned to the best
advantage for race improvement as
distinguished from individual ameliora-
tion. At the present time it would
seem that we are in a position to apply
certain phases of restrictive eugenics
with comparative certainty of results,
such for example as the cutting off of
those definitely defective lines of ger-
minal protoplasm which are beyond
hope of hereditary improvement.

POSSIBILITY OF SEGREGATION.

As to the methods which shall be
employed, it is coming, I think, to be
generally conceded that permanent seg-
regation, at least during the period of
reproductive capacity, is going to prove
the most feasible if not the most effective
of restrictive eugenic measures. But we

311

must be certain of whom it is necessary
to segregate. The recent advance of
knowledge in this line has been con-
siderable, but it is only a beginning, and
I must say that it is due more to the
work of biologists than of physicians.
Experimental breeding of plants and
animals has supplied the keys which
have unlocked some of the puzzles of
human inheritance, but what we need
now are more facts, the facts which can
be gathered from the hospitals and
asylums, from vital statistics and from
the case records of practitioners. But
these facts must be gathered with a
fullness and accuracy, and with a view
to the purpose they are to serve, which
has not been customary in the past. It
is a deplorable fact that comparatively
few medical men have very clear ideas
of heredity, or indeed evince much in-
terest in the subject, and few realize
its importance.

I have not had time in this discourse
to touch upon specific diseases, opera-
tions and charitable procedures, and to
discuss their relation to the question in
hand as I should like to have done. It
has no doubt occurred to many of you
to ask, however, suppose we grant the
necessity of restricting the reproduction
of the obviously unfit, what about
operations in other cases, the treatment
of endemic and epidemic diseases, and
the like? Is removing the appendix or
the tonsils or the turbinal bones going to
be to the race like the drug habit to
the individual—once begun, having to be
continued in ever-increasing doses? It
may be. It is possible that the popular
idea of the predicted ‘hairless, tooth-
less race’’ may not be so far from the
mark, or at least that this type shall
increase in numbers unless sentiment
against it becomes so strong as to be-
come a selective factor. I wish merely
to point out that the filling and crowning
of our teeth is not going to insure better
teeth for the next generation any more
than wearing a set of false ones would;
if selection is eliminated, the individuals
of the next generation will have to take
their chance of inheriting a better or a
worse dental battery than their parents.
My point is simply, that if the inhert-
tance of the factors concerned were

312

understood, by selection of the parents
good teeth could undoubtedly be in-
sured to the next generation. But the
question would have to be asked, would
it be worth while? The breeder knows
how hard it is to fix a number of char-
acters at one time, and the student of
genetics understands why; and while
effort was being concentrated on the
teeth other characters would run riot.
The difficulties are further magnified by
the fact, greatly emphasized in recent
studies, that the way in which a char-
acter will be inherited often cannot be
determined by its appearance in the
individual. This is a fact which has
been almost completely overlooked or
ignored in the discussions of socio-
logists. So the conservatively inclined
need not be alarmed that practical
eugenics will do much more than to
eliminate the more obviously unfit for
some time to come.

If time permitted I should like to
discuss the question of whether, in the
case of certain specific diseases, such for
example as tuberculosis, the greater
promise for the race lay in selective
heredity, or in environmental adjust-
ments, such as prophylactic measures,
antitoxins, treatment and the like. My
feeling is that in most of these specific
cases the race will find it most expedient
to do as now, except in such diseases as
denote general physical or mental defect

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

be definitely inherited, but that medical
science could find an easy and early
diagnosis and certain cure. Would it
not be simpler and easier to cure it as
it appeared, even though its incidence
should be even larger than now, than to
cut off all affected lines of germ plasm?
For certainly the stock that would be
eliminated by such measures would be
an inestimable loss to the world.

The very specificity of disease coupled
with the difficulty of selecting for a large
number of characters at once, and
taken in connection with man’s present
cosmopolitanism, by which all diseases
are becoming distributed all over the
world within their possible ranges—all
these factors make the breeding of a race
of mankind immune to all, or even to a
large number of diseases, a practical
impossibility.

Eugenic selection must, I believe, for
a long time be confined as I have said
to cases of marked defect and weakness.
In addition more study must be given
to those influences which may weaken
the germ plasm directly, such as alcohol.
And medical science, rather than desist-
ing, must push on, especially in the
field of general prophylaxis, but with
more thought to succeeding generations
and the future of the race than it has
given in the past. Philanthropy and
charities cannot stop, but they must take
more counsel of established sciences, and

like medicine, give more thought to
the future.

or weakness. Take the case of cancer
for example. Suppose it were found to

Left-Handedness

As left-handedness is an inherited character, apparently behaving as a Men-
delian recessive, it is interesting to note the belief of some investigators that it
is one of the stigmata of degeneracy. Bardeleben is quoted in German periodicals
as saying:

“That a few great men, such as Leonardo da Vinci, were left-handed, does
not neutralize the prevalent belief—in all ages—that left-handedness implies a
sub-standard subject. The percentage of left-handed recruits is but 6.8; of school
children somewhat higher. These figures are very deceptive, however, for of the
left-handed children who became right-handed, the percentage is some 26. This,
added to the persistently left-handed, raises the original percentage of left-handed
considerably.”

After pointing out that the gibbon and orangoutang are as a rule right-handed,
and the gorilla and chimpanzee left-handed, the speaker decided there was no
evidence at all that a left-handed person was mentally or physically inferior.

THE ORIGIN OF DOMESTIC FOWL —

C. B. DAVENPORT
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

Fowl (Gallus ferrugineus) of India,

southern China and the East Indies

is the ancestor of our domestic fowl.
But when we consider the great variety
of characters that our domestic races
exhibit it becomes hard for us to under-
stand how they could have arisen from
a single source. It is, indeed, pretty
certain that two distinct species have
contributed to the formation of our
well known races:—one is the Jungle
Fowl, which is still found wild, and the
other is the unknown ancestor of the
Aseel or Malay Fowl, probably the
oldest fowl in domestication, for it has
been bred for over 3000 years. It is
still possible that the ancestor of this
bird or its bones may be found in the
interior of New Guinea, Borneo, or the
Philippines.

The Aseel has many points of differ-
ence from the Jungle Fowl and brings
in a whole set of characters that our
domestic races have and the Jungle
Fowl lacks. Thus the Jungle Fowl is a
slender, agile bird with long wings, erect
tail and a good flyer; while the Aseel is
a very broad, heavy bird with short
wings, drooping tail and unable to fly.
The Jungle Fowl has a long, slender
beak; that of the Aseel is short and thick.
The comb of the former is single, high;

& is commonly stated that the Jungle

that of the latter, triple (or “‘pea’’) and
low. The former has slender, olive
colored shanks; the latter thick and
yellow shanks. The Jungle Fowl has
a red eye; that of the Aseel is pearl
colored. The Jungle Fowl has the well
known English Black-breasted Red
Game pattern; the Aseel is mottled.
The Jungle Fowl is the foundation stock
of our nervous, flighty, egg laying races—
the Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish, Anda-
lusian, etc.—the races that first spread
over Europe, probably from the stock
that was brought back from Persia by
the expeditions of Alexander the Great.
All of these races ordinarily carry the
determiner of the Jungle type of colora-
tion. Representatives of the Aseel type
(which had long been established in
Eastern India and China) were brought
to America, becoming the ancestors of
the Asiatic breeds and the fine, general-
purpose breeds—the Plymouth Rocks,
Wyandottes, Orpingtons, etc. Such do
not regularly carry the Jungle type of
color pattern. In one case, on the
contrary,—namely in the Buff Cochins,
—they introduced a new kind of color
which (arisen in China 1500 years ago)
has never been produced independently
since. The fowl of the Aseel type are poor
egg layers but their stocky build and great
size make them unrivalled as table birds.

Racial Origin of Successful Americans

Dr. Frederick Adams Woods, chairman of the research committee in eugenics
of this Association, writes in the Popular Science Monthly (April, 1914) on “The
Racial Origin of Successful Americans.’”’ His study is confined to men of distinction
or high official position in the four largest cities of the United States. He finds that
those of English and Scotch ancestry are distinctly in possession of the leading
places, at least from the standpoint of being widely known; and, in proportion to
their number, the Anglo-Saxons are from three to ten times as likely as are the other
races to achieve national distinction in the United States at present.

313

Male above, female below,

*)

14

THE INDO-MALAYAN JUNGLE FOWL

Note the slender form, the high, single comb, the long beak, the erect
tail, the long wings and the nervous attitude, in comparison with the corresponding char-
acteristicts of the Aseel. Between them, these two breeds supply all the characters shown in
the many modern breeds of poultry, in Dr. Davenport's opinion; but the Jungle Fowl alone,

which was formerly considered to be the ancestor of all modern breeds, is not able to account
for them all. (Fig. 9.)

THE ASEEL OR MALAY FOWL

Above, a male. Note the stocky build and broad chest, the pea comb and overhanging brows,
the short, heavy beak, the absence of marked wattles, the place of which is taken by a
median ‘‘dewlap”; the short wings, drooping tail, stocky feet and short toes. The plumage
is mottled and the hackle and saddle feathers are without red lacing. Below, a female:
note the shafting (as in the Jungle Fowl), but the absence of mossiness on the wing

feathers. (Fig. 10.)
315

RESULTS OF EARLY MARRIAGE

Does It Lead to the Production of Desirable Children, or of Mediocrities?—Need
for Facts to Substantiate Theories—Reward Offered for Production
of Cases Where Rapid Breeding Led to Good Results
from Intellectual Point of View.

CaspER L. REDFIELD, Chicago, I!.

UCH has been said in advocacy
MW of earlier marriages of our

superior men and women for

the purpose of improving the
race by producing more numerous
progeny from that class of people. A
recent example is the article by Pro-
fessor Roswell H. Johnson in the
Journal of Heredity (Vol. 5, p. 102).

He says that “‘we must have our
superior men marrying earlier, even at
the cost of their early efficiency.’’ Also,
that we should ‘“‘cease prolonging the
educational period past the early twen-
ties,’’ and that our present practice of
delaying marriages by extending educa-
tion into post-graduate studies ‘“‘cannot
go on without serious loss to the race.”
To illustrate his point Professor Johnson
furnishes a diagram showing the great
increase in population coming from
reproducing at the rate of four genera-
tions per century as against reproducing
at the rate of three generations in the
same time. He says:

“Suppose a generation to be 25 years or
33 1-3 years respectively in two different
stocks, and that all persons marry and each
couple have four surviving children, or two
for each parent. The result is that the 25-

year stock constitutes two-thirds of the
population at the end of a century.”

The object of reproducing at the rate
of four generations to the century is, of
course, to produce superior individuals
and increase the relative number of
them in the entire population. Well, I
will donate one hundred dollars to the
treasury of the American Genetic Asso-
ciation if it can be shown that any
superior individual ever was produced
by breeding human beings as rapidly
as four generations in a century. It is
only necessary to find some superior
individual from the intellectual stand-

316

point whose date of birth is not more
than one hundred years after the aver-
age date of birth of his sixteen great-
great-grandparents. Any one of the
2,000 or 3,000 intellectually eminent
men known to history, who comes in the
four-generations-to-the-century class,
will draw the hundred dollars.

To make the matter interesting and
easy, I will be satisfied to give the one
hundred dollars if there can be found
more than three cases in which the
intellectually superior person has as
many as four generations in a century
in ‘the tail-male line alone. The three
cases are an allowance of about one-
tenth of one per cent. for errors in
records or possible cases in which the
putative father is not the real father.

In the northern part of the United
States, and in the central and western
part of Europe, the average time for
three generations in the tail-male line
is approximately 97 years. It is much
less in most other parts of the world.
In three generations of ancestors there
are one father, two grandfathers and
four great-grandfathers—a total of seven
males. In any case in which the average
age of these males was 33 1-3 years or
less at the time the succeeding persons
in the pedigree were born, the final
product would be in the three-genera-
tions-to-the-century class—males only
considered. It will be evident that
much more than one-half of all people
come within the three-generations-to-
the-century class as thus defined.

Now raising the standard of superior
individuals to the exceptionally great
men such as Aristotle, Augustus, New-
ton, Bacon, Faraday, Franklin, Hum-
boldt, Cuvier, Darwin, ete., of whom
there are some two or three hundred
known to history, I will give a second

REDFIELD: RESULTS OF EARLY MARRIAGE

one hundred dollars to the treasury of
the American Genetic Association if a
single one of them can be found in this
three-generations-to-the-century class.
Cyclopedias, biographies and biograph-
ical dictionaries give ample data for
investigating more than a hundred of
these cases.

The time limit on both of these offers
will be December 31, 1914.

While I have investigated from many
angles the question of the effect of age of
parents on the offspring, I have never
done the specific work called for by this
offer. I am satisfied, from my general
investigations on the subject, that no
great man could have been produced
under such conditions; but the person
who hunts for the individuals desig-
nated will do something a little different
from anything I have ever done. If
the men are found, I will not regret the
$200. I make the offer because I con-
sider the problem involved to be of the
highest importance, not only in eugen-

317

ics, but in breeding any kind of animals.
For the purpose of general informa-
tion and comparison, I append a table
showing the distribution of births for
two generations in the male line. It
shows the ages of 2,564 grandfathers
when grandsons were born, and the
numbers of grandsons born at different
ages of grandfathers. The figures were
compiled from printed genealogies of
New England families: and it will be
admitted that the generations there are
longer than they are in many parts of
the world. Even there, it is evident
that the general average of generations is
more than three toacentury. Weshould
expect, on the laws of chance, that the
illustrious men would fall in this class,
in many cases at least. If they do not,
there must be something wrong with
such views as those expressed by Pro-
fessor Johnson. If they do, someone
can secure a contribution of $200 to the
American Genetic Association by
bringing forward the necessary data.

Ages of No. of Ages of No. of Ages of No. of Ages of No. of
G. Fathers| G.Sons |G. Fathers} G. Sons |G. Fathers} G.Sons |G. Fathers G. Sons
40 1 56 73 71 70 86 | 15
41 1 57 76 72 73 87 17
42 2 58 87 73 64 88 12
43 3 59 76 74 58 89 9
44 8 60 96 Us 66 90 12
45 12 | 61 90 76 48 91 9
46 23 62 86 77 50 92 2,
47 23 63 92 78 38 93 2
48 63 64 _ 104 79 47 94 +
49 | 32 65 89 80 36 95 4
50 40 66 91 81 42 96 1
5t | 52 67 85 82 22 97 0
52 | 56 68 76 83 27 98 3
53 58 69 | 90 84 19 99 0
54 74 70 74 85 22 100 9
55 75
167330

Average for 2 generations

— = 65.26 years.
564

The Eugenic Ideal

The Founder of the Christian religion said, “‘I am come that ye might have

life, and that ye might have it more abundantly.”
Progress I define as the emergence and increasing

life that is the eugenic ideal.

It is higher and more abundant

dominance of the mind. Of progress, thus conceived, man is the highest fruit

hitherto.

He is also its appointed agent, and eugenics is his instrument.—C. W.

Saleeby: Parenthood and Race Culture (1909).

THE JABOTICABA

Interesting Brazilian Fruit Little Studied but Presents Possibilities to Plant
Breeders—Causes of its Cauliflory—Variation and Hybridization
Under Cultivation.’

WILSON POPENOE,

Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

MONG the many interesting in-
digenous fruits of central and
southern Brazil, few create so
strong an impression on the new-

comer as the jaboticaba, not only be-
cause of its habit of producing its
delicious fruit upon the trunk of the tree
from the ground up, but also because of
the unusual beauty of its symmetrical,
dense, umbrageous head of light-green
foliage, which entitles it to a place among
the best ornamental trees of the region.

In spite of the popularity of the
jaboticaba, which extends to all classes
of Brazilians, and the fact that it has
been cultivated for generations, the
botany of this interesting fruit still
remains in a state of confusion. As a
general thing all jaboticabas are referred
by horticulturists to Myrciaria cauliflora
Berg, yet Berg’ distinguished and
defined three species, M. cauliflora,
M. trunciflora, and M. jaboticaba, whose
fruits are all known under the name of
jaboticaba. Tavares, who gives a key
for distinguishing these three species,’
adds a footnote to the effect that the

diagnostic characters will only serve to
distinguish trees growing spontaneously
in the forests, since culture produces
marked variation from the _ typical
characters, and in addition some of the
cultivated varieties are the result of
crosses between the different species.
Barbosa Rodrigues,* another Brazilian
authority, mentions two different species
of Myrciaria whose fruits are known
under the name of jaboticaba, dis-
tinguishing them by the fact that the
fruit of M. jaboticaba is small and pro-
duced upon a short peduncle, while that
of M. cauliflora is larger, and sessile; in
addition the leaves of the former are
larger than those of the latter.

To the student attempting to identify
a jaboticaba found growing in a garden,
the difficulties are numerous, and the
whole subject seems involved in hopeless
confusion. Not only must he deal with
species, but the presence of horticultural
varieties must be taken into account, in
addition to the possibility of crosses
between the different species, as men-
tioned by Tavares.

'The data contained in this article were collected on a recent trip of agricultural exploration in
Brazil, in company with A. D. Shamel and P. H. Dorsett of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

*In Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, Vol. 14, Pt. 1, p. 362.
*Tavares, Prof. Joaquim da Silva, in Broteria, Vol. X, Fasc. VI, p. 422.
This key is as follows:

Salamanca, Spain, 1912.

1. Peduncles of flowers and fruits quite long.

1857-59.
Bahia, Brazil and

Myrciaria trunctflora Berg
2

2. Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, with the base obtuse.

Calyx lobes ovate obtuse, ciliated.

Indigenous to Sao Paulo

and Rio de Janeiro... ysis. 4 sews seus scateny ote ead oeaks eld, JO00neRDOUmera,

3. Leaves lanceolate, with the base acute.
Indigenous to Rio de Janeiro and

ceolate, acute, ciliated.

Calyx lobes lan-

M. cauliflora Berg.

‘Barbosa Rodrigues, J., Hortus Fluminensis, pp. 220-221, Rio de Janeiro, 1893.

318

PoPENOE: THE JABOTICABA

“A JABOTICABA TREE

One of the handsomest trees of Brazil, and highly prized on account of its delicious fruit. It

seems to be adapted to a wide range of distribution in the tropics.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The geographic distribution of the
jaboticaba is rather wide, ranging from
Rio Grande do Sul on the south to
Minas Geraes on the north, and from
the Atlantic ocean to Goyaz and Matto
Grosso on the west, a larger area than
one would at first imagine from the
propinquity of these states on the map.
Outside of this region occasional trees
are found in cultivation, as at Bahia,
where the plant does not seem to be at
home, however, and is rarely grown.
Around the city of Rio de Janeiro the
jaboticaba is one of the features of
gardens and orchards, its dense, dome-
shaped head of foliage, of an unusual
shade of light green, marking it off from
other fruit trees and making it a feature
of the landscape. Not only single trees,
but small orchards, sometimes an acre

(Fig. 11.)

or more in extent, are not infrequent,
being more common, perhaps, in the
state of Minas Geraes than near the city
of Rio. The esteem in which the
jaboticaba is held by the Brazilians is
attested by these orchard plantings, for
in a country where the culture of tree
fruits as a whole has not reached the
stage where regular orchard plantings
for commercial purposes are commonly
made, the presence of a planting of four
or five hundred trees of one variety
proves the popularity of that fruit to
be exceptional.

From the level of the sea the zone of
the jaboticaba extends to altitudes of
3,000 feet or even more. At Petropolis
and Nova Friburgo it grows and fruits
well, as it does at Barbacena, in Minas
Geraes, where the altitude is given as
1,168 meters. In this section of Brazil,
however, the winters are not very cold

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

FRUIT GROWING ON LARGE BRANCHES

The berries are produced on every part, from exposed roots to the ends of small branches.

Many

tropical plants bear fruit on the old wood, while the habit is relatively rare in temperate
regions; it seems possible that this habit is due to the softness of the bark, rather than to any

adaptation caused by Natural Selection.

even at such altitudes, and it is doubtful
if the tree will withstand much frost.
At Lavras, in Minas Geraes, ice is said
to form occasionally, although the
temperature for the last two years has
not gone lower than 33° F., according
to the observations of C. C. Knight of
the Escola Agricola; in this region the

(Fig. 12.)

—_ 4

jaboticaba must be given first place
among fruits.

The name jaboticaba is a word of
Tupi origin, derived, according to Mar-
tius’, from jabotim, meaning turtle, the
name signifying “‘like turtle fat,’’ prob-
ably referring to the appearance and
consistency of the pulp of the fruit.

‘Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens, Vol. II, p. 397,

Leipsig, 1867.

POPENOE: THE JABOTICABA

Two spellings are current in Brazil at
the present time, jaboticaba and jabuti-
caba being considered equally correct by
some authorities, while others recognize
jabuticaba as the best form. The word
is usually pronounced by Brazilians
zha-bu-ti-ca-ba, with slight stress on the
fourth syllable. To designate the tree
the suffix -eira is added, making the word
jaboticabeira, or jaboticaba tree.

TREE LITTLE STUDIED.

References to the jaboticaba in scien-
tific literature are fewer than one would
expect, considering the frequency with
which the tree occurs in a large section
of Brazil. One of the earliest and most
interesting athough erroneous accounts
is that given by Piso® in 1658, who says
“It is a tall, erect, and elegant tree,
bearing extensive branches; it bears an
ash-colored fruit the size of a lemon,
with sweet juice, and a very thin skin
like that of very ripe grapes. It is
wholesome and agreeable, especially to
persons suffering from fever. It bears
no flowers, but fruits from the bark,
from the lowest root to the topmost
branch and throughout the entire tree,
close together in masses, so that the
tree looks like one huge bunch of grapes,
rather than a tree. A certain species
of it grows in the forests of Pagi
Tahucurana, but bears fewer fruits as
compared with the others. The natives
express a sweet and delicate wine from
it, which quickly ferments and turns
into vinegar unless drunk. Both these
trees are found in the vast forests of
the interior, and are common in the
prefecture of Sao Vicente, according to
Emmanuel de Moraes. I must confess
that I myself have never seen it, although
I sought so elegant a tree with a good
deal of diligence in the inland forests.”’

Barbosa Rodrigues considered the
jaboticaba tree themost handsome of all
the Myrtaceae. Under favorable con-
ditions it grows to a height of 35 or 40
feet, the trunk nearly always branching
close to the ground. The persistent
leaves are opposite, ovate-elliptical to
lanceolate, acute at the apex, generally
glabrous, with the margins entire. In

6Gulielmi Pisonis Commentarium in lacobi
Orientalis, Liber VI, p. 121, Amsterdam, 1658.

321

length they vary from three-fourths of
an inch to over three inches, the size of
the leaf being one of the characters by
which the natives usually distinguish
the different horticultural forms. The
flowers are small, white, produced in
clusters on the bark from the base of
the trunk to the ends of the small
branches, sometimes so thick as almost
to hide the trunk from view. In form
they resemble those of the myrtle, with
four small petals and a prominent
cluster of stamens. The normal season
of flowering is said to vary with the
different species; in the case of M.
cauliflora Barbosa Rodrigues gives it as
May in. Rio de Janeiro, and in M.
jaboticaba September. It is a common
occurrence, however, for the trees to
flower and fruit several times during the
year, when they are in cultivation and
supplied with an abundance of water.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FRUIT.

The fruit, which develops rapidly and
ripens within two or three months after
the time of flowering, is round or slightly
oblate, half an inch to an inch and a half
in diameter, deep, glossy maroon purple
in color, crowned with a small disc at
the apex. While sessile or nearly so
in M. cauliflora, in M. jaboticaba the ©
fruits are produced upon slender pe-
duncles not over one inch in length.
Between the two extremes in size there
are all gradations, the fruits of M.
cauliflora, which are considered the
largest, frequently averaging about an
inch in diameter as seen in the markets.
The skin is thicker than that of the
grape, and considerably tougher; it con-
tains, beside coloring matters, a large
amount of tannin. The translucent,
juicy pulp, white or tinged with rose, is
of a most agreeable vinous flavor, sug-
gestive of the rotundtfolia type of grape;
this similarity to the grape is not con-
fined to the flavor alone, the external
appearance, character of the flesh, the
size and number of the seeds as well as
the flavor all bearing such a striking
resemblance to the grape as to have
earned for the jaboticaba the title of
“the grape of Brazil.’”’ The flavor,

Bontii Historiae Naturalis et Medicae Indiae

TRUNK OF JABOTICABA TREE

When trunk as well as branches are loaded with fruit, the sight is so extraordinary as to have
caused an imaginative writer of the seventeenth century to declare that it looked more like
a huge bunch of grapes than a tree. (Fig. 13.)

Ww
i
nN

PoPpENOE: THE JABOTICABA

naturally enough, varies considerably
with the species or variety, and one not
infrequently finds a jaboticaba which
has the disagreeable resinous twang
common to several of the myrtaceous
fruits; this may be due, in many
instances, to the condition of the fruit
at the time of eating and not to the
variety itself. A good jaboticaba is so
thoroughly agreeable as to tempt one to
keep on picking and eating the fruits
indefinitely,—a temptation to which, it
must be confessed, Brazilians often yield.
The boys, especially, will spend hours
searching out and eating the fruits, and
their only complaint is that it is im-
possible to satisfy one’s appetite with
jaboticabas.

The seeds vary from one to four in
number, and are not easily. separated
from the pulp. In form they are oval
to almost round, somewhat compressed
laterally, one-fourth to three-eighths of
an inch in length. The seed coats are
thin and membranous.

SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

A number of named varieties are known
to the Brazilians, some of which are
probably true species, others horti-
cultural forms originating through seed-
ling variation. The name jaboticaba,
without any qualifying word, is con-
sidered to be properly applied only to
M. cauliflora. In actual practice, how-
ever, this is not closely adhered to,
since the natives of the lower classes use
the word to designate the fruit of M.
jaboticaba as well, although this latter is
also known as jaboticaba de Sao Paulo,
jaboticaba de cabinho, and jaboticaba
do matto. Tavares mentions another
species, M. tenella Berg, whose fruit
is known as jaboticaba macia. The
variety corda, which is one of the com-
monest named forms recognized in Rio
de Janeiro and Minas Geraes, can prob-
ably be referred to M. cauliflora. An-
other variety, murta, is equally well
known, and has smaller leaves than
coréda. No definite information con-
cerning it is available, and as I have not
seen it in fruit it is impossible for me
to do more than venture a guess that it
is another horticultural form of M.
cauliflora. The native will often tell

323

one that he has these two varieties in
his garden, but when asked to define the
difference between the two he is usually
at a loss to name any distinguishing
characteristic other than the size of the
leaves. The variety branca is listed
by one of the nurserymen in Rio de
Janeiro, but no information concerning
it is available other than that it is a
small fruited variety. The name branca,
meaning white, would indicate some
difference in color from the common
forms. Roxa, or red, is also applied to
some jaboticabas as a varietal name,
because of the fruit being lighter in
color than usual.

The fruiting habits of the jaboticaba
are worthy of more than passing notice.
When heavily laden the tree is a curious
sight. Not only is the trunk covered
with clusters and masses of glistening
jaboticabas, but the fruiting extends to
the ends of the small branches, which all
produce their share of the crop. When
one stops to consider the small size of
the fruits, and their abundance all over
the tree, it is apparent that the number
produced by a tree of large size must be
enormous.

CAUSE OF CAULIFLORY.

Cauliflory—the producing of flowers
upon the old wood—is not rare in
tropical plants. It is difficult to see,
however, of what advantage the char-
acteristic can be to the jaboticaba, and
what have been the reasons for its
developing. Pollination has entered
into the question, some authors having
considered that the production of sessile
flowers upon the old wood resulted in
pollination by slugs. In the jaboticaba,
however, this reason would not seem
sufficient, since flowers are not only pro-
duced upon the trunk and large branches
but upon the small branches and twigs
as well. Neither is there any room for
the argument that the fruits are too
large and heavy to be borne upon the
small branches and hence must be pro-
duced on the trunk, an explanation
which has been offered to account for
cauliflory in the jaca (Artocarpus in-
tegrifolia L., the jak of the Indo-
Malayan region), whose fruits sometimes
weigh as much as 40 pounds. Possibly

THE JOURNAL OF

HEREDITY

FLOWERS OF THE JABOTICABA

They are similar to those of the myrtle, as the jaboticaba belongs to

Twice natural size.
the order Myrtaceae.

It has sometimes been suppl sed that the production of flowers

on the trunk in this way was an adaptation to secure their pollination by crawling
rather than by flying insects; but this argument seems to have no force in the present

case, since flowers are produced on all parts of the tree.

the explanation may be found in a
statement of Schimper’, who says ‘‘The
question has often been raised why
cauliflory is so much commoner in the
tropics than in temperate zones, and the
distribution has usually been associated
with the conditions of pollination. To
me it most probable that it is
owing to the weaker development or less
of toughness of the bark. This
opinion is supported by the fact that
in dry districts, where the bark is con-

eems

deer rw

Schimper, A. F.

W., Plant Geography upon

(Fig. 14.)

siderably developed and rich in fibers,
cauliflory is very rare.’’

The season during which the jabot-
icaba ripens varies with the species
and the location: sometimes, indeed,
several crops a year are produced. The
trees even flower and fruit during the
winter months, in regions where the
temperature not go low.
Tavares considers humidity to be the
essential factor, and that the
fazendeiros of Sao Paulo, who irrigate

does too

states

Physiological Basis, pp. 338-339, Oxford, 1903.

PoPENOE: THE JABOTICABA

FRUITS OF MYRCIARIA CAULIFLORA

The largest of the jaboticabas.

grape.
cents a pound. Natural size.

their trees at times when there is a
scarcity of rain, succeed in having ripe
jaboticabas throughout the year.

The methods used in marketing the
fruit are somewhat primitive. Ship-
ments are received in Rio de Janeiro
from the interior, the fruit being packed
in wooden boxes which originally con-
tained two five-gallon cans of kerosene.
No packing material is used, and the
bulk being so great there is naturally
much danger of the fruits being crushed
and bruised in handling the boxes. If
smaller packages were used much less
injury would doubtless result; the tough
skin of the jaboticaba enables it to be
shipped. considerable distances, pro-
vided a little care is used in packing.
Since good jaboticabas retail in the
markets of Rio de Janeiro at 1,500 reis
(approximately 50 cents) a kilogram,
there should be sufficient profit in hand-
ling this fruit to permit its being care-
fully packed and shipped in from distant
points.

USES OF THE FRUIT.

While the jaboticaba is adapted to a

number of different uses, at the present

The pulp is juicy and in flavor greatly resembles the
In the markets of Rio de Janeiro such fruits sell for the equivalent of 25
(Fig. 15.)

day practically all of the fruit seems to
be consumed in the fresh state,—quite
frequently direct from the tree. The
almost passionate fondness which the
Brazilians exhibit for this fruit seems
to prevent their considering any other
course than its immediate consumption
the moment it is ripe enough toeat. By
the aboriginal inhabitants of Brazil a
wine was made which was held in high
esteem. This wine is said to be made
in small quantities at the present time,
but it does not seem to rank as a com-
mercial product. Jelly of excellent
quality can also be made from the fruit.
Frank R. Brainard, chefe das culturas of
the Aprendizddo Agricola at Barbacena,
Minas Geraes, has recently experi-
mented with this product to determine
the best method of manufacture, and
has found that the skins should be
removed from, about half of the fruits
used, in order to prevent the jelly from
having too strong a taste of tannin.
While the tree is said to succeed on
any soil, it seems to prefer one that is
rich and deep. Its growth is slow, six
to eight years being required for it to

326

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

FRUITS OF MYRCIARIA JABOTICABA

These are distinguished from M. cauliflora by the presence of a slender stem,

and are usually somewhat smaller in size.
Jaboticabas are usually eaten out of hand, as grapes are in the
(Fig. 16.)

maroon.

United States. Natural size.

come into bearing. In Brazilian orch-
ards the trees are nearly always planted
too close together, which prevents their
attaining the large proportions they
would otherwise reach. Frequently not
more than 15 feet is allowed between the
trees, whereas they should have at least
30. As previously stated, the jaboti-
caba withstands little frost, although it
is without doubt hardier than many of
the strictly tropical fruits, and adapted
to cooler regions. In California some
plants introduced about 10 years ago by

Dr. F. Franceschi at Santa Barbara
have made rather slow growth, and

although at times slightly injured by the
frost, give promise of being eventually
successful in favored locations. Young
trees in the U. S. Plant Introduction

The color is a glossy purplish

Garden at Miami, Florida, are doing
well, and while it is yet too early to make
any definite statement, they seem likely
to prove adapted to this region.

In Brazil propagation seems to be
exclusively by seed, although the fore-
man of one of the principal nurseries in
Rio de Janeiro stated that he had
successfully inarched young trees and
considered this a desirable way to
perpetuate choice varieties. Certain it
is that some vegetative means of pro-
pagation must be used if improved
varieties are to be established and
perpetuated. The hard wood and thin
bark will doubtless make budding
difficult, but some form of grafting
should prove entirely feasible.

The

—
ae

Journal of

.

¥
Pee
$96
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<=

feredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

%

%

: .Ssae

Vol2¥, No. 8. vag August, 1914:

CONTENTS

Frontispiece: A Herd of Dutch Belted Heifers.

Coat-Pattern in Mammals, by Q. I. Simpson..................-. 329
Hemophilia in Horses, by J. B. Robertson............ ......-.-- 339
Inheritance in Poultry, by D. F. Laurie........................-. 339
The. Huasenies’ Committee [25 06: hie Cee. wa dae eine UR epee 340
International Eugenics Committee................-5.050 000202 e ee 340
Reticular Heredity, by O. F. Cook................ 50.00.00 eee 341
Value of a Knowledge of Heredity, by G. Archdall Reid........... 347
Inheritance in Plant Hairs, by John Belling..................... 348
Eugenics Research Association Meeting................---...--- 360
The Declining Birth Rate, by F. H. Hankins..................... 361
Need of Family Histories, by Francis Galton.................... 367
Inbreeding in Dogs, by William Haynes.....................-..- 368
Mendelism in Man, by William Bateson................-..--.++-, 369
Pioneers in Eugenics, by A. E. Hamilton................-.-...-. 370
The Possibility of Eugenics, by Francis Galton........ egEel eee 372
Negative Eugenics, by C. W. Saleeby................--.25-+-0055: 372
Recent Books on Human Heredity, by Amey Eaton Watson...... 373
The Bare Necks; by C. Be Davenport <2 .025 5 es Pode eee ee es 374

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, July 25, 1914.

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SUA4IGH GALTAG HOLAG JO GYaH V

COAT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS

A Medium of Real Value to the Breeder, Since it Enables Him by Analysis to
Detect in Many Cases the Genetic Composition of His Animals—
Mendelism in the Hands of the Fancier.

Q. I. Stmpson, Palmer, Illinois

OLOR, or coat-pattern, is of
little commercial importance
on domestic animals destined

for pail or plow, while it is

entirely lost at skinning if the animal is
destined for slaughter. Nevertheless,
it has a real value to the fancier as a
means of determining the purity of his
preed, as well as to afford him a source
of scientific entertainment. In the
case of most pedigree breeds, pattern
and color are an integral part of the
standard score-card, and therefore must
receive consideration from the breeder
who handles pedigreed stock.

As the origin of most breeds is known,
the latencies which they contain are of
use to the analyzer. One of the most
striking features which can be dealt
with in this way is the white belt which
is a feature of the colored coat of many
mammals.

It is of relative location regardless of
its dimension. In swine its center falls
in the shortest line measuring over the
shoulders from toe to toe, except in the
latent belt of the Red Duroc, which is
located farther back. So nearly in the
same place is the belt regularly located
on all swine, that it must be believed a
peculiar cell-localization, belonging in
general to all species of Suidae in
latent condition.

W. J. Spillman of the United States
Department of Agriculture was perhaps
the first to publish a genetic hypothesis
regarding the white belt in mammals,
basing his opinion on his observations
in my own herds of hybrid swine; and
it is due to the stimulus received from
him that I began to take an interest in
this character. We had undertaken by
reciprocal crossing of contrasted breeds
to decide an important genetic question:

the potential hereditary value of sex,
the potency or hyper-potency of male
or female. While this series of experi-
ments was in progress, Mendel’s Prin-
ciples of Heredity were uncovered, add-
ing more facts and greater fascination
to the work.

FOUNDING A NEW RACE.

Among the hybrids on which we were
working, we found synthetic belted pigs
in the white contingent of the second
Tamworth cross on White Yorkshire.
Pigs with white hair but clouded skin,
F1, were bred back to pure Red Tam-
worth, getting the straight Mendelian
ratio of 2:2, whites and reds; but some
whites remained white only until they
were weaned. Red hairs then began to
appear throughout the front and hinder
areas, making in different subjects vary-
ing degrees of red-roan. Some even
gained clean, white belts, located as in
the Belted Black Hampshire. Looking
back to these various belted red-roans,
I now believe that clean red-end Belts
could have been selectively evolved by
interbreeding the reddest. In that case,
my new race of Belted-Reds would have
been better founded than by the method
which actually produced them—namely,
crossing these synthetic belts with the
black-end Hampshire; for with the latter
operation I lost time in cleaning away,
by elimination, the Hampshire black.

Belted swine offer the seeming para-
dox of explanation by postulating one
factor or two factors. An explanation
will make this clear. Taking the red
Tamworth, or the wild Sus from the
Schwarzwald, any addition of the proper
potential of unspotting white from a
White Yorkshire will produce some clean
white belts, with incipient pigment of the

329

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

A PRACTICAL PROBLEM FOR SWINE BREEDERS

Here is a pair of pure-pedigree Hampshire sisters from Dr. Flower’s herd.

The one at the right

represents the standard pattern, the other shows an enlargement of the white belt until

it covers the whole body, save for the head and tail.
Mr. Simpson says some breeders have used an all-black “‘throw-

corrected in breeding?

How can such an excess of white be

out” male for mating with sows of this type, and the results in the first generation are

succesful.

Relief is only temporary, however, for the second and third generations break

away into black and white ‘‘throw-outs,” just as is the case with Blue Andalusian chickens.

(Fig. 1.)

outside area that delineates it. Then
we might say that the white belt of
swine is composed of a single factor, this
dominant, and being simply the same
factor that can produce a rather low
potential of dominant white. But when
a Belt is crossed, or white added, with
breeds that exhibit, or carry latent,
spots in the pigment area, it must then
be compounded of two factors: one the
white, the other a determiner for selfing
the pigmented portion of the pattern.
The first of these factors (the white) is
dominant; the second (the selfing) is
recessive.

Spotting on swine, as with other
mammals, may be of two kinds: pig-
ment spots on a white field, and white
spots on a colored field. I can readily
recall the founding of a noted breed of
swine that was white with small black
spots but now, by the selective fancy

of its breeders, has gone through such
an evolution that it has become nearly
pure black, with a few white spots.

INHERITANCE OF BELT.

With a pure Hampshire male from
President Goodwine,the white area of belt
was dominant over some pure breeds,
but in lower per cent. with cross-breds.
The selfing was of vascillating reces-
siveness, verging to dominant in some
crosses. From this boar on a pedigree
Poland-China sow, that was clean black
except the six white points, a brood of
13 pigs was born, all clean white in the
belt of fairly uniform width; but seven
of the litter were so much covered with
spotting in the desired black area that
they would not be taken for Hampshire
hybrids.

As would be expected of white-face,
stocking-legs, spotting, or pattern de-

SIMPSON: CoOAT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS

331

f
.

THE BREEDER’S TEST FOR PURE PEDIGREE

A yearling sow, out of a tested Belted Red sow. and a supposedly pure Tamworth sire.

Con-

trary to expectation, she has an all-white hind leg. Such a trait does not belong to either
of her parents; Mr. Simpson is convinced that it shows a Berkshire taint in her supposedly

pure Tamworth sire. (Fig. 2.)
pending on two colors, the width of
white belt in Hampshire and its hybrids,
or synthetic belts, varies in dimension
from the entire pig white except head
and rump, to all black except a narrow
white line, or only the front feet white.
With the Hampshire of pure pedigree
there are a few all-whites and some all-
blacks. The factor for making white
in the belt and :the factor for self-
ing the anterior-posterior coat seem to
be always in contest for supremacy: and
both must be in happy equilibrium to
produce the standard pattern. I have
made apparent proof that either of
these factors may be _ strengthened
against the other by the conscious addi-
tion of other factors that work to the
help of one of them. And illustrating:
—Some red sows were selected that were
the second Duroc top on Poland-China:
out of a numerous bunch two sows were
found free from white-spots or markings
that indicate a hyperpotent red drown-
ing the latent spotting of the Duroc and

the white-spotting factor of the Poland-
China. These all-red sows were bred
to pure Hampshire, that normally
should sire 100% belts: but the result
of their 21 pigs was 11 self blacks and 10
belted of various but very narrow
width, the ends of good Hampshire
black. From other hybridizing with
the same boar I believe that had we
selected from the same broods as these
hyperpotent red sows some others show-
ing spots of white we would have gotten
near 100% of Belts. We may say that
both factors for belting pattern are
Mendelian, but must provide that no
other element interferes.

Belted pigs are occasionally met
among several crosses free from Hamp-
shire, Yorkshire or Tamworth blood.
My recollection from childhood days,
when my father was improving the
native black hog of Illinois with a mostly
white hog from Ohio, is that there was
about 5% of belted pigs that were called
by the settlers “listed-hogs.’”’ And in

332

Southern Indiana, where improvement
was not undertaken until later, the
Hampshire breed undoubtedly took its
origin in the same way.

ANOTHER BELT FORMULA.

In searching for a belted-red male for
outcross to my Belted-Reds, I found a
pig without pedigree, of perfect belted-
red pattern. He was from a herd in
which the owner had variously used
Chester-White and Red-Duroc males
on a black Poland China foundation.
Out of some 60 pigs he was the only one
of the belt-pattern. Before using him
we loaned him to a breeder having a
large herd of sows that were a mixture
of Duroc, Tamworth. Yorkshire and
Poland in various proportion. In this
herd he sired nearly 15% of belts, giving
us some confidence that he would sire
normally to our fixed-belt sows. But
the result was no better than from the
mixed herd, and we surmised his factors
for the belt were compound and entirely
different to the two-factor class with
which we were breeding: acting against
our older factors as opponent rather
than aid. The few good belts from him
were also sadly upset in their trans-
mission, throwing pigment spots inside
the widest part of the belt, white spots
on the pigment area, white bellies and
white high on hind legs (always on
same pig with white-belly). May we
suspect that his selfed area was the
result of two different spottings, one
interposed on the other, bridging the
pigment voids?

Two broods by the Goodwine pure
Hampshire out of two hybrid sows I
will describe to illustrate pattern
genesis :—These sows were of two Red-
Tamworth tops ona pure white York-
shire foundation: designated in farm-
lore as 34 Tamworth, 44 York. In
color-area one was a light-red-roan, the
other dark-red-roan, and each had a
normal white belt; their broods aggre-
gated 16 pigs, enumerated:—Three
perfect Hampshires; three wide belts
on brown-roan ends; two standard belts
on pale yellow-red ends, with a large
black-spot on each at top of rump; two
Hampshire-black with belts except
these narrowed to extinction on each at

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

top of shoulders; one good red coat
with narrow belt closing at top of
shoulders; one mostly white (an extrav-
agant belt) leaving only a black spot on
rump and at root of ears; one incipient
belt, one fore leg only being white and
the rest of the body good red except
for small black specks on rump; three
hair-coats all white, skins splotched
with black.

Analyzing these:—the mothers were
each heterozygous in the white factor
for belting, getting this only from the
Yorkshire side of their pedigree. That
they were also heterozygous for the
selfing on pigment area is proved by
their roanness, of mingled red and white
hairs, which came only from their last
Tamworth cross. The white factor
from the Hampshire was dominant in
the entire 16 pigs in some degree, from
the single white leg on up to the three
pigs entirely covered with white. Had
these same belted-roan mothers been
bred to a sire of their own color and
genesis, our like crossing has proved
that their produce would have been
3:1 whites and reds, with a per cent. of
the whites turning roan towards matur-
ity, and some with belts.

ANALYSIS BY ANALOGY.

So far the analysis was simple: but.
looking at the result of adding the
recessive selfing factor of the pure
Hampshire with the various comple-
ments that this must encou.' « in these
heterozygous sows, the e:.,.. nation can
only be the crudest guessing. Again,
however, we have prec: dent in other
hybridizing. The Hamps! ire being full
dominant to Tamworth Red, we may
conclude that the first three pigs, named
as perfect Hampshires, resulted from
segregation of these breeds in the zygote.
Actual breeding is the only test to
determine whether they are heterozy-
gous or homozygous for the white factor
of the belting which, it will be remem-
bered, is dominant. The next three
pigs, brown-roan ends with wide belts,
appear to be of Yorkshire-white plus
the two belt-pattern elements from the
Hampshire; except that there remained
also in the ova one or more Tamworth
pigment-forming genes which caused the

SIMPSON: COAT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS 333

SOME COMPLICATIONS IN MENDELISM

Emma D. 71, a Belted Red sow, sired by a pure Red Tamworth boar out of a Belted Red sow,

tracing back in the maternal line to a Hampshire boar on a light-roan-belted hybrid sow.
Although she appears true to type she is of decidedly mixed descent. The question of
interest to the breeder is to know howshe will behave inbreeding. She was mated to a
Belted Red boar which was also a Tamworth-Belt hybrid, and farrowed 18 pigs. Eleven
were belted, while seven were recessive reds. Had the parents been of pure blood instead
of mongrels, all the pigs would have been expected belted. It is interesting to note that
the black of Hampshire has been completely eliminated, both from body and germ cells,

in this sow, as far as the analytical test of breeding shows.

scattering pigmented hairs in the selfed
area (the Hampshire selfing factor is
recessive to pure White Yorkshire).

The next two pigs with their standard
belts, pale diluted red at each end with
a black spot in this on top of the rump,
appear to have resulted from the pairing
of enough Tamworth-red entities from
the dam, which uncrossed would produce
a highly potent yellowish-red, which is
often found among the recessives of the
F2 Tam-York cross. The added dom-
inance of these two pigs was perhaps
received from a single Yorkshire factor,
with the dominant and recessive factors
of the Hampshire sire.

The next two pigs, good Hampshires
save that their belts narrowed to zero
on top of the shoulders, should be classed
with the first three of Tam-Hamp com-

(Fig. 3.)

position, only in these the selfing factor
was more potent against the belting.
The next two pigs, red with a narrow
belt not continuous at the withers, are
like the belts with yellow-red, except that
the hyperpot>it red from Tamworth,
by Yorkshire acceleration, is yet more
dominant against the Hampshire black.
The next one, which was nearly all red
with only the left fore-leg white, might
be classed with the last foregoing,
except that his belt was more incipient.

The last three pigs, with coats all
white and skins mosaic, should be the
result of crossing nearly pure white
Yorkshire with the pure Hampshire.
Evidently none of the Tamworth selfing
factor was left in the conglomerate eggs.

We learn from these experiments
and from direct crossing of the White

334

Yorkshire and the Red Tamworth,
something of the elements that make
each perfect in the colors belonging to
its breed. And we also find that
Mendelism may not be condemned
without due analysis of contending
factors that may be contaminating
germ-cells. To make lucid I will try
your patience with some meditating on
Yorkshire and Tamworth color-origin.

THE YORKSHIRE WHITE.

Yorkshire white must be treated as a
pigment or coloring, the same as in the
paint-shop, and not as the absence of
something: for all white of swine known
to me is dominant to the darker pig-
ments, when crossed against them:
analogous to the brown, red, and gray
lead oxides that carbonated and further
oxidized produce the whitest paint.

We would imagine the origin of the
White Yorkshire that has some gen-
ealogy, to be from the white hog of
China, where perhaps most of his per-
fection in whiteness arose before im-
portation by the Bakewells to England.
Being dominant white we can not sup-
pose its first exhibit to be by the meeting
of chromosome complements, as with
albinos, (the pairing of two recessive
chromosomes, one from each parent,
making the somatic exhibit in purity).
Nor may we guess that the first mutant
was of such potentiality in dominance
as is the single factor producing white
in the family of spotted Negroes which
I will later mention. Analysis of this
Yorkshire white, which I have made by
hybridizing, proves the main factor only
to be dominant: and this the factor that
singly, in heterozygous pairing, whitens
every hair on the entire coat at birth,
but has not the power to whiten the
skin of the same subject. This single
mutant factor could have acquired its
present potentiality at a single leap, or
may have reached its present stage by
long continuous selection: we know of no
analysis for deciding this. A_ single
factor, by its presence or absence, says
white hair or colored hair, as we have
deduced by Mendelizing. But for the
perfection of white in the skin from
which the white hair grows, and the
positiveness that all the hairs shall still

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

be white at maturity of the subject,
throughout the entire coat, we must
postulate the doubling, or homozygous
pairing, of the factor for white. We see
in the jack-rabbit of the plains from
Texas to Alberta, the progressive white-
ness in which every degree of duration
of Winter’s snow adds to the perfection
of his invisible snow-coat. And might
not the white hog of China have gone
through the same minute, selective steps
of variation towards perfection, by the
constant desire of his Mongolian
breeders? That there is at least one
factor in the Yorkshire of high oxidizing
power is indicated by the fact that a
portion of F, recessives of this breed and
of the Tamworth, are richer in tint (red), -
and more potent in crosses, showing
improvement over the red of pure sub-
jects. Thus we find a perfection of
“paint making’? among the extracted
recessive reds from the Tamworth-
Yorkshire cross: a few of these being
much more brilliant in exhibit, and
more potent in further Mendelizing
against other breeds.

The Tamworth, now desired a bright-
red, is of lineal descent from the wild
gray Sus scrofa of Europe. We know
this from scattering history of his Irish
origin, and have greater proof from
hybrid analysis. It seems yet to require
some selecting to prevent his reversion
to the dark wild gray, now carried by
the indigenous hog of the Schwarzwald.
His skull-formation, though not his
dentition, seems good evidence also of
his scrofa descent. While the Tam-
worth is termed red, there are various
shades and tints of this: a yellow-red
that fades in maturity to dirty buck-
skin; bright-red keeping good to old age;
and a ripe-cherry-red turning slaty-
black at maturity of pig. And while
the main factor that decides red is
found in all the shades, there are no
doubt other heritable factors shuffling
in or out at formation of the gametes,
saying by their presence or absence which
particular tint will be made in the coat.

PATTERN CORRELATION.

Dropping back to the discussion of
outlining in color-pattern with white and
red, we will cite some observation :—

SIMPSON: CoaT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS

AN UNUSUAL HORSE BELT
Bright bay mare with a seal brown belt encircling the body in the position where piebald

horses carry a white belt.
two colts that were normal.

Two hybrid belted-red sows, one with
belt on left side only, the other with
belt only on her right side, and each
devoid of white on opposite side where
it should be white, were each bred to a
pure Red-Tamworth male, causatively
for ascertaining the action of orienta-
tion in the first two cells of the blasto-
mere, and the polar localization of the
front and hinder ends of the lateral pair
of cells, to be determined by the pattern
of their produce. To our surprise, in
the goodly number of young from each
sow there were no half-belts; and on
those having preponderance of belt on
one side, these did not correlate with
the unsymmetry of their dam as to same
side: for there were as many of right-
maximum from the left-belt sow, and
as many left-maximums from the right-
belt sow. There were too as many
perfect belts as from normal belt sows,
under Mendelian expectancy. This

The inheritance of this mutation was not tested further than
Photograph by Spillman and Simpson.

(Fig. 4.)

could be explained on the assumption
that the cytoplasm had effected pattern
proportion at the two-cell stage of the
unsymmetrical belts. If inthetwo-celled
stage of development these had sun-
dered, as is supposed in identical twins
of man, these one-side belts’ would have
each given phenomenon of “identical
twins,’ one of each belted, the mate
entirely selfed. I believe T. H. Morgan
has found vinegar-flies (Drosophila)
that had the right eye of one color and
the left of another, and the same has
been seen in man. We have, however,
other evidence, that the size of spots in
a pattern, and their location, is the
effect of a lineal family of chromosomes,
that at a fixed number of generations
from fertilization reach differentiation.
This is shown by paired anterior-poste-
rior markings; and also by the fact that
when a spot is found on one side, its
mate at the same location may usually

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

ALBINISM IN MAN.

Seventeen spotted and 16 normal ne-

groes are the aggregate descen-
dants of Mrs. S.* A.*, a spotted
mutation who founded a new race.
This photograph represents her
grandson, Jim D*., whose father
was a wholly normal Negro. The
white factor running in this family
, in heredity, like the white
factor for belting in swine, and is
dominant. The width of the black
stripe varies among the individuals,
but all are white in front. Photo-
graph first used by Simpson and
Castle in the American Naturalist.
(Fig. 5.)

acts

be found on the other side. In several
hundred observations of black switch on
tails of Jersey cattle, no instance was
found where the tongue was not also
black; there are nearly as many Jerseys
found with white switch, but these all
have white tongue. An _ interesting
subject was a heifer with a gray switch,
(white hairs and black hairs being
mingled in equal numbers), and the
tongue was neither white nor black but
a blended blue. This works also with
the black-end Hampshire swine, where
a few have undesired white on end of
tail: nearly universally will it be found
that the nose, sometimes only the
center of the rooter, will be found of
white skin. The pairing of white spots
or black spots with near equality in size
is found to some extent on nearly all
domestic animals bearing spots on the
coat: and only rarely, when the spot is
quite small, will a mate not be found at
the opposite side. This seems to prove
causation.

The conception that size of color-area
is dependent on the age at which
differentiation occurs simplifies the
phenomenon of pattern, whether the
entire coat be a unit, or each individual
feather of a fowl be the unit as with
Barred Plymouth Rocks. With feather-
barring, Oscar Riddle found that the
white bars and the black bars were each
all laid down on all the feathers belong-
ing to the one bird as they were growing
from the follicles at fixed minimum and
maximum periods of the bird’s body-
temperature and blood-pressure: simu-
lating the congestive coldness and sub-
sequent fever-reaction of third-day
malarial ague.

HETEROZYGOUS PATTERN.

When the pattern of individuals
depends on the hybridity (heterozy-
gosity) of paired chromosomes, it can
not be heritably fixed: and concrete
illustration is found with the roan-
shorthorn, Blue Andalusian fowl, and
at least two lines of spotted horses in
America. With these horses (though not
with the spotted Shetland pony, which
is patterned by different factors from
these), this spotting is the result of two

SIMPSON: CoOAT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS

RINGMASTER, A GOOD TYPE OF ROAN SHORTHORN

The usual location of the belt in this breed is indicated. Neither the roan color nor the belt
pattern can be heritably fixed, being the result, Mr. Simpson thinks, of a single white
factor and a single red factor paired in the primordial sexual cell or zygote formed by
the union of sperm and ovum. Roans are produced in 100% when all-red and all-white
animals are mated; but when roans are mated together, only half of the produce are

roans.

In other words, the pattern is strictly heterozygous, according to the experience

of breeders, but it can be created anew whenever it is desired, by the mating of pure white
and pure red individuals to produce the required heterozygous pattern-determiner. (Fig. 6.)

equal and semi-dominant elements: one
for making all white, the other for
making all color; and these two factors
are proved by breeding test to lie in the
same chromosome pair. Thus when
heterozygous, they create a spotted
animal; when the white is doubled
(homozygous), the individual must be
all-white; when the color-chromosome
is doubled the animal is selfed, and may
be either bay, brown, chestnut, or black,
according to itsinheritance. The Mende-
lian ratio from a spotted mating 1s
1:2:1, white, spotted, colored: the same
as the ratio from conjugating roan
Shorthorns. Both the white and the
self from spotted matings have proved,
in my observation, pure and homozy-
gous. The spotted Shetland acts like
the spotting of pure Holstein cattle, and
does not segregate. A peculiarity of
the selfs from spotted matings is the
absence of the usual white points, in-
dicating that this selfing factor is
different from the ordinary factor that

produces standard colors in _ horses,
most of which bear white markings on
feet, legs or face.

Dr. Frank R. Lillie referring to Hol-
steins, of which for a number of years
he has maintained an extensive herd of
pure-breds, tells me:—‘‘I believe that
it is possible to breed for white or black,
but results are surprising. One of our
bulls (very white himself and of whitish
ancestry) certainly puts more white on
his calves from the same cows than the
darker bulls. A pure black Holstein is
animpossibility, I believe; if there is any
black below the knees you can be sure
of mongrel blood. The nearest we
have come to pure white is in the case
of a young heifer with a black tip to one
ear and a black spot the size of a half-
dollar on the neck. I think it would be
possible to soon breed the black out.”

Among the freaks of factor combina-
tions which I have seen, was a percent.
of striped-roan pigs, the produce of the
second Schwarzwald-wild top on white

338

Yorkshire: these with seven longitudinal
red stripes on a white-roan field were
found in the clsss of dominant whites
(at birth), acquiring the stripes after
the weaning moult. At this time other
important genetic problems prevented
our testing the possibility of fixing the
unique pattern. Its make-up was from
the black birth-stripes. of the wild
scrofa, which are obliterated at moult,
with a weak dominance of Yorkshire-
white as the other factor: and a pecu-
liarity was the fact that, unlike their
prototype, the dark stripes became
darker, the white-roan field whiter, as
animal progressed in age.

We may safely predict that any form
or design of color or pattern, be it belt,
stripes, white feet, or spots in any
particular locality, may be fixed to
reasonable heredity dependent on
homozygous pairs of chromosomes,
regardless of the number of factors in-
volved, so they fall inside of the species
number of chromosome pairs. But no
pattern or design can be regularly per-
petuated where the factors are split in
the pair, 7. e., when depending on any
heterozygous pair of chromosomes.

THE USE OF MENDELISM.

Recapitulating we say:—The Fancier
and the Mendelist may synthesize color
and pattern to their likings. Starting
with dominant white found on some
individual, family, or race, among
mammals or fowls, he may borrow from
another of the species the dye, from yet
another the stencil, and create unique
marking. Then with simple Mendelian
analysis will he prove, as with chemistry,
the possibility of fixing to heritable
perpetuity his hand-made design. When
the particular type has been trued and
standardized by selective elimination;
homozygotized in each pair of chromo-
somes constructing it; and the race
from which each pair of these was taken is
known, then will he possess a delicate
“C. P. reagent’’ for finding the most
minute contamination in a suspect be-
longing to breeds with which he is
familiar.

The fancier’s Blue Andalusian is the
hybrid of black and white; the spotted
horse and the roan shorthorn are the
hybrid dominants of white and color
factors belonging to the same zygotic

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

pair, always paramour in the sex cells
and somatic cells: and such can never
be fixed by breeder’s selection: but they
may be created de novo in 100°% when
an animal with one of these factors
doubled is mated with another with the
other factor doubled; so that at the
halving of the chromosome pairs in egg
and sperm to create the new life, this
receives the paramour that creates the
pattern.

Conceiving that areas of color mark-
ings are modified by the time of differen-
tiation in the blastomere or embryo
we then have a pleasing hypothesis for
the fact known by feather-fanciers and
pattern-breeders that the _ stable,
standard pattern is upset when to a line
of long inbred fowl or mammals an out-
cross of pattern of the same appearance
is introduced. In my own experience
and gleanings I find usually that the F1
individuals of the outcross are usually
unchanged; the F2 and later generation
show the bad breaking-up of color pro-
portion and equilibrium. From this
may we surmise that the nicely balanced
barring on a “‘Felch’’ strain of Barred
Rocks depends on exactly so many days
and hours between the minimum body
temperature and blood pressure, pro-
ducing the white, and the same time
period of maximum temperature and
pressure producing the black, staining
the colorless gell that is constantly pass-
ing out of the follicle. Then if there is
introduced an out-cross of the ‘‘ Barnes
Strain”’ having a difference of conges-
tive period, we would get the “ breaking-
up”’ of the correct barring by interposi-
tion of black on white.

Breeders of the now popular belted
hog, the Hampshire, have not attended
to the effect of outcrossing on their
families, so that when they add new
animals, the breeder of these has been
accused of sending hybrids. May we
moralize that the new dose must be
cautiously tested before general use.

Let me add: that Mendelism, the
result of chromosome shuffling and seg-
gregation at the sexual preparation of
egg and sperm, is the breeder’s frac-
tic nating column and analytical balance:
it enables him to separate and weigh the
determining entities that make visible
the types, and then to resynthesize
these to his uses and his fancies.

SIMPSON: CoaT-PATTERNS IN MAMMALS 339

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. E. Castle: “Haredity of Cs15 Characters,” Carnezie Pu. No». 23, February, 1905; ‘“‘Color
Variecies of Rodz2ats,’”’ Scizac2, Auzust 30,1907; ““A N2w Color Variety of the Guinea Epa
Science, Auzust 30, 1907;—and Simosoa: “A Family of Spotted N2groas,’’ American Natural-
ist, January, 1913.

W. J. Spillman: ‘Inheritance of Coat Color in Swine,’’ Science, October 5, 1906; ‘‘Color In-
heritance in Mammals,” Science, February 27, 1907; ‘Inheritance of the Belt in Hampshire
Swine,’”’ Science, April 5, 1907.

Q. I. and J. P. Simpson: “Reversion,” Science, March 15, 1907; ‘Genetics in Swine Hybrids,”
Science, June 19, 1908; “Analytical Hybridizing,’’ American Breeders’, Vol. VII, 1911;
“Genetic Laws Applied,’”’ A. B. A. Vol. V. 1909.

O. Riddle: ‘‘Fundamental Bars in Feathers,’’ Biological Bulletin, February, 1907.

G. C. and C. B. Davenport: ‘‘ Heredity of Skin Pigmentation in Man,’’ American Naturalist,
November, 1910.

H. E. Jordan: ‘‘ Microscopic Study of Melanin,’”’ American Naturalist, November, 1910.

H. H. Laughlin: “Inheritance of Color in Short Horns,’’ American Naturalist, December, 1911,
January, 1912.

J. H. Kastle and G. D. Buckner: ‘Asymmetric Color Resemblance in the Guinea Pig,’’ American
Naturalist, September, 1912.

A. L. Hagedorn: ‘Tri-Color Coat in Dogs and Guinea Pigs,’’ American Naturalist, November,
1912.

T. H. Morgan: ‘‘ Factors and Unit Characters,’”” American Naturalist, January, 1913.

H. D. Goodale and Morgan: ‘‘ Tri-Color in Guinea Pigs,’’ American Naturalist, June, 1913.

C. C. Little and J. C. Phillips: ‘“A Cross Involving Four Pair of Factors in Mice,’’ American
Naturalist, December, 1913.

E. N. Wentworth: ‘Color in Short Horns,’’ American Breeders’ Magazine, December, 1913.

W. W. Smith: ‘Color Inheritance in Swine,’”” American Breeders’ Magazine, June, 1913.

Hemophilia in Horses

That blood-vessel breaking in race horses is an inherited character is argued by
J. B. Robertson in the Bloodstock Breeders’ Review (II, 4, 265), who traces the
beginning of the trouble to Herod, an English Thoroughbred foaled in 1758. Only
one runner out of 400, each year, breaks a blood-vessel, but Mr. Robertson shows
that the animals which do so are all found to be related, and apparently to carry
this pathological factor as a recessive in either sex. Ordinarily, he remarks, “a
true recessive character, such as chestnut coat-color, only becomes patent in the
individual when a determining factor for it has been inherited from both parents,”’
but it appears to him that ‘in certain characters which depend on structural or
physiological peculiarities and which are marked departures from normality, one
intense dose of the usually latent or abnormal character may be sufficient to over-
come the normal condition, which has been inherited from the sound parent.”’

Inheritance in Poultry

Several suggestions regarding inheritance in domestic fowl are made by D. F.
Laurie, poultry expert of the government of South Australia, in his report on Egg-
Laying Competitions held at Parafield in 1913-14. “I would again impress upon
breeders,” he remarks, ‘“‘that the reappearance of broodiness among White Leg-
horns is a taint, even as are cases of colored feathers. Both can be eliminated,
but only by strict and accurate methods of breeding. . . . To breed froma hen
which at any time has shown the slightest indication of broodiness is in my opinion
the height of folly.’’ The instinct to brood may be transmitted through the cocks,
the breeder is reminded. Mr. Laurie also considers egg-shell color to be a trans-
mitted character, subject to dilution or masking. There seems to be some corre-
lation between tinted shells and broodiness. It is considered possible that the
habit of laying tinted-shelled eggs appears only in alternate generations. Experi-
ments are now under way which are expected to yield definite conclusions on these
points.

THE EUGENICS COMMITTEE

To aid in guiding public interest in eugenics along scientific lines, and to
increase this interest by propaganda, the President of the Association has
appointed the following as members of the Committee on Education and Ex-
tension, which was created by the council of this association last winter:

David Starr Jordan, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California
(chairman).

Dr. Rupert Blue, Surgeon, General U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(first vice-chairman).

Mrs. John Hays Hammond, former National Chairman, Woman’s Welfare
Department, National Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).

Dr. W. C. Rucker, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service,
Washington, D. C. (secretary). :

Irving Fisher, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Dr. Elnora Cuddiback Folkmar, Superintendent of Women’s Auxiliary Clinic,
Washington, D. C.

Mrs. Charles Cary Rumsey, New York, N. Y.

The Very Reverend Walter Taylor Sumner, Dean of the Cathedral of St.
Peter and St. Paul, Chicago, IIl.

Talcott Williams, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New
York, N.Y:

Mrs. Huntington Wilson, Washington, D. C.

The letter of invitation sent to those selected as members (all of whom have
accepted) states that ‘“‘The object of this committee will be to promote the
education of public sentiment throughout the country, in order that a ‘eugenic
conscience’ may be formed in as many individuals as possible; to oppose pre-
mature legislation and, if necessary, to suggest desirable legislation, on the
basis of scientific data. The work of this committee will be focused in the
organ of the association, THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY.”

The committee expects to adopt every means possible to further the interests
of conservative and constructive eugenics, but its principal work, for some
time at least, will probably be the formation of local societies for the study of
the subject, the arrangement of public meetings and lectures by men of
science, and the publication of results of research which have direct application
to the problems of human heredity. The committee will in this way supplement
the Committee on Research in Eugenics of the American Genetic Association,
and will also, it is hoped, occupy a new field, which has hitherto been left prac-
tically unoccupied, but in which there is the possibility of doing a great deal
of useful work.

International Eugenics Committee

At the request of the Permanent International Eugenics Committee, whose
function is to decide the time and place of each International Congress, and to act
in a general deliberative and advisory capacity, President Fairchild of the American
Genetic Association has appointed the following members to represent the United
States of America: David Starr Jordan, Dr. Frederick Adams Woods, Dr. Rupert
Blue, Charles B. Davenport.

Major Leonard Darwin is president of this committee, and Mrs. Gotto honorary
secretary. The next meeting is to be held in London August 8. Belgium, Den-
mark, France, Germany, Italy, Norway and Sweden are represented on it, in addi-
tion to England and America.

340

RETICULAR HEREDITY

Heredity in a Network of Descent—A Conception Based on the Normal Evolu-
tionary Condition of Species—Characters Represent Lines of Descent
Rather than Independent Units in Germ-Cells.

O.- F. Cook
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

HE practical value of a scientific
theory lies in its use as a method

2 of thinking. Study of the general

problems of heredity should en-
able us to think more clearly regarding
the special problems that need to be
solved in the interest of agriculture and
the racial improvement of mankind.
The danger is always that we allow our
thinking to be governed by a few facts
or by facts drawn from too narrow a
field of investigation. Disconnected
facts command only a limited interest,
but a theory that suggests relations
between different kinds of facts often
stimulates interest and leads to further
discoveries. The utility of a general
theory, as well as its probability of
truth, is judged by its application to a
wide range of facts.

Assumptions or analogies that may
appear thoroughly justified by one class
of observations’ or experiment often
need to be modified to bring them into
agreement with data of other kinds.
In this way there may be a gradual
attainment of a better point of view, one
that facilitates the study of all of the
related facts. Yet these inductive
methods of biological investigation often
appear very indirect in comparison
with the well formulated systems of the
“exact sciences.”’

The study of heredity is often nar-
rowed to a search for a “‘physical basis”’
or “mechanism of heredity.” The
morphological conception of plants and
animals as made up of different tissues
and organs has been carried over into
heredity, and has suggested the idea of

finding something in the germ-cell to
correspond to the characters of the
adult. The first investigators looked
for a complete model of the next genera-
tion in the egg, and many similar hopes
of finding mechanism of heredity among
the organs of cells have been cherished,
all to be abandoned in turn, with the
progress of cytological discovery. The
sex-chromosome hypothesis, suggested
by cytological studies of certain groups
of insects, is the most recent of these
mechanical theories, but is now chal-
lenged by other investigators familiar
with the cytology of the same insects.
The results of breeding experiments
are also at variance with the theory
that the sex characters are transmitted
in the sex-chromosomes.’

MECHANISM STILL HYPOTHETICAL.

If something in the protoplasm of the
germ-cell could be shown to stand in a
definite causal relation to some feature
of the adult organism, we might begin
to understand heredity in this physical,
mechanical sense. But as yet we have
no such basis of observation to warrant
the localization of particular characters
in particular parts or organs of the
germ-cell. Indeed, we have no knowl-
edge of characters except in their
external manifestation, as features or
differences to which attention may be
directed in the study of heredity.
Theories of heredity are still useful
only as analogies and have to be judged
by their consistency with general bio-
logical facts and their convenience as
methods of thought, in bringing the

‘Foot, Katharine, and Strobell, E. C. Preliminary Note on the Results of Crossing Two
Hemipterous Species with Reference to the Inheritance of an Exclusively Male Character and Its

Bearing on Modern Chromosome Theories.

Biological Bulletin, 24: 187, 1913.

341

342

problems of heredity before the mind.

It is easy to admit in general terms
that there must be something in the
germ-cells to correspond to what we
call characters in adult organisms, but
to make this general admission is very
different from forming a concrete idea
of the hypothetical mechanism of hered-
ity. We may be as sure as ever that
organisms are machines, but reiteration
of confidence in the general mechanical
postulate does not give us increased
insight into the machinery. The fact is
that we are still without any definite
indications of the nature of the un-
formed, rudimentary characters that
are supposed to exist in the germ-cells.
The many names that have been given
to those hypothetical entities, such as
pangen, determinant, id, character-
unit, gen, etc., are merely symbols for
the unknown quantities of biology.
Their only use is for the statement of
biological problems. Instead of writing
our x with a single character as in
algebra we use the symbol gen, with
three letters. A gen is the unknown
something that is assumed to represent
a latent or unexpressed character; that
is, a character as it is supposed to exist
in the protoplasm, before it comes into
expression during the development of
the organism.

MENDELISM A MONOGENIC THEORY.

The so-called Mendelian theory of
heredity is in reality a theory of the
formation of germ-cells. To the as-
sumption that characters are transmitted
as separate particles or discrete entities
of some sort, is added the idea that
each germ-cell receives and transmits
only a single set of these character-
bearing ‘‘units.”’

The cells that build up the bodies of
plants and animals, the so-called ‘‘so-
matic tissues,’’ are supposed to contain
two separate sets of character-units, or
gens, derived from the two parental
germ-cells that united in conjugation
and initiated the development of the
new organism. But with each return
to the formation of germ-cells the two
sets of gens are supposed to be broken
up and redistributed in single sets. If
the two series of gens derived from the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

parent germ-cells are alike, all of the
new germ-cells have the same series of
gens. But if all of the gens of the two
parental series were not alike, the new
germ-cells receive one or the other of
the unlike gens, but not both. Thus
the germ-cells of hybrids between dif-
ferent varieties or species are supposed
to remain ‘‘pure’’ with respect to the
contrasted characters of the parental
stocks.

On account of this assumption of
“pure germ-cells’’? Mendelism may be
described as a monogenic or single-gen
theory of transmission. Only one gen
of the kinds required to produce the
various features of an adult plant or
animal is supposed to be represented
in the same germ-cell. The failure of a
parental character to reappear in some
of the members of the second and later
generations of offspring is explained by
assuming that the character was trans-
mitted to only half of the germ-cells.
The theory does not provide for the
transmission of additional gens to
represent characters that may not be
brought into expression, or that may
give rise to unexpected variations in
later generations. To explain such
variations Mendelian writers resort to
the theory of De Vries, that new char-
acters and new species arise by muta-
tions. If a sudden change of characters
appears in a member of an otherwise uni-
form, “‘pure bred’”’ stock, it is assumed
that a new character has been formed,
and that such changes in the char-
acters of uniform groups are examples
of normal evolutionary progress.

ORIGIN OF NEW GENS.

The effect of these theories is to
return to the pre-Darwinian doctrine
of special creation, except that the
species are not supposed to be made
altogether de novo, but by implanting
the gens of new characters in members
of old species. The change of any
single character is supposed to establish
a new “elementary species” or ‘‘bio-
type.”” How the new gens are made
and substituted for the old ones is not
explained, but the mathematical sim-
plicity of the monogenic hypothesis and
the idea that the chromosomes or other

Cook: RETICULAR HEREDITY

internal organs of the germ-cells might
represent actual, visible units of hered-
ity, have proved very attractive, and
have induced many recent writers to
abandon the Darwinian conception of
gradual evolutionary progress in nat-
ural species. Darwin was familiar with
abrupt changes of characters, or sports,
as he called them, but he did not con-
sider them new species or examples of
normal evolutionary progress. The
doctrine of De Vries, supported, as it
seemed to be, by the Mendelian theory
of heredity, has been hailed as a great
advance over Darwinism. But in some
respects the new anti- Darwinian theories
are logically inconsistent among them-
selves as well as lacking the support of
pertinent facts. The more we emphasize
the idea of characters as represented by
definite pre-existent entities or gens, the
rhore difficult 1t becomes to believe that
new characters are suddenly implanted.

That workers in other fields of biology
have been unable to accept the recent
Mendelian and De _ Vriesian inter-
pretations of the facts of heredity has
not seemed a serious matter to those
who were fully convinced by the sta-
tistical and _ cytological arguments.
From this point of view it seemed a
waste of time for “geneticists” to
familiarize themselves with the natural
species from which Darwin and _ his
successors attempted to learn the nature
of evolutionary processes. Indeed some
writers have formally dismissed the
idea of species as too vague and indefi-
nite for the application of “exact
-methods.’’ Instead of attempting to
understand the development of new
characters through the gradual evo-
lutionary progress of species, attention
is now given mostly to the changes
of characters that appear in artificial
pure bred strains under ‘‘experimental
conditions.”’

But even this class of variations does
not serve to support the monogenic
conception of heredity. There is still
no adequate proof of the most ele-
mentary assumption of the monogenic
theories regarding hybrids and muta-

343

tions, that one gen or character-germ

_ can be taken out and another substi-
tuted, and leave the remaining charac-

ters the same as before. Mutations and
hybrids have not been found to differ
from each other by single characters
as they are supposed to do in Mendelian
and De Vriesian systems.

The fact that mutations commonly
differ by many characters, instead of
by single characters, was noticed several
years ago, and was stated in a discussion
of the difference between varieties and
natural species’. Since that time many
additional mutations and hybrids of
cotton and other plants have been
examined with this question in mind,
but thus far without finding a satis-
factory instance of monogenic ,muta-
tion or mutative reversion. In all cases
where a definite change in one character
was noticed equally definite differences
in other characters were found. Such
facts indicate that mutative changes
should be thought of as polygenic, that
is, as affecting several characters at
once, instead of assuming that they
are commonly or typically monogenic,
in the sense of being limited to single
characters.

ABNORMAL MENDELIAN PHENOMENA

The nearest approach to monogenic
behavior is found in cases of albinism
or similar differences that may arise
from simple chemical reactions. But
certainly these color changes and allied
phenomena afford a very narrow margin
for the support of the general Mendelian
idea of the existence of characters as
independent units. Indeed, many Men-
delian writers have virtually abandoned
this idea of alternative units in adopting
the ‘“‘presence-and-absence’”’ hypothesis
to explain the results of Mendelian
experiments. But if it be assumed that
the Mendelian condition of alternative
inheritance is a consequence of the
dropping of normal characters out of
expression, the Mendelian phenomena
lose all constructive evo'utionary signif-
icance and take their place among ad-
mitted abnormalities.’

2Cook, O. F., Mendelism and other Methods of Descent, Proc. Washington Academy of Sciences,

9=.230-, s190%,

3Professor Castle has recently utilized this view of Mendelian characters as affording a basis for

simplification of the Mendelian notation.
Formulae. Amer. Nat. 47: 170, 1913.

See Castle, W. E.

Simplification of Mendelian

344

In reality alternative inheritance is
not limited to characters that show the
Mendelian reactions, but extends into
other fields of heredity where the
theory of germinal segregation and
alternative transmission of unit char-
acters does not apply. The sudden
changes of characters often shown in
successive internodes of the same plant
are as abrupt and as definite as any
mutative change or Mendelian alterna-
tion, and yet these changes of charac-
ters in internodes take place without any
opportunities for the segregation and
redistribution of gens in the formation
of new germ cells, as required by the
Mendelian theory of alternative trans-
mission. Such changes of character,
occurring during the development of
the same individual plant or animal,
must represent alternative expression of
characters, instead of alternative trans-
mission. And after this distinction is
appreciated it appears reasonable to
expect that other sudden changes or
abrupt differences among the individuals
of the same stock may represent varia-
tions in the expression of characters,
rather than differences of transmission.
Changes of expression must be con-
sidered in the study of heredity, as well
as differences of transmission.‘

THE POLYGENIC INTREPRETATION.

Instead of a single set of gens, as as-
sutned in the theory of Mendelism, a
multiple transmission of many alterna-
tive gens should be recognized, enough
to represent the whole range of ancestral
diversities. When the variations of
domesticated stocks are compared with
the diversities of related wild types the

same general range of character is
found. Many of the so-called ‘‘new
characters” of mutative variations

should be considered rather as suppres-
sions or reappearances of old characters.
The phenomena of reversion and reca-
pitulation indicate that the transmission
of characters is entirely independent of
expression, and that. characters may be
transmitted in latent form for many

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

generations and still retain their power
of returning to visible expression.®

A polygenic interpretation of heredity
does not conflict with the facts of
Mendelism and mutation, and is in
better accord with other facts of biology,
both evolutionary and _ physiological.
From a polygenic viewpoint, mutations
and Mendelism appear as differences
in the expression of the characters,
rather than as differences of transmis-
sion. The mathematical formulae of
Mendelism apply as readily to the
expression of characters as to trans-
mission and the polygenic conception
of heredity enables us to avoid the
misleading inferences that have been
drawn from the monogenic theories.
It no longer appears necessary to believe
that the degenerate mutations of do-
mesticated plants and animals represent
new species, or even new characters.
Uniformity in the expression of char-
acters no longer appears to be the
normal condition of heredity or of evo-
lutionary progress. On the basis of a
polygenic theory the typical condition
of heredity, as of evolutionary progress,
is found in normally diverse, freely
interbreeding wild species, instead of in
narrow-bred or self-fertilized domesti-
cated varieties. The production of
groups of uniform individuals by selec-
tive breeding or by special methods of
propagation does not eliminate charac-
ters from transmission, but only reg-
ulates the expression of characters.
It remains possible for the characters of
remote ancestors to reappear in rever-
sive mutations.

That characters should be trans-
mitted in a latent condition may seem
too wonderful for belief, but the fact
remains that all characters are trans-
mitted in a latent condition. The
germ-cells, eggs, embryos, larvae and
juvenile states do not have the char-
acters of adults, except in the sense of
transmission, nor do adults have the
characters of the preliminary stages,
except in the same sense of trans-
mission to their offspring. . It need not

‘Cook, O. F., ‘“Dimorphic Leaves of Cotton and Allied Plants in Relation to Heredity,” Bulletin
221, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1911.
*Cook, O. F., ‘Transmission Inheritance Distinct from Expression Inheritance,” Science, n.s.,

vol. XXV, June 7, 1907. p. 911.

Cook: RETICULAR HEREDITY

be considered more strange that a
character should continue latent for a
series of generations than that a seed
should lie dormant for a period of years,
expressing none of the characters of
the plant, and yet losing none of them.

What we call characters may be,
after all, only phases or stages in the
development of the organism and may
not be embodied in the protoplasm in
any such manner as the corpuscular
or genic theories have assumed. The
larva or the embryo, the egg or the
spermatozoon, is as truly an organism
as the adult. Each form of life has
its complete cycle and it is only an
artificial, mechanical analogy that leads
us to think of one part of the life-cycle
as less complete than another. The
cycle being continuous, each part can
be considered as a preparation for the
next, but in the very nature of the case
there is no beginning or end.

If the idea of transmission seems to
involve the notion of embodiment of
the characters in the protoplasm of the
germ-cells, we should see that this is
only a deduction from the preconcep-
tions with which we have approached
the subject, and that it affords us no
additional insight into the process of
transmission. Until we have a working
knowledge of the constitution of the
protoplasm itself, the nature of the
process of transmission can only be
inferred from the facts of expression.
Any inferences that may be drawn
regarding the numbers and relations
of the gens must accord with the be-
havior of the visible characters, and
must accommodate the facts of heredity
in networks of interbreeding lines of
descent in natural species, as well as in
single lines of descent in specially pro-
pagated domesticated varieties.

Domestication has been supposed to
change the characters of plants and
animals by placing them under different
environmental conditions, but this factor
is probably much less important than
changes in the methods of descent.
Where domestication has not been
accompanied by restriction of descent,
the normal state of individual diversity
has not been lost, or given place to the

6Cook, O. F.,

345

greater diversity between narrow bred
strains. In such cases as the rye plant
or the Guinea fowl, where narrow
breeding has not been practiced, the
whole species remains relatively uniform
and stable, in comparison with the
species where descent has been restricted
to narrow groups or to individual
lines.

COHERENCE OF CHARACTERS,

Merely increasing the numbers of
gens does not fully provide for the fact
that many characters are usually
changed together instead of one char-
acter at a time. Even assuming that
there are many alternatives for each of
the features of a plant or animal, there
would still be no reason why the sub-
stitution of one of these alternatives for
another should be connected with
changes among the alternative gens of
other characters. Our ideas of re-
lations of the gens to each other have
to be modified, in addition to recog-
nizing increased numbers of gens. If
we think of characters as representing
stages and alternative courses of de-
velopment, the gens, as predetermining
rudiments of the characters, must be
thought of as having intimate mutual
relations, instead of being considered as
entirely independent.

The tendency of characters to segre-
gate or behave as independent entities,
as manifested in typical Mendelian hy-
brids, is often counteracted by an op-
posite tendency to coherence or associat-
ed expression of characters. When the
tendency to coherence is strong a whole
series of characters may behave more
or less like a single Mendelian unit, so
that examples of coherence are often
reported as cases of Mendelism.*®

It may be nearer the truth to say that
organisms different in one respect are
different throughout, than to make
the Mendelian or monogenic assumption ~
that characters are separate entities
to the extent that one character can be
changed without affecting the others.
The idea of alternative courses of de-
velopment is in better accord with the
general facts of biology than the idea of
alternative gens, as shown by the

Mendelism and Interspecific Hybrids, American Naturalist.

346

nature of individual differences among
the members of normally diverse species,
with free intercrossing of different lines
of descent. We are familiar with
diversity in the human species, and do
not expect to find two individuals with
exactly the same characters, except in
cases of identical twins, and here the
phenomenon of uniformity is ascribed
to a division of the fertilized egg cell,
analogous to vegetative propagation.
As far as observation has gone, a
similar diversity exists everywhere in
nature, except where it is restricted by
special methods of reproduction. To fit
the facts of nature our theories must
provide enough gens and in sufficiently
intimate relations with each other to
equip this infinite diversity of indi-
vidual forms.

CHARACTERS AND LINES OF DESCENT.

Instead of trying to think of gens as
separate entities or corpuscles of any
sort we may think of them as parts of
the ancestral lines that form the net-
work of descent of the species. A better
idea of the nature of the germ-plasm
may be gained by considering it as a
part of this network of descent. The
cells that make up the bodies of plants
or animals are connected into networks
by delicate threads that pass through
the cell walls, and the protoplasm inside
the cells also has a reticular structure.
Thus there is no lack of analogy for as-
suming a relation between characters
and lines of descent. Indeed, we have
all the phenomena of sexuality to war-
rant the suggestion of a physiological or
causal relation between the network of
the species and the network of the cell.
As the crossing of lines of descent
undoubtedly has a physiological func-
tion in increasing and maintaining the
efficiency of the protoplasm, those
who dwell on the idea of a mechanical
basis for the phenomena of life should
be the more ready to look upon the
reticulum of the cell as representing
the network of descent of the species.
This relation or analogy allows us to
consider the expression of each char-
acter as marking a stage in the develop-
ment of the individual, and at the same
time as corresponding to one of the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

many ancestral lines or alternative
courses of development that are open
to the members of a diverse species
propagating itself in a normal network
of descent.

Selective line breeding, self-fertiliza-
tion, or vegetative propagation, enable
us to establish definite courses through
the maze of alternative paths of expres-
sion. When regularity of expression
has been secured, so that all the mem-
bers of a stock bring the same characters
into expression, we have a _ uniform
‘pure’ race. Uniformity has been
accepted in the monogenic theory of
Mendelism as representing the normal
condition of heredity, though breeders
know that uniformity is generally arti-
ficial, as well as temporary. Even in
the most carefully selected stocks muta-
tions continue to appear, the “‘sports,”’
“rogues” or “black sheep’’ that are
rejected because they do not follow the
standard course of development. Thus
the breeder’s care is required to main-
tain the uniformity of a select stock, no
less than to originate it in the first
place.

The analogy between characters and
lines of descent also allows us to think
of successive appearances of the char-
acters in the development of the indi-
vidual as corresponding to their succes-
sive development in the evolutionary
progress of the species. It is not neces-
sary to suppose that the embryological
record is entirely consistent or complete.
New specializations, such as the larval
characters of insects, may be intercalated
into the early stages of the life history,
instead of being added at the end. The
extreme form of the _ recapitulation
theory, that the embryonic and juvenile
characters represent the exact courses
of evolutionary progress, has been
abandoned, but this need not interfere
with the recognition of a general analogy
or parallel between evolutionary devel-
opment, or transmission of characters,
and individual development, or expres-
sion of characters. Each character may
still be thought of as a stage of develop-
ment, reached by following one of the
ancestral courses or lines of descent.

The conception of characters gained
by this analogy is more concrete and

Cook: RETICULAR HEREDITY

stands in a more effective relation with
general ideas of evolution and heredity
than any of the character-concepts that
have been based on the wholly hypo-
thetical “‘units.’’ There is no objection,
of course, to particularizing the charac-
ters in any way that the facts warrant,
or to recognizing any ascertained rela-
tions to chemical substances or to
physical conditions, but all this can be
done without abandoning the general
idea of multiple descent and multiple
transmission of alternative ancestral
characters.

CONCLUSIONS.

The Mendelian theory of heredity
may be described as monogenic because
it assumes the transmission of only one
set of gens or character-units in each
germ-cell. A polygenic theory is re-
quired to account for the fact that latent
or suppressed characters are trans-
mitted, as well as those that are brought

347

into expression. The polygenic nature
of heredity is also indicated by the fact
that mutative changes of expression
usually affect many characters at once,
instead of single characters. A further
advantage of the polygenic conception
is that it allows characters to be brought
into analogy with ancestral lines that
form the network of descent of the
species.

The assumption that characters are
pre-existent in the protoplasm of germ-
cells as discrete particles or independent
units of any sort is not justified by
observation or by logical necessity.
Equally convenient and more truly
biological methods of thinking about
the problems of heredity can be devel-
oped by recognizing the relation of
heredity to the network of descent of
the species. This conception allows
characters to be thought of as repre-
senting lines of descent instead of as
discrete particles in the protoplasm.

Value of a Knowledge of Heredity

It seems to me that no kind of study can be made to bear intellectual fruit of
nearly such value as the study of heredity. It lies at the root of every science
and every study connected with life from botany and zoology to medicine, soci-
ology or pedagogy. Who knows it not knows not life except in its superficial
aspects. He may be a student of philosophy or a worker in biological science,
but in these days when heredity enters so much into philosophy and links together
so many biological sciences, he cannot be a very effective thinker or worker. It
furnishes a master-key to the more tremendous events of history, and is our only
hope against disasters that loom great and terrible in the near future. It goes
deep down to the springs of human life, and thought, and conduct, and explains
why some nations are inheriting the earth and the fruits thereof, while others are
dying physically or mentally. The philanthropist must know something of this
science or he will grope in the dark. The statesman must know something of it
or he may labor in vain. Transcending all else in importance is the educational
value of heredity. No nation in which a knowledge of it was widespread could
possibly be stupid or brutal. The habits of thought which must be brought to
its study are exactly those which counteract best the tendencies which have plunged
so many nations into their Dark Ages. So few are the essential facts of heredity,
but so prolonged, close and accurate must be the reasoning founded on them, that
no great strain is placed on the memory while the reflective faculties are exercised
in the highest degree. So largely would the student’s learning link up with the
subsequent experiences of his whole life that little would be forgotten, and a sure
foundation would be laid for a clear and wide intellectual outlook.—G. Archdall
Reid: The Principles of Heredity (1904).

INHERITANCE IN PLANT HAIRS

Stinging Bristles of Wild Plant—Black Tomentum of Velvet Bean—Fine Down of
Lyon and China Beans—Coarse Down of Yokohama Bean—Stinging Bristles
of Hybrids—Nine-Sixteenths of the Second Generation Stinging —Three-
Sixteenths of the Second Generation with Black Tomentum on Plants
and Pods—Fine, Coarse, and Intermediate Downy Pods—‘‘Velvet’’

Plants—The Third Generation—Working

Hypothesis.

JOHN BELLING,
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida

UCH useful information has
MW been gained by experiments
on the inheritance of the
color, length, and texture of
hair, fur, or wool, in animals. Oppor-
tunities for similar experiments with
plants have been rare. But in the
second generation of crosses between
the Florida Velvet bean and another
species of Stizolobium', the Lyon bean,
seven distinct forms of bristles, tomen-
tum, and down cover the pods or other
parts of the different plants; while the
color of these plant-hairs varies between
red, yellow, gray, white, brown, and
black. Since each plant requires 64
square feet, there is no inducement to
grow families solely for the study of the
inheritance of the different kinds of
pubescence. However, in raising im-
proved constant races from the offspring
of these crosses, considerable attention
had to be given to the inheritance of
the covering of the pods, and some of
the main genetic differences have been
disclosed. As several members of the
American Genetic Association are in-
vestigating these plants, the following
short account of my results may perhaps
lead others to fill up gaps in our knowl-
edge which I have been unable to fill
as yet, although during each of the past
four years the length of the rows of
pedigreed plants I have grown amounted
to about two miles.

WILD STINGING PODS

A wild Stizolobium from India (S.
pruritum) has its pods covered with

-and smooth black pods.

red and yellow erect bristles less than
two millimeters long. Part of a pod
is magnified in Fig. 7. The bristles
readily come loose. Each has its tip
filled with a gummy substance, clearly
visible in Fig. 7. The tip of the bristle
is photographed on the left of Fig. 14.
Minute projections like barbs may be
seen. These projections form small
colorless knobs over most of the bristle,
but are longer and pointed near the tip.
The two most conspicuous novelties
resulting from the crosses were stinging
bristles like those of this wild plant,
These are
shown, together with the pods of two
parents, in Fig. 8.

THE PARENT PLANTS

The Velvet bean (Fig. 8c) gets its
name from the nearly erect, black,
silky hairs of its young pods. Its ripe
pods are covered with a brownish-black
tomentum or wool(Fig. 9, left), the flat
twisted hairs of which are often over a
millimeter long. One of these hairs is
shown in the fifth place in Fig. 15. The
fresh tomentum from a nearly full-
grown pod is photographed in Fig. 11.
Some of the hairs are straight and color-
less, as are often the tips of the others.
They have minute knobs, and also a
little gum within the points. Men pick-
ing or threshing Velvet beans often
experience irritation caused by the
tomentum. Ifagenetic factor to stiffen
and lengthen these weak hairs could be
added, they would become genuine
stinging bristles.

1These are described in Bul. 179 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, by C. V. Piper and S. M. Tracy.

348

ae

Se Dy Da

STINGING POD AND BRISTLE

Magnified view, with millimeter scale, of part of the pod of Stizolobium pruritum, from India.

The closely set stinging bristles are nearly erect. This pod was eight centimeters long. At
the right is a photograph of a single stinging bristle from the pod shown, with scale in tenths
and hundredths of a millimeter. The gummy substance in the tip is conspicuous. The
minute dots seen, especially toward the base, are the colorless knobs referred to in the text.

This bristle was reddish-yellow. (Fig. 7.)

349

350

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

FOUR TYPES OF STIZOLOBIUM POD

(b) is the China bean, whose fine down can be seen on the ridge along the center. (a)
is from the first generation hybrid of Velvet by China, and is covered with sting-

ing bristles, which are also best seen along the median ridge.

(c) is the Velvet

bean, covered by white-tipped, dark tomentum, while (d) represents the plants
with fine black tomentum, which appear in the second generation and are called

by the writer ‘smooth black.”

These pods seem glabrous to the eye, but the

tomentum can be seen on young pods and (with a lens) in sheltered angles of the

dry pods. This particular pod (d) came from a fourth generation plant.

graphs natural size. (Fig. 8.)

The blackish hull of the Lyon bean
is made gray by an abundance of fine
whitish appressed downy hairs, the
longest of which are but little more than
half a millimeter. A part of a pod is
magnified in the center of Fig. 9. A
single hair is seen in the second place
in Fig. 15, and some of the fresh down
from a nearly full-grown pod is photo-
graphed in Fig. 12. Even on these fine
hairs minute knobs may be seen with
the microscope, as well as a little gummy
substance within the sharp tip. The
down of the China bean resembles that
of the Lyon, but is a trifle longer. Part
of a China pod is magnified on the
left of Fig. 10, and a single hair is shown

Photo-

in the third place in Fig. 15. The
Yokohama bean has longer and silkier
appressed down, which is usually yel-
lower, but is otherwise similar. A part
of a Yokohama pod is shown magnified
on the right of Fig. 9, and a single hair
of about the maximum length is photo-
graphed in the fourth place in Fig. 15.

HYBRID STINGING PODS

The pods of the first-generation hy-
brids of the Velvet with the Lyon,
Yokohama, and China, are closely
covered with more or less appressed
stinging bristles, mostly grayish yellow,
but usually with a patch of red at the
base of the pod. One of the pods is

351

TOMENTUM

the Yokohama pod to the r

FINE DOWN, COARSE DOWN AND LONG

ht has coarse down, and the Velvet
(Fig. 9.)

oO
oD
llimeters.

1
in mi

Scale

bean pod on the left has long tomentum.

The Lyon bean in the center shows fine down,

Nps.

sax
4
f
~

a
=
Le |
-
2
: r
st &

pain tee
'

sani

M1 og kh bate

THE JOURNAL

OF HEREDITY

PTTTTTT Trt

FINE DOWN AND STINGING BRISTLES

This is a portion of Fig. 8, magnified.

millimeters. (Fig. 10.)

shown in Fig. 8a. I am unable to
distinguish the bristles from the three
hybrids, even with the microscope.
They are photographed, together with
one from S. pruritum, in Fig. 14.
These bristles are about one and a half
millimeters long. The bristles of the
first generation hybrids are shorter and
thinner than those of S. pruritum and
have less gum in the tip. They also
sting less. A part of a pod from a first-
generation plant of the Velvet by China
cross is depicted on the right of Fig. 10.
One of the bristles from this pod is
photographed on the left of Fig. 15, its
tip is shown on the right of Fig. 14, and
a number of bristles are shown in Fig.
13. When, after the first frost in the
fall, young stinging pods dry up, their
pubescence becomes black, flattened,

The fine down of the China bean on the left is to be com-
pared with the stinging bristles of the F1 Velvet x China hybrid on the right.

Scale in

and more or less twisted, much like that
of the Velvet bean.

THE SECOND GENERATION

The chief types of plant-hair appear-
ing in the second generation are shown
in Fig. 15. ‘They are:

(1) stinging bristles, about one and
a half millimeters, or more;

(2) fine down, about half a millimeter;

(3) coarse down, up to about three-
quarters of a millimeter;

(4) intermediate between downy and
stinging, about one millimeter (not
shown);

(5) long tomentum over one milli-
meter long, like that of the Velvet bean,
with a patch of black tomentum on the
calyx, but white pubescence on the rest
of the plant;

BELLING: INHERITANCE IN PLANT HaIrrRs

(6) long tomentum, usually softer and
blacker than No. 5, but accompanied
with black tomentum over the whole of
the plant;

(7) short tomentum, less than half
a millimeter, accompanied by black
tomentum over the whole plant and
serious floral abnormalities.

(In the Velvet-Yokohama cross there
were no fine downy pods.)

Some of the stinging plants had
stouter bristles, some had stripes of red
bristles on their pods like the wild S.

353

TOMENTUM OF VELVET BEAN

The fresh tomentum from a nearly full-grown pod of Velvet bean.
become twisted. Mounted in water; scale in tenths and hundredths of a millimeter. (Fig. 11.)

Only a few of the hairs have

pruritum, some had more erect bristles,
and a few had sparse bristles. The
color varied from yellow to gray, usually
with a patch of red bristles at the base
of the pod. Some few stung more
severely than the first-generation
hybrids.

Among the downy plants, the fine
downy were greatly in the majority
(except in the Velvet-Yokohama cross),
but they graded into the coarse downy.
Measurements of the hairs of nearly
300 plants under the microscope showed

a ie ai i
DOWN OF LYON BEAN

The fresh down from a nearly full-grown pod
of Lyon bean, mounted in water.
short basal cell in most cases accom-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

had black tomentum mixed with the
white pubescence on their young shoots.
The color varied from grayish brown to
brownish-black.

The black plants with long tomentum
(long black) had sometimes tomentum
on their pods almost as rough as that of
the Velvet bean, but it was usually softer
and blacker. It was sometimes sparse.

The black plants with short tomentum
(smooth black) usually lost most of it
from their ripe pods, so that theyappeared
glabrous and coal-black. Ina few cases
the tomentum was lighter brown.

Since more than half of the black
plants set no pods, the ratio of long
black to smooth black cannot be deter-
mined. Rather more than three times
as many long black plants set pods in
the three crosses, but the smooth black
were distinctly later and more abnormal.
Hence it is possible that the ratio is 2:1.
The segregation appears in Table A.

In the first cross so many plants with
white pubescence set no pods that the
proportions are rendered unreliable.
From the close agreement of the other
two crosses with the calculated most
probable numbers, we may be sure that
the proportions are:

panies the unicellular hair. Scale in Stinging. Downy. ‘‘Velvet.” Black.
tenths of a millimeter. (Fig. 12.) a: 3 : 1 |
TABLE A
WHITE SHOOTS — | Black | White; set Number
Stinging | Downy-| Velvet.” Shoots. | no pods. of plants.
| | |
Velvet by Lyon......... 164e%, We p40: ESP fee), ee” “| SB 316
Calculated... 20. esses 156.4 Deel 17.4) 52.1 | A
Lyon by Velvet......... 320. 107. 34. 102. / 8 571
Calculated............ 316.7 | 105.6 @52- yl ibs.b 0)
Velvet by Yokohama.... 251. 12% bays 133 4 407
COleusaled Goce 226.7 75.6 Den 75.6
Total...| 1,294

that the intermediate formed only about
one-twelfth of the whole number of
downy plants. A minority of downy
pods had more or less erect hairs, and a
few had sparse down. The hairs were
either yellowish or white.

The “Velvet” plants had sometimes
stiffer tomentum than that of the Velvet
bean, and more straight hairs. Some

THE THIRD GENERATION.

STINGING PLANTS.—Thirty-six
stinging plants, from the second genera-
tion of the Velvet-Lyon cross, had the
majority of their surviving progeny in
each family stinging, when their seeds
were grown among crowded sorghum in
an elimination test (see Rept. of the Fla.
Agr. Exp. Sta. for 1912, pp. 115-127).

BELLING: INHERITANCE IN PLANTS

STINGING BRISTLES OF HYBRID
Bristles from a ripe pod of the Velvet x China F1 hybrid, mounted in water.

tain air.

Black plants were seen in several
families, but apparently none survived
to produce pods. Sixteen of these 36
plants had 15 or more survivors. Out
of these 16 families,

(1) 3 were all stinging;

(2) 9 were stinging and downy;

(3) 3 were stinging and ‘‘Velvet’’;

(4) 1 was stinging, downy, and ‘Velvet.’

The calculated numbers are:

(1) 1.8 families, censtant stinging;

(2) 3.6 families, 3 stinging to 1 downy;

(3) 3.6 families, 3 stinging to 1 long tomen-
tum (mostly ‘‘Velvet,’”’ a few long black);

(4) 7.1 families, 9 stinging to 3 downy to 1
““Velvet’’ to 3 black (or recessive downy).

The elimination of the black plants
would cause a few of class (3) to appear
as class (1); and, together with the small

Scale in tenths and hundredths of a millimeter.

Most of them con-
(Fig. 13.)

size of the families, would cause most of
class (4) to appear as class (2). Hence
the numbers of different classes of
families of stinging parents point to a
segregation with two main factors.

DOWNY PLANTS.—Out of 22 fam-
ilies, six were constant; and 16 segre-
gated into downy and smooth black.
Fourteen of these segregating families
were grownon poles. Their totals were:

Downy Smooth Black.
311 : 118

(Calculated 322 107)

From seven downy plants of one of
these F3 families, seven families were
raised in F4. One was constant, and
six segregated as follows:

Downy. Smooth Black.
157 57
(Calculated 160.5 53.5)

25 PREETI ORIEN EH - -t

TIPS OF STINGING BRISTLES

The first is from the wiid S. pruritum, and
contains much gum in the point. The
second, thirdand fourthare from F1 plants
of Lyon x Velvet, Velvet x Yokohama and
Velvet x China, respectively. They are
indistinguishable, and contain less gum.
Scale in tenths and hundredths of a
millimeter. (Fig. 14.)

From one of these smooth black
plants, a constant seedling family was
raised in FS.

Hence the segregation of the progeny
of heterozygous downy plants 1s,

Downy. Smooth Black.

1

Figs. 16 and 17 show respectively
downy and smooth black plants of the
fourth generation. A pod of one of
these smooth black plants is shown in
Fig. 8d. The pods of these particular
downy plants were not unlike the China
pod shown in Fig. 8b.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

“VELVET” PLANTS.—Out of five
families, three were constant ‘‘ Velvet,”
and two segregated into,

“Velvet.”
21
(Calculated 21

Recessive Downy.

~~

)

The recessive downy plants have long
appressed silky down (up to one milli-
meter) on their pods, and a patch of
black tomentum on the calyx like the
“Velvet’’ plants.

From a ‘“ Velvet”’ plant of one of these
families, two families were raised in F4
and F5, which segregated into,

*“‘Velvet.”
33 :
(Calculated 32 : 11)

Recessive Downy.
10
From one F4 recessive downy plant,
a constant family was grown in FS.
Hence the segregation of the progeny
of heterozygous “‘ Velvet”’ plants is,

“Velvet.” Recessive Downy.

LONG BLACK PLANTS.—Only
three families were grown in the third
generation. Their parents were se-
lected for maximum crop. One F2

parent with weak tomentum gave in
BS,

Long Black. Smooth Black.
35 15
(Calculated 37.5 12.5)

Two F2 parents with stiffer tomen-
tum gave in F3,
Long Black. “Velvet.”
44 ~ 17
(Calculated 46 : 15)

From one of these last families, several
families were grown in F4 and F5. Most
of the long black segregated, but some
were constant. The ‘Velvet’’ were
constant.

Hence the progeny of some of the F2
long black plants segregates into,

Long Black. Smooth Black.
3 1
Others segregate into,
Long Black. “Velvet.”
3 1

Most of the F2 long black plants
yield very poor crops.

hs
rors

5
Pe

*s

w
A ‘
FR

SRE Re ee ape rp Cai

VARIETIES OF POD HAIR

The first is a typical stinging bristle from the Velvet x China hybrid. The second and third are
typical fine downy hairs from the Lyon and China beans, respectively. The fourthisa long,
coarse downy hair from the Yokohama bean. The fifth is a hair of long tomentum from
the Velvet bean. The sixth is one of the longest hairs of the fine tomentum on the
smooth, black pods found in the second generation hybrids. Scale in tenths and hundredths
ofamillimeter. (Fig. 15.)

FINE DOWNY PLANT

A fine downy plant of the fourth generation, photographed early in September, and flowering

freely. This belonged to the family of VL-515, of which seven lines were grown in F4.
One of these gave 51 plants resembling this one, with fine downy pods; and the six others
gave 157 plants like this and 57 smooth black plants such as shown in Fig. 17. There were
thus in the field 208 plants, all closely resembling the one photographed above. By Novem-
ber, all these plants were bare of leaves and covered with dry pods. They were a week or
two earlier than the Velvet bean. The hairs on shoots and leaves are white: the leaves are
distinctly wrinkled. Scalein feet. (Fig. 16.)

358

SMOOTH BLACK PLANT

This plant belonged to the same family as the one shown opposite. Six fine, downy F3 plants

gave each in F4 about one-quarter of these black plants. This photograph was taken early
in December, 1912, but the plant presented much the same appearance early in September.
This particular black plant set no pods, as all its minute flower-buds, or its few flowers,
dropped. Some of the 57 black plants (brothers or first cousins of this one) set a few pods,
but all kept their leaves until the frost of December 26. The leaves are smooth and convex;
all the hairs on the plant consist of black tomentum. Scale in feet. A remarkable segrega-
tion with a single factorial difference. (Fig. 17.)

359

360

SMOOTH BLACK PLANTS.—Seed-
ling families were raised from three F2
plants which produced enough ripe seeds.
One family was constant black, and two
families segregated into,

Black White
53 18
(Calculated 53 : 18)

Hence the progeny of heterozygous
smooth black plants segregates into,

Black. White.
3 1

The pods of these recessive white
plants have not been seen. Most of the
F2 smooth black plants yield no crops.

WORKING HYPOTHESIS.

If B is a positive genetic difference
(or factor) which the Velvet bean lacks,
but which is present in the Lyon, Yoko-
hama, and China; and C is another
genetic factor, present in the Velvet
bean, but absent in the other three; and
both B and C (either single or double)
are needed for the production of typical
stinging bristles; then in the second
generation,

(1) The stinging plants have both the

factors B and C, single or double,

(2) The downy plants have only the
factor B, single or double;

(3) The long black and ‘“Velvet’”’
plants have only the factor C,
single or double;

(4) The smooth black plants have
neither B nor C.

If D is a genetic factor, present in the

Lyon and Yokohama, but absent in the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Velvet bean, which factor, in the absence
of B, causes the formation of black
tomentum all over the plant; if between
factors C and D there is a partial re-
pulsion, so that they rarely enter the
same gamete; then,

(1) Plants with neither C nor D will
be very rare in F2;

(2) Plants with both C and D will be
about twice as numerous in F2 as
plants with only C; most of the
former will have single, and most
of the latter double factors;

(3) Plants with D only will mostly
have this factor double, and will
be about half as numerous as
plants with both C and D.

We have then for the segregation

in F2:

(1) Nine-sixteenths, stinging plants,
all with B and C, about two-
thirds with D (mostly single),
and about one-third without D;

(2) Three-sixteenths, downy plants,
all with B, and nearly all with D
(mostly double) ;

(3) Three-sixteenths, plants with long
tomentum, all with C, about two-
thirds (long black) with D
(mostly single), and about one-
third (‘‘ Velvet’’) without D;

(4) Nearly one-sixteenth, smooth
black plants, without B or C, all
with D (mostly double) ;

(5) A very few, recessive downy
plants, without B, C, or D.

This hypothesis needs confirmation,

especially by crossing and back-crossing
the constant lines in F6.

Eugenics Research Association

The Eugenics Research Association, an organization composed largely of field
workers on various cacogenic lines, held its second annual meeting at Columbia
University on June 19 and 20, with an attendance varying from 50 to 75. A number
of good papers were read, and much time devoted toa discussion of practical prob-
lems, during which considerable dissatisfaction was expressed with the idea that
feeblemindedness is a ‘‘unit character,” Professor R. S. Woodworth of Columbia
University declaring that eugenics could not hope to gain the support of psycholog-
ists until it had either proved or abandoned this hypothesis. Professor J. McKeen
Cattell of Columbia University was elected president and William F. Blades of the
Eugenics Record Office re-elected as secretary-treasurer. Dr. Jean Weidensall of
the Laboratory for Social Hygiene, Bedford Hills, N. Y. and Dr. A. J. Rosanoff of
Kings Park Hospital, N. Y., were chosen as directors to fill three-year terms.

THE DECLINING BIRTH RATE -

Better Classes of Population in United States Marrying more Frequently and at
Earlier Age than in the Past, but Number of Births Decreases—Cause
of Fall Mainly Psychological—Interests of Individual
Versus Interests of Race.

F. H. HANKINS,
Professor of Political Economy and Statistics, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

death-rates begin to exceed birth-

rates in any race or nation it is

only a matter of time until that
race or nation is supplanted by another
in which there is an annual increase in
numbers. History shows that racial
stocks with a redundant fertility have
flowed out from ancestral homes to take
possession of new territory. Likewise
military strength and survival have
been at times roughly proportional to
numbers. Industrial and commercial
prestige is also roughly proportional to
population among nations of approxi-
mately the same stage of economic
development. Differential decline in
birth-rates therefore tends to upset the
comparative standing of races and
nations. Moreover and most significant
of all, a checked birth-rate reduces
the operation of natural selection and
thus tends to interfere with the process
by which man increased in physical
strength and intelligence.

More than a century ago Malthus
declared that there was a tendency for
population to increase faster than the
means of subsistence. Observing the
great mass of poverty and degradation
in contemporary England, he was led
to the belief that numbers of a popula-
tion must be kept within bounds by
famine, pestilence, poverty, vice, crime,
and war. Malthus pointed out that
the only way to obviate the operation
of these positive checks was the intro-
duction of the negative check upon
population increase. By this he meant
moral restraint, including thereunder
both postponement of marriage and
continence within the marriage relation.

i IS a self-evident fact that when

A century’s experience has shown that
food supply and the conveniences and
comforts of life can be multiplied by
man’s inventive and industrial capac-
ities more rapidly than the population
increases. Doubtless no period in the
world’s history has shown an equal
increase in numbers of the white or
civilized races. Nevertheless the white
world’s supply of consumable goods has
increased several fold per capita. We
are, therefore, today under the necessity
of considerably modifying the Mal-
thusian formula. There is, experience
shows, no inevitable and fatalistic ten-
dency among advanced nations for
population to increase beyond bounds;
but there is in every social rank a con-
sciousness of the conflict between repro-
ductive forces and the desires for wealth,
education, recreation, leisure, social
position, foreign travel, and other feat-
ures of an advancing standard of living.

PRESSURE IS INTENSIFIED.

It is now well established that the
pressure of population which Malthus
laid so much stress upon is not a pressure
upon the means of subsistence, but
rather upon the standards of living.
Moreover recent experience would seem
to indicate that this pressure is intensi-
fied rather than reduced by an increase
in wealth, so that the size of the family
tends to diminish as one ascends the
social scale. Malthus’s error therefore
was in the supposition that population
would forever tend to expand with its
material basis. At the very time when
the thinking people of Western Europe
were thrown into a most profound

pessimism by his treatise, there was
361

362 THE JOURNAL

beginning in France and America an
actual decline in the birth-rate. This
decline did not become pronounced in
Western Europe untilthe decade 1870 to
1880. It is more than a coincidence
that at this same period Mrs. Annie
Besant and her confréres in Theosophy
began openly to advocate New-Mal-
thusianism. They contended that the
number of children in a family should be
consciously limited. To this extent
they agreed with the moral restraint
doctrine of Malthus; but they did not
advocate the postponement of marriage,
but rather interference with the normal
processes of reproduction. Since the
late seventies the entire Western world
has silently acquiesced in this doctrine,
so that we find today that contrary to
the expectation of Malthus, our world
is no longer in the mysterious and inex-
orable grasp of nature’s demand to
increase, but rather man is achieving
control of his own perpetuation. This
control is spreading to all ranks of the
population so that for the first time in
history the conflict of a democratic
demand for high standards of living
with the forces of sex and race responsi-
bility threatens the perpetuation of
entire nations. Man’s expanding knowl-
edge gives him the true freedom which
comes from a conscientious and intelli-
gent control of his environment and his
own destiny, but of all his achievements
none is so momentous for the future as
the control over the forces of his own
generation.

HERBERT SPENCER'S THEORY.

Another very interesting historical
theory of population is that set forth by
Herbert Spencer in the early fifties. The
main thesis which Spencer sought to
demonstrate is that there is a direct and
unalterable opposition between individu-
ation or individual development and
genesis. His fundamental contention
was that the surplus energy of an organ-
ism has two possible uses—individual
growth or activity and multiplication.
He showed that as animals grow in size,
and above all as their nervous systems
become larger and more complex the
number of their offspring becomes
smaller. As the individual of a species
becomes highly developed and therefore

oF HEREDITY

able to compete more successfully with
its natural enemies, the balance of nature
requires that the offspring shall dimin-
ish in number. A codfish, countless
numbers of whose eggs and young will
be eaten, must spawn a million eggs to
produce one mature descendant, but not
so with the shark, the elephant, or man.
Now,without going further irito Spencer’s
reasoning, we may see here a funda-
mental principle to guide us in consider-
ing the problem before us.

In the earlier stages of social evolu-
tion the possibilities of individual de-
velopment were narrowly restricted by
the necessities of racial subsistence and
perpetuation. But as man achieved a
larger and larger control over nature, as
he acquired knowledge and material
goods, the importance of the individual
increased, until in modern societies the
perfection of the individual personality
has come to be the chief end of social
endeavor. It is among those peoples
and classes where the number of off-
spring is greatest that individual de-
velopment is lowest. On the other
hand progress in knowledge and the
spread of the fruits of civilization to the
lower class is everywhere accompanied
by a decrease in the size of the family
and an increase in individual develop-
ment. But if the forces of individua-
tion, that is the opportunities and
desires for personal achievement and
enjoyment, outrun the forces of genesis,
that is the obligations to the race, civil-
ization will defeat itself by producing
race suicide.

There is still another generalization
from Spencer of special interest in this
connection. He laid down as the final
criteria by which one may judge the
stage of evolution of the family the
following principles: the first end of the
family is perpetuation of the species;
the second is the welfare of the offspring;
and the third the welfare of the parents.
That form of family is best which fulfills
in due proportion all three purposes.
He therefore drew the conclusion that
that form of family is highest in which
the period preceding reproduction is
lengthened; in which the number of off-
spring is reduced to the minimum con-
sonant with the perpetuation of the
species; in which the lives of parents are

HANKINS: THE DECLINING BirTH RATE

least subordinated to the rearing of off-
spring; in which the period following the
cessation of reproduction is the longest
possible; and in which finally the off-
spring themselves find pleasure in caring
for parents in their old age.

PRINCIPLES ARE APPLIED.

These principles are in harmony with
the progress of the family in recent times.
There is a tendency among the upper
classes to postpone marriage; the number
of children is smaller, but not so small
as yet, except in France, as to endanger
the life of the race; a larger proportion of
them are reared to maturity, they receive
much greater individual attention, are
better educated and given a better start
in life; parents live longer and have a
larger proportion of their lives freed
from the care of children than formerly;
and finally aged parents are more solic-
itously safeguarded than ever before.
Here again we find that a decline in the
birth-rate is in harmony with a higher
type of family. But here also we must
note that there is a conflict between
some ends and others. The funda-
mental purpose of the family as a social
institution is the perpetuation of the
species; it is this which makes the family
so profoundly important; it is this which
accounts for the extraordinary care with
which society at all stages has safe-
guarded it by numerous restrictions and
requirements. When therefore the
pleasure-seeking of parents, or their
welfare in any other regard, which is the
third purpose of the family, comes to
dominate the racial responsibility which
is its first purpose, then it is no longer in
harmony with the conditions which a
permanent society is bound to enforce.

Space does not permit a statement of
the extent of the decline in the birth-
rate. It is generally known that every
Western nation is experiencing a de-
crease in its birth-rate. It is also a
matter of common knowledge that this
phenomenon is disturbing the balance
of power and raising questions of the
greatest political and military signifi-
cance.

When it comes to the causes of this
decline thereis lessunanimity. This is
one of the subjects in the explanation of
which causes stated often prove merely

363

a presentation of the personal biases of
their propounders. Only the more im-
portant can be noted here.

It is commonly thought that an im-
portant factor in the decline of the birth-
rate is the postponement of marriage.
The statisticians of a decade or more ago
were accustomed to show a close correla-
tion between the marriage rate and the
birth-rate. The marriage rate varied
either directly or indirectly as did
economic conditions, and the births
followed a similar course a year or two
later. But now this connection is being
seriously disturbed. In France there
has been a very slight decrease in the
proportion of persons under 20 who are
married; but this has been more than
offset by an increase in the proportion of
those of ages 20 to 30 who are married.
Indeed in Europe generally the propor-
tion of persons under 30 who are married
is increasing except in England and
Scotland. Moreover on the whole marri-
ages take place earlier in France than in
England, Germany, or America. Nor
is this all, for a larger proportion of the
French population is married thanin any
of these other countries. Thus the
birth-rate in France has continued to
fall in spite of those very conditions
which should have sustained it or even
caused it to increase.

IN THE UNITED STATES.

In the United States, contrary to
popular opinion, marriages are not only
more numerous but are contracted at.
earlier ages than they were 20 to 25
years ago. Thus when comparison is
made of the censuses of 1890, 1900, and
1910, it is found that the proportion of
the population classed as single has
steadily diminished and the proportion
of married has steadily increased.
Moreover this is true of both sexes.
When a study is made of conjugal con-
dition by all classes one is astonished to
find that a larger proportion of young
men of age groups 15-19, 20-24, and
25-34 were married in 1910 than in 1890
or 1900; and that a larger proportion of
young women of ages 15-19 and 20-24
were married in 1910 than formerly.
One is therefore forced to the conclusion
that if we view the population of the
United States as a whole marriage is

364 THE JOURNAL

neither avoided nor postponed as com-
pared with a decade or two ago, but that
on the contrary it is more general than
heretofore and is undertaken at earlier
ages.

If now we carry our inquiry a little
farther we meet with other surprises.
The census classifies the population
under four headings, Native White of
Native Parentage, Native White ot
Foreign or Mixed Parentage, Foreign-
Born White, and Negro. The returns
show that in every one of these four
groups there was a larger proportion of
married among both sexes in 1910 than
in 1890, except among Foreign-Born
Whites where the proportion was prac-
tically the same (62.2 in 1890 and 62.1
in 1910). Moreover when age groups
are studied, one finds that the propor-
tion of married is greater in 1910 than
in 1900 or 1890 in all four nativity
classes for both males and females of
ages 15-19 and 20-24; and that this is
also true for both sexes and all four
classes in the age group 25-34, except
among foreign-born males where the
proportion in 1910, though larger than
in 1890, was slightly smaller than in
1900.

We are forced therefore to conclude
that in all nativity classes of the popula-
tion as in the population as a whole there
is a tendency for the proportion of
persons married to increase and a
tendency for marriages to be undertaken
at an earlier age. This is a very un-
expected result with respect to the
native whites of native parentage.
This class includes those whose parents
were born in this country; it is to this
class that the professional and proper-
tied familes belong and it is frequently
asserted that this class is avoiding
marriage to an extent that shows a
decline in their sense of social responsi-
bility. While it is true that marriage
is later in this class than among artisans
and unskilled laborers, and while in
certain strata of this class the age of
marriage is doubtless later than formerly,
nevertheless taken as a-‘whole it is under-
taking marriage as readily as, and even
more readily than, in past decades.

Numerous other causes have been
brought forward by the French students
of this phenomenon. The style of

OF HEREDITY

women’s dress; over-eating, especially
consumption of meats; over-refinement;
salacious literature, the theatre andother
excitants of morbid cravings are believed
by some to be causes. Then much
stress is laid upon physiological sterility;
but statistical evidence seems to mini-
mize its significance. Doubtless con-
siderable importance must be attributed
to venereal infections.

CAUSE IS PSYCHOLOGICAL.

But magnify as we may all other
causes of the decline, the fact remains
that the one conspicuous factor is the
changed psychological attitude toward
the size of the family. This change in
attitude has a great variety of causes.
In the first place the very possibility of
escaping the normal consequences of
natural instincts in this regard would
prompt general adoption of the means
thereto. Have not various inquiries
shown, and is it not self-evident fact,
that women have in the past been held
in the iron grasp of an inexorable fate
which has imposed upon them in a large
proportion of cases the complete sacri-
fice of themselves to a monotonous round
of drudgery and child bearing? The
increasing freedom of woman, the grow-
ing power and importance of her per-
sonality, the inevitable demand on her
part to be recognized as an equal in the
responsibilities and the honors of racial
achievement; all these have reacted
upon the size of the family. There has
in addition been a great decline in
religious control; the most Catholic
department in France has had in recent
years an excess of births over deaths
seven times as great in proportion as the
rest of the country.

Then there is the imitation of the rich
by the poor, of the social élite by all
others. It has been and still is true that
the big families live in the little houses
and the little families in the big houses;
but more and more generally it is be-
coming true that the children who grow
up in the little houses are demanding the
education, the training, the leisure, the
social opportunities of those who grow
up in the big houses, and their parents
are ambitious to give them every pos-
sible advantage. Here indeed is the
great central fact,—individual ambition.

HANKINS: THE DECLINING BIRTH RATE

Here is Spencer’s principle of the ten-
dency of progress to magnify and exalt
the individual personality; here also is
his principle that social advance is
accompanied by a decreasing sacrifice of
parents to racial demands.

Now this of course has its good and its
bad features. There may be individual
ambition which takes the direction of
pure sordidness—the excessive selfish-
ness of the woman who will not surrender
a part of her inconsequential and
socially valueless card playing and
dancing or of the man who doesn’t want
to share any of his income or his prop-
erty and the freedom they give him.
Now it is equally true that neither
matrimonial concubinage nor brutal,
soul-destroying selfishness are socially
justifiable. Individual ambition may
on the other hand take the direction of
social achievement. It is undoubtedly
true that children are an impediment to
the man or woman who would win fame
in business, science, literature or art.
But here what society loses in talented
offspring is in part counterbalanced by
greater present achievement. Indi-
vidual ambition may and now frequently
does take the direction of a desire for the
bettertraining and equipment of children
for the duties of life. When, however,
the combination of ambition for the
child and selfishness and fear on the part
of the parents results in the one-child
family, it often happens that the child
has lost more by the absence of brother
or sister than he has gained by the in-
creased chance of a good start in life.

PROPER SIZE OF FAMILY.

There is, I believe, nothing that
promises more for the solution of
problems of poverty, low wages, eco-
nomic inequality and kindred social prob-
lems than the fact that parents are
acquiring the power to determine in
each case what their family should be,
but there must be a golden mean be-
tween none and a dozen which represents
the socially desirable. If three or four
children for each fruitful marriage are
necessary to maintain the population in
a stationary state, then three, four, or
five children must represent the family
which society would profit by standard-
izing. While individuals of great genius

365

may here and there profit by complete
freedom from early struggles, it never-
theless remains true sociologically that
a race which is to remain strong and
progressive must develop in its youth
a sense of self-reliance and a willingness
to undergo hardships which cannot come
when all needs from childhood to man-
hood are provided by the paternal
pocketbook.

It is extremely difficult in practice to
get the wisest proportioning of size of
family and economic resources. A
truly democratic system would require
many children of the rich and few of the
poor; this would quickly destroy class
divisions. The rich, the well-to-do, the
professional classes maintain their
supremacy in the social system partly
because their numbers are small and
unskilled laborers do the meanest work
at the lowest wages because their
numbers are large. But a more ideal
social arrangement will be that in which
the number of children is so related to
the economic status of the family that
individual ambition will not be killed by
the enervating effects of luxury on the
one hand or the demoralizing effects of
poverty on the other. Such an arrange-
ment would permit most rather than the
favored few to share the fruits of civiliza-
tion, would so enlarge the opportunities
of the lower classes that society would
get the benefit of much talent at present
smothered by the grime and toil of
economic insecurity.

There are those conspicuous in the
councils of the nation who urge upon all
the public duty and the personal joys of
large families. But there is reason to
suppose that the unfit are now multi-
plying more rapidly than the fit. And
in the second place the chief fault with
modern society is that it has too many
poor, too many at the bottom already.
What we ought to work toward as a
public policy is the reduction of the
great mass of unskilled labor and the
consequent equalization of economic
opportunities. Of course there are dif-
erent ideals of what society ought to
be. Some prefer great masses of people,
large volumes of imports and exports,
great armies and the pomp and noise of
a world power; and they prefer these
things even though they be purchased

366

at the expense of -great inequalities,
much poverty, and a low standard of
public life. Others prefer a greater
equalization of wealth, a juster distribu-
tion of life’s opportunities, increase in
the general intelligence, and achieve-
ment in civilization rather than in
money making. We hear of many
philanthropic measures to better the
condition of the poor, but there is no
proposal which will be so efficacious in
the elevation of their status as the
reduction of their numbers. The prop-
aganda now being carried on by the
Neo-Mathusians and the Socialists
among working people, whatever may
be its other social consequences, will
raise the economic and social status of
those whom every true democrat de-
voutly wishes to share in the best that
life affords.

A DIFFERENTIAL DECLINE.

Another important feature of this
whole problem is the probability that
the decline in the birth-rate has affected
the better stocks more generally than
the poorer, with the result that Western
nations are now reproducing themselves
mainly from the less able. This would
gradually shut off the supply of talented
men, of geniuses, of men who invent,
discover, and create, of men who set
new standards and lead to the perform-
ance of new duties. This would be to
add to race suicide the evils of racial
decay and degeneration. By the lavish
provision of homes, asylums, and char-
itable agencies of all sorts we make it
easy for the lazy, the shiftless, the
immoral, and the defective to multiply
apace; and by the growth of sanitary
and medical science we are preserving
a larger and larger proportion of those
whom nature would pronounce unfit.

When it comes to a comparison of the
different economic classes there are those
who hold that differences in rank are due
entirely to differences of ability; then
there are those who hold that natural
abilities are about equally distributed
among all classes. It is frequently
argued that the one great misfortune of
the poor is their poverty and that acci-
dent and good luck have played a leading
role in the elevation of those who happen
to be at the top. Undoubtedly there is

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

much truth in this; social arrangements
are not just; opportunities arefar from
equal. But in a land where opportuni-
ties have been large and moderately well
distributed, achievement becomes in a
rough way an index of ability, and failure
for several generations marks a family
as of mediocre blood. In any case the
probability that talent is altogether as
frequent among the lower classes as
among the upper would seem to be small.
The social problem with reference to the
masses, even though they should be
equally talented with the classes, is to
so reduce their numbers and enlarge
their opportunities that the inherent
talent they do possess may become
socially creative. At the other end of
the social scale the problem is to secure a
perpetuation and increase of those with
natural ability.

But the statistics of college graduates
indicate that a smaller proportion of
them marry than some decades ago, that. »
the age at which they marry is later, and
that the number of children has fallen
steadily and sharply. It surely cannot.
be argued that there is no social loss
when families who have achieved educa-
tion and economic freedom fail to main-
tain their places in the social composi-
tion.

On the other hand numerous studies.
by Eugenics Laboratory and University
of London students, by Rowntree,
Charles Booth, and others in America.
and Europe show that the lower the
wages, and therefore the natural ability,
the larger the family. As one ascends.
in the economic scale the size of the
family diminishes. However much one
may be impressed with the obvious in-
equalities of modern social arrangements.
and the undoubted exploitation of those
rendered helpless by poverty the evi-
dence of such facts as just cited forces.
the conviction that there is a tendency
for advanced nations to die at the top.
and to be replenished too abundantly ~
from their less able stocks.

Unless we can somehow find a way to:
make income proportional to inherent.
ability and the size of the family roughly
proportional to income our civilization
will neither meet the requirements of
social justice nor the essential conditions.
of its own permanency. Just how this.

HANKINS: THE DECLINING BIRTH RATE

367

TTT

BUSINESS PROMOTERS
PROFESSIONAL CLASSES
SMALL BUSINESSMEN
SOFT HAND WORKERS
ARTISANS AND
SKILLED WORKERS

— UNSKILLED
MANUAL LABORERS —

DEFECTIVES

1

uy

WHAT A EUGENIC REFORM WOULD MEAN

The accompanying charts show respectively the distribution of economic classes in present
society (at the left) and the distribution that would result were size of family to be roughly
proportional to income and native ability; were also negative eugenics to be used to
prevent the multiplication of the defective; and were the educational opportunities of the

industrial classes greatly increased (at the right).
proportions and class designations are not exact.

is to be done is another matter. Rome’s
efforts to preserve her best blood by legal
requirements failed. Recent French
proposals include the education at
public expense of every seventh child in
a family; the taxation of bachelors and
the exemption or abatement of taxes of
fathers of large families; additional votes
to fathers in proportion to the size of
their families; a public bounty of 500
francs for the third and every additional
child. All these and numerous other
proposals lack an essential quality—they
are indiscriminate and uneugenic. They
would probably have the sole effect of
increasing the proportion of the ineffi-
cient; they might increase numbers but
they would hasten degeneration.

There are those who believe that the
decline in the birth-rate cannot be
checked; and it does seem that civiliza-
tion tends to commit suicide by freeing
the individual and enabling him to flout
the race. Is it possible that a race can
be kept alive only by maintaining a

These charts are merely suggestive:
(Fig. 18.)

substratum of poverty-stricken, brute-
like creatures upon whom must rest not
only the weight of ceaseless toil, but the
burden of renewing the ever-disappear-
ing cultured but enervated social favor-
ites? Can we destroy poverty, and with
it the grosser injustices of our crude
anarchistic social system, elevate the
wholemass of the nation tosharers in the
fruits of civilization and at the same
time not bring self-destruction to our
white blood but rather raise its quality
above the best the world has yet seen?
If we still wish to be optimistic we may
reflect that ours is perhaps a period of
transition; that man’s new knowledge
must ever give him added responsibility
as well as increased liberty; and that
there is much hope for both a finer social
order and a higher type of man in the
education of coming generations in what
is eugenically fit and in the social respon-
sibilities required by an altogether new
and momentous power.

Need of Family Histories

The investigation of human eugenics—that is, of the conditions under which
men of a high type are produced—is at present extremely hampered by want of
full family histories, both medical and general, extending over three or four gen-
erations. Believing, as I do, that human eugenics will become recognized before
long as a study of the highest practical importance, it seems to me that no time
ought to be lost in encouraging and directing a habit of compiling personal and
family histories.—Francis Galton: Inquiries into Human Faculty (1907).

INBREEDING IN DOGS

Statistical Study of the Pedigrees of Two Typical Breeds—Inbreeding Not so
Commonly Practiced by Dog Fanciers as Popularly Supposed and
Not so Productive of Results as Line-Breeding.

WILLIAMS Haynes, New York, N. Y.

HAT the thoroughbred dog is
very closely inbred is the belief

shared alike by the general

public and breeders of other
kinds of stock. Upon this belief are
based most of the objections raised
against the thoroughbred either as a
companion or a hunting dog. Among
dog fanciers, one hears-both extravagant
praise and bitter denunciation of in-
breeding.

In certain studies I have recently
carried on in terrier breeding I was
collecting some data from the stud book
records, and I determined at the same
time to discover, if possible, what pro-
portion of registered dogs are inbred
and whether or not these inbred dogs
had been markedly successful in bench
show competitions. The results are
surprising and furnish some interesting
conclusions on the comparative value
of in- and line-breeding.

For this analysis I selected two breeds,
the Airedale and Scottish terriers.
Both belong to the same general family:
both are popular: both have known
histories and carefully compiled records.
But each has a very distinct origin, and
neither is in any way related in blood.
The Scottish terrier’ came from the
Highlands where they have been known
as a distinct breed since the Sixteenth
Century. They are the oldest breed
of terriers that have been preserved in
anything like their original form. The
Airedale terrier,? on the other hand, is
a manufactured breed which originated

in Yorkshire something over fifty years
ago.

Selecting at random, but picking half
from each sex and 10 from each volume
of the stud book for the past 10 years,
in 100 Scottish terriers we find three
inbred dogs, one from a sire bred to his
own daughter, one from a dam bred to
her son, and one from full brother and
sister. Selecting 100 Airedale terrier
pedigrees in the same manner, we find
seven examples of inbreeding, six from a
sire bred to his daughter and one from a
full brother and sister. In other words
in the pedigrees examined, 3% of the
Scottish terriers and 7% of the Aire-
dales are inbred.

BREEDING CHAMPIONS.

The avowed object of breeders of
these dogs is to produce a dog that shall
win at the bench shows. The highest
honor a dog can receive is the right to
the title of Champion, which means
that it has won a certain number of
first prizes under at least three different
judges. The rules differ somewhat in
detail in England and this country, but
the underlying principle is the same.
While there are undoubtedly dogs that
in fancier’s phraseology are known as
“lucky champions,” still it is safe to
say that dogs winning the title are
above the average quality of their breed,
closer to the ideal as expressed in the
standard. Moreover since to breed
champions is the object of the fancier’s
breeding operations, the per centum of

'Davies, C. J., The Scottish Terrier, London, 1907.

McCandlish, W. L., The Scottish Terrier, Manchester, Eng., 1909.
Haynes, Williams, Scottish and Irish Terriers, New York, 1912.
*Buckley, Holland; The Airedale Terrier, Manchester, Eng., 1907.
Haynes, Williams, The Airedale, New York, 1911.

Jowett, F. M., The Airedale Terrier, London, 1912.

Palmer, R. M., All About Airedales, Seattle, 1912.

368

HayYNEs: INBREEDING IN Docs

SCOTTISH TERRIERS

LTTE a ae ee Fes outers

nee eines fare ey ee eee ec ean.

369

Average dogs. Champions.

Op aerate he aay iin tates > 3 i
Sosihctsnad; Catarme acer atin 4 9
AE Sor ds pair torte me 93 90
Shee ode ti one att oe aie 7 2
Rte ads Hee REM RS 6 10
EPS tesco Me ae 87 88

Note.—The “‘Line-bred”’ in the above only includes dogs bred from the primary cross of half
brother to half sister, and there are certainly dogs in the ‘‘Out-bred”’ that are truly in-bred.

inbred dogs winning championships
furnishes a gauge to judge the effective-
ness of this breeding system in ac-
complishing the result desired by the
breeders of these animals.

Of 100 Scottish terrier champions,
one is inbred, from a dog mated to his
own daughter. Of 100 Airedale cham-
pions, two are inbred, one from a bitch
mated to her own son and one from full
brother and sister.

LINE BREEDING.

In the case of line-breeding, however,
we get very different figures. Taking
only the two primary crosses of line-
breeding, 7. e., the crossing of half
brother and sister, sired by the same
dog, and half brother and sister, dammed
by the same bitch, which, of course,
does not begin to include all line-bred
dogs, we find that of the hundred
Scottish terriers picked at random
four are line-bred, all from half brother
and sister with the same sire. Of the
hundred average Airedales six are line-
bred, five from half brother and sister
with the same sire, and one from half
brother and sister with the same dam.
Among the hundred Scottish terrier
champions nine were bred this way,
eight from half brother and sister with
the same sire and one from half brother
and sister with the same dam; and 10
Airedales champions were so_ bred,

3Science, N. S. XX XVII, No. 977, pp. 404-405.

nine from half brother and sister with
the same sire and one from half brother
and sister with the same dam.

It will be immediately noted in the
above table that in- and line-breeding
are more common in Airedales than in
Scottish terriers, the ratio being close
to two to one in all cases. Possibly this
may be accounted for by the fact that
being a manufactured variety, close
breeding has been more or less forced
because of lack of breeding stock. It
will also be noted that the close breed-
ing popularly supposed to be practiced
by dog fanciers is not apparent. In the
cases of theaverage dogs, only 7% of the
Scottish terriers and 14% of the Aire-
dales are closely bred.

The salient feature of these figures
for the breeder is, of course, the evidence
they present that line-breeding has, in
the cases of these two breeds at least,
proved very much more effective than
in-breeding in accomplishing the object
desired. The ratios of champions pro-
duced in Scottish terriers is 1 to 9, and
in Airedales, 1 to5. These figures con-
firm my studies in prepotency in Aire-
dales.’

Summarizing the data, it is evident
that neither inbreeding nor close line-
breeding is used as much by dog breeders
as is generally supposed, and that of the
two systems line-breeding has been the
more productive of results.

Mendelism in Man

Such rules (those of Mendelian heredity) have been demonstrated in operation
for an immense diversity of characteristics in both animals and plants in great

variety.

It should be explicitly stated, however, that in the case of the ordinary

attributes of normal men we have as yet unimpeachable evidence of the manifes-
tation of this system of descent for one set of characters only, namely the color
of the eyes.—William Bateson: Biological Fact and the Structure of Society (1912).

PIONEERS IN EUGENICS

Institute of Heredity Organized a Generation Ago, but Died Because Ahead of its
Time—Object of Promoters to Advance Race Betterment by Study
of Causes of Deterioration, by Better Breeding, and
by Segregation of Defectives.

A. E. Hamitton,

Extension Department, Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island,
New York.

ROWSING among the books in
i the library of the Eugenics

Record Office, I happened on a

quaint little brown covered vol-
ume stamped in gold with the one word
Heredity... I glanced it through and,
charmed by its naive enthusiasm, sat
down and read it with as much interest
as though it had just come in hot from
the griddle of a contemporary geneticist.
It proved to be the correspondence
between Elizabeth Thompson and Loring
Moody, published in 1882 by The
Institute of Heredity, in Boston. As
the booklet has long been out of print
and is probably a rare specimen of
early eugenic literature, perhaps a few
fragments from its pages would not
be out of place in the light of day
again.

“Having from early manhood,” it
begins, “been actively and earnestly
engaged in various humane labors for
the improvement and welfare of our
race; having set on foot and organized
several reformatory and_ benevolent
movements; and having been a close
observer of the practical workings and
effects of these during nearly half a
century; and from these having been led
to a larger survey of the field, including
all of our public and private charitable,
benevolent and corrective institutions,—
the conclusion is unavoidable that all of
these institutions are at best only
temporary expedients, for, while they
afford some relief and a few instances
of reform, they leave the roots and

Boston, 1882, Institute of Heredity, 159 pp.
370

sources of evil untouched by their
operations.

‘This conclusion only led to another,
viz., that in order to make any successful
warfare against social disorders we must
advance directly upon their strong-
holds, and dry up the fountains from
which they spring. So I drew up the
following circular, which with the aid
of judicious friends—among them were
Henry W. Longfellow, Samuel E. Sewall,
and Mrs. Horace Mann—was printed
and sent widely over the country—to
the editors of several publications among
others.’

The circular stated what Mr. Moody
considered the higher demands of hu-
manity and announced his problem as
being that of setting in motion such
prenatal influences as should make the
hereditary tendencies of future genera-
tions wholly good. ‘‘The generative
power must be educated, trained and
guided by the highest wisdom and
scientific culture, as the only sure
foundation of effective and permanent
reform.”

NO ADVANCE THROUGH PUNISHMENT.

“And for the reason that we have
battled against effects,’ he continues,
‘‘while leaving causes in unchecked
operation,”’ have our reformative results
been hopeless and unsatisfactory. ‘The
causes are congenital. People who are
born with theft and murder in the blood
will steal and kill. The jailor and hang-
man neither cure them, nor check their

‘Moody, Loring & Thompson, Elizabeth; Heredity: Its Relation to Human Development;

HAMILTON: PIONEERS IN EUGENICS

tendencies, nor thin their ranks. For,
as fast as we imprison and hang criminals
others are born to take their places; so
that all our conflicts with evil result in
long-drawn battle.”

“The true way of regenerating the
race is through scientific generation.
The demand of the time is, that we lay
the right foundations of character by
fixing the organic tendencies of children,in
moral and physical health, before birth.”

Mr. Moody evidently appreciated the
need for that organization of knowledge
which should give mankind the general-
izations upon which it might work out
this eugenic ideal and he earnestly hoped
that persons of the highest wisdom,
courage and devotion to public duty
might come forward ready for this work,
and. take the first steps towards the
formation of an Institute of Heredity,
‘which shall found a library, establish
lectureships, with schools of instruction,
and take in hand the diffusion of knowl-
edge on the subject of improving our
race by the laws of physiology.”

The time was hardly ripe, when Mr.
Moody wrote, for the founding of such
an institution as he dreamed of, where
“such conversations, consultations, and
illustrated lectures as may awaken
interest and lead on towards a realization
of these great and beneficent ends’’
might be held. The school and lecture
room in Boston, which he planned,
together with its library which he hoped
would grow into a research center, were
not supported as he thought they might
be and the first attempt at organization
for eugenic investigation and research in
America melted away.

Of the movement he says—and a
considerable number of our newspapers
and magazines have confirmed his
prophesy—“ It will encounter misunder-
standing, opposition, and even ridicule
and reproach, from ignorance, prejudice
and bigotry. It must be sustained by
the highest wisdom, prudence and
forbearance. Hence it will need the
sympathy and codperation of every en-
lightened philanthropist and reformer.”

FINDS ONE ADHERENT.

One such enlightened philanthropist
and reformer, at least, responded to Mr.
Moody’s circular. In the little booklet,

371

which seemed strangely lonely and out
of place among the ranks of scientific
memoirs and fat genealogies, are gath-
ered some of the letters written back and
forth between Mr. Moody and Mrs.
Elizabeth Thompson who realized that
she had been giving ‘much time,
labor and money in aid of numerous
schemes to palliate the evils of society,
while leaving the causes of these evils to
continue their destructive work.”

“Tf I understand you rightly,’ she
wrote, “‘ You propose to carry a searching
investigation into the causes of all the
moral, mental and physical disorders of
society, for the purpose of awakening a
public demand for their removal. Will
you please give me your opinions more
fully as to the causes of these manifold
disorders, and the conditions under
which they are developed and trans-
mitted from parent to child?”

Mr. Moody was not deceived by his
ambition and ideal, he did not take the
wish for the fact, he felt his lack of
knowledge and in answering his en-
quirer he made the same reply as the
conscientious student of eugenics would
today—

“A glance at the roll of premature
deaths, the ravages of disease, the
records of our criminal courts, the
tenants of our jails, houses of correction,
reform schools, asylums for lunatics,
idiots, inebriates; the abortions, in-
fanticides, and other disorders and evils
too numerous to mention,—will satisfy
any thoughtful, reflective mind that the
reproductive forces of the human race
are terribly clogged and out of gear, and
that the time has fully come for us to
accumulate a groundwork of knowledge
upon which we can move forward in the
great work of delivering our race from
this terrible waste, suffering and ruin.”

NEGATIVE EUGENICS.

He also realized that, while more
knowledge is of paramount importance
to any attempt at racial improvement,
there are some things that should be
done immediately, and he outlined his
plan of ‘‘negative eugenics” in a later
letter.

“Then,” he writes, ‘“As a means of
eliminating the inherited effects of
disorders from posterity, I would have

372

the government establish and maintain
good, comfortable, attractive hospital
homes for the care, treatment and life
residence of all habitual drunkards,
confirmed criminals, idiots and _ in-
curable lunatics, who should be treated
as people suffering from dangerous
congenital diseases liable to propagate
through heredity; and so they should be
strictly guarded from having any off-
spring, as far as possible by moral, and
the remainder by legal, restraint .

These homes should be established in
different localities, classified and ar-
ranged to meet the requirements of the
patients afflicted with different dis-
orders. Should we hesitate in view of
supporting so many people in these
homes, let us remember that their
numbers would be constantly decreasing
by natural causes, and as the wiser
and better generation, which we shal]
in the meantime establish, will so cut
off the supply that in a few generations
there will hardly be any left; while by

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

the present modes of treatment drunk-
ards and criminals will be arrested,
convicted and sent to prison over and
over again for repeating their offences.”’

Then followed letter after letter brim-
ming with facts drawn from observation
and from the works of such scholars as
Galton, Sharpe, Anthon, Ribot, Papillon
and others like-minded in their views of
national deterioration. Mrs. Thompson
aided the work Mr. Moody had under-
taken with her influence and with money
so that some seed was sown, as witnesses
the little book, but the dream of an
Institute of Heredity was not realized
until after Mr. Moody’s death. One
cannot but wish that the ghosts of such
early pioneers could wander through the
roomy buildings where records of in-
heritance are slowly accumulating day
by day, and browse among the books of
the library that has been started, and
where their works may some day all
be found, even as I chanced on this
brown booklet today.

The Possibility of Eugenics

The improvement of our stock seems ‘to me one of the highest objects that we
can reasonably attempt. We areignorant of the ultimate destinies of humanity,
but feel perfectly sure that it is as noble a work to raise its level in the sense al-
ready explained, as it would be disgraceful to abase it. I see no impossibility in
eugenics becoming a religious dogma among mankind, but its details must first
be worked out zealously in the study. Over-zeal leading to hasty action would
do harm, by holding out expectations of a near golden age, which will certainly be
falsified and cause the science to be discredited. The first and main point is to
secure the general intellectual acceptance of eugenics as a hopeful and most im-
portant study. Then let its principles work into the heart of the nation, who
will gradually give practical effect to them in ways that we may not wholly fore-
see.—Francis Galton: Essays in Eugenics (1909).

Negative Eugenics

Having already defined positive eugenics as the encouragement of parenthood
on the part of the worthy, we may define negative eugenics as the discouragement
of parenthood on the part of the unworthy. It must be remembered that we
shall not raise or regenerate the race merely by purging it of diseased elements,
however necessary and desirable that process may be. Eugenists must beware
of supposing that they have done any more than a preliminary piece of work,
prior to a fair start, when they have achieved, say, the segregation of the feeble-
minded.—C. W. Saleeby: The Methods of Race Regeneration (1911).

Roper, A. J.—Ancient Eugenics.

RECENT BOOKS ON HUMAN HEREDITY

AmEY Eaton Watson, New York, N. Y.

Schuster, Edgar—Eugenics; a Science and an

Ideal. The Nation’s Library. London.

Collins, 1913. Price 1s.; pp. 264.
Attempts to give an account of the
meaning of the word eugenics, the
aims of those who advocate an
eugenic policy and the more important
of the problems which confront them.
Endeavors to indicate, not only the
conclusions arrived at by those best
capable of judging but also the argu-
ments on which their opinions have
been based.

Von Hoffman, Geza—Die Rassenhygiene in

den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika.
Munich. J. F. Lehmann, 1913. pp. XXI
and 237.

Of great service to all who wish to
make a serious study of eugenics,
especially of Negative or Restrictive
Eugenics. The author has been
Austrian Vice-Consul in California
and has spent several years in making
a thorough study of these subjects.
Concludes with a descriptive bibliog-
raphy.

Reed, Charles A. L.—Marriage and Genetics:

Laws of Human Breeding and Applied
Eugenics. Galton Press, Cincinnati, 1913.
pp. 183.

This book, from the pen of a surgeon,
was written with a desire in some
measure to overcome the ignorance
which keeps people from protecting
themselves and their offspring from
disease and degeneracy. The founda-
tion of its thesis purports to be the
natural laws of human breeding in-
herent in the individual. While based
largely on Dr. Davenport’s “ Heredity
in Relation to Eugenics,” this book
is by no means so careful or scientific
in its treatment.

Oxford,
Blackwell, 1913. Arnold Prize Essay for
1913.

Mainly historical, surveying the pro-
gress and practice of eugenic ideals

from the time of barbarism in Sparta,
Germany, Athens, etc. Quoting from
the authorities .of the times, Plato,
Aristotle, Caesar.

Wormald, John and Wormald, Samuel. Guide

to the mental deficiency act, 1913. London.
P..S. King & Son, 1913. pp. 145.

Reviewed in the Eugenics Review,
Aprii, 1914. Weare told that authors
are physicians, having special quali-
fications for their task. Sections deal
with (1) operation of the Act, (2)
authorities under the Act, (3) ad-
ministration of the Act, (4) offences
against the mentally defective, (5)
finance and statistics, (6) conclusions.

White, W. A. and Jelliffe, Smith Ely, Editors.

The modern treatment of Nervous and
Mental Diseases. Lea and Febiger, 2
volumes, 867 and 900 pp. respectively.
Price $6.00 each.

The contributors to these two volumes
include many of the best men in
America and England; Havelock Ellis,
Ernest Jones, Gordon Holmes, and
S. A. R. Wilson. Of especial interest
are the chapters on eugenics and
heredity, alcoholism, and syphilis.

Thorndike, Edward L.—Educational Psychol-

ogy, Vol. III, Mental Work and Fatigue
and Individual Differences and Their
Cause. Teachers’ College, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1914. pp. X and 400. Price $2.12.
Chapter XI deals with the Influence
of Immediate Ancestry or Family,
summarizing many of the more im-
portant studies in human heredity
that have recently been made and
criticises them from the standpoint
of modern psychology. A valuable
discussion of Mendelian inheritance.

Saleeby, C. W.—The Progress of Eugenics,

Funk and Wagnalls Co.

A new book by the English Eugenist

promised for the late spring. ee
le

THE BARE NECKS

Some three years ago we purchased of a neighbor who had brought back with him from the
Barbadoes two cocks and three hens characterized by the absence of feathers from the neck as
far as from the ears down to the clavicle. In most of the hens there was a paired bunch of feathers
on the ventral side of the neck; but one was practically free from feathers in that region and
this condition has reappeared in her offspring. These birds are very sparsely feathered under the
wings and over the sternum also.

The thing that interested me most was the hereditary behavior of this condition. Mated to
each other these birds gave a few full-feathered chicks, but about three-fourths of all were bare-
necked. Mated to ordinary fowl, about half of the offspring had naked necks—there was very
little indication of imperfection of dominance. It appears, consequently, that the naked neck
is a typical dominant and in accordance with current interpretations, one may say that there is
a factor in the ‘‘ Bare Necks”’ which interferes with the development of the neck feathers.

Some years ago I pointed out that the condition of clean shank is dominant over that of
feathered shank in poultry. In the light of the later result one may generalize and infer that the
typical (primitive?) condition of the fowl is this, that every skin plate bears a feather; and that if
any portion of the skin is without feathers, it is due to a specific inhibitor to the development of
the feather germ in that region. Of these inhibitors there are probably a number; there are at
least oné for the shanks and one for the neck and possibly an additional one for the ventral patch
of the neck. So far as we have gone it seems probable that the inhibitor is of the nature of an
anti-enzyme which interferes in a given area with the development of those enzymes that induce
the formation of the feather. (Fig. 19.)

. PANT
Carnegie Institution of Washington, C. B. DAVENPORT.
Statign for Experimental Evolution,
374 Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

The
Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 9 : September, 1914

CONTENTS

Man’s Pedigree, by Dr. G. Elliot Smith.......................2.. 377
What Eugenics Means, by Roswell H. Johnson................... 388
Genetics and Eugenics, by Raymond Pearl....................... 388
Eugenic Legislation, by Charles B. Davenport.................... 388
Telecany, by. Dr: Huiiense Rabauds< : i363. Sn le a 389
A Kaki Classification, by H. Harold Hume................ ...... 400
Alem Cake fn MPeed enehs mat Ste sc ene pedi Mn ooo nee ls he oe 406
Eugenics ys. Cacogenics, by Dr. E. E. Southard.................. 408
Amateur Rose Breeding, by Viviand-Morel....................... 415
Mavertal for Plant Breeders.) -4 4. <4 2.255 fies os Fal Se as Sree 422
Dysgenic Philanthropy, by Robert DeC. Ward.................... 422
Eugenics and Immigration, by Francis Galton................... 422
The Problem of the Feebleminded, by Havelock Ellis............. 422

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Juurnal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, August 27, 1914.

THE MOST PRIM

White-handed Gibbon ( /ylobates lar).

tive, anthropoid ape, 1
chimpanzee.”’ The earliest gibbons
ufficiently developed to enable them 1

ancestral line of man that finally took

nearly related to the common ancestor of man, the
were able to walk upright, but their brains were not

ITIVE ANTHROPOID.

The gibbon, Dr. Smith says, “‘is a true, if very primi-

gorilla and the

o make any use of this adaptation, and it is only the
advantage of it, with the freedom which it gave tor

e use of the hands. Even today the hands of the white man are more primitive in their
characteristics than those of the anthropoid apes, or even than those of the negro—an
indication, the writer points out, that he was not obliged to specialize them any further,

{
after this early period, but made hi
relating to mental accomplishments.
ZO log al Soci ty. (Frontispiece.)

evolutionary progress along other lines, principally
Photographed by Elwin R. Sanborn of the New York

MAN'S PEDIGREE

Line of Descent Fairly Clear as Far Back as Eocene Epoch—Development of
Brain the Factor Which Separated Ancestors of Man from Other
Apes—Effects of Life in the Trees.:

Dr. Gi Exciiot Smita,

Professor of Anatomy, University of Manchester, England.

O ONE who is familiar with
N the anatomy of man and the

apes can refuse to admit that

no hypothesis other than that
of close kinship affords a reasonable or
creditable explanation of the extra-
ordinarily exact identity of structure
that obtains in most parts of the bodies
of man and the gorilla. To deny the
validity of this evidence of near kinship
is tantamount to a confession of the
utter uselessness of the facts of com-
parative anatomy as indications of
genetic relationships, and a reversion to
the obscurantism of the dark ages of
biology. But if anyone still harbors an
honest doubt in the face of this over-
whelming testimony from mere struc-
ture, the reactions of the blood will
confirm the teaching of anatomy; and
the susceptibility of the anthropoid apes
to the infection of human diseases, from
which other apes and mammals in
general are immune, should complete
and clinch the proof for all who are
willing to be convinced.

Nor can anyone who, with an open
mind, applies similar tests to the gibbon
refuse to admit that it is a true, if very
primitive, anthropoid ape, nearly re-
lated to the common ancestor of man,
the gorilla, and the chimpanzee. More-
over, its structure reveals indubitable
evidence of its derivation from some
primitive Old World or catarrhine
monkey akin to the ancestor of the
langur, the sacred monkey of India. It
is equally certain that the catarrhine
apes were derived from some primitive

platyrrhine ape; the other, less modified,
descendants of which we recognize in
the South American monkeys of the
present day; and that the common an-
cestor of all these primates was a
lemuroid nearly akin to the curious
little spectral tarsier, which still haunts
the forests of Borneo, Java, and the
neighboring islands, and awakens in the
minds of the peoples of those lands a
superstitious dread—a sort of instinc-
tive horror at the sight of the ghost-like
representative of their first primate
ancestor.

This much of man’s pedigree will, I
think, be admitted by the great majority
of zoologists who are familiar with the
facts; but I believe we can push the line
of ancestry still further back, beyond
the most primitive primate into Haeckel’s
suborder Menotyphla, which most zool-
ogists regard as constituting two
families of insectivora. I need not
stop to give the evidence for this
opinion, for most of the data and
arguments in support of it have recently
been summarized most excellently by
Dr. W. K. Gregory.

PRIMITIVE RELATIVES.

This group includes the oriental tree
shrews and the African jumping shrews.
The latter (Macroscelididae), living in
the original South African home of the
mammalia, present extraordinarily
primitive features linking them by close
bonds of affinity to the marsupials.
The tree shrews (Tupaiidae), however,
which range from India to Java, while

1 Portions of presidential address delivered before Anthropological Section of British Association
for the Advancement of Science at Dundee in September, 1912; printed in full in Nature, London,

Sept. 26, 1912.

Dr. Smith is not responsible for the illustrations here used.

2“*The Orders of Mammals,’”’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, 1910, p. 321.

377

378

presenting very definite evidence of
kinship to their humble African cousins,
also display in the structure of their
bodies positive evidence of relationship
to the stem of the aristocratic primate
phylum.

Quite apart from the striking similari-
ties produced by identical habits and
habitats, there are many structural
identities in the tree shrews and
lemuroids, not directly associated with
such habits, which can be interpreted
only as evidences of affinity.

Re ge 8 eer

The stock from which man eventually
emerged played a very humble réle for
long ages after many other mammalian
orders had waxed great and strong.
But the race is not always to the swift,
and the lowly group of mammals which
took advantage of its insignificance to
develop its powers evenly and very
gradually without sacrificing in narrow
specialization any of its possibilities of
future achievement, eventually gave
birth to the dominant and most intelli-
gent of all living creatures.

The tree shrews are small, squirrel-
like animals which feed on “insects and
fruit, which they usually seek in trees,
but also occasionally on the ground.
When feeding, they often sit on their
haunches, holding the food, after the
manner of squirrels, in their fore paws.’”
They are of “lively disposition and
great agility.’”* These vivacious, large-
brained little insectivores, linked by
manifold bonds of relationship to some
of the lowliest and most primitive
mammals, present in the structure of
their skull, teeth, and limbs undoubted
evidence of kinship, remote though
none the less sure, with their com-
patriots the Malaysian lemurs, and it
is singularly fortunate for us in this
inquiry that side by side there should
have been preserved from the remote
Eocene times, and possibly earlier still,
these insectivores, which had almost
become primates, and a little primitive
lemuroid, the spectral tarsier, which had
only just assumed the characters of the
primate stock, when nature fixed their

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

types and preserved them throughout
the ages, with relatively slight change,
for us to study at the present day.

Thus we are able to investigate the
influence of an arboreal mode of life in
stimulating the progressive develop-
ment of a primitive mammal and to
appreciate precisely what changes were
necessary to convert the lively, agile,
Ptilocercus-like ancestor of the primates
into a real primate.

In the forerunners of the mammalia
the cerebral hemisphere was predomi-
nantly olfactory in function, and even
when the true mammal emerged and all
the other senses received due representa-
tion in the neopallium the animal’s
behavior was still influenced to a much
greater extent by smell impressions than
by those of the other senses.

VALUE OF SENSE OF SMELL.

This was due not only to the fact that
the sense of smell had already installed
its instruments in and taken firm pos-
session of the cerebral hemisphere long
before the advent in this dominant part
of the brain of any adequate representa-
tion of the other senses, but also, and
chiefly, because to a small land-grubhing
animal the guidance of smell impression,
whether in the search for food or as a
means of recognition of friends or
enemies, was much more serviceable
than all the other senses. Thus the
small creature’s mental life was lived
essentially in an atmosphere of odors,
and every object in the outside world
was judged primarily and predomi-
nantly by its smell. The senses of
touch, vision, and hearing were merely
auxiliary to the compelling influence of
smell.

Once such a creature left the solid
earth and took to an arboreal life all
this was changed, for away from the
ground the guidance of the olfactory
sense lost much of its usefulness. Life
amidst the branches of trees limits the
usefulness of olfactory organs, but it is
favorable to the high development of
vision, touch, and hearing. Moreover,
it demands an agility and quickness of

* Flower and Lydekker, ‘‘ Mammals, Living and Extinct,” 1891, p. 618.
4 W. K. Gregory, op. cit., p. 269, and pp. 279, 280.

SMITH: MAN’s PEDIGREE

379

SECOND STAGE OF THE HISTORY.

Langur or Hanuman (Pygathrix entellus=Semncbithecus entellus), of southeastern Asia. “In
the remote Oligocene, a catarrhine ape, nearly akin to the ancestors of the Indian sacred
monkey, Semnopithecus, became definitely specialized in structure in adaptation for the

assumption of the erect attitude.”

The second stage, as we ascend man’s family tree,

must have somewhat resembled this langur monkey, then, and it was at that stage that the

specialization began which led man to diverge from all his relatives of the tree-tops.
graph from the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

movement that necessitates an efficient
motor cortex to control and coordinate
such actions as an arboreal mode of life
demands (and secures, by the stirvival
only of those so fitted) and also a well-
developed muscular sensibility to enable
such acts to be carried out with pre-
cision and quickness. In the struggle
for existence, therefore, all arboreal
mammals, such as the tree shrews,
suffer a marked diminution of their
olfactory apparatus and develop a con-
siderable neopallium in which relatively
large areas are given up to visual,

Photo-
(Fig. 1.)

tactile, acoustic, kinaesthetic, and
motor functions, as well as to the pur-
pose of providing a mechanism for
mutually blending in consciousness the
effects of the impressions pouring in
through the avenues of these senses.
Thus a more equable balance of the
representation of the senses is brought
about in the brain of the arboreal
animal, and its mode of life encourages
and makes indispensable the acquisition
of agility. Moreover, these modifica-
tions do not interfere with the primitive
characters of limb and body. These

380 THE JOURNAL
small arboreal creatures were thus free
to develop their brains and maintain all
the plasticity of the generalized struc-
ture, which eventually enabled them to
go far in the process of adaptation to
almost any circumstances that presented
themselves.

Amongst the members of this group,
as in all the other mammalian phyla,
the potency of the forces of natural
selection was immensely enhanced by
the fact that the inquisitiveness of an
animal which can learn by experience—
1.e., is endowed with intelligence—was
leading these plastic insectivores into
all kinds of situations which were favor-
able for the operation of selection.
Various members of the group became
specialized in different ways. Of such
specialized strains the one of chief in-
terest to us is that in which the sense of
vision became especially sharpened.

THE ORIGIN OF PRIMATES.

Toward the close of the Cretaceous
period some small, arboreal, shrew-like
creature took another step in advance,
which was fraught with the most far-
reaching consequences, for it marked
the birth of the primates and the
definite branching off from the other
mammals of the line of man’s ancestry.

A noteworthy further reduction in
the size of the olfactory parts of the
brain, such as is seen in that of Tarsius,*
quite emancipated the creature from
the dominating influence of olfactory
impressions, the sway of which was
already shaken, but not quite overcome
when its tupaioid ancestor took to an
arboreal life. This change was asso-
ciated with an enormous development
of the visual cortex in the neopallium,
which not only increased in extent so
far as to exceed that of Tupaia, but also
became more highly specialized in
structure. Thus, in the primitive pri-
mate, vision entirely usurped the con-
trolling place once occupied by smell;
but the significance of this change is not
to be measured merely as the substitu-
tion of one sense for another. The

oF HEREDITY

visual area of cortex, unlike the olfac-
tory, is part of the neopallium, and
when its importance thus became en-
hanced the whole of the neopallium felt
the influence of the changed conditions.
The sense of touch also shared in the
effects, for tactile impressions and the
related kinaesthetic sensibility, the im-
portance of which to an agile tree-living
animal is obvious, assist vision in the
conscious appreciation of the nature
and the various properties of the things
seen, and in learning to perform agil>
actions which are guided by vision.

An arboreal life also added to the
importance of the sense of hearing; and
the cortical representation of this sense
exhibits a noteworthy increase in the
primates, the significance of which it
would be difficult to exaggerate in the
later stages, when the simian are giving
place to the distinctively human charac-
teristics.

The high specialization of the sense of
sight awakened in the creature the
curiosity to examine the objects around
it with closer minuteness, and supplied
guidance to the hands in executing more
precise and more skilled movements
than the tree shrew attempts. Such
habits not only tended to develop the
motor cortex itself, trained the tactile
and kinaesthetic senses, and linked up
their cortical areas in bonds of more
intimate associations with the visual
cortex, but they stimulated the process
of specialization within or alongside the
motor cortex of a mechanism for
regulating the action of that cortex
itself—an organ of attention which
coordinated the activities of the whole
neopallium so as the more efficiently to
regulate the various centers controlling
the muscles of the whole body. In this
way not only is the guidance of all the
senses secured, but the way is opened
for all the muscles of the body to act
harmoniously so as to permit the con-
centration of their action for the per-
formance at one moment of some
delicate and finely adjusted movement.

*“On the Morphology of the Brain in the Mammalia, with Special Reference to that of the
Lemurs, Recent and Extinct,’’ Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., second series; Zoology, Vol. 8, part 10,

Feb., 1903.

THIRD STAGE OF THE HISTORY.

White-throated Sapajou (Cebus hypoleucus), a platyrrhine monkey of tropical America. . The

platyrrhine apes were the ancestors of the catarrhine forms, and therefore represent another .
step as we ascend the family tree of Homo sapiens. It is, of course, not to be understood
that this or any of the other mammals shown in this series are considered ancestors of man; ~
but it is to be thought that this Sapajou and the present primates, including man, are both’
descended from a platyrrhine form, of the old world, which has probably undergone very —
little change in its descent to the sapaiou, but from which man’s ancestors diverged through
forms like the langur and gibbon. Photographed by Elwin R. Sanborn of the New York
Zoological Society. (Fig. 2.)
381

Ww
Co
bo

In some such way as this there was
evolved from the motor area itself, in
the form of an outgrowth placed at first
immediately in front of it, a formation,
which attains much larger dimensions
and a more pronounced specialization of
structure in the primates than in any
other order; it is the germ of that great
prefrontal area of the human brain which
is said to be ‘‘concerned with attention
and the general orderly coordination of
psychic processes,’’® and as such is, in
far greater measure than any other part
of the brain, deserving of being regarded
as the seat of the higher mental faculties
and the crowning glory and distinction
of the human fabric.

* * oe Pa *

Thus the outstanding feature in the
gradual evolution of the primate brain
is a steady growth and differentiation of
precisely those cortical areas which took
on an enchanced importance in the
earliest primates.

So far in this address I have been
delving into the extremely remote,
rather than the nearer, ancestry of men,
because I believe the germs of his in-
tellectual preeminence were sown at the
very dawn of the Tertiary period, when
the first anaptomorphid began to rely
upon vision rather than smell as its
guiding sense. In all the succeeding
ages since that remote time the fuller
cultivation of the means of profiting by
experience, which the _ tarsioid had
adopted, led to the steady upward pro-
gression of the primates. From time to
time many individuals, finding them-
selves amidst surroundings which were
thoroughly congenial and called for no
effort, lagged behind; and in Tarsius
and the lemurs, the New World monkeys,
the Old World monkeys, and the an-
thropoids, not to mention the extinct
forms, we find preserved a series of these
laggards which have turned aside from
the highway which led to man’s estate.

The primates at first were a small and
humble folk, who led a quiet, unobtru-
sive, and safe life in the branches of trees,
taking small part in the fierce competi-
tion for size and supremacy that was
being waged upon the earth beneath

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

them by their carnivorous, ungulate,
and other brethren. But all the time
they were cultivating that equable
development of all their senses and
limbs, and that special development of
the more intellectually useful faculties
of the mind which, in the long run, were
to make them the progenitors of the
dominant mammal—the mammal which
was to obtain the supremacy over all
others, while still retaining much of the
primitive structure of limb that his
competitors had sacrificed. It is im-
portant, then, to keep in mind that the
retention of primitive characters is
often to be looked upon as a token that
their possessor has not been compelled
to turn aside from the straight path and
adopt protective specializations, but
has been able to preserve some of his
primitiveness and the plasticity asso-
ciated with it, precisely because he has
not succumbed or fallen away in the
struggle for supremacy. It is the wider
triumph of the individual who special-
izes late, after benefiting by the many-
sided experience of early life, over him
who in youth becomes tied to one
narrow calling.

MAN’S PRIMITIVENESS.

In many respects man retains more
of the primitive characteristics, for
example, in his hands, than his nearest
simian relatives; and in the supreme
race of mankind many traits, such as
abundance of hair, persist to suggest
pithecoid affinities, which have been
lost by the more specialized negro and
other races. Those anthropologists
who use the retention of primitive
features in the Nordic European as an
argument to exalt the negro to equality
with him are neglecting the clear teach-
ing of comparative anatomy, that the
persistence of primitive traits is often a
sign of strength rather than of weakness.
This factor runs through the history of
the whole animal kingdom. Man is
the ultimate product of that line of
ancestry which was never compelled to
turn aside and adopt protective speci-
alization either of structure or mode
of life, which would be fatal to its

6 J. S. Bolton ‘‘ The Functions of the Frontal Lobes,”’ Brain, 1903.

SMITH: MAN’s PEDIGREE

383

FOURTH STAGE OF THE HISTORY.

The spectral tarsier (Tarsius borneanus),a lemur or lemuroid from Borneo which Dr. Smith con-

siders to be the most primitive of the primates.

Its ancestors, probably not much different

from the tarsier of the present day, are then to be considered the ancestors of all the

primates including man.

The progress of the tarsioid toward domination of the world is

due, the writer thinks, to the development of the prefrontal area of the brain, which gave

it the power to profit by experience.

plasticity and power of further de-
velopment.

Having now examined the nature of
the factors that have made a primate
from an insectivore and have trans-
formed a tarsioid prosimian into an ape,
let us turn next to consider how man
himself was fashioned.

* * * * *

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

In the remote Oligocene, a catarrhine
ape, nearly akin to the ancestors of the
Indian sacred monkey, Semnopithecus,

(Fig. 3.)

became definitely specialized in struc-
ture in adaptation for the assumption of
the erect attitude; and this type of early
anthropoid has persisted with relatively
slight modifications in the gibbon of the
present day. But if the earliest gibbons
were already able to walk upright, how
is it, one might ask, that they did not
begin to use their hands, thus freed from
the work of progression on the earth,
for skilled work, and at once become
men? The obvious reason is that the
brain had not yet attained a sufficiently
high stage of development to provide a
sufficient amount of useful skilled work,

384

apart from the tree climbing, for these
competent hands to do.

The ape is tied down absolutely to his
experience, and has only a very limited
ability to anticipate the results even of
relatively simple actions, because so
large a proportion of his neopallium is
under the dominating influence of the
senses.

Without a fuller appreciation of the
consequences of its actions than the
gibbon is capable of, the animal is not
competent to make the fullest use of the
skill it undoubtedly possesses. What
is implied in acquiring this fuller
appreciation of the meaning of events
taking place around the animal? The
state of consciousness awakened by a
simple sensory stimulation is not merely
an appreciation of the physical proper-
ties of the object that supplies the
stimulus; the object simply serves to
bring to consciousness the results of
experience of similar or contrasted
stimulations in the past, as well as the
feelings aroused by or associated with
them, and the acts such feelings excited.
This mental enrichment of a mere sen-
sation so that it acquires a very precise
and complex meaning is possible only
because the individual has this extensive
experience to fall back upon; and the
faculty of acquiring such experience
applies the possession of large neopallial
areas for recording, so to speak, these
sensation factors and the feelings asso-
ciated with them. The “meaning’’
which each creature can attach to a
sensory impression presumably depends,
not on its experience only, but more
especially upon the neopallial provision
in its brain for recording the fruits of
such experience.

Judged by this standard, the human
brain bears ample witness, in the expan-
sion of the great temporo-parietal area,
which so obviously has been evolved
from the regions into which visual,
auditory, and tactile impulses are
poured, to the perfection of the physical
counterpart of the enrichment of mental
structure, which is the fundamental
characteristic of the human mind.

The second factor that came into
operation in the evolution of the human

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

brain is merely the culmination of a
process which has been steadily advanc-
ing throughout the primates. I refer
to the high state of perfection of the
cortical regulation of skilled movements,
many of which are acquired by each
individual in response to a compelling
instinct that forces every normal human
being to work out his own salvation by
perpetually striving to acquire such
manual dexterity.

MAN AND GORILLA.

This brings us to the consideration of
the nature of the factors that have led
to the wide differentiation of man from
the gorilla. Why is it that these two
primates, structurally so similar and
derived simultaneously from common
parents, should have become separated
by such an enormous chasm, so far as
their mental abilities are concerned?

There can be no doubt that this
process of differentiation is of the same
nature as those which led one branch of
the Eocene tarsioids to become monkeys
while the other remained prosimiae;
advanced one group of primitive
monkeys to the catarrhine status, while
the rest remained platyrrhine: and con-
verted one division of the Old World
apes into anthropoids, while the others
retained their old status. Put into this
form as an obvious truism, the conclu-
sion is suggested that the changes which
have taken place in the brain to convert
an ape into man are of the same nature
as, and may be looked upon merely as a
continuation of, those processes of
evolution which we have been examining
in the lowlier members of the primate
series. It was not the adoption of the
erect attitude or the invention ot
articulate language that made man from
an ape, but the gradual perfecting of the
brain and the slow upbuilding of the
mental structure, of which erectness of
carriage and speech are some of the
incidental manifestations.

The ability to perform skilled move-
ments is conducive to a marked enrich-
ment of the mind’s structure and the
high development of the neopallium,
which is the material expression of that
enrichment. There are several reasons

FIFTH STAGE OF THE HISTORY.

The squirrel shrew (Tupata chrysura), probably not

widely different from its ancestor which gave rise to
the lemuroids and thereby to the primates. The
arboreal life of this creature undoubtedly had an
important part in fitting it tc progress upward, since
it allowed the senses of sight, touch and hearing to be
developed equably, and removed the animal from
the fierce competition going on among larger mam-
mals on the ground below him. These changes in
habit were accompanied by changes in the structure
of the brain, which made further evolution possible.

Even as far back as this stage in man’s history, the

beginning of the use of the fore-feet as hands is seen,
as it is with the common squirrels, for the tree-
shrews often sit on their hind legs and hold their food
in their forepaws. They are largely insectivorous,
and are agile, active creatures. The life in the trees
of man’s ancestors at a similar stage undoubtedly
tended to develop this agility and quickness of move-
ment which depends on the coordination of many
muscles; and natural selection weeded out those
who did not show progress along the chosen line.
Thus the growth of the powers of the brain, which
has largely contributed to make man the dominant
mammal, received an impetus from the arboreal life
of his ancestors, the importance of which it is difficult
to overestimate. Photograph from the Brooklyn .
Institute of Arts and Sciences. (Fig. 4.)

385

386

why this should be so. The mere proc-
ess of learning to execute any act of
skill necessarily involves the cultivation,
not only of the muscles which produce
the movement, and the cortical area
which excited the actions of these
muscles, but in even greater measure
the sensory mechanisms of the neopal-
lium which are receiving impressions
from the skin, the muscles, and the
eyes, to control the movements at the
moment, and incidentally are educating
these cortical areas, stimulating their
growth, and enriching the mental struc-
ture with new elements of experience.
Out of the experience gained in con-
stantly performing acts of skill the
knowledge of cause and effect is even-
tually acquired. Thus the high special-
ization of the motor area, which made
complicated actions possible, and the
great expansion of the temporo-parietal
area, which enabled the ape-man to
realize the ‘“‘meaning”’ of events occur-
ring around it, reacted one upon the
other, so that the creature came to
understand that a particular act would
entail certain consequences. In other
words, it gradually acquired the faculty
of shaping its conduct in anticipation
of results.

MAN LEAVES THE TREES.

Long ages ago, possibly in the
Miocene, the ancestors common to man,
the gorilla, and the chimpanzee became
separated into groups, and the different
conditions to which they became exposed
after they parted company were in the
main responsible for the contrasts in
their fate. In one group the distinc-
tively primate process of growth and
specialization of the brain, which had
been going on in their ancestors for
many thousands, even millions, of years,
reached a stage when the more venture-
some members of the group, stimulated
perhaps by some local failure of the
customary food, or maybe led forth by
a curiosity bred of their growing realiza-
tion of the possibilities of the unknown
world beyond the trees which hitherto
had been their home, were impelled to
issue forth from their forests, and seek
new sources of food and new surround-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

ings on hill and plain wherever they
could obtain the sustenance they needed.
The other group, perhaps because they
happened to be more favorably situated
or attuned to their surroundings, living
in a land of plenty which encouraged
indolence in habit and stagnation of
effort and growth, were free from this

-glorious unrest, and remained apes,

continuing to lead very much the same
kind of life (as gorillas and chimpanzees)
as their ancestors had been living since
the Miocene or even earlier times. That
both of these unenterprising relatives
of man happen to live in the forests of
tropical Africa has always seemed to me
to be a strong argument in favor of
Darwin’s view that Africa was the
original home of the first creatures
definitely committed to the human
career; for while man was evolved
amidst the strife with adverse condi-
tions the ancestors of the gorilla and
chimpanzee gave up the struggle for
mental supremacy simply because they
were satisfied with their circumstances;
and it is more likely than not that they
did not change their habitat.

The erect attitude, infinitely more
ancient than man himself, is not the
real cause of man’s emergence from the
simian stage; but it is one of the factors
made use of by the expanding brain as
a prop still further to extend its growing
dominion, and by fixing and establish-
ing in a more decided way this erectness
it liberated the hand to become the
chief instrument of man’s further prog-
ress.

In learning to execute movements of
a degree of delicacy and precision to
which no ape could ever attain, and the
primitive ape-man could only attempt
once his arm was completely emanci-
pated from the necessity of being an
instrument of progression, that cortical
area which seemed to serve for the
phenomena of attention became en-
hanced in importance. Hence the pre-
frontal region, where the activities of
the cortex as a whole are, as it were,
focused and regulated, began to grow
until eventually it became the most
distinctive characteristic of the human
brain, gradually filling out the front of

SIXTH STAGE OF THE HISTORY.

Jumping shrew of East Africa (Petrodromus tetradactylus). An ancestral and probably not
dissimilar form of this insectivore is to be looked upon as representing man’s ancestors in
the Eocene period or earlier—a period which is to be dated one or perhaps several millions
of years ago. At this time man’s ancestors “lived essentially in an atmosphere of odors;”’
the sense of smell was the only one well developed. When they took to an arboreal life,
they emancipated themselves from the dominance of this sense of smell, and thus, Dr:
Smith thinks, started on the course which finally led to the evolution of man. Photograph
from the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.
That tropical Africa may have been the region where man’s direct ancestors developed, was
* suggested by Darwin, and Dr. Smith looks with favor on the suggestion. Ancestors who
did not progress, who fell by the wayside, are still there, he points out. It may be sup-
posed that they found their environment perfectly congenial, had no reason to change
it, and so stayed where they are and thus lost the impetus to evolution which a change of
environment would have given. Man’s direct ancestors, for some reason, left their homes
and branched out into new fields, where variation and natural selection had a chance to
accelerate their development. (Fig. 5.)

387

388

the cranium and producing the distinc-
tively human forehead. In the diminu-
tive prefrontal area of Pithecanthropus,’
and to a less marked degree, Neander-
thal man,* we see illustrations of lower
human types, bearing the impress of
their lowly state in receding foreheads
and great brow ridges. However large
the brain may be in Homo primigenius,
his small prefrontal region, if we accept
Boule and Anthony's statements, is
sufficient evidence of his lowly state of
intelligence and reason for his failure in
the competition with the rest of man-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

The growth in intelligence and in the
powers of discrimination no doubt led to
a definite cultivation of the esthetic
sense, which, operating through sexual
selection, brought about a _ gradual
refinement of the features, added grace
to the general build of the body, and
demolished the greater part of its hairy
covering. It also led to an intensifica-
tion of the sexual distinctions, especially
by developing in the female localized
deposits of fatty tissue, not found in the
apes, which produced profound altera-

kind. tions in the general form of the body.
7 Eug. Dubois, ‘‘Remarks upon the Brain-cast of Pithecanthropus,” Proc. Fourth Internat.
Cong. Zool., Aug., 1898, published Cambridge, 1899, p. 81.
8 Boule and Anthony, ‘‘L’encephale de l"‘homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints,”’ L’Anthro-
pologie, tome 22, No. 2, 1911, p. 50.

What Eugenics Means.

A plea for more care in the use of the word “‘eugenics’’ is made by Roswell H.
Johnson in the last number of the American Journal of Sociology (XX, 1, 98, July,
1914). He points out the attempt of euthenists to appropriate the word to de-
scribe hygienic legislation, sex education, and even a milk and ice station for infants.
Such a use, he shows at length, was never contemplated by Sir Francis Galton,
who coined the word. He proposes that the term ‘projected euthenics’’ be used
to cover euthenics that has as its avowed object the bettering of a new generation—
for instance, by giving babies a proper start in life. Those who call themselves
eugenists may then, he says, ‘‘give their whole attention to those problems of
heredity and selection which they are peculiarly fitted to handle.”

Genetics and Eugenics.

By way of conclusion we may then say that the experimental study of inheritance
in plants and animals is one of the main foundations upon which progress in scien-
tific eugenics must rest. Genetics is at once the guide and the support of eugenics.
—Raymond Pearl, in the Eugenics Review (1911).

Eugenic Legislation.

Legislating may be said to be a favorite American universal panacea for social
evils. It is cheap, at least. * * * Is it not time that legislators stopped to
think if there is any knowledge extant upon which to base their laws and, if not,
to make an appropriation to get the knowledge? Today, if a legislature is urged
to cure any social evil it proceeds to look for, and, if found, to copy any other
legislation on the subject, but not to spend a dollar on the study of the subject.
Very slowly, but I trust none the less surely, will legislation come to recognize that
research is a basic function of the State-—Charles B. Davenport: Eugenics Record
Office Bulletin No. 9 (State Laws Limiting Marriage Selection) (1913 )

TELEGONY

A Superstition that Dies Hard—Experimental Evidence from Breeding and
Deductions from Embryology—Supposed Phenomenon as Negli-
gible in Eugenics as in Stock-Breeding.'

Dr. ETIENNE RABAUD,

Maitre de Conférences a la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, France.

MONG tthe different divisions
which naturalists and physicians
have amused themselves by cre-
ating in heredity, surely none

is more remarkable then Telegony. It
alone, among all these divisions, has no
relation to the line of descent, direct or
indirect, between progenitors and off-
spring. Its principle is that females are
impregnated by the first males to which
they are bred, so that all their subse-
quent offspring, regardless of their
actual father, will show influence of the
first male. The latter is thus inter-
posed between direct ascendants and
descendants. Telegony, then, is sup-
posedly a phenomenon of particular
importance, since it is assumed to be able
to modify the inherited constitution of
lines of descent among animals; and it
is of high interest to examine it just at
this time, when eugenics is assuming
such a prominent place in the attention
of medical men.

As a fact, very serious suspicions rest
on the reality of this phenomenon.
Even the data cited to support it are
not based on exact observations; most,
if not all, are the reports of sportsmen
or stock-breeders. Even at the present
day, these latter jealously keep their
female breeding animals carefully
guarded, to avoid the chance of their
being bred by a male of inferior pedi-
gree.” But their affirmations seem to be
more the result of simple belief than of
scientific observation.

The first report, which has become

classic and was sufficient to convert
Darwin, goes back to 1821: a mare of
almost pure Arabian blood, belonging to
Lord Morton, was bred to a quagga and
foaled a hybrid. Afterward bred on
two different occasions to a black Arabi-
an Stallion, she foaled two colts of brown
color, whose legs were striped more
plainly than those of the hybrid or even
than those of the quagga himself; well-
marked stripes also existed on the neck
and some other parts of the body: the
hair of the mane was short, stiff and
erect, exactly as is the case with the
quagga.

Since 1821, numerous similar cases
have been reported. Darwin, among
others, cites the following, which was
communicated to him by Doctor Bower-
bank: ‘A Turkish dog, black and hair-
less, having been accidentally bred by a
spaniel of mixed blood with long, brown
hair, produced a litter of five pups,
three of which were hairless, while the
other two were covered by short brown
hair. When bred later by a Turkish
dog, equally black and hairless, she
produced a litter of pups, half of which
resembled their mother—that is, pure
Turk—while the other half were exactly
like the pups with short hair, sired by
the spaniel.”’

STORIES OF DOG BREEDERS.

In a general way, dog fanciers believe
in telegony, and in this manner interpret
most diverse occurrences. Thus Kiener
writes, in his ‘‘Observations on Hered-

1 Translated from Biologica, IV, 41,129, Paris, 15 mai, 1914. ;
2 It would be a mistake to think that this statement applies without qualification to the United

States.

Most cattle, horse and swine breeders now disregard telegony; but dog and sheep breeders,

as a rule, still adhere to the idea, and several sheep breeders’ associations even refuse to register
lambs whose mothers were ever “‘impregnated’’ by mating with a common ram.—The Editor.

389

390 THE JOURNAL
ity’’ (1900): “I got from an artesienne
bitch, bred to a splendid male of her
race, a pup with ‘wall’ eye. She had
previously been bred to a huge mastiff
which had that peculiarity.’’ Kunstler,
on his part, reports (1901) that a
French braque was first bred to an Irish
setter and then to a blue braque of
Auvergne, and then, by a third male—a
Gordon setter—had pups resembling
the Irish setter, and by a fourth male
(an Irish setter) had a litter of pups, one
of whom looked like the Gordon setter.

Resemblances, attributed to the same
phenomenon, have been reported among
sheep and goats, cattle, horses and
swine. White ewes covered by black
rams are said afterward to have borne
pigmented lambs, even when bred to
white rams. A cow of the Angus
breed—characterized by absence of
horns—first bred to a shorthorn bull,
is alleged afterward, when bred to a
polled Angus bull, to have produced a
calf with horns, which looked like a
grade Shorthorn. And as for horses,
almost every breeder believes that colts
foaled by a mare which has been pre-
viously bred to a jack, have a more or
less mulish appearance. Cousin, in his
excellent study (1904), relates that in
Poitou popular belief considers mares
as “interiorly mulish”’ and attributes
that condition to the fact that for
many years the mares of that region
have been constantly used for the pro-
duction of mules. The same writer
quotes the observation of Bernardin
(1901), relative to a mare whose first
two offspring were two mules. After-
ward bred to a heavy Arab stallion, she
foaled successively :

(a) A colt of irreproachable form,
very easy-gaited, whose feet alone,
recalling those of its mother, were a
trifle unsatisfactory ;

(b) A colt which ‘‘showed, with cer-
tain diminutions, all the characters of a
mule: the head, the mane, the neck, the
withers, the back, the rump, the feet,
the gait and, above all, the proverbial
disposition.”’

These few examples are enough to

OF HEREDITY

state the problem, while showing the
kind of evidence that has led to its
acceptance. I have taken the most
classical examples, and the most con-
vincing ones, too. Should. they be
accepted without discussion, as the
expression of facts rigorously controlled
and rigorously interpreted?

Not one of them, as a fact, is beyond
criticism, and it appears that a careful
examination leads us to give to each
case a different explanation, which is
not necessarily the same in every in-
stance.

VALUE OF THE EVIDENCE.

At the start, it must be insisted that
facts alleged to show telegony are never
the result of carefully controlled ex-
periments, nor even of observations
which take all the circumstances into
consideration. When a breeder talks
of ‘“‘pure bred,”’ he refers to similar in-
dividuals which, bred together, usually
and exclusively give offspring that re-
semble their parents; he refers, then, to
a fixed race, but fixed only in these con-
ditions, and he pays no attention what-
ever to things that happen outside these
conditions. As a matter of fact, he can
not really know whether the animals
under consideration actually belong to
one of these “‘pure breeds,” carefully
selected. The white mice furnish the
best proof of this statement. No “‘race”’
is better fixed. Bred with each other,
white mice continue indefinitely to pro-
duce descendants of the same color.
And yet, this uniformity, like this
fixity, conceals notable differences which
make themselves evident when one of
these white mice is bred to a wild gray’
mouse. The posterity of a number of
white females mated to the same gray
male will include diverse individuals,
whose variations can not necessarily be
compared to the differences between
one female and another. The posterity
of some females will comprise nothing
but gray and white individuals; but
that of others will show, in addition,
yellows, blacks, striped grays, striped
blacks, etc. Often, if the matings were

* This color is technically known as agouti, and is considered to be the ancestral color of many

small mammals, including mice, rats, rabbits and guinea pigs.—The Editor.

RABAUD: TELEGONY

not rigorously controlled, one would feel
compelled to suggest telegony. In
reality, the explanation is found in the
genealogy of the white mice. One can
certainly find—and we will notice some
of them—similar results among all sorts
of animals.

After that, when a French braque
bitch, first mated to a Gordon setter
and then to an Irish setter, produces
pups which differ both from her and
from the Irish setter, it would be a good
idea, before talking about telegony, to
try the same matings separately with
bitches that have never before been
bred.

Similarly, when Lord Morton’s mare,
stated to be seven-eighths Arab, is bred
by a stallion of pure Arab blood, there
is nothing to prove that the zebra-like
stripes and other peculiarities are traces
of the zebra which fecundated the mare
for the first time; they can just as easily
be produced when the mare is bred to a
black stallion. And as a fact, the
stripes, in particular, have not the
slightest importance. We know, now,
that they appear rather commonly
among horses, when there is not any
possible reason to suspect the interven-
tion of a zebra. Darwin himself, who
unreservedly admits the fact of telegony,
at the end of the first volume of this
“Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication,” gives at the beginning
of the same volume a series of examples
showing that zebra-markings do not
constitute a valid proof. Among others,
there is the case of a brown Devonshire
pony which “had on its back a very
distinct stripe along the spine, light
transverse rays on the inside of the
legs, and four parallel bands on each
shoulder.’’ In volume II, Darwin con-
siders these stripes to be the result of a
cross between individuals of different
color, and as constituting a case of
“atavism.” This last hypothesis opens
up a different question altogether—we
are absolutely in ignorance, and so was
Darwin, whether the ancestors of the
modern horse were or were not striped.
It is a matter of little importance, any-
how; it is enough for us to know that
the birth of a colt with stripes is far

391

from being sure evidence that its mother
had been previously fecundated ‘by a
zebra.

A STRIKING CASE.

In support of this statement, Na-
thusius brings up a_ well-ascertained
fact: a light bay mare, five times bred
to a stallion of pure blood, foaled five
colts with the same coat color. After-
ward bred to a cappled gray stallion,
she foaled a colt on whose _ back,
shoulders and lower legs were stripes
perhaps even more distinct than those
on the offspring of Lord Morton’s mare.

One can not argue from the appear-
ance of the mane, either, to sustain the
theory that a colt shows zebra charac-
ters. A short, erect mane is found in
many breeds of horse, particularly
among the ponies.

Thus, the ignorance of breeders as to
the origin of their “pure breeds,” and
the absence of any control of experi-
ments in their breeding, demand that
we exercise great caution in accepting
their conclusions on this subject.

Nor is that all. Let us not forget
that in any stock, at any moment, a
morphological variation of great or
small importance may appear: horn-
lessness in cattle, taillessness in cats,
mice and rats, the cerebral hernia which
produces the so-called crest or hood in
fowls, merino sheep, niata cattle of
Chile (with undershot jaws like bull-
dogs), the franqueiro cattle of Brazil
(with long, spiral horns), appeared thus,
without anything to allow us to invoke
the influence of telegony. We ought,
then, always to suspect a coincidence of
this sort when we are in the presence of
a unique fact, which no experience or
control observation corroborates.

Finally, there is one more way in
which an honest observer may be de-
ceived. I refer to superfetation—that
is, the possibility that females may be
bred twice with an interval of some
hours or days, by two different males,
and may produce offspring some of
which are due to the first male and some
to the second. There is no room for
doubt about the reality of superfetation
among dogs. Engelmann, von Rath,
Tornier and others have reported in-

392

disputable facts. Among horses, there
are the remarkable cases of mares
mated first with an ass and later with a
stallion, which foaled twins, one a mule
and the other a colt, and each one, as
Chauveau remarks, ‘bearing its special
characteristics absolutely distinct.”’ It
will at once be understood how an un-
known superfetation may be _ inter-
preted as telegony. And in spite of the
care with which they are watched, a cow,
a bitch or a ewe may very well be bred
by different males two or three times at
short intervals, without the knowledge
of the breeder.

ALL EVIDENCE DUBIOUS.

Thus, the positive observations of
telegony are all suspected in different
degrees because, generally incomplete
and conducted without exactitude, they
do not eliminate the possibility of a
different interpretation. And _ after
that, it is to be feared that they also
include a good deal of imagination.
For you must not forget that the same
breeders who carefully guard their pure-
bred female stock to avoid telegony
through interbreeding with mongrel
males, also carefully guard their pure-
bred male stock to avoid a similar
result from interbreeding with mongrel
females. They have the same fears for
both sexes, and legitimize them by the
same peremptory affirmations. Cousin
reports, in this connection, the follow-
ing:

‘““A breeder has a pure-bred Norman
bull and pure-bred cows of the same
breed; he has always had pure-bred
calves. The bull is mated with a
Jersey cow, and immediately afterward
to a Norman cow; the latter produces
a Norman calf which looks like a grade
Jersey.”’

If it is difficult to know just what may
have happened, it is in any case certain
that any infection of the male by the
female is impossible, unless in the form
of a bacteriological infection. And if
the calf of the second cow really pre-
sented unexpected characters, not im-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

putable to her being bred a second time,
it is absolutely necessary to fall back on
the explanation of a variation due to
unknown cause. But is it not enough
to establish the necessity of this expla-
nation in the present case, to make it
legitimate when the case concerns a
female fecundated by two different
males?

Along the same line, it is well to
remember that influence of a first im-
pregnation has been alleged among
birds, too, particularly pigeons and
domestic fowls. Brahma hens, for ex-
ample, fertilized by a Houdan cock,
are said to have laid eggs, much later,
when penned with Brahma cocks, which
produced chickens resembling in certain
respects the Houdan. But it is certainly
difficult to see how such an impregnation
could take place in oviparous females.

Should we henceforth reject telegony
without further formality, merely be-
cause of the inadequacy of the proofs
alleged? Evidently not. Precise obser-
vations and experiments are necessary,
above everything else. Neither the
one nor the other is scarce at present;
the oldest date from 1872, due partly to
Settegast and partly to Nathusius.

The former records the case of four
mares bred first to asses and then to
stallions; not one of the colts showed
the slightest resemblance to a mule; nor
did their posterity show such resemblance,
either.

Nathusius cites, among other illus-
trations, the following: An Ayrshire
cow had, by a hornless bull, a hornless
calf; all her later calves, gotten by
horned bulls, bore horns.

COSSAR-EWART’S WORK.

More recently, J.Cossar-Ewart under-
took an extensive investigation of the
subject, which lasted from 1896 to 1901.
It comprised 13 mares, four of which
were used for control experiments while
the other nine were successively bred
first to a zebra and then to a stallion, or
vice versa. The results are summed up
in Table I.

RABAUD: TELEGONY 393

TABLE I.
a a ee LS SS a Sea ee as SS ey ee mee tt nent nt ees
Couples Date of Foaling Descendance
Wall dasx Ze Day Wrrkterrs bieinerne: 1898 hybrid twins
SeStallOum an ere Coe 1899 colt without resemblance to zebra
SAGAS OYE ti keeled eats 1900 hybrid
xo Stallaoia ac: sens kan eames 1901 colt without resemblance to zebra
Mulatto
SOVAG\ OVENS ens ete tena ches arta 1896 hybrid
SUStaloneBme ss sas ute wes 1897 colt lightly striped at birth
oq SU Hellitoy ile Pee Sea eee 1899 colt lightly striped at birth
(Note.—The stallion L gave, with two
fillies, striped colts like those of Mulat-
to).
INoraaestalliom Wires. sees 1895 colt bearing several stripes at birth; three
persisted on the sholder.
2 CVA ON 92) atest OTNe Leena cont 1897 hybrid.
SEIS HALON Coteau ct Gye 1s cha 1898 colt without stripes or any resemblance to
zebra,
SG UA hee Ro nn toere Memey meat a 1898 hybrid.
SC ENO 2rd ene oe oem 1900 hybrid.
Rta See Ses Week ae 1901 colt like its sire, without stripes or any re-
semblance to a zebra.
Laura
KAZI TAM on eo Aceves Gakic = tae abortion.
55% Sure bio ald Lae pm cece teehee 1898 colt without any resemblance to a zebra.
Se SU ee EN nk eee! oe 1898 colt without resemblance to zebra.
KySbaulliGmnoeea wecta! Meets 1900 colt without resemblance to zebra.
INOMApeZC DTA ms Saeko eae 1898 hybrid.
SaStallltorie Nl. wany cy cok ds 1899 colt bearing no traces of zebra.
Lady Douglas
MRACIGEA Ee eo een ee ee 1897 hybrid.
Sne VAS) OEE AN ARN EE werk eee Ae 1898 hybrid.
xaetallliore Mis.) 29 fei. ee eke 1900 colt bearing no resemblance to zebra.
sstallrontSy a1. ects e are 1901 colt bearing no traces of zebra.
Biddy
Fe ZAGION EL ee oie a hes eh ets ae 1897 hybrid.
Re ScalltOnidl ca ee Fee 1898 colt (Kathleen) without resemblance to
zebra.
se Saeaulllosni(Gy. seo, 35 dele be se 1898 colt bearing no traces of zebra.
eS GLI Greet anes teen ae 1900 colt bearing no resemblance to zebra.
Kathleen &
SAS Tour Or Mice eek Menara e 1901: ! colt bearing no resemblance to zebra.
Timdra
SZ Drees en eee sermene mies 1897 hybrid.
So ise illlVoyal Boe © mien ecole enaee © 1898 colt having’ no resemblance to zebra.
MOVZODLAE writ ccs See Re 1899 hybrid.
NG SEAMMOMS Onstage ieee uke 1900 colt bearing no traces of zebra.

This table constitutes an important after the hybrids is marked by stripes
argument against the doctrine of tele- of any kind. The colts foaled by the
gony. Inthecasesof eight of themares, mare Mulatto by the stallion B and then
the lack of influence of the fecundation by the stallion L, after the birth of a
by a zebra is, morphologically, indispu- hybrid, alone show stripes. These
table because not one of the colts born stripes are not persistent; nevertheless,

394

they would have been quickly seized
upon as evidence in favor of telegony,
had not J. Cossar-Ewart had control
experiments going on at the same time.
In these, two mares which had never
before been bred, were bred to the same
stallion L and each one foaled a striped
colt, very similar to the two colts of
Mulatto. The influence of the zebra
therefore becomes more than doubtful
for her two colts, as well for the one
sired by stallion L as for the one sired
by stallion B.

The progeny of the mare Nora also
merit special mention. Bred to the
stallion W, before she had ever seen a
zebra, she foaled a colt which, richly

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

striped at birth, kept three permanent
stripes on the shoulder; bred then to a
zebra, she foaled a hybrid; finally, she
was bred to the stallion C and foaled a
colt without the least sign of stripes.
Again bred, in two different seasons, toa
zebra, she produced two more hybrids;
and finally bred to the stallion S, she
foaled a colt which bore not the least
resemblance to a zebra. Thus the only
striped colt, which could have given
hope to the advocates of telegony, is the
one first foaled, at a time when the mare
had never been bred toa zebra. All the
other colts, born after the hybrid
crosses, showed no resemblance to a
zebra. This example shows once more

TABLE II.

pm

| Date of Foaling

Mares Progeny Characters
Litvinka (brown) born 1897 zebroid (aborted)
in 1893 1898 foaled a zebroid
1902 foaled a zebroid
1905 zebroid (aborted)
1906 foaled a colt by half-blood Arab
Le bEG em Len zoster tases ee ee no stripes
1907 foaled a zebroid
1908 coltybyslzebedh ae ett a ey ep ees no stripes
1909 colt, sire unknown.................| mo stripes
Pliakha (niebald) born 1901 foaled a zebroid
in 1896 1902: to 1940-. | foaled sine colts. }.a. 92.54 chases none striped
1912 colt by thoroughbred sire........... no stripes
Armida (bright bay) 1902 foaled a zebroid
born in 1899 1904 foaled a colt by half-blood sire... ... no stripes
1906 foaled a colt by half-blood sire...... no stripes
1907 foaled a colt by half-blood sire...... no stripes
Priimikha (brown) born 1905 foaled a zebroid (artificial insemina-
in 1898 tion)
1906 foaled a zebroid (artificial insemina-
tion)
1907 foaled a zebroid (artificial insemina-
tion)
1908 to 1912 foaled "ive lcOliGy re as ien ei sate eee none striped
Vesta (bay) born in 1906 foaled a zebroid
1901 1907 foaled colt by thoroughbred sire... .. no stripes
1908 Colt by SRIME- RING. Sy Tice vainte es tas wee no stripes
1912 foaled colt by thoroughbred sire..... no stripes
Aida (piebald) born in 1907 foaled a zebroid
1902 1908 foaled: a: COlt.n,..<vitueds © auteee tooken se no stripes
1909 foaled a Colt. &; Sesotho Meee eee no stripes
1911 foaled & Colts} ov. veo mete ote ees no stripes
Zlodeika (dark brown) 1902 foaled a zebroid

born in 1890 1903 to 1907

foaled four colts by half-blood sire...

none striped

eee —

RABAUD: TELEGONY

how carefully we must avoid giving to
mere coincidences the value of evidence,
in this inquisition.

One more fact should be emphasized.
It might happen that a colt without any
visible resemblance, in form, to a zebra,
should yet have something of the zebra
in its constitution; this would then
show itself, or at least might show itself,
in the progeny of the colt. Now the
mare Kathleen, foaled by Biddy subse-
quent to the birth of a hybrid, herself
foaled an absolutely pure colt. This
fact corroborates an analogous one of
Settegast. It should be added never-
theless that as the characters of the
zebra appear to be “dominant’’ in all
crosses with the horse, this objection
has only slight weight; since if there
were any stripes or other anatomical
characters transmitted, they ought to
appear in the first generation.

CONFIRMATORY PROOFS.

Besides, the not less important in-
vestigation of Faltz-Fein and H. Ivanov
(1913) confirms all the preceding con-
clusions. In no case did colts born
after hybrids show any indications of
influence of the zebra. And yet two of
the mares (Litvinka and Priimikha)
were in a position to have shown effects,
if it were possible, of having been
strongly impregnated, because one of
them had been bred five times and the
other three times to a zebra. Table II
stimmarizes this investigation.

Outside of horses, we possess experi-
ments in full agreement with these:
Faelli (1900) reports the case of a
Tamworth sow successively bred to a
Tamworth boar, a Yorkshire boar, and
a second Tamworth boar; all of the pigs
sired by the Yorkshire resembled him,
while all of the pigs by the second Tam-
worth male resembled their sire without
the slightest trace of Yorkshire charac-
teristics.

Cousin (1904) also cites a number of
cases. <A shorthaired greyhound bitch
bred to a griffon produced a litter of
pups of varying aspects; later bred to a
male like herself, she produced pups
without the slightest appearance of the
former mate. A Saint Germain braque

395

crossed with a spaniel produced anumber
of pups which showed various evidences
of cross-breeding; later mated. with a
male of her own breed, she produced a
litter of typically pure-bred pups. With
sheep, Cousin mated Berrichon ewes
successively with a merino ram and then
with a Berrichon ram; none of the prod-
ucts of this last mating showed the
slightest trace of merino blood. It is to
be remarked that the products of the
merino-Berrichon cross look very much
like the merino male, which means that,
in Mendelian language, the merino
characters are to some extent dominant
over the Berrichon characters; they
ought, therefore, to reappear in the
succeeding lambs of the ewe, if she had
really become impregnated.

I come now to the experiments
carried out by Bond (1899) with rabbits
and white rats, and by Miss Barthelet
(1900) with white mice.

Bond mated a Himalayan rabbit
(white with black feet) to a wild male,
and then to an albino male. The first
litter due to this last buck contained
several individuals of a gray tint; but
the following litters by the same male
contained only albino individuals,
although between each successive mating
with an albino male, there was a mating
with the wild buck. Were the gray
offspring of the albino male, at first
mating with him, due to the influence
exercised by the wild male which had
previously been bred to the female?
That color is to rabbits like stripes to
horses. Rabbits of the Himalaya
breed possess pigment, because their
feet are black, and the vague tint
observed in the young is due to that
pigment, the existence of which can not
be disputed, much more certainly than
to any mysterious influence which
remains to be proved. It is even com-
mon that the crossing of a striped
animal with one not striped produces
offspring that are not striped, regardless
of their color; and this is the case here.
Besides, is it not remarkable that the
gray tint was not repeated in succeeding
litters, when conditions were most
favorable for impregnation?

396

With rats, Bond proceeded in the
following manner: an albino female was
first mated to an ordinary brown male,
and then to an albino male; with the
latter she produced none but albino
offspring.

Miss Barthelet proceeded in the same
way with white mice: first mated with
a gray male, they were later mated to
an albino and produced only albinos,
with no trace of gray.

THE CASE OF ALBINOS.

I must now point out that these two
latter experiments have really no sig-
nificance, either for or against telegony,
because there is an important source of
error in them. If the numerous re-
searches into the inheritance of colora-
tion during recent years have shown
anything, it is that albinos mated with
each other (rats or mice) produce
albinos indefinitely,’ whatever be the
origin of these rats or mice. In my
own work I have mated white mice,
born from gray ones, with white mice
born from black ones, without ever
obtaining offspring bearing a_ single
gray or black hair. So even if we
should admit the impregnation of a
white mouse by a> gray one, that im-
pregnation could not manifest itself as
the result of fecundation by a white
male; ‘the results obtained in the ex+
periments just mentioned prove nothing,
therefore, as regards telegony.

But rats and mice form, none the less,
excellent material for the study of tele-
gony; because even if, mated with each
other, albinos produce only albinos, the
identity of coloration does not conceal
important constitutional differences, as
I have already pointed out. These
differences appear if a wild gray mouse,
for example, is mated with an albino
born of a striped black or striped gray;
black or striped offspring will necessarily
appear in the second endogamous gener-
ation, thus ‘bearing witness to the in-
fluence of the ancestry of the albino.

Reasoning from these experiences, [|
mated white mice having neither black
nor stripes in their ancestry, and wild
gray mice, with a striped black male.
The members of the first filial generation

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

were all uniformly gray, and all alike,
as usually happens. Mated with each
other these mice in their turn furnished
gray, black and striped mice, thus
proving that the general constitution of
the first filial generation can, in certain
conditions, show itself by the black
coloring or striping. In consequence,
if the impregnation of the mother really
took place, she ought to be able to
reveal it by transmitting black colora-
tion or striping.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MICE.

To provoke its appearance, I sub-
stituted for the striped mouse a wild
gray mouse in whose ancestry there was
not, to my certain knowledge, any in-
dividual either black or striped; the
appearance of such individuals in the
posterity of these females, previously
mated to the striped male, would then
have been a very strong presumption
in favor of telegony. None appeared.
All the litters obtained, with one excep-
tion, contained nothing but gray mice,
quite uniform in appearance.

I have noted one exception: it is in-
teresting from several viewpoints, and
particularly from that of telegony.
One litter contained three wild-gray
mice and two light gray ones with a
brownish tint. If this tint had been
darker, I should have been led to admit
the possible of a telegonic impregnation;
if it had been lighter, such an interpre-
tation could not have been supported,
for it amounted to no more than a
difference in color among the different
mice. In many cases, nothing more
than this has been necessary to “‘prove”’
the influence of a previous sire. Here,
however, the difference of tint offers no
such explanation, because other wild
albino couples, the female of which had
never been mated with a striped male,
furtrished me with absolutely analogous
results. Nothing remained but to
await the result of matings between the
different individuals of this F, genera-
tion; none of the matings thus made
resulted in any trace of a black mouse or
a striped one.

I made another experiment along
slightly different lines, starting with the

RABAUD:. TELEGONY

idea. propounded by various writers
that albinism is an infectious disease.
According to this hypothesis, a wild-
gray female mated to a white male
might later produce albinos, even though
mated to another wild-gray male. The
females submitted to this test did not
at all confirm the proposition of the
hypothesis: the product of wild pairs
has been constantly and uniformly gray.

Thus all the experiments made with
various animals in the endeavor to find
effects of .telegony under controlled
conditions have given results absolutely
contrary to that doctrine.‘

WHAT REALLY HAPPENS.

Really, should we be surprised?
Could we not think, a priori, that the
question was, in fact, poorly stated?
In reply, it is sufficient to try to find
some means by which such an impregna-
tion could take place.

Various. mechanisms have been suc-
cessively proposed. Some of these sug-
gestions have lost all value in the light
of present-day knowledge. The advance
of knowledge has thus disposed of the
idea of incomplete fertilization of mature
ova (proposed by Weismann) and of the
persistence of spermatozoa in some fold
of the reproductive passages (as Claude
Bernard suggested).

Others. seem unsatisfactory. Ro-
manes, for instance, thinks that the
sperm, after penetrating into the uterus,
is absorbed by the maternal organism
and exercises an influence on ova that
ate-not, yet:;mature. But in truth. it
does not seem that the protoplasm thus
absorbed can have any very different
effect from that produced by the absorp-
tion of any other substance whatever.
This protoplasm does not play the part
of a fecundating agent; it does not reach
the ovule until it has been very radically
changed by contact with the protoplasm
of the cell-tissues of the walls of the
uterus which absorb it and that through
which it must pass; so that if any modi-
fication of the protoplasm of the im-
mature ova took place, it would be some

397

modification of the same kind that re-
sults from the absorption of some com-
mon alimentary substance; the sperma-
tozoa could not produce, except under
highly improbable conditions, a modifica-
tion in the ovules, which would recall the
characteristics of the male in question.

The only theory which rests to a cer-
tain extent on a solid foundation of fact
is the one proposed by. W. Turner,
adopted by Cornevin, and by the latter
expressed as follows:

“Would not the persistent influence
of a first reproductor result from the
fact, that the mother herself had been
materially impregnated by something
belonging to the male, not by the direct
action of the sperm, but by the inter-
mediation of the fetus? Might it not
happen that the latter possessed in its
blood special properties belonging to its
father, and that when its blood was
exchanged with that of its mother, it
might act on the latter as vaccin acts
on the blood of a vaccinated subject?
The mother’s blood, thus impregnated,
would act upon the..ova which would
be later fecundated ,by another repro-
ductor.”

THE EXCHANGE OF BLOOD.

The existence of exchanges between
the blood of a mother and the blood of
her fetus can not be the object of any.
serious controversy. Not only is the
passage of toxins from the one to the
other indisputable, but it is also known
that a sort of equilibrium is established
between the constitutions of the two
serums. The experiment of Carlson
and Drennon (1911) confirmed by E.
Lafon (1913) is an irrefutable demon-
stration of this. These experimenters
removed the pancreas of a_ pregnant
bitch toward the end of her gestation;
no trace of sugar appeared in her urine
as long as fetuses remained in her uterus;
but glycosuria became manifest im-
mediately after the expulsion of the last
of her pups; the quantity of , sugar
changed from 0 to 25 grams in_ the
course of 48 hours.

4 For an illustrated account of the latest such experiment see ‘The Grevy Zebra as a Domesti¢
Animal,’’ by George M. Rommel; American Breeders Magazine, IV, 3,129, Washington, D.:C.;

July-September, 1913.—The Editor.

398

All the evidence indicates that the
pancreas of the fetus completely took
the place of the pancreas of the mother,
which is the same as saying that the
constitution of the maternal blood was
equivalent, from that point of view, to
the constitution of the fetal blood.
Under the circumstances, the former
indubitably derived from the latter.

The important point is to notice that
constitutional equivalence did not exist
after parturition; it depend-d strictly on
the incessant exchanges of fetal serum
with maternal serum. The result of
the experiment will not permit us to go
beyond that conclusion; and this result
leads us to the belief that the influence
of the fetus on the mother, in the cir-
cumstances observed, is but a momen-
tary influence: soluble products filter
through the placenta and _ parasitic
organisms pass through it.

Henceforth we are in a position to
put the question on the proper basis.
Enlarging the interpretation of this
experiment, shall we admit that in
addition to the diverse products of the
activity of the organism, the blood also
contains the ‘‘character”’ of the animal
considered, or at least the substances
which determine these characters, and
that these substances, transmitted by
the fetus to the mother, become per-
manent constituents of the latter?
For everything is there; and impregna-
tion, as it is understood, necessitates
the transmission of fully determined
characters: stripes, colorations, forms of
hair, absence or presence of horns, etc.
Once this was believed to be the reality,
and such a belief served as an argument
against the transfusion of blood. Alain
Lamy, of Caen, declared in 1668, in the
Journal des Sgavants ‘that it was to be
feared that, transfused, the blood of a
calf would communicate to a man the
stupidity and brutal instincts of that
animal.’’ The author also demands to
know what becomes, in the veins of a
man, of the particles of blood destined,
in the calf, to produce the horns.

At the present day we are forced to
reject such an interpretation. If it was
really based on f telegonic phe-

tact,
nomena ought to be produced with

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

extreme frequency, as a result of the use
of serotherapy alone. Besides, the
experiments described above, not to say
the most elementary logic, fully prove
that the peculiarities of an animal do
not promenade in its blood, but that
they are the very substance of that
animal. And since the spermatozoon
does not intervene directly in impregnat-
ing the ovum, it certainly does not
intervene indirectly by the intermediary
of the fetus, in the constitution of which
it has become a part. We must, then,
deliberately reject all idea of the trans-
mission of definite characters, conforma-
tion or coloration of parts, of a given
male to the descendants of another
male, by the impregnation of a female.

REAL EFFECT OF EXCHANGES.

Nevertheless, since exchanges take
place between the fetus and the mother,
since these exchanges provoke a trans-
formation in the maternal serum suffi-
cient, for example, to furnish a substi-
tute for the internal secretion of the
pancreas, is it plausible, that that
transformation should wholly disappear
after parturition, that the maternal
constitution should again become
exactly what it was prior to gestation?

Evidently not! Every change in-
duced in an organism necessarily leaves
traces after it. But these traces do not
and can not have anything to do with
the supposed process of telegony. Be-
yond any doubt, the maternal organism
has been placed, during gestation, under
conditions of life very different from
the antecedent conditions, and from
these conditions a modification neces-
sarily results. But that modification
is as much a function of the maternal
organism as of the condition in which it
is found; the fetus does not impose its
own constitution on its mother, no more
than the temperature imposes on organ-
isms on which it acts the “ constitution”’
of heat-radiation. In fact, the exchanges
between fetus and mother result in a
new state for the latter, different not
only from her antecedent state, but from
that of her product. The maternal
organism is not “impregnated”’ in any
degree; the real phenomenon therefore

RABAUD: TELEGONY

has no relation to the supposed phenom-
enon. Thefemale does not receive from
the male which fecundates her, any-
thing which belongs essentially to that
male; the constitution of that female
does not become in any degree the
image of that male, and there is no
reason for surprise if the offspring of
that female by a second male give no
hint of the first male.

In fact, the question is quite different.
Gestation naturally produces in the
female a modification which we must
suppose to be to some extent permanent.
As a consequence, the female which
produces a second offspring is no longer
the female that produced the first off-
spring; whether the two gestations be
due to the same male or to two different
males, the fetus of the second gestation
evolves in conditions different from
those surrounding the fetus of the first
gestation. But it does not undergo in
any way the influence of the first male;
in reality, what takes places is as if two
different females were involved, mated
with the same male or with two different
males.

Such is the conclusion to which the
experimental facts have logically led us.
Can we draw from them any lessons
relating to the improvement of breeds,
particularly of the breed of mankind?
If telegony, in its strict sense, could be
considered a fact, the course to be
pursued would promptly be indicated:
every female impregnated by a male of
inferior quality ought to be rejected.
But under the circumstances what shall
we do’ Though a first gestation has
certainly modified the female, we are
ignorant of the direction of that modi-
fication; further, we have no way of
finding it out. The quality of the male

5 It is customary to connect telegony with xenia.

399

gives no information on this point.
Since the change which has taken place
is not the passage from the male to the
female of the qualities of the male, but
the result of exchanges between fetus
and mother, this result may be good or
bad—eugenically speaking—by reason
of conditions which at present we are
unable to appreciate.

FACTOR IS NEGLIGILBE.

The only line of action possible for us,
therefore, is to neglect this factor, being
persuaded anyhow that it is really
negligible. The change which gestation
produces in a female can not be, im
normal condition, anything but an
insignificant change; the important
thing is to reckon with abnormal con-
ditions, when a genuine infection is
produced by infectious germs.

* * *

Telegony is not a mode of heredity.
The latter is, in itself, a phenomenon
of sufficiently complicated mechanism,
without the necessity of adding to its
study parasitical viewpoints which com-
plicate it without gain. There are no
other progenitors than direct ones; a
previous gestation carries with it no
predetermined effects; it is only one of
the conditions which go to make up
the general condition of the female at
the time of her second gestation; but
that general condition is in no sense the
‘““warehousing’’ in any way of characters
belonging to the first male. It is a
result of the continued influence of the
environment upon the organism. It is,
then, an entirely new condition, and we
do not have any means of foreseeing its
exact nature. These facts must be
borne in mind, whenever the question
of heredity is involved.’

This name is given to the following phenom-

enon: when a plant is fecundated by pollen of another species, the resulting seed and fruit ordinarily
resemble the seed and fruit which would have been produced by fecundation with pollen of the

same species.
species which furnished the pollen.

Now it sometimes happens that the fruit recalls in appearance the fruit of the
But this phenomenon does not seem to be identifiable with

the phenomenon of telegony. Admitting that the pollinated ovule exercises an influence upon
the tissues of the fruit, it certainly does not exercise such an influence upon subsequent fruits.
Besides, there is reason to believe that xenia results from pollen grains going astray outside the
ovule and, consequently, that there is an impregnation in the positive sense of the word.

A KAKI CLASSIFICATION

Japanese Persimmon Probably a Conglomerate Species—Only Satisfactory Method
of Arranging Its Varieties Seems to be on Basis of Behavior When
Pollinated—Influence of Seed on Fruit.

H. Haro_tp Hume, Glen Saint Mary, Florida.

HEN any kind of fruit is
represented by only a few
varieties, it is an easy matter
to remember all the character-
istics and peculiarities by which these
varieties may be distinguished from one
another. It is not necessary to classify
them and moreover it is hardly possible
to do so as the variations are ‘not
sufficiently numerous to establish the
group boundaries by which each variety
should be confined and at the same time
separated from its relatives. But as
the number of varieties of anv kind of
fruit increases, it becomes impossible to
remember the characteristics of each
and every variety, and it becomes
necessary to introduce some system of
classification to enable the pomologist
more easily to identify and handle them.
The first step that the systematic
pomologist finds necessary in taking up
any kind of fruit represented by numer-
ous varieties is to arrange them into a
number of classes or groups, placing
those which present some well marked
characteristics by themselves, and defin-
ing them by those characters,’ then
separating out ahother group on other
lines, and so on, until the whole list of
varieties has been divided up and
separated.
The number of varieties of D. kaki
grown in the United States for many

years has been quite limited. But
recently a large number of new varieties
have been introduced and it now

becomes imperative that all varieties,
both old and new, should be classified
into easily recognized groups.

In 1904, the writer classified' all
varieties of D. kaki available at that
‘Hume, H. Harold and Remier, F. C.
Experiment Station. Mar. 65-110. 1904.

400

Japanese Persimmons.

time, dividing them into three groups,
viz: light fleshed, mixed fleshed, and dark
fleshed varieties. This system of classi-
fication was founded on_ insufficient
knowledge of the behavior of D. kaki
fruit and is now known to be worthless.

In the bulletin on Japanese persim-
mons from the Horticultural Experi-
ment Station, Okitsu, Japan, they are
divided into Sweet and Astringent varie-
ties. This grouping may be satisfactory
in a measure, but, if the conditions are
the same as with us, it is certain to lead
to confusion. The chief objection is
that when varieties in the Sweet group
are seedless they fall into the Astringent
group. Now, any system which permits
of a variety being transferred from one
group to-another owing to the vagaries
of circumstance is not likely to prove
satisfactory. In other words, the basis
of grouping is not stable, it is in itself a
variable character and is therefore un-
tenable.

A SOUND BASIS.

In searching about for a basis of
classification, rendered necessary by the
very large introductions of new varieties
from China, Japan, Algeria, France and
elsewhere, as well as by the bringing
together of all varieties now in America,
it has finally been decided that the
flesh characters upon which the first
American classification was based form
a satisfactory basis of classification if
applied in their proper significance. In
the final analysis the flesh characters
are fixed by the pollination factor and
this factor finds its most striking expres-
sion in the color and texture of the flesh.

It is only within recent years that we
have been able to explain some of the

Bul. 71, Florida Agricultural

Hume: A Kaki CLASSIFICATION

401

A SEEDLESS JAPANESE PERSIMMON.

This variety (Zengi) belongs to the group of Pollination Variants.
tion of the fruits is prevented, they yet develop normally, but the absence

of seed results in a light color of the flesh.

mysterious things about the fruit of D.
kaki. It was noted long ago that the
fruits of certain va~ieties when they con-
tained seeds were different* in color of
flesh from the seedless specimens, and
in the case of certain other varieties. it
made no difference in the color of the
flesh whether seeds were present or not.
But the underlying cause of this was
not known, and it is indeed not fully
understood yet, but it is now known
that the development of seeds and the
accompanying darkening of the flesh
in those varieties in which the pecu-
liarity occurs is due to pollination.

The parthenogenetic development of
seeds in D. virginiana, the common
persimmon of the southern United
States, has been suggested on circum-
stantial evidence by a number of writers,
but experimental proof appears to be
lacking and the presence of perfect or
staminate flowers on supposedly. pis-
tillate flowering trees has not been
excluded.

Hague’ found no evidence of parthen-
ogenesis in numerous studies of the
embryogeny of D. virginiana. “Thus far
in the writer’s experiments not a single
case of seed development has “been
found in fruits developed from care-

2Van Deman, H. E.- The Kaki.
449-450.

If pollina-
(Fig. 6.)

fully bagged flowers of D. kaki. The
natural conclusion is that partheno-
genesis does not occur in D. kaki and if
it does it is of such rare occurence under
conditions in the southern United States
as to have no practical bearing on the
problem.

All varieties of D. kaki known in
America at this time are light fleshed
when seedless. while certain varieties
always show darkening of the flesh
when seeds are present and other varie-
ties are always light fleshed when seeds
are present.

THE CLASSIFICATION.

Based on the difference in flesh colora-
tion under influence of pollination,
Kaki may be divided into at least two
groups—first those which show no
change in color of flesh under the in-
fluence of pollination and second, those
in which the flesh of the fruit is darkened
under the influence of pollination.
Since the change in color in the one
case is’ directly due to pollination and
in the other pollination has no effect
whatever, we shall refer to those varie-
ties which undergo no change in color
as Pollination Constants and those which
are light colored when seedless and dark

The First Bas of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1889,

3’ Hague, Stella M. _A Morphological Study of Diaspy ros virginiana, Botanical Gazette 52: 34-44.

July, 1911.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THE INFLUENCE OF A SINGLE SEED.

The influence of pollination in some varieties of Kaki is to darken the flesh.
In this variety (Zengi) one seed produces a distinct darkening of the
flesh around it, but it is not sufficient to darken the whole area of the

frente (bie. 7.)

colored when seedy, we shall call Polli-
nation Variants. Now, all varieties of
D. kaki growing in this country or else-
where may be referred to one or the
other of these groups. If varieties
which are constantly dark fleshed
whether seedy or seedless should be
found, the group of Pollination Con-
stants can then be divided into two
groups of light and dark fleshed Polli-
nation Constants. It is hardly probable
that there are varieties which are dark
fleshed when seedless and light fleshed
when seedy, but if any such should be
discovered, a similar plan can be fol-
lowed by dividing the group of Polli-
nation Variants.

The varieties with the fruit of which
we are acquainted at this time divide
along these lines of classification as
follows:

Pollination Constants. Group I.

Costata, Hachiya, Lienhua (No. 22367) New
Sien (No. 22368), Ormond, Phelps Siang (No.
21910), Tamopan, Tanenashi, Triumph, Tsuru.

Pollination Variants. Group Il.

Dai Dai Maru, Gailey, Godbey, Hyakume,
Lonestar, Masugata, Myotan, Nectar, Okame,
Taber No. 23, Taber No. 129, Yeddoichi,
Yemon, Zengi.

The amount of dark flesh found in
fruits of varieties of the group Pollina-
tion Variants depends both upon the

number of seeds and upon their location
with reference to one another. Refer-
ring to cross sections of fruits of the
Pollination Variants, it will be noted
that when only one seed is present the
whole area is not darkened and the
seed roughly forms the center of the
darkened area which may be more or
less interrupted by the gelatine-like
development of the walls of the empty
locules included within the circle. If
two seeds are present in adjoining
locules, it will be noted that while the
area is increased and in some cases
shows darker owing to the overlapping
of the affected areas, yet the whole area
in cross section is not darkened. If two
seeds are present, diametrically opposite
one another, the whole area, if not too
great, may be darkened. Three or four
seeds properly located are usually
accompanied by an entire darkening
of the surface. In large specimens of
Yemon, this is sometimes not the case
and occasionally specimens may be
found with nearly or quite the full
complement of seeds which show a
narrow light band just inside the skin,
while the remainder is all darkened.

In fruits of both Hyakume and
Yemon, it appears to require the
development of a larger number of
seeds to darken the entire area than is
the case with smaller varieties such as

Hume: A Kaki CLassIFICATION

403

THE EFFECT OF TWO SEEDS.
The variety shown is again Zengi, also figured in the two preceding illus-

trations.

The development of two seeds in this variety (a ‘‘Pollina-

tion Variant”’) darkens a large part, but not all, of the flesh. (Fig. 8.)

Zengi and Taber No. 129. Whether
this is merely a question of size or
whether it is a peculiarity into which
size does not enter, is not known. The
presence of seeds in Okame is accom-
panied by the darkening of small areas
about them; no ‘such general effect
upon the flesh has been noted as is the
case with Hyakume and some other
sorts. :

Associated with the changes in the
color of the flesh there are well marked
variations in time of ripening, shape
and size of fruits, quality and texture
of flesh, but as these associated varia-
tions have been covered in detail else-
where,’ they need not be dwelt on here.

OTHER SPECIES.

In connection with the behavior of
fruits of other species of Dziospyros it
may be of interest to point out that
there appear to be two distinct strains
of D. lotus, one with dark flesh, the other
with light flesh. The fruits of D.
wrginmiana are always light fleshed,
the fruits of D. texana are always dark
fleshed.

Why is it that D. kaki presents these
peculiar characteristics? Why is it for
instance that Tsuru is always light
fleshed whether the fruit contains seeds
or not, while Yemon is light fleshed

4Hume, H. Harold. Effect of Pollination on the fruit of Diospyros Kaki.
1913—pp. 88-93.

The Society for Horticultural Science.

when seedless and dark fleshed when
seedy? Is it not likely that D. kaki is
not a true species but rather a mixture
of two or more species, hybridized and
grown under cultivation for centuries?
Is it not possible that the present
cultivated varieties known under the
name LD. kaki are derived from two
distinct species, one bearing dark
fleshed fruit and the other light fleshed
fruit? Is the dark fleshed character
latent in the Pollination Constants?
While the answers to the questions
indicated may never be definitely known
and it may be that the phenomenon of
flesh color changes is due to entirely
different causes than those suggested,
yet the fact remains that D. kaki under
cultivation presents wide variations in
many particulars, and the suggestion
that it is a conglomerate species is at
least a plausible one. In shape and
peculiarities of fruit, color and charac-
teristics of bark, size and shape of leaves,
habit of growth and size of tree, they
vary much more than any of our com-
mon fruits usually regarded as being
derived from single species. The prob-
lem is a complex one. Some light
might be thrown on it by a careful
exploration of Japan and the adjacent
mainland of China. Since the Japanese
forms had their origin in China a care-

Proceedings of
Mar. 1914.

404 THE JOURNAL

HEREDITY

WHEN THE TWO SEEDS

ARE SEPARATED.

It was shown in the preceding illustration that the development of two seeds
was not sufficient to darken the whole area of the flesh of this variety

(Zengi) of Diospyros kaki, the Japanese persimmon.

Comparison with

Fig. 8 will show that more of the flesh is darkened when the two developed

seeds are nearly or quite opposite, than when they are side by side.

9.)

ful survey of this whole region might do
much toward clearing up many obscure
features in the behavior of D. kakz.

All the varieties introduced by Frank
N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer of the
United States Department of Agricul-
ture, in 1905 from northern China
belong to the group of Pollination
Constants. It is probable that no other
kinds are to be found in the sections
which he visited. Elsewhere in China
varieties belonging to the group of
Pollination Variants may be found and
it may not be an entirely wild surmise
to suggest the existence of a persimmon
region where dark fleshed Pollination
Constants are to be found. It must be
borne in mind that D. kaki is not native
to Japan, but is an introduction from
China. Since the Japanese introduc-
tions were made several centuries ago,
no doubt the two groups have diverged
greatly, even granting they were origi-
nally one.

THE FLOWERING HABIT.

One of the interesting things in con-
nection with D. kaki is that, as already
pointed out,’ certain varieties bear both

staminate and pistillate flowers. Some
of those which bear staminate flowers
6 Journ: al of Heredity, Vol. V., No. 3.

March 131-138.

(Fig.

do so regularly every time the tree
blooms, while other varieties produce
them one season and not another, in
fact are very irregular in this particular.
The first class of staminate trees we have
designated as Staminate Constants, while
the second class of staminate trees may
be called Staminate Sporadics. Those
which produce only pistillate flowers
may be referred to as Prstillate Constants.
It is interesting to note that staminate
flowering varieties of both classes are
much more commonly found among the
Pollination Variants than among the
Pollination Constants. In the former
group, there are now known to be at
least five varieties which either con-
stantly or occasionally produce flowers
with pollen. These are Gailey, Masu-
gata, Okame, Taber No. 23, and Taber
No. 129. Among the Pollination Con-
stants only two staminate flowering
sorts, viz: New Sien and, Siang have so
far been found. It is not improbable
that they belong to a different species
from the other varieties or at least a
different section of D. kaki. These two
varieties are both recent acquisitions,
belonging to the collection, already
referred to, secured in China by Frank
N. Meyer.

1914,

Hume: A Kaki CLASSIFICATION 405

ALL THE FLESH DARKENED.

The normal complement of seeds in the Kaki is eight. When this variety
(Zengi) develops seven (or eight) seeds, all its flesh is darkened; while, as
has been shown in the previous illustrations, the development of a smaller
number of seeds darkens only part of the flesh, which is altogether light-
colored if the fruit develops no seeds at all. Zengi is, therefore, a type of

the Pollination Variant class. (Fig. 10.)

A POLLINATION CONSTANT.

The variety Tsuru, here shown, behaves quite differently from Zengi, when pollinated. Its

flesh is normally light in color, and the presence or absence of seeds has no effect on this
Tsuru, therefore, undoubtedly falls in the class of Pollination Constants. Why
should there be two groups of varieties in the species Diospyros kak1, behaving so differently
when pollinated? Mr. Hume thinks it may be that they are really distinct species, which

have become united under cultivation. (Fig. 11.)

color.

406

The different varieties so far studied
may be grouped on the flowering habit
as follows:

Pistillate Constants. Group I.
Tanenash‘, Hachiya, Costata, Tsuru, Tamo-
pan, Hyakume, Yemon, Yeddoichi, Phelps,
Triumph, Zengi.
Staminate Constants. Group II.
Gailey, and probably Masugata, Siang (S. P.
I. No. 21910) and (S. P. I. No. 27037).
Staminate Sporadics. Group III.
Okame, Taber No. 23, Taber No. 129.

It is of course impossible to determine
the flowering habit of any variety until
it has been under observation for a
number of years. If a variety, repre-
sented by a considerable number of
specimens, has been constant in its
behavior for at least five successive

THE JOURNAL

OF HEREDITY

years, its habit may be judged with fair
accuracy. This is the basis on which
the varieties named have been assigned
to the last two groups.

It may be possible to select strains of
Staminate Sporadics that will be so
constant in their behavior as to entitle
them to a place among the Staminate
Constants. An attempt in this direction
with Taber No. 23 has met with some
measure of success. In the winter of
1910 a staminate twig of this sporadic
was grafted in the top of a large D.
virginiana seedling. In the spring of
1912 the branch developed from this
graft bore a goodly number of staminate
flowers. In 1913 and 1914 it likewise
bore staminate flowers, as well as
pistillate ones. The second graft gener-
ation started in 1913 has not bloomed yet.

A NEW OAK FOR BREEDERS

ITH the increase of interest

in nut-bearing trees, among

plant breeders, and partic-

ularly in view of the growing
interest in oaks, attention may well be
called to what is probably the largest
known acorn, shown in the accompany-
ing illustration, and produced by Quer-
cus insignis, the “noteworthy oak,” a
species discovered in the state of Vera
Cruz, Mexico, by the Belgian botanist
Galeotti, and described by him jointly
with Martens in the Bulletin of the
Academy of Brussels, X, II (1843) 219.

The tree is rapid in growth, and quite
different in habit from most oaks. It
reaches an ultimate height of 60 to 80 feet
or more, is quite erect, and sends out large
branches at the height of 30 or 40 feet
from the ground. It is found in con-
siderable abundance about midway
down the flanks of Mount Orizaba, be-
ing most common about Chiapas, ac-
cording to Dr. C. A. Purpus, who has
recently been collecting in that region.
It is a white oak, maturing its fruit the
first season; and being a white oak, its
fruit has sufficient edible quality to be
available at least for stock food.

“The only other oaks that approxi-
mate it in size,’’ according to Dr.
William Trelease of the University of
Illinois, who called the attention of this

association to the species, “‘are a close
relative, Quercus strombocarpa, of the
same region, and a Guatemalan black
oak, Q. skinneri—the latter apparently
an equally large tree, and with acorns
two inches in diameter but presumably
bitter or astringent like our own black
oak acorns.”

The nuts of Quercus insignis are
usually about two inches in diameter,
but may reach two and one-half inches.
Their weight is from 50 to 65 grams each.

In view of its range, the tree is
naturally to be supposed unsuited to a
temperate climate, but Dr. Purpus
writes, ““I think it a very useful tree
which could be raised in Florida, Cuba,
Porto Rico, ete.’ The Office of Foreign
Seed and Plant Introduction of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture is now
endeavoring to introduce it to those
regions on a large enough scale to give
it a chance of success. If it is found to
be well adapted, it is possible that native
species of oaks could in some cases be
grafted over with the more productive
new one, thus yielding a large crop of
acorns with very little trouble or care.
Hybridizing experiments should also be
tried with some of the best North
American oaks, with a view to seeing
whether the size of their acorns can not
be increased.

ACORNS OF QUERCUS INSIGNIS.

They are photographed (natural size) with acorns of Q. coccinea, the Scarlet Oak of the Eastern
United States, for comparison. Quercus insignis is a white oak found on the slopes of
Mount Orizaba, in southern Mexico, and probably produces larger nuts than any other
oak in the world. It offers interesting possibilities of introduction to other tropical regions,
and also breeders in more temperate climates. The material from which this photograph
was made was kindly sent by Dr. C. A. Purpus, Zacuapan, Huatusco, Vera Cruz, Mexio.

(Fig. 12.)
407

EUGENICS vs. CACOGENICS

An Ethical Question of Importance to the Movement—Attention Should Be
Centered on Factors of Absolute Value, Not on Those of
Merely Relative Value.’

Dr. E. E. SouTHARD,

Member of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office; Director of
the State Hospital, Boston, Mass.

ABSTRACT.

The attitude of social workers to eugenics.
The attitude of plant and animal breeders.
Eugenics and utilitarianism,—

of the egoistic form;

of the altruistic form.
Eugenics and Malthusianism.

Evolutionistic or developmental ethics and eugenics.
Interracial difficulties solved by racial development.
“Relative” or “‘view-point’’ eugenics, 7. e., eugenics for Race A is cacogenics for Race B, and

vice versa.

Possibility of defining ‘‘absolute’’ as opposed to ‘‘relative’’ eugenics.

Two conceptions of absolute eugenics:

(a) a metric conception, in which eugenic conditions range by degrees from the worst (cakisto)
through bad (caco) to good (eu) up to the best (aristogenic) conditions;

(b) a conception in terms of survival-values, in which eugenic conditions would depend on
germ-plasm tendencies to improvement, deterioration, or déath for intrinsic or extrinsic

reasons.

ee

Examples of absolute cacogenic factors, logically possible though not ‘yet thoroughly demon-

strated:
(1) germ-plasm senescence.

(2) gametes prepotently poisonous to the zygote.
(3) gametes themselves altered, e.g., by alcohol or syphilis.

UGENICS, as the science of
improving man _ through his
heredity, is now in its thirtieth
year and, as a name and prop-

aganda, is already becoming known to
a new generation, unbiased by the
splendid personality of its founder and
no longer moved by the early prejudice
of those who pigeonholed eugenics with
socialistic, paternalistic, or Utopian
programs, with a philosophy of pruden-
tial (rather than emotional) marriages,
with free love tenets, or with a plan to
debase man by showing him subject
to the same laws as plants and animals.

Accordingly, eugenics issbeing taken
more on its merits. Despite bitter
logical quarrels (or even in consequence
of these) over the scope of the statistical
(biometric) and the intensively analy-
tical (Mendelian) methods in the general
field, the term eugenics has been
adopted by both sides to these contro-
versies, and those controversies them-
selves have come to be regarded as
questions of technique rather than of
aim.

The new generation is taking stock
of eugenics in the light of new and wider
views of social service, and of preventive

! Presidential address delivered before the Eugenics Section of the American Breeders’ Associa-
tion at the ninth annual meeting, in Columbia, South Carolina, January 24, 1913; being contribu-
tion from State Board of Insanity, Massachusetts, Number 21 (1914.1). (Bibliographical note. The
previous S. B. I. Contribution Number 20 (1913.20) was by L. Vernon Briggs, entitled ‘‘ Three
Months without and Three Months with a Social Worker in the Mental Clinic at the Boston
Dispensary’’).

468

SOUTHARD: EUGENICS vs. CACOGENICS

medicine. We accept now as guidance
what we formerly regarded as inter-
ference and are welcoming as super-
vision what we should decline as control.
Not even yet are we ready, in America
at all events, to submit such matters to
legislation. My friend and colleague,
Professor Minot, has long insisted that
we begin to die at birth or before. It
it certainly true that laws often begin
to lose their effect upon their passage
and that the most effective laws, at
least of the North-European races, are
unwritten. Accordingly, it seems best
to agree with those who fear the effects
of social legislation. Social legislation
is likely to be hasty, premature,
superficial, partial, trimming; it is apt
to be born of partisan or sectarian
compromise; and it rarely takes account
of the future.

The unwritten laws of public opinion
may be subject to many of the above-
mentioned charges; but they are at
least not in the hands of the lawyers.

In whose hands are these unwritten
laws? I find that social workers in
general, certain workers in every 1m-
portant religious sect, physicians and
hygienists, are the most ardent seekers
for knowledge in these fields. This is
especially true of eugenics, which has
come to take its place alongside chari-
ties and correction, sex education, the
alcohol problem, mental. hygiene, con-
trol of tuberculosis, child labor, and the
like, as a worthy competitior for social
attention.

THE PLACE OF EUGENICS.

It requires a somewhat larger pur-
view to ascribe to eugenics its rightful
place. Logically taken, eugenics is not
quite such an elaboration of the obvious
as, e.g., the antituberculosis program.
It is at first sight a curious fact that the
members of the American Breeders’
Association should catch the point of
eugenics earlier than many high-minded
social workers who are working in this
country to improve the environment of
man, himself regarded as an entity
varying with the environment. Not a
plant or animal breeder of this associa-
tion but is equally persuaded of the

409

value of altering environment, of which
he sees the most convincing examples
every season; but the value of pedi-
greed livestock and of special breeds of
plants is so obvious to the breeder that
I doubt if he would understand the
hesitancy of the urban world of social
and allied service to adopt the common-
places of the breeder’s philosophy.

But, judging from the flood of
popular books and articles on eugenics,
I take it that the urban world of social
service is fast waking to an interest
which will one day take its proper place.

But are plant breeders and animal
breeders more likely than social workers
to evaluate the ethical motives and aims
of eugenics? What are the motives
and aims of eugenics? We shall find a
number of more or less divergent
accounts.

I suppose that the British origin of
the movement and its following upon
the wave of utilitarian ethics which
came to expression in Britain in the
earlier years of the nineteenth century
(though intimations are plain so far
back as Hobbes) would lead many to the
belief that eugenics is above all pruden-
tial. Is it not perhaps subject to the
fallacy of adding cubits by taking
thought?

The telling arguments of Galton, the
graphic presentations of Pearson, the
claims of still more precise analysis by
the Mendelians, all savor of the intel-
lectual. They are intended to convince
rather than persuade. They often do
convince without persuading.

Doubtless no enumeration of ethical
systems can be complete, especially
now that everybody is well aware that
manners change with the times. Set-
ting aside the various political and
religious systems of ethics as embodying
in various particular forms the more
fundamental human tendencies, we may
divide with Wundt the ethical systems
of man into two main groups.

The eudaemonistic or utilitarian
group of ethical theories is surprisingly
British in its origin and continual dis-
play. The names of Hobbes, Locke,
Hume, Hartley, Bentham, Mi£ll, are
prominent in its history. The more

410
hard-headed form of utilitarianism
preached that altruism results from

selfish considerations. Or Hume might
describe an objective sympathy, due to
laws of mental association.

EUGENICS NOT EGOISTIC.

But eugenics from an ethical view-
point must soon traverse these hard-
headed and essentially egoistic forms of
utilitarianism. Eugenics, whatever
else it may be, is surely transindividual
in its scope. To be sure, the eugenist
may dwell with pride upon “my”’
progeny, family, nation, or race, and
the motive in eugenic policy may remain
as utilitarian as ever.

Still there would be no denial that
the common-welfare ethics is in some
sense superior to the egoistic forms of
utilitarianism. And eugenics, if it can
be appraised in utilitarian terms, must
surely be described as transindividual
and altruistic. If the inborn qualities
of the race are by hypothesis to be some-
how improved, then it is obvious that
the race must be preserved and doubt-
less in proper numbers. Leaving out
of consideration for a moment just what
proper numbers mean, it is clear that
eugenics is not merely Malthusianism.
Nor has eugenics, so far as I can see,
any necessary connection with Mal-
thusian considerations or with popula-
tion-numbers. The emphasis is no
longer upon quantity, but upon quality
of people, and upon their quality
regardless of their numbers. Doubtless
Bentham’s phrase ‘“‘the greatest good to
the greatest number’’ as the great utili-
tarian object, would perfectly suit one
interpretation of eugenics, provided
that we simply qualify the greatest
number by insisting that their inborn
qualities be somehow improved. Thus
eugenics is not at all inconsistent with
those higher forms of British utilitar-
ianism which insist on improvements
looking to the common welfare. Grant
the eugenist’s claim that the best
should marry and grant that science
can show who the best are, and it is
obvious that the limitation of child-
births to a marriage is not in the
interests of the race. No _ eugenist,

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

therefore, is rationally an advocate of
race-suicide. His special task is to
show that, and how, the inborn qualities
of the race can be improved. The
improvements which better men will
make in their accessible environments
will, the utilitarian might well argue,
automatically put an end to the ten-
dency, now thought prevalent, to the
prudential limitation of child-births.

The most successful eugenics con-
ceivable (aristogenics), issuing from a
process by which more and greater great
men would continually be produced,
should gradually put an end to compara-
tively minor problems of civilization
like the Malthusian problem.

But to my mind such discussion is a
little over-rational to be quite persua-
sive. It is doutful whether the utili-
tarians are the soundest moralists,
whether pleasure or even happiness are
more than merely phases of our en-
deavor to greater realization either of
self or of some larger social unit like the
family, state, or race.

UNIVERSALITY OF EUGENICS

The evolutionistic theories of ethics
(as Wundt terms them) in contradis-
tinction to the utilitarian theories,
(which he terms eudaemonistic) are
usually distinguished into individual
and universal forms. As _ before, we
must obviously regard eugenics, if it be
an ethics of development rather than of
happiness, still as rather transindividual,
rather universal than individual.

But, though eugenics is surely trans-
individual, it is not so clear that all
authors regard it as a program for the
human race as a whole.

I can conceive a tacit hope that
British eugenics might tower over
German eugenics, or that Teuton
eugenics’ should excel various other
Caucasian forms. How shall eugenics
for the Caucasian be consistent with
that for the Semitic races? And so on.

It would clearly be hard to solve such
problems by the utilitarian devices.
The utilitarian, however, hardly takes
into account the degree of change which
his material undergoes in the course of
time. Of course the present-day lion

SOUTHARD: EUGENICS vs. CACOGENICS

does not remain alongside the present-
day lamb; but there is no accounting
for the lions and lambs of a future age.
Even the demand for horses—at all
events good horses—is said to have
risen since the advent of the automobile.

With the perfection of civilization
there is no reason to suppose that the
very terms of those problems will not
themselves change. In all these social
equations the unknown X, of improve-
ment in inborn race quality, may come
to the rescue of the solver.

In this way—that of the ethics of
development, in accordance with which
the terms of equations and the equations
themselves vary in the course of time—
I try to solve for myself the at first sight
perplexing problem of the conflicts of
eugenic ideals among races of a given
day and generation. I am thus loth
to admit that the eugenics of the one
race is the cacogenics of the other. To
state this is to commit oneself to a kind
of utilitarianism which is not far
removed from the egoistic kind; for it
makes one’s nation as it were one’s self,
and devil take the rest. Whereas a
part of the eugenic program should be
to produce people insusceptible to
prejudice, even of that pleasurable
type known as race-prejudice.

EUGENICS VS. CACOGENICS.

The essential relativity of the several
eugenic ideals—is not this the dis-
appointing result of the present train
of thought’ Is not the eugenics of one
race the cacogenics of the other? Must
we not choose arbitrarily, though as
wisely as knowledge permits, the partic-
ular eugenic ideal and work therefor?
That, we must! But let us not forget
that the material changes under our
hands and that continual revision will
be necessary.

I gather that animal breeders have
hardly revised their genetic ideals for
many years and that new breeds are
now seldom developed. The plant
breeders on the other hand are stated
to be in process of producing new and
valuable breeds at a greater rate. But
both these genetic fields are far more

411

under the control of the race than the
eugenesis of the race itself.

I am disposed to deny that eugenics
and cacogenics are purely comple-
mentary terms. I am disposed rather
to conceive that the relation between
the two is a relation such as obtains
between health and disease. No one
can choose between health and disease
as one may choose breeding for milk and
breeding for beef; breeding for speed and
breeding for endurance; breeding for
proteid and breeding for starch; etc.
It is clear that fast horses are no better
than hardy horses except for given
purposes, and the choice in breeding is
made on economic rather than ethical
grounds.

But breeding plants or animals which
shall be innately immune to certain
parasites is a process approaching, on a
low level, an ethical process. In this
case we save something (on other
grounds considered worth saving) from
parasites which would otherwise ter-
minate the existence of the things worth
saving. The economic or low-level
moral judgment involved in the decision
“worth saving’ is as relative as you
please to various economic or higher
aims, and of course the decision has a
bearing on the parasite’s worth.

But all this relativity of the data on
which we decide to save has nothing to
do with the morbidity and mortality of
the species attacked. There are morbid
processes leading to species-destruction.
Hereditary factors of susceptibility and
of lowered resistance may possibly be in
play.

These hereditary factors of morbidity
and mortality which come into play in
a given species are in so far cacogenic
factors. They lead to deterioration,
or destruction, not merely of the
individual, but of the race.

Eugenic rearrangements of germ-
plasm, eugenic networks of descent,
could conceivably still occur in a golden
age in which cacogenic factors would
be absent, just as hygiene might still
have various tasks to perform in a
golden age without disease. Such mil-
lennial eugenics would consist in more
or less good genetic arrangements, with

412 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

aristogenics tending to perfection as a
limit.

But, as actual disease introduces new
factors and new duties into hygiene, so
are essentially deteriorating factors in-
troduced into eugenics. It should be
our task to determine the nature of
these factors of what may be termed
absolute cacogenics as distinguished
from relative cacogenics.

Relative eugenics—the sort which
might, e.g., insist that the eugenics of
the white race is the cacogenics of the
black race—is of far less theoretical
interest than absolute eugenics—the sort
which might seek the amelioration of
the whole human race by hereditary
factors. In my capacity as a loyal son
of Japhet, I might, as interested in the
relative eugenics of the Caucasian,
desire the extermination of the black
race, and any hereditary factor which
would tend to the black’s survival I
should regard as cacogenic for the
Caucasian. Obviously, however, the
son of Ham can fairly assert the same
philosophy, and Caucasian cacogenics
could be legitimately termed, by the
Ethiops, Ethiopian eugenics.

THE VIEW-POINT.

Herein we discuss to no more purpose
than with regard to the relative merits
of breeding for milk or breeding for
beef. Nor have we the recourse of
referring to our bank-accounts as in the
milk versus beef problem.

What the theorist of relative eugenics
is reduced to is the identification of
eugenics and cacogenics and the defini-
tion of each according to some point of
view. Tome such eugenics of the view-
point is unsatisfactory, if not revolting.
The “ view-point’’ or ‘‘relative’’ eugen-
ist of British race has really no answer
to the German who might say that
Galtonian eugenics is nothing but a
prudential onslaught on Germany, an
endeavor to meet the German war-
policy. Naturally nothing was more
remote from Galton’s mind, albeit I do
not doubt he was a loyal Englishman
and desired his race to excel.

No! British eugenics is not German
cacogenics, and German eugenics is not

British cacogenics! Rather must tho
improvement of the inborn qualities of
both races proceed to such a point that
the peace of Europe can never be
threatened. Let the improvement of
the races proceed as much in the
twentieth century as in the nineteenth,
and the peace of Europe might never be
threatened. Perhaps all we need is
another Faraday, another Helmholtz,
another Darwin, and another Pasteur.
Four gifts like these do not seem over-
much to ask, since the world is in the
habit of receiving them. To be sure
in the cases of Faraday and Pasteur,
there are no available hereditary data
which prove that they are aristogenic
products. And the case of Helmholtz
is not so good as that of Darwin for the
aristogenic proof. Yet think how young
is the form of investigation which
could bring that proof. And eugenics
remains civilization’s best technique for
transforming itself through the works
of great men. Or shall we just wait for
something to turn up?

Is there then any legitimate field for a
logically sound cacogenics? Alas! yes.
There is, I believe, a sense in which
cacogenics is not a relative term, not
merely a term to express that what is
meat for one is poison for another.
Absolute cacogenics is a kind of patho-
logical eugenics. The cacogenic is not
merely the less eugenic, any more than
the morbid is the less healthy. Just as
there are in some sense degrees of
health, so there are in some sense degrees
of disease :—but it would be rash to say
that the two scales of health and disease
could be set end to end and so polarized
that the least degree of disease would
just precede the least degree of health.

NO CONTINUITY.

We spoke above of golden age eugenics
as capable of a more or less, even if
cacogenic factors were by hypothesis
absent :—but who would suppose that,
beginning (a) with the worst cacogenics
(let us say caktstogenics) and rising in
the scale (b) to the least and faintest
cacogenics, we shall then slide over (c)
into the least eugenics and _ finally

SOUTHARD: EUGENICS vs. CACOGENICS

emerge (d) with the most developed
eugenics of all (aristogenics) ?

I have naturally no time here to
develope a thesis concerning the respec-
tive natures of health and disease.
Some years ago, under the guidance of
my friend Professor Royce, I tried to
clear up, for myself at least, this
peculiar problem that had so long faced
me as a pathologist, what is the essen-
tial nature of disease? To put the
results briefly, I concluded that the
statistical or metric conception of
disease—the conception which contrasts
the normal with the subnormal, super-
normal, or abnormal—was not the
only or perhaps the most valuable con-
ception of disease. The pathometric
branch of biology was not, .I concluded,
the only kind of pathology. To be
sure, pathometry yielded important
data and aided in establishing important
norms of magnitude, shape, color, con-
sistence, of organs, as well as graphs of
their functions. And, no doubt also,
it was often true that the abnormal
happened at the same time to be the
morbid and that the anomaly consti-
tuted a disease in some still more per-
suasive sense.

As against pathometry or the measur-
ing kind of pathology, there was
another kind of pathology interested in
the survival or destruction of cells, cell-
organs, and their functions. There
was a kind of pathology interested in
the life and death of organoids, cells,
cell-complexes, tissues, organs, and the
organism, as well as in the preservation
or termination of their functions. There
was a pathology not so much interested
in the more-or-less as in the _ all-or-
nothing of living units and processes.
It is hard to find a term for this pathology
of outcome instead of graduation, of
survival rather than amount of proto-
plasm. Perhaps it may be provisionally
termed necrobiotics, revamping a term
often used in descriptive cellular path-
ology for a tissue containing both dead
and living elements.

Hurrying by the vast undefined
landscapes which these words bring
into view, I wish to suggest that there
is probably a kind of cacogenics which

413

does not signify mere difference of point
of view (as good beef-cattle might be
cacogenic products for one who was
breeding milch-cows) and again does
not merely signify a less eugenic product
(as talent fades beside genius), but
rather is a science descriptive of ways
in which man is (not improved but)
deteriorated (not through environment
but) through heredity.

Suppose some one could prove senes-
cence to be a process going on in the
germ-plasm, as we see it go on in the
somatic tissues, so that the race was
gradually to decline or cataclysmically
to cease. Here would be an absolutely
cacogenic factor.

Or suppose some one could show that
special properties in one gamete could
propotently poison the zygote, so that
Mendelian percentages and Galtonian
tendencies would alike be abolished,
whenever that gametic strain was united
with another. I have sometimes
thought that such might be the case
with the germ-plasm of certain feeble-
minded subjects, since upon their union
with apparent normals, feeble-minded
progeny were produced in araaie
disproportion.

Of course, too, it is clear that dietace
may alter, not merely the soma, but
also the germ-plasm. It is not clear
but that characters acquired by the
germ-plasm may be inherited, although
I suppose the principle needs proof. It
often ‘seems to the alienist that alcohol-
ism and especially syphilis may well be
guilty of such cacogenic modifications
of the sex-cells.

SUMMARY.

1. The eugenics propaganda presents
ethical difficulty in view of our ignorance
not merely how to breed better men, but
actually what improvement or improve-
ments we seek.

2. The plant and animal breeders
know what they are breeding towards,
and hence face problems of technique
only; the eugenist, it may be feared, does
not know to what he ought to breed
(unless we are content with generalities
like ‘“‘citizenship’’ or “‘brain-power’’)

414

3. The British origin and historical
setting of the eugenics movement sug-
gest that eugenics is an outcome in one
sense of British utilitarianism, although
there are certainly no Malthusian or
race-suicide components in the theory.

4. The chances are that the ethical
basis of eugenics lies more in the evolu-
tionistic than in any utilitarian doc-
trines and that, just as an ethics of self-
development is superior to an ethics of
happiness-seeking, so an ethics of race-
development is superior to an ethics of
the greatest good to the _ greatest
number (at least if good be defined as
anything short of full development).

5. At all events the warning deserves
utterance that no narrow nationalistic
or chauvinistic interpretation of the
eugenic aim should be allowed to prevail,
as for example that British eugenics is
German cacogenics and vice versa. The
eugenic evolution should rather be to
develop each nation to the death-point
of national prejudice and to the maximal
vitality of codperation.

6. To clarify this ethical situation,
certain distinctions need to be Crawn:
both in the matter of eugenics and in
that of cacogenics it is proper to dis-
tinguish a relative from an absolute
form.

7. Thus the breeder of draught-
horses might consider speed-producing
factors as interfering with his plans, as
relatively cacogenic, whereas he might
well acknowledge that another breeder
would find such factors relatively
eugenic and draught-horse factors re-
latively cacogenic: similarly, should the
white race go down in its heredity,
Caucasian cacogenics might prove
Semitic or Ethiopian eugenics, but
always in the relative sense of these
terms.

8. It would accordingly be wiser to
consider the problem of eugenics in the
absolute sense within the species. Caco-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

genic factors in human progress would
not be merely factors which for arbitrary
reasons are considered proper to exclude,
as for example, short men, with progna-
thous jaws, etc: for here the cacogenics
would be merely relative.

9. What we must study to avoid are
the absolutely cacogenic factors, such
as pathology in its widest sense might
discover. Examples of such absolutely
cacogenic factors are:

(a) possible senescence (not in so-
matic cells only but) in the
germ-plasm itself;

(b) possible prepotently toxic
powers in a gamete, such that
all zygotes in which such gamete
was a component would produce
morbid individuals out of all
theoretical proportions;

(c) possible inheritance of qualities
acquired (not by the somatic
cells but) by the germ-plasm
(e.g., through alcoholism,
syphilis).

10. This contrast between relative
cacogenics and absolute cacogenics re-
minds one of the contrast between the
pathology of measurements and anoma-
lies and the pathology of survival-values
for ecl.is, organs and the organism.

11. Itmay well be that the pathology
of survival-values is theoretically reduc-
ible to a metric basis and that these
survival-values can be put on a ‘‘more-
or-less’’ rather than on an “‘all-or-
nothing”’ basis: There is nevertheless
an important sense in which the path-
ology of anomalies is distinct from that
of life and death.

12. Accordingly, I propose that the
logical technique of pathology be applied
to the problems of absolute cacogenics,
such problems as those mentioned in
paragraph 9 above, to the end that
more may be understood as to the
essential pathology of the germ-plasm.

The Human Breed.

To be a good animal is the first requisite to success in life, and to be a nation of
good animals is the first condition of national prosperity.—Herbert Spencer.

Men are commonly more careful of the breed of their horses and dogs than of

their children.—William Penn.

AMATEUR ROSE BREEDING

_ Necessary Operations Easily Performed, and Results Certain to be Interesting,
Even if Failures are More Numerous Than Successes—Practical
Rules and Hints—How Famous Roses Have Been
Produced.!

ViviANpb-MoreE1t, Editor of Lyon Horticole, Lyon, France.

HERE are few more agreeable

| occupations for an amateur, and

few more profitable for a pro-

fessional, in horticulture, viticul-

ture or agriculture, than that of creating

new varieties of flowers, vegetables,

cereals and fruits, which shall be more

productive and more beautiful than

those now found in our gardens,
orchards, vineyards and fields.

This occupation is within reach of all
who have a little—a very little—spare
time, and who are endowed with
continuity of thought.

For professionals who desire to make
a commercial enterprise of plant-breed-
ing, there is one primary difficulty:
they must know the varieties, the races,
the sports already in the trade, of the
genera which they undertake to improve.

If they ignore that detail they risk
trying to break in doors that are already
wide open, as the saying goes, and what
they produce is likely to be an old
story. It is only in the case of really
sensational acquisitions that one may
dispense with a knowledge of what is
already in the trade. It is certain that
if a horticulturist secured a blue rose, a
blue dahlia, a blue carnation, he would
not have to worry about the work of
his predecessors or contemporaries. If
the color existed in those flowers, it
would be known. It has been sought
long enough.

It is desirable, when undertaking to
secure new varieties, that one specialize
in some particular genus. That is the
way followed by a great many of the
most successful horticulturists, viticul-
turists, and agriculturists.

One might take up roses, various
shrubs, gladioli, petunias, verbenas,

1 Translated from Lyon Horticole.

carnations, salvias, etc., or peas, beans,
beets, carrots and other vegetables. In
agriculture the wheats, oats, barley, rye,
the clovers and alfalfas could furnish
remunerative work. This enumeration
will suffice to indicate how vast is the
field for exploration. As no one is
expected to know everything, the
breeder should direct his studies to the
side which seems to him the most
agreeable, the most profitable and, at
the beginning, the easiest.

SOME TECHNICAL TERMS.

In undertaking to breed new varieties
of plants, it is useful to become familiar
with certain terms employed by pro-
fessionals, which are constantly found
in works that treat.of these questions,
or that will constantly be heard in con-
versation. Such, for example, are the
words genus, species, variety, race,
hybrid, cross, atavism, selection, segre-
gation and some others. I shall sum-
marily indicate what we mean in using
these words in horticulture.

Genus.—This word has a good many
different significations in French, but in
botany it is applied to a group of species
which differ in some of their character-
istics, but which can be grouped
together, for the purpose of facilitating
study, because they possess certain other
characteristics in common. Example:
the rose is a genus which includes a
great many species; the gladioli, pe-
tunias, heliotropes, clovers, alfalfas,
peaches, plums, etc., are genera.

But all authors are not in accord on
the definition of a genus. Formerly
cherries and apricots were in the plum
(Prunus) genus, and the apples in the
pear (Pyrus) genus. Many similar

415

416

examples might be cited. Anyhow, the
genus is of secondary importance in
genetics.

Species.—A substantive whose defini-
tion is much disputed. It may be
compared with that of a genus. If genus
is a word which serves to group a number
of species, species is a word which unites
the varieties, races and variations of the

same type. Today we distinguish
systematic species and _ elementary
species. The first (also known as

Linnaean species or type species) are
described in most of the classical Floras
and works of botany. The second,
which are subdivisions of the first, are
also called Jourdan’s species, elementary
species, etc. To make a long matter
short, let us say that they are races
which reproduce true from seeds.

Hybrids.—Products of crossing two
systematic species.

Crosses.—Products of crossing two
races or varieties of the same systematic
species, or of crossing descendants of
hybrids.

Atavism (or Reversion).—A return of
crosses or hybrids to the characters of
their ancestors.

Segregation and Selection.—These are
two nouns employed by genetists which
generally pass for synonyms. Never-
theless they have different meanings
which should be known by everyone
who takes an interest in seeking new
races of plants.

NATURAL SELECTION.

Segregation is a French word used as
early as the sixteenth century to repre-
sent the action by which one sets apart
or separates from the whole, from a
mass, one or several objects which are
different from it. Selection is a word
first employed by English breeders to
signify the choice for breeding of
animals endowed with the characters
which the breeder desires to fix in a
distinct variety of animals. Taken in
this sense, selection has the meaning of
marriage, if I dare to use the word,
between well-matched individuals.
Selection passed from English into the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

French language where it became
popularized through the phrase natural
selection, invented by Charles Darwin.
According to the famous English scien-
tist, natural selection refers to the
predominance which nature yields to
any given species or variety, because of
the greater adaptation of its character-
istics to those of the environment, as
regards nutrition, conservation, repro-
duction, etc.—an adaption which allows
it to persist and brings about the dis-
appearance of less-favorably endowed
species which are unable to compete
with it.

In horticultural practice, selection
signifies the choice of particular sub-
jects noticed among seedlings: ex-
traordinarly large or small specimens,
particularly early or late individuals,
etc. As for trees, one can often practice
selection on a single tree or shrub,
selecting branches which are more
fertile, precocious, late vigorous, etc.,
than others.

Pedigree culture or genealogical cul-
ture.—In this mode of cultivation, one
must start with seeds furnished by a
single individual, and must follow its
descendants for a number of generations
to make sure that it is fixed. If it is
variable, the study of its variations
should be pursued until it is decided that
they are not going to furnish the
desired results.

Other technical words used in plant
breeding will be explained as they are
employed in the course of this study.
As I have promised a number of persons
to discuss roses, I will now keep that
promise by giving some practical direc-
tions for rose breeding to amateurs.

SELECTION OF BRANCHES.

I note in La Petite Revue a report
of the exposition held at Antibes, on the
French Riviera, last March, in which
M. J. Lefevre makes the following
comment which bears, in part at least,
of the selection of branches:

“In a very different way, M. Dhumez
was able to get from Nature more than
she had ever wanted to give. Disre-

* The lay reader will probably be less confused if he retains the old definition, that a species is
a group of organisms which interbreed freely.—The Editor.

VIVIAND-MoREL: AMATEUR ROSE BREEDING

417

PREPARING TO POLLINATE.

At the right an unopened rosebud is shown.

allowed to open before being worked, the bees are likely to interfere.

Roses must be pollinated at this stage; if they are

The center shows

the bud with sepals and petals removed, disclosing the stamens or bearers of pollen, sur-
rounding the ovary. At the left, the ovary alone is shown, the stamens having been

removed with a small pair of forceps or scissors.
linated, by the application to its sticky top of stamens cut from some other rose.

garding the field of selection of seedling
variations, and confining himself to
varieties which he had bought in the
open market—some of them little
known, such as Prince de Bulgarie, and
others long since used by everyone,
some of them for a long time past, such
as Bastide rose—M. Dhumez was able,
by avery sure selection, a judicious choice
of fertilizers and, especially, of method
of operation, to get~such remarkable
results that they would have been
declared impossible: the size of the
flowers, the absolute perfection of form
and color of Prince de Bulgarie, Mar-
quise de Mores, Agathe Nabonnand,
Agathos and others, won as soon as they
appeared not only the rapt astonish-
ment of the public, but the highly-
valued admiration of experts.”’

The bud at the left is ready to be pol-
(Fig. 13.)

Here, then, is a grower who by a very
sure selection and by other artifices of
culture, was able to present well-known
roses—and also the variety Prince de
Bulgarie, less known—which called
forth the rapt astonishment of the
public and the admiration of experts.

Perhaps it will be said that the
manuring and the cultural methods
played a greater part than selection in
M. Dhumez’ success. Furthermore,
one may say that his success is doubtless
only: momentary, incapable of repro-
duction by grafting, budding or mar-

cottage. All that is possible, but the
contrary is also possible. This is the
reason:

Every rose grower knows that the
varieties called Climbing Roses by the
English are varieties whose mothers

418

were not procumbent by nature, and
that such varieties can be produced
almost to order, by taking scions from
branches which show a tendency to
extend. Such extension can be pro-
voked by pruning, manuring, and
especially by a shady location.

PRODUCING BUSH ROSES.

Bush roses can be produced in the
same way that climbing roses are, from
bushes of ordinary height. It is only
necessary to cut your grafting wood in
the neighborhood of the inflorescences.
The procedure is well known for the
Noisette Aimée Vibert. It is perhaps
too well‘known. In attempting to pro-
cure the old, giant type I twice secured
the dwarf.

I remember having seen at a rose
exposition some specimens of Noisette
William Allen Richardson, cultivated
in pots and relatively dwarf of height,
well covered with flowers; they were
exhibited by M. Patichoud, a horticul-
turist at Lyon-Croix-Rousse. Had he
practiced selection of grafting wood on
the specimens of this remarkable variety
obtained from Mme. Veuve Ducher?
There seems to be nothing to contradict
such a belief.

It seems probable, too, that many
beautiful procumbent or Sarmentose
varieties which have cast a bright light
in the firmament of roses and then have
disappeared from view, have vanished
from rose gardens for no other reason
than that selection of too rank-growing
budwood was practiced. I could name
a dozen kinds that one now finds only
by accident.

An amateur, or better still a rose
grower who cultivates hundreds of
specimens of each variety, could cer-
tainly find either branches or whole
plants presenting characters worthy of
being fixed: more abundant flowers,
lighter or darker shades of color, better
foliage, fewer thorns, etc. How many
sports are lost because not noticed?

However, they are not all lost: as
witnesses, La France,:which is grown in
four or five different tints and one pan-
achée or striped rose (Angelique Veys-
sey); Malmaison, which exists in two

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

colors; Baronne de Rothschild has three
albinos; Reine Marie-Henriette was the
origin of Madame Driout. And there
are many more of the same kind, with-
out counting a number of varieties sold
as seedling variations, which are really
nothing but sports.

It is especially roses of hybrid origin
which present these dissociations. But
there are others more ancient on which
an intelligent selection would give good
results, and among these are the moss
roses, of which the first one known is
still the best.

ROSES FROM SEED.

Rose Seedlings—Behold the infancy
of the art! It is within reach of the first
planter who appears. Our fathers, our
uncles, have worked for us. They were
expert hybridizers and cross-breeders,
and when they did not hybridize, the
bees hybridized fer them.

Although the method is_ slightly
played out, it still gives good results here
and there. It is a lottery. Since the
creation of fertile Tea hybrids, many
beautiful varieties have been obtained
simply by planting seeds of them. When
the Hybrids Remontants flourished, it
was their seeds that produced the re-
markable varieties still cultivated on
such a large scale in gardens and espe-
cially by commerical growers. In those
days, we had to sow seeds by the thou-
sand to produce four or five noteworthy
varieties. This is the way many growers
used to proceed. At the end of the sea-
son—the last of October, in the climate
of Lyon—they gathered indiscrimi-
nately in collections and nurseries all the
fruits that the bushes produced, with-
out paying the slightest attention to the
varieties which produced them. At
least, that is the way it was done in the
establishment of the late Jean Liabaud,
with whom I served my apprenticeship.
And that clever horticulturist had ob-
tained in that manner beautiful varie-
ties which are always in demand even
at the present day. The rose fruits thus
gathered were opened during the long
winter evenings, the seeds were taken
out and stratified in sand, and sowed in
February in a bed not too hot, some-

VIVIAND-MoREL: AMATEUR ROSE BREEDING

times in small pots or flats, but more
frequently directly in the hot-bed itself.
Sometimes they were sown under a
temperate glass house.

Not all the seeds which were planted
germinated. Many, although perfect in
appearance, contained no embryos; but
enough grew each year to plant a good
sized piece of ground.

If in a thousand seedlings grown in
this manner, the grower found half a
dozen noteworthy new varieties, he was
well satisfied. It is worth noticing that
the roses thus obtained from seeds did
not flower at the same time. I have seen
some bloom the same year they were
planted, while others would only pro-
duce their first flowers after five or six
years. Many had simple flowers, others
half-double, some double. Some flowered
scantily, others abundantly. The ones
selected were grafted on eglantine (Sweet-
briar), then studied, and finally put in
the trade if they were worth it.

This was not the only method of pro-
cedure followed by the rose growers of
Lyon. Some added seeds produced
from artificial pollination between par-
ticular varieties, such as I shall discuss
a little later.

WHY THEY VARY

To understand how ordinary seed-
lings of roses cultivated in gardens could
produce anything profitable, you must
remember that most of them are de-
scendants ot hybridization or cross-
breeding. Now it is well known that
plants descended immediately or dis-
tantly from hybrids or crosses do not
come true from seed. They are endowed
with innate variability. Their charac-
ters separate, combine to produce others,
and run through a whole circle of vari-
ations which manifest themselves in di-
verse ways.

Simple propagation by seed of the
best varieties of roses can be recom-
mended, on one condition, which is to
go at it with separate varieties and to
follow the results by pedigree culture to
the third generation. Some of the vari-
eties have been so much sowed and re-
sowed that in the last half century they
have produced just about everything
good there is in them.

419

Pedigree culture offers two advan-
tages. First, the planter is not required
to waste time sowing a second genera-
tion of seeds from plants which produced
nothing good in the first generation. If
he does not want to carry his experi-
ments any farther, he will at least know
that he has missed nothing good as far
as he has gone. But if he has the in-
tinct for plant breeding he may find in
succeeding generations, if not remark-
able novelties, at least good seed bearers
or pollenizers—that is good mothers and
good fathers, often simply semi-double,
with which he can make productive
crosses.

Good pollenizers or producers are
rarely put in the trade by their origina-
tors, who keep the monopoly for them-
selves. Their influence is seen as a sort
of trade mark in the varieties which are
subsequently put into the trade.

Before taking up hybridizing and
cross breeding, it is worth while noting
that Nature has set a limit to the en-
largement of flowers, to their duplica-
tion, florabundance, etc.

One more often attains large size in
flowers by working through those of
medium size, than by using large flowers
to start with, unless the latter are semi-
double. As for duplication, if it is exag-
gerated, the flowers do not open well,
and therefore it is to be avoided. But
very double roses, when they possess
good pollen, can be utilized with a
chance of success to fecundate—after
castration—semi-double mothers. The
same is followed with other genera such
as carnations, petunias, Pelargonium
zonale, and begonias.

By cross pollination between hybrid
remontants and the yellow rose (Rosa
lutea) M. Pernet-Ducher obtained Soleil
d’Or, and following it that series of vari-
eties which approached vermilion in
color.

STERILE ROSES.

There are plenty of cases where beau-
tiful roses are absolutely sterile, gen-
erally because their pistils are hyper-
trophied or atrophied. Don’t waste time
in pollinating them; but if they them-
selves possesss good pollen, it may be
used on other females.

420

There are few genera where artificial
pollination is easier to perform than with
the rose. Its flowers are large, its sta-
mens numerous, and its pistils easily
seen. Furthermore, natural fecundation
rarely takes place before the flowers are
open.

Even if one does not know the floral
organs of the rose, he can quickly learn
to distinguish them. In an opened rose
you see first what is called the calyx,
formed of five leafy green pieces named
sepals, which crown the fruit. Then the
petals come, more or less numerous, and
colored in different ways. In the middle
of the flower are the organs of genera-
tion: stamens formed of threads carry-
ing anthers, small yellow points con-
taining the pollen—a sort of fecundating
dust. Finally, there are the styles in the
center? of the flower, sometimes united,
often merely crowded together. These
styles are terminated by a stigma, at
the top and run down to an ovule or a
single seed below.

It is on this stigma that the pollen
falls and fecundates the ovules. I men-
tion these details merely for the benefit
of people who have never studied the
parts of plants.

To make a cross pollination, one must
get a small pair of forceps, a number of
small camel’s-hair brushes such as are
used for water colors, and as many small
tin boxes as one wishes to make crosses.
The reason for this is that each rose
which is to be artificially pollinated may
receive pollen only from the variety by
which it is desired to pollinate it. If
you used the same brush for a number
of pollinations, you would not be sure
that grains of pollen did not remain on
it from one application to the next. The
whole equipment costs very little.

COLLECTING THE POLLEN.

When the roses begin to open, you
must begin to collect the pollen which
is to be used for fecundation. The pol-
len of each variety is put in a separate
box, on which its name is written. The
anthers (stamens) should be removed
with the forceps, or if necessary with
the fingers. The little box is placed in-
doors in a dry, shaded place, and not

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

closed tightly, in order to
spoiling.

The roses to be fecundated with for-
eign pollen should, as soon as they have
opened, be deprived of :—first all their
stamens, without exception; second the
petals of the center of the flower, in
order that these may not interfere with
your own operation. When the stigmas
begin to lubricate themselves, or be-
come sticky, you bring in contact with
their surfaces, by means of the camel’s-
hair brush, the stamens which you have
previously gathered, letting them shed
their pollen. After that you should cover
the fecundated flower with a little bon-
net of paper, in order to keep off rain.
After the fruits have set, you must irri-
gate the plants in case of dry weather.
Do not be afraid of using liquid ferti-
lizer: one gram of phosphate of am-
monia to a quart of water, and an equal
quantity of saltpetre in the same amount
of water.

All the fruits which were not artifi-
cially pollinated should be removed, and
those which were pollinated should be
allowed to ripen thoroughly before they
are picked. Before the first frost in
November is soon enough.

Each variety which was fecundated
should be planted separately, in pots,
and pedigree culture carried through
two or three generations.

To find out more rapidly the probable
value of certain roses as producers of
novelties, it is worth while fecundating
the same mother with a number of
varieties of good repute as pollenizers.

It is very important to perform the
operation on the first flowers which
open, particularly in a cold climate
where spring is late, for it is absolutely
necessary that the seeds have time to
ripen before the frosts of fall. Amateurs
living in such climates will do well to
plant the roses which they wish to hy-
bridize in the warmest spots of the gar-
den. In England, amateurs and nurs-
erymen do not hesitate to cultivate their
breeding stock in pots, in a well-venti-
lated, temperate greenhouse, in order to
hasten the period of flowering, which is
always late in that country. During the
summer, the roses are planted in the

prevent

VIVIAND-MorREL: AMATEUR ROSE BREEDING

open ground and, if necessary, taken
back under glass in October, to finish
ripening their fruits.

It seems probable that a certain num-
ber of types of roses which have given
good products in the past have not yet
said their last word, in view of the fact
that general conditions have been modi-
fied since they were first used. If the
seed-producers are still the same, yet it
can be said that many of the pollen
carriers have been singularly modified.
Since one of the parents has changed in
nature, there is reason to suppose that
if the old crosses were made over again,
they would give different results from
those originally obtained. d

TO GET JULY ROSES.

I am referring particularly in this
passage to a well-known type of rose of
the group of bracted roses (Rosa brac-
teata), also called Macartney roses,
which produced by hybridization a rose
known to the trade as Rosa alba odorata,
and another known as Maria Leonida.
This type has remained quite constant...
But the Rose of India, one of the par-
ents, has undergone great modification
since 1850. Who can say that another
hybridization would not produce a dif-
ferent rose alba odorata, which would
open easily and yet retain that precious
habit of flowering in July when most
roses have finished their first flowering
season! I am not overlooking the fact
that we have July roses on young plants
grafted that same year, but on old
plants they are rare.

There are other curious wild types
introduced in botanical collections which
seem to have been overlooked by bold
and persevering hybridizers. Let me
note, in passing, Rosa xanthina, which
does not seemed to have been “ worked.”’

And there are still others. I will limit
myself to those two. Another thing. It
seems that some of the paternal and
perhaps maternal ancestors of some of
the finest hybrid climbing or remon-
tants have perhaps been modified, if
they have not been altogether lost.
While General Jacqueminot gave rise to
a numerous progeny, how many replicas
of different colors—aside from sports—

421

has Baronne Rothschild produced? And
Paul Neyron? And others?

It is very desirable to know how to
fight in retreating, when the offensive is
no longer practicable. Generals have
become distinguished by such tactics—
witness Xenophon and Moreau.

What precedes is merely a morsel of-
fered to amateurs who want to try new
problems and leave the beaten paths.
If they attempt crosses between the old
types, long crossed and recrossed, and
new, untried species, they will perhaps
get more failures than successes, the re-
sults of hybridization being uncertain
and sometimes disconcerting. Here,
however, are a few hints that may be
useful:

In crossing a new type with simple
flowers, which is to be used as a pollen-
izer, it is desirable to choose a fertile
mother with double flowers, whose an-
cestors are also double or semi-double
flowering. Duplication being highly
esteemed in garden roses, the reciprocal
cross may also be tried hopefully.

PRACTICAL HINTS.

In making crosses with old roses of
large flowers, like Paul Neyron, it seems
that success might be gained by working
again the variety Anna Diesbach, with
hybrid remontants, or hybrid Teas, of
recent. Pernetiana. That is a proposi-
tion to be verified.

With Baron de Rothschild, the ances-
tors might be found through atavism,
after two or three generations of experi-
ment. If so, these ancestors ought to be
worked in their turn.

When one hybridizes two remontant
roses, one of which although perfectly
remontant has in its maternal line non-
remontant roses, the products may be
either single or double flowered. I had
occasion to cross the Polyantha Perle
d’Or (Dubreuil) by the ordinary Bengal
and obtained two huge Multifloras. The
characters of the Bengal and of the half-
blood tea, of the Perle d’Or, had dis-
appeared from the product. Neverthe-
less, every one knows that the little
dwarf: Polyanthas, so prolific in blooms,
are the products of a cross between mul-
tifloras and tea roses, in all probability.

422 THE JOURNAL

The Bengal type, which reproduces
itself by seed, unless it has been hybri-
dized, and which is very remontant,
seems rarely to communicate its remon-
tant character to the roses which result
from its crossing. If they show, it is
only after repeated crosses.

As has been said, the seeds of hybrid

OF HEREDITY

roses are not always fertile even though
perfect in appearance, their fecundation
having apparently, but not actually,
succeeded. For this reason one must try
various pollens, when one is certain that
the mother is fecund with her own pol-
len, for she does not always accept the
first pollen offered.

Material for Plant Breeders.

Plant breeders actually engaged in experimental work in the United States, and
desirous of obtaining material for use in their breeding experiments, are reminded
that the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, Washington, D. C., makes it part of its business to secure such material
from any part of the world. Many thousands of species are brought in each year,
and inventoried, and the most important are described in monthly mimeographed
leaflets issued by that office. Bona-fide breeders who are not now in receipt of
these, but desire to receive them, with a view to securing material for work in their
experiments, may secure the leaflets regularly by writing to the Agricultural
Explorer in Charge, at the address above.

Dysgenic Philanthropy.

It is a fact, disguise it as we will, that we have taxed ourselves to support institu-
tions which have resulted in increasing, not decreasing, the number of the unfit.
We have before us an immediate duty, of tremendous importance, in caring for
our unfit: in seeing to it, by adequate legislation, that the insane, the habitual
criminal, the feeble-minded and similar classes are permanently segregated, so that
they cannot reproduce their kind to be a further burden upon the nation, and that
the marriage of those whose offspring will be unfit shall be prevented.—Robert
DeC. Ward: The Crisis in our Immigration Policy (Inst. Quar., IV, 2, 1913).

Eugenics and Immigration.

A democracy can not endure unless it be composed of able citizens; therefore it
must in self-defence withstand the free introduction of degenerate stock.—Francis
Galton.

The Problem of the Feebleminded.

In these simple and practical ways—by specially training the feeble minded, by
confining them in suitable institutions and colonies, and by voluntary sacrifice of
procreative power by those who are able to work in the world—we shall be able, ~
even in a single generation, largely to remove one of the most serious and burden-
some taints im our civilization, and so mightily work for the regeneration of the
race,—Havelock Ellis: The Problem of Race Regeneration (1911).

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 10 October, 1914

CONTENTS

Nature of Mendelian Units, by G. N. Collims....................... 425
Ay Warning, tol geaists 7 ke ade. eee ne cs Se Sk ge ere Lee here 430
the Wisconein’ Marriage Daw - sors SS... 50 2a hee: . et ase ew es 430
Tree Growth and Seed, by James B. Berry ........................ 431
Eugenics in Germany, by G. von Hoffmann ....................... 435
For An Pxbibrt of Hybrids. 2 Poe re Bcc s OL dana OR 436
Holstein Milk Yield, by F. R. Marshall............................ 437
The Siamese Pomelo. by H. H. Boyle .............................. 440
New Publications: Die Ziichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Kul-
turpilanzen, yon: €) Bruwarthing. 25. 506s © 2 se 1. ae peel 444,
Breeding Australian Opossums, by B. Harrison.................... 444
Standards, tort Grapbsiiecn. 6 on) ise ale ee tee oe Se ee 444
Origin of Karakul Sheep, by Dr. C. C. Young .................... 445
Alfalfa Hybridization, by William Southworth .................... 448
Constructive Eugenics, a Review by the Editor .................... 458
Negro-Ute Metis, by Albert N. Gilbertson.......................... 463
High Altitude Maize, by A. jay Garrison.......................... 464
Racial Hybridization, by Eugen Fischer........................... 465
Prizes Offered for Photographs of Large Trees.................... 469

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, September 25, 1914.

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SGqquHe TOMVYVM AHL tO SHOLSHONY

NATURE OF MENDELIAN UNITS

All Extensive Researches Indicate that so-called Units are Groups of Very Small
sub-characters, and not Indivisible Units—Alternative Inheritance no
Evidence of Discontinuous Evolution—Importance to Eugenics of
Understanding True Nature of Characters.

G: Ny CoLrimns
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

HE discontinuous nature of Men-
| delian inheritance is often taken
as evidence that evolutionary
progress is also discontinuous.
When two varieties appear to differ in a
single conspicuous character and _ this
character is found to behave as a unit
in the progeny of crosses between the
two forms, 1t seems reasonable to infer
that the character sprang into existence
abruptly. The failure to secure inter-
mediates among the hybrids certainly
suggests that there was a corresponding
absence of intermediates when the
character arose.

This line of reasoning has not gone
unchallenged, but most Mendelians
continue to look upon characters as
units and many are so unbending as to
continue in the belief that the units are
unchangeable. It is the purpose of the
present paper to discuss the bearing of
Mendelian inheritance on the origin of
characters and to suggest an extension
of the theory of factored characters.
Reasons are advanced fer believing that
all visible characters are complexes of
minute sub-characters which have be-
come coherent through long association.

During the years immediately follow-
ing the revival of Mendel’s discovery,
many alternative characters were in-
vestigated and the crosses were regu-
larly reported as showing no _inter-
mediates and as giving in the second
generation the 3 to 1 ratio of the simple
Mendelian hybrid. Results of this kind
are most easily explained by assigning
to the germ plasm a single representative
for each character. As the study of
these hybrids was continued with more
minuteness, and crosses were made
with types possessing characters dif-

ferent from either of the original
alternative pair, dihybrid ratios were
reported with increasing frequency. A
dihybrid ratio is interpreted as indicat-
ing that the character, instead of being
simple, is in reality a combination of two
sub-characters or factors. These factors
when considered singly still behave as
simple Mendelian units, but the com-
bination necessary to produce the
original character will occur in other
than the 3 to 1 ratio. The instances
where the slightly more complicated
dihybrid ratios were followed with
approximate exactness were sufficiently
numerous to warrant continuance in
the belief that the law of complete and
equal segregation was of very general
application. But there were also many
alternative characters which showed by
the still more complicated hybrid ratios
that the original characters must be
represented by three, four or even more
factors. With more than three factors,
it has seldom been possible to conduct
experiments on a sufficiently large scale
to determine whether the ratios are
followed with exactness or not. The
fact that individuals occur in the later
generations of the cross which reproduce
the character in its original form, and
that some of these breed true, at least
for several generations, affords evidence
that we are still dealing with a com-
plicated form of the originally simple
law.

THE LIMIT OF ANALYSIS.

From characters composed of only
three or four sub-characters, there is
now perfect gradation to characters,
such as height and weight, where the
different stages, if they exist, are com-

425

426

pletely masked by fluctuations. In
crosses involving such characters as
height, even the reappearance of the
characters in their original form can
not be verified, and the only evidence
that we are still dealing with Mendelian
phenomena lies in the fact that the
blend of the first cross does not persist
and the extremes represented by the
original parents of the cross are attained
or even exceeded in the subsequent
progeny of the cross. It seems not
illogical, however, to assume that the
differences, though very minute, are
still inherited in the same discontinuous
manner. That we have passed the limit
of analysis is certainly no reason to
assume that we have passed outside the
realm of law.

It has been shown, however, that the
Mendelian behavior of minute differ- .
ences would produce results in accord
with continuous evolution and Galton’s
law of inheritance. The possibility of
reconciling Mendelian inheritance with
Galton’s laws was early recognized by
Yule.'

While the inheritance of blended
characters, such as height, may be
brought into accord with Mendelian
inheritance by the assumption of a
sufficiently large number of factors,
such inheritance can be held to be dis-
continuous only in the sense that curves
are held to consist of a series of straight
lines. An array of variations may fit
the normal curve of continuous varia-
tion and at the same time comply with
the Mendelian laws of discontinuous
inheritance, provided only that the
differences between the units are suffi-
ciently minute.

To return now to characters which
are inherited in a conspicuously discon-
tinuous manner, is it not possible that
here the individual stages in the de-
velopment of the character are also
numerous and extremely small’ There
are still many gross characters that
stand as simple Mendelian units, but
few, if any, of these occur in plants or
animals that have been subjected to

1 New Phytologist, Vol. 1, Nos. 9 and 10, 1902.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

extensive investigation. There is now
such a large number of characters which
at first behaved as units, but which
have since been broken up by crossing
with suitably selected material, that it
seems not unreasonable to believe that
the remaining cases await only the dis-
covery of the right strains with which to
hybridize them to bring about corre-
sponding results. Even if the strains
necessary to subdivide the characters
no longer exist, we may still look upon
the residue of ‘unit characters”’ as
composed of an indefinite number of
‘factors,’ which arose independently
but are now inseparably associated.

One of the best examples of a single
Mendelian character is the horny endo-
sperm of the seeds of certain types of
maize, as contrasted with the wrinkled
endosperm of the sweet varieties. The
simple Mendelian ratio that follows the
crossing of the sweet x horny varieties
has been demonstrated with greater
exactness than for any other character
pair. Taking only the results of Lock,
East and Hayes, and Halsted, the
number of individuals classified reaches
nearly 100,000. With numbers of this
magnitude, deviations from the expected
3 to 1 ratio as small as one-half of one
percent. could be detected with assur-
ance. Many different varieties have
been crossed and always with the same
result: the difference between wrinkled
and horny endosperm behaved as a
simple Mendelian unit. When, however,
a variety of maize with an endosperm
that was neither horny nor wrinkled
came to be crossed with sweet varieties,
a horny endosperm was formed which
segregated in accordance with a dihybrid
ratio, showing that this character,
which had behaved with such wonderful
regularity, appeared as a unit simply
because it had not been resolved into
the elements or factors of which it was
really composed.

That we have not yet found a variety
of maize that will still further sub-
divide these endosperm characters is
sight reason for assuming that the

A mathematical demonstration of the close agreement between the Mendelian behavior of
minute factors and Galton’s law has been given by Brownlee, 1910: Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh

30; P.473, and 1911, 31, P. 251.

CoLLins: NATURE OF MENDELIAN UNITS

factors, as we now understand them,
are ultimate and indivisible or that they
originated by single steps.

COMPLEXITY OF CHARACTERS.

Even the simplest visible character is
of such a complex nature and requires
the interaction of so many elements
that the simultaneous origin of the
individual elements, all properly cor-
related, is difficult of conception. The
possibilities of subdivision are not
limited, even to visible factors. Analy-
tical breeding has shown that many of
the elements of a visible character, 1
they exist alone, are entirely invisible.
Factors for pattern and intensifying
factors may be combined, segregated,
and recombined, and yet give no visible
evidence of their existence until united
with the necessary factor for pigment.
In many instances this subdivision into
factors continues to the limit of our
ability to analyze, and beyond this point
we have no way of knowing to what
degree of minuteness subdivision may
extend. One result of this class of in-
vestigations is to bring to our minds a
realization of the multitude of diversi-
ties that actually exist, but concerning
which our senses give us no direct
intimation.

The problem of evolution has been
attacked from one side by biometricians
and others adhering to the idea of
gradual change, and from the opposite
side by the followers of De Vries and
Mendel. The field between them has
been narrowed until the two forces are
now within sight of each other. There
are still many points of divergence, but
all that remains of the question as to
whether or not evolution proceeds by
abrupt steps is a different terminology
and a different point of view. If the
individual steps by which evolution
proceeds are too small to be distin-
guished, the question whether evolution
should properly be termed continuous
or discontinuous is chiefly of academic
interest.

The futility of the distinction be-
tween blended and discontinuous in-
heritance has been appreciated by
Reid? ‘‘Adherents of the Mendelian

ARQ?

doctrine sometimes maintain that
blended inheritance is nothing other
than a fine mosaic. Doubtless they are
right; but I imagine their opponents
mean nothing more by blended in-
heritance than that it is a very fine
mosaic—a mosaic as fine, perhaps, as
the mixture of colours in a painter’s
brush. All blending, for example a
mixture of alcohol aid water, is a mosaic,
even if one of chemical molecules. ”’

With the idea of illustrating how this
common viewpoint may be applied to
characters that behave as simple Men-
delian units, the evolution of a hypothet-
ical character may be traced.

In the palms, the pinnate type of
leaf is held to have developed from forms
with palmately divided leaves. In the
typical palmate leaf, such as Chamae-
rops, the veins all arise from the tip of
the petiole. Let us assume that in a
geographically segregated group, the
tip of the petiole or point of origin of
the veins becomes gradually elongated.
This elongation continues urtil the
pinnae are finally separated and the
pinnate type of leaf is attained. The
magnitude of the individual steps by
which this development procedeed, we
assume to have been as small as the
differences now observed between in-
dividuals of existing species. If now a
palm of the pronounced pinnate type,
such as Cocos or Phoenix, could be
crossed with a Chamaerops, the type of
leaf would doubtless Mendelize, perhaps
without intermediates. It would then
be assumed that the difference in leaf
form was represented by a unit character
and that this difference represented a
single step in evolutionary progress. If,
however, some species with a third type
of leaf should come to light, say such a
plant as Sabal, that has a leaf inter-
mediate between the palmate and pin-
nate types, and this new form could be
crossed with the Chamaerops or Phoenix,
it would then be found that the leaf
character separating Chamaerops from
Phoenix consisted of two factors, each
of which might still be found to Men-
delize, thus halving the apparent evolu-
tionary step. Further subdivision of
the character would depend on whether

2 Reid, G. A., ‘‘The Laws of Heredity,” P. 155, footnote.

428

other types could be found representing
still other stages in the evolutionary
development or possessing a different
assortment of factors. If a sufficient
number of these intermediate types
were available, the forms would in-
crease until the differences became so
small that, although the different stages
might still behave as Mendelian units,
the fact could not be definitely demon-
strated.

THE LAW OF SEGREGATION.

Looked at from this standpoint, the
law of segregation may be said to hold
good. The difficulties and inconsis-
tencies in its application have resulted
from the assumption that visible dif-
ferences are “unit characters’’ repre-
sented by single determiners. According
to the interpretation here advanced,
visible characters are to be looked upon
as complexes of an indefinite number of
heritable elements which are so small
as to be immeasurable and which are
more or less tenaciously united. On the
degree of coherence, or tenacity with
which the elements are bound together,
depends the apparent regularity of the
Mendelian behavior. If the elements
remain inseparably associated, the in-
heritance follows the simple mono-
hybrid ratio. If the elements separate
into two or three groups, di- or tri-
hybrid ratios result. If the association
of elements is still more completely dis-
solved, the inheritance is blended and
apparently non-Mendelian. On break-
ing up the characters, smaller groups of
slightly coherent elements may form,
and these groups themselves may not
be entirely independent. It is thus
possible to account for cases in which
indications of both mono- and di-
hybrid ratios occur with respect to the
same visible character. With characters
that are strictly alternative in their
nature, dissolution results in aberrant
or complicated ratios. Where inter-
mediate stages of the characters can
come into expression, dissolution results
in indistinct classes and apparently
imperfect segregation.

The difference between the waxy and
horny endosperm of maize affords a
good example of a character whose
expression is definitely alternative. In-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

termediate forms are completely absent,
the nearest approach to an intermediate
being the extremely rare occurrence of
seeds in which both horny and waxy
endosperm are present as a mosaic.
The inheritance of endosperm texture
in horny x waxy hybrids behaves as a
simple Mendelian character, and this
behavior was thought to be perfectly
regular until the use of larger numbers of
individuals made it possible to determine
the ratio with greater accuracy. It
was then found that instead of the mean
percentage of waxy seeds being the
expected 25, it was in reality only
about 23.

If the coherence between the various
genetic variations that result in changing
waxy to horny endosperm was absolute
the Mendelian behavior of the characters
would be regular, but if one or more of
the elements was occasionally disasso-
ciated from its fellows there would
result a variation from the expected 25%
of recessives.

The change from waxy to horny may
be likened to a chemical change that
accompanies the transition from an
acid to an alkaline reaction, or the
change from a solid to a liquid state that
follows a rise in temperature. The in-
crease in alkalinity or the rise in tem-
perature may be slow and continuous,
but the resulting change in appearance
is abrupt.

MANY CASES REPORTED.

Examples of coherence and the factor-
ing or subdivision of characters are
constantly being reported. Castle has
shown that some Mendelian characters
are amenable to change by selection.
The latest results in this line are those
of Castle and Phillips. In a series of
varefully planned experiments, it is
shown that the hooded character in
rats, which exhibits perfectly blended
inheritance between different stages or
degrees of the character, may still
behave as a unit, giving monohybrid
ratios when crossed with forms not
showing the character.

After changing the mean of the
hooded character in both directions by
selection, individuals were crossed with
the wild stock which is not hooded.
The wild form is dominant and the

CoLLINs: NATURE OF

hooded character reappears in _ one-
fourth of the progeny in the second
generation. The result of the crossing,
however, appeared to undo the work of
selection. Thus, when a member of the
strain in which the amount of white
had been increased by selection was
crossed with the wild type, the extracted
hooded individuals showed less white
than the hooded parent; and when a
member of the strain in which the white
had been reduced was used, the ex-
tracted hooded individuals showed more
white than the hooded parent.

That typical Mendelian characters
are amenable to change through selec-
tion is held to prove that unit characters
are variable. The apparent undoing of
the work of selection by crossing with
the wild type has induced the authors
to grant the probable existence of
““modifiers,’’ but. the ‘‘main- factor’’ is
still considered as a unit. May not the
results of these experiments be brought
into closer harmony with those of other
investigators if this ‘“‘main factor’’ is
looked upon as a rather tenacious
group of minute factors similar in nature
to the detached ‘“modifiers’’?

Paleontological records afford further
evidence of the gradual evolution of
characters that are discontinuous in
inheritance. While the evidence from
this source is direct, geological records
are seldom sufficiently complete to
observe differences as minute as those
brought to light by analytical breeding.
Professor H. F. Osborn has carefully
traced the development of cranial and
dental formsinsome of themammals. He
shows that a number of the characters
that distinguish the horse from the ass
afford no evidence of discontinuous
origin, but appear to have developed
gradually from very small beginnings.
Yet there is evidence that the resulting
differences, as they now exist, behave as
units. The sterility of the hybrid has
made it impossible adequately to test
the Mendelian behavior, but Professor
Osborn shows that these characters
exhibit the phenomenon of dominance
in the first generation. The behavior is
thus shown to be Mendelian as far as it
goes. Professor Osborn says:

MENDELIAN UNITS 429

“It is true that the evidence for dis-
continuity in the heredity of characters
1S as convincing as that for discontinuity
in the genesis of character is debatable,”
and some characters ‘‘ while apparently
continuous in origin certainly become
discontinuous in heredity; from which
it follows that discontinuity in heredity
constitutes no proof of discontinuity in
origin.’

A WARNING TO EUGENISTS.

Once the complex nature of visible
characters is fully appreciated, less
confidence will be placed in the purity
of the germ cells. Is it safe to assume
that an undesirable character intro-
duced into a hybrid with one of the
parents has left no trace or tendency in
those members of the progeny which on
Mendelian analysis show the alternative
character? Since the rediscovery of
Mendel’s laws, this question has been
acute, but most practical breeders still
remain skeptical. With the greatly
increased interest in eugenics, the im-
portance of deciding this question is
brought home to a large part of the
thinking public. In the light of recent
research, for one to assert with con-
fidence that a heritable human defect,
which investigations have shown to be a
dominant character, 1s completely ab-
sent from offspring that fail to show
the defect, regardless of its prevalence
among their ancestors, indicates a
complete failure to appreciate a grave
responsibility. Mendel’s laws may be
inexorable, and yet all the elements
which go to make up a physiological or
mental defect may not always remain
associated.

Complete analysis of characters in
man is impossible at present, and expec-
tation regarding the behavior of undesir-
able characters must be largely inferred
from analogy. So many of the char-
acters which in other species have been
exhaustively studied have been found
resolvable that it appears unscientific
as well as dangerous to assume that the
segregation of gross pathological char-
acters is complete in the human species.
Individuals that are pure recessive with
respect to what appears as a simple

3 Osborn, H. F., The Continuous Origin of Certain Unit Characters as observed by a Paleon-

tologist. American Naturalist, 44, 186-7.

130 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Mendelian character may still carry together the complementary elements
some of the elements of the character. that will cause an undesirable character
There are no pure strains in the human to come into expression.

species, and any union may bring

A Warning to Eugenists

Condemnation of haste in “‘eugenic”’ legislation is voiced by the State Charities
Commission of Illinois in its fourth annual report. The commission says:

‘We do not favor the enactment into laws of the principles which the eugenist
has promulgated. They are worthy of public thought and consideration. But
whatever of merit they contain, to be effective, must be accepted voluntarily by
an enlightened and quickened public conscience, and not forced upon it by statutory
enactment. Much more can be accomplished in this field by the dissemination of
clearly demonstrated facts than by attempt to impose by law upon the public
poorly understood or wholly misunderstood principles of human conduct and life.

‘Many eugenists are going to extremes. They are responsible for the ridicule
into which a serious subject has been plunged. The science of eugenics is a dignified,
deep and serious study of the tremendous problems of human life. It is entitled to
respect and to respectful consideration. The popular conception, formed through
flippant reference to eugenic marriages, eugenic babes, eugenic dramatic produc-
tions and eugenic novels, has resulted in its falling into more or less disrepute.

“The pioneers in the science have advanced ideas which are worthy of the most
careful thought, whether we believe in them or not. Any movement whose object
is to improve the race, elevate the standard of mentality and make life better and
nobler, should not be prostituted as this science has been.”’

The Wisconsin Marriage Law

The weekly Report of the United States Public Health Service (Vol. 29, No. 37,
Washington, D. C., Sept. 11, 1914) publishes the opinion of the chief justice of the
Wisconsin supreme court, upholding the so-called “‘eugenic marriage law’’ and also
the dissenting opinion rendered by two of the members of the court. The law,
which has been in force since the beginning of this year, and provides for a medical
examination of ‘‘all male persons making application for license to marry,’’ was
attacked as unconstitutional, and the court of first trial upheld the attack. In the
supreme court “‘the case really turned on the question whether or not the language
of the law required the application of the Wassermann test. . . . The majority
of the court held that the legislature did not intend to require the Wassermann
test.”’ The statute as thus interpreted would appear to be even more useless than
its opponents have from the start declared it to be.

TREE GROWTH AND SEED

Swiss Experiments Show How Main Characteristics of Parent’s Growth are
Inherited by Seedlings—Seed Must be Selected with as Much Care in
Forestry as in Horticulture—Limited Effects of Environment
in Overcoming Bad Heredity.

JAMES B. BERRY .
Department of Forestry, Pennsylvania School of Agriculture, State College, Pa.

T THE Forest Experiment Station
a near Zurich, of which Dr. Arnold
Engler is Director, are a number
of interesting investigations under way’
which illustrate the inheritance by seed-
lings of the main characteristics of the
parent tree. No plant breeder doubts
this in the least, yet the fact remains
that the purchaser of tree seed seldom
questions its source, and then as to
region only. For instance, two plots
are covered with a good growth of
spruce seedlings varying in height
from three to 10 feet. The seedlings
on Plot I show more than 50% crooked
and twisted, unfit for the production
of high class material, while Plot II
contains less than 5% of material of this
character—a variance at once noticeable.
Inquiry as to the history of the two
plots brings out these facts:

1—that the seedlings on Plot I
originated from seed collected from a
mother tree of gnarled and twisted
form—yet not an extreme form.

2—that the seedlings on Plot II
originated from seed collected from a
mother tree of normal form.

3—that the two mother trees—the
deformed and the normal—occur in the
same quality site under similar condi-
tions of light, heat and moisture.

A second experiment occupies two
adjacent plots, both supporting a
growth of spruce seedlings about fifteen
years of age, the planting distance being
the same in the two cases. The seed-
lings on Plot I, while entirely healthy
and vigorous, are rounding in form,
very dense in character and the branches

1See also Engler, Arnold.
1914,

are uniformly small. Plot II supports
a growth of seedlings entirely normal in
form and rate of growth. The seedlings
on Plot I ranged between 12 inches and
30 inches in height, and were as broad
as high; the seedlings on Plot II ranged
between three and six feet in height.
The history of the plots brings out these
facts:

1—that the seedlings on Plot I
originated from seed from a mother
tree which was characterized by density
of branching and slow growth, but of
normal form.

2—that the seedlings on Plot II are
the product of seed collected from a
mother tree of normal form and growth.

3—that the two mother trees—the
dense and the open, the slow growth
and the normal—occur on the same
quality site under similar conditions.

Spruce forms the basis, also, for a
third investigation; namely, the effect
of temperature in its relation to trans-
mitted characteristics. Seed was col-
lected from regions of mean temperature
varying by 10° F, from that of Ztrich to
northern Sweden, altitude and latitude
both forming a basis for computation.
Two or three rows were planted from
each lot of seed, the arrangement being
in regular order from the lowest to the
highest mean temperature. Today,
eight years after the inauguration of the
experiment, there results a ‘‘terrace’’-
like formation, the relative height
growth varying directly with the mean
temperature. Another interesting fea-
ture of the same experiment is that it
brings out the fact that the length of

Influence of Source of Seed. Journal of Heredity, V, 4, 185, April,

431

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BERRY: TREE GRowTH AND

SEED

GROWTH HABIT OF THE NORWAY SPRUCE

Important conclusions as to the effect of environment on seed are being drawn from a study

of the Norway spruce at Ziirich, Switzerland, by Arnold Engler.

It is found that seeds

collected from trees of normal, open growth reproduce this habit, while seed collected from
trees of stunted, twisted, or gnarled form tend to produce trees almost worthless for lumber-

ing purposes.

It is also found that seed from high altitudes produces trees that have a
short growing season, even when planted in much lower altitudes.

The importance of

seed selection thus becomes as great to the forester asit long has been to the gardener.

(Fig. 2.)

growing season becomes a fixed char-
acter of tree growth; that is, that the
length of the period of active growth
varies directly with the mean tempera-
ture of the plant’s habitat. Thus, the
plants, resulting from seed from a
locality of high mean temperature, are
the first to show active growth in the
spring; while those resulting from seed
from a region of low mean temperature
will be last. A shorter growing season
is also characterized by a lower annual
increment as well as by density of form.

APPLYING THE CONCLUSIONS.

The practical application of these
facts is easy, and here is also found an

explanation for some of the poor results
in forestry. For instance, it is said that
Scotch Pine (P. sylvestris) gives very
poor results in the United States and
that, therefore, it is not adapted to this
country. Itistrue that in Europe one
does find poor stands of this species, yet,
on the other hand, there also occur very
fine stands. Other conditions being the
same, does it not seem reasonable to
place the blame upon the source of
seed ?

In a region where the snow-fall is
heavy and the snow is of such a charac-
ter that it cings to the branches and
leaves, producing heavy damage through
snow-break, the seedling resulting from

434 THe JOURNAL

seed from a region of higher mean
temperature is most affected, since the
long, willowy, previous year’s growth is
easily forced out of shape, becoming a
cripple if not actually broken. Because
of the longer period of growth these
seedlings are also more liable to damage
through early and late frosts. These
facts are now generally accepted by
German foresters and, in mountainous
regions, it is common to find a forest
nursery for each 500 feet of elevation,
the object being to collect the seed and
grow the seedlings under conditions
common to that general elevation. The
suggestion has been made that the
nursery should be at a high elevation,
yet this is considered as impracticable
as having it at a low elevation. In one
case the rate of growth is too slow; in
the other, the susceptibility of damage
and destruction is too great.

Certainly these facts should have a
very great influence in the selection of
seed, yet the contrary seems the rule.
Commercial seed is collected, not always
from the best formed and most vigorous,
but often from the deformed and
dwarfed; simply because the inferior
specimens often produce the heaviest
crops of seed and this seed is more
accessible to the collector. With the
same faulty method of reasoning the
lumbermen, and often the Forest Ser-
vice, leave the deformed, the cripples
and the weeds to provide for the new

OF HEREDITY

forest. Garden and field seeds are being
constantly improved through selection
and the various State Experiment
Stations have undertaken an inspection
of seed handled by the large dealers, so
that the purchaser may have some
guarantee of cleanliness and purity.
With tree seed, however, nothing but
cleanliness is considered, the character
of the parent trees being entirely
ignored. Even in work performed by
the Forest Service the object has been,
too often, ‘‘cheap”’ seed, rather than
from the “‘best’’ trees. Collecting seed
of the trees of a forest indiscriminately
is on a par with selecting seed corn as it
comes from the sheller. As a matter of
fact the selection of tree seed to repro-
duce a forest is perhaps more important
than the selection of seed grain to pro-
duce a field of grain, since the profit-
ability of forestry is dependant to so
great an extent upon rate of growth and
length of rotation. While it may not
be possible to have a “‘seed plot”’ as in
corn growing, it is certainly possible
and practicable to gather seed from well-
formed, vigorous. rapid-growing indi-
viduals only—always bearing in mind
that the characteristics .desired in the
new forest must be present, to a large
extent, in the individual parent trees |
from which the seed is selected. Only
to a comparatively small extent can
the defects of poor seed be overcome
through cultivation.

EUGENICS IN GERMANY

Society For Race-Hygiene Adopts Resolutions Calling For Extensive Program of
Positive Measures to Check Decline in Birth-Rate.

G. Von HorrMann,
Austro-Hungarian Consul General at Berlin, Germany.

1905, at its last annual meeting

in Jena discussed the declining
birth-rate and published a series of
resolutions on the subject. The topic
was chosen in view of the fact that
restrictive eugenics ordinarily dominate
similar assemblies and the literature,
thereby causing in the public the
wrong impression that positive eugenics
are of a subordinate importance. The
chief difference between the resolutions
of the Society and utterances on the
same subject coming from other sources
is found in laying more stress upon the
inner moral forces of men. It is not
necessary to emphasize that although
the danger of the declining birth-rate is
great in Germany, the decline is even
worse in many other countries.

The resolutions are the following:

HE GERMAN Society for Race-
Hygiene, Munich, founded in

A. THE SITUATION.

1. The future of the German people
is at stake. The German Empire can
not in the long run maintain its true
nationality and the independence of its
development, if it does not begin without
delay and with the greatest energy to
mould its internal and external politics
as well as the whole life of the people
in accordance with eugenic principles.
Most important of all are measures for
a higher reproduction of healthy and
able families.

2. The rapidly declining birth-rate
of the healthy and able families neces-
sarily leads to the social, economical
and political retrogression of the Ger-
man people.

3. The insufficient reproduction is
partly caused by the encroachment on
the reproductive faculty of gonorrhoea,
syphilis and alcohol.

_ 4. But the main cause of the declin-
ing birth-rate is at present the increasing
wilful restriction of the number of children.

5. The most important motives for

the restriction of the number of children
are:

(a) The fear of economic disadvan-
tages and of the difficulties
attending care and education
of children in consequence of
a large family,

(b) considerations of inheritance,

(c) the impossibility to reconcile
women’s out of home work
with the education of a large
number of children,

(d) the embarassment caused by the
housing systems in large cities.

6. The decline of the birth-rate is

greatly hastened by the shamelessly
advertised manufacture and organized
sale of means preventing conception or
causing abortion and by the propaganda
of Neomalthusianism.

B. PREVENTION.

In order to secure a posterity sufficient
in number and ability, the German
Society for Race-Hygiene demands:

1. Furtherance of inner colonization
[back-to-the-farm movement] with privi-
leges of succession in favor of large
families.

2. Creation of family-homes for
large families in cities (garden-cities,
small cottages with gardens, etc.).

3. Economic assistance of large
families through payment of a sub-
stantial relief to married mothers who
survive their husbands, and considera-
tion of the number of children in the
payment of public and private em-
ployees.

4. Abolition as far as possible of
certain impediments to marriage which

435

436

in European countries are now imposed
on officers in the army and government
employees (for instance, they cannot
marry before the attainment of a certain
grade).

5. Increase of taxes on _ alcohol,
tobacco and luxuries for purposes enum-
erated in No. 3. (A tax is further
asked to be imposed on all who on
account of their physical inability do
not serve in the army. Such a tax
exists in Austria, Hungary and Switzer-
land.)

6. Legal regulation of procedure in
all cases necessitating abortion or steril-
ization. (This means that the medical
indication should be made more string-
ent, for instance by the provision that
two physicians be consulted before an
operation is executed. The sterilization
for eugenic reasons is covered by this
paragraph, but has not been specifically
included, as the time has not yet come
for such a measure in Germany.)

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

7. Fight against all evils encroaching
upon the ability to reproduce, in the
first place against gonorrhoea and
syphilis, tuberculosis, alcoholism, in-
dustrial poisons and evils endangering
the health of working women.

8. Obligatory exchange of certifi-
cates of health before marriage.

9. Setting out large prizes for excel-
lent works of art (novels, dramas,
plastic arts) which glorify the ideal of
mothership, the family and simple life.

10. Awakening a national mind
ready to bring sacrifices, and a sense of
duty toward coming generations. Vig-
orous education of the youth in this
sense.

The German Society for Race-
Hygiene earnestly applies to all who
are convinced of the correctness of
these principles, for cooperation in
order that the needed legal measures
be enacted before it is too late.

For an Exhibit of Hybrids

In connection with the annual meeting of the American Genetic Association at
San Francisco in September, 1915, it is proposed to give members an opportunity
to exhibit interesting hybrids, either of plants or animals. These will probably be
installed at the University of California, where an unusual series of cross-bred

forms of tobaccos and walnuts will be shown.

The Association will undertake to

care for exhibits sent, but can not assume any expense in connection with their

transportation.

The secretary will be glad to hear from members who can con-

tribute interesting productions for this display.

HOLSTEIN MILK YIELD

Examination of Records in Blue Book Furnishes no Support to Idea That Milking
Capacity in Cows is Transmitted Through Males Rather
Than Females.

F. R. MARSHALL,
Senior Animal Husbandman in Sheep and Goat Investigations, Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Argiculture, Washington, D. C.

HERE seems to be a growing

| tendency to direct the study of

inheritance to a greater extent

along utilitarian lines. It is

quite possible that some of the principles

that obtain in inheritance of coat

characters may also apply to capacity

for certain kinds of work or production,

or at least to factors that contribute to
such capacity.

While actual tests and_ specially
planned matings are altogether neces-
sary and desirable, yet there is consider-
able material at hand that may profit-
ably be studied until more desirable
data is available. Such material is
contained in the Year Book for the
American Trotting Register, which
shows the records of all horses that have
trotted faster than 2:30, arranged under
their sires and dams. This book does
not record the non-performing offspring
of any matings. In its present form
the Year Book was regarded by Galton
as furnishing material of value for
statistical study, as evidenced by the
use he made of the same."

The Advanced Registers for dairy
breeds of cattle also show what animals
have met prescribed standards and give
opportunity for tracing their ancestry
and knowing the records of the ances-
tors. Here too we are dealing with

1 Proc. Royal Soc. London, Vol. 72, no. 384, pp. 310-315.

2 Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 148.

3 Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 160, American Breeders’ Magazine.

selected material, as there is no mention
of non-record-making offspring. The
study reported in this article relates to
inheritance through paternal and ma-
ternal lines, of factors controlling the
production of butter fat.

The work was done by Perry Van
Ewing, now with the Georgia Experi-
ment Station, and was presented as the
thesis requirement for a M.Sc. degree
granted by the Ohio State University
in 1913. It isa continuation of another
study made at that institution by W. O.
Reagin and reported in the American
Breeders’ Magazine.’

Ewing’s results are of special interest
in connection with Cole’s reference’ to
the prevailing impression that, ‘‘the
males of dairy breeds, generally, are
prepotent in the transmission of the
characteristics of the females of their
race.’ It was the foregoing statement
that first suggested an examination of
records of cows as reported in the Blue
Book compiled annually from the Ad-
vanced Register for the Holstein Breed.
In Volume 10, there were found 1317 cases
of cows having official records and whose
paternal grandams also had records.
In addition, there were 687 cases in
which a record-making individual had
a maternal grandam with a record.
These were all seven-day records, made

1898.

““Among cattle breeders we find a pre-

vailing impression that ‘the males of dairy-breeds, generally, are prepotent in the transmission of
the characteristics of the females of their race’ (Miles, op. cit., p. 231). Sedgwick is quoted in the
same place as saying: ‘It is well known, for example, that the supply of milk by cows is hered-
itarily influenced by the bulls rather than by the cows from which they are directly descended,
and that the character of the secretion, as regards both the quantity and the quality of the milk,
is chiefly derived from the paternal grandmother * * *,’

“This, if true, would fit in well with sex-limited inheritance, and such indeed it may ultimately
be found to be.”

437

438

at various ages and giving the pounds
of milk yielded, pounds of fat and per
cent. of fat.

The difficulty of variation in age was
overcome by arranging the “paternal
grandam” and ‘maternal grandam”
cards in two parallel sets. Having a
much larger number in the paternal set
it was possible to select therefrom, for

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

each maternal card, one in which the
age of the cow and of the grandam
corresponded very closely. This ar-
rangement left 665 cards in each group.

The coefficient of correlation for
each group in respect to total milk,
total fat and per cent. of fat, is shown
below:

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.

Pounds of Milk
Through Sires

M Em o Eo r Er
Granddauchters: .<.. 5-5 a6 aoe 370.6 =2.29 88:5 =1567 —O505 ——On025
Gran ann Sin 5 are a tgras rane AT5.3 =2.56 98.7 “=1°95) —OF05") = ORO2e
Through Dams
Granddavehters)< sseca nae eee 393-4 ==2)°63 99.5) =1.95 —O;012N 0802
Grandamst aie n. nc ctecveee aerate ee 437.4 +2.09 80.8 +1.54
Pounds of Butter-fat
Through Sires
Granddavcshters. = 2.2 sace see 12.68 +0.089 3.41 +0.062 -0.04 +0.025
(Grancdams? $3 eyace oe saeco ase 16.93 +0.108 4.14 +0.076
Through Dams
Granddaishters: @s sae ee oe WSO) SSO Oil sy S30 Oy 0.06 +0.026
Grandams none de «cece src ela 15.83 +0.087 3.31 +0.06
Percentage of Butter-fat
Through Sires
ANA GAtONGerS anc vic tn ce ces eles aaeba nn 3.47 +0.009 +.432 +=0.008 0.107 +0.02
(SVAN CAMIST ects em cee eee eae 3.57 +0.011 +.448 +0.008
Through Dams
Granddauchterss . 2... mnt uae = 3.55 +0011 =.445 =0.008 -0.213' =0702
(GTANGAMS in cieio sees ee ie 3.50 +0.013 +.488 +0.009

Taking the opposing pairs of cards as
they came to see in which there was the
greatest similarity between records of

granddaughter and grandam the follow-
ing results were obtained:

| Number cases in which |
‘ / resemblance was closest
on Maternal side.

Pounds of milk

Pounds of Butter-Fat

Per cent. of Butter-Fat

Number cases in which
resemblance was closest
on Paternal side.

403 262
407 258
345 320

In the two sets of cases already
discussed there was a smaller number of
paternal than of maternal grandams,

due to fact that cows have many more
granddaughters through their sons than
through their daughters. This objec-

MarsHALL: HoxusteEIn MILK YIELD

tion and the further objection as to
environmental influence upon total pro-
duction is removed in a further study
relating entirely to per cent. of butter-
fat:

In the second part of the study of this
case there were taken 126 record cows
having record granddaughters through
both sons and daughters. The number
of granddaughters is 340 through pater-
nal descent and 340 through maternal

Paternal Descent M

Granddatiohtersnpcr ne a4 ae cae eee

(Creative irae cece een A eames meee MR Ra Re

Maternal Descent.
Granddauvhters 2. sa.5-0 Secs & oh es

Granclaincmera tye tery sae tee he

The difference between .155 and .157
does not indicate any difference between
transmission of the character of percen-
tage of butter-fat in the milk, through
males and females. The impression to
the contrary, held by some cattle

Ww

439

descent from 126 common grandams.
Each grandam was represented by not
less than one nor more than six grand-
daughters in either line. Here also
the ages of granddaughters and grand-
ams in one line corresponded closely
with those in the other line. The
means, standards of deviation and
coefficients of correlation in this case of
common grandams were as follows:

: % Fat E o E
52 + 02 AAD 2 Of) oA) Se
ail + .02 A006), 2101 5 Bo O028
.60 Eg ASO, cA Olea = ASS
25 + 02 406 01" B, 252028

breeders, is probably based upon specific
instances in which the bull used was
more strongly bred than were the cows
with which he was mated and unusually
prepotent on that account.

THE SIAMESE POMELO

Perhaps the Finest in the World—Several Types Seem to be Genuinely Seedless—
Occasional Seed-production Probably Due to Cross-pollination.

H. H. Boye
Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, P. I.

OR many years, horticulturists

throughout the world have heard

stories of a wonderful seedless

pomelo in Siam, which was re-
puted to be finer than anything else of
that sort. known to science, but which,
for some reason, always seemed to
elude the long grasp of the men who are
engaged in the work of securing new
plants for breeders in the various
tropical and sub-tropical regions. It
was 12 years from the time I first became
interested in this fruit to the time when
I actually saw it, but it is now estab-
lishedin the Philippine Islands, has been
introduced to the United States and
will, I believe, spread throughout the
warmer portions of the world, as the
finest grapefruit cultivated.

As early as 1902, when I was employed
in the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant
Introduction of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, we secured plants of
this pomelo, as the result of a long
correspondence carried on by Mr. Fair-
child, in charge of the office. Prince
Chow, Phya Bhas Karawongse, sent
through G. B. McFarland of the Wang
Lang Hospital, Bangkok, a Wardian
case of six trees propagated from those
in the private garden of the King of
Siam at Bangkok. Due to the long
journey and improper handling en
route, only one plant arrived in Wash-
ington alive. After being nursed to a
healthy state,.it was planted in the
orange house with much solicitude, for
the rapidly increasing interest in the
pomelo as a breakfast fruit caused
every citrus grower in the United States
to take an interest in the introduction.

In a few years it bore several large
fruits, which were cut with much
ceremony. Imagine the disappoint-
ment when it was found that these

440

’

‘Siamese Seedless Pomelos’’ contained
more seeds than the ordinary seedy
pomelos of the United States; that the
rind, instead of being a quarter of an
inch thick (the average for United
States pomelos) was at least an inch
thick; and that the segments were
numerous and tough in texture. In
short, the fruit was inferior to any of
the recognized varieties grown in the
United States, and the one tree was
destroyed. For many years thereafter
the Siamese seedless pomelo remained an
enticing but baffling mystery.

In 1911 I was transferred to the
Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, and
shortly afterward learned from C. A.
Steele, a Siamese acquaintance, that
while the seedless pomelo was not
common in Siam, it nevertheless did
exist in certain parts of the country. A
few months later he sent us a small
shipment of budwood. In 1912 the
Bureau received from a passing traveler
a present of four fruits which, upon
inspection, fully justified the almost
legendary reputation of this pomelo.
We had before our eyes the substantial
evidence that the famous product was
not a myth, as many had claimed, but
that it was one of the finest citrus fruits
ever propagated.

TRIP TO SIAM UNDERTAKEN.

As a result of this evidence, the
Bureau of Agriculture sent me to Siam
to study the pomelo on the spot and
obtain budwood, plants and fruits.

My first introduction to it in its own
home was in the garden of Prince
Yugelar, 50 km. northeast of Bangkok,
where I met with a type of orchard
planting new to me. The trees were
all planted on levees, and I soon found
that this was the custom not only in

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441

442 THE JouRNAL
Siam, but in many lowland countries
in that part of the world. The explana-
tion is that the land has been reclaimed
from the sea, by the construction of
successive levees about 12 feet wide
and six feet high. The space between
these is a ditch 12 feet wide and six
feet deep, which is used as an irrigation
trench, from which water is thrown by
men equipped with bamboo paddles,
to the trees planted above their heads
on the levees. The trees are set about
12 feet apart in the row, the rows being
15 feet apart. The soil is of a very
heavy texture, 50% to 60% clay. No
cultivation is practiced, other than to
keep the levees cleared of weeds.

The pomelos here were inferior to
those secured later. Two trees pro-
duced pyriform fruits which proved to
be absolutely seedless, but on the third
tree of the same type in the same row,
one fruit out of every half dozen con-
tained seeds. The best fruits which I
secured were from Chinese orchards in
the Nakon Chaisii district. The largest
orchard there contained 48 acres of
land, 36 acres being planted with
ordinary, seedy pomelos and the re-
maining 12 acres with trees of the
seedless type. The same system of
planting was used here as in Prince
Yugelar’s garden, and the composition
of the soil was about the same. All
plants are propagated by marcottage,
budding being so entirely unknown
that the gardeners thought it a prac-
tical joke, when shown how to insert
buds as the best method of propagation.

I made a thorough investigation of
several trees in the seedless section of
the grove, cutting open fruits from
widely separated points on each tree.
All these trees bore seedless fruits, but
in some cases seedy fruits were also
produced, particularly by trees that
stood on the side of the grove nearest
the ordinary, seminiferous pomelo trees.
The native gardeners believe that the
seedlessness of their pomelos is due to
the use of salt, a coconut shell full of
which is placed around the roots of
each tree planted, while brackish water
which backs up between the levees is
used for irrigation. My own investiga-
tion convinced me that we have to do
here with genuine seedless types, which

OF HEREDITY

however are capable of producing seeds
when cross-pollinated. On this theory,
the occasional seedy fruits there pro-
duced are the result of pollen from trees
in the adjoining orchard, carried by the
wind or insects to the flowers of the
normally seedless trees. The discon-
certing behavior of the tree in our
greenhouse at Washington, which bore
such seedy fruit, is then to be attributed
to cross-pollination by some _ other
variety of citrus, of which there were
a number in the same greenhouse.

INFLUENCE OF POLLEN.

Due to the shortness of time available
for this investigation, I was not able to
prove this theory by an investigation
of the flowers of the trees in question.
But from experience which I gained
while working as Assistant in Arbori-
culture in charge of the propagation of
citrus fruits under W. T. Swingle of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture at
Washington, I am satisfied that this
theory fully accounts for the phenomena
observed, that it is in accord with our
experience on other seedless citrus
fruits, and that there is no other theory
which will account for the behavior of
these pomelos, so simply and compre-
hensively.

The behavior of navel oranges, in
which seeds are very rarely found under
normal conditions, seems to me to be
an exactly analogous case. E. M.
Savage, Assistant Plant Breeder, office
of Crop Physiology and Breeding In-
vestigations, who made a large number
of crosses of Citrus trifoliata on Wash-
ington navel oranges in California in
1909, for the purpose of producing new
varieties of navel oranges having a frost
resistance, tells me that while perform-
ing this work in the groves of L. V. W.
Brown of Riverside, California, he
found a number of navel oranges which
bore seeds. These were observed to be
growing near pomelo trees, and he
believes their seediness was due to the
influence of pomelo pollen. Mr. Savage
also stated that whenever the navel
was from 50 to 100 feet away from the
pomelo trees, all of the fruits inspected
were found to be seedless.

Similar results were

reported in

BovLeE: THE SIAMESE POMELO

Florida 20 years ago' by H. J. Webber
of this Association. He wrote:

“In my experiments, further, a number of
navel flowers were crossed with pollen from
various other varieties of Citrus fruits. The
most notable feature developed in this series of
experiments was that in all crossed fruits
numerous seeds were produced, while in the
fruits produced on the trees normally very few
seeds were formed, and in almost all cases none.
This commonly seedless character of the navel
fruits is, as every one knows, the feature which
most recommends this variety of orange.

“In every case where navel fruits developed
from crosses, I early marked, nearby on the
same tree, young fruits of apparently the same
age, and in every way comparable to the crossed
fruits other than that they were developed
without any treatment whatever as they
always naturally do in the grcves. They were
of course entirely open and may have been
pollinated by insects or may have developed
without pcllination. However this may have
been, the fact remains the same that in every
fruit thus early marked as checks for compari-
scn, not a single seed was found developed
normally. In two or three instances rudi-
mentary seeds abcut two millimeters long were
found.

“The practical suggestion to be derived
from the above results is that we should not
take means te secure the cross pollination of
our navel trees, hoping thereby to secure a
larger crop of fruit. The effect of the cross
pollinaticn apparently being the production of
seedy fruits, but not necessarily more fruits.
These are merely suggestions and may have to
be modified as more is learned of the subject.”’

THE SIAMESE OPINION.

In view of this evidence, I have no
fear that the Siamese seedless pomelos
will not produce seedless fruit, when
grown in the Philippines and other
tropical countries to which they are
adapted. It is interesting to note,
however, that all the people in Siam
whom I interviewed regarding the seed-
less quality of the fruit expressed the
opinion that it is impossible to get seed-
less fruits from trees grown anywhere
except in the Nakon Chaisii district.

I classified the seedless pomelos of
that district in four types, which are
quite distinct. In addition to these,
there were quite a number of variations
in size, shape and flavor, which I tasted
in the various orchards. Specimens of
all kinds were brought back to Manila,

445

and after 18 days in transit they were
in perfect condition. Undoubtedly they
will stand long-distance shipment.

Following is a description of the
principal characteristics of each of the
four types found. It is to be noted that
types 2 and 3 are the commonest. Type
4, which is inferior to them, is not very
common, while type 1, the finest of all.
is quite rare.

Fruit No. 1.
decumana).

Siamese Seedless Pomelo (Citrus

Size: Medium, 41% inches in diameter by
5 inches in length.

Color: Light yellow skin.

Flesh: White.

Peel: Thin, looser than average. 14 inch
in thickness.

Lenticles: Large and numerous.

Fiber: Delicate; very small amount.

Grain: Standard, loose and fine.

Form: Firm.

Seeds: None.

Taste: Very aromatic; free from bitter-
ness.

Citrus quality proportionate, ideal.

Remarks: In my opinion, the best citrus
fruit of the decumana type in existence,
both in shape and flavor; excellent for
market purposes.

Fruit No. 2. Siamese Seedless Pomelo (Citrus
decumana).

Size: Medium, 4% inches in diameter by
314 inches in length.
Color: Bright yellow.
Flesh: White.
Peel: Good and firm.
Lenticles: Numerous and even.
Grain: Standard.
Seeds: Nene.
Taste: Citrus quality pronounced; aro-
matic and excellent.
Remarks: Excellent fruit for market pur-
poses. These fruits are shipped from
Siam to Hongkong.
Fruit No. 3. Siamese Seedless Pomelo (Citrus
decumana).

Size: Medium, 41% inches in diameter by
5% inches in length.

Form: Pyriform.

Color: Orange yellow.

Flesh: Pinkish white.

Peel: Medium; about average.

Lenticles: Firm.

Fiber: Medium.

Core: Large.

Grain: Loose.

Seeds: None.

Taste: Aromatic; rather heavy. Good.

1 Webber, H. J., 1894. Results in Crossing Navel Oranges, in Proc. Florida State Horti-

cultural Soc.
Pros):

Seventh Ann. Meeting, pp. 62-64. Jacksonville (Tallahassee, Fla.

Floridian

444 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Remarks: A fair fruit for market purposes, Flesh: Deep pink.
but such pomelos as Marsh Seedless are Peel: Thick; more than average.
superior. Lenticles: Large and numerous.
Fiber: More than average.
Fruit No. 4. Siamese Seedless Pomelo (Citrus Grain: Small and firm.
decumana). Seeds: None.
Taste: Bitter.
Size: Very large. Citrus quality proportionately poor.

Color: Yellow.

NEW PUBLICATIONS

Die Ziichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen, von C. Fruwirth. Band V, Die Zich-
tung kolonialer Gewachse. PP. viii, 184. Berlin, Paul Parey, 1912. Price, M.10.

This volume of Dr. Fruwirth’s encyclopedic work on plant breeding treats in
detail of the most important plants cultivated in German’s colonial possessions—
namely, sugar cane, rice, millet, coffee, cacao, citrus species, cotton and other fiber
plants, yams, manioc, peanuts, olives, sesame and the oil palm. Each culture is
in effect, monographed by a specialist, Dr. Fruwirth himself being responsible for
only a few of the contributions. The book, like all those that Dr. Fruwirth has
produced, covers a field not adequately treated by anyone else, and covers it ina
way that leaves little to be desired. It is technical in scope, but to genetists who
are interested in tropical products from a practical point of view, it should be almost
invaluable. '

Breeding Australian Opossums

That the Australian opossum (Trichosurus vulpicula) might be bred in the
United States with profitable results is the belief expressed in a communication
from B. Harrison of Burringbar, N.S.W. The name ‘‘opossum”’ applied to this
species is almost a misnomer, since he is widely different from the North American
animals to which it properly belongs. The Australian opossum is a nocturnal,
arboreal animal, living on eucalyptus leaves, tender shoots, and such fodder. He
is easily domesticated, and takes kindly toa diet of grain and fruit. His thick and
wooly fur commands a ready sale, while the flesh is excellent, particularly if the
animal has been fattened on corn. The black Tasmanian opossum yields a still
more valuable fur, but Mr. Harrison thinks that either one could be bred easily
and successfully in most parts of the United States.

Standards for Graphs

With a view to standardizing the methods of constructing graphs in use by men
of science in the United States, so that their construction and interpretation may
be simple and uniform, and their use therefore more widespread and popular, the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers has taken the lead in the formation of a
Joint Committee, to consider the whole subject and make suitable recommenda-
tions. As biological as well as physical sciences are now widely interested in the
use of graphs, the A.S.M.E. has asked the president of the American Genetic
Association to appoint one member of the Joint Committee to represent this associa-
tion. Charles B. Davenport of Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., has been
named to act in this capacity.

ORIGIN OF KARAKUL SHEEP

Black Danadar the Original Fur-bearing Stock of Central Asia—This Crossed with
White, Fine-wool Afghan Sheep Produced the Gray Danadar Which in Turn
Crossed with Fatrump Sheep Produced the Small Arabi or Karakul
Breed—Industry in Turkestan Being Ruined by Natives.

Dec. ‘C. Youne
Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.

~~ OME 26 years ago Dr. Sinitzin,
who was at the time employed
by the Russian government in
Tauria as senior animal husband-
man, made a trip to Bokhara in Russian
Turkestan and, while there, made an
effort to describe the various breeds of
sheep that produce valuable lamb skins.
Up to that time no attempt had been
made by anyone to classify these breeds,
and practically nothing had been writ-
ten on the subject save for the brief
mention made by Pallas in his book,
in which he so ably described some of
the other Asiatic breeds of sheep. It is
Sinitzin who first learned that the word
Kara Kul (‘black lake’”’), was a term
not employed by the natives, but that
the Russians who came prior to him to
Bokhara in quest of fur-bearing sheep,
and who were in the habit of making
their purchases in the Kara Kul district
near the village of the same name,
situated near the railway station, on a
small river, both of which also bear the
name, had transferred this geographical
name to the sheep.

It was also Dr. Sinitzin who first gave
the world the terms used by the natives
in designating certain breeds of fur-
bearing sheep: Arabi, Duzbai, Shiraz,
and so on. Although he made several
grave errors in his classification, he
nevertheless deserves credit for having
done a large amount of valuable pioneer
work.

Dr. Sinitzin describes (1) the small
Arabi, (2), the large Arabi, (3), the
Duzbai, (4), the Shiraz and (5), the
Zigai, among the Bokharan breeds of
sheep. He names the small Arabi as
the origin of all the fur-bearing sheep of

Central Asia, including the Malitch of
Crimea, the Tshushka of Bessarabia and
the Reshetilev and Sokoliev of Poltova
province. According to this theory, the
small Arabi is descended from the
Mamai, the oldest breed of domesti-
cated sheep, petrified specimens of
which, dating back some 8000 years,
were found by Duerst in excavating the
ruins of Anau (Transcaspia). Sinitzin
resorts to the Bible for further history
and claims that Jacob won Rachel by
knowing how to breed the pigmented
sheep that are the pride of the Sarts
even today.

But as all Karakul breeds are broad-
tails (Ovs platyura), and as the petrified
sheep above mentioned proved to be a
fatrump (Ouvts steatopyga), Dr. Sinitzin’s
theory can not be taken very seriously.
My own experience has shown me that
when a longtail sheep is crossed with a
fatrump, the result is a broadtail, and
while the first cross looks more like a
typical Russian fattail (called by the
Russians Jirnochvostaja), the second and
third crosses can not be classified other-
wise than as broadtails. I therefore
concluded that the Karakul breeds
resulted from crosses of longtail sheep
on fatrumps. I have often found Kara-
kul sheep, closely answering Sinitzin’s
description of the Small Arabi, which
had rather long tails with so little fat
accumulation at the base that the tail
resembled that of a longtail sheep,
rather than that of a broadtail.

THE TEST OF PIGMENT.

In all these cases that came under my
observation, I found that the black pig-
ment in the wool of the mature sheep

445

L46

did not oxidize into gray, as is the case
with the Arabi and also with the Duzbat,
so that the specimens in question
remained black. I therefore concluded
that the small Arabi was a hybrid (and
not a very well fixed type of hybrid at
that) and that some black longtail sheep
(the blackest of all black sheep on earth)
played an important part in the forma-
tion of the breed. Needless to say, I
did not exclude the presence of a fat-
rump admixture—otherwise, how could
the small Arabi be a broadtail?

The presence of fatrump blood was
easily traced in the Duzbai, which has
the long, pendulous, drooping ears that
characterize Ovis steatopyga, the convex
nose line, large head, very thick feet,
enormous weight, and a tail with fat
accumulation that weighs as much as
the kurdiuk (fat sack) of a fatrump.
As Duzbai lambs frequently come fawn
(the natural color of the fatrump), it is
easy to understand why the fatrump’s
anatomical characteristics appear so
dominant in the Duzbai breeds. If a
small, black, longtail sheep is crossed
with an enormous fawn one (both fixed
types), Mendel’s law leads us to expect
that the offspring will have the char-
acteristics of the latter.

I explained in a former paper’ that I
received most valuable information from
the oldest fur dealer in Bokhara,
Karavan Bashi Aziz, to whom I was
introduced by F. N. Petrov, dragoman
of the Russian embassy at New Bokhara.
From this gray-haired, honest Musul-
man I learned that some 60 years ago
there were no Arabi nor Duzbai sheep
in Bokhara, but at that time the only
fur-bearing sheep which produced beau-
tiful, pea-like, tight, lustrous, black
curls, was the black longtail Danadar.
It was not my good fortune to see one
of these sheep during my extensive
travels in Bokhara in 1912 and 1913,
and as I have already explained, the
photographs sent me by Mr. Petrov
were not sufficient to convince me that
the breed really existed at the present
day. This spring I was more fortunate
and thanks to the Vice-Emir, who
provided me with an intelligent guide

' Young, Dr. C. C.
also Strange Sheep of Asiatic Russia, American
and ibid., third quarter, 1912.

Breeding Karakul Sheep.

THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

(Abdul Hamid Bek Mirza Bashi, an
officer high in the Emir’s employ) I
was able to see the only herd of gray
Danadar sheep which still exists in the
Khanate of Bokhara.

About 100 miles from Old Bokhara
city (the capital of the Khanate) there
is the district of Kejumek, where we
were received by the qazi (the highest
judge of the district) who introduced us
to a very old sheep breeder of the dis-
trict, one Kana Abdsiu, who pastured
his father’s herds of black Danadars
and also had his own herd. His grand-
father, he said, raised ‘‘dogtail’’ Dana-
dars, and he not only corroborated the
story given by the Karavan Bashi Aziz,
but added still more interesting informa-
tion, stating that as the demand began
to increase for black Danadar lamb
skins (after Bokhara was conquered by
Russia in 1865) the natives began to
cross their black sheep with white,
fine-wool Afghans. This in time pro-
duced the gray Danadar breed, lambs
of which produced skins with small,
gray curls the size of pinheads, rather
open and lustreless. One such skin is
now in my possession. This injection
of white blood, contaminated with fat-
rump blood, in time changed the black
Danadar into the small Arabi. The
cross of the black Danadar on the fat-
rump breeds produced the Duzbai.
The gray Shiraz evolved from the gray
Danadar, and possesses larger curls and
more lustre than the gray Danadar, be-
cause of its fatrump admixture. The
Zigai is a typically Russian breed that
never existed in Central Asia, and if
Sinitzin saw any there, it must have
been because they were taken there by
Russian Tartars who settled in Turk-
estan. Sinitzin’s large Arabi, according
to Karpov, who wrote the Russian
government bulletin on Karakul sheep
in 1910, is the same animal as the
Duzbai, and I certainly agree with him.

INFLUENCE OF THE DANADAR.

We know now that the black Danadar
is to the sheep family what the negro is
to the species Homo sapiens. There can
be no doubt that the Tshushka and

Journal of Heredity, V, 4, 170, April, 1914. See

Breeders’ Magazine, IV, 4, 184, Oct.-Dec., 1913,

YOUNG: ORIGIN OF KARAKUL SHEEP

Sokoliev (both longtails) are also de-
scended from it. The Luk-Nakbo
breed of Tibet’ is also closely related to
the black Danadar; so is the black
Gadik of Afghanistan, some few of
which are still found between Mazar-i-
Sherif and Kabul. I financed an expedi-
tion to Afghanistan this spring and
hoped to get photographs illustrating
the rare and valuable breeds of that
region, as some supposedly trusted
Turkomen living in Afghanistan near
the Bokharan border town of Kerki on
the Amur river had obligated them-
selves to bring two ewes and two rams
(Gadiks) to Kerki, where they were to
be turned over to the governor, who
promised to ship them on camels to
Karshi, where I patiently awaited
them. Alas! as there are no honest
Turkomen on earth, I lost my money.

As foreigners are forbidden entrance
to the military towns of Kushk, Takhti-
bazar, Kerki, Kelif, Termez and Sarai,
on the northern border of Afghanistan,
and as I could not get a Russian pass-
port (to which my birth entitles me)
without sacrificing my American citizen-
ship, I was again forbidden entrance to
those cities, which hold so much of
interest to the traveler as well as the
sheepman. I did indeed risk arrest for
espionage by visiting Kerki, where I
obtained an excellent Karakul ram. I
was conveyed from Karshi to Kerki in
an American Ford automobile, and
have some interesting photographs
showing how we were pulled out of the
drifting sand by camels at several
points on the route. Returning, we

447

paid dear for having forsaken the faith-
ful camel, as we nearly perished from
thirst.

The ministry of foreign affairs having
refused me permission to take any Kara-
kul sheep out of Bokhara for exportation
to the United States this year, I have
started an experimental farm in Bes-
sarabia, on the estate of Michael
Alexevitch Stamatov. During a cam-
paign of four and one-half months I
secured 66 head of Karakul sheep from
the districts of Karshi, Kerki, Gissar,
Tjarjui, Burdalik and Karakul. As I
explained in a former paper, the few
Karakul sheep in European Russia,
which might be secured for export, are
all inbred and most of them crossed
with Afghan blood to such an extent as
to make them worthless. In Bokhara,
the Karakul breeds are hastening to-
ward extinction, thanks to the senseless
methods of the native breeders, who
kill all good lambs and, besides, con-
tinually infuse finewool blood from
Afghanistan. I am trying to get the
Emir of Bokhara to take radical
measures to save the industry, and,
with the backing of the American and
British embassies and Professor Wallace
of the University of Edinburgh, have
already won the cordial support of the
governor-general of Turkestan and the
Russian ambassador at New Bokhara.
It is highly desirable, however, that
these fur-bearing sheep should become
established on a reasonably large scale
in the United States, by the introduction
of reliable stock.’

2T wish to express my thanks to His Eminence the Chambo Jorje, ambassador of the Dalai
Lama, who while visiting the Czar at St. Petersburg kindly received me and furnished me with
much valuable information about this valuable fur-bearing member of the black Danadar family,

3 This communication was forwarded from Karshi, Bokhara, under date of June 1, 1914, Dr.
Young later succeeding in exporting 28 sheep which are now in quarantine near Baltimore, Md.

—The Editor.

ALFALFA HYBRIDIZATION

Attempt to Improve Plant by Breeding for Better Seed Production and Grazing
Qualities—Success in Crossing with the Black Medick—Segregation in the
Offspring—Importance of Insects in Pollinating Flowers.

WILLIAM SOUTHWORTH
Department of Plant Breeding, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Canada.

EW forage crops are better known
than Medicago sativa L.—alfalfa,
lucerne or purple medick. It is,
perhaps, partly because it is so

well known that so little has been done
to improve it by scientific breeding.

Its chief value to farmers on the
North American continent lies in its
capacity to produce large crops of
nutritious forage, cut to feed green or
made into hay. The crop is occasionally
grazed by cattle and sheep, but most
practical men agree in the opinion fre-
quently expressed that our present
commercial strains are not well adapted
for grazing: if the crop is so treated it
rapidly loses root and quickly dies out.

Another serious defect in our existing
strains of alfalfa, very marked in some
districts, is the lack of capacity to pro-
duce seed freely. As one of the great
essentials of a farm crop is power to
produce an abundant supply of seed, it
will be readily understood that the shy
seeding habit of alfalfa in some districts
is a serious drawback to its general
utility.

Thus, despite the immense economic
value of our present-day strains of
alfalfa, there are at least two lines in
which their improvement or modifica-
tion might be undertaken with advan-
tage, viz:

(1). To obtain a strain having the
capacity to set seed more freely under a
greater variety of soil, climatic, and
other environmental conditions.

(2). To obtain a variety which will
be better adapted for grazing.

The first part of the problem might
be solved by simple selection. Unfor-
tunately, all the types which seem to
offer possibilities for grazing appear to
be below th> average in the capacity to

448

produce seed. Hence it seems unlikely
that a complete solution of the problem
could be expected by following a course
of selection no matter how perfectly the
system might be conducted; conse-
quently it was decided to test what
success could be accomplished by cross-
ing the alfalfa with another suitable
plant in the same genus. The plant
which seemed to fulfil most of the con-
ditions required is the common yellow
trefoil, otherwise known as_ black
medick (Medicago lupulina L.).

THE BLACK MEDICK.

This plant may be described as having
slender stems, mostly prostrate, fre-
quently lying flat on the surface of the
land; it produces an abundance of fine
leaves and these together with the soft
and succulent stems yield good grazing
but not good hay.

In the United States and in Canada
it is usually looked upon as a weed, but
in Great Britain and some _ other
European countries it is sown largely
for use as a grazing crop and is con-
sidered to be well adapted to sheep
pastures on dry, upland, chalky and
limestone soils. Black medick is only a
temporary plant, not lasting more than
two years, but is a prolific producer of
seed.

As compared with black medick
alfalfa may, in general, be called up-
right in growth, stems fairly stout, bear-
ing many leaves; it is well adapted for
cutting for hay and yields heavy crops
of rich fodder but is not suited for
grazing. It has avery deep root system,
is strictly perennial, but under some
conditions does not seed very freely.

The general form of the alfalfa flower
and the manner in which pollination is

SouTHWoRTH:

effected have been known for. many
years. A. P.deCandolle described them
in 1832; since then the subject has been
investigated by F. Hildebrand, I. Urban,
Hermann Miller, Sir John Lubbock, I.
H. Burkhill, C..-V. Piper and others.
There is such a want of harmony in the
published results of these investigations,
however, that iocal conditions seem to
play an important part in them. Hence
each worker must find out what ac-
tually takes place under his own
environmental conditions, if he expects
to achieve success in alfalfa breeding.

To this end experiments were com-
menced in 1911 at Ontario Agricultural
College, and are still in progress. Their
aim is the practical one of breeding
better strains of alfalfa, rather than the
elucidation of any points of merely
theoretical interest.

Preliminary experiments were ar-
- ranged to obtain information on the
following points:

(1). When alfalfa is in flower what
effect, if any, has the exclusion of bees
and other insects on seed production?

(2). If alfalfa flowers be self-pol-
linated by hand and insects excluded
are they sterile or fertile?

(3). If it is the case that insects are
essential to ensure fertilization, what
species appear to be most successful in
performing this operation?

POLLINATION BY INSECTS.

The answer to the first question con-
cerning the exclusion of bees or other
insects was of a most decisive character.
The results showed that in not one case
was a single seed produced when bees
were prevented from gaining access to
the flowers. Tests were continued
throughout a second season with the
same results; hence we feel confident in
concluding that, in the climatic and
environmental conditions under which
the tests were conducted, alfalfa flowers
are incapable of becoming fertilized
when insects are prevented gaming
access to the flowers.

With reference to the second question
it was found that though alfalfa flowers
are protected from the visits of insects,
yet if they be self-fertilized by hand a
fair percentage of the blossoms produce

ALFALFA HypribIzATION

44)

seed: thus proving that the plants are
not self-sterile.

As regards the third question the
answer is less simple.

No attempt was made to record all
the species of insects which visited the
flowers. Various butterflies are very
commonly found but apparently they
are of no value whatsoever in bringing
about fertilization of the flowers. After
extended observations it was concluded
that the common honey bees are the
most numerous visitants, but much to
our surprise it was found they have the
power to extract the nectar from the
flower without liberating the stamens
and pistil from ‘the keel. The flower is
left intact; consequently no fertilization
takes place. In the course of observa-
tions extending over three seasons only
one case has been seen where a honey
bee liberated the stamens from the keel
of an alfalfa flower and in this particular
instance the bee was enclosed in a cage
containing the flower.

The bumble. bee is fairly active in
fertilizing the flowers; a species of
Andrena is apparently very useful, too.
But a variety of wild bee belonging to
the Megachile group was found to be
much more effective than all other
insects combined. This bee goes to
work as if it enjoyed the task, and as it
will pollinate from eight to twelve
flowers a minute it will be readily seen
that a single bee may visit several
thousands of flowers per day.

From the results of our observations
and tests we may conclude:

(1). From the structure and mech-
anism of the alfalfa flower it is incapable
of self-fertilization if it is not interfered
with by external agencies, natural or
artificial.

If. however, the stamens and pistil be
liberated by suitable artificial means
the flower is capable of producing seeds;
hence it is not self-sterile.

(2). In nature certain wild bees are
most effective in liberating the stamens
and pistil, hence when there is scarcity
of these bees a very small percentage of
flowers are pollinated, the result being
a great dearth in the production of seed.

Reasoning from the above observa-
tions and experiments we venture to
suggest that the shy seeding of alfalfa

THE BLACK MEDICK

This common weed (Medicago lupulina) is a rather distant relative of the alfalfa or lucerne

(Medicago sativa). It is prolific bearer of seed, and also possesses good grazing properties.

As ordinary commercial strains of alfalfa are weak in just these two points, there seems

reason to believe that a cross with the black medick might lead to the production of a

The breeding of such a strain has been taken up by
(Fig. 4.)

much improved strain of alfalfa.
Ontario Agricultural College, with apparently good chances of success.

SouTHWORTH: ALFALFA HyBprIDIZATION

in certain districts is due to the lack of
fertilization of flowers owing to a scar-
city of suitable insects to carry out the
necessary operation of liberating
stamens and pistil from the keel.

BLACK MEDICK SELF-FERTILIZED.

As previously stated, the black
medick is frequently regarded as a
weed, and most farmers and botanists
are well acquainted with its marked
capacity to produce seed no matter
whether the season is favorable or other-
wise. This capacity to seed freely under
varied climatic conditions is doubtless
owing to its being apparently normally
self-fertilized and not requiring the aid
of bees or other external agency to
ensure pollination.

This property which black medick
possesses of producing seed from self-
fertilized flowers was investigated by
Darwin and in his “ List of plants fertile
without insect aid,” dealing with Medi-
cago lupulina, he gives the results of his
experiments as follows:

“On account of the danger of losing
the seeds, I was forced to gather the
seeds before they were quite ripe; 150
flower heads on plants visited by bees
yielded pods weighing 101 grains whilst
150 heads on protected plants yielded
pods weighing 77 grains. The in-
equality would probably have been
greater if the mature seeds could have
been all safely collected and compared.’”

In recording the results of his own
observations made in 1894-5 Burkhill
describes’ the form and mechanism of
the flowers of black medick as- being
similar to that of the common lucerne,
but in the flowers of the former plant the
stamens and pistil are much more easily
liberated from the keel.

In regard to seed-production, Burk-
hill found that where flowers of black
medick were left exposed to the visits
of insects 95% produced seed, when
enclosed in a net 75% of the flowers set
seed.

In the course of our tests (not know-
ing of any previous investigations having

451

been made on this subject) we enclosed
the flowers of black medick in a muslin
cage similar to that used for alfalfa
flowers.

The object of the test was simply to
see whether or not the black medick
flowers would produce seed when bees
and other insects were excluded. It
was found that the protected flowers
set seed apparently almost as well as
those which were fully exposed. No
attempt was made to make an exact
count of seeds or pods obtained by the
two methods as so many of the pods
were lost on ripening it was not possible
to make a comparison which would
have been strictly accurate.

The above tests all indicate that in
black medick we have a plant in which
the free seeding propensities are de-
veloped to a high degree of perfection.
This property, I need scarcely say, is of
immense value as a rapid and easy
means of reproduction and is a charac-
teristic which if it can be successfully
combined with our present strains of
alfalfa will so enormously enhance their
usefulness that the increase in the value
of the crop as a whole can not be well
estimated.

THE BREEDER’S PROBLEM.

Having arrived at this point our
problem will now be clearly seen as
being:

(1). An attempt on the one hand to
combine the high crop-producing prop-
erties of alfalfa with the free seeding
propensities of black medick.

(2). To try to effect a suitable com-
bination between the hardiness of al-
falfa and the fine growth of foliage and
valuable grazing properties of black
medick with a view to the development
of a plant suitable for pasture purposes.

The first alfalfa mother plants to be
used were selected from individuals
from strains originally obtained from
the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Washington.

The work was commenced in June,
1911, and carried on throughout the

1 Darwin, Charles. The Effects of Cross Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom, p. 368. New

York, 1877.

2 Burkhill, I. H. On the Fertilization of Some Species of Medicago, L., in England. Proc.

Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. 8, p. 142, 1892-1895.

152 THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

FIRST GENERATION OF THE CROSS

At the right is one of the hybrid plants produced by the cross of the black medick on alfalfa.

It was numbered A6, and its flowers self-fertilized.

the F
place.

from seeds in the same pod.

» generation.

months of June and July until the
middle of August without a single cross
setting seed.

Owing to the hot and dry weather
the flowers faded and dried in such a
short time that great difficulty was
experienced in obtaining — sufficient
flowers in a suitable condition for the
purpose of hybridization.

Under such circumstances, in order
to continue the tests it was found
necessary to use any alfalfa plant, no

From this selfed seed was produced

In this second generation a considerable amount of segregation took
In the first generation there was much variation, even between plants raised
The plant shown at the left is a young shoot (Fig. 5.)

matter to what strain it belonged, pro-
vided it was bearing healthy and
vigorous flowers. While searching for
such plants I found one growing in an
adjoining discarded grass plot; it pos-
sessed a rich green foliage with an
abundance of healthy, vigorous, violet
flowers. A number of these flowers
were emasculated and crossed with
pollen from black medick which was
obtained from the flowers of various
plants growing as weeds in the vicinity.

SouTHWoORTH: ALFALFA HypribDIZATION

From these crosses five healthy pods
were obtained, the seed from which was
sown in the fall of 1912, 24 plants being
raised. The plants were kept in the
greenhouse until the following year,
when 19 were removed to the open field,
the remaining five being planted out in
July. These latter plants not having
been treated uniformly with the rest
have not been included in the present
records.

In order to distinguish between the
various pods they were designated by
letters A, B, C, D, E. The number of
seeds per pod varied from three to
seven and in sowing, the seeds from the
respective pods were numbered con-
secutively and kept separate through-
out.

With two exceptions all the 19 plants
grew vigorously and as they increased
in size showed considerable variation;
it was also very noticeable that plants
produced from different seeds out of the
same pod varied in quite a remarkable
manner.

DIFFERENCES IN HABIT.

On referring to the photographs, it
will be seen that some plants were tall
with slender flexible branches whilst
others were quite dwarf in habit with
stout rigid branches and carrying a
dense mass of leaves. During the
period of growth it was observed that
in several plants the young shoots
which arose from the bases of the root-
stocks were a very light pale yellow
tint, in some cases almost white in
appearance; but when the shoots be-
came older they gradually assumed a
darker tinge and finally turned to the
normal green color of the rest of the
foliage. It was seen, also, that the young
seed pods of these plants were of a light
salmon pink color which changed to
brown as the pods became ripe.

As regards flower color, all the plants
produced variegated flowers and the
tints varied on almost every plant.
The chief color was violet shading into
purple; dark purple, and green. In
some flowers the edges of the keel were
lined with yellow but in no case was
yellow seen on the wings or standard.

On most plants the flower structure
was quite normal and required the usual

453

operation to cause tripping to take
place. Two plants were noticed which
produced a number of abnormal flowers.

In structure these abnormal flowers
had an enlarged keel which presented
a swollen, unhealthy appearance, but
contained the usual number of stamens
enclosed. The pistil, however, did not
remain enclosed in the keel as in the
normal alfalfa flower but pushed its
way out and the stigma in the form
of a hook could be seen standing erect
quite clear of the keel and fully exposed.
In these abnormal flowers the standard
was also much reduced in size and the
whole raceme of abnormal flowers pre-
sented a very curious aspect.

By the above description it will be
readily understood that it would not be
necessary to trip such flowers to liberate
the pistil.

These abnormal flowers were kept
under close observation during the sum-
mer and as several produced seeds they
were collected separately for the pur-
pose of further experiment.

In view of the fact that these plants
were raised under artificial conditions
and that at the stage of growth as de-
scribed previously they had only been
planted in the open about three months,
it is not thought advisable at this stage
to give a detailed description of the
different parts of the plants and their
variations, but a table is here given
setting forth some of the main charac-
teristics noticed.

The measurements given in the table
were taken from average individual
shoots from the respective plants and
it is from these same shoots that the
accompanying photographs were pre-
pared.

From plants of the first generation
self-fertilized seed was obtained. One
plant, C2, grew more vigorously and
flowered much more profusely than any
of the rest and as it yielded a fair
amount of well-developed selfed seed
this was sown in order to make a study
of the second generation.

SECOND HYBRID GENERATION.

These plants were raised in the
autumn of 1913 in the greenhouse
laboratory of the Department of Plant-

454

THe JoUuRNAL OF HEREDITY

Table showing some of the principal vegetative characteristics of the plants in the first hybrid
generation.

Average height

Plant of plant, inches Character of stem
As 14 Thin slender.....

Ag 11 Almost rigid. ....

As 15% Thin slender.....

As 7% BIBI is Ae ts canes:

A; 201% Very thin slender

Be 12% | Almost rigid.....

Bs 15 Medium........

B; 12% Medinnie teens steers oe
Be 1434 Similar to Bs.

C2 23 Thin slender.....

Cs 61 2 Rigid nace ga ea ie etal <4

Cy, 181% Stout not rigid...

D» 1434 INoticiditee seer

Ds 10% Almost rigid. ....

Dg 91 9) Rigid Siig ho, Widioke ce fois

E2 7 RICE. tee

E; 814 Almost rigid.....

Remarks on leaves

Many uniformly distributed.
Medium in number.

Not numerous.

Very many.

Very small, not numerous.
Numerous.

Many densely crowded above.
Not numerous.

Few sparsely scattered.
Many densely crowded.
Medium in number.

ee: | Resembles C3.

ein SEO | Not numerous.

Many densely crowded.
Similar to Dy.
Many uniformly distributed.

breeding, Cornell University, by the
following methods.

The seed was first sprouted in small
earthenware pans kept in a corn germi-
nator. As the seeds sprouted they were
at once removed and planted in 24-inch
pots containing ordinary potting loam.

During the process of germination,
after the seeds had been several days
in the germinator at a temperature
around 70° F., those seeds which still
remaned hard and dormant were
treated by immersing them for 10
minutes in strong commercial sulfuric
acid; the seeds were then washed free
from acid and replaced in the germi-
nator. This treatment usually caused
them to sprout in one or two days.

In the case of some few seeds which
were exceptionally hard a second 10-
minute immersion in sulfuric acid was
necessary to render the seed coat
sufficiently soft to allow germination
to take place. For a knowledge of this
method of inducing germination in
hard seeds I am indebted to H. H. Love,’
Professor of Plant-breeding Investiga-
tions at Cornell University.

By the adoption of the method
described above a practically perfect
germination was obtained; hence the
system can be strongly recommended

3 Love, H. H. and Leighty, C. E.
ment.

as being well adapted for dealing
successfully with one of the difficulties
a plant breeder has frequently to en-
counter: viz., the task of inducing
germination in hard seeds which do not
readily respond to ordinary methods of
treatment.

These plants have been raised and
grown under artificial conditions ex-
clusively and at the time of writing are
not yet at their full growth and not in
the flowering stage. It is not my pur-
pose to enter into a full discussion as to
whether or not there is any strict Men-
delian segregation of characters; how-
ever, inorder that whatever information
has been obtained may be made readily
available for future reference it has been
thought advisable to place on record the
results of observations made.

HEIGHT OF PLANT.

Taking first the character of “height
of plant’’ it was found there was a range
of from two to eleven inches, the in-
crease from the shortest to the tallest
being fairly regular (see fig. 6). There
was no evidence of discontinuity be-
tween Talls and Dwarfs which might be
looked for where segregation is in strict
accord with Mendelian principles, hence
a difficulty in dealing with this question

Germination of Seed as Affected by Sulfuric Acid Treat-
Cornell University, Dept. of Plant Breeding, Bul. 312, 1912.

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aAoqe syurid [Te pouteyuoo (joeIe 94) Yor

‘uMOYS A[BUTYIIYS ST YJMoIS Jo JIqey pue

d ayy jo sadd} yuasoider sjueyd osoyL,

(‘9 ‘31yq) ‘Aouenbaly 9
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jo ou ‘sdnois OM} UT paplAlp 910A sjurjd oy} UsyA ‘punoj sem ZI ‘SNOnuUT}UOS SPM UOTeLTBA ST} ysnouiy
}YSIoy Ul UOTVBA JO 9sURI OpIM oy]

‘spriqdy uoryetoues ysIy oy} Jo ouO ‘(7D) WoT spses oY} JO SOnpOr

SINVId NOLLVYANAD GNOOS

456

of height is to determine the exact
point at which the plants should be
divided on the one hand into Talls and
on the other hand into Dwarfs.

After some consideration it was
decided to take the mid-point of the
measurements as the dividing line
between Talls and Dwarfs; for example,
any plants exactly half-way between
the tallest plant and zero should be
classed as Dwarf, while those having a
greater height measurement than the mid-

Tuer JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

point should be placed in the Tall class.

When the plants were measured their
average heights were found to vary
from two inches up to eleven inches.
Then taking the mid-point at 5.5 inches
all plants which measured up to this
height inclusive were placed in the
Dwarf class; those above 5.5 inches
being placed in the Tall class.

On analyzing the measurements it
was found that the plants arranged
themselves in the following manner:

S2grezation of plants according to height.

Tall plants all exceeding 5.5 inches in
eee acre. py Steno Sete enol dares

Dwarf plants 5.5 inches in height and |
PEELE tale cove! oh, ae rahgra si 8 oS tas assy ake

otalee eat ot. cshipo e ee e

No. of plants

Found Calculated
Ratio No. of plants | Ratio
|
|
78 2.6 81 oe
30 iP 27 | i
108 108

If we accept the arbitrary standard
of measurement used for grouping the
Talls and Dwarfs, it will be seen that in
view of the small number of plants
studied the actual segregation is fairly
close to theoretical expectancy, the Tall
character being dominant and _ the
Dwarf character recessive.

HABIT OF GROWTH.

A reliable determination as to whether
there is any segregation in habit of
growth is even more difficult to obtain
than in the case of height; and as no
simple measurements can be made to be
of use, any determinations for purposes
of classification must be made by
observation.

A close inspection of the plants
showed that as with height the variation
in habit of growth was continuous.
Beginning with the prostrate form as
characteristic of black medick there
was found to be a continuous series
ranging through decumbent and semi-
erect up to the erect form; this latter
habit resembling the female parental
form (alfalfa).

In order to resolve a continuous series
of this kind into two groups the method
was adopted of first classifying the
plants into four subdivisions, then
arranging the subdivisions into two
main groups by which means the plants
fall naturally into one of two groups one
of which has been termed non-erect and
the other erect, as shown in table below:

Segregation of habit of growth

Prostrate forms........- Mee Ain her Chr et

Decumbent

3 plants

> non-erect 88.
85 plants }

12 plants)
p erect 20.
8 plants)

SouTHWoRTH: ALFALFA HypriDIZATION A5Y

As will be seen by the above the pros-
trate and decumbent forms have been
classed together as non-erect and the
semi-erect and erect make up _ the

other group, each group containing a
series of forms.

Comparing the actual results ‘with
the calculated we have the following:

Found Calculated
| No. of plants Ratio | No. of plants Ratio
aA | | :
INOMRCKECE HOnining rete. oe cee 88 4.4 | 81 3
1 Dig atGl Eth canon GORGES Eee een a | 20 il. 27 1
108 | 108
RG tall Sip cee tear eee amet ya

Reasoning on the basis of the above
system of classification we have here
also a strong suggestion of Mendelian
segregation, the non-erect forms being
dominant and the erect recessive.

For reasons already indicated I do
not consider this study as furnishing
conclusive evidence in support of the
points under investigation, and it is
proposed to remove the plants into the
open field and after a more prolonged
study under natural conditions to pre-
sent a further statement which it is
hoped may be more exhaustive and on
which we may look with a greater
degree of confidence than is possible at
the present stage of the enquiry.

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.

ip, “Where: ig; need foray sttain wor
alfalfa having superior properties to any
at present in cultivation, especially in
its power to produce seed freely under
a great variety of conditions.

2. Alfalfa apparently does not seed
freely in absence of suitable insects to
insure fertilization of the flowers.

3. Wild bees of the Megachile species
seem to be most effective in insuring
fertilization.

4. Alfalfa flowers are not self-sterile
and may be artificially self-fertilized
with good results.

5. Black medick is capable of self-
fertilization and produces seed freely
even when insects are prevented gaining
access to the flowers.

6. In the practice of hybridization
of alfalfa better results are obtained by
working on mature flowers than by
operating on flower buds.

7. The cross between alfalfa and
black medick is effected only with con-
siderable difficulty and prolonged effort
is essential to warrant success.

8. In the F, Generation hybrids the
plants were variable and usually greatly
different from either of the parental
forms.

9. A study of the progeny of F,
Generation revealed a tendency to
Mendelian segregation both in height of
plant and habit of growth, but further
study is necessary to confirm these
points.

10. The difficulty often experienced
of inducing germination in hard alfalfa
seeds may be successfully overcome by
treating them with strong commercial
sulfuric acid.

CONSTRUCTIVE EUGENICS

Agreement of Views of Lecturers, Starting From Diverse Viewpoints, Indicates
That Scope and Methods of Science of Eugenics are Now Largely
Fixed, and That Concrete Constructive Advance Through
Education is Practicable.

A REVIEW BY THE EDITOR.

HE publication of these lectures
on eugenics,’ delivered in 12
different universities last year,
is significant—not because they
contribute anything new to science but
because they show that it is a science,
with well understood bounds, and aims
and methods on which its adherents
agree, no matter how far apart their
viewpoints are. Eugenics may not yet
be an “‘exact science’; perhaps it never
can be: but the day when each eugenist
was a law to himself is passed. Its
scope and, to a large extent, 1ts methods,
are now as well defined as those of any
other of the sciences.

The lectures here printed, together
with others on the same subject, were
delivered in different American univer-
sities, through the initiative of Mrs.
Huntington Wilson of Washington, D.C.
As is to be expected, their appear-
ance in book form entails a good deal
of repetition of subject matter, since
they are nearly all general in character.
This is not a serious defect, however,
and it is decidedly interesting to note
just which points seem to have appealed
strongly to all those interested in the
propaganda. The variety given by the
different viewpoints of the lecturers,
who represent biology, sociology, eco-
nomics, psychology and medicine, adds
to the interest of a perusal of the book,
and emphasizes strongly the point

1 Eugenics: Twelve University Lectures.
1914. Price $2, net. Contents:

Pp. xiti+348.
Foreword by Lewellys F. Barker; The Eugenics Program and

which the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY is
attempting to demonstrate, that what-
ever the viewpoint and whatever the
methods by which the problem of
eugenics is approached, the problem is
always the same.

It is, further, of particular interest to
note that the constructive side of
eugenics is emphazised by each of. the
lecturers. It is possible that this was a
condition made when the lectures were
arranged. In any event, it is an en-
couraging feature, for it indicates that
the time is past when serious considera-
tion can be claimed by a so-called
eugenics whose sole ambition is to do
negative work. Negative or restrictive
eugenics is given ample attention in the
book, as it deserves, but none of the
lecturers assumes for an instant that
purely negative work will solve the
problem of race betterment. That, it
seems to me, represents a decided
advance which the science of eugenics
has made during the past few years.

ACTION PRACTICABLE.

There seems to be a widespread mis-
understanding as to the extent to which
negative and positive eugenics are
respectively practicable at the present
time. Professor Bateson has recently
issued this warning:

“Tt 1s evident that while the elimina-
tion of the hopelessly unfit is a reason-

New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.,

Progress in its Achievement, by Charles B. Davenport; Eugenics as viewed by a Zoologist, by
Robert H. Wolcott; Eugenics from the Point of View of a Physician, by Victor C. Vaughan;
Eugenics as Viewed by the Physiologist, by W. H. Howell; Eugenics: its Data, Scope and Promise,
as Seen by the Anatomist, by Harvey Ernest Jordan; Eugenics from the Point of View of the
Geneticist, by Herbert John Webber; The First Law of Character-Making, by Arthur Holmes;
The Eugenics Movement from the Standpoint of Sociology, by Charles A. Ellwood; Eugenics and
its Social Limitations, by Albert Galloway Keller; Selections from an Address on Eugenics, by
William Herbert Carruth; Eugenics and Economics, by Morton A. Aldrich; Eugenics: with
Special Reference to Intellect and Character, by Edward L. Thorndike.

458

THE Epitor: CONSTRUCTIVE EUGENICS

able and prudent policy for society to
adopt, any attempt to distinguish
certain strains as superior and to give
special encouragement to them would
probably fail to accomplish the object
proposed.” It-mnast sstiiice
to point out that whereas our experience
of what constitute the extremes of
unfitness is fairly realizable and definite,
we have but little to guide us in esti-
mating the qualities for which society
has or may have a use, or the numerical
proportions in which they may be
required.”

Few will disagree with these judg-
ments; yet they must not be interpreted
too broadly. We can indeed segregate
the feebleminded and epileptic, but that
gives no warrant for so-called ‘‘eugenic
legislation”’ restricting marriage, as
Professor Bateson himself has vigorously
pointed out on many occasions. On
the other side, it is true that we can not
yet breed intelligently for many definite
points of social value; and yet it seems
to me that all are agreed on certain
fundamental principles which make
constructive eugenics entirely feasible.
Galton himself laid down the principle
that the most important thing to breed
for was energy; to this we may add good
health, longevity, intellect and morality;
for few will be found to deny that these
characters form desirable attributes,
and that they are heritable, even though
we can not show the exact method of
their inheritance.

This alone, it seems to me, constitutes
ample warrant for all rational attempts
to forward the constructive side of
eugenics, and we can reinforce it by the
proof, now abundant, that the effects of
even the best environment are slight
in comparison with the effects of these
inherited forces—or the lack of them.

Evidently the 13 contributors to the
book under consideration hold much the
same views. Each one thinks the hope
of the future is in influencing marriage
selection by the force—conscious or
unconscious—of public opinion. Dr.
Barker seems to strike the keynote of
the whole book when, in the introduc-
tion, he declares, ‘‘the cultivation of a
healthy public opinion regarding mar-
riage and parenthood will, it seems
probable, be more efficient in promoting

459

eugenics than anything that can be
done by way of legislation, at any rate
at present.’’

LIMITATIONS OF ACTION.

This, in substance, is the mode which
all of the lecturers, from their diverse
standpoints, agree in accepting as the
practicable mode of procedure. There
is no suggestion of breeding a superior
race under live-stock conditions, as the
lay press too frequently assumes to be
the ideal of eugenists; indeed, as Dr.
Carruth emphatically remarks, ‘The
only extensive positive impulses to
breeding given under civilization, so far
as I can discover, have been the breeding
of negroes and hybrids for slaves, the
breeding of women for concubines in
oriental countries, and the subsidizing
of the breeding of men for cannon-food
in various great imperial countries.”

One after another, the lecturers
arrive at the same position. None has
a panacea to propose, but each one
believes—and many give convincing
reasons for their belief—that public
sentiment can be so enlightened as to
produce the ends which eugenists seek,
without further measures. “‘Society
may choose to breed from the bottom,”
as Dr. Thorndike puts it, “but it does
not have to.”

Dr. Howell, in common with nearly
all of the speakers, holds close to the
lines laid down by Galton.

“So long as we hold to our good
custom of founding marriage mainly on
affection and mutual attractiveness,”’
he suggests, ‘‘it is a difficult and delicate
matter to influence the direction that
fancy may take. Mr. Galton looked
at the subject in a practical and sensible
way. He calls attention to the fact
that it is our custom to allow many con-
siderations to play a minor part in this
question of selecting one’s partner for
life—considerations of race, or religion,
of occupation, of financial standing,
etc., etc., and what he hoped for was,
that as a result of general education in
regard to the influence of heredity,
eugenical considerations may also take
their part among those factors whose
additive influence determines the choice
that is made. This is a moderate and
conservative suggestion, but quite suffi-

160

cient to give point to an educational
propaganda. It is likely in the long
run to prove wiser and more beneficial
than an advocacy of more radical
measures. In spirit and intent it
accords very well with the advice of
the wise and experienced in such
matters at all times. ‘Marry only for
love,’ said William Penn, ‘but be sure
that thou lovest what is lovely.’ This
sage aphorism may be interpreted to
mean that we should so cultivate our
appreciation of what is best in humanity
as to be attracted only by those who
possess desirable qualities. I fancy that
this state of things is what positive
eugenics hopes to accomplish or aid in
accomplishing; not by force, not even
by deliberate persuasion, but by bring-
ing to the consciousness of educated
people a realization of the fact that the
welfare of the next generation will be
influenced by the way they marry, as
well as by the way they live.”

PENSIONS FOR MOTHERS.

Dr. Ellwood dicsusses and dismisses
a number of proposals that have been
made in the line of positive eugenics.
Pensions to mothers and mothers’
compensation do not appeal to him as
desirable. ‘‘Are we going to put every
service which individuals render to
society upon a money basis?’’, he asks,
“or are there not some services ‘which we
can not pay adequately for with money,
and which we should not attempt to
pay for with money, because it degrades
them? Is not parenthood such a ser-
vice? Would not the women who would
accept compensation for motherhood be
the very sort of women whom we might
least desire to be mothers?

“We must, then,’ he concludes,
“sive up for the present, at least, the
idea of the encouragement of parent-
hood in any material way. The whole
question, therefore, of positive eugenics
reduces itself at once to the question of
the ideals of life which we _ should
encourage in the young. It, therefore,
becomes primarily a matter of education
rather than legislation.

“This means, of course, that young
men and women must, even at a very

arly age, be given right ideals of mar-
riage and parenthood. If they are to

THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

make a more reasonable selection of
mates, not only must the widest acquain-
tance between young people be en-
couraged by society, but they must also
be given somewhat different standards
of selection than most of them have at
the present time. The ideals of good
manners, social popularity, good looks,
and wealth, must be replaced with the
ideals of health, intellectual ability, and
moral character. When these latter
qualities come to be put first in the
mutual choice of the sexes in marriage,
there can be no doubt that the benefit
to society will be incalculable.”

Dr. Keller takes his stand squarely on
the basis laid down by Galton. The
latter hoped that eugenics would be
‘introduced into the national conscience
like a new religion;’’ Dr. Keller recog-
nizes the possibliity of such an event as
being a proper field for the sociologist,
and discusses it at length and interest-
ingly. It is easy enough to talk about
it; the question is, can society really
control one of the strongest passions
for its own purposes? Has it been able
to do so in the past? He points to the
taboos that have been in force at one
time and another: taboos on consan-
guineous marriages, on exogamy, on
endogamy, on polygamy; in some cases,
indeed, effective taboos on all marriage,
as with priests. Nor need we stop with
primitive peoples, nor with the restraint
of one passion alone.

EFFECTIVE TABOOS.

“Consider the case of the Hebrews in
respect to the food taboo, and the taboo
upon unions within certain degrees of
blood-kinship. Consider the strength
of the taboos lurking in present-day
conventions respecting, say, the eating
of human flesh or the marriage of the
closest kin. If the same distaste were
to forbid non-eugenic unions which
exists to prevent the eating of the flesh
of cats, the aim of the eugenists would
be in large part attained.’’ Or, to take
a more frivolous and recent case, Dr.
Keller mentions the former vogue of
knee-length golf trousers, and the com-
plete disappearance of them in the
United States at present. “There is
now a_taboo—perfectly irrational in
almost every respect—upon this style

THE Eprtor: CONSTRUCTIVE KUGENICS

of clothing. If mnon-eugenic unions
should become as infrequent for a
dozen years as golf trousers have been
for that time, the eugenists could point
to a golden era.”’

It is, then, evident that the goal of
the eugenist is capable of attainment.
“How can this be done? Or, to put it
more concretely, how can unfortunate
unions be effectively tabooed, as incest
is tabooed?”’

“All fruitful agitation for change
must confine its aspirations within
discreet limits. It must enlist senti-
ment, if it can, rather than reason; and
the great compelling sentiment is fear.
: Further, fear must be brought
home. Some men are able to fear and
worry for the far generations of man-
kind, but not many of us can get up
much excitement over the fate of even
our great grandchildren. Fear must
be brought home, I say; and to the in-
dividual Dr. Keller: thererore urges
that the knowledge of the laws of
heredity be made widespread, and that
physicians in particular be more active
in making known the noxious action of
some of the “‘counterselective factors”’
that are injuring the race.

Dr. Aldrich also expresses the prob-
lem in a concrete way. ‘“‘How far is
it possible,’ he asks, “for a body of
thoughtful men, with an earnest con-
viction of the value of their eugenic
teaching, to influence the formation and
growth of a public opinion powerful
enough to encourage parenthood of the
fit and discourage parenthood of the
unfit?’ He would not belittle the
difficulties of the task; but neither
would he have them appear more in-
surmountable than they really are.

“When we consider the few years
since the beginning of any systematic
and wide-spread eugenic effort, and the
difficulties in the way, the striking fact
is that so much has ‘already been
achieved. I do not think that
any observer of American life will
disagree with me when I say that there
is already a marked tendency among
the young men and young women of
this country to look more carefully than
they used to do to the physical and
mental fitness of those whom they
choose as their husbands or wives.”’

461

Dr. Wolcott emphasizes the need of
“the conservation of desirable germ
plasm by preventing the loss of man-
hood due to war, by enlarging individual
opportunity, and educating the public
to the desirability of more care in the
selection of mates. Increased individ-
ual opportunity may be secured by
subsidizing the fit, by a higher scale of
wages, by a decrease in the cost of
living, and by the removal of social
hindrances to marriage such as the
increasing demands of professional and
business life. The methods of pro-
cedure last outlined again carry us over
into the field of euthenics, which we
have seen from so many points of view
lying close to that of eugenics.”

ALLIANCE WITH EUTHENICS.

Dr = Jordan; “too. “peimtss ounce
vigorous way the tremendous reversal
of natural selection which is caused by
war. He suggests the endowment of
parentage, but believes the scheme
must be safeguarded with many checks
and qualifications. He looks to the
church as a potent factor in the educa-
tional compaign to create the eugenic
conscience which he hopes to see the
public acquire.

Dr. Webber, recognizing the need for
encouraging parentage among _ the
superior, also recognizes the need for
better standards or methods of judging
ability early in life. As an aid to the
development of the race he urges “the
great importance of establishing an
adequate system of human registration
similar to that used in the registration
of pure bred stock.

“Such a human registration would
serve many useful functions. First and
primarily, it would stimulate pride in
family and the desire on the part of any
individual whose ancestors were in the
register to measure up to or surpass that
standard. I believe that family pride
is the most potent influence in restrain-
ing the individual from error, and in
stimulating him to greater effort.

“Such a register would include only
good and superior individuals, as medi-
ocre or poor grade individuals would
never seek to be included in such a
pedigree record.

“Once started I believe such a regis-

162

tration would be sought by all of the
best individuals of society and soon it
would come to be almost universal
among good families having pride or
confidence in their ancestry. Soon, if
one is not registered or his family is not
registered, the question would arise,
why are they not registered? In this
way I believe all individuals and families
that have not very serious defects in
their pedigrees would be led to register,
and thus the object would be accom-
plished, as we could then be certain that
unregistered families could not be con-
sidered good constructive eugenic
material.

A GUIDE TO MARRIAGE.

“Such a register would have great
value, doubtless, as a guide to marriage.
Suppose a father notices a growing
intimacy between his daughter and a
young man of apparently good character
but of unknown ancestry. The regis-
tration number of the young man’s
father or mother could be obtained and
from this, for a small fee, the girl’s
father could secure a brief outline of the
young man’s family history. If this
history were bad doubtless it would
serve to check any growing intimacy
between the two and would save the
family much trouble and worry.”

Dr. Davenport makes clear one
feature of the program which some of
the other lecturers implied rather than
directly stated. ‘It is not sufficient to
secure good matings and cut off the
bad,” he points out. ‘‘The eugenic
marriages must be fecund, and must

THe JouRNAL OF HEREDITY

equal or exceed the fecundity of the
cacogenic matings. No fact is more
startling today, and fraught with greater
danger to the commonwealth, than the
low fecundity of our best blood.

“From 1193 bachelors of arts of
Bryn Mawr college since 1888 there
have been produced to January, 1913,
263 girls all told. Twenty years after
graduation, close to the reproductive
limit, 328 graduates of Harvard in my
class have reproduced 195 sons to take
their place. An earlier class of 278
persons, 25 years after graduation, had
produced 141 sons, or had only about
one-half reproduced itself; and no
account is made of infant deaths.
Assuming that a class produces half as
many sons as it graduates, and that
their descendants do the same for six
generations, 1000 Harvard graduates of
the 1880’s will have 16 male descen-
dants of the 2080’s. These 16 sons will
be ruled by the scores of thousands of
descendants of 1000 of the Rumanians,
Bulgarians, Greeks and Hybrid Portu-
guese of the 1880’s. Such figures must
make one fear for the future.” He
therefore advocates examination of the
family history of immigrants, in order
to reject those who are manifestly
undesirable breeding stock.

Summing up his own paper, he says:
“Thus the program of eugenics stands;
first, investigation; then, as knowledge
grows, education. Finally, legislation
based on sound public sentiment. For
the carrying out of this program the
public is quite ready and indeed waiting.
It is seeking to be wisely led.”’

NEGRO-UTE METIS

a

ABOVE—NEGRO-UTE HALF-BLOODS. BELOW—PURE-BLOOD UTES

The accompanying photographs were taken by the writer at the time of a visit,
in April, 1910, to the Southern Ute reservation in southwestern Colorado, in the
company of John P. Harrington of the School of American Archeology at Santa
Fe, New Mexico. The picture of greatest anthropological interest is the upper
one, portraying, as it does, a not very common instance (in that region, at least)
of race mixture. The boy and girl are brother and sister, children of a Negro
father and full-blood Ute mother. They live on the farm allotted by the govern-
ment to the mother. The Negro characters are most apparent. Some features,
however, especially the hair, show Indian influence. The hair, particularly that
of the girl, recalls a type found among many of the Oceanic blacks. The skin has
the distinctively Negro chocolate color. For comparison, I present, below it, the
picture of two typical Ute girls. The four children are of about the same age, and
were all pupils in the day-school a few miles north of Ignacio agency.—Albert N.
Gilbertson (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.), in American An-
thropologist,, n:'s:, 15, p» 563; (1913). (Fig. 7:)

463

HIGH ALTITUDE MAIZE

The above photograph (Fig. 8) shows a stalk of one variety of my acclima-
tized corn with its product. I have been making an effort to get a stalk
of corn of which the aggregate ear-length would equal the entire length of
the main stalk, and I think I will finally succeed. Since high altitude,
low temperature and lack of humidity decrease all vegetal factors but
do not effect reproductive virility, the environment is favorable to this
effort. The specimen is a hybrid from unidentified parents, both of
which have been grown at an altitude of over 7,000 feet for quite a
number of years. It has been cross-bred with several varieties with a
view of increasing the forage, but did not succeed until mated with
weet-corn—the forage was then increased 75 to 100%. Iam sure that
by this process a valuable corn for silos in dry farming districts can be
produced.

The length of stalk shown is 50 inches.

Aggregate ear-length 43 inches.

rows per ear, 46 grains per row: 1104 grains.

rows per ear, 40 grains per row: 480 grains.

rows per ear, 34 grains per row: 408 grains.

On sucker
Two ears, 10 rows per ear, 28 grains per row: 560 grains.
One ear, 8 rows per ear, 15 grains per row: 120 grains.

Total number of grains of corn on plant - - 2672
A. JAY GARRISON.
Edgewater, Colorado,

464

RACIAL HYBRIDIZATION

Studies of the Offspring of Boers and Hottentots—Mendel’s Law Seen in the
Inheritance of Many Characters—Racial ‘‘Prepotency” Not
Found to Exist—Mankind a Single Species.

EuGEN FIscHER'

HE author has taken in hand a
| problem that leads him into
wholly new fields, which hitherto
have hardly been worked—the
investigation of a hybrid race. The
material is the most valuable he could
have selected, the mongrels of Reho-
both, the product of miscegenation
between Boers and Hottentots. The
physical anthropology of these hybrids,
especially all phases of it that concern
race mixtures, naturally makes up the
most valuable part of the book.

The racial mixture here is not such
as we usually find, the result of irregular
unions which produce a racial prole-
tariat that defies all anthropological
analysis. We have, instead, a well-
defined race of mixed ancestry, with
definite, fixed characteristics; we can
measure the proportions of each stock
which it contains. It is a mixture that
has risen to the rank of a new race.

When, in the eighteenth century,
Dutch and Low German peasants pene-
trated the country, defence against their
common enemy, the Bushmen, brought
them into close contact with the Hotten-
tots. Of course, there were few European
women in that raw land, given over to
nomads and hunters. Consequently, we
find many half-blood children, of Hot-
tentot mothers and Boer fathers. The
primitive life of a Boer ‘‘on trek’”’ was
not very different from that of the
aborigines; consequently, it is not sur-
prising that a great many of the Boers
took Hottentot maidens in life-long
marriage. The racial pride of the pure
Boer families thrust out these results of

mesalliance; but the mulatto sons also
partook of the racial pride of their
fathers, and married girls of the same
origin as themselves—not caring to
marry pure Hottentots and not being
able to obtain white wives. We thus
find at the present day hybrids of two
degrees.

HOLLANDERS PREDOMINATE.

Family traditions, particularly among
the older generations, have extraordi-
nary vitality, so that the genealogies
claimed by various branches of a family
are in entire agreement. Of the 27 men -
who are recognized as founders of mixed
families, 17 are Hollanders, 11 Germans,
and nine of unknown origin. Other
European men came later, taking Hot-
tentot girls in marriage; occasionally
there is a birth outside of wedlock. On
the whole, these European founders of
families are preponderatingly Low Ger-
man; it may be added that the nordic
race preponderates.

The female ancestry is somewhat
easier to analyze, for no other women
than Hottentots are mentioned. Occa-
sionally, however, there is no doubt
that a Boer married a Damara or
Herero girl.

The material which Fischer used,
with great skill, consists of 310 men,
women and children, studied anthro-
pologically, and 300 additional cases
studied through photographs. The
author divides his material into three
groups. One group of hybrids continue
tomarry inter se—these he calls “‘middle”’
hybrids. Opposed to them are two

1Fischer, Eugen. Die Rehobother Bastards und das Bastardierungsproblem beim Menschen:
Anthropologische und ethnographische Studien am Rehobother Bastardvolk in Deutsch-Sud-

west-Africa. Jena (G. Fischer) 1913.

Translation and abridgment of a review by Mollison of

Heideiberg in the Zeitschrift far Morphologie und Anthropologie, Stuttgart, 1913; Bd. XVI,

Heft 2, page 397.

166

other groups, “‘crossed out’ with Euro-
peans and Hottentots respectively. Pure
European blood was always introduced
by a man, pure Hottentot blood by a
woman. In the individuals of the last
two groups, the proportion of the two
stocks represented is diverse. The most
extreme grade is the result of direct
outcrossing, such as is given, for instance,
through the marriage of the son of a
European with a girl of mixed origin
of. the first generation. The three
groups are briefly designated as the
Eu-group, mid-group and Hott-group,
according as one or the other blood, or
neither, preponderated. As a “‘control”
group for comparisons in his measure-
ments, Fischer took peasants of Baden,
there being no available observations on
Hollanders. The only comparative
measurements on pure Hottentots were
those made by Fischer himself, on eight
men and seven women.

The stature of the mongrel men
(average 168.4 cm.) is considerably
greater than that of the Hottentots
(157.9 cm.) and even somewhat above
that of present-day Hollanders
(167.5 cm.) or of the South Germans
(167-168 cm.). The women are much
shorter than the men, the difference of
about 11 cm. being about the same as
with the population of Baden, while
among the Hottentots the difference
between the sexes seems to be somewhat
less. The mean of the Eu-group is 174,
that of the mid-group 167, and that of
the Hott-group 168 cm. for the men, or
160-157-157 for the women.

WOMEN BECOME OBESE.

The women show the same tendency
to lay on fat which characterizes the
Hottentot women; the men do not have
this tendency. It begins to show itself
from the fifteenth to seventeenth years
and reaches its maximum at the age of
30. This may be due to environment
rather than to heredity.

The form of the skull is understand-
able as a combination of that of the
Hottentot and European forms; but
the skulls of the Eu-group are notably
nearer to those of Europeans and those
of the Hott-group to the skull-form of
the pure Hottentot.

THE JouRNAL OF HEREDITY

The facial appearance is decidedly
variable. Measurements show that the
hybrids mostly are intermediate be-
tween pure forms of the two races. The
nose is never either entirely European
or entirely Hottentot.

A test showed that the individuals of
the three groups could be accurately
distinguished by their general appear-
ance.

The skin of the hybrids is dry and
little turgescent, as with Europeans.
In color it is tolerably light—portions
of the body which are covered with
clothes show a lighter tint than that of
the skin of the Mediterranean race.
Many individuals have a darker tint,
but it is seldom a pronounced brown.
The frequency of lighter and darker
skins follows rather closely the degree
of racial-mixture. The hair form is)
extremely variable, ranging from smooth
to very curly. Its color is usually black.
That of the children is usually lighter,
whereas Hottentot children show black
hair from its first appearance. Fischer
leans to the belief that when hair dark-
ens in adult life, it always indicates
racial-fusion somewhere in the ancestry
of the individual concerned.

Light eyes are much more frequent
in the Eu-group than in the Hott-
group, and in one instance pure blue
eyes are found; the mid-group holds an
intermediate place in this connection.
It is notable that wholly dark eyes are
rarely found even in the Hott-group.

MENDELIAN COMPUTATIONS.

The second and most important part
of the book deals with the results that
an investigation of these hybrids offers
to our knowledge of the laws of heredity.
The prevalence of Mendel’s law natur-
ally occupies the most important posi-
tion, preceded by an analysis of the
unit characters.

The relative frequency of straight and
waved hair is found, in the second gener-
ation of the mid-group, to be about that
expected by Mendel’s law; 18% smooth
and 82% curly, as compared with the
25% and 75% expected from theoretical

calculation. The proportions of straight
hair with the Eu-group (48%) and the
Hott-group (17%) are also comprehen-

FiscHer: Racrat, HypripizATion

sible on the same formula. By back
crossing of equal degree with Europeans
and Hottentots, the whole population
must be the equivalent of an F2 genera-
tion, that is, one-fourth straight-haired
and three-fourths wavy-haired. The
reality (71:228) accords satisfactorily
with this expectation. | Davenport’s
discovery is also confirmed, that the
hair-form Mendelizes with the forma-
tion of an intermediate type in the
heterozygotes, among whom straight hair
is recessive and curly hair dominant. |

The figures for light and dark eyes
also accord with the Mendelian expec-
tation demonstrated by G. and C.
Davenport and Hurst.

It is evident that the relative breadth
of the skull follows Mendel’s law; and
none of the other dimensions of the
face seem to be inherited in an inter-
mediate stage.

The appearance of the eye also closely
conforms to the Mendelian expecta-
tion, 25% being oblique and 75% level.
The proportion in single families is close
enough to these figures to be considered
confirmatory.

The small, high form of nose seems
to dominate the low, broad one. The
feminine appearance of the faces of
the mongrels seems to be due to the
independent inheritance of unit charac-
ters. :

Proof that the investigator’s views
as to dominants and recessives are well
founded, is furnished by the first genera-
tion hybrids—that is, the product of
marriages between white men and Hot-
tentot women. Fischer could not find
many such children, but an examination
of those whom he did discover satisfied
him that the theoretical expectation was
fulfilled; as did the results of crossing
back, between mongrels and either one
of the parent races.

ONE LAW FOR ALL LIVING CREATURES.

He is thus convinced that for a long
list of characters the mechanism of
heredity is the same when races of man-
kind are crossed as when breeds of live-
stock and varieties of plants are hybri-
dized.

The increased stature of the hybrids
is probably explainable through the

467

well-known vigor resulting from cross-
ing, although it can not always ,be
determined that such a result is not
due to the environment. Perhaps the
vitality and low death-rate of the
hybrids is explainable on the latter
basis, since it is in decided contrast to
the observed result in other cases (for
example, the mulattoes resulting from
a cross of English and negroes), where
the power of resistance seems to be
lowered by the cross. At present we can
not account for the fact observed by
Hagen among Tamil-Malay metis, and
by Fischer among the subjects of the
present book, that the countenances of '
the hybrids are longer than those of
either parent race. It is possible that
we are justified in suspecting a correla-
tion with the increased bodily vigor.

The fecundity of the hybrids appears
not in the least to be diminished. It
does not seem possible to pass dogmatic
judgment on the fecundity of racial
crosses in general. It is only certain
that all races are fertile with each other,
that the hybrids are fertile with either
one of the parent races—although it is
questionable still whether the fertility
may not be diminished; that the hybrids
are fertile iter se, although in many
cases the fecundity seems to be dimin-
ished; and finally, that the factors on
which this result depends, are unknown
to us.

Another chapter takes up the ques-
tion whether a new race can be formed
through crossing. The first generation
hybrids are certainly not a new race,
but merely a patch-work of charac-
teristics inherited from their parents.
But in a later generation appearances
are very different. As the unit charac-
ters are separately inherited, the chance
for a given individual to inherit all or
most of those of one of the parental
races becomes steadily smaller. The
characteristics of the parent races,
therefore, are still present after any
number of generations, but the resem-
blance of individuals to either parent
race has become less (excluding, for
the moment, all questions about the
influence of environment). When a
hybrid population has once become
established it therefore remains con-

168 THe JOURNAL

stant with respect to the inheritable
anthropological characters.

THE IDEA OF PREPOTENCY.

The hazy conception of a “prepo-
tency’? in transmission is referred by
Fischer to its most plausible origin, the
accidental combination of numerous
dominant characters. He tests the ques-
tion of whether there is a racial pre-
potency by means of curves, which show
the genealogically middle-group to hold
exactly a middle ground between its
two parent races. He therefore con-
cludes: ‘‘A prepotency of either of the
parent races, a stronger tendency of the
hybrids to resemble either one of them,
does not exist. On the average the
hybrids occupy an exactly intermediate

position. One can not talk safely of a
prepotency.’’ An apparent prepon-

derant influence of any race in trans-

OF HEREDITY

mission merely indicates that it possesses
many characters which behave as domi-
nants.

Mathematical computations failed to
discover any correlation of the charac-
ters shown by hybrids; in consequence
it must be assumed that the characters
of the two parent races act entirely
independently in heredity.

Consanguineous marriages are very
frequent among the hybrids. No evil
results have ever been noticed from
them, but an increased sharpness of
family types is produced.

As the end-product of hybridization,
Fischer does not admit the formation’ of
a new race, since that would require
blended inheritance of at least a number
of important characteristics. | From
his views on heredity, he concludes that
mankind as it exists today forms but a
single biological species.

Mme. Montessori’s View

The most interesting biological researches of today are in regard to the heredi-
tary transmission of characteristics —Maria Montessori.

PRIZES OFFERED FOR PHOTOGRAPHS
OF LARGE TREES

WO prizes of $100 each are

| offered for photographs of large,

wild, native trees in the United

States, by two members of the

American Genetic Association, who are

interested in forestry and wish to secure

data along somewhat novel lines. These
prizes are to be awarded as follows:

One hundred dollars for photographs
of the largest nut-bearing tree. This
includes chestnuts, oaks, walnuts,
butternuts, pecans, etc.

One hundred dollars for photographs
of the largest shade or forest tree, not
nut-bearing. This includes such trees
as the elm, beech, poplar, tulip-poplar
(“yellow poplar’’ or “tulip tree’’), etc.

Photographs of conifers will not be
considered.

All photographs must be submitted
tothe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY before July
1, 1915, and will become the property
of the Association. Photographs must
be taken by or under the direction of
those who send them in, and not pur-
chased from professionals or collections.
Competition is not confined to members
of the American Genetic Association,
but is open to the public.

It is hoped that a collection of photo-
graphs, such as should result from the
offer of these prizes, will furnish some
reliable information about the maximum
size attained by North American trees,
and the regions and conditions under
which they attain their greatest de-
velopment. It is further hoped that
seed or other material from the largest
specimens may be used for propagation.
In order to make these offers yield
the necessary information, contestants
should comply with the following con-
ditions:

Photographs must be on glossy paper,
not smaller than 4x5 or 344x5\%
inches, and must be of sufficient excel-
lence to allow reproduction in the
JouRNAL OF HEREDITY or elsewhere.
Photographs in which the tree is so

small that its details can not be made
out, can not be considered. As much
information as possible should be fur-
nished about the tree in question, and
exact identification is particularly
necessary. For this reason the photog-
rapher should send a branch with
leaves and, if possible, flowers or nuts,
in order that the Association may
identify it. The measurement of the
tree must be given in detail. In making
it the only method which may be fol-
lowed is to take the circumference of the
trunk at five feet from the ground.
The trunk must not be measured at a
point where its girth is increased by the
juncture of a branch; if it is so swelled
at a point five feet from the ground, the
measurement should be made at the
smallest diameter above the basal swell
and below the swell of the branches. In
such a case the fact should be stated
when the photograph is sent, and the
exact point at which the measurement
is made should be indicated. It is
desirable that the full height of the tree
and spread of branches, as well as the
girth, should be stated; if they cannot
be measured exactly, they should be
estimated. Photographs should, when
possible, contain some object, such as a
human figure, or a horse and buggy,
which will aid in giving a realization of
the size of the tree; but such figure
should be beside, not in front of the tree.
It is necessary that one photograph
should include the whole tree. If there
are other trees growing beside it and
cutting off part of it these other trees
should be included in the picture.
A second photograph of the same tree
should be sent in, showing the trunk
only, with a little foreground. Each
contestant is thus required to send in
two photographs of the same tree, one
showing the entire tree and the other
the trunk only. Contestants may send
photographs of as many different trees
as they like.

469

470 THE JOURNAL

With each photograph, a statement
should be submitted telling all that is
known about the tree, with reference to
its age, its fertility, the quality of the
nuts (if it bears nuts); the character of
the soil and surrounding vegetation. It
is particularly necessary that photog-
raphers should state whether there are
many other very large trees of the same
species in the neighborhood—within a
radius, say, of five miles. If the tree is
on private land, and likely to be de-
stroyed, the fact should be mentioned.
If there are any historical or literary
associations connected with it, these
should also be mentioned. It will be
helpful if photographers can tell to what
extent the tree is subject to attacks by
disease or insects. In short, the council
desires to gain as much information as
possible about the largest trees of the

OF HEREDITY

United States; but it imposes as few
hard-and-fast restrictions as possible,
because of the varying conditions under
which photographs may have to be
taken, or under which they have been
taken at some time in the past.

It is immaterial whether the tree is
shown with full summer foliage, or
defoliated in winter condition.

The council will be glad to furnish
information on any problem connected
with these offers; it will judge the
photographs submitted, and _ reserves
right to decide any disputed points.
Only the two capital prizes will be
given, but all other noteworthy trees
will be mentioned in the final report.
The prizes are offered by Mr. Charles
Deering of Chicago and Mr. W. A.
Wadsworth of Geneseo, N. Y.

The Human Breed.

To be a good animal is the first requisite to success in life, and to be a nation of
good animals is the first condition of national prosperity.—Herbert Spencer.

Men are commonly more careful of the breed of their horses and dogs than of

their children.—William Penn.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 11 November, 1914

CONTENTS

Aryan Agriculture, by Privatdozent Dr. Dettweiler................. 473
Coat Color in Horses, by W. S. Anderson..............---..-0-405 482
Albinism in Man, by A. E. Hamilton......................-++-+---- 489
Heredity and Environment (A Review)...............0. 0605505 s sees 491
Eugenic Progress, by W. C.D. and C. D. Whetham................. 491
The Laws of Naudin-Mendel, by Dr. E. Apert........... .......... 492
Origin of the Date Palm, by The Editor.............---......---++: 498
The Power of Heredity, by Rev. Amory H. Bradford................ 508
Study of Old Americans, by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka....................-- 509
A Degenerated Rose Blossom, by John C. Uhrilaub................. 510
Corn and Men, by Albert F. Blakeslee. . he ec res Sr OF coat Pee te BY |
New Publications: The Progress of Eugenics, by C. W. Saleeby..... 518
Children of the Tuberculous (A Review).............-.-.-+++5+5-5: 518

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association). Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, October 25, 1914.

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SHDONAV HO WA NVAdOUNA AHL AO SLNVONADSAG

ARYAN AGRICULTURE

Most Important Plant and Animal Products of Europe Indigenous—Wheat and
Barley Cultivated 50,000 or More Years Ago—Horse the Latest of the Impor-
tant Animals to be Domesticated—Origin of the Plow.!

PRIVATDOZENT Dr. DETTWEILER
Inspector of Animal Husbandry, Rostock in Mecklenburg, Germany.

P TO quite recently, it would
hardly have been possible to
write on the theme I have
chosen today, ‘‘The Begin-

nngs of Agriculture and Animal Hus-
bandry among the Indo-Germans.”’
For it used to be taken for granted that
Europe with its Indo-German popula-
tion received all its culture from Rome
and Greece, or from the Babylonian
Orient, and so it was quite useless to
concern one’s self over such a problem
as I have just stated. The northern
European population passed for raw,
ignorant, wholly uncivilized—in a word,
they were barbarians, to whom the
higher civilization of the south and east
first brought the light of progress. Nay,
not only was the culture supposed to
have been imported from the outside,
but the population itself was held to
have immigrated from Asia.

On all these questions the last two or
three decades have caused many re-
versals of position. Just as natural
science is today based on the idea of
evolution, so has the idea gradually
gained ground that the population of
Europe developed independently on its
own ground with its own culture—
more, that these have an antiquity
surpassing anything we know of Baby-
lon or Egypt. Today it is admitted—
except by a few—that the original home
of the primitive European population,
the Indo-Germans, is not Asia but
Northern Europe, that they developed
their culture there in the late Stone
Age, and that they then dispersed in
their wanderings to the south and east,

as far as India. I can not now enter
into the details of this question. I must
ask you simply to accept it as a fact,
that the standpoint above sketched is
the correct one. According to it the
coast of the East Sea, perhaps with
Mecklenburg as its central point, is to
be considered the original home of the
Indo-Germans. But even here, they
were immigrants at a relatively late
day, and perhaps are merely descendants
of the people of the Stone Age, who lived
during the Glacial Period in southern
France and Spain, perhaps also on the
northern coast of Africa. In this con-
nection it must not be forgotten that
during the Ice Age the climate in that
region was milder—that is, cooler—
than itis at present. It was only after
the ice had melted away in our latitude
that man ventured into the north.

CROPS OF THE LAKE-DWELLERS.

In order to have some secure stand-
point from which to handle our none
too simple data, it seems necessary to
take a definite cross-section of history,
and I shall therefore take the so-called
Age of the Lake-dwellings. It is fairly
known, even in details, is remote enough
to be included in the prehistoric period,
and yet has been so thoroughly inves-
tigated that .one can form a tolerably
clear picture of it. Its culture belongs
to the so-called Neolithic or later Stone
Age, extending perhaps up into the
Bronze Age, that is, about 2000 to 4000
years before Christ.

I shall limit myself to a consideration
of the agriculture of this period.

1 Address delivered before the Dozentenverein of Rostock; translated (and slightly abridged)
from the Ilustrierte Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, 32 Jahrgang, No. 81, p. 745, Berlin, 9 Oktober,

Mee

473

474

The lake-dwellers of Switzerland cul-
tivated, according to Braungart, the
following kinds of plants:

1. The short-eared, six-rowed barley,
Hordeum sanctum of the ancients, which
was grown in the Alps up to recent
times.

2. The thick-eared, six-rowed barley,
Hordeum hexastichon L., var. densum,
with large ears and kernels.

3. Two-rowed barley, Hordeum dis-
tichon.

4. Small lake-dwelling wheat,
ticum vulgare antiquorum.

5. The true Binkel wheat, Triticum
vulgare compactum, which is even today
grown in isolated localities in the Alps.

6. Egyptian or English wheat, 771-
ticum turgidum, L. It is today wide-
spread in many varieties.

7. Emmer, Triticum amylium, Ser-
inge, T. dicoccum, Sch., a thick-eared,
awnless, unique species, grown in its
original form in the Tyrol as late as
40 years ago, but seeming now to have
changed.

8. One-grained wheat or Einkorn,
Triticum monococcum, L., grown in the
transition period between the Stone
and Bronze Ages, perhaps along with
spelt (Triticum spelta, L.). Today it is
grown only in scattered regions of the
Tyrol.

9. Meadow (common), millet, Panz-
cum miliaceum, L.

10. Club millet, Panicum italicum, L.

11. Flax, not that known today
(Linum usitatissimum), but the type
which still grows wild in Greece, L.
angustifolium, L.

Far from these lake dwellings, in the
little village of Gleichberg, near R6m-
hild, at the southern edge of the Thurin-
gian forest, under a wall 10 meters
high on an old fireplace, there was un-
covered in 1906 an important find, with
remains of the oldest Bronze Age, which
contained the following:

1. Einkorn wheat. 2. Spelt, which is
grown there even to this day. 3. Binkel
wheat. 4. Small lake-dwelling wheat.
5. Small lake-dwelling barley. 6. The
smallest (Celtic) type of vetch (Vicia
faba, L., var. altica nana, Heer.) 7.
Peas, Pisum sativum. 8. Poppy, Papa-
ver somniferum, var, antiquum Excep-

Tri-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

tionally large seeds, apparently cul-
tivated. 9. Apple seeds (7).

That Triticum turgidum was lacking,
is explained by the climate.

PROOFS OF HIGH CULTURE.

At various points in Wtrttemberg (at
Gross Pretach near Heilbronn and at
Heutingsheim near Ludwigsburg) whole
villages belonging to the late Stone
Age have been excavated and have
shown a high degree of culture—that is,
well developed agriculture and animal
husband.y. There can no longer be any
doubt that a well-directed search would
unearth many more proofs of active
life in the prehistoric period in that
region. That they are still lacking is
explained by the newness of the idea
and the little endeavor that has been
made to confirm it. We have much
better information about the early
years of the peoples of Asia, wholly
unrelated to us, than we have about
our own predecessors in Germany.

But the data already accumulated
show this at least, that in the later
Stone Age a rather highly developed
culture with the cultivation of food
plants and the keeping of domestic
animals, existed. But where did it
come from? Its mere existence does not
prove that it grew up on the soil, and is
not an Asiatic importation.

To get such proof, we must go still
farther back and explore the Paleo-
lithic or old Stone Age.

The early discoveries showed us a
great gap—the so-called Hzatus—be-
tween old and new Stone Ages, which
favored the theory that the population
had entirely changed in that period,
because no signs of transition could be
found. Later discoveries have revealed
the transition. The number of those
who have rejected the idea of a change
in the population, and have insisted on
a persistent evolution of the same stock,
is therefore augmented. Each day, al-
most, brings more evidence to their sup-
port, and it seems as if the time is not
far distant when the gap will be closed.

Nevertheless, in the field that interests
us—agriculture—there is a great gap
still. For while the men of the new
Stone Age had almost all our present-

DETTWEILER: ARYAN AGRICULTURE

475

WILD AND CULTIVATED WHEAT

At the left, seeds of the wild wheat of Palestine, which is thought by some authors to represent

the ancestral form of the present cultivated wheats.

In the center is a large-seeded varia-

tion of this wild wheat, which was produced at Bard, California; on the right is shown,
for comparison, seeds of the Sonora wheat, the one ordinarily grown in the southwest
United States at the present day. The Palestinian wheat (Triticum hermonts) has adapta-
tions for cross-pollination, whereas the cultivated varieties at present depend almost

invariably on self-fertilization.
(Fig. 1.)

day domestic animals, our most impor-
tant field products and—as we shall
soon see—our farm implements, the
men of the old Stone Age had as domes-
tic animals at most the dog and perhaps
the reindeer, and among garden prod-
ucts had only two or—if you. like—
three kinds: barley and wheat, but the
latter in two forms—Triticum polonicum,
L., which is still cultivated at the present
day in the Spanish province of Galicia,
and owes its name to a geographical
error of Linnaeus; and spelt.

Recent discoveries have thrown valu-
able light on the upper middle Paleo-
lithic age, the Age of Reindeer. They
come from caves in the Pyrenees
mountains near Lourdes, and consist of
carvings on reindeer horns, unmistak-
able in their execution. Further, in
the cave of Lorthet, belonging to a late
part of the same epoch, there was found
a carving on slate, which depicted
winter barley such as is even yet grown
in that locality.

Means of preparing food at that
period have not yet been found.
Perhaps people ate their grains roasted.
This condition exists throughout the
transition period from the old to the new
Stone Age; and from that period barley

Photograph from O. F. Cook, enlarged about one-fourth.

and wheat grains have been found,
not only in southern France, but also
in the mounds of mussel shells along
the coast of Denmark.

I want to make it plain that in the
Paleolithic age—that is, some 50,000
years ago—man must have had some
kind of an art of agriculture. That he
must have possessed a relatively high
degree of culture is demonstrated by
the wonderful fidelity to nature shown
in his engravings on cavern walls.

Whether his cultivation of cereals
was done with a hoe, as we cultivate
garden-stuff, or whether it was done
in some other manner, is a question of
secondary importance. The point of
real importance is that in such a
relatively distant period there was any
agriculture at all.

ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED WHEAT.

Where did his plants come from?

It is evident that the men of the old
Stone Age must have made use of
plants that grew wild around them,
whose seeds or fruits they gathered,
and whose value was generally known.
Such ancestral forms have been defi-
nitely identified, in our time, only in
Palestine, where about 30 years ago

476

Koernicke of Poppelsdorf found wild
forms of wheat and barley. Lately
Aaronsohn has confirmed these dis-
coveries The two forms look re-
markably alike, and Braungart thought
he had discovered, in Alpine mutations,
the transitions between them. Aside
from that, North Africa yields an in-
digenous wild barley. Apparently the
ancestral home of this plant is in the
Mediterranean region, a fact that bears
witness to the antiquity of its culture
and the close connections between the
Paleolithic cave men and the Indo-
Germans.

Rye and oats can not be found with
certainty until the Bronze Age. Whence
the rye came is an unsolved question.
Hirt thinks, as a result of certain in-
dications, that rye was known to the
Indo-Germans even earlier than this.
Oats are European in their origin, and
in the form of the so-called wild or
“fly”? oats are a common weed.

Studiesin comparative philology have,
according to Hoops, shown that the
Indo-Germans had names 7m common,
for the following things and _ ideas
relating to agriculture: among cereals,
barley, spelt, wheat and millet (this
appears to be the third oldest crop,
thus presupposing a culture in high
antiquity); grains, garden bed, couch-
grass (Triticum repens), rye-grass (as a
weed). Chaff, furrow, arable land,
seythe, sickel. Broom. Meal, to grind
in a mortar, to pound, to grind between
stones, millstone, handmill, mill.

Of these words “furrow”’ and “gar-
den bed”’ extend only into the Armenian;
the others are common, and must there-
fore have been the property of the orig-
inal population before its first great
separation. They give the starting
point for an evaluation of the primitive
culture. Gardening with a hoe must at
that time have been outgrown; we find
ourselves in the presence of a real agri-
culture—otherwise words for plow, fur-
row and arable land would not have
been in use. Everything points back to
a time much more remote than we have

9 ve Cook, Oye

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

been accustomed to take into considera-
tion.

Flax, peas, beans, potherbs, are later
acquisitions, like rye and oats.

‘Barley seems to have been the earliest
crop; barleycorns were used as measures
of weight and length by the primitive
Indo-German peoples.

The question at once presents itself,
whether the agricultural implements
and skill of the Indo-Germans offer a
means of determining at what period
their separation took place. Braun-
gart has attempted to solve this ques-
tion, and seems to me to have suc-
ceeded.

EVOLUTION OF THE PLOW.

He reviews, in a long and acute work,
all the agricultural implements which
he has seen either in the original or in
model or picture, and reaches the fol-
lowing conclusions:

1. The hand implements, and the
hand-plow evolved from them, are of
Indo-German origin, and must have
been developed before the emigration
to Asia of the multitudes which later
figure as Persians, Iranians and Hin-
dus; for all the branches of the race use
the same type.

The oldest example is usually con-
sidered to be the plow found on the
moor of Doestrup in Jutland, although
the plow from the cliff near Bohuslan in
Sweden may be older. The Doestrup
plow is in that case neolithic. The so-
called Hesiod plow from Greece is
much more recent—about the ninth or
tenth century B. C.

This type, which developed from the
spade, consists in its oldest form of
three parts, and in this form exists even
to the present day in various localities.
The well-known “hook” of Mecklen-
burg and the instrument known at
Cologne as a ‘“‘wessel”’ or Huns plow,’
still in use today, are undoubtedly de-
rived, in part, from the primitive spade-
plow, and can show a neolithic ancestor
in the plow found at Dabergotz, near
Berlin. This indeed shows the typical

Wild Wheat in Palestine, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of

Plant Industry, Bull. No. 274, Washington, 1913.
* So called because it was supposed to have been introduced by the Huns,

ny
|

/

VARIATION OF WILD WHEAT

This large seeded “‘sport’’ of the Palestinian wild wheat appeared in cultivation at Bard, Cali-
fornia. It is here shown natural size. The head at the right shows in a striking way
the fragile nature of the articulations in this wild wheat—a character that is also found
in wild oats and other grains. In the struggle for ence in nature, such fragile articu-
lations are an advantage to the plant, for they enable its seeds to be more readily dissemi-
nated: under cultivation, however, they are a distinct disadvantage to man, making the

478

transition form from primitive to higher
construction—a combination of the
spade-plow and the wedge-plow.

Another form going back in principle
to the spade-plow is the so-called
‘“zoche,”’ the ditch-fork or mattock-
plow. It is used principally in Slav dis-
tricts—Prussia, Littauen, Letten—but
was used much farther west at an earlier
date, for the Lineberg farmers of Wend-
land yet say “zochen”’ for “pflugen,”’
to plow.

All of these plows have a beam which
does not permit the depth of the furrow
to be regulated; they must be dragged
by the plowman, which involves very
hard labor. At a very early age man en-
deavored to evolve a form that would
lighten his labor, and produced:

2. The wedge or sole-plow. This al-
lowed the depth of the furrow to be
regulated, and lightened the labor. The
principle is to change the position of
the shoe instead of the handle, as was
required in the ealier form.

By the addition of a mold-board this
plow developed into a garden plow, with
which in prehistoric times Germans or
Celts cultivated the so-called High
Fields (Upper Bavaria, Jutland). Its
development can be followed in every
country among all the Indo-Germanic
peoples, and the type is today in use
everywhere.

THE PLOW IN GREECE.

From Greece we possess a picture of
the goddess Kora (Persephone), with
an ancient model of this type of plow.
It was formerly considered that the dis-
tribution of this plow was from Greece,
with the spread of Hellenic culture.
Such is not the case, for we find this
type of plow among all Indo-Germanic
peoples, even in places where Grecian
influence can not even be suspected to
have reached. In its most primitive
form, it has been found fossilized in
West Prussia, near Papau.

At a very early period a wheel-frame
was constructed, mold-boards added,
and small improvements made, with

‘ Braungart, R.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

which the plow became one of the house-
hold utensils of the Indo-Germans and
accompanied them on their wanderings.
We find this type among the Iranians
and Hindus, in the Caucasus among
th Georgians and Ossetes, still in its
most primitive form. The Slavs have
changed it only in small details, not to
advantage, and of its original Indo-
German origin there can be no doubt.

As a result of his deep researches,
Braungart * comes to the conclusion
that the original home of primitive
Indo-German agriculture in the broad-
est sense of the word, is to be sought in
the present-day German empire and
surrounding territory, and only to an
unimportant extent in southern Scan-
dinavia. Further, that the agricultural
implements were, in principle at least,
well developed as early as the late
Stone Age, and that the separation of
the peoples at the beginning of their
migrations is to be placed at the middle,
if not in the earlier part, of this neolithic
age. The old Indo-Germans therefore
possessed, at least 10,000 years ago, a
well-developed art of agriculture, were
a settled population, and had a consid-
erable civilization.

Finally, a few words on my special
subject, animal husbandry.

The most important domestic ani-
mals—dogs, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats—
confront us, sometimes represented by
numerous types, in the new Stone Age.
The horse seems not to have been tamed
until later; likewise poultry.

THE DOG PREHISTORIC.

The dog, it is generally admitted,
comes into our field of knowledge at
the same time as man himself. And
before proceeding I want to remark that
we agriculturists must take with cau-
tion the very suggestive but very fanci-
ful picture of Ed. Hahn, of early man
domesticating animals from religious
motives. Hahn believes that man sub-
dued and bred wild animals in order
that he might always have at hand sub-
jects for offering to the gods. Whoever

Die Urheimat der Landwirthschaft aller indogermanischen Vélker an der

Geschichte der Kulturpflanzen und Ackerbaugerate in Mittel-und Nordeuropa nachgewiesen.

Heidelberg, 1912, C. Winter.

DETTWEILER:

ARYAN AGRICULTURE

479

PREHISTORIC AGRICULTURE

Resident of the Bronze Age plowing with a yoke of oxen.
This engraving was made with flint on the carefully
smoothed wall of a cave near Bohuslan in southern

Sweden.

It dates back probably several thousand

years B.C., and possibly much earlier, according to

Braungart, from whom the cut is taken.

The simplest

possible form of plow not operated by man alone is here
shown; it is still found, almost unchanged, among

modern Iranians in northern India.

knows the sober mind of the Germanic
peoples must reject this hypothesis
absolutely and agree that utilitarian
‘motives alone acted. Instead of fol-
lowing wild animals with the hounds
all his life, man found it more convenient
to pen up the wild animals and feed
them. Further progress in breeding
came by its own momentum.

Among dogs we find today a host of
varieties and types. That is partly due
to the diversity of the wild materiai—
wolves and jackals—which originated
them, in part to the extraordinary
variability of the species. Apparently
the dog is a product of the old Stone
Age.

Cattle were probably—in part, cer-
tainly—domesticated in the first part
of the new Stone Age. The wild stock
was the Ur or Aurochs in various forms.
I have made a particular study of the
ancestry of cattle and especially of the
black and white race. The literature
designates it as Bos taurus germanicus, as
distinguished from the red breed, B.
taurus celticus. The first is considered
to be a product of Germanic breeders,

(Fig. 3.)

the latter of Celts. But when one
collects all the data regarding the
earliest known distribution of these
types, and compares it with the known
history of the peoples, one arrives at
quite an opposite conclusien. For the
black and white cattle are beyond all
doubt a heritage from the Celts, who in
those days lived to the east of the
Germanic peoples, in the present empire
of Russia, while the Germans had red
cattle with light muzzles and some-
times white spots. These two varieties
of cattle were distinct in origin and have
no connection with each other. From
the fact, however, that these two
neighboring peoples had different kinds
of cattle, we must conclude that the
domesticating of cattle went on in-
dependently in a number of separated
districts, at a date subsequent to the
separation of Celts from Germans and
after the art of agriculture was tolerably
well known. It was not until much
later that the Celtic tribes, wandering
westward, took their black and white
cattle with them, and from the dis-
tribution of these cattle during historic

5 Represented in the United States principally by Holstein-Friesian cattle.

480

THE JOURNAL

OF HEREDITY

ANCESTOR OF DOMESTIC GOATS

The Pasang or so-called Grecian Ibex (Capra hirtus, var. aegagrus).

Although Dr. Dettweiler

seems not wholly to accept the theory, most zoologists are firmly convinced that the Pasang

is the ancestor of the domesticated goat of the present day (Capra hirtus typica).

In the

time of Homer it was common in Greece, but now is confined principally to Asia Minor,
Persia, and Afghanistan. R. Lydekker says the Swiss domesticated goat is “certainly
its descendant” and that it probably is the foundation of all other modern breeds, although
local crossings with other wild species may have aided in producing the diverse modern

races,

New York Zoological Society. (Fig. 4.)
times we have some ground for drawing
conclusions as to where the Celts
settled on various occasions. We can
follow them through Germany and
Jutland, southern Sweden and Norway,
into France, Great Britain, Spain and
finally Asia Minor.
SWINE EARLY TAMED.

Swine seem to be an older acquisition
of the race, since Celts and Germans
possessed the same breed, a huge hog
with pendulous ears. No wild form
of this type is now in existence—it has
died out along with the wild ox, the ur,

It is a slender animal, three feet high at the shoulder, and ranges far up in the
mountains, usually avoiding the lowlands altogether.

Photograph by E. R. Sanborn,

or aurochs, which furnished the material
that made up domestic cattle. The
short-eared swine of eastern Ger-
many did not arrive until the invasion
of the Slavs.

We can distinguish various breed of
sheep, without being in a _ position
today to say whence they came. The
Neolithic people had serveral types.

As for goats, researches still in prog-
ress show that we have two very
different forms, neither of which is of
known ancestry. Augst has proved that
there is a German goat, with curved
horns, and a Celtic form with larger,

DETTWEILER: ARYAN AGRICULTURE

sweeping horns. The latter type long
ago began to preponderate and seems
likely in a short time to dispossess the
Germanic type altogether.

With horses we are also in a position
at present to distinguish several original
stocks. The Celts deserve credit for
taming the oriental horse, the so-called
warm-blooded one; and perhaps this
fact gives us a clue to place the Scythians
and other nomads of the Russian
steppes in their proper place, ethno-
logically. We may assume that the
Celts took this horse with them on
their wanderings, on the one hand
eastward—Iranians, Persians, Medes,
Cimmerians, etc.—and on the other
hand westward. The oriental type of
horse was well-known for the late
neolithic period, and the Bronze Age,
through excavations in many parts of
Germany and France, even to England,
and furnished support to the hypo-
thesis of immigration from Asia. Today
we know that it is a genuine old Indo-
Germanic product, which never had
anything to do with Asia, still less with
the Arabs. For the latter got it only
‘in a relatively very recent period,
probably about the beginning of the
Christian era. Herodotus states ex-
pressly that the Arabs in the army of
Xerxes had only camels, that they
were the only people without horses,
and Strabo notes the lack of horses in
Arabia. Probably the horse was in-
troduced to Arabia from Egypt. The
Egyptians, however, are supposed to
have received it (1800 B.C.?) from
Libya to the westward; and here we
enter upon hotly contested ground.

THE NORTH AFRICAN BLONDES.

In North Africa one frequently finds
remains of the blonde, northern Euro-
pean race, which obviously was there
far prior to the invasion of the Vandals;
there is much reason to believe that in a
remote time Northern Europeans must

481

have entered Africa through Spain. The
dolmens and other finds add evidence.
When one collects all the scattered data
regarding the horse, it seems not at all
impossible—however fantastic such an
idea may at first sight appear—that in
the prehistoric time, perhaps about the
time when the Hellenes and Italians
were wandering, Celts entered Spain
and crossed over into Africa, where
their posterity, the Berbers, still work
for the French and Italians. Through
these, then, the horse would have been
carried along the Mediterranean to
Egypt and Arabia, whence it was
brought back centuries later, to be
paired in England with its much changed
relative, the Celtic Pony, and produce
the modern running horse, the so-called
thoroughbred.

The Germans themselves had a
heavy, clumsy horse that was more
useful for draft than for riding purposes.
From this, during centuries of breeding,
selection, and improved environment,
the great cold-blooded breeds, the cart-
horses, were produced. They are a
product of the forests, whereas the
thoroughbred is a product of the steppes.

If one asks why our forefathers at a
much earlier day had not tamed horses,
along with cattle, one must remember
that even a few thousand years ago the
horse was much smaller than he is
today, similar to our ponies. It was too
light to ride, and in the yoke the oxen
surpassed it. There was, therefore, no
great advantage to be gained in domes-
ticating it, since its flesh hardly justi-
fied breeding operations, the meat of
swine, sheep and goats being obtain-
able more cheaply and conveniently.

As a people, the Celts have become
insignificant, but their horses, their
cattle and more recently their goats
have gained an important, even dom-
inating, part in the animal industry of
Europe.

Permanent Reform

Until the movement of heredity is changed, physical and moral deterioration
will move side by side in ever-expanding streams. In the long run no reform can
pervail which does not look toward the creation of a sober, clean and law-abiding
stock.—Rev. Amory H. Bradford: Heredity and Christian Problems (1895).

COAT COLOR IN HORSES

Tabulation of Color of 42,165 Horses Allows Definite Conclusions to Be Drawn
as to Value of Different Factors—Errors in Registry and in Genetic
Description of Colors—Connection Between Gray and Roan.'

W. S. ANDERSON
Assistant in Horse Husbandry, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station,
Lexington, Ky.

URST, Wilson, Harper, Sturte-

vant, Anderson and _ others

have published papers on the

Inheritance of Coat Colors in
Horses. It is the purpose of the writer
to give a summary of all the available
figures on the subject and his interpre-
tation of them. The sources of the
figures collected are the various Stud
Books. As a matter of fact these can
not be accurate. I, myself, have used
the American Saddle Horse Register.
This Register has been compiled within
two or three decades and has been
revised within a decade. I find errors
in it approximating two percent. for
color and as great a percent. of errors
that might be considered of a typo-
graphical nature. Thereisno reason to
believe that other registers are more
nearly accurate than the Saddle Horse
Register.

As will be noticed from the following
table of figures the matings have been
grouped under the registered colors as:
chestnut x chestnut, chestnut x black,
chestnut x brown, etc. That is, when
both sire and dam are chestnut it is
designated a chestnut x chestnut mating.
When one is chestnut and the other is
black it is tabulated as chestnut x black
and soon. No attempt has been made
to keep the records for sexes, for the
reason that color is transmitted regard-
less of sex. The result from mating a
bay stallion to a chestnut mare is the
same in the color of the foal as if the
cross had been reciprocal, a chestnut
stallion mated to a bay mare.

The stud books recognize the follow-
ing colors in horses: gray, roan, dun, bay,

brown, black and chestnut. As a rule
the variations of each of these colors
are not recorded in the stud books.

The gray coat is made up of white
and black hairs and varies from the
almost white to the almost black, and
includes a large class of horses whose
coat is of the dappled pattern. When
young, the gray horse exhibits this
dappled condit:on or is what is desig-
nated iron gray, but as age comes on
the dapples disappear and white and
black hairs are to be found. Later on
the black may almost be lost and result
in a white horse. This white, however,
does not seem to be of the same nature
as the white found on spotted ponies
and some classes of horses. This latter
is a snow white with white skin under-
neath, while the white found on the old
horse is due to the partial disappearance
of the black hairs.

The roan pattern assumes three
forms. One of these is the red-roan in
which the coat is composed of bay and
white hairs. The second is the blue-
roan which constitutes a coat of black
and white hairs. The other form of
the roan pattern is the chestnut roan.
The coat in this case is due to white
and chestnut hairs.

DUN COLOR RARE.

The dun or cream colored coat is not
found in any great numbers. It varies
in shade from the dark to the lght
cream. Once in a while the mane and
tail have the same cream color as the
body coat, but the most usual condition
is dun body and black mane and tail
with black on feet and legs.

! The matérial here presented has been published in Bulletin No. 180 of the station, July, 1914.

482 i

ANDERSON: Coat CoLor IN Horses

483

BREEDING OUT THE GRAY

This gray mare is out of a gray dam, but has solid colors in her sire’s ancestry. Her foal is bay

by a bay stallion.

Gray is ordinarily dominant to bay (and to other colors) and the fact

that it does not appear in this colt shows that he has lost it permanently and that he can

not transmit it to his own progeny.

The fashionable color for almost all
classes of horses is the bay.’ The
average bay horse has bay hairs on the
body, but black on the legs, mane and
tail. This black may extend along the
back and up the legs to the body and
even appear on the underline of the
barrel. When the sides of the body
show black in alternating patches with
bay, the horse is frequently registered
as a brown. This brown is known
among horsemen as a mahogany brown.
As common practice allows mahogany
browns to be registered brown it makes it
quite difficult to interpret some results
as shown by matings. The mahogany
brown is a bay. The coat is a compro-
mise between bay and black but it is
not blending although it resembles a
blend. In technical terms it is a sim-
plex bay, that is, a bay produced by
two germ cells one of which carries the
determiner for bay, the other carrying
the determiner for black, the bay factor
in this union not showing the usual
dominant strength which should exclude
black hairs from the body. The ma-

(Fig. 5.)

hogany bay represents the one extreme
of bay and varies from this condition
to the bay that has no black hairs on
body or legs. The bay hair varies in
shade from the very dark wine colored
bay to the very light shade close to
chestnut.

In all the stud books examined the
horses registered as brown may vary in
shade from the dark or mahogany bay
to black. As noted above the so-called
mahogany brown is a dark bay and
should be so registered, although custom
sanctions the other method. The horse
which is called seal brown by horsemen
is almost a black horse. The top line
is all black, as is the mane and tail.
The legs, except for possible white
markings, are black up to the body.
The body is very dark, in some cases
showing a lighter shade near the flanks
and back of the nostrils. The flanks
and muzzle are said to be tan in color.

The lighter shade, called tan, on
muzzle, flanks and sometimes the hips
is not due to the presence of brown
hairs for the reason that there are no

2 Comparison of early and late volumes of the Register shows that the American Saddle Horse
is going rapidly to a chestnut color. This is partly due, doubtless, to the ease with which chest-
nuts can be bred, all that is necessary being to mate a chestnut sire and chestnut dam.

484 THE JOURNAL
true brown horse hairs unless some
shades of bay or chestnut be so called.
The tan shade is due to an alternation
of black and bay hairs, the bay hairs
being very dark and in many cases only
showing bay on the outward ends. The
horse designated as seal brown is a
black in which not all the bay has
disappeared. There is just enough of
the bay tendency left to produce lighter
shades in places on the body.

Black varies in shade from the so-
called seal brown to the jet black.
Most black horses when exposed to the
sun for some weeks show a faded condi-
tion. The ends of the hair show a bay
tinge.

The chestnut coats present a variety
of shades from the dark liver color to
the light sorrel. The mane and tail

follow closely the body shades in
variety, the lighter chestnuts often
showing the crushed strawberry or

flaxen shade in the hair of the mane and

OF HEREDITY

tail. There is the presence of enough
of white hairs among the chestnut ones
to give it the light effect.

MANY MATINGS STUDIED.

In going through the American Saddle
Horse Register I secured the color in
5,591 matings, which involve the color
of 16,773 horses. To these numbers I
am able to add from Sturtevant’s tables
8,464 matings, giving a total of 14,055
matings or the color of 42,165 horses.
This number is sufficiently large, it
seems to me, to enable proper deduc-
tions to be drawn, unless it is in the case
of the rare colors.

The tables herein given make no
distinction in the shades enumerated
for the reason that the registration books
do not give them. The percentages
are figured in round numbers so as to
exclude all fractions.

The tabulated matings and the re-
sultant foals are:

CHESTNUT X CHESTNUT.

Breed Chestnut Black Brown Bay Authority
SMOROUM SN DIC: teeter ate peo ane iene 1095 9 (bay or brown) Hurst
STW CORN a ne a ARE BSS hsm 44 1 5 Wilson
ERT OULCL hy tates Soar ri: Cake 69 0 0 0 Sturtevant
“SE1d (ol (gi ie aaa ier ne i ees ee oa 410 0 0 0 Anderson
io 2211 hs ale AU See A AR ae ae 1618 16 not chestnut
99% 1%
CHESTNUT X CHESTNUT.
RUE ne ain ek as on MB. ea es D207 SOC 8 OS et Or ee ree
CHESTNUT X BLACK.
CLC AME ners tcc Pola, slo a 111 83 20 124 Anderson
33% 24% 6% 37%
CHESTNUT X BROWN.
PRM S eRIO cc cicgs is Se dedo 2 weak nether 60 32 31 130 Anderson
24% 12% 12% 52%
CHESTNUT X BAY
PIACICUG eae is tate.< Peeks ieee coset ere 597 56 49 764 Anderson
41% 4% 3% yore: bez:.:
BLACK X BLACK.
inf aie] 4 (0) 9 Cotta ye eR a gee one LS ee 0) 49 2 not black Harper
ee Ati AE cuba meet AeA. 2 39 0 cS Wilson
IV CSSCAla aera A Atom ie ns. to Pe 0 36 2 0 Wilson
SREOUGAL DS Son ke oe te ee Manta he eal 2 34 4 2 Sturtevant
SIU tne it, cri sae heat © he iota eete 7 137 7 ) Anderson
AT Ales nz sue Jae ae on ee oh 11 295 15 5
3% 90% 5% 2%
BLACK X BROWN.
Breed Chestnut Black Brown Bay Authority
CUOMO LONE, ec pee ae wee eons 0 8 20 12 Wilson
SHINEE, ED cs tos ol ore ted een eas 4 39 36 19 Wilson
Oy (ol a ee eee ak Oe ne 1 61 106 34 Wilson
Ayla ITs ape op ee he CRP ee marl, MECH 1 11 9 5 Sturtevant
ACCUGY A iets 7 Ae att ws i hs ana etatahe 8 79 48 45 Anderson
i? 17) Rr er, cae ane I Beet, 3 14 198 219 ifalls
3% 36% 40% 21%

ANDERSON: CoAT COoLorR IN Horses 485
BLACK X BAY.
Mahonoushirede tes 2. ..ch, eh « oui eten 14 1 Di Se) Wilson
SIMU hs, Oe ee eh Me a a eee ie 19 39 43 125 Wilson
CIACESCEN IS ie Wie oroeus clare eae ieee wae if 49 67 104 Wilson
WERO UCT RES Mee eA iA cho eeaetoatie. 7 16 31 48 Sturtevant
SAG CILGH RANG unten be oh Misa Semen dg et 76 199 93 324 Anderson
Ota ete ee eA ee ye pees 123 295 261 634
10% 225, 20% A8%
BROWN X BROWN
dinorouc mre a7 pee ain is ate-te 11 6 114 78 Wilson
SS nirieets Le Badan EE Poe ARP Se cera 2 if 27 20 Wilson
laos Galera. inhi ices rane atti war hia, 0 32 165 34 Wilson
BEL OUGE Peet at tee see eles on eshte os 0 5 7 a Sturtevant
SAC CLE ear te eee Ma meet eRe 0 14 FAL 18 Anderson
ARG yc ate roan ot Set ARR TRAN 13 64 334 157
2% 11% 59% 28%
BAY X BROWN.
SUH GrOUGHWTEG Ue etd senisteee awl eters AS; 10 365 744 Wilson
Saris, AS Seve ae ete, ee re ty ae 5 23 56 133 Wilson
Clydesdale ye Ay Bae eeiia nro eco tess 5 25 254 206 Wilson
IRTHOUE eS Oe sails eee Rene gS garde eT sre 8 9 Sil 81 Sturtevant
SCLC eat Ph) cic. hae ys ene Sa eee: © 36 65 111 285 Anderson
“Prolite Cae Weed eatin | ioe eee il BD 817 1449
1% 5% 32% 56%
BAY X BAY.
ARRono tired ee ee cor ese 270 1 125 1295 Wilson
Sy iin Ces Yd eee oh cus Re ee cl Sata 28 13 18 287 Wilson
Gly desdaley eta cont no oe one 5 6 59 243 Wilson
AO ema eee ee Ce ahd oA a chante oe 9 1 3 46 Sturtevant
SP UG KGL KES ech Re Se eR a Rt ot 162 86 95 960 Anderson
“IRON ba Picea er Aopen ee Soe One 474 107 300 2831
17, 3% 8% 76%
ROAN X CHESTNUT.
Chestnut Black Brown Bay Gray Roan
9 3 9 1 14
ROAN X BLACK
1 ili 3 1 15
ROAN X BROWN.
1 5 16 18 28
ROAN X BAY.
9 5 13 39 £0
ROAN X GRAY
0 0 Wf
ROAN X ROAN.
0 0) 0 9
GRAY X NOT-GRAY
Gray Not-Gray
ADlavaraysedal ones (Ole. Verich,. eee ea EE ine Oe «fone oot Thee PUR I em 73 56 Wilson
SiO eee ea tet ee Ate NU x brs Re BA rn th 5 Boo 146 186 Wilson
Giana Kore Fa (stage Dt RAE ARIE Ve a ats oe Sf) Se Ao ea 9 15 Wilson
“TB rOLEIE sh eat Mae iat hare ana a ame TP Oe hie ch Ok RR a oa 141 142 Sturtevant
SAG See eect ier ees Lite tn role Amie h Pare en LSI MBS 70 129 Anderson
PEG ellp ee ee ae ME AE yet ee mee Nee occ tt Os oy 439 528
46% 54%
GRAY X GRAY.
PATS TEES cane Rr EO Me Re Ce aed othe es NenZeotine arclid 47 18
12% 28%

486

The writer found while tabulating
the matings for color in the Saddle
Horse Register that some foals were
reported not chestnut from chestnut
matings. I was able to find the owners
or breeders of these foals. In every
case I found that a mistake had been
made in the record. I was able to
report 410 chestnut x chestnut matings
which all resulted in chestnut foals.
Later I secured Hurst’s figures, 1905
chestnut x chestnut matings with a re-
ported nine not chestnut. Hurst used
the Thoroughbred Register of England
and must have gone back in the earliest
numbers. There is no doubt in my
mind, as Hurst himself intimates, that
the nine are mistakes in registration.
In all breeds there are 1618 chestnut x
chestnut matings producing all chestnut
except 16 according to the records.

SUFFOLKS ALL CHESTNUT.

Recently, I have secured from Fred
Smith, Secretary of the England Suffolk
Horse Society, a statement to the effect
that this Society has registered 12497
horses, all chestnuts from chestnut
matings. The breed traces back to a
chestnut horse as the founder in 1769.
One of the requirements is that a
Suffolk shall be chestnut.

I have been contending for three
years that chestnut is a true recessive.
I have asked in the stock papers for an
example of a foal that is black, bay or
gray from parents both of which are
chestnut. No breeder has volunteered
the information because he has not had
that experience in his stud. The twelve
thousand matings and over from the
Suffolk Horse Society substantiate my
position.

Other evidence of its recessive nature
is necessary than that chestnut matings
produce only chestnut foals. Any
color can behave that way in reproduc-
ing itself if it be pure bred. The
matings of the Suffolk Horse all come
from chestnut ancestry and alone would

not be conclusive proof that chestnut is:

a recessive. The chestnut matings
which I have tabulated present individ-
uals with all colors in their ancestry.
There would be a tendancy to transmit
these various colors if it be not recessive.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

Another conclusive proof of its reces-
sive nature is its production from other
colors. The above tables show that in
black x black matings there are 3%
chestnut foals, black x brown give 3%
chestnut foals, black x bay give 10%
chestnut foals, brown x brown give 2%
chestnut foals, brown x bay give 7%
chestnut foals, bayxbay give 13%
chestnut foals. Here are six classes of
matings with no external evidence of
chestnut in the animals mated, yet
regularly there come from them chest-
nut foals. If chestnut is recessive this
is what we should expect and we should
expect the chestnuts to breed true to
their color when thus produced. The
chestnut horses do breed true for chest-
nut no matter what the color of their
ancestry has been.

A striking example of the recessive
nature of chestnut is to be found in
The Theorist, a trotting bred stallion.
The three generations before him are
of solid colors other than chestnut.
The fourth generation has one chestnut
individual, and the fifth two. He is
chestnut with flaxen mane and tail.

SOME CHESTNUT MATINGS.

The other writers on the subject have
not given any figures showing the be-
havior of chestnut when mated to bay,
brown and black. I find that black x
chestnut matings give 33% chestnut,
24% black, 6% brown, and 37% bay.
Brown x chestnut matings give 24%
chestnut, 12% black, 12% brown, and
52% bay. Bay x chestnut matings give
41% chestnut, 4% black, 3% brown and
52% bay. The brown x chestnut matings
give 52% bay. This is not unexpected
when we remember that most of the
horses registered brown are genetically
bays and should have been so registered.

A real difficulty is encountered with
the black x chestnut matings, for here
we find 6% brown and 37% bay. Both
black and chestnut are recessive to bay
and there should be no bay foals from
this class of matings. There is evidently
some relationship between the factors
which produce chestnut and black and
the factors which produce bay. Just
what this relationship is I am unable to
say.

ANDERSON: CoaT

There are some stallions that are
homozygous for their own colors and
are unable to produce even from chest-
nut mares any chestnut foals. The
two bay trotting stallions, Bingen and
Alcyo, we have found, do not produce
any chestnuts, although each one has
had numerous mares who to other
stallions do produce chestnut foals.

Black is dominant to chestnut and
hypostatic to brown, bay, gray and
roan. The percentages are from a total
of 326 blackx black matings: 90%
black, 3% chestnut, 5% brown, 2% bay.
The brown and bay from black matings
are very small, not enough to vitiate
the conclusion that black is hypostatic
to these two colors as well as to gray
and roan. Under the present methods
of registration there can be no sharp
line of demarcation between bay, black
and brown. Iam confident that as the
records are now made up enough errors
have crept in, by registering bay or
brown, to account for the exceptions
above mentioned. In the opinion of
the writer, from true black horses
mated to true black, only black and
chestnut foals will be obtained. The
percentage of black colts from the cross
of black and brown and black and bay
are 36% and 22% respectively; just
about the figures that the Mendelian
law would require.

In the tabulation given above the
stud book records are taken for brown.
As indicated elsewhere in this bulletin
mahogany bays are usually registered
as brown. All. mahogany bays are
genetically bay and should be registered
as bay.

The seal brown which characterizes
the larger number of horses registered
as brown is just a light shade of black
horse and should be so registered. To
make all stud books conform to a
uniform standard the so-called brown
should be eliminated. The mahogany
browns should all be classed with bays.
The seal browns should be classed with
blacks. Should this be done the black
horse would have its variations in shade
as do the other recognized colors.

In view of all the evidence the series
seems to be: chestnut recessive to all,
black dominant to chestnut and reces-

CoLor IN Horses 487
sive to all others, bay dominant to
chestnut and black and recessive to the
three coordinate colors, gray, roah and
dun.

The colors can be arranged in three
series:

Gray Roan Dun

Bay Bay Bay
Black Black Black
Chestnut Chestnut Chestnut

The color at the top of the series is
dominant to all members of the series.
Chestnut comes last and is recessive to
all above. There is no question that
bay is recessive to gray, roan and dun,
and dominant to chestnut and black.

WHEN BAY IS DOMINANT.

Our records show 3712 bay matings,
and there is not a single gray, roan, or
dun horse thus produced. This is con-
vincing evidence that bay is hypostatic
to the three colors which head the
various series.

The evidence of the dominant nature
of bay to black and chestnut is that
out of the 3712 bay matings 76% are
bay, 3% black, 13% chestnut and 8%
the so-called brown.

That gray and roan are dominant to
bay there can be no doubt. Nine
hundred and sixty-seven foals from
matings gray x not-gray produced 46%
gray and 54% not-gray. It is known
that homozygous gray when mated
with any of the four popular colors will
always produce a gray. It is only from
a heterozygous gray that other than a
gray can be produced. We have no
records that would indicate the com-
parative strength of dun, roan and gray.
For the present we place them at the top
of the series as of coordinate strength.

The factor for the roan pattern seems
to be independent of the factor for
color. There are the three factors, or
three causes, for the colors, chestnut,
black and bay. Intimately mingle
white hairs with chestnut and the result
is a chestnut roan. White hairs with
the black coat in sufficient numbers
give the blue or black roan. The bay,
or strawberry, roan is due to a mingling
of white with the bay coat-color. The
factor, or cause, for the roan condition

488 THE JOURNAL
appears to work independent of the
determiners for the colors.

There is a reason in the behavior of
color factors, in transmission, why a
coming foal shall be a bay. Acting in
the same germ cells for this foal is the
factor for the roan condition and the
combined result of the two factors is to
produce a bay roan. Should the factors
for color have been black or chestnut in-
stead of bay the roan factor would have
acted in the same manner except the
result on the foal would have been a
black roan or a chestnut roan, according
to the resultant of the factors for those
colors.

The determiner for roan is present or
not present in the germ plasm. If
present it will be seen in the coat of the
mature horse. Its presence is dominant
over its absence. It in no way interferes
with the inheritance of the colors among
themselves.

Like the gray, roan cannot always be
detected in young foals. They appear
to be bay or black at first, and some
show this condition until they shed,
when the roan becomes visible.

When once in the germ plasm of a
strain of horses its persistence is re-
markable. The famous trotting sire
Jay Bird got his roan from his grand-
mother, Lady Franklin, about whose
ancestry we know nothing. A large

OF HEREDITY

percent. of the get of Jay Bird were
roan and it lingers in his descendants to
some extent even to the present. But
when it disappears it is like the gray, it
will not reappear. To get it again it is
necessary to go back to it.

A good illustration came to our
attention recently. An _ intelligent
horse breeder bred the progeny of a
famous gray horse for five or six genera-
tions. He lost the gray at the begin-
ning, but did his breeding expecting it
to reappear with each new generation.
He of course met with disappointment.’

So alike is the behavior of gray and
roan that the evidence points to a unity
of the two. The gray horse is, perhaps,
one form of the black roan. When the
pattern is in the dappled form which
with the black disappears with age, we
call it gray. The difference between
the gray and black roan is only one of
pattern and the quantity of white hairs.
The white is much more plentiful in the
gray than in the roan. It is a question
of quantity, I believe, and not of kind
which distinguishes the roan from the
gray. I am confident that further
research will show a close relationship
of the factors for gray and roan.

There is evidence that dun is domi-
nant to the solid colors, but there is no
evidence of the comparative strength
of gray, roan and dun.

’ By eliminating at each generation the few chestnuts produced, a breeder can easily secure a
family of horses that will produce nothing but blacks. To produce a family of bays requires more
time and patience, since the external appearance of a bay tells us little of his genetic qualities.
Grays are becoming scarce and of very mixed ancestry—to produce a family of horses that bred
pure gray would now be a difficult task for any except the Percheron breeder.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Hurst, C. C.—On the Inheritance of Coat Color In Horses.

1906.

Proceedings Royal Society 77 B,

StuRTEVANT, A. H.—A Critical Examination of Recent Studies on Color Inheritance in Horses.

Journal of Genetics, February, 1912.

Harper, E. H.—Biological Bulletin, October, 1913.
Witson, JAMES.—Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, No. 28, 1910.

WentWwortH, E. N.—Color Inheritance in the Horse.

Sonderabdruck aus der Zeitschrift fur

induktive Abstammungs und Vererbungslehre, 1913, Bd. 11, Heft 1 u. 2. Verlag von Gebriider

Borntraeger in Berlin W. 35.

ANDERSON, W. S.—The Inheritance of Coat Color in Horses.

1913,

American Naturalist, October,

ALBINISM IN MAN

Extensive Researches of Galton Laboratory Lead to Denial of Its Mendelian
Behavior—Warning as to Enunciation of Rules Governing Marriage—Eugen-
ists Must Seek More Knowledge Before Offering Advice.

A. E. HaMILTon
Extension Department, Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N.Y.

APPILY contrary to expecta-
= tion, the six volumes * already
issued from the mathematical
atmosphere of the Galton Lab-

oratory (London) on the subject of
albinism present no such arid acreage
of numbers as one is usually invited
to contemplate by investigators at
that institution. With Adam and Eve
(who have been assumed a priort by
Christian mankind to have been
white) as a starting point, the authors
have traced the history and geograph-
ical distribution of albinism with all
the charm and freshness of a traveller’s
tale, while a passion for micrometric
accuracy and critical sifting of author-
ities have rendered the reading of the
whole first volume a scientific delight.
The second volume of text is devoted
to the treatment of isolated cross
sections of the problem of albinism,
such as the microscopic structure of
the albinotic eye in man and animals,
the structure and composition of
albinotic hair, seasonal variations in
granular pigment content in the coats
of birds and animals, and the many
side-lines that such a study naturally
involves. Two photographic atlases
and one volume containing over 650
pedigrees of human albinism and
partial albinism attest the remarkable
co-operation that it has been the well-
deserved good fortune of the investi-
gators to secure. Detailed descriptions
of the pedigree material, whose collec-
tion and working up has covered already
a period of eight years, fill the text of
Part IV, save for the space given to a

1 Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs, Biometric Series.
Man, by Karl Pearson, E. Nettleship and C. H. Usher.

Ltd.

bibliography of 700 titles of works on
albinism, the cream of which has been
incorporated in the present monograph.

A bare list of the interesting facts
concerning albinism in history, geog-
raphy, medicine, folk-lore and anthro-
pology would more than fill the space
allotted fcr this brief review, so that
only a few of the high-lights can here
receive mention.

VARIETIES OF ALBINISM.

A complete albino, for the purposes
of this investigation, is described as an
individual whose skin is of a charac-
teristic pallor or milky whiteness, whose
hair is white tinged possibly with yellow
or straw, and whose eyes have pink or
red pupils, translucent irides with the
usual aceompaniments of defective vi-
sion, nystagmus and ametropia. In-
complete albinism embraces all condi-
tions where the aforementioned fac-
tors are not all present. Albinism as
thus defined occurs practically in every
section of the world and in almost every
variety of the human race, manifesting
itself in the black races of Africa, the
brown races of the Americas, the yel-
low races of Asia and the whites of
Europe and America, both in its com-
plete and incomplete form. The range
of variation, from a dash of whiteness
on the skin or the dilution of pigmenta-
tion in an eye to complete albinism, is
held by the authors to preclude the pos-

‘ sibility of treating this condition as a

unit character in heredity and to indi-
cate that before it can, even with the
greatest latitude, be so treated, a vast

A Monograph on Albinism in
Vols. I-VI. London, Dulau and Co.,

489

490

amount of further work must be done
along the lines already worked in part.

Pigmentation in albinos, especially
that of the eye, seems to increase with
age. Nystagmus is almost always pres-
ent in albinos and a high degree of
hypermetropia and astigmatism are
found in higher correlation with albin-
ism than with normality, but the poor
sight charactersitic of individuals af-
fected with albinism is due more to de-
ficiency of retinal pigment than to these
defects. Hair color is due to pigment
diffused through the fibrilae of the hair
like a dye, or as distinct granules of pig-
ment bewteen the fibrilae. This duality,
because the authors consider the ab-
sence of granular pigment the distin-
guishing mark of albinism in hair, is
presumed to preclude the study of the
heredity of pigmentation without the
aid of the microscope. Further, there is
the suggestion of changes in pigmenta-
tion, such as those that accompany age
and those that seasonal changes occa-
sion, which the authors think must be
taken into account for thoroughness’
sake. Experiments on Pekinese spaniels,
conducted by the investigators, led to
the drawing of conclusions similar to
those derived from the study of albin-
ism in man with special emphasis on
the fact that, although tested according
to Mendelian formulas, ‘‘no simple
form of Mendelian theory applies to
the coat color of dogs.”

Although the spirit of fairmindedness
runs through the whole monograph, yet
one cannot help noticing a distinct re-
frain of antimendelism which crops out
again and again with such emphasis
that it must be mentioned here not
through any desire to enter this field of
cortroversy but because it nucleates so
much of the material dealt with and
seems to play so large a réle in the
thought of the authors that it may not
well be omitted. As this memoir comes
from a laboratory of Eugenics, one is led
to conclude that its principal object is
related to this young science and that
whatever social connotations it may
carry are more important than its
bearing on or relation to ophthalmology
orgeography. The following quotation,
therefore, would seem to embody the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

essential spirit of the whole and may
fittingly be cited as indicative of the
main conclusions of the work already
done.

Say the authors:

‘“As we have seen in the course of
this work albinism is a graded character,
and we have every reason to believe
that both in man and dogs separate
grades are hereditary. Further than
this we should hesitate to go at the
present stage of our experimental work.

MENDELISM AND EUGENICS.

‘“Mendelism is at present the mode
—no other conception of heredity can
even obtain a hearing. Yet one of the
present writers at least believes that a
reaction must shortly set in, and that
the views of Galton will again come by
their own. At any rate as far as we
have gone at present the experiments
on dogs seem to indicate that there is
still a chance for philosophic Darwin-
ism—1t. e., the theory that small varia-
tions are continuously occurring and
can be perpetuated by selection. The
problem of whether philosophical Dar-
winism is to disappear before a theory
which provides nothing but a shuffling
of old unit characters varied by the
appearance of an unexplained fit of
mutation is not the only point at issue
in breeding experiments. There is a
still graver matter that we face, when
we adduce evidence that all characters
do not follow Mendelian rules. Men-
delism is being applied wholly prema-
turely to anthropological and_ social
problems in order to deduce rules as to
disease and pathological states which
have serious social bearing. A careful
record of facts will last for ages, but
theory is ever in the making or the un-
making. In all that relates to the evo-
lution of man and to the problems of
race-betterment, it is better to admit
our present limitations than to force
our data into Mendelian theory and on
the basis of such rules propound sweep-
ing racial theories and inculcate defi-
ite rules for social conduct. Even if the
offspring of an albino parent be them-
selves normal, we cannot advise them
that all is safe if they marry into nor-
mal stock; for not only is Mendelism

HAMILTON: ALBINISM IN MAN

not yet demonstrated for human albin-
ism, but who shall determine what is
‘normal’ stock, when over and over
again the albino appears in the mating
of two stocks which have no record of
previous albinism? Let us rather adopt
the tone of the sooth-sayer in Antony
and Cleopatra and when we are asked
‘Is’t you, Sir, that know things?’ reply
modestly, ‘In Nature’s infinite book of
secrecy a litile can we read.’ We await
the gradual building up of more com-
plete knowledge.”’

In perusing this truly admirable piece
of hard and conscientious work, despite
the manifest desire of the authors to
square the facts gathered with the under-
lying principles that may be found to
govern the appearance of the facts,
there comes irresistibly to mind Mrs.
John Martin’s likening of scientists to

491

crack and pointing to the nuts as wealth.
The authors of this monograph, have
gathered an invaluable store of inter-
esting facts and their desire is to relate
these facts to the problem of heredity,
but whether we must wait until the
microscope has told us allit knows of
human hair, and eye, and skin before we
may conclude, from the symboled pedi-
grees that are coming to hand in greater
and greater numbers, that albinism be-
haves recessively or no, is an open
question. With the greatest respect for
the scientific labors of our three authors
and their generous collaborators in the
field of detail and correlation, it would
still appear that, in so far as the strictly
hereditary and social aspects of albin-
ism are concerned, this monumental
work is indeed, as the authors have been
the first to see it, but a small beginning

and initial stimulus for further re-
search.

sick widow’s children who keep gather-
ing nuts which nobody at home can

Heredity and Environment

The correctness of statistical measurements of the relative force of heredity and
environment is vigorously defended by Karl Pearson in Biometrika (X, 1, April,
1914), in answer to recent writers in the Eugenics Review who have declared such
measures to be fallacious. Pearson replies that his critics question the accuracy
of the statistical method because they do not really understand what a coefficient
of correlation is, nor what mutiple correlation means. His own well-known posi-
tion is that heredity is at least five or ten times as important as environment, in
the individual; he proceeds to show that this is really a conservative estimate, and
that even in the most extreme case supposable, the influence of heredity would
still be preponderant. He assumes that there is an infinity of environmental fac-
tors which have the same correlation as a parent with the child, and that there is
assortative mating of the child’s parents; even in such a case it is only necessary
to take the grandparents into account to show that “together grandparents and
parents would influence a man’s character more than an infinity of environmental
factors of the same grade of correlation, because the latter factors are far more
highly correlated together than several of our relatives.”

Eugenic Progress

A period seems to come in the religious development of nearly every civilized
community when the moral conscience is awakened to its responsibility for the
weaker and less competent stocks, who, inheritors of the racial faults and failings,
are true scapegoats by which the progress of the race is assured to others. IH,
however, the effect of this altruistic movement in directing the attention of so-
ciety to the condition of the unsuccessful and unhealthy be to discourage and ham-
per the families of the able and robust, no further racial progress is possible, and
degeneration will set in—W. C. D. and C. D. Whetham: Heredity and Society.

THE LAWS OF NAUDIN-MENDEL

An Interpretation of the Statistics of Pearson, Nettleship and Usher, on Albinism
in Man—Practical Rules to Regulate Marriage of Members of
Tainted Family Stocks.’

Dr. E.

APERT

Physician of the Hospitals of Paris, France.

returning to this subject of the ap-

plication of the laws of Naudin-

Mendel to the human species. I
have previously discussed the question
in my book Maladies Familiales; I have
treated it in various magazine articles;
I expounded it again at the International
Eugenics Congress in London. I would
not come back to it this time if it did
not seem to me absolutely necessary to
do so. These laws are the very founda-
tion of studies on heredity; they con-
stitute the clue which at last saves us
from losing ourselves in a chaos of
facts that at first sight are multiple, de-
ceptive and contradictory; thanks to
them, we may dream of establishing a ra-
tional science of eugenics; if they do
not correspond to the facts, we have no
basis on which to pursue our eugenic
studies.

We must be very certain, then, of
the legitimacy of their application to
the human species. This legitimacy has
very recently been once more called in
question. Happily new data permit me
to establish the laws this time, not by

| BEG your pardon, gentlemen, for

analogy, by generalization for man
from observations on lower animals,

but by direct demonstration.

Let me recall that as a result of the
observations of Naudin and Mendel
on crosses between varieties of the same
species of plant, and as a result of more
recent confirmatory studies, we thought
we could consider the conclusions of
their studies as definitely established.
These conclusions were the _ segrega-
tion of forms in the posterity of crosses

(Naudin), and the existence of definite
mathematical proportions between the
numbers of descendants belonging to each
of the segregated forms (Mendel). As
these laws had been verified in very
diverse species of plants and animals,
and for very diverse morphological,
physiological. and even pathological
characters,’ their extension to the hu-
man species might have been thought
indisputable and undisputed, and their
application to the field of eugenics,
which I have tried to make, might have
been thought wholly legitimate.

ATTACKS ON THE LAWS.

But the legitimacy of the application
of the Naudin-Mendel Laws to the
human species has not only been called
in question, but violently disputed. An
article by Dr. Guyenot, ‘‘ Mendelism
and Heredity in Man,” published in his
excellent journal Biologica (Jan., 1914),
brings together a long list of objections
of the most diverse application. These
critics, it must be said, either limit
themselves to the abuses which may
occur in the premature application to
particular cases, of principles which
remain none the less unshakeable, or
else waste their energy on the category
of cases which I emphasized at London.
In some cases the law of Mendel seems
to fail, because various other factors add
their influence to the hereditary fac-
tors governed by that law: such, for
example, is the sexual factor (matri-
archal heredity). To settle such cases,
one method alone is_ practicable—

1 Delivered before the Société Francaise d’Eugénique, May 6, 1914; translated from Eugénique

(organ of the society), II, 5, 129ff., Mai, 1914.

* Hereditary ataxy in mice, rust resistance in wheat.

492

APERT: THE LAWS OF

namely, the patient observation of
numerous cases of inheritance in man.

Of course, the objection is at once
raised that it is very difficult to observe
the facts of heredity in man. The dif-
ficulties are indeed great, and there is
every reason for insisting on them.
The observation of facts of heredity can
be much simplified in experimental
plant and animal breeding, by judicious
choice of the varieties with which one
works, but no such expedient is avail-
able in the human species. It is very
true, as critics have emphasized, that
scientific prudence requires us, in deal-
ing with heredity in man, sometimes to
have a doubt about the real paternity
of the subjects with whom we are deal-
ing. It is very true that it is hard to
push our researches farther back than
two or three generations. It is very
true that the ordinarily small number
of descendants of any couple make the
search for the Mendelian proportions
deceptive. All of these difficulties are
of the most inevitable sort. But be-
cause the verification of a law is dif-
ficult, shall we say that the law is
untrue? Hardly! We are merely led to
say that researches on a large scale
are necessary to surmount the difficul-
ties, and to verify or contradict the
exactitude of the law. The work will
be onerous, but may nevertheless be
conclusive.

A good part of this work of collecting
facts is now in process, thanks to the
efforts of eugenic organizations. I do
not refer to our own society, whose
birth is too recent and whose funds too
limited, to allow it to do such work;
but you are familiar with the beautiful
publications which make up the Treas-
ury of Human Inheritance, issued by
the Eugenics Laboratory of London,
and also with the Drapers’ Company
Research Memoirs, published by the
Biometric Laboratory of the University
of London. In the latter series, Messrs.
Pearson, Nettleship and Usher have
just issued a big volume of pedigrees
relating to albinism in man.

ALBINISM IN MAN.

Albinism is one of the variations
which has been the most studied from

NaAvuDIN-MENDEL 493
the top to the bottom of the animal and
vegetable scale, from the Mendelian
point of view, and it has always shown
itself to be recessive from that point of
view. Here, then, is a good chance to
see whether albinism obeys Mendel’s
Law in man, too; whether it is reces-
sive, as it is with other living things.
When it is realized that the work of
these writers has brought together 691
genealogical trees, that many of them
include three, four, five, or even six
generations, that some of them include
several hundred individuals, it will be
admitted that the material on hand
makes errors, if not negligible, at
least much less important, so that their
final influence on the results will be
very slight.

In particular, the objection drawn
from the small number of offspring of
a single couple, in the human species,
wholly disappears. If, instead of seek-
ing the number of albinos among the
offspring of a single couple, we seek the
number among the children of some
hundreds of couples, all of whom have
given rise to one or more albinos, the
result obtained will command some re-
spect; and if it coincides with the Men-
delian proportions, we have a right to
assume that the law of Mendel is veri-
fied.

However, we do not obtain the large
numbers necessary if we limit ourselves
to investigating the direct descendants
of albinos. For many reasons, albinos
rarely marry; and their marriages are
rarely fecund. Fertile marriages be-
tween two albinos are rare; in marriages
between an albino and a normal the
result is, according to the Mendelian
law, variable according as the normal
individual is homozygous (in that case
there should be no albino offspring,
according to the formula DDxRR=
100% DR), or as that individual is
heterozygous (when we have DRx
RR=50% DR+50% RR, or half of
the children albinos). But in man, it
is rare that we can say with certainty
whether a subject of normal appearance
is or is not homozygous. We can, there-
fore, get no help for our present study
from statistics of children one of whose
parents was albino and the other nor-

494

mal, even if the cases were sufficiently
numerous, which they are not.

THE CRITICAL CASE.

But on the other hand, when two non-
albino individuals have among their
offspring one or several albinos, we can
affirm, if Mendel’s Law is exact, that
these two parents are heterozygous
DR; and we know that the proportion
of recessives RR in unions between
heterozygotes is 25 in 100, according
to the formula DRxDR=25% DD+
50% DR+25%RR. In the pedigrees
collected by Pearson, Nettleship and
Usher, we shall therefore seek the cases
where one or more albino children have
been produced by normal parents; and
we shall see whether their numerical
proportion, relative to the total num-
ber of children born from those couples,
accords with Mendel’s Law.

It must be carefully noted that the
theoretical figure, when we _ proceed
thus, is not 25%, but a larger figure,
separated the more widely from 25, in
proportion as the number of children
born to the couple is the smaller. For
each of the children successively born
to our heterozygous couple, there are
indeed 25 chances in 100 or one chance
in four that he will be an albino. But
when the total number of offspring
contains no albino, the case escapes
our observation. If, for example, the
phratry * consists of but one individual,

A B C
No. of No. of Total No.
children in phratries of albinos
the phratry. observed. in phratries.
1 64 64
2 80 109
3 96 149
4 85 139
: 77 140
6 74 164
7 57 128
8 40 100
9 34 79
10 29 76
11 15 49
12 11 34
13 7 24

THE JOURNAL

OF HEREDITY

the only phratries noted in our statis-
tics are those in which this unique sub-
ject is an albino, and the proportion is
therefore 100%. In phratries composed
of two children, there is one chance in
four that the eldest-born shall be an
albino, there is also one chance in four
that the second shall also be an albino,
and consequently there is one chance in
4x4, or 16, that both subjects be al-
binos. On the other hand, there are
three chances in four that the first-
born be not an albino, three chances in
four that the second shall not be an
albino, either, and consequently 3x3
chances in 4x4, or nine chances in 16,
that both the children be normal. But
as these cases escape observation, there
remain one phratry of two albinos in
two children, and six phratries of one
albino in two children, or eight albinos
in 14 children—that is, 57 in 100. Con-
tinuing thus we find, for phratries of
three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine,
10, 11, 12, and 13 children, the figures of
43, 36, 33, 30; 28.8) 27.7, 24, 26476
25.7, 25.5 (in 100)—a proportion that
continually approaches the proportion
25 per 100, without ever reaching it.

Such are the theoretical figures, cal-
culated according to Mendel’s Law;
we must now compare them with the
figures contained in the genealogical
work of Pearson, Nettleship and Usher.
These figures are contained in the fol-
lowing table:

D E F
| P ti
Avg. No. Proportion | o¢ pt ee eis
albinos per of albinos in | 100 (Hee he
phratry. ‘theoret-

ical figures).

100 children. |

1 100 100
1.36 68 57
1.54 51 43
1.63 40 36
1.82 36 33
Livan 35 30
2.24 32 28.8
2.50 31 v¥ al
232 25 27
2.62 26 26.4
Sea 29 26
3.09 25 yA |
3.43 26 25.3

* For the sake of simplicity I thus designate the ensemble of brothers and sisters borne to the

same parents.

The English eugenists use the neologism sibship in the same sense, making use

of the word sibling to designate each of the individuals making up a sibship, whatever be his or

her sex.

APERT: THE Laws oF NaupDIN-MENDEL

It is obvious that, in a general way,
the proportions found in the geneal-
ogies are quite close to the proportions
calculated theoretically. It is noticeable
that, in general, they are somewhat
higher. It is not unnatural to conclude
that some factor has come into play,
which adds its influence to the heredi-
tary factor ruled by Mendel’s Law;
should we invoke, beside the heredi-
tary factor, a factor of imnateness, as
Lucas does? Perhaps, because it is
certainly necessary that albinism should
have appeared on some occasion, for
the first time; perhaps this factor still
exists, to add its influence to the factor
of heredity. But to me another explana-
tion seems more plausible. Note that
the discordance only exists in the small
phratries; it disappears in the phratries
above eight subjects. I think it is be-
cause these researches do not repre-
sent the population in its entirety. I
mean that the authors have gathered
their material by collecting all observa-
tions published on the subject of albin-
ism: now, it is very certain that not all
cases of albinism are published, but
only those which present some inter-
esting particulars; among the interest-
ing details which would lead to pub-
lication is the coexistence of several
albinos in the same phratry, while an
observer would easily pass without
publication an observation relative to a
single, isolated albino, unless he _ be-
longed to a very large phratry, in which
case his isolation would itself be an
interesting fact. In small families, the
facts published by preference are those
in which albinism appears relatively
frequent; and it is in this manner that
I should explain how the proportion of
albinos found in small families is some-

495

what larger than the calculated expec-
tation. It is probable that if the statis-
tics could include all families in which
albinism exists, the discrepancy—small,
as it is—between observation and theory
would be much diminished. We would
then have only slight oscillations above
or below the theoretical probability, as
we have at present in the families of
nine, 10, 11, 12 and 13 children.

To sum up: the figures brought out
of the documents are in very close
agreement with those required by the
Mendelian law, or present only diver-
gences explicable by the conditions
under which the documents were com-
piled; and all these divergences are in
the direction which the conditions lead
us to expect.

We can even extend this agreement
farther still. It is easy to calculate,
from the mathematical law, the prob-
ability of the number of albinos in
“albino phratries.”” Take, for example,
the phratries of seven children. Calcula-
tion shows one chance in 14,198 that
in these seven children there will be
seven albinos; 21 chances in 14,198 that
there will be six albinos; and 189, 945,
2,835, 5,103 and 5,103 chances in 14,198
that there will be five, four, three, two
and one albinos in seven children.

Let us compare this calculation with
the observation. In the work of Pear-
son, Nettleship and Usher, we find 57
albino phratries containing seven chil-
dren each. Oneof these contains six
albinos, four contain four, 18 contain
three, 14 contain two and 19 contain
one albino among the seven children.
Calculating these figures on the basis
of 100, to make comparison easy, we
get the following table:

\ PHRATRIES OF SEVEN CHILDREN.

| Figures calculated.
| |

Figures observed.

Absolute. Percent. | Absolute. | Percent.
Tel LL OSL A ae Pn ee ce wy ig ect ee ee | 0 0) / 1 0.007
Gialininicssmye ume sees ye ee ce Ns 2% | 1 | at 5 ih) 21 0.14
Sea ATIOS on. toe Ns a eee eis 9 0 0 189 e335
| sso: age a Mo oy eee eo ek ee 4 | 8.77 945 6.33
SUA BIOS 1 a Se NE RIG Oe pee NS IE eg te ery J 18 3154 || 2,835 19
DE AOS es = oe a eee tees Lye er dre 2 14 24.55 5,103 34.20
J eMlovhatote eames ee eek he ee eee Ot a et ee 19 33.33 5,103 34.20

496

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

I have arranged tables for the phratries of six, five, four, three and two children,

in the same way.

PHRATRIES OF SIX CHILDREN.

Figures observed. Figures calculated.

|
| ayes ? 5 =.
|

/

Absolute. | Percent. Absolute. Percent.
eaters: as Moe es Re en at CR ae OAD, | 2 70| 1 0.029
Bratt. eas et, em ee ema 2 970 |) 18 0.52
BIA OS I.E Se Seth iC ae ae ee 5 6275 4 135 3.89
TT Te Rg OE ape Se) Mkenuines ee iy 19 25.67 | 530 | 15.57
easy Fi 8 St We ag Mee eee Rae 20 26.02 1,215 |. 3500s
OT saga RRO EES MR data PE ee En 26 35.03 1,458 | 42.05
PHRATRIES OF FIVE CHILDREN.
Danie pete fr NCR ere ee te aes Mn 11 “qe
ea See eae hoe wR i ng Ree 2 Beet Ae 1 1.41 is).
RON Oise es ate, Me Re 13 16.88 90 | 10.89
DATs A Or ae eee eR IT 26 33.77 270 | 32.68
| LE eR INR IES one HN el ty ie 35 45.45 450 | 54.47
i PS. :
PHRATRIES OF FOUR CHILDREN.
cee hiek aes ees 2 Poe :
errno) 3) ei eee tt oe ie eS | 1 | 1-97 | 1 | Oyae
STALE UOG Siete db Beak Fe oe dunilers cram N gine canes Gees | 10 11.76 ie 6.85
Rs oh et Ree oy onl er i el BP ia Bi ski's -36ekienl 54 | 30.85
It aye nS en i TA TOR Ag 4) OSB ag 108 | 61.71
it oe ’ |
PHRATRIES OF THREE CHILDREN.
PURER ESUTICTESS ORY As Ah Lee an ol cee ble, dy eaets eteyer 1 13 13.68 1 2.70
Ot Ia le EEE a A 26 9736 4 9 | 24.32
We ge oy ys Sls ee ha ae 56 58.94 | 27 | 72.97
r x. Suh P te |
PHRATRIES OF TWO CHILDREN.

DON.” pe emma ef, Yc PR, mans od | pS 2a ell eB Greet 1 | 14033
‘athens cris, 4 ee ee 50 63.29 6 | “sseme

If these tables are studied it will be
seen that the disc epancy between the
observed and theoretical figures is not
noteworthy except in cases where this
difference can be explained by the re-
mark I made. that the figures of Pear-
son, Nettleship and Usher are not the
result of a complete census, but of a
collection of published cases, where the
rarest instances figure in proportion-
ately too large a number, and: where
on the contrary many common _ in-

stances, such as that of a single albino
in a family, do not figure. It will be
noted that the discrepancies observed
are always in the direction which this
remark requires, and they are impor-
tant only in the cases where their im-
portance is explained by the circum-
stances under which the observation
was made. That proves, then, the
exactness of my explanation. On the
whole, and taking account of these
explanations, we may say that obser-

APERT: THE Laws oF NaupDIN-MENDEL

vation verifies the Mendelian propor-
tions.

It seems to me difficult not to admit,
as a consequence of these statistics,
that albinism in man is recessive and
obeys the law of definite proportions,
established by Mendel.

The laws of Naudin and Mendel,
then, are incontestably applicable to
the human species, in this instance.
Certainly, that does not prove that
they apply equally to other anomalies.
I should be very careful about drawing
conclusions from this demonstration in
albinism, about other family taints in
man, whether they be of an anatomical,
physiological or pathological nature.
There will be no possibility of certitude,
until each of these anomalies has been

the object of ananalogous study. How- .

ever, if the case for albinism is proved,
does it not at least render it probable
that other anomalies behave in the
same way, and should it not encourage
us to pursue our researches in that di-
rection?

Even before the discovery of the
work, we knew that the mode of trans-
mission of family defects presented curi-
ous particulars which allowed them to
be classed in two groups: Féré proposed
the name of fraternal diseases for those
in which the heredity is collateral and
discontinuous—that is to say, the mode
of transmission proper to recessive
characters; a second group, parental
diseases, is transmitted on the contrary
in continuous inheritance, in the manner
of dominant characteristics. Is it not
very probable that the inheritance of
these diseases obeys Mendel’s Law, the
first being recessives and the second
dominants? Shall we await a rigorous
mathematical demonstration before try-
ing to make any practical application of
the principles which they involve?

POSSIBILITY OF APPLICATION.
In this respect, it is important to

497

distinguish the practice of legal medi-
cine from that of clinical medicine.
Medico-legal truth demands absolute
demonstration: I should take care, for
example, in legal medicine, not to af-
firm a case of conjugal infidelity, if
from the union of two albinos there was
born, contrary to the Law of Mendel, a
normal child; we are not yet well enough
informed whether, in certain excep-
tional cases, extraneous factors may not
interfere with the results which would
be expected in such a case under the
Mendelian Law.

But in the practice of clinical medi-
cine, the case is different. There, we
can not act as did the professor in the
fable, and philosophize while the child
drowns. The possibility of a danger, the
probability of a benefit, is enough to
give us not only the right, but the duty,
of making the appropriate prescription
as soon as possible: we thus have a
chance of saving from this danger the
families whose guidance is entrusted
to us, or the hope of benefiting them.

It is from such a viewpoint that I
formulated at the Congress in London
some rules * which, in the present status
of the science of eugenics, should be
considered as allowing us to avoid the
dangers to be feared in marriages of
members of tainted family stocks,
when these taints can be classified as
to their mode of inheritance. I persist
in thinking that these rules are of great
value. For one of the diseases mentioned
—albinism—a more rigorous demonstra-
tion has proved that they correspond to
scientific truth. For the other diseases
we have not yet, I admit, anything
except a probability based on clinical
observation which is often restricted,
but often extended. This probability,
however, is enough to make it impos-
sible for us to disregard the rules which
ensure the safeguard of strains of germ-
plasm from family diseases.

4 Following are the conclusions of my communication to the Congress of London, where these
rules are formulated (they were also published at length in the Monde Medical, 1912, No. 459):
“To sum up, the study of heredity in family diseases permits us to lay down a certain number

of rules which indicate the risks incurred in any given marriage.

Such study permits us to

withdraw the total prohibition of reproduction, demanded by writers who have studied the
question only superficially—a measure too draconianever to have been enforced.. We are now
in a position to substitute for such prohibition, advice that is more likely to be followed, because
it leaves to the unhappy members of tainted families the possibility of leading a normal life,

ORIGIN OF THE DATE PALM

Fossils Found in Texas Indicate that it May be Native of America—Known Only
in Orient in Historic Times—Its Connection with Semites and Its Religious
Importance—Influence as Factor of Natural Selection.

THE EDITOR

OR many years botanists have
wondered where the date palm

as a distinct species originated.
Sentiment has seemed to in-

cline toward North Africa as its first
home, but the precise locality sug-
gested has varied all the way from
western Morocco to eastern Egypt;
while the German botanist Schwein-
furth declared his belief that Phoenix
spinosa of tropical Africa was the
species most nearly like the ancestral
type of date palm, if indeed the latter
was not a direct descendant of P.
spinosa. The Italian botanist Odoardo
Beccari, who is by general consent the
authority on palms at present, con-
sidered the Persian Gulf to be the home
of the date palm, and set forth’ his
position in such a logical way that the
question seemed for a time to be settled.
“It is only in the orient,”’ says
Beccari, “that the true home of the date
palm is to be found; in the orient where
the true center of formation of the

! Beccari, O. Malesia, III, 359.

placing them under no restraint except that of judicious choice in marriage mating.

can be summarized as follows:

genus Phoenix is located and where the
wild species most closely related to the
domestic one—namely, Phoenix syl-
vestris—exists.”’

Beccari then elaborates his evidence
in more detail. The home of the date
palm must first be generally fixed by
finding the home of its whole genus.
The present distribution of Phoenix
indicates that this must have been in
India, according to Beccari’s way of
thinking. Next, the home of the date
palm must be more definitely located,
by a consideration of the physiological
and morphological characters of the
plant. We have a palm which thrives
only in subtropical regions with scanty
rains, but demands much moisture
about its roots, and is remarkably
tolerant of alkaline soils. Beccari
thinks these facts may be taken to
mean that the ancestral home of the
date palm possessed similar charac-
teristics. He therefore seeks its origin
in a region of subtropical climate and

Firenze-Roma, 1886.

These rules

“Diseases of parental heredity: individuals who show no traces of the disease should not be the
objects of any restrictive measures whatever; nor are consanguineous marriages particularly
to be feared.

“Diseases of matriarchal heredity: descendants of affected males should not be the objects of
any restrictive measures; individuals descending from the common stock exclusively through
the female line may themselves be attacked by the disease, if males, or may transmit the disease
to male offspring, if females; consanguineous marriages are not particularly dangerous.

“Diseases of fraternal heredity: the malady may be transmitted in a latent state by all descen-
dants of the affected subjects, or by their collaterals; but its chances of reappearing are much
smaller than in the two preceding categories, these first two being of the dominant type. On the
other hand consanguineous marriages, no matter how remote the degree of kinship, may be very
dangerous in this latter category. As the disease may remain latent through a series of genera-
tions, one must go high in the ascendants, far in the collaterals, to be sure that an individual
coming from an affected stock will marry into an untainted one. In such ‘outcrosses,’ the chance
of a return of the disease becomes very slight.”” To this I added:

‘‘In closing, I do not want to slight the fact that application of the rules thus established offers
difficulties in many cases. The mode of inheritance has not yet been sufficiently determined
for many family diseases. Some of them seem to fall in two classes. In such cases, it would
be prudent to double the precautions.”

498

THE EpItor: ORIGIN OF THE DaTE PALM 499

SEEDS OF THE AMERICAN DATE PALM

These fossil seeds were recently,found in a Tertiary deposit
of Texas, and give the first indication that the date
palm, now confined to the eastern hemisphere, was at

one time an inhabitant of America.

They are con-

siderably larger than thefseeds of most commercial
varieties of date known at the present day, but can
be matched by seeds of occasional palms which have

grown from seed, and show,reversion.

(Fig. 6.)

scanty rainfall, close to the sea or some
other body of salt water, this being a
necessary condition to furnish the moist
but saline subsoil for which the palm is
evidently adapted. ‘‘This region,” he
concludes, “‘can only be sought to the
west of India, in Southern Persia or on
the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf.

“To locate the original home of a
cultivated plant, however, and to admit
that it exists there today, are two
different things.

WILD FORM NOT KNOWN.

“Tt is my belief that the date palm
can not be found today in a wild state,
because the nutritive qualities of its
fruit are so great and the natural pro-
tection afforded to the flowers and
vegetative parts is so slight, that it
could not exist except by the aid of
Mam | - Lae date palm can not
be found except linked to the white
human race. . . . No one should under-
estimate the importance which it must
have exercised on the populations among
which it prospered, in the preponder-
ance which such populations were able
to attain over others, as a result of the
nutritious food, wholesome and plentiful,
which the date palm furnished them.”’

But the recent discovery in a Tertiary
deposit of eastern Texas of fossil dates
has brought in an entirely new phase
of the question, and strikingly illus-

After Berry.

trated the danger which surrounds all
attempts to speculate on the data
presented by systematic botany. Even
scientists who looked on the western
hemisphere as the original home of
agriculture have never, so far as I know,
suggested that the date palm was one
of the products which America has
furnished the world; yet the find of
dates dating back several millions of
years throws the burden of proof on
those who would now hold otherwise.

The discovery of these remains was
announced by Edward W. Berry of
Johns Hopkins University in the Amerz-
can. Journal of Science (May, 1914).
He writes:

“The considerable range of species of
Phoenix-like palms in the south Euro-
pean Tertiary has led to the expecta-
tion of their discovery in our more
tropical southern Tertiaries when these
should have been thoroughly explored,
just as the Bread-fruit, Cinnamon tree
and Nipa-Palm have been found; never-
theless, the actual proof cf the former
existence of a date palm in the Western
Hemisphere is one of the more spectacu-
lar incidents of the paleobotanists’
work, since it is likely to attract more
attention from botanists and geologists
engrossed in their own special lines of
study than a tome of admirable de-
scriptive paleobotanical work. In order
that the presence of the date palm in

500

the American Tertiary may not remain
unknown until my monographic studies
of our southern Tertiary floras are pub-
lished, which will be a number of years
hence, I am prompted to publish the
present brief note.

THE FOSSIL FRUIT.

“In the course of my studies for the
U. S. Geological Survey and under the
supervision of Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan,
I have had the good fortune to receive
collections of fossil plants from eastern
Texas made under the direction of the
veteran geologist, E. T. Dumble, now
associated with the Southern Pacific
Company. The material on which the
following note is based was collected
by Chas. Laurence Baker in Trinity
county, Texas, and while not abundant
contains both large and small seeds and
a cast of the entire fruit of a new species
of Phoenix-like palm which may with
propriety be referred to Brongniart’s
genus Phoenicites. I propose to call this
species Phoenicites occidentalis. It may
be described as follows: Fruit, as pre-
served in a coarse gray sandstone, an
oblate spheroid about 4 cm. in length
by 1.5 cm. in breadth. The surface is
longitudinally wrinkled, due possibly to
dessication before preservation, which
may also make the dimensions as given
under what they were in life. The flesh
was relatively thin compared with the
cultivated date and must have been of
considerable consistency and _ fibrous
rather than of the soft and almost
fluid character of some of the modern
varieties of the latter. The seed was
relatively large—in the above-mentioned
specimen it is rounded at both ends,
about 3 cm. in length, nearly circular in
transverse section and about 1 cm. in
diameter. A smaller specimen shows a
length of about 2.5 cm. and a diameter
of 8 mm. The larger of these seeds
shows the central hilum, the deep longi-
tudinal sinus on the opposite side, the
transverse lamellated structure exactly
comparable to that of a modern date
seed and the finely corrugated surface
coat identical with that of a dried seed
of a modern date. The smaller specimen,
while not so perfect, shows the general
form and sinus and the lamellated

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

structure. There can be no doubt that
these remains are those of a Phoenix-
like fruit and it is confidently expected
that the foliage will eventually be dis-
covered, in fact some of the fragments
of palm-rays found at this and other
horizons in our southern Tertiary may
represent this foliage. Petrified wood of
several species of palms is exceedingly
abundant in these beds, and while the
study of palm woods has not progressed
to a point where one can speak with
certainty of the generic relations of the
petrified woods, it is significant that
wood of several different species occurs
at this horizon.

FOSSILS FROM EUROPE.

“While the geologic record is con-
fessedly incomplete, a number of fossil
species of Phoenix-like forms have been
described, in fact there are more fossil
than recent species. ‘These are usually
referred to the genus Phoenicites of
Brongniart as in the present case, al-
though some students refer them directly
to the genus Phoenix of Linné. The
previous fossil occurrences are all Eu-
ropean and are based on leaves and
inflorescence. In 1886 Conwentz de-
scribed a flower preserved in perfection
in the Baltic amber and the staminate
inflorescence of another species is asso-
ciated with splendid leaves in the Eocene
of the Paris basin. The oldest known
comes from the upper or middle Eocene
of the Paris basin, while in the succeed-
ing Oligocene period the remains of date
palms are abundant in Germany, Bo-
hemia, and especially in northern Italy.
They are present in the early Miocene
of France, Switzerland and Croatia. A
species is recorded from the west coast
of the Adriatic in Pliocene times and the
presence of a well-marked form which
Drude calls Phoenix dactylifera fossilis,
since it is so much like the existing date,
is found in the Pleistocene deposits of
the volcanic island of Santorin in the
Aegean Sea. The latter occurrence in-
dicates that the date palm was endemic
in at least a part of southern Europe
until comparatively recent geologic
times.

‘A consideration of the ecology of the
date and of other existing species of

THE EpITorR: ORIGIN OF THE DaTE PALM

501

LON A,

Ne KG:
WSs
WE |

THE RANGE OF THE DATE PALM
The present range of the date palm is in the territory circumscribed by the

heavy line.

been introduced here within a relatively recent time.

No account is made of America, since the palm has only

The stars

show localities from which fossil remains have been taken, indicating
that in the prehistoric period the palm was much more widely spread

than at present.

Phoenix, at least two of which are
coastal types, indicates that the geo-
logic ancestors were not necessarily
desert types, but inhabitants of coast
and stream-banks where the water-
table approached near enough to the
surface to become available for their
root system. When corroborated by
the associated forms of vegetation they
may indicate hot climates with a
scanty rainfall as they probably do in
east Texas and it seems certain that
temperatures could not have gone below
18° C. without being fatal.

“ Phoenicites occidentalis comes from a
cut on the International and Great
Northern Railroad in southern Trinity
county, where a spur to the govern-
ment lock leaves the main line. The
outcrop is referred to the Catahoula
formation, which in this region is of
late Eocene or early Oligocene age.’’

MIGRATION OF THE PALM.

Why the date palm became extinct
in America, and how it spread to the
Eastern Hemisphere, one can hardly
guess, but as such a history is matched
by that of numerous other plants and
animals known to us, there is nothing

After Berry.

(Fig. 7.)

improbable in it. As far as our his-
torical record goes—and for the date
palm it goes back very close to the be-
ginning of history—the palm has been
associated with the Semitic peoples, so
that it has come to be considered an
integral part of their culture.

Far earlier than any of our written
records we must picture the date palm
as established in the Persian Gulf and
Babylonia, and forming an important
part of the food of the inhabitants of
that region. Its fruit in that period
doubtless consisted of much seed and
little flesh, like the Texas fossil and like
the fruit of Phoenix sylvestris and many
seedling dates today, for in that early
period we can hardly suppose that the
propagation of superior varieties by
offshoots was practiced. By the time,
however, of the famous Hammurabi
(c. 1958-1916 B. C.) there is evidence
that propagation by offshoots was the
customary means of starting a planta-
tion. The sixtieth paragraph of that
monarch’s code of laws provides that,
if a man lease his garden to another to
plant as an orchard, he shall let it
without rent for four years, but in the
fifth year the owner shall have half

502 THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

the crop. There are several contracts
of the period of Hammurabi, which
relate to orchards, all of which mention
dates as the principal, indeed the only
fruit, crop. The natural inference is
that orchards in Babylonia always
contained dates, and that planting an
orchard meant getting palms ready to
bear. Four years, then, was the time
allowe a limit that makes
vegetative propagation absolutely neces-
sary. Indeed, if the Babylonians could
get a paying crop in the fifth year, they
did better than most Arab cultivators
do today in Babylonia, although Cali-
fornians expect to do as well as that, by
the use of scientific methods.

Scholars now believe 5000 B.C.to be
as early as any settlement in Babylonia
can be traced. Even at that time,
however, dates must have been one of
the most important products, as they
perhaps were to the Semites in their
varlier Arabian home some thousands
of years previously. When we first be-
gin to get written records from Baby-
lonia, we find that the palm holds a
prominent place. One of the oldest
tablets in the world is a Babylonian
fragment now in New York, which
may go back to 3000 B.C., and contains
a rude picture of a date palm, in con-
nection with a memorandum of an
offering to some temple.

THE DRINK OF LIFE.

At that period, and doubtless far
earlier, the palm was valued not only
for its fruit, but perhaps almost as
much for the beverage which its sap
furnished. This appears in early in-
scriptions under the name of ‘the
drink of life;” ‘‘as far back as the period
of the formation of the cuneiform script
this was the name given to the date
wine of Babylonia,’ says Sayce. Bec-
cari interestingly discusses the way
in which the possibility of producing
an intoxicating liquor from the palm
came to be known. ‘That primitive
man could at a very early period dis-
cover the manner of. obtaining a fer-
mentable liquor from the date palm is

2See R. F. Harper,

suggestions to Dr. Geo,

easily understood,”’ he thinks. ‘When
he learned that by cutting out the
terminal bud of the palm he obtained a
delicious food, he also found that as a
result of that operation, a sweetish
liquid flowed abundantly from the
wound. Nothing more natural, in a
country where water is scarce, than
that this liquid should have been caught
in some kind of a receptacle and used
for drinking. But in the meanwhile the
liquor fermented; and thus perchance,
earlier than the juice of the grape, man
may have learned the method of making
alcohol, and to feel the effects of its
inebriating power.’

Beccari is no doubt right in emphasiz-
ing the tremendous importance this
discovery must have had, as an agent of
natural selection. While palm wine is
not to be compared with distilled liquors,
in alcoholic content, it yet contains so
much alcohol, when fermented, as to
be decidedly dangerous. The French
have recently prohibited its manufac-
ture in Algeria, partly because the na-
tives were destroying their plantations
in order to satisfy their appetites for
alcohol, but largely because the bever-
age led to incessant breaches of the peace.
The influence of alcohol in injuring
germ plasm is becoming better attested
each year, yet most of the germ plasm
now exposed to its ravages has gone
through centuries of natural selection,
when the strains which showed the
least resistance to it were cut off. The
havoc that must have been wrought
by palm wine, when first discovered
and used by a people who had never
undergone any selection against alcohol,
can only be imagined by remembering
how the American Indian fared under
similar circumstances.

THE MYSTERY OF SEX.

Added to its value as a producer of
food and drink, the date palm _ pos-
sessed another element of intense in-
terest to the dwellers of Babylonia and
the shores of the Persian Gulf in its
dioeciousness—female and male flowers
being borne on different palms. The

The Code of Hammurabi, p. 53, 1904, and Schorr, Urkunden des altbaby-
lonischen Zivil-und Prozessrechts, pp. 189-194, 1913.
A. Barton of Bryn Mawr College.

I owe this and numerous other valuable

THE EDITOR: ORIGIN OF THE DaTE PALM

LY LLIN NANG

POLLINATION OF THE PALM

Conventional design of a type particularly frequent in the palace of Ashurnasirpal (883-859

B.C.) at Nimrud (Ninevah).

While orientalists do not agree on the interpretation of

the figure, there is reason to believe that the winged deity represents the palm god, and
that he is holding in his right hand a male inflorescence, with which he is fecundating the

female flowers.

Because of its dioeciousness, the palm early came to symbolize the repro-

ductive force of nature, for the Semitic peoples, and thus assumed an important place in

their religion. After Siret. (Fig. 8.)

mystery of reproduction always oc-
cupies the minds of primitive peoples,
and here was a particularly striking
case, where the process of fecundation
could be watched, or even carried out
by the agency of man, and where the
difference in result, as the female was
or was not pollinated, was marked.

The date palm, already valued as pro-
ducing the best food, and the “drink
of life,’’ come to symbolize the creative
force of Nature, and the next step, de-
tails of which are not wholly clear to
us, led to its firm establishment as the
“tree of life,’ an object of actual wor-
ship—or at least, to its identification

504

with that primitive Semitic goddess,
who herself symbolized the creative force
of nature.

Weare still dealing with a very remote
period of human history, and the rec-
ords which have come down to us are
fragmentary, but we have enough to
get a general view of the date palm as
the center of a cult of immense antia-
uity. Our earliest records show this cult
centered in the town of Eridu, only a
few miles from that Ur of the Chaldees
(Mughayr of modern maps) whence
Abram migrated, and at present about
90 miles from the head of the Persian
gulf. It was then a seaport, however,
and calculations of the rate at which
the Tigris and Euphrates have de-
posited silt indicate that it must have
been a seaport about 7000 years before
Christ. This was long before the im-
migration of the Semites, ancestors of
the Hebrews and Arabs, who _ later
spread over Babylonia. Their station
was perhaps at Eridu, which owned its
renown less to that fact, however, than
to its being the home of the oracle-tree,
the Tree of Life, whose position in a
garden near the town marked the center
of the world. This tree was a date palm.

“The garden and its mystical tree
were known to the inhabitants of Chal-
dea in pre-Semitic days,’ Sayce notes.’
“A fragment has been preserved of
an old Accadian-Sumerian hymn with
a Semitic Babylonian translation at-
tached to it, which tells us something
about them. The hymn begins as fol-
lows:

In Eridu a palm-stalk grew overshadowing:
in a holy place did it become green;

its root was of bright lapis which stretched
toward the deep: [before] the God Ea was its
growth in Eridu, teeming with fertility:

its seat was the [central] place of the earth;
its foliage (?) was the couch of Zikum, the
[primeval] mother.

Into the heart of the holy house which
spread its shade like a forest hath no man
entered.

[There is the Home] of the mighty mother
who passes across the sky.

{In] the midst of it was the god Tammuz.

3Sayce, A. H.

The Higher Criticism, p. 100.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

“The sacred tree whose branches
reached the heaven while its roots were
nourished by the primeval deep was the
tree which supported the world. It
was emphatically a ‘tree of life’ and is
accordingly represented time after time
on the monuments of Babylonia and
Assyria.”’

When the Semites from Arabia in-
vaded Southern Babylonia, at a date
beyond the scope of historical knowl-
edge, they must have found the date
palm already established there, even if
not cultivated; Barton, indeed; suggests*
that they established themselves at
Eridu as their first station, because they
found at that place their old friend, the
date palm. If this be the case, it may
be assumed that the culture of the palm
in some of the valleys of the Arabian
shore of the Persian gulf represents the
oldest form of agriculture in that part
of the world. There is reason to believe
that in their earlier, Arabian home the
Semites had already accorded divine
honors to the date palm; and in Baby-
lonia the cult seems promptly to have
become widespread and well organized.
It spread gradually to the north, finally
reaching the Phoenicians and residents
of Syria; in all these regions the Tree of
Life became a regular factor in decora-
tive art, reaching its greatest vogue,
perhaps, in the kingdom of Assyria
about the ninth century before the
Christian era, when the huge palaces of
Nimrfid (Ninevah) were constructed,
in which the palm tree and the sup-
posed palm god figure at every turn.
The Tree of Life, sometimes so conven-
tionalized as to be almost unrecogniz-
able, was also used in the interior dec-
oration of temples, on city gates, on
royal vestments, seal cylinders, and
everywhere else that the artist could
bring it in. The exact interpretation
of the designs has given rise to much
controversy; it is not of great import-
ance to us, so long as we know that it
is the date palm which is represented.

When Sayce wrote, it was still believed that

the Semites were late arrivals in Babylonia, and that the original inhabitants were the Sumerians,
a race which probably came down the mountains to the northeast, and has been thought by some

to be an Aryan, by others a Mongol or Turanian, stock.

Zduard Meyer in his Sumerier und

Semiten in Babylonien, 1906, proved to the satisfaction of most scholars that the Semites were

the original inhabitants.
4 Barton, G. A.

A Sketch of Semitic Origins.

New York, 1902.

THE EpiItor: ORIGIN OF THE DaTE PALM

on
(=)
Wn

THE SO-CALLED ADAM AND EVE CYLINDER

Design from a seal cylinder now in the British Museum.
but apparently belongs to an early Babylonian period.

It is of unknown date,
It has given rise to

more controversy than any other seal cylinder ever found, one school of
orientalists, led by George Smith, seeing in it a representation of Adam and
Eve before the Tree of Life, with the serpent at the left, while others, includ-
ing Menant and Ward, think it has no reference to the account of the fall of
man contained in Genesis, but represents rather two deities of production,

Ningirsu and Bau.

the tree in the center is a date palm.

E. B. Taylor’ is credited with the enun-
ciation of the theory that the designs
symbolized the artificial pollination of
the palm. The interpretation was gen-
erally accepted, and a late legend was
also brought forward, which explained
the figures by the story that they were
gods which had taught man how to
produce dates by artificial fecundation.
Bonavia, in his “Flora of the Assyrian
Monuments,’’ considered them to be
the winds, agents of pollination in na-
ture. Siret® and others interpret them
as human personifications of the palm
itself—the palm-god, the palm in the
form of a god with a human figure.
Siret thus explains the fact that they
are usually winged:

“The essential morphological charac-
ter of the palm, which distinguishes it
among all other trees, is its leaves; in
anthropomorphizing it, these could not
be suppressed; but as leaves could not
very well be represented on a human
body, these leaves which are not very

Whatever be the interpretation, it is at least obvious that

(Fig. 9.)

dissimilar to feathers, are represented as
feathers, which are grouped together
as wings. Such a grouping in itself is
not arbitrary: look at a row of palms
carrying all their leaves. It will be
noted that horizontal leaves are rare,
because as soon as they reach that
position, their weight rapidly pulls
them down; accordingly they divide
into two groups, one pointing upward,
the other downward. Such are the wings
of the Assyrian deities, the one raised,
the other lowered.’’’

IN THE GARDEN OF EDEN.

As we approach nearer to strictly
historic times, and the records which
have come down to us become fuller,
we get more and more light on the im-
portance of the palm in the life of Se-
mitic peoples. The most interesting mani-
festation of it, seen by some orientalists,
is in the story of the Garden of Eden
related in the first chapters of Genesis.

We know that Edin was, from the

> Nature, June 23, 1890; Proc. Soc. Bib. Archeol., 1890.

6 Siret, Louis.
292. Paris, 1909

Les Cassitérides et l’Empire Colonial des Phéniciens.

L’Anthropologie, XX,

7 As a matter of fact, the very earliest seal-cylinders, in representing winged animals and man,

show them merely with palm leaves attached to their shoulders.

There can thus be little doubt

as to the significance of the wings in the minds of the later artists.

506

dawn of history, the name for the allu-
vial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers at the head of the Persian gulf.
The Semites and Sumerians alike used
it. Equally widespread, as we have
seen, was the tradition of a Tree of Life
at Eridu in Edin—a tradition which
survived in tangible form down to a
late day, through the presence of an
oracle-palm on the same spot. Now the
theory put forward by Sayce, Hommel
and other orientalists is that the Biblical
account of the garden of Eden is derived
from this same tradition of venerable
antiquity, about the Tree of Life at
Eridu.

“The garden with the tree of life in
the midst was planted ‘in Eden east-
ward,’ for such is the correct rendering
of the Hebrew text,’ declares Sayce,
“and not ‘eastward in Eden’ as the
Authorized Version has it. Not only
the garden, but Eden also, lay to the
east of the land where the writer lived—
The garden stood hard by Eridu, ‘the
good city’—and thus in the very region
where the salt ‘river’ of the Persian
gulf was divided into its four heads’”’
mentioned * in Genesis II, 10-14.

Not all orientalists admit that the
date palm of the garden in Eden at
Eridu was the origin of the Tree of
Life and Tree of Knowledge of Good and
Evil of Genesis; but at least there can
be no doubt that the date palm re-
mained an object of particular venera-
tion to the Hebrews after they left
Babylonia for Palestine. It was a chief
motif in the decoration of Solomon’s
temple, while its sacred character is
suggested by the fact that the prophetess
Deborah had her seat under a date-
palm, from which, inferentially, she
derived inspiration. Barton sees in the
Feast of the Tabernacles a survival of
an earlier Semitic feast at the time of
the annual date gathering.

AMONG THE PHOENICIANS.

Far before this period of the Hebrew
kingdom, the Phoenicians possessed the

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

cult of the palm, and carried it with
them on their trading voyages. Nu-
merous plaques and pieces of pottery
have been unearthed in France and
Spain, bearing date palm symbols,
while in a domed sepulchre at Sao
Martinho, Portugal, considered to date
from the late Stone Age, a limestone
cone was found identical with the burnt
clay cones made in Babylonia and
Assyria as images of the fecundating
spathe of the male palm. These relics
can be ascribed with a good deal of
certainty to the visits of Phoenician
ships in search of tin; while their in-
fluence in shaping the religious thought
and forming the myths of all the peoples
of the Mediterranean seems to many
writers to have been great. Siret has
elaborated this point ingeniously and
interestingly, but it 1s too far from the
field of genetics to warrant amplifica-
tion here; I need only say that he finds
traces of the palm cult in nearly all
the Grecian deities, one particularly
attractive conjecture being his explana-
tion that the story of the visit of Zeus
to Danae in the form of a shower: of
gold is merely a modification of the
idea of the male palm fecundating the
female with its shower of golden pollen.
The case of Leto (Latona) who gave
birth to Apollo beside a palm tree in the
island of Delos, is a curious instance of
the survival of the palm cult, from his
viewpoint; and it is still more curious
when one recalls that the legend, slightly
changed, was applied to the birth of
Jesus in the apocryphal ‘‘ History of the
Nativity of Mary and the Infancy of
the Savior,” which Muhammad, much
later, seems to have used in the Koran
as the source of his own account of
Christ’s birth under the palm tree, and
the appearance of the angel Gabriel
who bid Mary eat the fresh, ripe dates
to refresh her soul. Tisdall ascribes °
the story to an Indian origin, pointing
out the markedly similar circumstances
surrounding the birth of Buddha under
a satinwood” tree, according to legend;

’ Hommel identifies the river Hiddekel of Genesis with Khadd Daqlah, ‘‘The Valley of Date
Palms"’ on the Arabian shore of the Persian gulf not far south of the present mouth of the Eu-

phrates and Tigris rivers.
great rivers.
® Tisdall, W. St. C.
10 Chloroxylon sweetenia, D. C. Rutaceae.

The Original Sources of the Qur'an, p.-164.

Hiddekel is by most scholars taken to mean the latter of these two

London, 1905.

THE EDITOR: ORIGIN OF THE DaTE PALM

THE GODDESS ISHTAR AND PALM

“There is hardly a more beautiful and elaborate Assyrian cylinder than one in

the British Museum which represents the armed Ishtar,’’ says W. H.
Ward (The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia, p. 248). She is here shown as
the goddess of war, standing beside the palm. Originally, in the opinion
of many orientalists, Ishtar (Astarte) was the goddess of fertility, and
identified with the date palm, which at a very early time seems to have
received almost divine honors from the Semites—a condition of which
traces can be seen throughout the later Arab and Hebrew history. This
and the preceding design are from Jastrow, Bildermappe zur Religion
Babyloniens und Assyriens. (Fig. 10.)

but in view of the sacredness of the date
palm in all times, it is by no means clear
that we should abandon the idea that
this myth represents a late out-cropping
of the palm-cult, rather than a borrowing
from Indian literature.

All this is wandering far from the
culture of the palm, yet the sacred
character with which the early Semites
invested it is too striking to be ignored.
It is found in many sources. Tabari,
an early Arabian chronicler, for instance,
refers to a sacred date palm at Najran,
in southern Arabia, which was treated
in all respects as a god; the residence of
Al Uzza, one of the principal deities of
pre-Muhammadan Arabia, was in a
grove of palms at Nakhlah, a name
which itself means palm tree; while an
interesting light is thrown on the
Biblical story of the Garden of Eden,
and the accounts preserved for us of
the tree of life at Eridu, by a passage in
the oldest portion of the bock of Enoch,
in the version of the Ethiopians—a
people of Semitic relationship. This
passage, which probably dates from the
second or third century before Christ,

describes a visit of Enoch to Paradise,
and relates that he found there the
Tree.of Lite—and it was a date palm.

BAAL, THE PALM GOD.

In the heathen gods of whom we have
some Bibilical account, it is frequently
easy to see traces of the date palm cult.
Few of them are better known to us than
Baal; and the word baal even today, in
classical Arabic, means an wunirrigated
palm tree. The connecting links between
this fact and the time when Baal was
looked upon as the god of unirrigated
land, in contrast to Ishtar or Astarte,
who was the primitive Semitic goddess
of the palm, of fertility and fecundity,
are traced with skill by Barton. No
wonder, with such unbroken traditions,
that the palm has always been looked
upon with veneration by the Arabs, the
purest of modern Semites; so that
Muhammad declared it to have been
created from the soil left over after the
creation of Adam; and no wonder that
the Arabicized Berber in remote Mo-
rocco even today mutters an Arabic
prayer as he performs the important

508

operation of pollinating the female
inflorescence by shaking over it and
tying in it a few sprigs from the male
flower.

Turning again to genetics, the out-
standing fact in the culture of the date
palm is the immense number of its
horticultural varieties, and the antiq-
uity of many of them. It is probably safe
to say that there are not less than 5000
named varieties, in the subtropical
regions of the world, and we have rec-
ords of a number of them in Arabic
literature, which prove them to be at
least 1300 years old. During all this
time they have been propagated vege-
tatively; nevertheless, Arabs declare
that some of them have undergone large
changes in the intervening centuries.
The evidence at hand is not sufficient to
constitute proof, and it may be that
earlier varieties have died out and their
names been assigned to other varieties
with different characters. Personally,
however, I think we must admit the
possibility that some of the varieties
have undergone changes analogous to
those bud variations which have played
so important a part in the history of
the navel orange and many other fruits.
It is not difficult to imagine an offshoot
varying from its parent; when this was
planted, if the variation was found to

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

propagated until the new type had
supplanted the old one, without any
change of name.

The fewest varieties (and in my opin-
ion the best") are found at present in
the Persian gulf and Babylonia. All
over the world the varieties are found
to be quite local in distribution, but
when one reaches North Africa, their
number is greatly augmented, through
the multiplication of chance seedlings.

Darwin, to emphasize the way in
which “organic beings of all kinds,

when domesticated or cultivated, have
varied,” noted that ‘‘in the deserts of
northern Africa the date palm has
yielded 38 varieties.’’ If he had mul-
tiplied this number by 10, he would
still have been below the truth. There
are probably a hundred varieties of com-
mercial importance there, and a host of
minor ones, almost every chance seedling
in some districts being given a varietal
name, if it happens to be a female. In
Spain, the confusion becomes so great
that varieties can scarcely be said to
exist, each palm being a variety by
itself. This seems always to have been
the case in Spain, even in the time of
Pliny, and may be confidently ascribed
to propagation by seed, without suffi-
cient care in selecting, rather than to
the climate or any other environmental
influence.

be favorable, it would continue to be

1! Exception should be made in favor of Deglet Nf, ‘‘The Date of the Light,’’ a variety which
originated as a chance seedling near Tuggurt in the Algerian Sahara 300 years ago and has since
become recognized throughout North Africa as the standard of excellence. In the extreme desert
conditions which it requires, it is perhaps as good as any variety in the world. Orthodox Arabs
consider the dates of Medina, the prophet’s home in Arabia, to be the world’s finest, but until
they have been studied by some competent pomologist, this verdict must be ascribed largely
to religious enthusiasm, fostered by the legends connecting Medina dates with Muhammad.
See Popenoe, Paul, Date Growing in the New and Old Worlds, 1913.

The Power of Heredity

Wise reform will not fail to recognize the force of heredity, whether for the
continuance and multiplication of human ills, or for their diminution. It will
do but little good to work for individuals here and there. Such conditions must
be created as will redeem the human life-stream itself. It may be that the great-
ness of this task will stagger the thought and shake the courage of some. It is
scarcely to be denied that the study of human nature as conditioned by heredity
and environment is depressing in its initial stages. It makes humanity seem like
clay in the hands of an inexorable and remorseless potter; but it will save an im-
mense waste of time, effort and means, and, by and by, the depression will change
to hope, as it is seen that the same law which necessitates degeneration under
certain conditions, under other conditions works regeneration.—Rev. Amory H.
Bradford: Heredity and Christian Problems (1895).

STUDY OF OLD AMERICANS

Dr. ALES HRDLICKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum,
Washington, D.C.

F THE many ethnic groups
which are now entering into the
formation of the American na-
tion, the least known to science

is that of the old white American. By
the ‘old American” is meant the lineal
descendant of American parentage, on
both the father’s and mother’s side, for
at least three generations; in other
words, he who is not merely himself a
native of the United States, but whose
father and mother and both grand-
fathers as well as both grandmothers,
were born in this country. This old and
most important stock has never been
studied exclusively. How strong is it
in numbers? What physical changes,
if any, have been wrought in its repre-
sentatives by the new environment, the
more strenuous mode of life, and the
mixture of the various elements of
which it is composed? Has it been chang-
ing so far as its anatomical and physiolo-
gical characteristics are concerned har-
moniously with the old world stocks
from which it arose, or has it progressed
differently? Does it tend towards a
new subtype of the white race, as has
often been suggested? What are the
average stature, weight, head and chest
dimensions, temperature, pulse rate,
respiration and muscular strength of
these old Americans? What the pre-
vailing color of their eyes and hair?

In order to approach a definite answer
to these and other questions which are
of wide national interest, as well as
scientific importance; and in order also
to establish much needed standards for
future comparisons, there are being
carried out in the Division of Physical
Anthropology of the U. S. National
Museum, a series of scrupulously careful
tests and measurements on healthy
adult Americans of three or more genera-
tions, of both sexes, and of between 24
and 60 years of age. Persons fulfilling

the requirements indicated above and
wishing to forward the investigations
in question are respectfully invited to
present themselves, when convenient, for
examination. The study, to be of real
value, must extend over at least 200
men and 150 women, and it would be
difficult to reach these numbers without
the voluntary aid of those interested.
No selection: of subjects is called for
outside of the above named stipulations,
namely: that they shall be healthy,
between 24 and 60 years of age, and on
both sides American for at least three
generations. The examinations are
conducted under my own direction, and
those who wish to present themselves
for the measurements may do so at any
time between 9.09 and 4.30 p. m., or by
appointment after 4.30. The whole
examination lasts but a little over a
quarter of an hour, and no unusual
exposure of the person is called for,
with the exception of removing the
shoes while the height of the body is
measured, and in ladies the loosening
of the hair for the measurements of the
head. No names will be published in the
final analysis and publication of the
data. The original data will be kept in
the U. S. National Museum and will be
available to all of those who have been
measured, and to their children.

The measurements comprise those of
stature, head, face, chest (over the
clothing), ear, hand and foot; tests
are made of the muscular strength; the
temperature, pulse and respiration are
recorded; and the examination termi-
nates with a few observations of the
color of the hair, eyes, and the most
distinguishing marks of the features.

The laboratory of the Division of
Physical Anthropology is located in the
new building of the National Museum;
telephone number, Main 1811, branch
89. ;

509

A DEGENERATED ROSE BLOSSOM

Every horticulturist knows that the floral organs of any plant, such as the sepals of the calyx,
the usually bright-colored petals, stamens and pistils, are all only so many modified leaves,
and that under certain conditions leaf-buds can be turned into flower buds, at an early

tage of their existence. Thus, by crippling the plants, gardeners force azaleas or camel-
lias to produce flowers from the buds which the plants had intended to produce only leaves.
The rose is a particularly good plant in which to trace this development, for it from time
to time throws out flowers that fail to attain their normal development, and are nothing
more than modified leaves. A-bush on my estate has been behaving most irregularly for two
years, always sending out freak flowers under certain weather conditions. Sometimes
the roses are only half developed, just as if they were cut in two. Last spring it produced

everal twin flowers, later on some flowers that were lopsided, and on August 3 I noted
the branch here photographed, in which the sepals have reverted to their original leafy
character, clearly showing the pinnate margin characteristic of the species. The petals,
too, although partly colored, were morphologically more like leaves than like the ordinary
petals of a rose. Such phenomena are particularly common in cabbage roses; probably
they are connected in some way with excess of nutrition, in many cases at least. Rever-
sions such as the one photographed give striking proof, if any were needed, that flowers
are merely modified leaves. (Fig. 11.) JOHN C. UHRLAUB, Glenbrook, Connecticut.
510

CORN AND MEN

The Interacting Influence of Heredity and Environment—Movements for Better-
ment of Men, or Corn, or Any Other Living Thing, One-sided
Unless They Take Both Factors into Account.

ALBERT F. BLAKESLEE

Department of Genetics, Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn.

UGENICS deals with racial im-
& provement by means of hered-

ity in contrast to the subject re-

cently termed Euthenics which
deals with improvement by means of
the environment. These two influences
—heredity and environment—together
are responsible for the great diversity
found in all living beings. It is this
diversity in mankind that gives us our
educated and our uneducated classes,
our geniuses and our imbeciles, our law-
makers and our law-breakers. Success-
ful and unsuccessful men, as well as
successful and unsuccessful corn plants,
are such because of the resultant influ-
ence of these two factors.

Both heredity and environment are
always in play. Their distinction and
their relative influence must be care-
fully estimated in any rational cam-
paign for permanent social improvement.
Our ideals and practice in social and
religious justice, rewards and punish-
ment, charity and education, are fun-
damentally dependent upon our esti-
mate of the relative value of these two
factors—environment and heredity. If
one is born with inherent criminalistic
and anti-social traits, the environment
may be in no way responsible and can
thus be neglected. Shall we, however,
merely punish the individual or shall
we attack the real cause of the crime—
his heredity? On the other hand, if the
criminal is made such by his environ-
ment, shall we confine our attention
to the criminal and neglect the en-
vironment which has made him crim-
inalistic?

A specific instance may make the
questions clearer. In our past crusades
against the social evil, we have too often

sought legislation before investigation
We have had recounted to us the piti-
able struggle of the poorly paid wage
earner, the influence of the saloon and
of the dance hall. The downfall of
fallen women has been attributed to
these environmental conditions. If this
is so, a cure for the evil would be simple,
though difficult—namely, the removal
of the bad environment. On the other
hand, the family histories of these way-
ward girls have received little attention.
Evidence, however, has been recently
presented to indicate that moral way-
wardness is inherited in much the same
manner as other mental defects—that
moral deficiency runs in families. If
heredity is the sole cause of the social
evil, the remedy—the removal of the
bad heredity—is obvious, but has not
yet been seriously attempted. In en-
deavoring to heal this moral disease,
need we attack more than one factor,
or are these two—environment and
heredity—of such influence that both
require combatting? Such questions
may bring home the need of knowledge
of how these two fundamental factors
act, before hasty attempts are made at
social reform. A safe watchword is—
Information before Legislation.

INTEREST IN GENETICS.

The comparatively recent discovery
that knowledge of the laws of biology
may be used in the improvement of
cultivated plants and domesticated ani-
mals furnished the necessary human
interest to bring the subject of Genetics
into popular appreciation. The realiza-
tion, further, that man himself is sub-
ject to the same laws of life as other
animals has merely heightened the in-

511

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BLAKESLEE: CORN AND MEN

terest which has been aroused by the
application of scientific knowledge to
plant and animal breeding. The most
interesting study of mankind may be
man, but in biology at least this study
must make large use of the indirect
method, employing plants and rapidly
breeding animals for experimental pur-
poses. The present article is to call at-
tention to the fundamental differences
between heredity and environment and
to illustrate the subject by a com-
parison between the growth of corn and
of man. The discussion will deal with a
single comparatively simple characteris-
tic—height. Something will be said
about the manner in which a single
character of this kind may vary among
a group of individuals, and the influ-
ence of environment. and heredity in
bringing about these variations will be
discussed.

Variation is universal among living
organisms. It applies to individuals
and parts of a single individual. A
class of students after examining hun-
dreds of apple leaves in the attempt to
find two that are identical is willing to
admit that no two leaves exist exactly
alike. We are grateful indeed that in
man no two persons have the same men-
tal make-up. Differences in man’s
physical features as well as in his mental
equipment are easily recognized and
more readily analyzed. The relatively
simple and obvious character of height
may well serve for analysis. Each of
the 175 students shown in Figure 12
was measured in his stocking feet and
placed in the rank to which his height
most nearly corresponded. Only one
student was shorter than 5 ft. and only
one could be placed higher than the
6 ft. lin. rank. The great majority are
in the middle ranks 5 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft.
8 in. The extremes are rare, the aver-
age is common. Most of us are just
average people, neither extremely tall
nor short, fat nor slim, fast nor slow,
rich nor poor.

Teachers know that differences in
mental ability follow the same laws as
differences in height. The majority of
a class are average students. Few are
unteachable and few gain the highest
ranks that may be obtained.

Sule!

If the ends of the ranks in the photo-
graph were connected by a line we
should have a typical curve of vari-
ability. Such a curve shows the dis-
tribution of the different heights in the
company—the manner in which the
individuals vary—but gives no definite
clue to the causes of the differences
which are found to exist.

WHY MEN GROW TALL.

Two general causes have been assigned
to account for the differences in in-
dividuals brought to view by a vari-
ability curve, namely, environment and
heredity. The first would assume that
differences in height were due to differ-
ences in surroundings during growth;
the tall boy is tall, it would be claimed,
because he has been well nourished and
cared for; the small boy is small be-
cause his growth has been checked by
disease, accident, or insufficient nour-
ishment. The second suggested cause,
heredity, would assume that the dif-
ferences in height are due to differences
in the gifts of inheritance with which
each individual began life; a tall boy is
tall, it would be claimed, because tall-
ness ran in his family, a short boy is
short because his parents or less im-
mediate ancestors were small of stature.

Differences in environment or in
heredity, acting either alone or in
combination, will be able to cause vari-
ation in a group of individuals. If these
individuals are arranged in ranks ac-
cording to the variations which they
show in a single characteristic, they will
present such a variability curve as is
shown in Figure 12. Mere inspection
of the curve, however, will not enable
one to discover which factor is the pre-
dominant or exclusive cause of the va-
riations. For this a study of the ances-
try of the individuals and of the effect
upon them of the various environmental
conditions to which they are exposed
will be necessary. A discussion of the
corn plant will be appropriate in this
connection.

In the Agricultural Botanic Garden
at Storrs, Conn., a section is devoted to
plots illustrating the laws of genetics.
Differences in height and general vigor
of plants are classified as due either to

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

ee
‘oa, /

~—— Wis Avi
mo A
= A

Jab.

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ALONE

Corn of a single variety (Leaming dent): at the left, grown well spaced in hills, at the right
badly crowded. The heredity of each plot of corn is the same; the striking differences
in growth, and marked differences in reproductive capacity which are not seen in the
photograph, are therefore solely due to environment. By avoiding the bad environment
(i.e., the crowded condition) the grower might have had corn in the plot on the right, just
as big and vigorous as that on the left. If, however, he had planted some such variety
as Tom Thumb pop corn on the right, it would have remained small no matter how good
the environment provided, because of its heredity, which prevents it from being anything
but small. The attempt to disentangle the influences of heredity and environment is
one of the most perplexing problems in breeding, as in race betterment, but failure to
attempt it leads to disastrous results. (Fig. 13.)

view point, abundant room for develop-
ment may be considered a good en-

differences in external conditions under
which they are grown, 7. e., to environ-

ment or to differences in their parent-
age, 7. e., to heredity. Figure 13 shows
two plots of a tall variety of ‘“ Leam-
ing’’ dent corn, which differ only in
the environment to which they are
exposed. Their ancestry is the same.
In fact, the kernels with which both
plots were planted came from the same
ear. The difference in height between
the tall plants on the left and the short
plants on the right is due entirely to
environment. The tall plants were
planted far apart in hills, the short
plants were crowded. Otherwise the
conditions were similar. Crowding is
obviously a bad environment which
has dwarfed the plants. From another

vironment which has stimulated the
plants to unusual growth.

The differences between the two plots
would

were more marked than one
judge from the photograph. At the

edge of the crowded plot the effect of
crowding was less intense and it is these
plants on the edge which are seen and
not the much smaller ones in the worse
environment at the center. The crowd-
ing affected not only the height but
also the reproductive organs. Except
for the more favored plants on the
margins which bore a few nubbins with
scanty kerncls, no ears were produced
by the crowded plants. The tassels
which bear the male organs were less

BLAKESLEE: CORN AND MEN

readily suppressed than the female
ears. Crowding is a compound influ-
ence. Inability to obtain sufficient
moisture or food constituents from the
soil, an accumulation of poisonous ex-
cretions from the roots, the lack of
sufficient light and air, may all be re-
sponsible in greater or less degree for
the observed effect.

THE FORCE OF HEREDITY.

But while environment is a potent
cause of variation, heredity is still
more important. The diversity of a
kitchen garden with its regular rows of
beets, corn, beans. and cabbage, is
primarily due to the different hereditary
characters bound up in the different
kinds of seed that were planted. A
cabbage seed will grow into a cabbage
and not into a corn plant merely be-
cause its ancestors were cabbages and
not corn. Not only are the different
species of plants distinct on account of
heredity, but the different cultivated
varieties as well. In figure 15 is shown
a plant of the Tom Thumb variety of
pop corn beside a plant of the Leaming
dent corn.

The Tom Thumb variety was grown
in hills under the same favorable garden
conditions as the tall Leaming corn
already seen at the left in Figure 13.
The environment is practically the same
for the two forms, and the small size
of the pop corn is due to the fact that
the seed they were grown from was
produced bya small-sized variety. It is
perhaps fruitless to debate whether in
corn environment is the more important
or heredity. The latter has brought
about the difference in height between
the tall Leaming and the dwarf pop corn.
The former is responsible for the effects
of crowding shown in Figure 13.

But heredity must not be considered
as effective only in the broader groups
known as species and varieties. Each
variety is doubtless a complex of many
mingled types which have not been
separated. Thus several races have
been isolated from the tall Leaming
corn of Figure 13. Of two such races
picked out by the Illinois Experiment
Station, one forms high ears, the other
low ears. Likewise, from the same tall

2 Bs

variety there have been separated out
races that differ in the storage products
in the kernels; one with a high, another
with a low, oil content; one with a large
proportion of protein, another poor in
protein. The plants of these races
differ thus chemically because of hered-
itary differences in their parentage.
Heredity as a factor in the diversity in
living forms is always present. When
environment is the same, heredity is
the sole cause of variation. Usually
both are effective.

Let us return to the students shown
in Figure 12 and see if we can discover
which factor, heredity or environment,
has been the more important in causing
their differences in height. One from
either extreme of the curve kindly con-
sented to investigate the heights of
his relatives with the results shown in
Figure 14. The short student was 19
years old and the tall student was 17%.
Squares indicate men and circles women,
the figures underlined are stocking feet
measurements. By estimating whether
an uncle or a grandfather was shorter
or taller than the father, a fair degree
of accuracy was obtained of members of
the family that could not be directly
measured.

An inspection of the pedigrees shows
that the small student comes from a
short family. Except for a half uncle
who was of about average height (5 ft.
8 in.), all his relatives of whom records
could be obtained were undersized and
none was over 5 ft. 6 in., which is about
two inches below the average.

The tall student whose pedigree is
given on the right has an entirely dif-
ferent ancestral history. Six footers
run in both sides of the family. His
great grandfather was reputed to be
6 ft. 4 in. in his stocking feet and the
tallest and strongest man in his town-
ship. His brother, at present only 13
years old, is 5 ft. 7 in. and would now
pass in his family as a relatively tall
man had he been born into the other
pedigree.

WHERE ENVIRONMENT ENTERS.

The data given confirm the more ex-
tensive evidence from other sources
that heredity is the prime factor re-

5'4"

491"
WHY BOYS GROW SHORT OR TALL

Symbolical pedigrees of the two students shown at the ends of the line in fig. 12, and again

shown in fig. 15.

THE JOURNAL

oF HEREDITY

I3years o!d

6'06" 5! We

On the left, that of the shortest student (from the four feet, 10

inches rank); on the right, that of one of the tallest students (from the six ft., one in. rank).
Squares represent men and circles women; figures underlined denote measurement in

stocking feet.

It is obvious from a comparison of the individuals in the ancestry of the

two boys that the short student is short principally because his ancestors were short,

while the tall one gains his height likewise from heredity.
stunted the latter; good environment could never had made the short student tall.

14.)

sponsible for height differences in man.
The cause is the same as that producing
the tall Leaming dent and the short
Tom Thumb pop varieties of corn. In
illustration of this fact the students
whose pedigrees have been given kindly
consented to be photographed beside
the appropriate variety of corn on
either side of the nine foot pole shown
in Figure 15.

It must not be assumed that environ-
ment has no influence at all upon man’s
stature. The question that the shorter
student asked, if he was small because
he had smoked since he was eight years
old, was not entirely irrelevant despite
the fact that the taller student had also
used tobacco from his tenth year up-
ward. Evidence shows that environ-
ment does have an effect upon man’s
physical as well as mental character-
istics. Environment can influence the
height of corn within certain limits.
But the ancestry of the pop corn and
of the student standing beside it fore-
ordain both to a growth of limited pro-
portions even under the best environ-
ment, while the Leaming. corn and the

Bad environment might have
(Fig.

boy of tall ancestry will both tend to
grow tall despite a bad environment.

The facts that have been presented
may appear familiar and the distine-
tions drawn trivial. But the distinc-
tions lie at the base of all efforts for
human betterment and are far from
trivial in their significance. Although
frequently confused by the similarity
of their immediate effects, environment
and heredity as causes are fundamen-
tally different. Environment works
upon the individual and its effects are
transient. Heredity works upon the
offspring and its effects are permanent,
from generation to generation. Inherent
characteristics only are transmitted.
It has been generally assumed that
characters acquired as a response to a
good or toa bad environment are handed
on to the next generation—that for
example a man’s college education will
affect the mind of his newly-born chil-
dren. Increasing knowledge has failed to
support this assumption. ‘Acquired
characters’’ seemingly cannot be handed
on to one’s descendants.

uso buses] §

HEIGHT IN CORN AND MEN

Extremes in height from the array of students shown in fig. 12, photographed beside extreme
varieties of corn which, like the students, owe their differences in height indisputably to
heredity rather than to environment. No imaginable environmental influences could
reverse the positions of these boys, or of these varieties of corn, the heredity in each case
being what it is. Pedigrees of the two students are given in the preceding figure. (Fig.

153)

518

In the past, environment has been
assumed to be well nigh the sole cause
of variation in the human race. The
gratuitous pronouncement in the Dec-
laration of Independence that all men
are born equal has been accepted as
literal inspiration. Recent discoveries
of definite laws of inheritance have shown
the dominant influence of heredity and
the pendulum of opinion is swinging
away from the side of environment.
The enthusiasm, however, with which
some would thoughtlessly rush into
eugenics and eugenic legislation shows

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

that they may stand in danger of having
the new light blind their eyes to the
influence of environment as a factor to
be considered.

Man may be likened to the varieties
of corn—good, bad and _ indifferent.
The world around him, with oppor-
tunities, with education, may be com-
pared to the garden plots of soil, also
good, bad and indifferent.

In the garden of human life as in the
garden of corn, success is the resultant
complex of the two factors, environ-
ment and heredity.

NEW PUBLICATIONS

THE PROGRESS OF EUGENICS, by C. W. Saleeby, M. D. Pp. 253, price $1.50 net.
and Wagnalls Company, New York, 1914.

Few American eugenists are likely to define the scope of their science so broadly
as does Dr. Saleeby, the active English propagandist whose earlier volume, Par-
enthood and Race Culture (1909), has led many readers to their first acquaintance
with the ideals of race betterment. By including such problems as education and
better housing for the poor, he opens questions whose importance no one will
dispute, but which genetists in this country seem more and more inclined to leave
in the hands of the avowed euthenist. To this extent, the content of Dr. Saleeby’s
book is likely to be slightly disappointing, while his acceptance of Lamarckian
principles is certain also to call forth criticism. ‘The Progress of Eugenics’’ is an
enthusiastic piece of special pleading, rather than a contribution to our knowledge
of the science, but it is pretty certain to meet with a large and sympathetic audi-
ence, among whom it can hardly fail to be of real value in forwarding the inter-
ests of human genetics. Dr. Saleeby is rather pessimistic as to the immediate pos-
sibility of progress in the application of what he calls “‘ positive eugenics,’’ consid-
ering that ‘‘negative eugenics’? must occupy most of the attention of the science
for many years to come.

Funk

Children of the Tuberculous

Some of the effects of parental tuberculosis on the children are investigated by
Dr. Wilhelm Weinberg, Sanitatsrat of Stuttgart, in his recently published book,
“Die Kinder der Tuberkulosen,” his material being several thousand families from
the municipal statistics of Stuttgart. Dr. Weinberg, who is the principal expo-
nent of the biometric method in German eugenics, asks and answers the following
questions:

Is there, as is often believed, an excessive fecundity among the tuberculous? He
finds the contrary to be the case, although the decrease is small.

Is there an unusually high death rate among children, one or both of whose
parents died of tuberculosis? He finds that there is some increase, most of which
is easily accounted for by infection and the fact that tuberculous stocks are fre-
quently weak in other respects. He does not eliminate the influence of heredity
but concludes that there is not yet a possibility of measuring its effect.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. V, No. 12 December, 1914:

CONTENTS

Plant Chimeras, by the Editor. ...:5.....0. 00... 00.0-0.0cccsectus. 520
Essentials of a Free Society, by Francis Galton.................... 531
Photographs of Large Trees Wanted............................... 531
Heredity in Chimeras, by Dr. William S. Chapin.................. 532
Eugenics and Genius, by C. W. Saleeby............................ 544
Studies in Human Heredity, by the Eugenics Research Committee .546
Skin Color in Mulattoes, by Charles B. Davenport................. 595
The Principles of Eugenics, a Review.............................. 557
Missing Teeth Inherited, by Dr. Sergio Sergi...................... 598
The Justification for Eugenics, by Francis Galton................. 559
ire: lace to; Volume Vii. ce eee ood hans eee Leche oare nee 560

Index to Volume V

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a
year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional post-
age on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason.
Price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter August 27, 1912, at the postoffice at Washington,
D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1914 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, November 25, 1914.

A “SIAMESE TWIN’ PIGWEED
Three plants like this were found growing in a back yard. Investigation shows that they are
ectorial chimeras—plants made up of two kinds of tissue (green and white) which remain
perfectly distinct, so that one may describe the pigweed as consisting of a white plant and
a green plant, each forming part of the whole individual. A streak can be seen running
tem of the plant, composed of white tissue like that in the leaves. Many
have been studied in recent years, and their surprising
(Frontispiece. )

down the main
plants with variegated leave

manner of heredity explained, partly by mathematical formulas.

PLANT CHIMERAS i

Recent Spectacular Productions of Experimental Horticulture—Their Existence
Known for Nearly Three Centuries—Only One of Them a
True Graft Hybrid.

THE EDITOR

WO plants of different species
grown together so closely that
one forms the whole outside
like a glove and the other the
inside like one’s hand; or like Siamese
twins, one species forming one side of
every part of the plant and the other
species the other side: such are plant
chimeras, perhaps the most spectacular
horticultural discoveries of recent years.

Not that such things were never
known before. They were first reported
nearly three centuries ago, and doubt-
less existed centuries earlier, but un-
noticed. It was not until lately, how-
ever, that their production under ex-
perimental conditions, and the study of
their cells under the microscope, made
it possible for botanists to understand
exactly what they were. Now that we
know the trick, they can be produced
by anyone with patience, and the
mystery surrounding the so-called “‘graft
hybrid,” a bone of contention among
horticulturists for several centuries,
has vanished.

Broadly speaking, any plant produced
by grafting one species on another is a
graft hybrid. Such an operation has
been practised since prehistoric times,
and at present some plants are almost
never grown on their own roots, as the
saying is, but are grafted on some
hardier stock. Thus the Washington
Navel orange in California is regularly
grown on some such stock as the
pomelo, or the hardy and vigorous Citrus
trifoliata of Japan; and the resulting
trees are, in the broadest sense of the
phrase, graft hybrids, being the union
of two distinct species through grafting.

But under these conditions, each of
the parent species maintains its separate
life, as far as the cells are concerned.

These only come in contact along the
line where the graft was made; the roots
remain just what they were—Citrus
trifoliata, in the case chosen for illustra-
tion; the branches remain just what
they were—Ciirus aurantium, the navel
orange. Each species exercises a slight
influence on the one to which it is
united, but in general they maintain
their separate identity and their sys-
tems of cells come in contact, as was
said, only at one plane in the whole
plant.

We can go two steps farther in the
production of graft hybrids, however.
First, we can produce hybrids where
the cell systems of the two parents are
in contact throughout much or most of
the plant; second, it appears that we
can produce hybrids where the cells of
the two parents actually blend. I shall
leave the latter case for discussion
further on, and explain in more detail
the commoner cases where the two par-
ents bear the relation to each other, in
the hybrid, of Siamese twins, or glove
to the hand it encases. A short account
of the way in which the nature of these
chimeras was discovered will perhaps be
helpful.

HISTORY OF CHIMERAS.

The first one brought to the attention
of men of science was a product of the
genus Citrus, and has always been
known as the Bizarria—because of its
bizarre appearance, of course. It now
exists in many forms, and new ones are
appearing almost every year. One of
the original type is shown in fig. 1 and
a recent specimen which sprang into
existence in Florida a few years ago is
shown in fig. 3. The original Bizarria
is said to have appeared in Florence,

521

Vi
bo
bo

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

THE FIRST RECORDED CHIMERA

The Bizarria, a citrus graft-hybrid which ap-
peared in Florence, Italy, about 1644.
Its origin was in a graft between a cit-
ron and an orange, and the exact nature
of the freak was a matter of hot debate
between botanists, which ended only a
few years ago in the discoveries of Dr.
Erwin Baur and the experiments of Dr.

Hans Winkler.

The fruit here shown

about natural size is part orange and

part citron.

Italy, in the year 1644, where a gardener
asserted that he had created it by
uniting buds of several different trees.
There seems reason to believe that as a
fact ‘‘the first branch came from a callus
at the base of the dead scion of a graft
between the orange and the citron.”’
The tree was propagated asexually, by
budding or grafting, until it was spread
all over Europe; it bore fruits which
showed at various times the characters
of almost any species of Citrus: orange,
lemon, citron, lime. The leaves showed
a similar variability. So did the flowers.
The old botanists were astounded and
confounded. The Bizarria became one
of the stock topics of controversy, some
claiming it for a graft hybrid, while
others thought it could be nothing more
than an ordinary sex-hybrid; that is, a
hybrid produced by the common method
of cross-pollination. But when fruits
were brought in which were compound-

Photograph from the New
York Botanical Garden.

(Fig. 1.)

ed, to all appearance, of four or five
different species, or which were typical
lemons on the outside and _ typical
oranges inside, the acutest of the horti-
culturists had to content themselves
with guesswork.

In 1825 another striking graft-hybrid
was brought to public notice in the
garden of M. Adam near Paris, where
two closely related leguminous plants
had been grafted together. The stock
was the common laburnum of gardens
(Laburnum vulgare, J. Presl.), on which
was grafted a branch of Cytisus pur-
pureus Scop., a kind of Scotch Broom.
From this graft a branch arose that
was somewhat intermediate between
the two parents in character, and was
propagated under the name of Cytisus
adami Poit. Its behavior was so freak-
ish that it not only brought poor Adam
notoriety, but came near costing him
his reputation, some of the greatest

THe Epitor: PLANT CHIMERAS

botanists of the time feeling certain that
his straightforward account of its crigin
must be a fairy tale. This particular
graft hybrid showed itself, when propa-
gated, to be inconstant in character,
tending to revert to one of the parent
forms, so it is not unusual to find a tree
of Cytisus adamt on some branches of
which are borne the yellow blossoms of
the laburnum, on others the purple
blossoms of the broom, and on still
others a mixed form showing the influ-
ence of both. In this case several emi-
nent botanists insisted that the branch
used by Adam in his original graft
must have been taken from a_ sex-
hybrid plant, a view that has not wholly
been given up yet,! although hardly
tenable in the light of our present
knowledge of chimeras.

THE WHITETHORN MEDLAR.

The third classical example is that of
the medlar (Mespilus germanica) near
Metz, Germany, on which a bfanch of
whitethorn (Crataegus monogyna) was
grafted more than a century ago. From
the graft there grew three sprouts which
showed various blends of the charac-
ters of the two parents. The original
tree, references to which abound in
botanical literature, is still in existence;
its hybrid shoots when propagated show
a constant tendency to revert to one of
the parent types.

These examples indicate how chi-
meras, or graft-hybrids of a pronounced
type, originate unexpectedly. With the
growth of the experimental method in
botany came a realization that the only
way to settle the problem of the origin
of these freaks was to produce similar
ones in the laboratory under controlled
conditions. Dr. Hans Winkler, then at
the University of Tubingen but now
director of the State Institute of Botany
at Hamburg, Germany, undertook the
task with spectacular success.

For his material he selected the
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum or, ac-
cording to the latest American nomen-
clature, Lycopersicon esculentum) and
the nightshade (Solanum mnigrum).
These species are closely enough related

CALLUS TISSUE

Cutting showing the formation of calius
around the edges, gradually spreading
inward until it covers the whole
wound. At this stage the callus tissue
is soft and translucent; later it hard-
ens and from it arise roots, if the
cutting is planted (as in this case)
or shoots, if the cut is above ground.
From such sprouts plant chimeras
are obtained. Photograph enlarged
eight diameters. (Fig. 2.)

to be handled conveniently, and yet
differ markedly enough in general ap-
pearance to be identified easily by com-
parison. He grafted them on each
other, reciprocally, using the common
cleft or saddle graft, and after the graft
had ‘‘taken”’ he cut through the stem of
the plant at the point of graft, in such
a way that the surface exposed con-
tained sections of both parents (see fig.
4, A. B. and C.). The wound healed
over with the formation of a callus, and,
as usual, sprouts or ‘“‘adventive shoots”
grew up from it. Some of these sprouts
grew from the part of the surface con-
taining tomato plant tissue, some from
that part containing nightshade tissue,

1 At the Fourth International Conference on Genetics in Paris, 1911, L. Blaringhem upheld the
idea that it was a sex-hybrid showing mosaic inheritance.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

PROBABLE CHIMERA OF RECENT ORIGIN

Grapefruit from Florida which has apparently thrown out a section of

orange. Such freaks are fairly common in all kinds of citrous fruits,
and are sometimes explained as sectorial bud sports or variations.
Apparently this fruit is made partly of grapefruit tissue and partly
of orange tissue. How did the orange tissue get there? Ifit was in
the bud to start with, having survived from the graft, then this is a
real sectorial chimera. But if part of the grapefruit tissue suddenly
changed into orange tissue, then this is not a chimera, in the usual
sense of the word, but merely a bud sport or variation. It has
frequently been explained as such, although there is not sufficient
evidence that grapefruit tissue really can turn into orange tissue,

in that way. Granted that it does, the fruit might be considered
a spontaneous chimera. (Fig. 3.)

and some grew on the lines where these
two kinds of tissue came together.

PRODUCTION OF BLEND.

The sprouts from tomato tissue pro-
duced tomato plants. The sprouts
from nightshade tissue produced night-
shade plants. But the sprouts which
grew from points of union of the two
kinds of tissue were neither the one nor
the other; they were both! For the
first time, graft-hybrids of this type had
been experimentally produced.

In these first chimeras, the glove-and-
hand relationship did not exist. The

relationship was like that of the Siamese
twins, the two plants existing side by
side in the same stem and leaves, and
yet retaining their identity. One side
of the stem, with the leaves and flowers
appertaining to it, was characteristi-
cally tomato, the other side was just as
indisputably nightshade (see fig. 4,
D.E.F. and G.). In a cross section of
the main stem, each kind of tissue
occupies a distinct segment or sector;
these graft-hybrids, therefore, are known
as sectorial chimeras.

This success did not satisfy Dr.
Winkler, and he continued with his

Tue Epiror: PLANT CHIMERAS 525

HOW SECTORIAL CHIMERAS ARE MADE

A, B and C show three different forms of graft, the shaded area representing nightshade and
the white area tomato. When cut through at the points indicated by the arrows, the
stems present the appearance in cross-section of the circles underneath them. The cut
surface forms a callus, a sort of scab, from which sprouts put forth; if one of them arises
directly over the line of union of the two kinds of tissue, it will draw half of its substance
from each, as shown in D, where the left-hand side of the plant is tomato and the right
hand nightshade. For the purpose of comparison, a nightshade leaf is shown at E and a
tomato leaf at G; a chimera-leaf made up of both plants is represented in F. After Wink-
ler. (Fig. 4.)

526 THE JOURNAL
experiments. In 1908 he at last suc-
ceeded in producing what he wanted—
a graft-hybrid in which the union was
not a mere partnership between species
retaining each its own individuality,
but in which the two actually blended
into something new. After the number
of attempts had run up into the hun-
dreds, he finally observed a _ sprout
“which when propagated produced
plants having leaves, flowers and fruit
which were different from those either
of the tomato or of the nightshade.
This new form was named Solanum
tubingense. The general appearance of
this type is intermediate between the
tomato and the nightshade. The leaves
are simple, sharply serrate and often
lobed much like the leaflets of the
tomato plant. The stems and leaves
are hairy like the tomato. The corolla
and the calyx are larger than those of
the nightshade but smaller than those
of the tomato. The fruit is slightly
larger than the fruits of the nightshade,
which are much smaller than the fruits
of the variety of the tomato used in the
graft. Many of the fruits of this type
are sterile but several generations of
seedlings grown from seed have been
pure nightshade and are not like the
plants Solanum tubingense from which
they were derived.

“In continuing his experiments Dr.
Winkler soon obtained the three other
types of tomato-nightshade chimeras
shown in the plate illustrating this
article. Solanum gaertnerianum re-
sembles the nightshade more than the
tomato. The leaves are less entire than
those of the nightshade. The flowers
are greenish in color and are dwarfed,
the petals remaining rudimentary. This
form fruits sparsely but some seeds are
perfectly developed and produce pure
nightshade plants.

“In general shape the leaves of the
form Solanum koelreuterianum resemble

oF HEREDITY

strongly the tomato, but the epidermis
is free of hairs like the nightshade. The
flowers are white with yellow middle
streaks. The fruit does not mature.
This particular type has appeared sev-
eral different times.

“The form called Solanum proteus
also resembles the tomato more than
the. nightshade, although not to the
extent of leaf shape seen in S. koelreuter-
tanum. The stems and leaves are
hairy. The fruits produced are smaller
than those of the tomato, but resemble
them in form.’”

THE CHIMERAS EXPLAINED.

Winkler’s success now seemed com-
plete: he had produced four plants that
in appearance were genuine graft-hy-
brids in which the two parents were
wholly blended. The exact nature of
his success had not yet been explained,
however, and this explanation remained
for another German, Dr. Erwin Baur
of Berlin, who had been studying with
a microscope the cells in the leaves of
that very common perennial, the varie-
gated geranium (Pelargonium zonale).
Everyone knew that some geraniums
bear partly green leaves and partly
white ones, and that there are well-
fixed commercial varieties which regu-
larly bear green leaves with white
edges. Baur wanted to know why this
happened, so he began to raise sectorial
chimeras, made up of green geranium
and white geranium. It will be remem-
bered that, in favorable cases, these two
kinds of tissue exist side by side all the
way up the stem and in the terminal
bud.

Now suppose that in this terminal
bud, where the two kinds of cells are
side by side, the white cells at the
surface begin to grow a bit faster than
the neighboring green cells, so that they
crowd over a little way into the green
territory. Then we have part of the

2Stout, A. B. Plant Chimeras. Journal of N. Y. Botanical Garden, XIV, 164, pp. 145-150,

August, 1913. Winkler last year sent rooted specimens of these four chimeras to the New York
garden, where they have been propagated and distributed to several institutions in the United

States.

In a letter dated Oct. 7, Dr. Stout says: ‘‘During the past summer, the chimeras have

done poorly, and do not seem to reproduce readily through cuttings, although we have made

extra efforts to secure most favorable conditions for them.

has died out completely.
are inclined to make big, bushy plants.
summer.

One of the chimeras, gaertnerianum,

I find that tubingense and koelreuterianum are the only ones that
I saw Winkler’s chimeras at Hamburg during the past
None of them were big, lusty plants. He propagates from terminal and sides branches,

getting young and rather small plants. I have secured the pure tomato and pure nightshade seeds

of chimeras and they grow very well.”

THE Epitor: PLANT CHIMERAS 52e

green tissue in the terminal bud over-
laid by a layer or two of white cells.
Now if a branch starts out just at this
point where the green cells have been
overlaid by white, it will start from and
with green tissue, but it will have to
make its way through this skin of white
cells, and will take them along with it
as its own outer tissue. As the branch
grows, the white cells grow along with
it on its surface, still retaining their
connection with their parent white
tissue, while the larger part of the branch
—namely, all the interior part—is
made of the green tissue. So when the
branch finally attains its full size it
might be described, figuratively, as con-
sisting of a white branch and leaves,
hollow, into which a green branch and
leaves of the same shape but a little
smaller have been thrust up. In other
words, it is a hand in a glove. Most of
each leaf appears green, because the
thin layer of white cells is underlaid by
so much green tissue that shows
through; but at the edges of the leaves
the green cells were crowded back, the
white cells hold undisputed possession,
and no green is to be seen, the result
being the white edge around the pe-
riphery of the leaf. Because of this
peripheral distribution of the white
cells, Baur called such chimeras peri-
clinal, to distinguish them from the
sectorial chimeras which both he and
Winkler had produced in the earlier
stages of their experiments.

THE SOLANUM CHIMERAS.

It was at once suggested that Wink-
ler’s later chimeras—those of the blended
or intermediate type, which he himself
had never been able satisfactorily to
explain—were periclinal chimeras. He
made a careful examination of them on
this hypothesis, and reported that such
was the fact. In Solanum tubingense
and S. proteus, he found that the entire
body of the plant, consisting of night-
shade, was overlaid by a film of tomato
tissue, in the former case consisting of
only one layer of tomato cells, and in
the latter case of two. Solanum
gaertnerianum and S. koelreutertanum
were found to be tomato at heart, but
wholly clad in a skin of nightshade, the

SIMPLE GRAFT

This illustrates the simplest form of graft—

a split, cleft or wedge graft. Of the
two plants thus united, the lower one,
which furnishes the root system, is
called the stock; the upper one, which
furnishes the branches of the developed
plant, is known as the scion. When
the scion is inserted in the stock, as
here shown, and the graft bound up,
callus tissue forms at all the points of
juncture. To produce chimeras the
whole graft, after it has ‘“‘taken,”’ is
cut in two along the line shown, so
that the cut surface on top includes
parts of both stock and scion; more
callus forms on this top plane and gives
rise to sprouts which, in favorable
cases, show the characters of both
parents. Enlarged eight diameters.
(Fig. 5.)

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SVUANIHD WONVIOS S.uaIMNIA

THE Epitor: PLANT CHIMERAS 529

TWO FORMS OF CHIMERAS

Diagram after Baur showing the difference between sectorial and periclinal chimeras, as
exhibited in the terminal bud. The bud at the left (No. 1) may be taken to represent a
periclinal chimera between a white plant and a green plant; the green tissue is entirely
overlaid with a layer of white cells, so that any branch sent out from the green tissue
must of necessity pass through and carry with it white cells as an outer skin. At the
right (No. 2) is the bud of a sectorial chimera between white and green plants, where the
two kinds of tissue exist side by side and come in contact only in one plane. Obviously,
any branch sent out from the green tissue will be green, any branch sent out from the
white side will be white. it is only a branch arising exactly on the line of juncture of
the two kinds of tissue that may be expected to carry both kinds of cells and thus form
a sectorial chimera. (Fig. 7.)

latter sort of cells being two layers deep first crop borne consisted of true
in S. gaertnerianum, while S. koelreuter- peaches, but in the next year the tree
zanum had but one layer. — produced buds some of which resembled

As soon as it was understood what those of an almond, while others were
this kind of graft-hybridization really like peach buds and others again were
meant, attention at once reverted, of intermediate. Seeds from the graft
course, to the classic specimens. Cytisus produced trees which in foliage resem-
adami was found to be a laburnum in bled both the parents. An apparent
disguise, so to speak—a laburnum with chimera made of two varieties of
the skin of a purple broom. Baur +hododendron was produced by grafting
demonstrated) thatthe Crataepo-mes- \iadame Linden. on Cunningham’s

pilus was also a periclinal chimera, its White. ‘A shoot which had been left

epidermis being derived from the medlar Gib the Stock jet beldw: thceen aes

and its interior from the whitethorn. gishe 8 iy
duced pale rosy-lilac flowers; whereas

+h : A \
LR ipa aig ny S0aS Lay ihe Heal aieak ae the flowers of the stock are white, and

separated from these and put in the : ; :
Aes Eiescctoaal chimeras. : those of the scion deep rosy-lilac with

Since then many other chimeras, be- dark red spots. The form of leaf borne
longing to one or other of these two by the anomalous shoot is also distinct,

classes, have been produced, or have approaching that of the scion.’” If
been found in nature, particularly in more horticulturists would make the
such variegated plants as Coleus. One attempt, it is probable that the number
of the most recent was produced by of chimeras reported would be very
grafting a peach on an almond. The large. Winkler has pointed out’ num-

3 See also Castle, W. E. An Apple Chimera. JOURNAL OF HEREDiTY, V, 5, pp. 200-202,
Washington, May, 1914.

4 Revue Horticole, Paris, August 1, 1913, and September 1, 1913; abstract in Gardeners
Chronicle, London, May 16, 1914.

5 Die Chimarenforschung als Methode der experimentellen Biologie, in Sitzungsberichten der
phys.-med. Ges. zu Wtrzburg, 1913. For the original reports of his work, see Winkler, Hans.
Ueber Pfropfbastarde u. pflanzliche Chimaren, Ber. d. deutsch. Botan. Ges., 25, 568, 1907;
same author, Solanum Tubingense, ein echter Pfropfbastard zwischen Tomate u. Nachtschatten,
ibid., 26, 595, 1908; and the same journal, passim, during those and the following years, for the
views of the leading German botanists on the whole subject. The files of the Gardeners’ Chronicle
(London) may also be consulted with profit by those interested in graft-hybrids.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

LIKE A FINGER IN A GLOVE

Diagram of edges of two geranium leaves in cross-section, after Baur. (a) is
that of a variegated geranium; the outer part is white, but inside there is

a mass of green tissue, entirely overlaid by white.
leaved geranium, no white cells being present.

(b) 1s a normal green
The section enclosed in

the small rectangle in each one is shown enlarged in Fig. 9, the following

illustration. (Fig. 8.)

erous ways in which experiments with
them may yield commercial results, as
well as throw light on problems of plant
physiology and heredity, and the study
of chimeras is probably destined to be-
come a regular part of experimental
horticulture. It is not always easy,
however: Winkler made 268 grafts,
which resulted in the production of more
than 3000 sprouts, in order to get the
five chimeras which stand to his credit.

THE TEST OF BREEDING.

Discovery of the nature of these
chimeras was made possible only by the
association of the microscope with
genetics, for mere observation of their
behavior when propagated would hardly
have cleared up the mystery. If they
are to be considered really hybrids, they
ought theoretically to represent the
hybrid generation (Fi) in spite of the
fact that they were produced by grafts
rather than seeds. Their own seedlings
should then represent the critical second
filial (F,) generation, and either show a
new type that bred true (a behavior
that, in hybrids of distinct species,
would occasion no great surprise) or
else split up into a variety of forms, as
most hybrids do in that generation.
It has already been mentioned that the
seedlings of Solanum tubingense were
nothing more nor less than little night-
shades, which bred true in all succeeding
generations. Similar results were found

with the other three chimeras, each one
breeding true to the parent which it
most resembled.

Another suggested test was to com-
pare them with the normal sex-hybrids
produced by cross-pollinating the to-
mato and nightshade. This could not
be done, however, because the investi-
gators were not able successfully to
cross those two species. There was one
line of attack left—namely, a study of
the cell contents. Those who possess
an elementary knowledge of biology
know that each cell has a nucleus con-
taining certain little rods of easily-
stained material called chromosomes,
that the number of chromosomes varies
from species to species, but that within
each species it is constant. This, there-
fore, gave a means of identifying either
one of the parents found in the sectorial
chimeras. The tomato possesses 24
chromosomes, the nightshade 72. Ina
real hybrid, the number of chromo-
somes would, by expectation, be the
sum of half of each of these numbers,
that is, 12+36=48. On the other
hand, as this hybrid was created by
vegetative means, the reduction to one-
half the normal number, which occurs
in the chromosomes in sexual conjuga-
tion, might conceivably not take place;
if it did not, the sectorial chimeras
would be expected to possess 24++72=96
chromosomes. So the microscope was
brought out, and the chromosomes of

THe Epitor: PLANT CHIMERAS

Doi

HOW THE GREEN CELLS ARE OVERLAID BY WHITE

Highly magnified cross section of parts of geranium leaves, after Baur.

At the top of each

one is seen a colorless layer of cells forming the epidermis, and common to all geraniums.
(a) represents a variegated geranium; below the epidermis is seen a single layer of almost

colorless cells which come from a white plant.
of this leaf, but of all the other leaves and stems of the plant.

They are found not only at the surface
Below this layer of white

cells is the mass of green cells, bearing chlorophyll granules, which make up the body

of this variegated plant.

(b) shows part of the leaf of an ordinary green geranium. There

are no white cells, the whole plant being made up of green tissue. The essence of a chimera

is that it be composed of tissues from two different plants.

pollen grains and ovules from all the
new Solanums eagerly counted, with
the expectation or at least the hope that
the number found would be either 48 or
96. But the only counts secured were
either 24 or 72; each chimera possessed
the chromosome count of the parent
which it most resembled, just as it re-
produced that parent by seed.

ARE THE CHIMERAS HYBRIDS?

In the face of such results, the Solan-
ums which Winkler had created with so
much difficulty could hardly have
ranked as hybrids of any kind, had not
Baur’s work showed the ingenious and
unexpected way in which the two par-

(Fig. 9.)

ents actually entered into the progeny,
by the hand-in-glove method. As far
as the evidence from breeding and from
chromosome counts went, they would
have had to be thrown out of the hybrid
class; and this perhaps is the proper
course after all, in spite of the fact that
they are undeniable graft-hybrids, in
the broadest sense of the term. If they
are merely designated as chimeras, the
term hybrid can be reserved for plants
which more completely share the germ-
plasm of their parents, and confusion
will thereby be obviated.

But there is one more chimera, which
was alluded to near the beginning of this
paper and has since, for the sake of

532

simplicity, been studiously ignored. -
This, the fifth chimera secured by Wink-
ler, and called by him, Solanum darwin-
ianum, is in a different class from its
predecessors. It appears to be a real
graft-hybrid: indeed, it claims to be the
only genuine, out-and-out graft-hybrid
in the world.

In order to make this claim, it will be
understood from what was just said
that the chimera must show evidence of
actual vegetative cell-fusion. It will
not do to have the parents living side
by side, as in a sectorial chimera, or
even one enveloping the other, as in the
periclinal chimera. They must actually
unite, not only in body but particularly
in germ-plasm. In Solanum darwin-
zanum the tomato and nightshade seem
at last to have reached that stage of
union.

A count of the chromosomes shows
their number to be 48. The evidence,
therefore, indicates’ on its face that
the cells (or at least some of the cells) of
the two parents have here actually com-
bined, each previously throwing out

6 Goldschmidt, Richard.
Berlin, 1913.

Einfihrung in die Vererbungswissenschaft, p. 400.

‘THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

half of its chromosomes, as in normal
sexual cell-conjugation. Just how this
may have taken place is not yet entirely
explicable, but if it has happened,
Solanum darwinianum will have a strong
claim to be considered a real graft-
hybrid, the first one ever known.

To the old botanists, the existence of
supposed graft-hybrids seems at times
to have been rather resented—they inter-
fered so much with theories about
heredity! Fortunately we have passed
that stage. ‘‘It is not too soon to say,”
as Goldschmidt® concludes, “‘that the
idea that production of hybrids by
vegetative propagation would upset all
our fundamental ideas of the laws of
heredity is to be considered absolutely
groundless.” There are still some
problems to be solved, but we are not
afraid that chimeras will complicate
them. ‘On the contrary, the periclinal
chimeras, and still more the sectorial
chimeras, have introduced some ex-
traordinarily important ideas in the
solution of all kinds of genetic, mor-
phological and physiological problems.”

Leipzig: und

Essentials of a Free Society

Our present natural dispositions make it impossible for us to attain the ideal

standard of a nation of men all judging soberly for themselves, and therefore the
slavishness of the mass of our countrymen, in morals and intellect, must be an
admitted fact in all schemes of regenerative policy.

The hereditary taint due to the primeval barbarism of our race, and maintained
by later influences, will have to be bred out of it before our descendants can rise
to the position of free members of an intelligent society; and I may add that the
most likely nest at the present time, for self-reliant natures, is to be found in
states founded and maintained by emigrants.—Francis Galton: Inquiries into Hu-
man Faculty (1907).

Photographs of Large Trees Wanted

In order to secure data of value to forestry, two members of the American Ge-
netic Association have offered $100 each, for prizes to be awarded by this associa-
tion for photographs of the largest native trees. Contestants are required to send
in two photographs of each tree, one showing the entire tree and the other only
the trunk. A prize of $100 will be given for the largest nut-bearing tree and an-
other prize of the same size for the largest forest or shade tree, non-nut-bearing.
The competition is not limited to members of this association, but photographs
must be taken by or under the direction of the competitor. Conifers will not be
considered. As much information as possible must be furnished about the tree
which is photographed. Details regarding the contest were published in the
Journav or Herepity for October, 1914 (Vol. V, No. 10), or may be secured by
addressing the editor of the JouRNAL.

HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS

Pigweed with Variegated Leaves Proves to Be Sectorial Chimera—Variegated
Plants Probably Produced by Mating of Green and White Gametes—Re-
view of Present State of Knowledge of Chlorophyll Inheritance.

Dr. WILLIAM S. CHapin, Vanderbilt, Mich.

variegated-leaved pigweeds, Ama-
ranthus retroflexus, growing within a
yard of each other in a neglected
corner of an old garden. I removed the
healthiest plant to a large flower-pot in
the house, where it started to blossom
a week later. Beyond keeping it in the
window, I made no effort to protect it
from wind-borne pollen from outdoors.

The peculiar thing about these three
pigweeds was their leaves, many of
which had irregular patches of white
where the chloroplasts had failed to
develop. <A few leaves were pure white
while those on the other side of the
stem were pure green. The white
tissue, not being able to elaborate
carbohydrates for itself, had to depend
for food on that brought to it from the
green portions of the plant. Conse-
quently the white patches showed less
growth than the rest of the leaf and
this often caused the leaves to bend
or curl toward the white areas. Such
variegated plants are handicapped in
the ‘Struggle for Existence’? when in
competition with green plants which
have no parasitic white tissue to sup-
port and, if they have a large proportion
of white tissue, are delicate and hard
to raise.

The side branches also bore the char-
acter of the leaves from whose axils
they sprung: e. g., pure green branches
came from the axils of pure green
leaves, pure white branches from the
axils of pure white leaves, while from
the axils of variegated leaves there
might appear pure white, pure green or
variegated branches depending on cir-
cumstances. It is believed that in such
plants the apical cone, or mass of

|’ AUGUST, 1912, I found three

embryonic cells at the tip of the stem,
is composed of two kinds of cells, some
of which are able to produce green
tissue while the others can only produce
white. If all the white tissue embryonic
cells happen to be bunched together on
one side of the apical cone, the leaves
formed from these cells alone will be
pure white, while leaves on the other
side of the stem formed only from green
tissue embryonic cells will be pure
green. Leaves formed from both sorts
of cells are variegated and their pattern
depends on the relative number and
position of the green and white cells.

VARIATION IN THE LEAVES.

If the white and green embryonic
cells always maintained their relative
numbers and position in the apical
cone, then theoretically each leaf on a
stem might have the same pattern as
the leaf directly below it. There is in
fact a very strong resemblance between
such leaves, but there is always some
inequality in the growth of the cells of
the apical cone with a consequent
change in the pattern of the leaves. In
some cases the green embryonic cells
crowd the white ones entirely out of
the apical cone or vice versa and the
rest of the stem and leaves becomes
pure green or pure white as the case
may be. Such branches have never
again become variegated so far as I
have observed. In many variegated-
leaved plants the white embryonic
cells form a layer over the green ones
in the apical cone. The leaves in such
cases are a lighter green with white
edges, the green cells being sandwiched
in, so to speak, between an upper

333

534

and a lower layer of white cells. An
illustration of this is to be seen in the
variegated-leaved geraniums which are
familiar to everyone. This type of
variegation has never as yet appeared
in the offspring of my pigweed.

TABLE 1. VARIEGATED PIGWEED 1.

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

About half of the seeds of the trans-
planted pigweed were planted in sterile
soil in the spring of 1913. A few seeds
from all green branches were saved

separately. The results are given in
Table 1.

ye | Mixed seed Seed from green branches
Seedlings No. % Noa. %
rec DIANIS 2: Ss.e0 Pate Oe Lee | 419 74 201 98
Matiewated plants 3. fut % ats a7-k site ote 11 2 0 0
WY DIte. PIANItS erie ahs. et Pine he eecueler ne real 134 24 + 2
Ayo]: Peng ey ean a NP hetee ae SPS Oe EL | 564 100 205 100

The contrast between the seedlings
from the whole plant and those from the
green branches alone seemed to be too
great to be due to chance so the experi-
ment was repeated by saving the three
most vigorous variegated seedlings which
were called 1A, 1B, 1C. Each plant
was placed in a separate box of earth
and protected from outside pollen as
far as possible by a cage with a glass
top and two layers of heavy muslin on
the sides.

An all green slip from 1A was rooted
in the house and its seed saved sep-
arately. As it was impossible to raise a
pure white seedling or an all white
slip, I saved some seeds by hand from a
pure white branch on 1A. In the other
two pigweeds the white and green
tissues were so mixed that it was diffi-

cult to save seeds from the white tissue
alone without including some from the
green portions of the plant. The white
tissue was also in much smaller amount
in these plants than on plant 1A which
probably accounts for the smaller pro-
portion of white seedlings which they
produced. A few seeds from the green
branches of 1A were also saved by hand
and most of them planted soon after
they were gathered. To my great sur-
prise not a seed came up and after
standing around for several months,
the box met with an accident and the
seeds were lost. This showed that the
seeds would have to mature before they
would germinate so I waited until this
spring before planting the rest of the
seeds. The results are given in tables
2 atiG a:

TABLE 2. VARIEGATED PIGWEED 1A.

Mixed seed Seed from Seed from Seeds from
Seedlings from 1A green branches white branches

? 8 whole plant green slip 38 seeds 165 seeds

No. % No. % No. % | No. %
GTRCD Ate eh on ss 2605 62.3 1243 100" 32 97 .0 4 2.4
Variegated........... 38 0.9 0 0 0 ONO = 0 0.0
MUO ee es 8 ete 1541 36.8 | 0 0 1 330) 3) salto 97.6

Aja) i: es Se ee ae 4184 100. 1243 100. 33 100... | “265, “00s

|
Note. The four green seedlings in the right-hand column from seed taken from white branches

come probably from wild seeds which were not killed in sterilization of the earth.
this case was boiled for half an hour with occasional stirring in an open pan.

The earth in
In all other cases

the earth was baked in a hot oven for at least three hours and then washed with three or four
changes of water to remove any injurious substances which might be formed by the heat. That
the earth in this box was insufficiently sterilized is shown by the fact that two other weeds, Malva
rotundifolia, also appeared in this box, All the other boxes remained free from foreign weeds.

CHAPIN: HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS 535
TABLE 3. VARIEGATED PIGWEEDS 1B AND 1C.
1B LG :
Seedlings | Mixed seed Mixed seed
| No. is No. %
(GREG gr ea ear Ment deg er tt eS iate 2 iy, ooh 2996 OFS 2413 91.6
Waiegatcdincss ti sistigen to. iiherr aa see eke a Spas 7 0.2 10 0.4
NTA eS Cli pi oh: Gh Semen eg aN PERCE Pel ee ea 272 8.3 PAA 8.0
“UT o eral Lae SSE CRO NTIS See hol, 0 na La ey S275 2634 100.

100. |

Fifty-seven green seedlings of the
original pigweed 1 were raised until
they had five or more leaves. None of
them showed the least variegation with
white tissue, however. Twenty of
these plants were placed together in
a box where there was abundant oppor-
tunity for cross as well as self pollina-
tion. No attempt was made to avoid
foreign pollen as this would come from
green plants anyway and would not be
likely to prevent the formation of
white or variegated plants, if such
could occur. As a matter of fact there
were no wild pigweeds growing within a
hundred feet of them. From the mixed
seed of these plants a large sample was
planted and I obtained 3492 seedlings,
which were all green, none variegated
or white.

From this it would appear in the case
of these pigweeds that green tissue
produces only green plants and white
tissue only white plants when fertiliza-
tion takes place between germ cells
which come from the same tissue.
Variegated plants are most likely formed
from a cross between germ cells which
come one from green and the other
from white tissue. I have experiments
planned for the future to determine
this point, which will be the subject of
another paper.

A word should be said as to the ac-
curacy of these figures. I believe that
they are essentially correct. The white
seedlings always wither before the new
leaves appear and if a way could be
found to raise them some might prove
to be variegated. This seems unlikely,
however. A more important source of
error consists in overlooking variegated
plants which have only a little white in
their cotyledons and counting them as
green. I doubt if this error would
amount to half of one per cent at the
most.

The important thing is that we have
here a race of plants with different
hereditary characteristics on different
branches. They are in fact natural
chimeras, in distinction to those chi-
meras which are formed by grafting.
If we could graft the white plants on
green plants we might expect to get
just such sorts of variegated individuals
from adventitious shoots which included
tissue from both stock and scion.

Baur (4) has reported a very similar
condition among geraniums, Pelargon-
zum zonale, which have white-edged
leaves. The whole subject is so inter-
esting from a genetic standpoint that I
shall attempt a review of the main
features of chlorophyll inheritance, and
the hypotheses put forward to explain
them. Besides the cases which I have
given in this review others have been
reported which do not seem to belong
to any of these types. H. Molisch (13),
for instance, has reported cabbages
which develop variegated leaves on the
approach of cold weather. The leaves
become green again if the temperature
is raised. The plants are true to seed,
but no crosses with green plants were
reported. Shull (16) also reports some
very interesting variegations in the
leaves of Melandrium.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHLOROPHYLL INHERITANCE.

1. Infectious Chlorosis. | Not inherited.
Transmitted only by grafting.

2. Mendelian Types of Inheritance.

(a) Chlorophyll albinos. Forms which
lack chlorophyll entirely. Known only as
seedlings which soon die.

(b) ‘‘Chlorina’” and ‘‘Pallida” types.
Leaves have less chlorophyll than normal.
Leaf color fairly uniform.

3. Atypical Mendelian Types. Represented
by the ‘‘Variegata” form of Mirabilis jalapa—
Correns (10).

4. Non-Mendelian Types.

(a) “Albomaculata” type. Variegated
leaves. Inheritance through the mother. No
segregation in the F, generation.

(b) Sectorial and periclinal chimeras.

THE JOURNAL OF

HEREDITY

VARIATION IN PIGWEED CHIMERA SEEDLINGS

Seeds of the green and white pigweed chimera as shown in the frontispiece were planted and

produced about three-fourths green and one-fourth white plants.

A few of the plants

were variegated, and it is believed that these were produced by the union of germ cells

from green tissue and germ cells from white tissue.

The patterns of the cotyledons of

these variegated seedlings are shown in the above diagram, a pure white and pure green

plant being sketched in the lower corners, for comparison.

The heredity of these seedlings

does not follow any mathematical law for the plants as a whole, but the relative number
of white and green seedlings produced by a chimera depends largely on the ratio of white

to green tissue. (Fig. 10.)

INFECTIOUS CHLOROSIS.

Under this heading Baur (1 and 2)
describes a peculiar disease among
Abutilons and other plants in which the
leaves are green with white spots. The
disease may be transferred to healthy
green leaved plants by grafting, but in
no other way. Healthy plants are not
ted by contact with spotted plants
even when grown together in the same

infe

pot Baur was also unable to infect
healthy plants by injecting them with
tissue juices of chlorotic individuals and
for this reason he believes that it is not

a germ disease, although its ability to

spread from plant to plant by grafting
would lead one to suppose so. It seems
to me possible, however, that the disease
is due to an organism which lives in the
vascular ducts and is so delicate that
it is killed by the cell juices when the
tissues are crushed. Infectious chlorosis
is not inherited. Seedlings from infected
plants are all green and normal.

CHLOROPHYLL ALBINOS.

The Mendelizing forms which lack
chlorophyll entirely cannot be used in
crosses because of their early death.
We know of their existence only through
the behavior of green or yellowish-green

CHAPIN: HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS

A GERANIUM CHIMERA

Variegated geranium (Pelargonium zonale), the product of artificial cross-pollination.
Its father had white-edged leaves like that shown in the lower left-hand corner,
its mother had normal green leaves. The same cross produced plants which were
apparently pure green and others which were apparently pure white, in addition
to variegated plants of the type here shown. One of the upper branches of this
geranium, it will be noted, is composed entirely of white tissue and so has only
white leaves, while the lower branch is composed of green tissue which is partly
enclosed on the left side with a thin layer of white cells. (Fig. 11)

538

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

A CABBAGE CHIMERA

Variegated cabbage, whose heredity has not yet been’ put to the test of breeding.

Dr. Chapin

thinks it is probably a chimera showing both sectorial and periclinal variegation. (Fig. 12.)

plants which act as heterozygotes; that
is, they produce’ green seedlings and
white seedlings in the ratio of 3:1.
Such plants have been reported «by
Baur (6) for Antirrhinum (Snapdrag-
ons) and Melandrium. Johannsen has
also briefly reported a similar case in
Phaseolus (Kidney Beans). Shull (16)
has confirmed Baur’s work with Melan-
drium.

Jaur’s Melandrium (6) is especially
interesting. He found a wild Melandri-
um album which had one branch with a
streak of white tissue on it affecting
the leaves on that side. Eventually the
white tissue surrounded the green, form-
ing a periclinal chimera with white-
edged leaves. A female blossom on this
branch was then fertilized with pollen
from a normal green plant. This was
equivalent to a cross between white
female and green male since the germ

cells are only formed from the outer
layer of cells just beneath the epidermis
in the apical cone. This cross resulted
in over 200 seedlings all green though a
little paler than normal. When crossed
with each other they produced green
and white offspring in the ratio of 3 : 1.
No variegated plants were produced.
The question then was whether the
white branch had sprung from a normal
green plant or from a heterozygote for
white and green. As self fertilization
was impossible, flowers on the green
branches were crossed with pollen from
heterozygotic offspring of the white
branch, produced as described, with
the result that green and white seedlings
were produced in the ratio of 3:1. If
the plant had been a normal green
homozygote such a cross would have
produced only green plants.

CHAPIN: HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS

Some of the earliest work on chloro-
phyll color was done by Baur (3) with
an ‘“‘aurea’’ form of snapdragon, Antir-
rhinum majus. The leaves of the
“aurea’’ plants were yellowish green or
golden in color and they had _ less
chlorophyll than normal, green plants.
Baur’s experiments showed that the
“aurea’’ plants were to be regarded as
heterozygotes, for when self fertilized
they produced green, ‘aurea’ and
yellow seedlings in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
The yellow seedlings soon died, as they
had no chlorophyll in their leaves, but
only a yellow pigment, carotin, which
gave them their color. The cross be-
tween green plants and “‘aurea’”’ plants
gave green and “‘aurea’’ offspring in
equal numbers. Evidently this case
is like that of the famous Andalusian
fowl.

““CHLORINA”’ AND ‘‘PALLIDA’’ TYPES.

Plants which have less than the
normal amount of chlorophyll in their
leaves, are true to seed and behave as
typical recessives when crossed. with
normal green plants, have been described
by Baur, Correns, Shull and others.
“Chlorina’”’ forms have been described
by Baur (5, 6) for Antirrhinum majus
(Snapdragon) and Aquilegia vulgaris;
by Correns (9, 10) for Mirabilis jalapa
(Four O’Clocks) and Urtica pilulifera
and U. dodarti and by Shull (16) for
Melandrium. The “pallida” type has
only been reported by Shull for Melan-
drium. Price and Drinkard (15) report
a case of yellow leaved tomatoes which
appears to belong in this class.

Correns’ ‘‘chlorina”’ type of Mzrabilis
jalapa has pale green leaves which con-
tain 28 to 30% of chlorophyll. The
plants and their flowers are smaller than
usual on this account. The color seems
to be fairly uniform, though it varies
somewhat in different plants. In Me-
landrium Shull says the ‘“chlorina’”’
plants have about 43% of chlorophyll
in their leaves. The color varies con-
siderably in intensity in different plants
and even in different parts of the same
plant. They also have a tendency to
bleach in strong sunlight, especially
near their centers. The ‘“‘pallida’”’ type
of Melandrium differs from ‘“‘chlorina’”’

539

in having rather darker leaves (about
65% chlorophyll) which do not fade in
sunlight. The color is more uniform
than in “chlorina.”’

THE MENDELIAN EXPLANATION.

If we let X represent the sum of all
the unknown factors for chlorophyll
color, then the following formulas will
explain Shull’s results with Melandrium.

1. XX ZZ YY NN produces normal,
green leaves.

2, XX 22 YN» NN forms a white
plant without chorophyll which soon
dies because it lacks the Z factor.

3. XX Zz YY NN is green like no. 1
but differs in being a heterozygote. Its
offspring are green plants and white
plants in the ratio of 3 : 1.

4. XX ZZ yy NN gives the “‘pallida”’
form.

5. XX ZZ Yy NN represents the
hybrid between green and “pallida.”
It has green leaves and produces green
and “pallida” offspring in the ratio of
oa le

6. XX ZZ YY nn gives the “chlorina”’
form. Like “pallida” it behaves as a
simple recessive to normal green. The
cross between ‘“‘chlorina’”’ (XX ZZ YY
nn) and “pallida” (XX ZZ yy NN)
produces a green leaved plant with the
formula:

7. XX ZZ Yy Nn whose offspring in
the F, generation are composed of green,
“chlorina”’ and “pallida” plants. The-
oretically the ratio should be 9 :3 :3 :1,
the one plant in 16 being a new type of
the formula:

8. XX ZZ yy nn which Shull calls
“subchlorina.” Unfortunately he was
unable to distinguish the “‘subchlorina’”
plants from the others. The number of
green and pale leaved plants agreed very
well with the expected ratio of 9 : 7,
however.

Baur (6) says that a factor Z is neces-
sary for the production of chlorophyll.
Plants which do not possess it are pure
white and cannot live. Factor Y is only
active in the presence of Z. Plants with
Z but not Y are yellow and cannot live.
Factors Z and Y without N produce the
pale green “‘chlorina” color. Factor N
produces a green plant in the presence

540

THE JOURNAL OF

HEREDITY

PROBABLY A CASE OF INFECTIOUS CHLOROSIS

One of the causes of variegated leaves in plants is infectious chlorosis, a disease which is not

inherited, but transmitted only by grafting.
natural size, appears to be thus infected.

and enlarge radially.

The leaf of Farfugium grande, here shown

The spots start from the small capillary veins
y. ‘‘The white spots are surrounded by a border of yellowish green
where the chloroplasts are losing their color,”’

Dr. Chapin notes. ‘One gets the im-

pression that the green cells are being bleached by a poison which diffuses slowly from

centers scattered <

theory.”’ (Fig. 13.
of at least one Z and two Ys. The
formula ZZ Yy NN gives “aurea”’

plants.

It should be borne in mind that the
Z, Y and N factors in Melandrium are
not necessarily the same as those in
other plant uch as Antirrhinum.
Jaur and Correns seein to think that the
inheritance of chlorophyll color is
nected directly
the vellow pigment,
however, on the basi
Melandrium, believe
to independent factor

CoN -
with: the inheritance of
carotin. Shull,
of his work with
that they are due

ibout the leaf, and it is hard to account for this except by the parasitic

ATYPICAL MENDELIAN TYPES.

In the ‘‘variegata”’ form of Mirabilis
jalapa, Correns (10, 12) shows a very
puzzling type of heredity. This race
of Four O’Clocks differs from the
“chlorina”’ type in having patches of
pure green scattered over a background
of “‘chlorina”’ color on the leaves. The
number and size of these spots varies
greatly in different plants and fluctuates
to some extent from leaf to leaf. Some
‘““variegata’’ plants are scarcely to be
distinguished from ‘“‘chlorina,”’ the green

CHAPIN: HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS

spots are so few and small; while on
others dark green spots are large and
numerous. They have about 40% of
chlorophyll as compared with 30% in
“chlorina”’ plants.

Here and there on “‘variegata”’ plants
one finds green branches which remain
green without producing variegated
leaves. Such branches are more com-
mon on heavily spotted plants, but they
may occur on any though some may not
happen to produce them. Branches
with pure “chlorina’’ colored leaves
might be expected, but they are not
mentioned and apparently do not occur.
“Variegata”’ plants are not true to seed.
The variegated branches produce

1. ““Variegata’”’ plants between 90
and 100%.

2. Green heterozygotes, a few, whose
offspring are green and “variegata”’
plants in the ratio of 3 : 1.

3. Green homozygotes, a few, with
only green offspring. The green
branches on ‘“‘variegata’”’ plants behave
as heterozygotes producing green and
“variegata’”’ seedlings in the ratio of

541

generation segregating in each case in
the usual 3 : 1 ratio. Correns gives the
following Mendelian interpretation:
Green (G) is dominant over ‘‘varie-
gata’ (V) and both are dominant over
“chlorina” (C). The genetic character
of the germ cells in these plants would
then be:
Green, GVC, GVc, GvC or Gve.
“Variegata” gVC or gVc.
“Chlorina,” gvC.
He reports the results of a few crosses
between green plants whose germ cells
had the constitution (GvC) and ‘‘varie-
gata” (gVC). The F, plants were all
green (GgVvCC). The F, plants had
germ cells GVC, GvC, gVC and gvC in
equal numbers, which gave green,
“variegata”’ and “‘chlorina’”’ seedlings in
the ratio 12 :3:1. A Punnett square
may make this clearer to those who are
unfamiliar with Mendelian ratios. In
this square the male germ cells are
placed above the diagram and the
female cells along the left side. The
nature of the plant formed by the union

3:1. “Variegata” is recessive to green of any two cells is shown in the small
and dominant to ‘“‘chlorina,’’ the F, square where the columns intersect.
MALES
GVC _ GvC gVC | gvC
CUGE ES ncuc5, R@GWICCet 6 Neel Ta. 0 Gunnery GE VCR. 4. ON Cav OC. ae
GLEETIN ne he ae Greeti hots Sae, Greehie yaa he Greene ae ee
n
en ee a ewes b
PN Oya es einem Eee CAG OOo 7 0G: Gil olin : | GgVvCC:.....4] Geyviee peared
a Greenrs:t okey. Greene Saree (Grech mete (Greener ease ee
AS |
VACHE, shea ets | GON VEC = oe GeV viG Crease BEV VCC olen PREM Vier isis ee
Green wes recs Sts “Nariegata”’ 4... 0) < Variegata’ a0
Ov Cora ee rs ore GeVvVyCG 2. os GgvvCC eo VCO Maye os Reo viv OC pears nee
Green <5 4 Soe Green. | “Vanepatas ae...) Ohlorinate» os

In this experiment Correns obtained
106 green plants in the F, generation.
Ten of these, self fertilized, gave in the
F, generation 360 green, 76 “‘variegata”’
and 28 ‘“‘chlorina’”’ plants, which agrees
well with the theoretical expectation of
348 green, 8/ ‘“‘variegata’”’ and 29
‘‘chlorina.”’

The formation of green branches and
the fact that the variegated branches

oo

are not true to seed 1s the difficult thing
to understand about these plants. Cor-
rens suggests that they are really in a
continual state of change from the
homozygotic, “‘variegata’’ condition to
the heterozygotic, green condition, but
this hardly explains anything. It is
simply stating the facts in another way.
And it may be questioned whether a
“‘variegata’”’ plant which is constantly

wath cates —

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

SPOTTED VARIEGATION IN A BEGONIA

Not a chimera, but a plant probably suffering from infectious chlorosis.

Its offspring, if pro-

duced by seed, will be normal; while if it were a periclinal chimera, as it appears at first

ight, its parti-colored condition would be inherited.

The spots on the leaves here start

from time to time at a distance from the large veins and spread until they fuse together.

The nature of the disease is not yet altogether clear to scientists.

producing a small percentage of green
plants should be considered a homozy-
gote in the strict sense of the word.

Baur’s (8) “‘variegata”’ type of snap-
dragon differs from this in the fact that
it is true to seed, no green plants being
produced. Normal green is dominant
to this type of “‘variegata’’ and both
are dominant to ‘‘chlorina.”” The F,
generation splits in each case in the
common 3:1 ratio. Baur’s explanation
is briefly this:

1. A factor, A, makes the green spots
of ‘‘variegata’’ possible even in the ab-

sence of a second factor B.

(Fig. 14.)

2. A factor, B, makes a uniform green
color possible even in the absence of
factor A.

Then aaBB are green plants true to
seed.

AAbb are ‘“‘variegata’’ plants true to
seed.

aabb
seed.

This theory agrees with the facts
except for the cross between green and
“variegata’’ in which the F, plants
would be AaBb. They should then
form germ cells with the factors AB,
Ab, aB and ab in equal numbers and

are “‘chlorina’’ plants true to

CHAPIN: HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS

543

VARIEGATED GERANIUM LEAVES

The group at the left is from a seedling whose father was a periclinal chimera with white edged

leaves and whose mother was a green-leaved plant.
The two leaves at the right show a reversal

from three different periclinal chimeras.

The three leaves in the center are

of the usual condition in periclinal chimeras of the geranium. Here the green tissue is

on the outside and the white inside.

the F, seedlings would then be green,
“variegata’”’ and “‘chlorina’”’ in the ratio
12 : 3 : 1 instead of the actual ratio of 3
green to 1 “variepata.’ To account
for this Baur assumes that factor coup-
ling occurs so that instead of all four
types of germ cells being formed, the F,
plants produce only two having the
formulas Ab and aB. Just why Baur
did not make use of Correns’ factors G,
V, and C which would seem to answer
the purpose equally well without the
assumption of factor coupling is not
exactly clear.

NON-MENDELIAN TYPES.

Instances of heredity which are to be
explained without the use of Mendelian
formulas are so rare that the following
types of inheritance possess an unusual
interest.

The ‘“‘albomaculata’’ type has been
described by Correns (11) for Four
O’Clocks, and by Baur (7) for Snap-
dragons. The plants have variegated
leaves irregularly spotted green and
white. Some leaves are nearly white
with the green spots few and small
while others are nearly green with little
white. All graduations of color exist
between these. There are also branches

(Fig. 15.)

with pure white or pure green leaves
which do not become variegated after-
wards. Anatomically it is seen that the
chloroplasts are bleached out more or
less in the white areas and the change
from green to white spots is a gradual
one. Chloroplasts may even be un-
equally bleached in the same cell.

The green branches produce green
offspring which are true to seed. White
branches yield only white seedlings
which soon die. Variegated branches
produce, in addition to these, ‘‘albo-
maculata’ plants which live or die
according to whether they have or have
not sufficient chlorophyll to sustain life.
The ratio of green, white and variegated
offspring from variegated branches is
different in different plants, but still it
seems to bear a direct relation to the
amount of green and white in the leaves.

The pollen from ‘‘albomaculata’’
plants behaves in crosses as if it came
from normal green ones. For instance
the pollen from a blossom on a white
branch of an “‘albomaculata’”’ plant was
used on castrated flowers of a “‘chlorina”’
plant. The F, plants were all green
with green and “‘chlorina’”’ seedlings in
the ratio of 3:1. No “albomaculata”’
plants appeared. Likewise no segrega-

544

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

A VARIEGATED COLLECTION

(a) Abutilon, a periclinal chimera whose green leaves have white edges.
the envelopment of the green by the white tissue is not complete.

In the upper leaves
The misshapen leaves

show that the outside skin of white tissue exerts a restraining influence on the growth
of the normal and more vigorous green tissue. (b) and (c) show other abutilon leaves,
spotted but probably as the result of infectious chlorosis because they are certainly not
chimeras. (d) isthe Wandering Jew (Tradescantia fluminensis), a good example of sectorial
chimera. It is remarkable for the fact that the guard cells of the stomata—the breathing
pores of the leaf—always contain green granules of chlorophyll even if situated over

white tissue, or on pure white leaves.
geraniums.
light areas are pale green, not white.
while others are wholly light green.

pale green “‘chlorina’’-like tissue and partly of normal dark green tissue.

determined. (Fig. 16.)

tion in the F, generation occurs when
the pollen of “albomaculata”’ plants is
used on the blossoms of green plants,
both the F,; and the F, plants being
green. On the other hand, when the
pollen of green plants is used on ‘‘albo-
maculata” blossoms the result is exactly
the same as if the flowers had been self
fertilized.

Correns’ theory is that the “albo-
maculata’’ character is due to a disease
of the cytoplasm which does not affect
the nucleus. The nuclei in these plants
are supposed to carry factors necessary
for chlorophyll formation like those of
normal green plants. No cytoplasm,
however, is carried into the egg cell by
the male gamete, but only nuclear

(e) Leaf of the Small Mallow (Malva rotundifolia), a common weed.
Some leaves on the plant are wholly dark green
It appears to be a sectorial chimera formed partly of

This is not the case in the variegated pigweed or

The

Heredity un-

materal. So the condition can only be
transmitted by the mother plant and
apparently the female cells of the
“albomaculata”’ plants may be affected
to a variable extent, or not at all, which
accounts for all the facts.

SECTORIAL CHIMERAS.

Our knowledge of the heredity of
white and green leaved chimeras rests
largely on Baur’s (4) work with geran-
iums. Such plants with grayish green
leaves with white edges are familiar
to every one while the reverse type
whose leaves have white or pale green
centers and green edges is only a little
less common. In these plants, as has
been said, the embryonic tissue in th

CHAPIN:

apical cone is made up of two sorts of
cells, one of which produces green
tissue and the other only white. In the
sectorial chimeras pure green or pure
white branches are frequently formed
from buds starting in green or white
tissue. Periclinal branches arise from
the overgrowth of one tissue about the
other.

The heredity of these plants involves
two difficulties:

1. Why the union of green and white
germ cells does not produce Mendelian
heterozygotes.

2. Why such a cross should sometimes
produce variegated chimeras and at
other times give rise to green or white
plants.

Baur’s answer to the first question
rests on the fact that the chloroplasts
have a heredity independent of the cells
in which they live. Chloroplasts orig-
inate from the division of other chloro-
plasts and in no other way. This does
not mean that mature chloroplasts are
to be found in embryonic or sexual cells,
but only that small bodies which develop
into chloroplasts are there and that
these small mother chloroplasts are not
produced from the cytoplasm or chro-
matin, as was formerly thought.

In the previous cases of abnormal
chlorophyll development which we have
studied we must suppose that the nor-
mal production of green leaves is pre-
vented by the absence of useful factors
or, in the case of the “albomaculata”’
plants, by the presence of inhibiting
agents, acting on the chloroplasts. In
the white tissue of the chimeras, how-
ever, the chloroplasts themselves are
abnormal and will not properly develop.
The union of white and green gametes
results, then, in a zygote which contains
at least one white and one green mother
chloroplast. These divide into daughter
chloroplasts which are _ distributed
among the dividing cells at random.
Baur assumes that cell division at first
takes place more rapidly than chloro-
plast division so that eventually at an

1Ernst A. Bessey writes me:

HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS 545

early stage in the growth of the embryo

all the chloroplasts in each cell will be
descended from a single mother chloro-
plast, white or green.

The second difficulty Baur answers
by saying that the white-and the green
seedlings are probably extreme types
of chimeras in which the apparently
missing green or white tissue is repre-
sented by only a few cells which escape
notice with the naked eye. He says he
has been able to find small islands of
white or green cells in seemingly pure
green or pure white seedlings, though
whether they are present in all cases he
is, of course, unable to say.

According to this theory we would
expect that the extreme types, the all
green and the all white seedlings, would
be rather scarce as compared with the
variegated plants, instead of the heavy
majority of green seedlings which Baur’s
figures show. In my own crosses
variegated plants have always been in
the minority, though in one case the
white plants outnumbered the green.
This is doubtless due to some unknown
factors in the mechanism of develop-
ment.

A good start has been made in the
study of chlorophyll inheritance, but
much remains to be done. Several of
the theories given rest on the shaky
foundation of few observations and
small numbers. A discovery is hardly a
discovery until others have repeated
the work with the same results. The
great importance of this work is seen
when we remember that the welfare of
all the higher forms of life depends
ultimately on the work of the chloro-
plasts.

SUMMARY.

A pigweed, Amaranthus retroflexus,
was found having variegated leaves.
The plant was evidently a sectorial
chimera composed of green and white
tissue. Its offspring consisted of green,
white and a few variegated seedlings
like the mother plant. Green seedlings

“The probability that the pollen carries over any anlage for

chloroplasts is very slim, as it is only the two male nuclei from the pollen tube that seem to be
essential, and only one of them enters the egg. These nuclei slip out of the cytoplasmic sheath
way up in the style so that they simply enter into the fertilization as naked nuclei and not as in

the lower plants, as whole cells.

In some plants chloroplasts have been observed in the egg cell

and in most plants where it has been investigated the anlage of such chloroplasts are present.”

546 THE JOURNAL
and green branches from variegated
plants produced only green offspring.
White branches produced only white
offspring when self fertilized. Cross
fertilization was not attempted. It is
likely that the variegated plants which
do appear come from a cross between

OF HEREDITY

the heredity of this plant belongs to the
type of variegated chimeras of Pelar-
gonium zonale described by Baur (4).
In conclusion I wish to express my
thanks to Dr. Ernst A. Bessey and
Prof. Henri Hus for their helpful en-
couragement and many valuable sug-

green and white gametes. Probably gestions.
REFERENCES.
Baur, Erwin. 10. Vererbungsversuche mit _blass-(gelb)
1. Zur Aetiologie der infektiésen Pana- grunen und buntblatterigen Sippen
chierung. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. bei Mirabilis jalapa, Urtica pilulifera

Ges. 22, 1904, p. 453.

. Uber infektiédse Chlorosen bei Ligus-
trum, Laburnum, Fraxinus, Sorbus und
Ptelea. Ber d. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 25,
1907, p. 410.

3. Untersuchungen wtiber die Erblich-
keitsverhaltnisse einer nur in Bastard-
form lebensfahigen Sippe von Antir-
rhinum majus. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot.
Ges. 25, 1907, p. 442.

4. Das Wesen und die Erblichkeitsver-
haltnisse der ‘‘Varietates albomargin-
atae hort.”’ von Pelargonium zonale.
Zeitschr. f. ind. Abstamm. und Vererb.
1, 1909, p. 330.

5. Vererbungs- und _ Bastardierungsver-
suche mit Antirrhinum. Zeitschr. f.
ind. Abstamm. und Vererb. 3, 1910,
p. 34.

6. Untersuchungen tiber die Vererbung
von Chromatophorenmerkmalen bei
Melandrium, Antirrhinum und Aqui-
legia. Zeitschr. f. ind. Abstamm. u.
Vererb. 4, 1910, p. 81.

. Einfthrung in die experimentelle
Vererbungslehre. Berlin, 1911.

8. Vererbungs- und Bastardierungsver-
suche mit Antirrhinum. II. Faktor-
enkoppelung. Zeitschr. f. ind. Ab-
stamm. u. Vererb. 6, 1912, p. 201.

CoORRENS, CARL E.

9. Uber Bastardierungsversuche mit
Mirabilis-Sippen. Ber. d. Deutsch.
Bot. Gesell. 20, 1902, p. 594.

to

~

u. Lunaria annua. Zeitschr. f. ind.
Abstamm. u. Vererb. 1, 1909, p. 291.

Zur kenntnis der Rolle von Kern und
Plasma bei der Vererbung. Zeitschr.
f. ind. Abstamm. u. Vererb. 2, 1909,
Di sou.
Der Ubergang aus dem homozygotis-
chen in einen heterozygotischen Zustand
im selben Individuum bei buntblat-
terigen und gestreift bluhenden Mirab-
ilis-Sippen. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot.
Ges. 28, 1910, p. 418.
Mottscn, H.
13. Uber die Panachtire des Kohls. Ber. d.
Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 19, 1901, p. 33.
NiLsson-EHtve, H.
14. Einige Beobachtungen tber erbliche
Variationen der Chlorophylleigenschaft
bei den Getreidearten. Zeitschr. f.
ind. Abstamm. u. Vererb. 9, 1913,
p. 289.
Price, H. L. AND DRINKARD, A. W. JR.
15. Inheritance in Tomato Hybrids.
Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 177,
1908.
SHULL, GEo. H.

16. Uber die Vererbung der Blattfarbe bei
Melandrium. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot.
Ges. 31, 1913, p.40. Generalversamm-
lungsheft.

an,

12;

Eugenics and Genius

If anyone could devise for us a means by which the genius, potentially existing
at any time, were realized, he would have performed in effect a service equivalent
to that of which eugenics repudiates the present possibility—the actual creation
of genius. * * * But if eugenics can raise the average level of human intelli-
gence, in so doing not merely does it render more likely, as Mr. Galton points out,
the production of men of the highest ability, but it provides those conditions in
which men of genius, now swamped, can swim. We could not undertake to produce
a Shakespeare, but we might reasonably hope to produce a generation which would
not destroy its Shakespeares. And even if men of genius still found it necessary,
as men of genius have found it necessary, to ‘‘play to the gallery,” they would
play, as Mr. Galton says of the demagogue in a eugenic age, “to a more sensible
gallery than at present.’’—C. W. Saleeby: Parenthood and Race Culture (1909).

STUDIES IN HUMAN HEREDITY.

Many Investigations Under Way in United States, Some of Them on a Very Large
Scale—What the Investigators Are Doing—Help Wanted from
Members of This Association.

Dr. FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Dr. Apotr MEYER

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT
“Eugenics Research Committee of the American Genetic Association.

HE amount of research in human
| genetics and eugenics, now be-
ing carried on in the United
States, is probably realized by
few persons. In the following report,
the Eugenics Research Committee of
this Association has brought together
data about some of these lines of inves-
tigation. The report does not include
all such lines, or even all the important
ones. It is probable that many investi-
gators unknown to this committee are
pursuing researches in different parts of
the country; the committee hopes they
will send to the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY
brief statements of their work, in order
that all those interested may know just
what is being done, and what remains
to be undertaken.

The object of the committee in pre-
senting this report 1s twofold. In the
first place, it is felt to be a matter of
interest to genetists, both here and
abroad, to know just what is being at-
tempted in this branch of the science in
the United States. In the second place,
it is hoped that members of this associa-
tion who know where valuable material
may be found bearing on human
heredity, but can not make use of it
themselves and do not know to whom
they may refer it, will be able with the
help of this report to communicate
with some one engaged on a similar line
of research, letting him know where new
material of interest to him can be ob-
tained. If all who know of family
histories including striking cases of the

inheritance of twinning, left-handed-
ness, feeblemindedness, congenital deaf-
ness, longevity, or a dozen other easily
recognized traits, will communicate the
fact to some worker in that field, it will
immediately bring to light many new
and valuable pedigrees which under
present conditions are likely to remain
buried for a long time.

The following report does not, for the
most part, take into account investiga-
tions that have been made at some
time in the past, and completed or
given up before completion. It also
omits many individuals who have con-
ducted research work in the past, but
are believed not to be actively engaged
in such work at present. Workers are
mentioned mainly in alphabetical order.

THE HYDE GENEALOGY.

Alexander Graham Bell, whose in-
vestigation of the inheritance of con-
genital deafness was the first serious
study in cacogenics made in America,
has just completed an exhaustive analy-
sis of data contained in published
genealogies of the Hyde family, with a
view to discovering the degree of in-
heritance of longevity. His material
embraces nearly 3,000 individuals, and
the results leave no doubt that long life
is largely dependent on heredity. When
published, this investigation will also
be an important contribution to the
question of the results of early marriage,
since Dr. Bell’s statistics appear to show’

1C, L. Redfield’s investigation seems to throw additional light on this point. From a study of
1109 cases he reports that the infant mortality is greatest among the children of old parents,
but that if only children who reach maturity are counted, the longevity is proportional to the
age of parents, the longest-lived children being those born when their parents were far past
youth. ‘Taking the tables for longevity and infant mortality together, it will be seen that the
children of young parents are more likely to survive to maturity than the children of old parents,
but of those which do survive, the children of old parents live longer than those of young parents.”
(Dynamic Evolution, 1914, p. 185).

547

548

that the younger the parents at birth of
an individual, the greater that indi-
vidual’s chance of long life. This cor-
relation extends almost to the physio-
logical limit at which reproduction
becomes possible.

In order to continue the investigation
of inheritance of longevity, Dr. Bell has
founded the Genealogical Record Office,
at 1601 Thirty-fifth street, northwest,
Washington, D. C., where large num-
bers of genealogies are being gathered
which include cases of long life in several
generations; as rapidly as these accumu-
late in sufficient quantity, they will be
subjected to analysis.

In addition to this strictly eugenic
investigation, Dr. Bell is continuing
his cacogenic researches, by analyzing
in graphical form the data contained in
Fay’s ‘‘Marriages of the Deaf.” The
results leave no room for doubt that
the most frequent cause of congenital
deafness is heredity, and that if the
congenitally deaf are allowed to inter-
marry, there is danger, as Dr. Bell
pointed out more than a generation ago,
of the formation of a deaf variety of the
human race in the United States. The
figures do not, however, bear out the
statement often made by those who
have not investigated the subject per-
sonally, that marriages between con-
genitally deaf persons invariably result
in the production of deaf offspring.

The Vclta Bureau of Washington,
D. C., of which Dr. Bell is the founder,
has on hand and is constantly adding to
the largest collection of data in the
world in regard to the inheritance of

deafness. This includes the results of
two special censuses made by the
United States government, and has

never been properly analyzed. Any
investigator wishing to undertake a
piece of statistical work on heredity of
the highest practical importance could
probably secure access to this immense
collection of data, and would find that
it yielded a maximum return from a
minimum amount of work.

HARE-LIP PUZZLING.

William F. Blades of the Eugenics
Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, is making a special study

THE JoURNAL oF HEREDITY

of hare-lip in man, and in addition to
the collection of human pedigrees, is
carrying on breeding experiments with
several hare-lip strains of Boston Ter-
riers. In the dogs as in man, hare-lip
and cleft-palate are found to be highly
hereditary in character, but up to the
present Mr. Blades has been unable to
determine in what way they are in-
herited, the material on hand, although
it is considerable in amount, seeming to
be insufficient to reveal the existence
of any law. The investigation is
complicated by the fact that many
people endeavor to conceal slight cases
of hare-lip, particularly if these have
been partly or wholly remedied by
surgical operation. Mr. Blades wel-
comes inquiries concerning this condi-
tion and provides blanks for the record-
ing of family data to anyone interested
in the problem and willing to furnish
any information, be it even the names
and addresses of individuals who may
be able to provide material at first
or second hand.

Professor J. McKeen Cattell of
Columbia University, New York City,
has been engaged for some years on a
study of the families of 1,000 American
men of science. The data, which are
being analyzed from many points of
view, are not yet wholly ready for
publication. The birth rate is the
central point of the investigation; it is
decidedly low among this portion of the
population, and evidence indicates that
this is largely due to psychological,
rather than physiological, reasons. Much
of Professor Cattell’s work has been the
detection and elimination of statistical
fallacies, in which this subject partic-
ularly abounds. Even such mathema-
ticians as Francis Galton and Karl
Pearson have run into pitfalls in dealing.
with it; it is, then, only to be expected
that investigators of lesser note should
often have gone astray, and that re-
sult is found to exist in nearly all the
published work.

Following is a synopsis of his work
on this subject:

“The completed family of contempo-
rary scientific men is about 2, the sur-

viving family about 1.8, and _ the
number of surviving children from

EUGENICS COMMITTEE: STUDIES IN Human HEREDITY

each scientific man about 1.6. Twenty-
two per cent. of the families are child-
less; only one family in 75 is larger
than six. The same conditions obtain
for other college graduates. Answers
have been received from 461 leading
scientific men giving the causes which
led to the limitation in the size of their
families. One hundred and seventy-six
were not voluntarily limited, while 285
were so limited, the cause of the volun-
tary limitation being health in 133
cases, expense in 98 cases and various
other reasons in 54 cases. Childlessness
was involuntary in two-thirds of the
cases. In the standardized family of
two the condition is desired in six
cases out of seven. In over one-third of
the families the limitation was invol-
untary, due to infertility and other
pathological causes, but if these had not
obtained, voluntary limitation would
have occurred in nearly all or perhaps
in all cases.”’

ALCOHOL AND HEREDITY.

ir i D> Crothers, : Diréctor-of.the
Walnut Hospital for Inebriates, Hart-
ford, Connecticut, is undertaking mod-
ern field studies among the families of
inebriates.

Dr. C. H. Danforth and his associates
of the department of anatomy, Wash-
ington University, St. Louis, Mo., have
recently undertaken the investigation
of a number of lines of heredity, in
which anatomy plays a part. One of
the methods of operation is to examine
all subjects brought to the dissecting
table, for abnormalities that give prom-
ise of being due to heredity. When
such are found, living relatives of the
deceased are sought out, and the pedi-
gree made up as far as possible. The
problem of twinning is also being at-
tacked, but the results so far agree with
those ‘found by other investigators, in
that they show some forms, at least, of
twinning to be distinctly hereditary,
without giving any clear light as to the
manner in which the tendency is in-
herited. It is found that the measure
of resemblance between twins is not a
safe indication whether they are homo-
logous (‘‘duplicate,” i.e., formed by a
division of the fertilized ovum at the

549

stage when it consists of two cells) or
heterologous (ordinary twins). It is
possible that the two types of twinning
are differently inherited.

Charles B. Davenport, director of
the Department of Experimental Evo-
lution, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, at Cold Spring Harbor, Long
Island, New York, and also director-of
the Eugenics Record Office there, has
been devoting particular attention dur-
ing the last few years to the inheritance
of mental traits. Many of these re-
searches will be described in his forth-
coming book, “‘The Feebly Inhibited,”
which will contain, among other first-
hand field data, 165 family histories.
It is a study of the nature and control
of emotional impulses, with special
reference to criminalistic traits, the
manner of their inheritance, and their
periodicity.

Under Dr. Davenport’s immediate
supervision, a special study in the in-
heritance of stature is being made by
the Eugenics Record Office. The usual
field studies in this office continue: at
present they include a study of families
that have produced many of America’s
most effective men, with special refer-
ence to the origin of their distinctive
traits; and a further study of the Jukes
family, that famous cacogenic group in
the state of New York, which Dugdale
brought to light 40 years ago. A. H.
Estabrook, who unearthed the history
of the ‘‘Nam’” family, -a somewhat
similar group, a few years ago, has taken
up the present status of the Jukes, in
order to observe the changes that have
taken place in them as they have be-
come scattered over the country during
recent years. It is interesting to find
that a few branches which are far from >
the original environment have produced
excellent and prosperous citizens—pos-
sibly as the result of some fortunate
marriage in the previous generation.
On the whole, however, this great tribe
continues to furnish an almost unparal-
leled record of continuous inefficiency,
from a social point of view.

CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE.

The study of consanguineous marri-
ages and their consequences, as observed

50 THE JOURNAL

on

on the Maine coast, has been undertaken
for the Record Office by Miss Mary
M. Sturges, who previously investigated
the same subject in isolated parts of
Long Island. As the families dealt with
are characterized by various defects, it
is found, as was expected, that these are
manifested in an intensified form, as the
result of cousin-marriages, although it
is generally agreed that such matings
are quite proper if made in an untainted
stock.

The study of the inheritance of
Huntington’s chorea is being carried on
by Dr. Elizabeth B. Muncey, who has
traced this condition, which behaves as
a definitely dominant trait, back as far
as the witches of Salem, at least one
of whom in the strain it seems justifiable
to chart as choreic. Family histories
are being collected by field workers in
10 or 12 institutions for the feeble-
minded, the insane, the epileptic, the al-
coholic, the delinquent, etc. The docu-
ments thus collected, and also the con-
tents of some printed genealogical and
historical works, are being indexed by
name, place and trait, in the Eugenics
Record Office, and are accessible to
serious investigators at any time. Sched-
ules for a record of family traits are also
distributed to all who will undertake
to fill them out and return to the Record
Office for permanent custody; in cases
where it is requested, a duplicate
schedule is sent to be retained by the
person interested. Members of this
Association are urged to assist in the
collection of data by sending for and
filling out such schedules. The Record
Office also distributes, upon request by
persons who are contemplating mar-
riage, special schedules upon which
they may record their family traits and
which they may submit to the Record
Office for comments with reference to
the expectation of the traits of the off-
spring.

The Fifth Annual Training Class for
Field Workers was held at the Record
Office from July 1 to August 12 this
year. It has been found that about
one-half of the members of these train-
ing classes become field workers in
some branch of the investigation of

OF HEREDITY

heredity in man. Usually the class
numbers from 20 to 35 each year.

Dr. H. H. Goddard and his associates
at the Training School (Vineland, N. J.)
are now devoting all their time to work-
ing up material already on hand; the
institution has no field workers out at
present, since the amount of data await-
ing analysis is already larger than can
be handled. Dr. Goddard has just
published a book (Feeble-mindedness,
its Causes and Consequences) which
gives the result of a study of the family
history of 327 inmates of the Training
School, in such full form as to furnish
data for any future investigators who
may differ from Dr. Goddard’s conclu-
sions.

FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS.

It is found that heredity alone ex-
plains about two-thirds of the cases of
feeble-mindedness; the other third are
due to such causes as accident, or sick-
ness during childhood. This last cause
is one which demands, and is now re-
ceiving, further study. Of a dozen
children who have scarlet fever, for in-
stance, 11 recover unscathed; the twelfth
remains feeble-minded for life. The
question at once arises, why was the
one singled out in this way? and the
apparent conclusion is again, heredity.
It is found that the family histories of
such children nearly always show weak-
nesses, which are absent from a normal
pedigree. In connection with the family
history of each inmate of the Training
School, his or her mental and physical
condition are carefully investigated, and
studies also made on the metabolism,
a biochemist and several assistants be-
ing kept busy on this work. It is found
that feeble-mindedness (or at least, the
lower grades of it) is not merely a mental
defect, but that it indicates that the
patient’s physical condition is abnormal,
as well. Extended research on this line
may lead to the establishment — of
physiological tests to supplement the
psychological ones now used to classify
feeble-minded patients.

Among the family histories on hand
at the Training School and awaiting
publication is one embracing the group
in northern New Jersey well known

EuGENICS COMMITTEE: STUDIES IN HUMAN HEREDITY

under “the name of “the Jackson
Whites,’ and formed by an amalgama-
tion of the white race with the negro
and the American Indian, early in the
last century. Detailed analysis of this
unusual racial mixture will certainly
prove of great interest to genetists; but
one fact which already stands out
prominently seems to be the very
limited effect of environment, in in-
fluencing this mixed heredity. The
socially degenerate group has spread to
many points in the East, including cities
and small towns; but wherever its mem-
bers appear, they carry with them the
“Jackson White”’ characteristics. It is
clear, then, that their physical, mental
and social condition can not be ascribed
to any environmental factors, but that
their deficiencies are to be explained,
for the most part, by bad heredity.

In regard to the inheritance of feeble-
mindedness, Dr. Goddard’s data, above
mentioned, convince him that it behaves
as a Mendelian recessive.

MORTALITY STUDIES.

By far the most gigantic collection of
data ever analyzed for the purpose
which interests this Association is now
being worked over in the Medico-
Actuarial Mortality Investigation, which
is directed by Arthur Hunter of the New
York Life Insurance Company. Nearly
all the prominent life insurance com-
panies of North America are interested
in this research, and have furnished
details regarding 2,000,000 deaths, which
are being investigated with a view to
determining in what points the rates
of the companies need revision. Much
of the work falls outside the sphere of
human heredity, but many facts have
already been brought out which bear
on the eugenics researches of the last
decade. It is found, for instance, that
the mortality is slightly below the
average with people both of whose par-
ents died. of cancer, This, as Mr.
Hunter explains, is doubtless because
the policy-holders with such family his-
tories represent a stringently selected
class; the examining physicians would
bar all but good risks, under those cir-
cumstances; and the result of this selec-
tion by the medical examiners is that

Jol

those passed are particularly good risks,
in spite of the fact that their parents
died from the same malignant disease.
The statistics with regard to consump-
tion will be equally interesting: they
have not been completed yet for the
whole investigation, but the results of
the New York Life Insurance Company
are available, and probably represent
the whole. It is found that in a young
man or woman, a consumptive family
history diminishes the expectation of
longevity; but after the age of 40, the
fact that an individual may have lost
one member of the family through con-
sumption has no effect whatever on the
mortality. Four volumes of statistics
from this investigation have already
been published, and a fifth is to follow
shortly.

An unusual amount of strictly eugenic
research work is being carried on at the
University of Pittsburgh, under the
leadership of Professor Roswell H.
Johnson, who offers a course entitled
“Laboratory Work in Eugenics,’’ which
demands that every student entering
it undertake some practical problem,
usually in collaboration with the pro-
fessor. Among the investigations of the
past year are the following:

The inheritance of two peculiar traits
in the human eye: very round eyes, and
eyes closing in laughter. Both these
traits, Professor Johnson says, show
segregation, but apparently not on
Mendelian proportions.

MARRIAGE AND BIRTH RATES.

A study has been made of alumni
record books for marriage and birth
rates of college graduates. This has
particularly been the object of research
among the graduates of women’s col-
leges. Miss Bertha J. Stutzmann has
been analyzing returns from some of the
larger colleges, Miss Helen D. Murphey
has tabulated the marriage and birth
rates of Washington (Penn.) Seminary
alumnae, and Miss Carrie F. Gilmore
has been compiling facts about prefer-
ential mating in the graduates of a
normal school.

A survey is also being made of the
several wards of Pittsburgh, with ref-
erence to their vital and social statis-

a2 THE JOURNAL
tics, and they are being compared with
wards in other American cities. Miss
Sadie Scorer has been particularly en-
gaged on the analysis of the racial
contribution of these several wards.

Other problems on hand at this insti-
tution are the development of new psy-
chometric tests for adults, a study of
the geographical distributicn of emi-
nence in Europe, and a further analysis
of Woods's distribution of eminence by
names on a percentage basis. In all
these investigations (except that with
regard to the inheritance of traits in
the eye which, having no social signifi-
cance, is merely genetic) the viewpoint
kept before the student at all times is
that of actual race betterment, as distinct
from a mere tabulation of genetic facts.

Dr. H. E. Jordan of the department
of anatomy, University of Virginia, is
working on the inheritance of twinning,
and also of left-handedness. His data
on the first subject give him ground for
belief that twinning behaves as a Men-
delian recessive. In regard to the in-
heritance of left-handedness, he said, in
a recent lecture:

LEFT-HANDEDNESS.

“Left-handedness or right-handed-
ness may be considered alternative or
unit characters in a Mendelian sense.
In terms of presence and absence, to
which scheme the majority of Men-
delian characters appears to conform,
right-handedness may be conceived as
dependent on the presence of the deter-
miner in the germ-plasm, left-handed-
ness and ambidexterity as the result of
its absence. But right-handed indi-
viduals are of two sorts, those both of
whose parents were right-handed, and
those with only one parent right-
handed. The former are said to be of
duplex, the latter of simplex, condition.
Those with both parents left-handed,
i.e., lacking the determiner of right-
handedness, are said to be nulliplex.
The right-handed condition dominates
or masks the left-handed condition in
the hybrid generation. When left-
handed mate with left-handed, all the
children will be left-handed. When the
determiner for a character is absent
from the germ-plasm of the parent, that

oF HEREDITY

character can not appear in the body of
the offspring. When simplex mate with
simplex, one in every four will be left-
handed. This is the well-known 1 to 3
Mendelian ratio for hybrid crosses with
respect to a particular pair of unit char-
acters. When simplex mate with nulli-
plex one-half of the offspring will lack
the determiner for right-handedness and
be left-handed.”’

Dr. Jordan further notes, “I have on
hand also a considerable body of data
relative to the inheritance of various
types of thumb-prints, but up to the
present I have not been able to make any
very satisfactory interpretation of my
material.”

Miss Isabelle V. Kendig, late of the
Monson State Hospital, Massachusetts,
has recently finished an intensive study
of one Massachusetts family belonging
to the old American stock. The pro-
genitor of the line left England in 1623,
establishing himself at Plymouth; from
there his descendants moved inland and
finally settled among the hills of western
Massachusetts. From that time they
have begun to degenerate, and it was
the object of the investigation to learn
why. “There, in an isolated and un-
favorable environment,” Miss Kendig
says, ‘‘they intermarried and multiplied,
till today their blood has impregnated
the entire community and rendered the
town of B a byword for shiftless-
ness and poverty, for alcoholism, im-
morality and feeble-mindedness.”’ The
investigation well shows the danger to
the commonwealth in the tendency for
like mate with like, thus emphasizing
and perpetuating bad characteristics
which, in an environment that allowed
more out-crossing, might disappear.

MARRIAGE SELECTION.

Dr. Wilhelmina E. Key of the State
Institution for Feebleminded at Folk,
Pennsylvania, has nearly completed
the study of a Pennsylvania family of
more than 1,800 individuals, about half
of whom are in the direct line of descent
from two pairs of German immigrants
of over a century ago; the remainder
were studied in connection with strains
into which marriage occurred. Both
networks break up into widely divergent

EUGENICS COMMITTEE: STUDIES IN HUMAN HEREDITY soo

lines which vary greatly in social effi-
ciency, and Dr. Key concludes: ‘Their
evolution shows the effect of marriage
selection in concentrating defect and
degeneracy in certain lines, and dissi-
pating defect and introducing traits
which make for increased efficiency in
others.”’ Special attention was given
to the appearance in successive genera-
tions of different grades of calculating-
ability, aggressiveness and_ persever-
ance, and the investigator thinks that
these traits appear in conformity with
Mendel’s Law.

Samuel C. Kohs of Clark University,
Worcester, Mass., who approaches the
problem of eugenics from the psycho-
logical side, writes as follows: ‘““My work
comes, first, under the broad head of
the psychology of individual differences.
More specifically, however, my interest
is focussed on the significance of the
complex, for differential psychology as
well as for mental inheritance. My
studies have led me to conclude that the
unconscious should be given a more
prominent place in psychogenesis. Most
modern psychologists recognize that
conscious phenomena are but a small
fraction of all psychic functioning, and
that most of the important factors
influencing activity, mental and physi-
cal, lie below the conscious threshold.
Some of these factors are reducible to
the complex as at present used in psy-
choanalysis.

“As we come to recognize more and
more the deep significance of Semon’s
mnemic theory, the more are we led to
believe that inherent mental ability is
not as simple a structure as has been
assumed by many.

‘““A paper attempting to deal with this
problem adequately would include the
following:

‘““(1) Discussion of the complex and
its significance.

‘““(2) Discussion of the unconscious
in relation to the dynamic forces of life
activity.

‘“‘(3) Methods of diagnosing the exist-
ence of complexes.

(4) The complex and the question of
unit characters.”

H. H. Laughlin, superintendent of
the Eugenics Record Office, has been

devoting his attention particularly to
a study of the effects of sterilization in
reducing the amount of caogenic breed-
ing in the United States. He writes:

‘We hope at intervals of not too long
a time to publish the reports outlined
in Bulletin No. 10a. The American
Institute of Criminal Law and Criminol-
ogy, at its recent meeting, appointed
Committee H on sterilization. This
committee consists of:

“Joel =D. .Hunter, Chief. Probation
Officer of Cook County, Chicago, IIl.;
Father O’Callaghan and Dr. William
T. Belfield, of Chicago; Judge Warren
W. Foster, of New York; Dr. William
A. White, of the Government Hospital
for the Insane, Washington; Hastings
H. Hart, of the Russell Sage Founda-
tion, New York;.and H. H. Laughlin,
of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold
Spring Harbor, L. I.”

RESEARCH IN BALTIMORE.

The Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic
of Baltimore, directed by Dr. Adolf
Meyer, is collecting data about the
ancestries of. its patients, and is also
collecting similar data from school
children in one ward of Baltimore. An
analysis of the recorded matings and
their offsprings is being made with
special attention to a more definite
characterization of common traits and
their groupings in the diverging lines of
the families and especially also the
weight of ontogenetic factors in the
determination of the individual fate
and means of analyzing the personality.

Casper L. Redfield of Chicago has
been studying for many years the effect
of the age of parents on the character
of the offspring, particularly from an
intellectual point of view. This investi-
gation, which has led not only to a
thorough study of the parentage of
men of genius, but to similar studies on
race horses, cattle and pedigreed dogs,
has led Mr. Redfield to a belief in the
inheritance of certain classes of acquired
characters, and the data which he has
published probably form one of the
most serious contributions made to
Lamarckism during the last decade or
two. The practical conclusion which he
reaches is that intellectual excellence

554

in a child depends largely on the age of
its parents at its birth. Mediocrities,
he believes, are likely to be produced by
very early marriages, unless the preced-
ing generations married late enough to
transmit qualities which will overcome
the effect of the one early marriage.
Men of genius, he finds, are usually
produced by parents who are well ad-
vanced in years; and when data for
previous generations exist, he usually
finds that the grandparents and great-
grandparents, as well, were mature
when they made their contribution to
the race.

Dr. A. J. Rosanoff, first assistant
physician at Kings Park Hospital, New
York, has been engaged on a study of
the distribution of insanity in the
United States, and the correlation of
this distribution to other conditions in
the country. The number of insane
persons confined in institutions, per
100,000 of the general population, varies
from 67.0 in Oklahoma to 413.4 in
Massachusetts. These variations ap-
pear to the investigator to be in correl-
ation, direct or reverse, with the follow-
ing factors: per capita wealth produc-
tion, percentage of urban population,
general prevalence of illiteracy, accessi-
bility of institutions, intra-mural condi-
tions as reflected in the per capita cost
of maintenance, and percentage of for-
eign-born population. Dr. Rosanoff 1s
also working more intensively upon the
inheritance of insanity, in particular
families.

THE GATZERT FOUNDATION.

The case of feeble-mindedness, which
hitherto has furnished the most widely
worked field for the study of human
heredity in the United States, is being
attacked in a slightly different way by
the Gatzert Foundation of the Uni-
versity of Washington (Seattle, Wash.).
A clinic, directed by Dr. Stevenson
Smith, examines several hundred chil-
dren each year and obtains their family
histories, whether they be precocious,
average or defective. Field workers
then fill in the gaps of this history, de-
voting particular attention to the pedi-
grees of children who are found to be
defective but seem to show no patho-

THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY

logical ancestry. This investigation
should serve as an invaluable parallel
and “‘control”’ to the many other inves-
tigations of feeble-mindedness, in which
particular attention is paid to the
pedigrees which show the presence of a
taint in the ancestors.

Dr. David F. Weeks, superintendent
of the New Jersey State Village for
Epileptics at Skillman, N. J., reports:

“The aim of the work in eugenics re-
search at the State Village has been,
since it started in 1910, to obtain a
hereditary history of every epileptic
patient who came to the colony—not to
work up special cases, but to work up
all cases. From these histories we hope
to learn the laws governing the inherit-
ance of epilepsy.

“We now have filed 672 histories;
these cover anywhere from two to eight
generations and from 20 to three or four
hundred individuals. Each case is
analyzed as to the family traits observed,
the types of matings from which our
patients come, as well as the environ-
mental conditions and diseases. The
traits which occur most frequently in
our histories are, besides the epileptic
convulsion itself, extreme nervousness,
migraine, alcoholism of the periodic
spree type, and bad temper. In fact,
nervous conditions which show periodic
loss of control all stand out prominently
in our histories. The epileptic convul-
sion seems to behave like a Mendelian
trait of the recessive type. There does
not seem to be any one particular type
of mating.

“Besides the regular history work we
try to keep in close touch with the
epileptic ‘situation’ in the state. We
keep a register and each month make a
report on the number of epileptics in
the state whose names are known to us,
with the kind of care they are receiving.

“We also follow up discharged cases.
By means of a name index we are able
to connect and show relationship be-
tween many of our patients not known
to be related. We hope to work up
many special cases in detail in the
future, but at the same time to continue
the general line of research as outlined.
One special history has been worked out
covering over 1700 individuals.

EUGENICS COMMITTEE: STUDIES IN HuMAN HEREDITY

“The Eugenics Research Department
consists of two field workers and one
stenographer.”’

GREAT PERSONALITIES.

Dr. Frederick Adams Woods of Brook-
line, Mass., states the scope of his
present studies as follows:

“T am continuing my investigations
in positive eugenics, the origin and in-
fluence of exceptional persons and su-
perior stocks, utilizing the easily ac-
cessible records of history and genealogy.

“T have found that in Great Britain
the material welfare of the nation dur-
ing the last two centuries has been
greatly dependent on the presence
of a few very exceptional statesmen,
chiefly prime ministers. At least, it
may be said that there is a strong corre-
lation between politico-economic condi-
tions and the character of English
political leaders and that under weak
and incompetent premiers the country
has been visited by relative stagnation
or decline. It is already statistically
known that the able statesmen, for
which England is famous, have been
born in the upper classes. Therefore,
the greater their influences are proved
to be, the greater is the importance of
positive eugenics. These questions of
the influences of great men over their
times, and the comparison of great men
with mediocre, are important ones, and
have, as yet, been little investigated by
suitable statistical devices Such _ his-
toriometric researches as have already
been made indicate that the gap is very
wide between the average man and the
man of genius.

“The scientific productivity of a
country is one measure of its intellectual
life, therefore it has been thought worth
while to prepare an objective list of the
most eminent names in the history of

So5

science, during all times from the age of
the Greeks to the present day. Such a
list, with the inferences to be drawn
from it, will shortly be ready for publi-
cation.

“All belief in the value of eugenics
hangs upon a belief in the value of
heredity over environment. Hence any
research which brings to the proof a
failure on the part of modified surround-
ings to make good its claims to strength
and merit, is a weapon in the hands of
the eugenist. Among exposés of this
sort may be mentioned the failure of
American conditions of so-called equal-
ity to make success in America any less
of a family affair than it is in the caste-
ridden countries of Europe. In an
article ‘Heredity and the Hall of Fame,’
published in Popular Science Monthly,
May, 1913, the indication of this truth
was given. The names in the Hall of
Fame can be measured against the
eminent Europeans, listed by Galton,
de Candolle, Ellis, Whetham and others.
Now it remains to extend the list of
worthies downward from the Hall of
Fame, to utilize our history and bi-
ography informing a satisfactory work-
ing list of reference and appeal, and
to bring together our genealogical re-
searches in a scientific manner.

“Some results will very shortly be
ready for publication, based upon a
tentative objective list of about 3,500
of the most eminent Americans, divided
into several grades, showing occupa-
tions, birth-places by states, and the
different degrees of relationship to
others within the list. The latter ratios
rise rapidly as they approach the 47
preéminent Americans who are in the
Hall of Fame. The research as a whole
strongly indicates the influence of
heredity over environment.”

Tables For Biometricians

Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians is the title of a new publication (pp.
Ixxxiv + 143), edited by Karl Pearson and published by the Cambridge University

Press (1914) at the price of nine shillings.

The book is made up of tables needed

for reference by workers in the field of advanced statistics, most of which have
already been printed in Biometrika. It is preceded by an extensive introduction,
describing the particular purposes of the tables, and giving examples of the way
in which they can be used in the solution of biological and other problems.

SKIN COLOR OF MULATTOES

Apparently Four Factors Involved—Segregation in Second Generation—Skin
Pigment Developed After Birth—No Correlation Between Color of Skin and
Curliness of Hair in Offspring of Mulatto Marriages.’

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT

Director, Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York.

HE method of heredity in negro-
white crosses has long been cited
as a demonstration of the fail-
ure of modern principles of

heredity in their application to some
specific cases. Skin color is said to
show a typical blending, as in the mu-
latto, and it is generally assumed that
all of the offspring of two mulattoes
resemble their parents in skin color;
and if a mulatto be crossed with a
white that all of the offspring will be
of a shade still lighter than the mulatto
parent, namely, of a quadroon color.
The current theory also has a great
social importance because according to
it, ‘‘once a negro, always a negro;”
since the negro characteristics can not
be wholly eliminated even by successive
matings with white. However, as a
concession, certain States even in our
South permit the offspring of a person
containing one-cighth negro blood anda
pure white to pass as a white citizen and
to marry, legally, a white person. That
is, after matings of a mulatto and her
offspring for two further generations
with white persons the final generation
may pass for white.

In order to test the theory that hy-
bridization of skin color really does
show a typical blending and failure to
segregate, the author, with the assistance
of a trained field agent (Miss Florence
Danielson), has made measurements
upon the skin color of between 600 and
700 children derived from about 200
pairs of parents and also of various
other relatives. These studies were
made chiefly in the islands of Bermuda

and Jamaica because it was believed
that the investigation would meet in
those islands with fewer social obstacles.
Such social obstacles were, indeed, en-
countered but the result justified the
selection of the localities. The measure-
ment of the skin color was made by
the aid of a color top in which the pro-
portion of black, red, yellow and white
factors upon a circular disk may be
varied so that, when the top is spun,
any desired combination of proportions
of these colors may be secured. The
result of this investigation is clear cut,
namely, skin color does segregate and
the offspring of two strict mulatto
parents may have skin color ranging
from that of a pure white to quite dark
in color, like that of a West Coast
African negro. Segregation certainly
does take place.

FACTORS ARE COMPLICATED.

The study shows, moreover, that the
apparent blending is due to the com-
plicated nature of the factors upon which
negro skin color depends. After careful
analysis of all of the results of all of the
varied matings that were studied, the
conclusion was drawn that in the full-
blooded negro there are four factors that
make for skin pigmentation and that
correspondingly there are five condi-
tions of these factors possible in the
skin of the descendants of mulattoes,
namely, no factor for black, one factor,
two factors, three factors, or four fac-
tors for black. It follows from the fact
of segregation also that the offspring of
two mulattoes are much more variable

| This study was published in 1913 by the Carnegie Institution as publication No, 188, ‘‘ Here-

dity of Skin Color in Negro and White Crosses.”’

from that monograph.
556

The accompanying illustrations are reproduced

DAVENPORT: SKIN COLOR IN MULATTOES ae

Yi
~I

VARIATION IN MULATTO PROGENY

The family of a white man of colored ancestry, and a mulatto woman. All seven sons and
daughters are shown in the photograph. The infant is the lightest, with 8% black in the
skin; this will doubtless darken with age. The son at the extreme right of the picture
has 22% black in his skin; the boy at the extreme left has 26% black. (Fig. 17.)

OFFSPRING OF WHITE X MULATTO MATING

Part of the ‘““‘W” family, including a medium colored mother and six of her seven children
by a white man; also a little first cousin of the other children, who is directly in front of
the mother. Note the great variation in the facial coloration of full brothers and sisters.
The skin color of the youngest child is the same as that of a typical white infant, namely,
5% black, whereas the oldest boy of the group has a skin color of 32% black, considerably
darker than his mother. (Fig. 18.)

558 THE JOURNAL
than mulatto parents themselves. Such
proves, indeed, to be the fact. Now,
the white offspring of two mulattoes
when mated together would seem al-
ways to give only white children. Nu-
merous stories that are current of the
reappearance of full black-skinned negro
children from two white parents one
of whom is of remote negro origin we
could not confirm. A few stories to this
effect were, indeed, current in Bermuda
but they all related to matings that
were made long ago and of whom the
principal parties had passed away. Un-
less further more precise evidence to
the contrary is forthcoming the current
folk lore of such recurrence of full
blacks to whites may be relegated to
the category of ‘‘old wives’ tales.”’
The very different grades of skin color
in the offspring of mulattoes correspond
to a popular nomenclature, also, and
in addition to white we have the quad-
roon, the mulattoes, the samboes (or
three-fourths black), and the full black.
And if the proportion of black in the
whole population be considered, it will
be found that, in the descendants of
mulattoes, these five points represent
exceptionally common positions in the
general frequency curve of skin color.

OF HEREDITY

out in the investigation was the fact
that the negro skin-color undergoes a
clear development from birth onward
during the first two years or more of
life. The negro child at birth has an
extremely light-colored skin, somewhat
more yellowish than that of a white
child. But within a few hours after
the child is exposed to the daylight
color begins to form and most swiftly in
those parts which are exposed to the
sunlight, excepting that the perineal
region of the infant is, at birth, quite
highly pigmented. Eventually, how-
ever, about the same depth of pig-
mentation is achieved whether the child
grows into a woman or a man. There
seems to be no difference in the color
of the mulatto children whether the
dark parent be the father or the mother.

No correlation was found in these
studies of the children of mulattoes be-
tween the color of the skin and the curli-
ness of the hair; so that, indeed, white-
skinned, kinky-haired children and black
skinned, straight-haired children were
not an uncommon occurrence.

Our studies, also, furnish no support
for the view that hybrids are less fertile
than pure races in man. Some of the

most fecund families of Jamaica are

One of the interesting facts brought those of mulattoes.

The Principles of Eugenics

Those who are seeking to retain the name ‘‘Eugenics”’ for that section of genetics
which deals with man, are not likely to welcome the little book called “The Prin-
ciples of Eugenics’? by Blanche Eames, Assistant Principal of the Correspondence
School of Gospel and Scientific Eugenics (Chicago), which has just been issued by
Moffat, Yard and Company, New York (pp. 91, price 75 cents). The writer be-
longs to that school which sees in sex hygiene the principal factor of eugenics.
‘Heredity”’ is limited to one chapter of 12 pages, while the other chapters dis-
cuss Reproduction, Race Poisons, Instruction in Sex Truths, Tobacco and Drugs,
-arental Nutrition and Environment (two chapters) and Continence. The author
is a convinced, although not critical, disciple of Lamarck, and an equally convinced
and uncritical believer in ‘‘ prenatal culture,’ ‘‘maternal impressions’”’ and similar
phenomena which most genetists consider little better than superstitions. The
book is sub-titled ‘“A Practical Treatise,” but the practical measures of eugenic
import which the author proposes seem principally to consist of negative eugenics
through asexualization and positive eugenics through proper mental attitude of
expectant mothers. The JouRNAL oF HerRepity can hardly accept this as a
working program for the science of eugenics. The author has useful ideas on the
subject of racial poisons and sex hygiene, and it is a pity that she could not pre-
sent them except under the name of eugenics.

MISSING TEETH INHERITED

Lateral Incisors and Third Molars or ‘‘Wisdom Teeth” Most Frequently Absent—
Cause to be Sought in Evolution of Man and Change of His Habits
of Eating—Loss of Importance of Canine Teeth.

Dr. SERGIO SERGI
Institute of Anthropology, Royal University of Rome, Italy.

educated Piedmontese youth who

shows the congenital absence of the

upper lateral right incisor; he has
informed me that his father, his two
brothers and their two sisters, all older
than he, present the same defect, as
did an uncle, his father’s only brother;
and his paternal grandfather. In all of
them, the absence of the tooth is accom-
panied by a noticeable reduction in
size of the corresponding incisor on the
left side.

Dental agenesia as a phenomenon
of heredity has been noted by a number
of observers in the past. Hereditary
absence of the lateral incisors has been
observed in two or three generations
and the inheritance may be either
direct or alternate. Magitot refers to a
woman who showed a lack of the upper,
lateral incisors, as did her daughter and
nephew; and of a man who lacked the
lateral upper right incisor, as did his
daughter and his nephew; Leroy d’Eti-
olle describes the same sort of agenesia
in a woman and her three sons.

Perrin has cited the case of a family
in various members of which the two
upper lateral incisors were lacking, and
says the defect had existed in the family
for many generations.

The phenomenon of congenital ab-
sence of teeth, like that of the augmenta-
tion of their number, is a form of
meristic variation, according to Bate-
son’s terminology, and usually appears
as a form of discontinuous variation; it
can not be considered in itself a fact of
atavism, a phenomenon of reversion,
but at the most a phenomenon of

[ sae made the acquaintance of an

arrested development. I should note
that Dependorf has recently also com-
bated, to a certain extent, the explana-
tion of atavism for supernumerary
teeth, in which the idea of reversion
is much more easily sustained than in
agenesia, considering the phylogenetic
evolution of the dental system from the
lower to the higher vertebrates.

The congenital absence of incisors is
in a way a teratological phenomenon,
inasmuch as it appears unexpectedly
in a given individual of the species,
and no equivalent condition is found in
the most closely related species; and
it is particularly teratological in char-
acter if it is coupled with similar
occurrences in the molar teeth. But
at the same time, it is also a progressive
phenomenon when it follows a law of
evolution: so that the fact of lack of cer-
tain teeth can have different meanings
according to the number or type of
teeth wanting. It seems to me that the
lack of the superior lateral incisors in
man (or the presence of extra ones)
indicates a new step in the so-called
regressive evolution of the dental sys-
tem, just as does the disappearance of
the third molar (the wisdom tooth.)

EXPLANATION OF THE CONDITION.

Amadei in 1881 proposed the hypoths
esis that the same movement of
evolution which tends to cause the
disappearance of the last molar would
make its action felt on the entire jaw,
but particularly at its two centers of
reduction: one corresponding to the
location of the third molar and the
other at the point where the lateral

1Translation and abridgment of ‘‘Mancanza congenita ed ereditaria di un incisivo,” in Atti
della Societé Romana di Antropologia, Vol. XV, p. 395, 1909.

559

560 THE JOURNAL
incisor is located. This is the weak
point because of orthognathism, and
because of the tendency of the maxillary
arch to become constantly more acute.

The phenomenon appears as a form
of transition, in the subject which I
examined, because one of the incisors
is lacking and the other very slightly
reduced in size, while the teeth between
seem to attempt to compensate, by
their notable increase in size, for the
inadequate development of the laterals.
To confirm this idea, it is sufficient to
record an easily observed fact, and that
is the frequency with which, in the
skulls of civilized peoples, the upper
medial incisors appear much enlarged
and those beside them much reduced, a
difference which is also observable in
the skulls of prehistoric peoples. This
morphological condition is an indica-
tion of the modified functional condi-
tions to which man’s teeth are subjected
in comparison to those of the other
vertebrates nearest to him in anatomy
and relationship. The function of the
incisors: is essentially the seizing of
food, and particularly the separation
(incidere) of the part which is to be
taken in the mouth, from that which
remains in the hand; this function is
preceded and then assisted to the highest
degree by the canine teeth, which have
to sieze and hold the prey during the
time necessary for the incisive opera-

OF HEREDITY

tion; the canines also have a special
function as a weapon of offense and
defense. In man this last function of
the canines is abolished, while that of
seizing is largely reduced in importance,
particularly among civilized peoples;
for these reasons the canines no longer
project below the plane of the other
teeth, and to that extent lose the char-
acteristic pointed form which they have
in other genera of vertebrates. When
man eats, he first divides the food for
chewing, principally by the use of his
medial incisors and to a less extent
with the lateral incisors; and particu-
larly with those of the upper jaw, since
it projects forward of the lower one.
The food is then pushed into the mouth
for mastication, and from then on the
work of the lateral incisors and canines
is very slight. The width to which
man opens his mouth is small in com-
parison with its aperture, and in com-
parison with the habit of other verte-
brates; this is because of his orthogna-
thism or lack of ‘“‘muzzle’”’ and because
of a diminution of his voracity, which
leads him to introduce into his mouth
only a small quantity of food at one
time; these facts favor the action of the
medial incisors and diminish the impor-
tance of the other incisors and the
canines; the result is that the superior
lateral incisors are now an organ sub-
sidiary to the medials.

The Justification for Eugenics

Individuals appear to me as partial detachments from the infinite ocean of Being,
and this world as the stage on which Evolution takes place, principally hitherto
by means of Natural Selection, which achieves the good of the whole with scant

regard to that of the individual.

Man is gifted with pity and other kindly feelings; he also has the power of pre-

venting many kinds of suffering.

I conceive it to fall well within his province to

replace Natural Selection by other processes that are more merciful and not less

effective.

This is precisely the aim of Eugenics. Its first object is to check the birth-rate

of the Unfit, instead of allowing them to come into being, though doomed in large
numbers to perish prematurely. The second object is the improvement of the race
by furthering the productivity of the Fit by early marriages, and healthful rearing
of their children. Natural Selection rests upon excessive production and whole-
sale destruction; Eugenics on bringing no more individuals into the world than can
be properly cared for, and those only of the best stock.—Francis Galton: Conclu-
sion to Memories of My Life (1908).

Ee eka
JOURNAL OF

HEREDITY

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding, Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

HOW TO IMPROVE THE RACE . Alexander Graham Bell

THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. . . Haven Metcalf
CHESTNUT BREEDING EXPERTENCE . W. Van Fleet
CHESTNUT BLIGHT RESISTANCE . Robert T. Morris
EUGENICS AND BREEDING .... . . QO. F. Cook
MEAT PRODUCTION IN SWAMPS. . . The Editor
PRENATAL INFLUENCES... . . David Starr Jordan
VARIATION IN TOBACCO... . . . . H.K. Hayes

Organ of the American Breeders’ Association, henceforth to be called the

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 1 January, 1914

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
mitates herself.”

‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man's outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50.

Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding, Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

~ j fr ‘. f *~ 7
Ae ee QU Re Ves

SEX-DETERMINATION IN SHEEP

From Records of Alexander Graham Bell
INJURIES TO GERM CELLS. Dr. Charles R. Stockard
A STUDY IN SEMI-STERILITY : . John Belling
ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED OATS : Dr. L. Trabut

MENDELISM IN GREAT BRITAIN . . RK. C. Punnet

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 2 February, 1914

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. ‘Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.” :

‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

THE
JOURNAL OF

HEREDITY

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding, Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

PURE LINES AND SELECTION - - W. E. Castle

THE JAMES RIVER WALNUT - - Peter Bisset
MARRIAGE SELECTION - - - R. H. Johnson
SEEKING PLANT IMMIGRANTS - Frank N. Meyer
TESTS FOR MENTAL DEFECTS - Howard A. Knox
PLANTING PERSIMMONS - - H. Harold Hume

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 3 March, 1914

i 0 tt nt 8) tt i tt

a i i i i i tk i i nh a a 8 i 0 ES ES

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bateson, “‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U.S. A.

_—ee.

SSO LE TH

SL TT

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2,

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol> HI, No.2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and-4:

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

9 1 Hh i Hh | HH | | TH HH

OSS SESS a Sara OO EAE se ea ee RO re OR Se ar OO al ee rt See

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-President American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. ora Vice-chairman, Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.

CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B, WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass,

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

He Hee He HH ee He HH eH ee eee ee eH eH

SK Tl | || | |

Genetics Literature

|

|

|

|

|
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in |
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of |
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are

out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable |
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, |
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. |
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these |
reports, which it offers for sale. |
Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated. :

It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics. j
Price $2;
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. |

It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors |
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2. |
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII, (1912), bound in one :
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital i
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3. j
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on j
receipt of price. j
|

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|

l

|

|

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|

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, Nos. 2 and 4.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

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Address |
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511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. |

|

—s—

The American Genetic Association

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD,
Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE,
Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., and Research Associate
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL,
Chief of Animal Husbandry division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-president American Security and Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL B. POPENOE, Washington, D. C.

COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL W. E. CastTLe BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN
O. F. Cook _ DAvip FarrRcHILD ARTHUR W. GILBERT
W. C. RUCKER GEORGE M. ROMMEL T. H. KEARNEY

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plants

Chairman, ARTHUR W. GILBERT,
Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Vice-Chairman, LOUIE H. SMITH,
Professor of Plant Breeding, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.

Secretary, HERBERT J. WEBBER,
Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and
Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

Animals

Chairman, W. S. ANDERSON,
Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry, State University of Kentucky, and in charge of
Horse Breeding, Kentucky Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

Vice-Chairman, LEON J. COLE,
Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison,]Wis.

Secretary, JOHN DETLEFSEN,
Assistant Professor of Genetics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
Eugenics

Chairman, BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN,
Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School, New York, N. Y.

Vice-Chairman, Dr. ADOLF MEYER,
Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps’
Pyschiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

Secretary, CHARLES B. DAVENPORT,
Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York.

i i i i i i i i i 0 i i ee

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published’ in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are

out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. |

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2. .

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and: among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII, (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid_on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, Nos. 2 and 4.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. l;. 2;°3° and:-A4:

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

The American Genetic Association

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD,

Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ie

—_¥ * Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE,
Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL,

Chief of Animal Husbandry division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-president American Security and Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL B. POPENOE, Washington, D. C.
COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM. BELL W. E. CASTLE BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN
O. F. Coox DAvip FAIRCHILD ARTHUR W. GILBERT
W. S. ANDERSON GrorcE M. RoMMEL T. H. KEARNEY

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plants

Chairman, ARTHUR W. GILBERT,
Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Vice-Chairman, LOUIE H. SMITH,
Professor of Plant Breeding, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.

Secretary, HERBERT J. WEBBER,
Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director_of Citrus Substation and
Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

Animals

Chairman, W. S. ANDERSON,

Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry, State University of Kentucky, and in charge of
Horse Breeding, Kentucky Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

Vice-Chairman, LEON J. COLE,
Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Secretary, JOHN DETLEFSEN,
Assistant Professor of Genetics, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.

Eugenics

Chairman, BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN,
Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training’School, New York, N. Y.

Vice-Chairman, Dr. ADOLF MEYER,

Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps’
Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

Secretary, CHARLES B. DAVENPORT,

Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York.

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding. Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

DIFFERENTIAL FECUNDITY - Walter F. Willcox
ALASKA’S REINDEER INDUSTRY ~ - Levi Chubbuck
THE EXISTENCE OF SPECIES - - - O. F. Cook
COLLECTING IN TURKESTAN - Frank N. Meyer
BREEDING KARAKUL SHEEP - - Dr. C.C. Young
THREE NEW NUTS” - - - - - The Editor
INFLUENCE OF SOURCE OF SEED - ~~ Arnold Engler

EUGENICS IN THE COLLEGES

ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 4

i i i i He i eH 8 ee fe

ee a i i i i i Hh Nt ee He He eH Se = ee Se 1 ce

i ee

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by

which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants; .

it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

i i i 0 i 8 i 0 8 8 A

HH HY

THE
OURNAL OF

HEREDITY

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding, Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

CROSSING BISON AND CATTLE . . Mossom M. Boyd

MY EXPERIENCE WITH BISON HYBRIDS
Charles Goodnight

AN-APPLE CHIMERA... ... . W.E. Castle
SEXUAL INEQUALITY IN HEMP . . . . QO. F. Cook
THE DETERMINATION OF SEX . . ._ P. J. Wester
WEAKNESS OF ELDEST SONS .. .. .. . John H. Chase
EXTINCTION OF FAMILY NAMES/~. .... The Editor
THE PHILIPPINE NEGRITOS —._ . Robert Bennett Bean
THE REASON FOR EUGENICS . .. . ~~ Francis Galton
REVERSION IN PRICKLY PEARS... . David Griffiths
EFFECTS OF INBREEDING . . . . . .H. Kraemer

ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 5

May, 1914

i tt 1 1 tt 1 8 tt) tt tt tt

0 tt 0 i tn ee se

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

I

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A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding, Animal
Breeding and Eugenics

THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS - - - Arthur W. Gilbert
COAT COLOR IN POINTER DOGS - - - C.C. Little
FACES AND RACES - - - - = - Vernon L. Kellogg
PUEBLO INDIAN MAIZE BREEDING - - G.N. Collins
A RADISH-CABBAGE HYBRID - - -_ Filippo Gravatt
ORIGIN OF THE BANANA - - - - - - The Editor

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 6 June, 1914

|
|

0

i tS a

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

—er

re

—— EE

ee ee ee ee

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Tis; Naz 2:
Vol... I,-Nos.; 3 jand” 4, Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of

’ their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-

scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

hey me i me 1h 1 me Ah 1 mm hm 1 NH

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-President American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture

First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER YVAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Derart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.

CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, II.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Cffice, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most: valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS) MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. 1,. No, 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, :
Vice-President American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.

CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Cffice, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass,

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital’ Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

|

1 ome 1h ee 1H eee en fem fe} ee ff NN HN Hh

| LL || | ||| || || | || ||| |||

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
- Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, 32,

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
Peccipt@l price:

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Ill, No; 22:
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

1 YH fH

| | HH
=

a EE

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-President American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Associate Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.

CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, II.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Cffice, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, ‘Mass,

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

A fe

i i i BS OS a 8 OO es

we Fi

Heredity

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

PLANT BREEDING IN SWEDEN -_ H. Hjalmar Nilsson
SECOND REPORT ON IMMIGRATION

THE SAPPHIRE HOG - - - -°- - - J. A. Mclean .-
BIOLOGICAL EUGENICS - - - - - - Leon J. Cole
THE ORIGIN OF DOMESTIC FOWL - C. B. Davenport
RESULTS OF EARLY MARRIAGE - Casper L. Redfield

THE JABOTICABA - - - = - - - Wilson Popenoe

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

~ Vol. V, No. 7 July, 1914

es ts —— a.

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bateson, ‘'will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines. and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

— LS Ts

OE LN NL RR

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

J The Journal of ©
Heredity

COAT-PATTERN IN MAMMALS - - - Q. I. Simpson

THE EUGENICS COMMITTEE

RETICULAR HEREDITY - - - - - - - O. F. Cook
INHERITANCE IN PLANT HAIRS - - John Belling
THE DECLINING BIRTH RATE - - -_ F. H. Hankins
INBREEDING IN DOGS - - - - - William Haynes
PIONEERS IN EUGENICS - - - - - A.E. Hamilton

RECENT BOOKS ON HUMAN HEREDITY

Amey Eaton Watson

THE BARE NECKS - - - - - - - C.B. Davenport

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 8 August, 1914

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

The Journal of

eredity

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,

Animal Breeding and Eugenics

MAN’S PEDIGREE ae ee ee Dr. G. Elliot Smith
TELEGONY = yom BR ee eC) Dr, Etienne Rabaud.
A KAKI CLASSIFICATION ~° = «ss HH. Harold Hume

A NEW OAK FOR BREEDERS
EUGENICS vs. CACOGENICS -— - Dr. E. E. Southard

AMATEUR ROSE BREEDING - -— - Viviand-Morel

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 9 September, 1914

i nt

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bateson, ‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook orf the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

|
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting |
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It |
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

—

mn nn es es a 8

a 8 ——

——ss.

i 0 i 8 ee

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students’ of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var.ation, eugenics, or genetics in general. !

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, p2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol.orl,-No. 2:
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vic*+Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).

DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon, General U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

DR. ELNORA CUDDIBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Auxiliary Clinic, Washington, D. C.

MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.

THE VERY REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Dean of the Cathedral of St. Peter and
St. Paul, Chicago, Ill.

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
MRS. HUNTINGTON WILSON, Washington, D. C.

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

Lf

s
ee ee 8 fe FF BS ee PE ee Ee OS ee EE EE EE EE ee Ee dE A

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-President American Security, & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.

Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture

First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant-Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S$. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Corrfell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON 1 COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison,

is.
CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.
T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. A\ll of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has‘on hand a limited number of copies of three of these. :
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2:

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| Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910). contains 465 pages. Illustrated. |
| It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors |
| are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2. |
| Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one :
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
i and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.
j The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on i
receipt of price.
| |
|
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| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
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|
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|
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|

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. Il, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

—-

i

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-President American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture

First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Intreduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH |
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.

CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornel! Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Cffice, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston,’ Mass

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, altimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. f

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

NATURE OF MENDELIAN UNITS - -— G.N. Collins
TREE GROWTH AND SEED - - James B. Berry
EUGENICS IN GERMANY - -~ -_ G. von Hoffmann
HOLSTEIN MILK YIELD aie ee os F. R. Marshall
THE SIAMESE POMELO SS let, RS H. H. Boyle
ORIGIN OF KARAKUL SHEEP - - Dr. C. C. Young
ALFALFA HYBRIDIZATION - - William Southworth
CONSTRUCTIVE EUGENICS - - - - = A Review
NEGRO-UTE METIS - - = Albert N. Gilbertson
HIGH ALTITUDE MAIZE a A. Jay Garrison
RACIAL HYBRIDIZATION - - - Eugen Fischer

PRIZES OFFERED FOR PHOTOGRAPHS
OF LARGE TREES

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.-

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 10 0 October, 1914

0 os 9

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bateson, “will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting

|
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their

application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

—— os —— ee

ee

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

ARYAN AGRICULTURE SY. = = Dr. Dettweiler
COAT COLOR IN HORSES - - - W.S. Anderson
ALBINISM IN MAN - - - - - A. E. Hamilton
THE LAWS OF NAUDIN-MENDEL - - Dr. E. Apert
ORIGIN OF THE DATE PALM - - - The Editor
STUDY OF OLD AMERICANS -— - Dr. Ales Hrdlicka

A DEGENERATED ROSE BLOSSOM John C. Uhrlaub

CORN AND MEN - - - = = -_ Albert F. Blakeslee

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 11 November, 1914

nt ce ee rt tt

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is ‘that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity, says William Bateson, “‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they w‘'l appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

—-—oo——

0 8 8) 8 er i

J lhe Journal of
Heredity

A monthly publication devoted to Plant Breeding,
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

PLANT CHIMERAS = ee ve ee The Editor

HEREDITY IN CHIMERAS ~— - Dr. William S. Chapin

STUDIES IN HUMAN HEREDITY

The Committee on Research in Eugenics

SKIN COLOR OF MULATTOES- - Charles B. Davenport

MISSING TEETH INHERITED - - Dr. Sergio Sergi

TITLE PAGE AND INDEX OF VOLUME V

ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D. C.

Printed for Circulation among Members Only

Vol. V, No. 12

December, 1914

wt

—e

1 ti

WHAT GENETICS IS

Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”

‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bateson, ‘‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.

Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they wi!l appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

0 on ——— ——— 8 ——— en

———

Genetics Literature

HE annual: reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, 32.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Tif, “Nos<Z.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

ao ee a ee he ye ee ey oe ee

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The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. ~ : First President, JAMES WILSON,

Vice-President, W. E: CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

Vic:-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D (6;

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D. C. ;

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).

DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

DR. ELNORA CUDDIBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Auxiliary Clinic, Washington, D. C.

MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.

THE VERY REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Dean of the Cathedral of St. Peter and
St. Paul, Chicago, Ill.

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

MRS. HUNTINGTON WILSON, Washington, D. C.

(mi me 1 El EE LS fl | ff

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and anima! breeding, heredity,
var ation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages aaa is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910). contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol: . I, Nos: 2<and. 4: Wolk? TY WNewz 2:
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

et

a)

A FF oS Ee Al

1

i i

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vic:-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. —
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, wes. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, -

Washington, D. C

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn,

DR. ELNORA CUDDIBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Auxiliary Clinic, Washington, D. C,

MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.

THE VERY REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Dean of the Cathedral of St. Peter and
St. Paul, Chicago, Ill.

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

MRS. HUNTINGTON WILSON, Washington, D. C.

*

————

Genetics Literature

HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in

seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of

genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.

The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.

Vol. IV, Proceedings A. B. A. (1908), contains 373 pages and is illustrated.
It includes 65 papers, reports and monographs by the foremost students of genetics.
Price, $2.

Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910). contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Price, $2.

Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Price, $3.

The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.

As the Association is in constant receipt of requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.

In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:

Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 3 and 4.

Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.

Oe EL Es |

HA

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i i tt se ee

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vic '-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.

W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.

; COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHAS. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl. ,

T. H. MORGAN, Professor of Experimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.

DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass

DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).

DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon, General U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).

DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

DR. ELNORA CUDDIBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women’s Auxiliary Clinic, Washington, D. C,

MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.

THE VERY REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Dean of the Cathedral of St. Peter and
St. Paul, Chicago, Ill.

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

MRS. HUNTINGTON WILSON, Washington, D. C.

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