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'FOR EDVCATION | FOR SCIENCE | = LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ACh AU she yy) , scant ae i 4 bin oe hte NG nN An’? t ani ak ay ‘ The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) A MONTHLY PUBLICATION DEVOTED TO PLANT BREEDING ANIMAL BREEDING AND EUGENICS PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION (Formerly called ‘‘The American Breeders’ Association’’) VOLUME VII *WASHINGTON, D.C. 1916 1 269t- Mar.\9 Requirements for Membership the council, any person inter- ested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better plants and animals is eligible for membership. The Secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend the annual and other meet- ings, and to receive the magazine, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to the Secretary. GS ite coi to the approval of American Genetic Association 511 Eleventh Street N. W. Washington, D. C. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA INDEX TO VOLUME VII THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, 1916 A Ability, Musical. Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher Copp, 297 To Prevent Waste of Potential, 419 Acquired Characters, The Non-Inheritance of, 254 Age of Parenthood, The, 142 Agriculture, Eugenics and. O. F. Cook, 249 Alaska, A New Type of Cattle for, 48 Alaskan Berry Hybrids, 8 Albinism, Heredity of. Charles B. Davenport, 221 Alcohol on Germ-Plasm, Effects of, 413 A.A. A.S., The A. G. A. and the, 306 A. G. A. and the A. A. A. S., The, 306 A. G. A., Annual Meeting of the, 431, 455, 493 American Indians, Food Plants of, 47 American Metis, Igorrot X. David B. Mackie, 34 Ancestry of the Goose, 39 of Thomas A. Edison, Constitutional Vigor in the, 414 Annual Business Meeting of the Association, 76 Annual Meeting of the Council, 76 of the A. G. A., 431, 455, 493 Annual Meeting, The Association's, 570 Aphis, Ewing’s Study of an, 527 Apology for Yawning, An, 447 Apricots and Peaches with Cherries, Crossing, 305 Arabic-Speaking Peoples, Eugenics for. (A Review), 296 Asses, Spotted. Albert Ernest Jenks, 165 Association’s Annual Meeting, The, 570 Association, Annual Business Meeting of the, 76 B Babies in France, Bounties for, 369 in the Curriculum. A. E. Hamilton, 387 Baldness, Inheritance of. Dorothy Osborn, 347 Banns Law Proposed in Georgia, 415 Batchelor, L. D. Problems in Walnut Breeding, 61 Bee Breeding, A Lost Opportunity in. E. R. Root, 46 Belling, John A. Hypothesis of Semi-sterility Con- firmed, 552 Berry Hybrids, Alaskan, 8 Binet, Alfred, and Simon, Th., Review of Two Books by. The Fundamental Work on Measurement of infelhnence- Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 61 Birth Control, Religion and, 450 Birth Rate, Another German Proposal to Increase the, 527 Birth Rates, Harvard and Yale. John C. Phillips, 565 Births and Deaths, Fewer: What Do they Mean? Walter F. Wilcox, 119 Births, The Tendency to Multiple, 134 Blackberry, Origin of the White, 324 Bohemia, Eugenics Research in, 157 Beahote. J. Lewis. Vigor and Heredity. (Reviewed), 279 “Born Criminals,’’ On the Proportion of, 401 Boshnakian, Sarkis. Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns, 225 Botanical Paradox, A. D. F. Higgins, 306 Boys Born in War Time, Are More?, 478 Breed, Mules that. Orren Lloyd-Jones, 494 Breed of Cattle, Altering the Galloway, 65 Breeder, Wanted: A Plant, 319 Breeders Should Keep Records, All. mel, 564 Breeding Abroad, War Hurts Scientific, 168 Breeding, A Lost Opportunity in Bee. E.R. Root, 46 Breeding and the War, German Horse, 462 Breeding, An Experiment in Sunflower, 462 Breeding at Cornell University, Plant, 65 Breeding Citrous Fruits, 431 Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa. H. D. Hughes, 143 Breeding in Egypt, Pigeon, 50 Breeding in Kansas, Plant, 81 Breeding in New York, Raspberry, 383 Breeding, Iris, 502 Breeding Native Grapes, 60 Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns. Sarkis Boshnakian, 225 Breeding, Pear, 435 Breeding, Problems in Walnut. L. D. Batchelor, 61 Breeding, Sex in Live Stock. E. N. Wentworth, 29 Breeding Sugar Cane, 405 Breeding the Pecan. E. E. Risien, 87 Breeding, The Strawberry, A Triumph in Plant, 191 Bud Variation. A. D.Shamel, 82 Bud Variations, Forgotten. L. B. Scott, 452 “Bull-Dog”’ Cattle, 263 Burbank, Luther. (Review of a Book by Henry Smith _ Willams), 558 Business Meeting of the Association, Annual, 76 Butterflies, Mimicry in (Review of a Book by R. C. Punnett), 463 George M. Rom- Cc California Fruits, Pollination Studies on, 545 paltotnis Grapefruit, Codéperation in the Production of, 2 California Orange Groves, Improvement of, 493 Calves, Triplet, 135 Canada, Yak Increasing in, 451 Canadian Cattalos, Sale of, 178 Cane, Breeding Sugar, 405 Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids. C. E. Leighty, 420 Castle, W. E., and Wright, Sewall, Review of a Bookby. Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and Rats, 540 Cattalos, Sale of Canadian, 178 Cattle, Altering the Galloway Breed of, 65 Cattle, ‘““Bull-Dog,” 263 Cattle for Alaska, A New Type of, 48 Champion of Darwinism, A (Book Review), 394 Change in Sex-Ratio, A. Henry Pittier, 406 Character in Grains, An Important, 32 Characters, The Non-Inheritance of Acquired, 254 Charity, Feeblemindedness and, 296 Cherries, Crossing Apricots and Peaches with, 305 Children, Long Life Means Many, 99 Children, Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with, 446 Children Run Away, Why (Review of a Book by Charles B. Davenport), 169 Children, To Study Exceptional, 220 Children, What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class?’’, 248 Citrous Fruits, Breeding, 431 Civilization and Climate. (Review of a Book by Ells- worth Huntington), 131 Civilization, War, Science. (Review of a Book by by William A. Ritter), 186 Climate, Civilization and. (Review of a Book by Ells- worth Huntington), 131 Cockerell, T. D. A. Collarette Flowers, 428 Coconuts, Germinating. O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle, 148 Collarette Flowers. T. D. A. Cockerell, 428 Collins, G. N., and Kempton, J. H. Patrogenesis, 106 Color in Horses, Sorrel. L. P. McCann, 370 Committee on Nomenclature, Report of, 8 Congenital Origin, Pitted Ear Lobes of. Jenks, 553 Consanguineous Marriage. The Editor, 343 Cook, O. F. Eugenics and Agriculture, 249 Cook, O. F., and Doyle, C. B. Germinating Coconuts, 148 Albert Ernest Codperation in the Production of California Grapefruit, 524 Copp, Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher. Musical Ability, 297 Cornell University, Plant Breeding at, 65 Correction, 427 Corrie, Leslie Gordon. Pollinating Fruit Trees, 365 Corriedale Sheep. F.R. Marshall, 88 Coulter, John Merle. Evolution, Heredity and Eu- genics. (Reviewed), 279 Council, Annual Meeting of the, 76 Cow, Unusual Fecundity in a, 236 Cowgill, H. B. Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself, 96 Crile, Review of a Book by Dr. George W. The Human Machine, 483 Crime and Heredity, 220 Criminal Delinquency, Heredity and, 105 Criminal Offenders, Testing, 255 Criminals, On the Proportion of Born, 401 Cross and Self-fertilization, 33 Crosses, Two Pheasant. John C. Phillips, 12 Crossing Apricots and Peaches with Cherries, 305 Crying, Laughing and, 281 Curriculum, Babies in the. A. E. Hamilton, 387 D Danforth, C. H. Is Twinning Hereditary?, 195 Darrow, Geo. M. Southern Strawberries, 531 Darwinism, A Champion of (Book Review), 394 Data on Heredity, $1,000 for, 66 Davenport, Charles B. Heredity of Albinism, 221 Davenport, Review of a Book by Charles B. Why Children Run Away, 169 Deaths, Fewer Births and: What Do They Mean? Walter F. Wilcox, 119 Defectives in District of Columbia, 240 Delinquency, Hereditary Nomadism and, 523 Delinquency, Heredity and Criminal, 105 Heredity and Juvenile, 178 District of Columbia, Defectives in, 240 Doyle, C. B., Cook, O. F., and. Germinating Coconuts, 148 Drama in the Science of Eugenics, The, 238 | Dunnicliff, A. A., Jr. Fecundity and Stamina, 443 E Ear Lobes of Congenital Origin, Pitted. Jenks, 553 Edison, Constitutional Vigor in the Ancestry of Thomas ., 414 Editor, Robert A. Young and The. Saving the Kokio Tree, 24 Editor, The. Concerning Prepotency, 330 Consanguineous Marriage, 343 Heredity and the Mind, 456 The Long-Lived First-Born, 395 Education, Genetics in, 236 Albert Ernest ili Education in St. Louis, Eugenics, 346 Effects of Inbreeding in Rats, Mental, 561 } Egg Means, What the Size of an. D. E. Warner and Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, 128 Egypt, Pigeon-Breeding in, 50 Emigration After the War, 477 _ Emotional Control, The Inheritance of (Review of a Bulletin by A. W. Finlayson), 346 Encouragement for Superior Parents, 157 England, Progress of Eugenics in, 554 English Suggestions for Eugenics, Some, 288 Epilepsy, A Study of Rural (Book Review), 419 Estabrook, Review of a Book by Arthur H. The Jukes in 1915, 469 Eugenic Movement, The Practical, 189 Eugenic Studies, Prizes for, 240 Eugenic Survey of Nassau County, N. Y., 237 Eugenics and Agriculture. O.F. Cook, 249 Eugenics and Military Preparedness, 319 Eugenics, An Outline of (Review of a Book by Michael F. Guyer), 105 Eugenics, Course of Lectures on, 161 Eugenics Education in St. Louis, 346 Eugenics, Evolution, Heredity and. John Coulter (Reviewed), 279 Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples (A Review), 296 Eugenics, German Suggestions for Constructive, 262 Eugenics, Increased Activities in German, 446 Eugenics in England, Progress of, 554 Eugenics in Hungary. G. von Hoffman, 105 Eugenics, Let’s Positivize Our Negative. A. E. Hamil- ton, 309 Eugenics, New Publication on, 28 Eugenics on the Farm, 47 Eugenics, Prosperity and, 569 Eugenics Research in Bohemia, 157 Eugenics, Some English Suggestions for, 288 Eugenics, The Drama in the Service of, 238 Eugenics, War, Immigration. Report of the Com- mittee on Immigration, 243 Europe, What They Say About. Inbreeding in. Inter- view with Chr. Wriedt, 204 Evolution and Man. Maynard M. Metcalf, 356 Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics. John Merle Coulter (Reviewed), 279 Ewing's Study of an Aphis, 527 Experiment in Sunfiower Breeding, An, 462 Experimental Inbreeding, 70 Eyes and Bad Hearts, Bad, 168 Eyes and Potato Skins, Women’s, 475 F Family with Abnormal Hands, A, 244 Farm Crops in Iowa, Breeding. H. D. Hughes, 143 Farm, Eugenics on the, 47 Fecundity and Longevity, Exceptional. Henry M. Jones, 562 Fecundity and Stamina. A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr., 443 Fecundity in a Cow, Unusual, 236 Fecundity, Increasing, 102 Fecundity in Hens Not a Unit Character, High, 23 _ Feebleminded Adrift, 236 Feeblemindedness and Charity, 296 Feeblemindedness, The Inheritance of, 401 Ferns, Breeding Nephrolepis. Sarkis Boshnakian, 225 Fertility in Swine, Inheritance of, 224 Fingers and Toes, Extra, 320 Finlayson, Review of a Bulletin by A. W. The Inheri- tance of Emotional Control, 346 First-Born, The Long-Lived. The Editor, 395 Flowering Vine, A Magnificent, 372 Flowers, Collarette. T. D. A. Cockerell, 428 Food Plants of American Indians, 47 Foot Prints, Hand and, 511 Foundation to Teach Mothercraft, 478 Fowl with Horns, A, 203 France, Bounties for Babies in, 369 Fruit Trees, Pollinating. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365 Fruits, Breeding Citrous, 431 Fruits in Illinois, Studying, 38 Fruits, Pollination Studies on California, 545 Fundamental Work on Measurement of Intelligence, The (Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th. Simon). Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 561 G Gallichan, Review of a Book by Walter M. The Great Unmarried, 557 Galloway Breed of Cattle, Altering the, 65 Genetic Publications Available, Rare, 189 Genetic Survey of Kansas City, 238 Genetics at Illinois College of Agriculture, Department of, 190 Genetics at Washington Experiment Station, 185 Genetics in Education, 236 Genetics, Modes of Research in. Raymond Pearl, 101 Genetics, New Publication on, 189 Georgeson, C. C. Hardy Grains for the North, 69 Georgia, Banns Law Proposed in, 415 German Eugenics, Increased Activities in, 446 Merle German Horse-Breeding and the War, 462 ate Sn a to Increase the Birth Rate, Another, ' German Suggestions for Constructive Eugenics, 262 Germany, Race Hygiene in. G. von Hoffmann, 32 Germinating Coconuts. O.F.Cook and C. B. Doyle, 148 Germ-Plasm, Effects of Alcohol on, 413 Goose, Ancestry of the, 39 Grains, An Important Character in, 32 Grains for the North, Hardy. C. C. Georgeson, 69 prep Coéperation in the Production of California, Grapes, Breeding Native, 60 . Great Unmarried, The (Review of a Book by Walter M. _ Gallichan), 557 Guinea-pigs and Rats, Studies of Inheritance in (Review of _. a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright), 540 Gulick, Sidney L. An Immigration Policy, 548 Guyer, Review of a Book by Michael F. An Outline of Eugenics, 105 H Hair-Form, Heredity of, 412 Hamilton, A. E. Babies in the Curriculum, 387 Let’s Positivize Our Negative Eugenics, 309 What to Say About Marriage, 77 Hand and Foot Prints, 511 Hands, A Family with Abnormal, 224 Harvard and Yale Birth Rates. John C. Phillips, 565 jules, What is Happening tothe? L. M. Standish, 26 Hearts, Bad Eyes and Bad, 168 Hemp, Change of Sex in. Frederick J. Pritchard, 325 Hereditary, Is Twinning? C.H. Danforth, 195 Hereditary Nomadism and Delinquency, 523 Hereditary Nose Bleed. Willis C. Lane, 132 Heredity and Criminal Delinquency, 105 Heredity and Eugenics, Evolution. John Merle Coulter (Reviewed), 279 Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency, 178 Heredity and Sex, 9 Heredity and the Mind. The Editor, 456 Heredity, Crime and, 220 Heredity in Pellagra, 507 Heredity of Albinism. Charles B. Davenport, 221 Heredity of Hair-Form, 412 Heredity, $1,000 for Data on, 66 Heredity, Vigorand. J. Lewis Bonhote (Reviewed), 279 Higgins, D. F. A Botanical Paradox, 306 The White-Barked Pine, 399 Higgins, J. E. Growing Melons on Trees, 208 Horns, A Fowl] with, 203 Horse-Breeding and the War, German, 462 Horses, Philippine. David B. Mackie, 373 Horses, Sorrel Color in. L. P. McCann, 370 Hover, J. M. Finding the Prepotent Sire, 173 Hughes, H. D. Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa, 143 Human Machine, The (Review of a Book by Dr. George W. Crile), 483 Human Stature, Extremes in, 479 Hungary, Eugenics in. G. von Hoffmann, 105 Hungary, Official Register of Selected Plants in, 305 _ Huntington, Review of a Book by Ellsworth. Civiliza- tion and Climate, 131 Hybrid Origin of the Loganberry a Myth, Is the?, 504 Hybrid Trees. W.H. Lamb (A Review), 311 Hybridization, Tobacco, 47 Hybrids, Alaskan Berry, 8 ; Hybrids, Carman’s Wheat-Rye. C. E. Leighty, 420 Hybrids, Peacock-Guinea Fowl, 95 Hybrids, Some Sweet-Pea, 556 Hygiene in Germany, Race. G. von Hoffmann, 32 _ Hypothesis of Semi-sterility Confirmed, A. John Belling, 552 I Igorrot X American Metis. David B. Mackie, 34 _ Illinois College of Agriculture, Department of Genetics at, 190 Illinois, State Survey in, 405 Illinois, Studying Fruits in, 38 Immigration After the War, 134 Ps, Immigration, Eugenics, War. Report of the Committee on Immigration, 243 Immigration Policy, An. Sidney L. Gulick, 548 > Immigration, Report of the Committee on. War, Immi- gration, Eugenics, 243 Immigration, The Tide of (Review of a Book by Frank Julian Warne), 541 Improvement of California Orange Groves, 493 Improving the Wheat of Sweden, 455 Inbreeding in Rats, Mental Effects of, 561 Inbreeding, Experimental, 70 Inbreeding in Europe, What They Say About. Inter- view with Chr. Wriedt, 204 Indians, Food Plants of American, 47 Inebriety, Research in, 468 Infant Mortality Meeting, 342 Inheritance of Baldness. Dorothy Osborn, 347 Inheritance of Emotional Control, The (Review of a Bulletin by A. W. Finlayson), 346 Inheritance of Feeblemindedness, 401 Inheritance of Fertility in Swine, 224 Intelligence, The Fundamental Work on Measurement wx» of (Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and R®@ Th.Simon). Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 561 Towa, Breeding Farm Crops in. H. D. Hughes, 143 Iris Breeding, 502 J Jenks, Albert Ernest. Pitted Ear Lobes of Congenital Origin, 553 ‘ Jenks, Albert Ernest. Spotted Asses, 165 Jones, Henry M. Exceptional Fecundity and Longev- ity, 562 Jordan, Review of a Book by David Starr. War and the Breed, 118 Journal of Heredity as a College Textbook, 81, 101 Journal of Heredity, Reprints from the, 118 Jukes in 1915, The (Review of a Book by Arthur H. Estabrook), 469 Juvenile Delinquency, Heredity and, 178 K Kansas City, Genetic Survey of, 238 Kansas, Plant Bveeding in, 81 Kempton, J. H., Collins, G. N.,and. Patrogenesis, 106 Kempton, J. H. Lobed Leaves in Maize, 508 Kirkpatrick, Wm. F., Warner, D. E., and. What the Size of an Egg Means, 128 Kite, Translated by Elizabeth S. The Fundamental Work on Measurement of Intelligence (Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th. Simon), 561 Kokio Tree, Saving the. Robert A. Young and the Editor, 24. Kraus, E. J. Somatic Segregation, 3 L Lamb, W. H. Hybrid Trees (A Review), 311 Lane, Willis C. Hereditary Nose Bleed, 132 Laughing and Crying, 281 Law, Nebraska Sterilization, 238 Law of Chance, Variability Curve Following, 280 Law Proposed in Georgia, Banns, 415 Laws to Restrict Miscegenation, 202 Leaves in Maize, Lobed. J. H. Kempton, 508 Lectures on Eugenics, Course of, 161 Left-Handedness, 287 Leighty, C. E. Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids, 420 Linebreeding. Richard H. Wood, 555 Livestock Breeding, Sex in. E. N. Wentworth, 29 Lloyd-Jones,O. Mules that Breed, 494 Loganberry a Myth, Is the Hybrid Origin of the?, 504 Longevity, Exceptional Fecundity and. Henry M. Jones, 562 Long Life Means Many Children, 99 Long-Lived First-Born, The. The Editor, 395 M McCann, L. P. Sorrel Color in Horses, 370 Mcllhenny, Review of a Book by Edward A. Wild Turkeys, 138 Machine, The Human (Review of a Book by Dr. George W. Crile), 483 Mackie, David B. Igorrot X American Metis, 34 Philippine Horses, 373 Maine, New Oat Varieties for, 382 Maize, Lobed Leaves in. J.H. Kempton, 508 Man, Evolution and. Maynard M. Metcalf, 356 Marriage, Consanguineous. The Editor, 343 Marriage, What to Say About. A. E. Hamilton, 77 Marshall, F.R. Corriedale Sheep, 88 Meeting of the A. G. A., Annual, 431, 455, 493 Meeting of the Association, Annual Business, 76 Meeting of the Council, Annual, 76 Meeting, The Association’s Annual, 570 Melons on Trees, Growing. J. E. Higgins, 208 Mendelism Up to Date (A Review), 17 Mental Effects of Inbreeding in Rats, 561 Metcalf, Maynard M. Evolution and Man, 356 Metis, Igorrot X American. David B. Mackie, 34 Military Preparedness, Eugenics and, 319 Mimicry in Butterflies (Review of a Book by R. C. Punnett), 463 Mind, Heredity and the. The Editor, 456 Miscegenation, Laws to Restrict, 202 Modes of Research in Genetics. Raymond Pearl, 101 Mortality Meeting, Infant, 342 Mothercraft, Foundation to Teach, 478 Mothercraft. Mary L. Read, 339 Mothercraft Manual, The (Review of a Book by Mary L. Read), 554 Mothers, Why Do Women Become?, 449 Mules that Breed. Orren Lloyd-Jones, 494 Musical Ability. Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher Copp, 297 Mutations in the Potato, 510 Mutations in Walnuts, 523 Myers, C.E. Tomatoes Above Ground, Potatoes Under- neath, 530 N Nassau County, N. Y., Eugenic Survey of, 237 Nassau County Survey, The, 355 Nebraska Sterilization Law, 238 Negative Eugenics, Let’s Positivize Our. ton, 309 New Publication on Eugenics, 28 New York, Raspberry Breeding in, 383 Nomadism and Delinquency, Hereditary, 523 Nomenclature, Report of the Committee on, 8 Non-Inheritance of Acquired Characters, 254 North, Hardy Grains for the. C.C. Georgeson, 69 Nose Bleed, Hereditary. Willis C. Lane, 132 oO Oat Varieties for Maine, New, 382 Offenders, Testing Criminal, 255 Opportunity in Bee-Breeding, A Lost. E.R. Root, 46 Orange Groves, Improvement of California, 493 Osborn, Dorothy. Inheritance of Baldness, 347 Osteopsathyrosis (A Review), 36 Le Papaws, Where are the Best?, 291 Paradox, A Botanical. D. F. Higgins, 306 Parenthood, The Age of, 142 Parents, Encouragement for Superior, 157 Patrogenesis. G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, 106 Pea, A Yellow Sweet, 523 Peaches with Cherries, Crossing Apricots and, 305 Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids, 95 Pear Breeding, 435 Pearl, Review of a Book by Raymond. Modes of Re- search in Genetics, 101 Pearson, Portrait of Karl, 434 Pecan, Breeding the. E. E. Risien, 87 Pellagra, Heredity in, 507 People, The Slit-Eyed. H. P. Stuckey, 147 Persian Walnut, The. J. Russell Smith, 55 Pheasant Crosses, Two. John C. Phillips, 12 Philippine Horses. David B. Mackie, 373 Phillips, John C. Two Pheasant Crosses, 12 Pigeon-Breeding in Egypt, 50 Pine, Pollination in the, 402 Pine, The White-Barked. D. F. Higgins, 399 Pitanga, The. A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe, 179 Pittier, Henry. A Change in Sex-Ratio, 406 Plant Breeder, Wanted: A, 319 Plant Breeding at Cornell University, 65 Plant Breeding in Kansas, 81 Plant Breeding, The Strawberry, A Triumpn in, 191 Plants in Hungary, Official Register of Selected, 305 Policy, An Immigration. Sidney L. Gulick, 548 Pollinating Fruit Trees. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365 Pollination in the Pine, 402 Pollination Studies on California Fruits, 545 Popenoe, Paul. See Editor Popenoe, Wilson, Shamel, A. D., and. The Pitanga, 179 Portrait of Karl Pearson, 434 Potato, Mutations in the, 510 Potato Skins, Women’s Eyes and, 475 Potatoes Underneath, Tomatoes Above Ground. Myers, 530 Potential Ability, To Prevent Waste of, 419 “Practical Eugenic Movement,’’ The, 189 Preparedness, Eugenics and Military, 319 Prepotency, Brigham Young: An Illustration of, 51 Prepotency, Concerning. ‘The Editor, 330 Prepotent Sire, Finding the. J. M. Hover, 173 Pritchard, Frederick J. Change of Sex in Hemp, 325 Prizes for Eugenic Studies, 240 Problems in Walnut Breeding. L. D. Batchelor, 61 Progress of Eugenics in England, 554 Proportion of ‘‘Born Criminals,’’ On the, 401 Prosperity and Eugenics, 569 Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with Children, 446 Publication on Genetics, New, 189 Publications Available, Rare Genetic, 189 Punnett, Review of a Book by R.C. Mimicry in Butter- flies, 463 Pyronia. Dr. L. Trabut, 416 R Rabies, Transmission of, 564 Race Hygiene in Germany. G. von Hoffmann, 32 Raspberry Breeding in New York, 383 Rats, Mental Effects of Inbreeding in, 561 Rats, Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and (Review of a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright), 540 Read, Mary L. Mothercraft, 339 Read, Review of a Book by Mary L. The Mothercraft Manual, 554 Records, All Breeders Should Keep. mel, 564 Redfield Broadens and Explains His Offer of $1,000, 286 Religion and Birth Control, 450 Report of Committee on Nomenclature, 8 Reprints from the Journal of Heredity, 118 Research in Genetics, Modes of. Raymond Pearl, 101 Research in Inebriety, 468 A. E. Hamil- C. E. George M. Rom- Research Work at Sing Sing, 411 Review. A Champion of Darwinism, 394 A Study of Rural Epilepsy, 419 Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples, 296 Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics. John Merle Coulter, 279 Hybrid Trees. W.H. Lamb, 311 Mendelism Up to Date, 17 Osteopsathyrosis, 36 The Inheritance of Emotional Control. A. W. Finlayson, 346 Vigor and Heredity. J. Lewis Bonhote, 279 Review of a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright. Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and Rats, 540 Dr. George W. Crile. The Human Machine, 483 Charles B. Davenport. Why Children Run Away, 169 Arthur H. Estabrook. The Jukes in 1915, 469 Walter M. Gallichan. The Great Unmarried, 557 Michael F. Guyer. An Outline of Eugenics, 105 Ellsworth Huntington. Civilization and Climate, 131 David Starr Jordan. War and the Breed, 118 Edward A. MclIlhenny. Wild Turkeys, 138 Raymond Pearl. Modes of Research in Genetics, 101 R. C. Punnett. Mimicry in Butterflies, 463 Mary L. Read. The Mothercraft Manual, 554 William E. Ritter. War, Science, Civilization, 186 Frank Julian Warne. ‘The Tide of Immigration, 541 Henry Smith Williams. Luther Burbank, 556 Risien, E. E. Breeding the Pecan, 87 Rommel, George M. All Breeders Should Keep Records, 56 4 Root, E. R. A Lost Opportunity in Bee Breeding, 46 Rural Epilepsy, A Study of (Book Review), 419 =] St. Louis, Eugenics Education in, 346 Saving the Kokio Tree. Robert A. Young and The Editor, 24 Science, Civilization, War. William E. Ritter), 186 Segregation, Somatic. E. J. Kraus, 3 Self-fertilization, Cross and, 33 Semi-Sterility Confirmed, A Hypothesis Belling, 552 Sex, Heredity and, 9 Sex in Hemp, Change of. Sex in Livestock Breeding. E. N. Wentworth, 29 Sex-Ratio, A Change in. Henry Pittier, 406 Sex, Success in Controlling, 158 Shamel, A. D: Bud Variation, 82 Shamel, A. D., and Popenoe, Wilson. Sheep, Corriedale. F.R. Marshall, 88 “Siamese Twins’’ on Record, The Latest, 239 Simon, Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th. The Fundamental Work on Measurement of Intelligence. Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 561 Sing Sing, Research Work at, 411 Sire, Finding the Prepotent. J. M. Hover, 173 Slit-Eyed People, The. H. P. Stuckey, 147 Smith, J. Russell. The Persian Walnut, 55 Somatic Segregation. E. J. Kraus, 3 Southern Strawberries. George M. Darrow, 531 “Special Class’’ Children, What Becomes of the?, 248 Spotted Asses. Albert Ernest Jenks, 165 Stamina, Fecundity and. A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr., 443 Standish, L. M. What is Happening to the Hawthorns?, 266 Stature, Extremes in Human, 479 Sterilization Law, Nebraska, 238 Strawberries, Southern. George M. Darrow, 531 Strawberry, A Triumph in Plant Breeding, The, 191 Stuckey, H. P. The Slit-Eyed People, 147 Studies on California Fruits, Pollination, 545 Study Exceptional Children, To, 220 Study of an Aphis, Ewing's, 527 Success in Controlling Sex, 158 Sugar Cane Breeding, 405 ; Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself. H. B. Cowgill, 96 Sunflower Breeding, An Experiment in, 462 Survey in Illinois, State, 405 Survey of Kansas City, Genetic, 238 ; Survey of Nassau County, N. Y., Eugenic, 237 Survey, The Nassau County, 355 Sweden, Improving the Wheat of, 455 Sweet-Pea, A Yellow, 523 Sweet-Pea Hybrids, Some, 556 Swine, Inheritance of Fertility in, 224 (Review of a Book by of. John Frederick J. Pritchard, 325 The Pitanga, 179 vi T Teachers with Children, Prussia Subsidizes School, 446 Tendency to Multiple Births, The, 134 Textbook, hen of Heredity as a College, 81, 101 Thousand Dollars for Data on Heredity, One, 66 Thousand Dollars, Redfield Broadens and Explains His ; Offer of One, 286 Tide of Immigration, The (Review of a Book by Frank Julian Warne), 541 Tobacco Hybridization, 47 Tobacco That Will Burn, 442 Toes, Extra Fingers and, 320 Tomatoes Above Ground, Potatoes Underneath, 530 Trabut, Dr. L. Pyronia, 416 Transmission of Rabies, The, 564 Trees, Growing Melons on. J. E. Higgins, 208 Trees, Hybrid. W.H. Lamb (A Review), 311 Trees, Pollinating Fruit. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365 Triplet Calves, 135 Turkeys, Wild. (Review of a Book by Edward A. _ Mcllhenny), 138 Twinning Hereditary, Is? C. H. Danforth, 195 Twins on Record, The Latest Siamese, 239 U Unit Character, High Fecundity in Hens Not a, 23 Unmarried, The Great (Review of a Book by Walter M. Gallichan), 557 Vi Variability Curve Following Law of Chance, 280 Variation, Bud. A. D. Shamel, 82 Variations, Forgotten Bud. L. B. Scott, 452 Vigor and Heredity. J. Lewis Bonhote (Reviewed), 279 Vigor in the Ancestry of Thomas A. Edison, Constitu- tional, 414 Vine, A Magnificent Flowering, 372 Von Hoffmann, G. Eugenics in Hungary, 105 Race Hygiene in Germany, 32 Ww Walnut Breeding, Problems in. L. D. Batchelor, 61 Walnut, The Persian. J. Russell Smith, 55 Walnuts, Mutations in, 523 War, Emigration After the, 477 War, German Horse-Breeding and the, 462 War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad, 168 War, Immigration After the, 134 War, Immigration, Eugenics. Report of. the mittee on Immigration, 243 War, Science, Civilization (Review of a Book by William E. Ritter), 186 , War, The Effect of the (Review of a Book by David Starr Jordan), 118 War Time, Are More Boys Born in?, 478 Warne, Review of a Book by Frank Julian. The Tide of Immigration, 541 Warner, D. E., and Kirkpatrick, Wm. F. What the Size of an Egg Means, 128 Washington Experiment Station, Genetics at, 185 Water-Lilies, Some New, 451 Wentworth, E. N. Sex in Livestock Breeding, 29 What to Say About Marriage? A. E. Hamilton, 77 Wheat of Sweden, Improving the, 455 Wheat-Rye Hybrids, Carman's. C. E. Leighty, 420 White-Barked Pine, The. D. F. Higgins, 399 White Blackberry, Origin of the, 324 Wilcox, Walter F. Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do They Mean?, 119 Williams, Review of a Book by Henry Smith. Luther Burbank, 566 Women Become Mothers, Why Do?, 449 Women's Eyes and Potato Skins, 475 Wood, Richard H. Linebreeding, 555 Wriedt, Interview With Chr. What They Say About Inbreeding in Europe, 204 Wright, Review of a Book by Castle, W. E., and Sewall. Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-Pigs and Rats, 540 Com- Y Yak, Increasing in Canada, 451 £y Yale Birth Rates, Harvard and. John C. Phillips, 565 Yawning, An Apology for, 447 Young, Brigham: An Illustration of Prepotency, 51 beh oat A., and The Editor. Saving the Kokio Tree, 24 The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 1 January, 1916 CONTENTS Somatic Sesregation, by E. jj, Kraus: Sie he eo 0 os: 3 Alaskan erty higsrids ois. 4 Sot. ak a. Od ooh ve ee ae 8 Report of Committee on Nomenclature............................. 8 Bleredify sad ;Sex Anis were Race est, apn oe ea ee IES Py 9 Two Pheasant Crosses, by John C. Phillips.......................... 12 Mendelicm: Up. to Date; a Review 25..220 2056 os ies nw he ke 17 High Fecundity in Hens Not a Unit Character...................... 23 Saving the Kokio Tree, by Robert A. Young and the Editor......... 24 New Publication'‘en Hugenies=. 5. 5 ee ee the de 28 Sex in Livestock Breeding, by E. N. Wentworth..................... 29 Race Hygiene in Germany, by G. von Hoffmann.................... 32 An ‘mpertant Character im Grains the/ Galloway Breed of Cattle.>. 2... 02. Does eo 65 PAM cage cl OAV EROLCRENL oN Ne iy, Bee ots area's oc oh ke Fok 66 Hardy Grains for the North, by C. C. Georgeson.................... 69 Rix perbasenige el ete ee Ute... poms m aoe pate tee Palen Pee OR vk 70 Annual Business Meeting of the Association........................ 76 Annual Meeting of the Council..................................... 76 What to Say about Marriage?, by A. E. Hamilton................... a Plant? Breeding in Kansas i736 os 0-a sn he ate we Ee ee oe 81 Journal of Heredity Used as College Textbook....................... 81 Bud wWariations by, A.D -tSbamelen tivo. 5 chic ss oe eee ee ae §2 Breeding the Pecan, by E. E. Risien................................ 87 Corriedale Sheep, by F. R. Marshall................................ 88 Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids..................0.0000.00.0.......... 95 Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself, by H. B. Cowgill.................. 96 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, January 25, 1916. (ooardstquoIy) ‘*pyryosrey praeqd Aq ydeszojyoyg ‘1e0A eB ouen3 jo speysnq o¢z Ajreou paonpoid ‘sqenbs 04 UOT}IPpe Ur SYOTYAr ‘S.1OMO} SOY} Ut sired Q00‘8 pey seo Moy v UT pu ‘spacdIq oTSetOp ou} uey} puNdey oO aq 0} potopIsuod oy Yorys ‘suoasid ppA-tures jo sired Q¢Z YIM poyteys gosog “ayy “‘sqenbs ay} sv qonpoid & afqenyeA se ySOUyR st Yorum ‘ainuvUt 94} JOJO OF Asea Ajawias}x9 4 SoyeU JUOWOSURIIY SIU, “PIBAUT sZutuodo s10y} YIIM SioTy ut prey ‘srel AvP YOT'T Wors epwur st Yor JO YOvA ‘sIOMO0} W99}INO}J JO SYSISUOD YT “UAOYS Aruoosid,, asoya ‘o}e4s9 apioAog oy} UO ULYY AypeoreuioysAs d10Ul UO patted Pt ST oyu PUL 4d A8q ut Arjsnput yuvyodut uv st surpoad |-uoastg a10Y, ST ‘ “LdADA NI ONICHA NOAVId BRIGHAM YOUNG AN EELEUST RATION: OF PREPOTENCY child inherits equally from his two parents; yet every observant person realizes that this is merely a general law, of a statistical nature, and that it does not always hold good in individual cases. Sometimes one parent contributes much more than the other, as far as distinguishable characters are concerned. We then say that that parent is pre- potent. The idea of prepotency is particularly familiar to breeders of livestock, but few of them can explain it clearly, and the professional geneticist has so far met with little better success. It re- mains one of the most obscure things in the study of heredity, and some of the most plausible explanations of it are so hypothetical that it is almost impossible that their correctness should ever be proved. But of the existence of the fact, no one can doubt. In the human species, every one can cite instances where all the children of a family ‘‘take’’ strongly after their father, or their mother, as the case may be. But never, perhaps, was the phenomenon of prepotency more graphically shown in man than in the accompanying photograph of eleven daughters of Brigham Young, by eight different wives. “How different their mothers were,” writes a member of this association who is well acquainted with the family. “But all the daughters are distinctly ‘Youngs’ in feature, voice, appearance and temperament. All are musical. All areamiable. All are adaptable, genuine, sincere, temperamental yet reasonable, and are good mimics. All are warm- hearted, generous, excellent cooks and housewives, and have the reputation of being attractive, magnetic and sympa- thetic. None is great as their father was great, but all are Youngs.” lk IS an axiom of heredity that the While many of these characteristics might be ascribed to similarity in train- ing, one can hardly credit education with having influenced the shape of the mouth and nose. These features, how- ever, in the daughters almost without exception, bear a very close resemblance to the corresponding features of the father. Certainly the strong, firm mouth of Brigham Young is reproduced in a most striking way. In general, it will probably be agreed that these chil- dren of a single father and eight different mothers show as much resemblance to each other as one often finds in the chil- dren of one father and mother. MAJOR POND’S EXPERIENCE An amusing incident connected with the likeness, which is so marked in Brigham Young’s descendants, was that told very frequently by Major James B. Pond. He was always convinced that he could tell a descendant of Brigham Young, especially the girls, whenever he saw one and as an illustration he would tell of a certain time when he and a friend were walking on the streets of Seattle and he saw two young girls com- ing towards them. Said Major: ‘‘Those girls are Brig- ham Young’s daughters.” ‘‘Nonsense,”’ replied his companion. “Yes, they are,” persisted the Major. “Will you wager with me ?”’ he added. “Yes,” said his friend; “I will bet you $25 that they are not.” ‘““Done,”’ cried the Major. As they met the girls the Major lifted his hat and said in his own courteous way: ‘Excuse me; this is a long way from Utah, but are you daughters of Brigham Young?” The girls laughed and replied: ‘‘We are his granddaughters, through his eldest son, Brigham; but how did you know that?” The Major had earned his $25. People in Utah say that the 51 (Sia) “Wein ‘AWD o4P’T Wes ‘soyey-sunoxX vsng ‘sip Aq poystusiny ydeisojyoyd ev wo ‘Ioyooq, Aon’y JO JoJsIs B SVM OYA ‘yn04S pue ‘y10ys AtoA ‘yIep os[e ‘Ioyood] PIF[Q JO Joqysneq ‘uoyseq-suno Zz jouer “say (¢) ‘ydeisoyoyd oy jo Joutoo puey-jjoy toddn oy} ur uMOYs ST OYM ‘BIAT OF} JOySIS [[NJ ‘toouedg-sunO,_ weSsURIO ‘SIJ (Z) ‘ooxue, eB ‘Ooly oUTpoUIU Jo Joyysnep ‘AjeoF{-suno_ yYANY ‘sip (T)—MoY wWozJOYG “Mor do} oy UL f# ‘ON JO Jo4sIs [[NJ ‘yyesnoq-sunoX eiuiey ‘si (F) ‘ooyuvyA v ‘josuy uuy Aivyy Jo Jojyysnep ‘ioyoyeyy-sunox euny ‘sly (¢) ‘mor doz oyy ut Z ON Jo Jojsis TIN} ev pue ‘ooyurA ‘ospriyseg ApwyY jo 1oyYysnep ‘uosmeETS -sunoX Ay “sip~y (Z) ‘ooyue,_ v ‘sainyeoy JUoUTUTOId YIM pue ‘uTyy ‘uo 8uljUuNy “q eurz jo Joyysnep ‘pieg-sunoX eurz ‘si (T)—MOY PPI ‘ATIWIP] SSOY YOR MON OY} JO ‘oseyO BIPIO jo 1aqysnep ‘oryeoq -sunoX oqoo0yd ‘SIP (F) ‘syesnyoesseypy Jo ‘mojestq Aon’yT Jo Joyysnep ‘soyerj-sunoX Bsns ‘sdJ (¢) ‘ooyUe_ v ‘uoTxe;dwios yAIep jo pue ‘1opuoyTs ‘T[e} sem oy ‘osprijzieg Apu jo Joyysnep ‘sunox-sunoxZ ourydosof ‘srpy (Z) ‘Apres ,,YonC, uvowoury,, JO uvuloOmM ve ‘yno4s ATOA pure ‘410YS ‘yIep Sem OYM ‘Ioyx90q{ Aon’T jo Jayysnep ‘ropissoy-suno x Bid “sip, (J) —' Moy doy (qu srt 0} Jo] WOT] SuIpeo.) SMOT[OJ] SB dIB UMOYS S[PNPIAIPUL oY, “JoYyey Itoyy JO sjiei] [eIORy oY} do1s9p o[qeyIeUIoI eB OF aAVY []B VAOGe UMOYS BUNOZ weysiig Jo Sioyysnep UdAg[o oY} ‘Sloy}OU JUSLoYIp JYS1o wiosj Surw09 ySnoyypy SHHMALOW LNAYATATd LHOM AWG ONNOAK WVHOTNE HO SHHALHOAVG NAAWTH (‘7 ‘Stq) “WITY JO ssoudyT] JUO4STxXO qsoq oy} oq 0} Ayrurey sty Aq posoprtsuoo st ‘suNOX “IPA JO Yeap oy} o1oJoq sieoX Moy ev ATUO Udye} ‘ydeis0joyd sip ‘ssepy ‘uojurydoyy ur poary Ajrurey Sunox oy} UNY J0}j;e nq ‘TZLT wt osrysdwey MoN puv uojsog ut porvodde oym ‘PUNO A WIIT[LM SI BOLIOWW UL plOooI JO IOJSoOUR YSIE OUT ‘oouvieodde sty Aq Jno suo ST yey Joljeq V—jUs0SOp YsIPsuq AJOAISNOXO JO SBA OY, VEY} PoAdT[E ST 41 ‘poovI] Udsq APY SIO}SOOUR SITY []B JOU YSsnoyRe puv ‘yoo}s uYzLINg pjo Jo seM OFT OQNNOA WVHOTUE 54 The Journal of Heredity truth holds pretty good even to the latest generation, especially with the girls. Brigham Young, who was born in Vermont in 1801, was the second presi- dent of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and in the opinion of all its members was second only to its founder, the Prophet Joseph Smith, as an organizer and statesman. He led the people to Utah and governed them for more than forty years, until his death in 1877. In accordance with the early doctrine of his church, he had nine- teen wives, ten of whom were mothers of his children. The others were widows to whom he gave a home and protection. If the children of these different wives had inherited equally from their mother and father, there would have been a con- siderable diversity among them. Why is it that there is so little variation among them; why is it that the father “stamped his impress’’ on them so uni- formly ? When we answer that it is evidently a case of prepotency of the father, we only postpone the real explanation one step further; for prepotency is a term that probably covers half a dozen dif- ferent things. It often results from consanguineous marriage, but there is no evidence that such matings occurred in the ancestry of Brigham Young. It may also be promoted by assortative mating—‘‘like with like’’—and it is possible that marriages of that sort had taken place in the Young family, al- though the data extant do not suffice to make this point plain. It may also be due, according to present ideas, to a mere chance presence of a-large num- ber of dominant traits in one individual. VALUE OF PREPOTENCY Whatever its origin, prepotency is a factor of great importance to the geneti- cist, and the ability to control it and depend on it would be of great value to the science. This is as true of eugenics as of any other branch of genetics; for it is obvious that if we could establish stocks highly prepotent in some de- sirable character, it would be distinctly to the advantage of the race. The subject of prepotency, therefore, deserves careful investigation by the eugenicist, and for reasons stated above it appears to the writer that no material available offers such advantages as do the genealogies of the Mormon families. Aside from the fundamental advantage of offering data about the offspring of a single husband and several wives, it has the further important element of fullness and accuracy, for the Mormons are among the most industrious and careful of genealogists. As it is for them a duty to work for the eternal happiness of one’s ancestors, and as these ancestors must be known, if inter- cession is to be made for them, it results that every Mormon takes a practical interest in genealogy, and among the women of the church particularly, familiarity with genealogical methods is probably more widespread than among any other class of people in the United States. The research worker, therefore, finds ready to hand among the Latter-Day Saints a large body of material of ex- traordinary value, which has as yet scarcely been touched for the purposes of biological research. It seems prob- able that the proper use of this material would advance research in human heredity more rapidly than will any other American genealogical data avail- able to the student; and among the important problems on which light would be thrown is certainly the prob- lem of prepotency, which is so strik- ingly illustrated in the accompanying photograph of Brigham Young and his children. THE PERSIAN WALNUT A Typical Problem in Tree Breeding—Great Improvement in the Past Due to Unconscious Selection and Chance Hybridization—Much Greater Progress Possible in Future, Through Intelligent Methods. J: RussELL SmitTH Professor of Industry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. NE of the most significant state- ments I know in connection with the whole matter of agricultural extension on the pro- duction side is the following from C. S. Sargent, in connection with the Persian! walnut (Jwglans regia). “The nut of the wild tree is small, with a thick hard shell, and small kernel, and is scarcely edible, but centuries of cultivation and careful selection have produced a number of forms with variously shaped thin shells, which are propagated by grafting and budding.”’ (Silva, Vol. VII, pelLs:) To persons familiar with the big, sweet, nutritious nuts now so common in the world’s market, it is indeed difficult to believe this statement as to their original unpromising condition. This improvement appears to have come by chance breeding which has given a splendid tree crop for the Mediterranean climate where it seems to have originated, and it has also given a most stimulating object lesson of the means by which we may duplicate the process in walnuts of several species and for scores of other trees that are not now crops at all. The method by which the mag- nificent Franquette or Mayette walnuts have come out of the mean parentage described by Sargent is probably as follows : Centuries ago, perhaps dozens of cen- turies ago, people in southern Europe and western Asia carried home the seed of wild walnut trees from the woods as we do now with black walnuts, chestnuts, hickories, hazels and other wild nuts. They planted of the best in their gardens. This may properly be called a selection of one in hundreds. Of the resulting seedling most were certainly poor trees from the horti- cultural standpoint, but one out of a hundred was likely to be good, perhaps better than the parent. From what we know of human nature wrestling with the problem of stomach-filling, this best tree became the parent of the next generation of seedling walnuts in that valley or the next valley—again a selection of one in a hundred. We now have the hundredth tree from the hundredth tree. This may easily have been repeated ten, twenty, or even fifty Or. gore, - timiesim. Phe” “best aseedlin® walnuts of today thus represent the selection from among a vast number of seedlings. SELECTION IN BOTH SEXES But hold—this is not all. These seedlings have not been yielded by extra good females fertilized by average males. The collections of seedlings from selected seed have often given chances for the crossing of two selected strains. To all intents and purposes we have had practical walnut breeding going on—but. 1 The name ‘‘walnut’’ means merely ‘‘the foreign nut,’’ and was given by the early English because the nut came from abroad. The name “English walnut,’’ under which the Persian walnut passes commercially in America, is due to the fac tthat many of the nuts were transshipped. to this country in England; but as it is an absolute misnomer, the name “Persian walnut’’ is now generally used among growers. 55 56 The Journal we have been gotng 1t blind. Now we can go at it with our eyes open. If by chance we have in unknown centuries turned a small nut “‘with a thick hard shell and small kernel, scarcely edible”’ into the splendid one for which we pay 25 or 30 cents per pound, what may we do if we use our known powers of cross breeding and hybridizing? Is it not reasonable for us now to expect to be able to produce as great changes in twenty-five or fiftv years as chance has done for us in twenty-five or fifty centuries ¢ The Persian walnut, this golden gift of chance breeding, is a grossly neglected agent. This nut is great in its economic significance, for the future, and con- sidering its possibilities it is equally great in its agricultural insignificance in the present. Its food value places it very high among foods, because of its high percentage of meat in comparison to waste, and its combination of food elements, furnishing as it does the costly protein and the much coveted fat. Further than this, the tree produces one of the most valuable of woods. In operation it shows up as a veritable engine of food production, a single good tree in France commonly yielding as many pounds of human food per year as is given by the meat produced by an acre of pasture in England. Of the two foods the walnut is more nutritious by the ratio of 2to 1. Grafted trees of the Mayette and other varieties scattered about the fields of France have been making these heavy yields for many decades. The range of the tree serves to emphasize the unrealized possibilities. The Persian walnut with these wonder- ful qualities of heavy yield of rich food and good wood is at home in a wide belt which encircles the globe in both hemispheres. The tree is actually found all through the Mediterranean region of Zurope, in Asia Minor, Central Asia, China, and Japan, in Pacific America and in the Eastern United States from Georgia to Ontario. It also grows in 2See reports of, Northern Nut Growers’ Secretary, Georgetown, Conn. of Heredity the South Temperate zone. It has been known from ancient times, and yet it has been developed as a crop only in a few areas, as in Southern France, Italy (near Naples), California (chiefly near Los Angeles), and the Orient. I doubt if there is a 10-acre orchard of grafted walnut trees under one management in all Europe. I have been in all the leading districts and found none so large, merely little patches and scattered trees. IN EASTERN AMERICA In the eastern United States there have been scattered trees producing good crops for many years. Trees of local repute have recently been reported from Ontario, Michigan, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Georgia. Some of them are of great size and over a century old? Some of these trees are reported to be practically annual bearers, yet thus far the nut has strangely failed in becoming the basis of a regular crop in the eastern United States. This fact has had two causes, chief of which is the past dependence upon seedlings, which are indefinitely variable, and in the eastern United States mostly worthless, because of unacclimated seed; and its great susceptibility to frost, due to its early blossoming. These causes have resulted in the failure of numerous commercial attempts dependent upon seedlings. As an instance of this I will cite my own ill-guided experience. In 1896 I planted two acres in northern Virginia of the best seedling Persian walnut trees I could then secure from a New Jersey nursery. They were 3 to 4 feet high. The next year they were 21% feet high, the next year they were 11% feet high. Then they began gradually to disappear. The last one lingered until 1912, when a temperature of 25° F. snuffed out its worthless and despairing life. It grew in a magnificent, rich spot and attained the height of 9 feet. Most of the new growth winter-killed annually and it never bore a nut. There were no grafted trees to be had at that time and Association, 1912-1913, Dr. W. ©. Deming, Smith: The Persian Walnut 57 it was reported, even I believe by the United States Government, and believed everywhere, that they could not be erafted or budded. This benighted condition of a possible industry is hard to believe when we stop to think of the fact that the grafting and budding of these trees has been going steadily on in the vicinity of Grenoble, France, for generations. There lived that pioneer nut culturist, Mayette, who propagated the variety that bears his name. In this district top worked trees have been for sale almost any year since before steamships started across the Atlantic. And yet so far as I know this might just as well have been in the moon for all the good it did us until California started the walnut industry. The grafted Mayettes of the stock of Grenoble are now proving hardy in Pennsylvania and Connecticut and if the kind used in the Grenoble district (Persian on Persian) had proved unsatisfactory there apparently would have been little difficulty in getting Grenoble nurserymen to raise American black for us and to graft it to anything we favored. Fortunately, however, we do not have to go into any such heroics now to get the trees. GRAFTING THE TREES We now know how to graft and bud this tree right here in the eastern United States and put it upon the more vigorous roots of the native black walnut. As to the technique of this newly-won process, there are four points for the ordinary apple or pear grafter to keep in mind, and the same also apply to the grafting of the hickory genus which offers, in almost every respect, problems like those of the walnut genus. These four points are: (1) Keep the cions from drying out by waxing entirely or by binding a paper bag over the stock and cion; (2) Do not split the pithy cions, avoid this by trimming wedge grafts so that one of the cuts goes clear across the pith; or use the slip bark method which has all the cut on one side; (3) Graft or bud when the tree is in rapid growth; (4) Use well ripened, well developed wood cut early in the winter. Two-year-old wood seems to be better than one-year-old wood and California grown wood has shown itself superior to eastern grown wood. It is quite possible that we will shortly begin to send cions of desirable eastern trees to California to have budding and grafting wood grown for eastern use. In budding, the patch bud and wing bud methods are the only ones that have shown themselves worth while. The experience of the years 1914-1915 seems to indicate that this budding may be done early in the spring with wood from cold storage and forced into immediate growth by cutting off other growth. For photographs and details important to the experimenter sce bulletin on the walnut by United States Department of Agriculture and the reports of the Northern Nut Growers Association, W. C. Deming, Secretary Georgetown, Connecticut. lam having lots of fun from the two dozen nut trees I have grafted and budded. SELECTION OF PARENTS The discovery of these new arts of propagation serves instantly and acutely to emphasize the question, What parent trees shall be used in propagation? Only a fraction of the eastern trees have been examined carefully, and it is perhaps true that none has yet been found in the Eastern United States with fruit of the high quality of the best European varie- ties. In addition to the great variation in the quality of nuts, there is great var- iation in the adjustment of the trees to the climate. This makes a careful sur- vey of the existing and widely scattered thousands of Persian walnut trees in the United States a very promising prospect. Here is also a problem in tree breeding, rich with possibilities. The great vari- ation within the species and the easy and wide range of its hybridization with other species would indicate that it has great possibilities in the hands of the plant breeder. An interesting example of the ease of its hybridization is furnished by a New Jersey farmer near Camden. He has three or four fine and very productive Persian walnut trees. He wasso pleased THE ORIGIN OF A VALUABLE VARIETY This Persian walnut tree is growing on Pequea Creek in Lancaster County, Pa., and was dis- covered some years ago by a man interested in nut- -growing in the Eastern United States who realized that this tree was worthy of pro pagation. It is supposed to be fifty years ok i, and bears two or three bushels of e arly- -maturing nuts in a good year. Nothing is known of its parentage, but it is undoubtedly a seedling, which hi ippens to bear nuts of good qu: lity, and to stand a great deal of cold weather. It was made the foundation of a new variety, which was given the name of Nebo, and which is now being disseminated and is helping to make the culture of the Persian walnut possible in regions where it was formerly supposed that the climate was unsuitable. Photograph from the U. S. Department of Agriculture. (Fig. 3.) RRS ¥ Smith: The Persian Walnut 59 with them that he planted one hundred more, seedlings from a nursery, fool- ishly thinking them all much alike. The new trees grew finely, showing the Persian type of foliage. When they bore, it was such a collection of long rough nuts of evident butternut (Juglans cinerea) paternity that the farmer dug up all of the trees but one, which bears a nut of apparent hybrid form and little value. Experiments of Dr. Robert T. Morris and others have shown that there is great freedom of hybridization between the various species of walnut. Some hybridization is possible hetween the walnuts and hickories. So common is the cross between the Persian and the Black in California that it is a recog- nized kind called Royal, distinguished as are many hybrids for astounding vigor of growth. This is offset by a poor yielding power but Professor Smith, of the University of California, reports one (see bulletin on walnut blight, 1912) that is a good bearer. That one tree is exceedingly significant. It would seem to indicate that others like it can be produced—truitful and growing with the fury of a weed. This is merely one of the many breeding problems which the walnut alone holds out to us now that we know how to breed plants. A MARYLAND SPECIMEN A peculiarly promising tree as a breed- ing parent, is one that has been found in Maryland about eighteen miles north of Washington, D.C. If the nut hada little less bitter on its skin, the tree would be an almost ideal parent. It is reported to have borne twelve or thir- teen consecutive crops. This is unusual for any fruiting tree. Rumors to the contrary, consecutive cropping of fruit and nut trees is not common except in the form of a heavy and a light crop alternating. Unfortunately I cannot give exact measurements for the ‘yield of this Maryland tree. Its regular rec- ord is probably due in large part to its late habit of spring growth. Whereas most of the Persian walnuts send out their leaves with the earliest approaches of spring and lose their blossoms and often their foliage and twigs with frost, as does the apricot, this tree remains dormant until June, then grows with great rapidity and matures its crop. In Grenoble, France, I saw on the 10th of June, 1913, when farmers were making hay, some Persian walnut trees just showing the first green of their buds at the same time that cherries were ripe on an adjacent tree. I should have passed these trees by except that I asked my companion, Vice Consul Murton, a master of the local walnut situation, why the leafless trees had died. Al- though permitted to live, these trees were not particularly prized by the French walnut growers, because they were reported to bear scanty crops, al- though the nuts were reported of satis- factory quality. The bringing together of these two late strains, one of good bearing habit and fair quality, the other of excellent quality and both of wonder- ful frost resisting ability would seem to have great promise as a breeding exper- iment. I called these facts to the attention of E. R. Lake, of the Pomological staff of the United States Department of Agri- culture, and asked him who 1n the United States was in a position to conduct these experiments. After a moment’s pause he said, “I guess you will have to go to J. W. Killen, of Felton, Delaware.” I happen to know that Mr. Killen is a farmer of an experimental turn of mind, willing to work and sacrifice time and money for the advance of agricultural knowledge. I regard it as little short of lamentable that so great a problem as the breeding of a new tree crop of the importance and promise of the Persian walnut should, in the United States of America, be dependent wholly upon the unpaid and unsupported enthusiasm of a private individual. We need at once a thorough search for the best among the hundreds of possible parent trees in the East. Mr. Fagan, of Penn State College, made such a survey of his state in the summer of 1915 and found about 5,000 Persian walnut trees which are now under observation. They need testing out with regard to their behavior under cultivation, their resistance to the Cali- 60 fornia walnut blight, and numerous ex- periments in cross breeding and hybrid- ization should be made to develop the good parent trees which we now have reason to believe can be produced by the breeding from many of the promising trees already known to us. THE PROBLEM OF TREE CROPS If chance hybridization and selection in the past has brought the worthless wild tree described by Sargent to the present perfection of the commercial Persian walnut, we certainly have great reason to anticipate large results from systematic hybridization if we can focus the resources of constructive science in that direction. The Persian walnut is but a type in the whole tree crop question. Its typical aspects may be summarized as follows: 1. As acrop producer it is almost worth- less in its wild state. 2. Some trees usually widely scattered are much superior to the average and worthy of propagation. 3. Cross-bred strains from selected rare The Journal of Heredity (such have been produced in the gardens of Mediterranean lands). 4. The possibilities of better varieties by hybridization have merely been glimpsed, not realized, and demand im- mediate work. ; The plant kingdom has never been systematically searched for useful plants. This is particularly true of trees, from which we have held back because of the time element; yet there is little doubt that forty or fifty species of wild trees are quite as promising of a good agri- cultural crop as was the wild walnut described by Sargent. By selection, propagation, cross-breeding and hybrid- ization, each of the fifty or more can probably, like the walnut, be made into a valuable crop producing food for men, and what is more important, agri- culturally, food for the beasts, if the problem is systematically handled. This field of endeavor also promises one of the most potent cures for the erosion problem. The hillside whose soil is pinned to the bed rock by the interlacing roots of crop yielding trees will not trees are much superior to any wild tree erode. It will stay and pay. Breeding Native Grapes Valuable work on self-sterility has been done at the North Carolina Experiment Station, principally with native grapes, but to a less extent with persimmons, blackberries and dewberries. It is found that the latter berries are in some cases self-sterile and in some cases self-fertile; grapes of the muscadine type (Vitis rotundifolia), however, have proved to be self-sterile in almost every instance. It is therefore necessary that the grower of such grapes should plant enough male vines to furnish pollen; and it has been found that there are two distinct wild types of male vine, the commoner one producing grapes that, when further propagated by seed, yield dark-colored fruit, while a rarer type, when perpetuated, yields light-colored fruit. All scuppernong grapes of the immediate generation are light colored. By the growth of several thousand hybrid seedlings, an effort is being made to find whether such characters as color of berry, persistance of holding fruit and size of fruit and size of fruit clusters are transmitted, and if so, by what laws. In this connection it will be of interest to mention that the United States De- partment of Agriculture is engaged in breeding a strain of muscadine grapes with perfect flowers, starting with a single individual of this character which was found among a lot of seedlings. The project promises to be wholly successful, and will make the production of these grapes much more profitable. Hybridization is also being used to produce varieties of grapes that will combine the vigor and disease- resistance of the Vitis rotundifolia and its large berries, with the hardiness and large clusters of the northeastern United States species (Vitis labrusca, etc.). PROBLEMS IN WALNUT BREEDING The Industry in California Being Transformed Through Propagation of Grafted Trees—Walnut Blight and the Variability of the Present Groves—the Ideal Commercial Nut' L. D. BATCHELOR University of California Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal. HE walnut industry of California is just entering a _ transition period, from the planting of seed- ling groves to the establishment of plantings composed of grafted trees. Just as other seedling fruit trees, such as the orange, apple, peach, almond, etc., have been eliminated, so, too, the seedling walnut groves of California seem doomed to be replaced: by clonal varieties. In many ways this industry is as much in its infancy as the apple industry of New York was sixty-five years ago, when varieties first began to be propagated in a commercial way by grafting and budding. This readjustment in the walnut industry is well started, and although it is likely to be gradual in its evolution, and wisely so, the change seems nevertheless cer- tain. There are but a very few seedling trees for sale at the present time by the progressive nurseries, and in fact only a very few such trees have been set out in groves during the past four or five years. This demand for a grafted tree has been brought about largely by the wide range of variation in walnut seedlings, as regards their productivity, commercial value, season of harvest and ability to resist the walnut blight. With this very recent propagation of the walnut by grafting, which has extended over only ten or twelve years, it is reasonable to expect that the majority of the varieties thus propagated so early: in the development of this industry are only partly suited to the needs of the walnut grower. The nuts from many of these grafted varieties fall considerably short of the commercial standard for high-grade walnuts. Some of the heaviest-bearing sorts, such as the Chase, Prolific and El Monte, produce nuts which cannot be sold in the very best grade of the commercial product. On the other hand the Placentia, which produces the most nearly ideal commercial nut, is not a heavy-producing variety, especially in the northern walnut sections, and is quite as susceptible to walnut blight as the average seedling tree. Again, the Eureka variety, which seems success- fully to avoid the walnut blight during many seasons by its lateness in coming into bloom, is a very moderate yielding sort in the southern sections. The above examples are only a few of many which might be cited to show the shortcomings of most of the varieties of walnuts now being propagated. MANY VARIETIES NEEDED The wide range of climatic and soil conditions makes the eventual propaga- tion of quite a large number of varieties inevitable. While the coast regions are bathed in fog nearly every morning during the growing season, the inland valleys experience an extremely dry climate with high maximum tempera- tures. Walnuts are being grown at the present time on soil types varying from the extremes of sand to heavy clay loams. Many of the future varieties must be especially adapted to some one of these particular environments if they are to withstand the test of time. Many of the present seedling groves are of uncertain origin and represent greatly varying values. No doubt some 1 Read before the twelfth annual meeting of the American Genetic Association, at Berkeley, Cal., August 5. 1915. 61 62 The Journal of these groves are the progeny of especially selected trees known to have considerable merit. On the other hand, it is very apparent that many of them are the result of a great demand for seedling trees when this industry was in its infancy twenty or thirty years ago. At that time great quantities of walnuts were planted without due regard for their parentage. Again, there is a wide range of variability among the individual trees of any grove, as variations in type of tree, blooming season, character of foliage, resistance to disease, pro- ductivity and character of the nuts. Type of Tree.—The tree types vary from the upright sturdy individual to the more or less spreading, weeping types, which droop nearly to the ground under the burden of their crop. The upright, vigorous growing type is well exemplified in the Eureka. On the other hand such varieties as the Prolific have a spreading, bushy habit, and an almost semi-dwarfness characterizes their growth. Blooming Season.—It is not unusual to find the blooming season in an ordinary seedling grove extending over a period of from a month to six weeks. 93 The above entries show the common form of entry in the New Zealand flock book. The number of ewes bred, the origin of the sires and number of lambs raised and sold constitute the only facts ecorded. Admission of a flock to the book of record is conditional upon approval of an examining committee who regard merit and uniformity and may require the disposal of some animals before ac- cepting the flock for record in the flock book. Most of the flocks accepted so far have been bred along the same line for from twenty toforty years. There is no regulation as to the number of genera- tion necessary for admission to record. Continuous use of the offspring of young- est ewes would permit securing ten gen- erations in twenty years but it never happens that all ewes are discarded after producing their first lambs. The bulk of a thirty-year-old Corriedale flock in New Zealand probably have back of them ten or twelve generations of descendants of the original crosses. One or two breeders made a special claim of having added fixity of type by always using the youngest rams available in order to in- crease the number of generations of se- lected ancestry. None of the private records permits of tabulating pedigrees to show dams for more than one or two generations, consequently Corriedale his- tory must be read in rather a general way. The organization of Corriedale breeders recently formed in Australia requires that before being admitted to the flock book, flocks must be inbred half-breds for at least nine generations after the Lincoln-Merino foundation cross-breds. In case of breeding Corriedale rams up- on half-bred ewes, six generations suffice. It required no experiment to secure the desired type in establishing the Corriedale. The problem was entirely one of giving fixity to a type produced by crossing. The Lincoln and such English and Border Leicesters as were used may be regarded as practically of one type for consideration in this con- nection. The English Leicester was de- veloped solely by selection, as its founder, Robert Bakewell, could draw CORRIEDALES IN AUSTRALIA Part of a newly founded flock in New South Wales. One of the most valuable characteristics of the Merino breed is its ‘‘herding instinct’? which prompts the animals to keep together, and makes them manageable by shepherds. This instinct has been retained, it is said, in the Corriedale, and is a feature of great value to the new breed. (Fig. 13.) upon no highly improved mutton sheep in the last half of the eighteenth century. In ancestry and in many commercial characteristics the Merino is about as dissimilar to the long wools as can be found without going to the central Asiatic types. CONSTANT CULLING The main work of the New Zealand Corriedale breeders seems to have been in the culling of rams and ewes. As shown in Mr. Little’s flock, twenty ram lambs were retained from the offspring of 4,000 ewes. At the Moeraki estate 150 ewes were selected from the progeny of 1,000 ewes. Such vigorous culling surely allowed uniformity. We have no records as to the percentage of dis- cards from the second and subsequent generations, but 1911 reports indicate that culling is not light as the number of yearling ewes is not far below half that of the older ones. From my observa- tions on New Zealand farms I did not O4 conclude that Corriedale breeders now cull heavier than owners of flocks of other breeds. The vigorous culling in the earlier stages need not be taken to show particular clearness of aim on the part of the breeders, as it is doubtful if they then looked forward to the status of a breed. Sheep were cheap and the best of the half-breds were retained in a sep- arate flock as the most logical method of obviating the need of pure long wool and Merino flocks to produce fresh stock ewes. The discards were sold or used with rams of the common breeds. The fact that many of the opposed characters of the Lincoln and Merino appear to have blended and that the blended form is now uniformly trans- mitted does not harmonize with present day understanding of the probability of segregation of the factors composing a character. With coat characters such as length and fineness of fiber so opposite as they are in the Lincoln and Merino, one might expect here at least frequent Marshall: Corriedale Sheep 95 reversions to the length or to the fine- ewes and Lincoln rams. Horns in the ness of one of the parent stocks. long wool breeds are of exceedingly rare Among the several hundred Corriedales occurrence. : I saw and the scores I examined closely Body. characters are less easily fol- not one had wool anywhere nearly as_ lowed than those of fleece. The most short as the longest wooled Merinos, as common conformation of the Corriedale coarse as the Lincolns, or as fine as the is practically intermediate between the Merino. Many of the lots examined Lincoln and Merino in respect to width were either ram or ewe hoggets that had of back and loin, depth of body and not been culled, consequently it could development of the rump and twist. In not have been that reversions had oc- , some flocks where fineness of wool has curred and been discarded. These char- been emphasized, the narrower chests acters may be determined by a number and the throat folds of the Merino are of factors each separately heritable but seen, though none of the sheep examined their number and irregularity of trans- after shearing could be mistaken for mission must be beyond hope of elucida- either Lincoln or Merino by anyone tion or practicalcontrol. Inlengthofwool familiar with these breeds. fiber Corriedales more nearly approach The comparative newness of the Cor- the Lincoln than the Merino, though I. riedale and the fact that it does not cannot say that any I saw fully equalled come from Europe have called forth in this respect Lincolns grown under considerable argument against the possi- similar conditions. bility of the breed’s being of a fixed type. Strangely enough the fact is overlooked that at least one of the British breeds The horned character still crops out now quite popular here was originated quite frequently, one breeder having by crossing animals from two distinct stated that 5% of his 1914 lamb crop breeds, and most of the other breeds of were culled because of horns, which sheep at some stage of their existence could only have come through the female have received the impress of older breeds line as both sexes of the original cross- andhave beenrendered true to a type em- breds were from the hornless Merino bodying characters of the outside blood. HORNS STILL APPEAR Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids ‘ The cross between pea fowl and guinea fowl is a very ‘“‘wide’’ one that has been made a number of times. The latest recorded success is that described by D. Brentana in the Moderno Zootatro, No. 11, 1914. In general appearance the hybrids most closely resemble the peacock, their form being slender, particularly in the head and neck, although there was a noticeable absence of ali the character- istic appendages of the head, and the great train of feathers which is the peacock’s pride was very much reduced. The plumage exhibited striping, which is perhaps a primitive pattern in the pea cock. It was of a dark fawn with black stripes in the lower part of the neck, becoming paler fawn with black specks in the region of the thorax, abdomen and flanks. As such hybids are usually absolutely sterile, it is impossible to breed them through several generations and work out the manner of inheritance of the various characters involved. 96 The Journal of Heredity SUGAR CANE THAT OUTGREW ITSELF An unusual abnormality in sugar cane is shown in the accompanying photo- graph from H. B. Cowgill, plant breeder of the Insular Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, Porto Rico. ‘This stalk,” he writes, ‘‘was taken from a seedling cane which was grown here in the year 1913. The photoesraph shows four complete internodes or joints of a stalk; each of these joints has, as usual, a bud growing from it. But in every case, it will be observed, this bud is transversed squarely across the middle by a great fissure. All the stalks of this seedling showed this abnormality on many of the internodes. As may be seen, it is a rupture of the outer portion of the stalk across the center of the bud. Seedling canes frequently show peculiarities, but this is the first time I have known this particular abnormality to happen. It seems to have been caused by an un- usual formation of the bud. In sugar cane the point of the bud is usually free from the stalk, but in this case it ad- hered closely to the stalk and seemed to have grown fast to it. The bud within evidently developed faster than the stalk, while its outer scales could not do so on account of being fastened to the latter. The pressure produced seems to have been sufficient to rupture the stalk. It was not possible to make any test to determine whether this abnormality would be inheritable.” (Fig. 14.) The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) >» Vol. VII, No. 3 March, 1916 CONTENTS Kenge Uifé’ Means: Masiy Children ::.-)< 6. os. aie fede. ee 99 Modes of Research in Geneties (review of a book by Raymond Pearl) 101 Journal of Heredity as a Text-book................................ 101 crease Pecumuary e002 78.355 Ot yy i Bee ha 102 Heredity and Criminal Delinquency. .........2.5....2.......022... 105 An Autline of Eugenics (review of a book by Michael F. Guyer).... 105 Eugenics in Hungary, by G. von Hoffman.......................... 105 Patrogenesis, by G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton................. 106 The Effect of War (review of a book by David Starr Jordan)......... 118 Reprints from the Journal of Heredity............................. 118 Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do They Mean?, by Walter F. Wi COMA ake eC es ek aye Say ak nsession 119 What the Size of an Egg Means, by D. E. Warner and Wm. F. Kirk- IpeeUDING epee ge nae audi oe oe cS ALN, Sens So rere. Pens Bede 128 Civilization and Climate (review of a book by Ellsworth Huntington) 131 Hereditary Nose Bleed, by Willis C. Lane.......................... 132 The Tendency to Multiple Births.................................. 134 Rxinalor Shien Aber ale: NV aby Se daca eects oar vlooahe 2 be as 134. iripletsGalvesman arrests: sotto le eee son tee ee Ce ee 135 Wild Turkeys (review of a book by Edward A. MeclIlhenny).......... 138 Ser eee Ag ANNE MAGOIOEL co) NEM Sool nob. iar ek. iY eee en gad 6 ool Pees 142 ‘Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa, by H. D. Hughes..................... 143 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, February 25, 1916. ffi i) HE HAS 101 DESCENDANTS Dr. Harvey C. Hullinger of Vernal, Utah, was born in Ohio in 182 1: he 1S, therefore, only 92 years old. re father died at 10 and his mother at 44; nevertheless, the stock from which he comes is a long-lived one, his brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts and pratidpalents having mostly lived far beyond the usual span. The photogr: sc shows five generations of a single family, the ages of the younger ap smbers being: W. S. Hullinger, 68; W. S. Hullinger, Jr., 46; Harvey Hullinger, 20; none Murray Hullinger, 7 months. Photogr: iph taken Septe smber, 1915. Dr. Hullinger married three times, and has 14 children, 22 grandchildren, 63 great-grandchildren and 2 great-great-grandchildren. Photograph from the Geneaogical Record Office, Washington. (Frontispiece. ) LONG LIFE MEANS MANY CHILDREN And Long Life Also Means a Good Inheritance—Study of Longevity Brings Important Proof to the Theory of Evolution Plymouth, N. C., Dec. 3.—W. B. Davis, 94 years old and father of 41 children, 33 of whom are alive, got a license Wednesday to wed a Mrs. Mason, 39 years old, who lives near here. The ceremony was performed yesterday. Twenty-five children and more than a hundred grandchildren of the bridegroom attended. Mr. Davis has 192 grandchildren and a number of great-grandchildren. This is his fourth venture in matrimony. He is enjoying health, but has complained of being lonesome. [sien ene parent—many chil- dren: the connection seems too obvious to be worth noting. But it is very well worth noting. The simple fact illustrated in the above newspaper clipping means a great deal not only to eugenics, but to the whole theory of evolytion. First let us make sure of our facts. If we pick at random from the death records the names of two women, one of whom died at the age of 50 and the other at the age of 75, will the longer- lived be found to have left the larger family? Both of them, you must notice, lived past the reproductive period, and it might be supposed that after that period a few years more or less could make no difference. Nevertheless, the study of Karl Pearson and his associates! leaves no doubt that the longest-lived parents have the largest number of offspring. They were able to study family records of some thousands of English and American Quaker families, and reached this conclusion: “Fertility is correlated with _lon- gevity even after the fecund period is passed. If we take American mothers there is no doubt of this increasing fertility even up to 90 years of age. With English mothers it is less marked, but appears to be quite true up to 75 years. Beyond 75 there appears a slight decrease.” In other words, the peculiar physique, the vitality and the toughness of consti- tution in both men and women, which make longevity possible, are also asso- ciated with fecundity. Where you find one, you are likely to find the other. Of two women who both live beyond 50 years, the longer lived is likely to have had, before 50, the larger number of children. It is not easy to understand why this condition should be more marked for American parents than for English parents, for the American families dealt with were, in the great majority of cases, of Anglo-Saxon race. Evidently climate, mode of life, and similar in- fluences are bringing about a difference in this respect, between the English and the Anglo-American stocks. Remembering that long life is asso- ciated with numerous offspring, let us now recall that long life is due primarily to heredity. Contrary to what one might suppose, people do not attain to a great age because of any particular habits of life, any particular kind of diet or brand of beverage. They live long because they come of a long-lived stock, because they .have inherited the kind of constitution that, in circum- stances which are reasonably favorable, will stand the strain of existence for an unusually long time. We are now in a position to see how the connection between long life and large families will assist us in under- standing how evolution works. In the first place, Darwin and many others have shown that the members of a race least fitted to their surroundings are removed by death. For example, of two children born in a neighborhood where tuberculosis is abundant, the one with an inherited resistance is pretty 1 On the Correlation between Duration of Life and the Number of Offspring. By Miss M. Beeton, G. U. Yule and Karl Pearson. Proc. R. S. London, 67 (1900), pp. 159-171. 99 DESCENDANTS IN FOUR GENERATIONS Mrs. Mary Erickson of Stahl, Mo., was born in Kentucky in 1821, and is therefore 95 years old. She is the eldest of 11 children, the rest of whom died at from 50 to 60 years of age. Her father died at She is, therefore, well above the average longevity of her family, the age of 56 and her mother at LWP a fact which may be due partly to the more remote ancestors, but which she attributes to hard work, plain food and regular habits. The photograph (from the Genealogical Record Office, Washington) hows her with her eldest son, eldest grandson, eldest great-granddaughter and eldest great-great- granddaughter. Fig. 1.) Long Life Means Many Children sure to live longer than the one who lacks an inherited resistance. But if each of them survived to adult life and left an equal number of children, it is obvious that the character of the race would not be changed—there would be relatively just the same numbers of weak and strong persons (in respect to tuberculosis-resistance) in it in the next generation, that there are in this. The theory of natural selection re- quires that the weaker of the two indi- viduals whom we have picked out for an illustration, must leave fewer offspring than the strong one. The less fit must leave fewer descendants than the more mt. hus the race progresses a little in each generation, in the direction of greater fitness in this respect. THEORY CONFORMS TO FACTS The theory requires, we have said, that there be this difference in fecundity. But do facts back up the theory? We have reached a point in the study of evolution where we are tired of theories. We want facts. 101 Sometimes we can get them; some- times we can not. In this particular case a study of long-lived people gives us exactly the information that we needed and expected. As we have seen, the long-lived—who must be considered to be in generally an unusually fit lot of people—are found to have more off- spring than the shorter-lived and less fit. And since this fitness is, as we know, hereditary, it follows that the race Should be getting a little more fit in this respect, with each generation, because the amount of inherited lon- gevity must be greater than it was in the previous generation. The lonesome and fatherly Mr. Davis, cited in a newspaper story at the begin- “ning of this article, may or may not exist in real life. But if he does not, it would not be difficult to find some one else conforming to the same specifica- tions; for long life does mean a large family. We have been able to measure the exact amount of association between the two facts, and thus add another piece of mathematically demonstrated proof to the theory of evolution which Darwin left us. Modes of Research in Genetics MopeEs oF RESEARCH IN GENETICS, by Ray- mond Pearl, Biologist of the Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station. Pp. 182, price $1.25. New York, the Macmillan Company, 66 Fifth Avenue, 1915. The principal and most useful part of Dr. Pearl’s book is a discussion of the relative merits of the two _ principal methods used in studying heredity— namely, the biometric and the Men- delian. Public opinion is still confused as to the respective spheres of these methods, as a result of the conflict between them which raged a few years ago. Advanced students now generally recognize that each of these methods has its place, and also its limitations; but the beginner, who frequently reads the literature of a decade ago, is too often confused by the recriminations and denunciations he finds. Dr. Pearl shows clearly just what each method can do, the biometric method being essentially the study of the ancestry of an individual, while the Mendelian method is the study of the posterity of an individual. A perusal of this book will do much to clear up the ideas of a great majority of those who are ac- tively interested in genetics. The prob- lem of inbreeding, and the-general rela- tion between practical breeding and experimental genetics, are also discussed. Journal of Heredity As Text-book The class in heredity at the Ohio State University is now using the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY as its text-book, arrangements having been made for a special short-term membership in the American Genetic Association, for each of the twenty-two students taking the course. INCREASING FECUNDITY Remarkable Effect of Pituitary Substance on Poultry May Have Wide Application—Great Increase in Egg Production and Hatchability of Eggs Obtained ECUNDITY is one of the most Fk important factors in the practical application of genetics, whether it be in eugenics or animal- breeding. Any method of increasing the fecund- ity of valuable strains would be of great worth to the eugenist and the breeder. One such method seems to have been found by Lewis Neilson Clark, of Oldham Farm, Port Hope, Ontario, Canada, a member of this association who has been experimenting with the ductless glands of animals, by feeding extracts of them to chickens. By the use of an extract of the pituitary gland, he has increased the egg production of hens, sometimes nearly doubling it, and at the same time has secured an in- creased “‘hatchability”’ of the eggs. The pituitary gland of calves, secured by Mr. Clark from his local butcher, is a small rounded body attached to the under side of the brain, and consisting of two lobes, an anterior and a posterior. It is generally supposed to regulate, by its secretions, the nutrition of bone and other connective tissue, and to have many other far-reaching influences on the entire body. For the experiment here described, Mr. Clark used only the anterior lobe of the gland, which he ground up and mixed with sugar of milk to form a paste. This paste was dried at room temperature, ground to a powder, and weighed, the loss in weight amounting to 13.5 per cent. In the experiments recorded below 69 milligrams of this powder, representing 20 milligrams of fresh pituitary sub- stance (anterior lobe), were administered to each hen per day. RECORD OF HENS KNOWN “The first experiment attempted,” Mr. Clark writes,’ “dealt with thirty- five Single Comb White Leghorn hens hatched in April, 1913, mated, in two pens, to two cockerels of the same breed, hatched in May, 1914. These two pens were housed in two colony- houses, on free range, and had been used as breeding-pens for this season’s work before the dosing was commenced. I have, therefore, records of their egg production for several months previous, the laying being very steady and consistent. For the purpose of illus- trating the results of this experiment, it will be necessary to give only the egg production for a period of fourteen days prior to first dosing. It will be noted in Table I? that the production curve was declining, previous to dosing, this being only natural in view of the heavy and consistent laying of these hens since February. Both hens and cockerels were forcibly fed at night time with the powder, enclosed in gelatin capsules, the dose in each case being 69 milligrams. The first dose was given on the evening of May 20 and the last dose on the evening of May 28. A remarkable increase in production -1The Effect of Pituitary Substance on the Egg Production of the Domestic Fowl. By Lewis Neilson Clark. 2 The table is too long to be reprinted here. First dose evening of May 20. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. XXII, No. 3, pp. 485-491; October, 1915. A summary is as follows: Last dose evening of May 28. Average daily egg production of experimental pens May 7 to May 14, inclusive, 19.25 eggs= 55 per cent possible. Average production May 15 to May 23, inclusive (to 3 days after first dose), 16.11 eggs= 46 per cent possible. Average production May 24 to May 30, inclusive (from 3 days after first dose to 2 days after last dose), 32 eggs=91.43 per cent possible. Average production May 31 to June 6, inclusive, 21.57 eggs=61.63 per cent possible. The pens were broken up on June 7. 102 Increasing was noted on the fourth day after the administration of the first dose, but was apparently dropping back to normal when, owing to the exigencies of the management of a large poultry farm, it was necessary to break up these isolated pens. The hens were kept under close observation for a period of one month after the last dosing and their general health continued excep- tionally good, there being not one case of sickness or death among any of the subjects, and the general appearance of the birds being far above the average for this season of the year. A CHECK ON THE RESULTS “I felt sure that the marked increase shown in the production of these hens, whcse laying had been most consistent and whose production curve was cn the decline at the time of experiment, was due solely to a direct stimulating effect on the ovaries, produced by pituitary substance, and to no other causes. A 100 per cent egg production is almost unknown in my experience, at this season of the year, especially with flocks of this size (seventeen and eighteen in a pen). The conditions for egg pro- duction were practically ideal, but the same conditions, and very much the same weather, had obtained for a month previous. In order to meet the natural query as to whether the weather or other conditions might not have influ- enced the production of the experi- mental fowl, the daily egg records of two large laying pens were studied and are given in Table I for comparison.’ Conditions in these two pens and in the experimental pens were very similar. Feeding conditions, weather, and the nature of the soil were identical, the only difference being in the fact that the experimental pens were in small iso- lated houses, on free range, whereas the large flocks were in long continuous Fecundity 103 laying-houses each with a_ fenced-in run of three and one-half acres of land. “In order to test the effect, if any, on the hatchability of the eggs and the viability of the chicks, 100 eggs from the experimental fowl were collected previous to dosing—that is, from May 14 to May 20—and were set in an incu- bator on May 20, the eggs being from two hours to six days old. On the fifth day after the first dose, eggs were again collected from the same fowl, 100 eggs being gathered from May 26 to May 28, and were set in an incubator of the same make on May 29, the eggs being one to three days old. The results of these hatches are even more remarkable than the increased egg production, as is seen from Table II.4 Prairie State Sand Tray Incubators of the same size were used. Conditions of temperature were closely regulated by thermostats. In both experiments the temperature ranged from 102- 103.5° F., as required to give the best conditions for hatching. The chicks are being kept under observation to note sex and any peculiarities of growth. TEST ON LARGER SCALE “Feeling it desirable to have a further experiment to more fully prove the effect of this substance, I determined to dose all the hens in one of the large laying-houses. The house so chosen contained 655 one-year-old Single Comb White Leghorn hens (no males), and the dose administered to them was 45 grams of the powder per day. Owing to the large scale on which the experi- ment was being conducted, it was only possible to obtain sufficient material for four daily doses. It was unfortun- ate that the dosing could not be con- tinued over a longer period, but the results obtained from these few doses were so marked and striking as to leave no doubt as to the stimulating effect of 3 For the corresponding periods, the laying record of a flock of 657 hens was as follows: May 7 to May 14, inclusive, 45 per cent possible. May 15 to May 23, inclusive, 45 per cent possible. May 24 to May 30, inclusive, 44 per cent possible. May 31 to June 6, inclusive, 44 per cent possible. 4 Of the 100 eggs set before dosing, 6 were infertile and 8 showed dead germs; 15 chicks died in shell (7 pipped); 71 hatched. Of the 100 eggs collected after dosing, 0 were infertile, 0 showed dead germs, 4 died in shell (all pipped), 96 hatched. 104 The Journal of Heredity the pituitary substance (anterior lobe) on the egg production of the domestic fowl. “As will be noted in Table III,5 in the preliminary period, the production curve of these 655 hens was again, in this case, on the decline. In order to show that weather or other conditions did not apparently tend to increase production on these dates, I have again given (in Table III) the daily egg record of the flock of 431 hens. It will be noted in this case that the stimulating effect on the 655 hens lasted only about seven or eight days after the last dosing, but it will be seen that the total dose administered only provided, during the four days, the equivalent of 80 mg. of pituitary substance per hen and there is no assurance that the material was equally divided among the hens. It being impracticable to forcibly feed so many hens, the following method was employed in this case: 45 grams of powder were divided into three equal parts, each part thoroughly mixed into a pailful of dry mash. This mash was then moistened with sour skim milk and fed to the hens. The same quantity of this same moist mash had been fed to these hens every day for months past. It had been mixed in exactly the same way except for the addition of the pituitary substance, and feeding conditions and general care were identical during the experiment with conditions previous, as far as it is possible to make conditions of this kind identical. It was noted that on the second day after dosing, these hens required, and were given, a_ larger allowance of grain than previously, and the dry mash being always before them in open feed hoppers, it is prob- able that they consumed a greater quantity of this material than under normal conditions. The increased appe- tite was undoubtedly occasioned by the increase in production, the writer having often noted the fact that a sud- 5 Average daily egg production of fowls: den increase in the appetite of a flock is usually a precursor of an increase in egg production. “IT am publishing this paper as a preliminary report. Further experi- ments will follow to determine: “1. The post period during which the stimu- lating effect lasts. “2. The smallest dose producing the desired results. “3. The general health, growth curve, and age at maturity of chicks from dosed parents. “4. A comparison of the effect of pituitary substance taken from growing mammals and from adult mammals. “T have other experiments under way at the present time. “At the time these two experiments were completed I did not know that work of a similar nature had been done by Pearl and Surface. These two observers administered the pituitary substance hypodermically to hens whose ovaries were in a state of complete rest (at the moulting season). They found no activation, but their experiments were carried out under very different conditions, as regards the physiological condition of the subjects, the method of administering the substance, ete. It seems possible to me that the nega- tive results they obtained as compared with my positive results might be explained by the fact that the pituitary substance I used was from growing mammals while it is probable that their material was from adults, as it was purchased from the Organotherapeutic Laboratory of Armour & Company. It is known from the work of McCord that positive results are obtained from the use of pineal body from growing mammals, and negative results from this substance taken from adults, and the same may be the case with pituitary gland. Experiments are in progress to test this point. “These experiments show that: “1, Feeding of pituitary gland sub- June 1-8: Experimental pen 45 per cent possible, laying-house 40 per cent. June 9-17: Experimental pen 38 per cent, laying-house 38 per cent. June 18-24: Experimental pen 36 per cent, laying-house 36 per cent. June 25—July 1: Experimental pen 51.78 per cent, laying-house 35 per cent. July 2-11: Experimental pen 39.14 per cent, laying-house 31 per cent. The first dose was given to the experimental pen on the afternoon of June 21 and the last dose on the afternoon of June 24. Ee a oT Increasing Fecundity stance (anterior lobe) increased the egg production of hens whose production curve was on the decline: Case 1, with 35 hens in isolated pens; Case 2, with 655 hens. 105 “2. The dosage was effective on the fourth day after the first dose and lasted for several days after the last dose. “3. The hatchability of eggs from dosed parents was increased.” — Heredity and Criminal Delinquency Heredity is considered only a minor cause of delinquency by William Healy, director of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute of Chicago, who presents an analysis of 823 individual cases in his recent book ‘‘The Individual Delin- quent.”” Mental abnormalities and pe- culiarities appear as a main factor 455 times and as a minor factor 135 times; but Dr. Healy apparently does not consider such abnormalities to be the equivalent of bad heredity. ‘‘Defects of heredity’’ are noted in no case as a main factor, but in 502 cases as a minor factor. Other causes listed by Dr. Healy, such as “abnormal physical conditions,’ ‘‘defective home condi- tions, including alcoholism,’’ would be thought by many students to be largely due to defective heredity; and to her- edity, therefore, might well be ascribed a much more important réle in the pro- duction of criminal delinquents, than Dr. Healy gives to it, if one used the same facts but started with a different viewpoint or different definitions. An Outline BEING WELL-Born, by Michael F. Guyer, Professor of Zoology at the University of Wisconsin. Pp. 374, price $1.00. Child- hood and Youth Series. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1916. The field of heredity in man is resurveyed by Dr. Guyer in a com- pact volume which omits few topics of importance. The study of the cell and the mechanism of heredity are given much space, and methods of cutting off defective lines of descent are also dealt with at length. Less attention is given to constructive eu- genics than one might wish, but the of Eugenics recommendations made are sound and conservative. yt the Ts 4 Ae ee a De: FEMALE PARENT OF THE CROSS which is fairly common in the southeastern United -hown in the following photograph, it produced Photograph Plant of Tripsacum dactyloides, a grass States. When crossed with the grass eeds, but did not seem to « ontribute any of its own characters to these seeds. made at Lanham, Maryland. (Fig. 2.) Collins and Kempton: Patrogenesis the succeeding internodes, was closed and solid, consequently the growth of the plant terminated with the first leaf. During the early stages the remaining six plants all behaved much.as did the first generation plant, the only observ- able difference being their more early branching and the fact that the branches were nearly prostrate for several months. Studies of Tripsacum seedlings dis- closed no such tendency.to produce horizontal branches from the lower nodes. Minor differences in the devel- opment and distribution of the hairs appeared, but these were not consistent even among the plants having the same male parents. As the plants developed the diversity became more pronounced, although the variations were largely in the nature of abnormalities. With one exception the main axes of all the plants terminated their growth much earlier than is customary in Durango Euchlaena, only ten to fourteen internodes being pro- duced. The branches from the lower nodes of all these plants greatly exceeded the main stalk in height and produced many more internodes. The exception noted was one of the plants having the Liberian maize for male parent. This plant produced 51 internodes, a larger number than has been recorded in Euchlaena, Tripsacum or maize. The terminal inflorescence of these six second generation plants varied greatly, but none of the forms showed any approach to Tripsacum. One of the most striking abnormalities con- sisted in the replacement of the lower spikelets of the terminal inflorescence by little plants? This abnormality occurred in the plant having the Florida Euchlaena for its male parent, in two of the second generation plants obtained by self-fertilization, and to a less extent in one of the plants having the Liberian maize for male parent. Several of these little plants which developed roots while still attached to the parent were removed and potted. They grew into plants resembling the larger branches or suckers of the parent plants and matured seed. Plants 3A similar abnormality has been observed in maize. Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb., XII, Pt. 10, pp. 453-455, 1909. Maize Plant. 109 from some of the seed thus produced were grown during the past season (1915) and behaved like plants from self-pollinated seed of the second genera- tion plants. The diversities of the first lot of second generation plants, together with the occurrence of hitherto unobserved abnormalities, led us at that time to believe that although we could detect to indication of Tripsacum characters, the plants were something other than pure Euchlaena. Further plantings from the original lots of seed secured from the first genera- tion plant were made in the greenhouse in April, 1914. As soon as the weather permitted these were transplanted to the open and still other plantings were made directly in the open soil. We thus had second generation plants maturing in the greenhouse and others in the early stages growing in the open at the same time. These later plantings, including both those transplanted and those planted in the open, developed none of the abnormalities observed in the first lot grown in the greenhouse. The straight second generation plants appeared to be pure Durango Euchlaena. The others were what might have been expected in first generation hybrids between Durango Euchlaena and the different types of maize used as male parents. THIRD GENERATION In the season of 1915 experiments were conducted near San Diego, Cal. The long growing season of Southern California afforded the first opportunity to allow plants of the hybrid to grow to maturity undisturbed. Small plantings were made of such second generation seed as had been obtained and the following plants were secured: ten plants from self-pollinated seed of three second generation plants of the hybrid; seven- teen plants from self-pollinated seed of three plants of (Tripsacum x Euchlaena) X Liberian maize; five plants from self-pollinated seed cf one plant of (Tripsacum x Euchlaena) X Florida Euchlaena. Plantings of Durango See Collins, G. N., Apogamy in the y¥ * ‘ NS > melt g >y MALE PARENT OF THE CROSS Plant of Euchlaena, a grass which is grown to some extent for forage in the United States, under the name of teosinte. The variety here represented is that from Durango, Mexico; photo- graphed at San Diego, Cal. In a cross with the grass shown in the preceding photograph, this Euchlaena proved so prepotent that the offspring cannot be distinguished from the male parent; while the female parent seems to have exerted no influence whatever on the heredity. This unusual type of heredity has been given the name of patro- genesis. (Fig. 3.) {. y z \ 4 THE HYBRID RESEMBLES THE MALE PARENT Compare this plant with the one shown in the preceding illustration, and you will see no real difference. Yet this is a hybrid, in the first generation from the Tripsacum x Euchlaena cross. The identity between the male parent and the offspring is so close that the female parent seems to have done nothing but furnish nourishment for the development of the seed. (Fig. 4.) FLOWERS OF THE TRIPSACUM The hairy threads in the lower part of the picture are the pistillate or female flowers, while above are the male or staminate flowers, their dark-colored anthers or pollen sacs hanging on very fine filaments. Photograph natural size.. (Fig. 5.) Collins and Kempton: Patrogenesis Euchlaena were also made for compar- ison. The seed was planted on March 16, and a second planting of Durango Euchlaena was made on June 11. The third generation plants of the cross, with the exception of those that had been crossed with maize, all developed as normal Durango Euchlaena, free from any of the abnormalities observed in the second generation plants grown in the greenhouse. Early in the season the branches showed the prostrate habit characteristic of the first and second generation plants, but the Durango Euchlaena plants also showed the same habit. Curiously enough, the first planting of Durango Euchlaena devel- oped a series of abnormalities almost exactly paralleling those of the second generation hybrid plants grown in the greenhouse. Of eighteen Durango Euchlaena plants, twelve produced aborted main stalks that matured with nine to thirteen leaves. Four of the eighteen plants produced apogamous plants in the place of spikelets. All of the abnormal plants produced numerous suckers that grew normally and were indistinguishable from the main stalks of normal Durango Euchlaena plants. The later planting of Durango Euch- laena was entirely free from these abnormalities. Table 1 gives the average measure- ments of plants grown at San Diego. It can be seen that there are no striking differences between the hybrid plants and the Durango Euchlaena, the hybrid 113 plants being in many particulars inter- mediate between the two plantings of Euchlaena. Where significant differ- ences occur they are not of a nature to suggest Tripsacum. Several hundred plants from open pollinated seed of the different second generation hybrid plants were also grown and carefully examined for indi- cations of Tripsacum, but no characters or abnormalities not attributable to Euchlaena or maize were observed. TRIPSACUM POLLINATED BY MAIZE. To repeat the original cross in the late plantings has been impossible, through a failure to bring Euchlaena and Tripsacum into flower at the same time. In 1914, however, maize pollen of several varieties was available at the time the Tripsacum plants were in flower. Numerous attempts to fer- tilize Tripsacum flowers with maize pollen resulted in a small quantity of viable seed. A number of plants from these seeds have been grown, but instead of resembling the male parent, all are apparently pure Tripsacum. These crosses were made with such precautions against accidental pollina- tions and have been secured in such numbers that there can be little doubt regarding the parentage of the plants. Euchlaena and maize are so nearly related and have behaved so much alike in the perjugate generations of our original cross with Tripsacum that we fully expect to secure similar results TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF Two PLANTINGS OF DURANGO EUCHLAENA WITH TRIPSACUM X DURANGO EUCHLAENA, GROWN AT CHULA VisTA, CAL., 1915 Durango Durango Tripsacum X Euchlaena Euchlaena Euchlaena planted planted third March 16 June 11 generation Pleo ie tn CEONbMMeLerS, 9) 40134. S55 .20 4.0+ .08 Nodes above longest leaf.s.! 0.000... 2..0..0.. Ohyes 9 cals, 8. 8==r 739 10.3+ .66 INI@ig SVE ees, Ne he i 18.8+ 1.48 bse 27/6 Lis ees Height of tallest sucker in centimeters..........300.0+10.10 195.0+2.79 199 0+ 10.90 Nomexsertedminiternodes.... acs... 2.4-. 8s ieee 629 -=— eo (ozs A =o Diameter of stalk in centimeters............... = aT Oe teva le 2M} Seen shy ure $e Ai . = “> ey — a Re a as = THE MALE PARENT AND THE HYBRID: FLOWERS of the Durango Euchlaena, while on the right are shown They are alike between Euchlaena and Tripsacum. and the flowers of the hybrid shown no influence of the (Fig. 0.) At the left are pistillate flowers pi ‘tillate flowers of the cro in almost every particular, compare with fig. 5. Photographs natural size. parent THE MALE PARENT AND THE HYBRID: FRUITS Below are fruits of the Durango Euchlaena, nearly mature, and shown natural size. The spikes are arranged as they were borne on the branch. Above are the mature fruits of the Euchlaena x Tripsacum hybrid, likewise arranged as they were borne on the branch, and photcgraphed natural size. The fruits of the male parent and hybrid cffspring are similar in every respect. (Fig 7.) MALE FLOWERS OF THE EUCHLAENA much like the familiar ‘‘tassels’’ of maize, to which the Euchlaena is But they are also so much like the staminate flowers of the Euchiaena x Tripsacum hybrid, shown in the next photograph, that no one could tell the difference. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 8.) They are closely related. MALE FLOWERS OF THE HYBRID There is nothing in this inflorescence which resembles the flowers of the mother (Tripsacum), shown in Fig. 5. But every detail resembles the corresponding detail of the male flowers of the paternal parent (Euchlaena), shown in the preceding illustration (Fig. 8). This similarity with the male parent, and exclusion of all the characteristics of the female parent, appear in all the traits of the hybrids, and have led to the belief that we are here dealing with a new type of inheritance, which has received the name of patrogenesis. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 9.) 118 with Euchlaena “pollen. It “appears, therefore, ‘that the complete. resem- blance to the male parent, which we secured in the first’ cross; ~wasexcep- tional. Crosses. between Tripsacum and Zea, at least, usually show a com- plete resemblance to the female parent. It seems not improbable that the maize pollen served only to induce partheno- genesis in the Tripsacum parent. With the view of determining this point material for cytological study has been secured and is being investigated. CONCLUSIONS A cross between Tripsacum dacty- loides, female, and Euchlaena mexicana, male, has been carried through three generations without exhibiting any indi- cation of the characters of the female parent. In attempting to explain this complete absence of the characters of the female parent two alternatives may be considered. (1) The characters of the female parent have been completely masked by those of the male, or (2) the male nucleus developed in the ovary to the complete exclusion of the female, _.representing in a way the counterpart ‘of parthenogenesis. The Journal of Heredity In the three genera- tions of the: progeny, of ‘this hybrid» at least 350 plants -hdve been examined. This and the fact that a great variety of conditions has called forth great varia- tion and induced many abnormalities without evoking any indication of Tripsacum characters has caused the first alternative to be dismissed. If the second alternative be adopted we are compelled to look upon the results - of this cross as a special type of inheri- tance not previously recognized. Hy- brids showing a predominance of the characters of the male parent have been described as patroclinous, but in this cross.and its successive progenies no trace of the characters of the female parent has been detected.’ No true hybridization or conjugation between the two nuclei appears to have taken place. For this form of false hybridi- zation the name patrogenesis is pro- posed. The term patrogenesis would also serve to place the phenomenon in proper contrast with parthenogenesis. This is rendered appropriate by the occurrence of what appears to be true parthenogenesis in Tripsacum, when pollinated with maize. The Effect of War WAR AND THE BREED, by David Starr Jordan. Pp. 265, price $1.35 net. Boston, The Beacon Press, 25 Beacon Street, 1915. Twenty years ago the idea that war was an important factor in changing the inborn nature of the human race was a novel one recognized by few. Jordan is largely responsible for making this fact seem almost a truism at the present day. In the present book he Dr.. has explained the thesis with a great wealth of illustration, and in a most readable way, prefacing the main dis- cussion with a short and popular out- line of the various methods in which evolution proceeds. The volume there- fore makes an interesting elementary treatise on eugenics, and one that from its timeliness ought to have a wide circle of readers. Reprints from the To contributors of articles describing the results of research, the American Genetic Association ‘will henceforth furnish, on réquest; «100 reprints with- out covers, gratis and post free. Addi- tional reprints can*be had at the fol- Jowing prices: Journal of Heredity 50 copies, 4 pages...... $0.30 50 copies, 8 pages...... oo .80 If covers are desired, they can be had at two cents each for the first hundred and one cent_each for additional quan- tities. 50 copies, 16 pages...... FEWER BIRTHS AND DEATHS: WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Death Rate Falling in Civilized World in Recent Years—Birth Rate Falling Still More Rapidly—Death Rate Cannot Fall Much Farther, but Readjust- ment of Birth Rate along Eugenic, Lines Is Necessary! WALTER F. WILLCOXx Professor of Economics and Statistics, Cornell University, death rates are revealed by a diagram showing annual death rates for a populous area through a long series of years. The American districts best satisfying these two con- ditions are Massachusetts, for which the death rate since 1849 is known, and the old New York City, for which the death rates run back now through more than a century. The accompanying diagram shows the death rate in each of these areas for each year from the beginning of registration to the present date. (See fig. 10.) This diagram illustrates what a larger body of evidence would confirm, that the perceptible and steady decline in the death rate is a relatively recent phenomenon. In order to test the correctness of this inference, the average death rate has been computed for each decade and the ratio found between that rate and the rate in the preceding ten. years ‘taken as 100. The results are as follows: (eeaih important changes in These figures show that the decennial death rate in New York City rose for the forty years following 1810-19, but has been falling since the Civil War and is now much lower than ever before. In Massachusetts the rate rose until about 1880 and has been falling since that date, but at a slower rate than in New York. Decennial rates for at least two decades have been obtained in twenty-seven European countries and in every one the rate for 1901-10 was lower than for any previous decade. This evidence shows that the decrease of the rate is well-nigh universal in Europe. A few exceptions to the rule, however, are found in other parts of the world; namely, Ontario, Canada, Connecticut, Michigan, Vermont, Chile, Jamaica, Japan and Ceylon. But in some of these the rates at earlier decades were incredibly low and the apparent increase was probably due to more complete returns of deaths in the later years. The diagram also suggests that the annual fluctuations began to decrease at about the same time that the rates Ratio of rate to that in preceding decade Death rate in = 100 Date New York City Massachusetts New York City Massachusetts 1804-09 26.3 Se 4 ier: 1810-19 24.7 43 94.2 Sates 1820-29 2568 et: 104.2 Wine 1830-39 29.8 Ph 11557 oe 1840-49 30.3 fete 101.5 RPA 1850-59 35.6 18.0 Tle DEER 1860-69 Sil UI 19.4 89.0 107.8 1870-79 PA AS 1977 Sie2 101.6 1880-89 26.8 19.6 97.1 99.6 1890-99 5 19.1 86.0 97.1 1900-09 19.0 16.0 82.3 84.0 Sie! 15:5 80.6 96.7 1910-13 1Paper read by request before Section VIII, Public Health and Medical Science, Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, W ashington. BD: Cs 119 THE DEATH RATE IS GRADUALLY FALLING The solid line in this chart represents the death rate in New York City for more than a cen- tury, and shows that in spite of annual fluctuations the number of deaths per thousand of the population has been decreasing ever since the middle of the last century. For the last quarter of a century or more there is an almost uninterrupted decline, coincident with the increased attention paid to sanitation and public health. The dotted line shows the death rate for Massachusetts, which also decreased during the last quarter of a cen- tury. It is obvious that this decline in death rates can not proceed very much longer. Modern hygiene may postpone the death of a man, but it can not keep him alive forever. (Fig. 10.) began to fall. To judge whether this is a general or only a local change, conditions in the twenty-three countries of Europe? for which the rates as far back as 1870 are known have been examined. The average annual varia- tion has been determined. Naturally the successive years between which the greatest variation occurred were the years of transition from peace to war or vice versa. Thus, the greatest changes occurred between 1871 and 1872 and between 1870 and 1871. The war of 1876 exerted a less noteworthy influence. On the whole, the annual fluctuations have decreased but the change is less obvious and uninterrupted than students of individual cities or countries might expect. Both the steady decrease in the death rate and the slow reduction in the annual fluctuations mark and measure man’s progressive emancipation from physical ills of disease or famine, which are closely dependent upon climate and_ season, and, we might have thought, before August, 1914, from the political ills of war and revolution. In New York State between 1894 and 1909 there was a marked decrease in mortality during July and August as compared with the average for the entire year. I believe no similar studies have been made for other States. In default of other evidence we may con- clude that one factor in the diminishing death rate has been an increased control of deaths in summer. If this should prove to be a general fact, it would probably be connected with the success of efforts to reduce infant mortality. The hot months are especially dangerous to infants, while the cold months are especially dangerous to the aged. Age influences the death rate more powerfully than any other physiological factor. Most people know that the death rate is lowest at the age of puberty and very much higher at the beginning and end of life. But the amount of 2 For this purpose the three divisions of Great Britain and Ireland and the eight divisions of the German Empire have been distinguished. 120 Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths difference is not commonly realized. In New York State boy babies under 1 year of age suffer from a death rate sixty-five times that of boys of 10 to 14. The death rate of nonagenarians rises to 159 times that of the youth. It would be a natural expectation of one who is told that the death rate is rapidly falling that the gains had been distributed somewhat evenly up and down the scale of years. But this antic- ipation is not borne out by the facts. Even in a hurried survey like this two points, the possible increase of infant mortality and the possible increase of mortality among the aged, call for mention. DEATH AMONG INFANTS High medical authority in England alleged nearly ten years ago that infant mortality is stationary or in- creasing and this conclusion won some acceptance in the United States. For- tunately the figures proved to be susceptible of another explanation. But into that question there is now no need to go, since even in England and on the face of the figures infant mortality has decreased since 1900. Indeed among the nineteen countries of Europe for which statistics are at hand there is not one in which infant mortality has shown no decrease since the beginning of the twentieth century. In the United States the registration of births is still very defective and there are no large population groups for which we know the true infant mortality, that is, the number of children dying in the first year of life to each thousand living births. Our best substitute for this figure is the ratio between the deaths under 1 year of age and the living children under 1. In the registration States of 1900, comprising 26.3% of the country’s population, this ratio fell from 162.4 in 1900 to 141.7 in 1910, indicating that infant mortality fell about one eighth in the decade. When we turn to the other end of life, the indications of our American figures are less gratifying. In the registration States of 1900 the death 12% rate decreased between 1900 and 1910 for every age period below 55 and increased at nearly every age period above 55. On this point our experience is apparently at variance with that of Europe. The latter indicates that be- fore 1900 the fall in the death rate extended to all ages below 55 and was especially great at ages between 5 and 35, but that for ages above 55 it was slight or absent. The English life tables recently published and speaking for a more recent period show that at every age above 5 years the mortality in 1901-10 was less than that in 1891— 1900 and that the mortality in 1910-12 was less than that in 1901-10.4 DEATH AMONG THE AGED The apparent increase of mortality at high ages in our registration States, in opposition to the general trend in other countries, invites and should obtain more careful and thorough analy- sis than it has thus far received or than I have been able to give it for this paper. Although it appears in both sexes, it does not show itself among women until the age of 60 is reached, while among men over 45 the death rate in 1910 exceeded that in 1900. It appears also among the three classes of native white, foreign born white and colored, earliest among the colored with whom the increase appears in each sex at every age above 30, latest among the foreign born whites with whom the increase does not appear in either sex until the age of 60 and then for females appears only for the ten year age period 60-69. It appears in a prevailingly agricultural State like Vermont at an earlier age and more definitely than it does in a prevailingly industrial State like Massa- chusetts or Rhode Island. In a recent reference to this change, based mainly upon the figures for Massachusetts and New Jersey between 1880 and 1910, three possible causes were mentioned, ‘the amalgamation of the various races that constitute our population,” “lack of adaptation to our rapidly developing civilization”? and ‘‘some unknown bio- logic influence,” and a preference for the 3 March, Statistique intern. du Mouvement de la Population, Vol. I, p. 450. 4Reg Gen., Supplement to 75th Ann. Rep., Pt. I, Life Tables, p. 20. 122 second was indicated. Thus far no evidence has been produced, I believe, showing that the increase is greatest where amalgamation of races is probably affecting the largest proportion of the population or where the lack of adapta- tion to a developing civilization is greatest. An influence upon mortality which the United States is in a more favorable position to investigate is that of race. Under this term I do not include those residents in the United States who or whose progenitors were born in a certain country or spoke a certain language, like the Scandinavians or the French Canadians. At some future time we may be able to investigate the death rate of groups like those, although the present position and sluggish development of American vital statistics make one fear that the facts may become inaccessible before the country is ready to study them. I refer here to the two great races of white and colored, which include between them more than 99% of our population. The registration States of 1900 contained in that year 19,544,821 whites and 388,198 Negroes and many more in 1910, groups large enough and coming from States widely enough scattered to make the changes in their death rates between 1900 and 1910 somewhat representative of the changes in the whole country. DEATH AMONG NEGROES The death rate of whites in these States fell from 17.0 in 1900 to 15.5 in 1910, a decrease of 1.5 per thousand, or 8.8% of the initial rate. Meantime the death rate of Negroes in the same States fell from 25.6 in 1°00 to 25.0 in 1910, a decrease of 0.6 per thousand, or 2.4%. These figures show that the fall in the death rate during the decade was more than twice as great among whites as among Negroes. Stating the same change in another way, the death rate among Negroes in these States exceeded that among whites by 51% in 1900 and 61% in 1910. But to compare the two races in this way and stop without noting whether 5 Fisher and Fisk, How to Live, p. 282. azine Supplement, December 19, 1915. See The Journal of Heredity significant differences exist between the age and sex composition of the two groups might easily lead us into error. ‘hus among the whites 50.5%, but among the Negroes only 48.3% were male. As the female death rate is lower than the male the true difference between the death rate of the races would probably be greater than the foregoing figures indicate. Even more important is the fact that of the whites 21.5%, but of the Negroes only 16.1% are either children under 5 or aged (55+) and have the high death rate characteristic of infancy and old age. Probably the best way to measure the effect of these differences in sex and age composition is to compute standardized death rates for each race. When the death rates of each race for a given sex and age are applied to the population of the same sex and age in a standard million distributed as in the registration States of 1900, the standardized death rate in 1910 is found to be 15.5 for whites and 27.5 instead of 25.0 for Negroes, showing that the corrected death rate of Negroes exceeds that of whites by 12.0 per 1,000, or 78%, instead of 9.5 per 1,000, the difference of the crude rates. The corresponding standardized death rates in 1900 were 16.9 for whites instead of 17.0 and 29.0 for Negroes instead of 25.6, showing a fall during the decade of 1.4 per 1,000 for whites and 1.5 per 1,000 for Negroes. But in 1900 the standardized Negro death rate exceeded that of the whites by 72% as compared with 78% im 1910. The standardized death rate among female Negroes exceeds that among female whites by 61% in 1900 and by 72% in 1910, while the difference among males was 69% in 1600 and 84% in 1910, showing that the difference between the males of the two races is greater and increasing more rapidly than among the females. The death rate of each race is falling, but the gap separating the two races has seemingly grown wider. Before the Civil War, according to what evidence we have, the death rate of Negroes exceeded that of whites by 29.8% of the lower rate, and also Lewinski-Corwin in New York Times, Mag- Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths in 1890 the difference was 56.5%. These earlier rates are not strictly comparable with each other or with those for 1900 and 1910, partly because they speak for different areas, neither of which agrees with the registration States of 1°00, and partly because in them no attempt has been made to allow for differences in the age and sex composition of the two races or for changes in these respects. The general conclusions, however, that the death rate of each race has fallen by approxi- mately the same amount and that the ratio by which the Negro rate exceeds the white has been rising, seem to be supported by evidence enough to make them deserve acceptance. MARRIAGE AND LONG LIFE Still another influence upon mortality which has been recently investigated is that of marital condition. European figures indicated long ago that the mortality of husbands is much less than that of bachelors or widowers of the same age and the conclusion is now corroborated by figures for New York State. No doubt this difference is largely due to the selective process by which the men who marry are, on the average, at the time of marriage more healthy and vigorous than men of the same age who do not marry. Evidence that direct benefits to health accrue from married life is found in the death rate of widowers, which is much higher than that of husbands; in the death rate of Catholic celibate clergy, which is higher than that of Protestant clergy, most of whom are married; and in the death rate of all males during the years at which marriage is most common. The normal and usual course of mor- tality in each sex is for a slow but steady increase to begin just after the minimum is reached in the early teens, and to continue with accelerating rapidity to the end of life. To this course there is no significant exception among women, but among men in several countries the increase is checked or even turned into a slight decrease for a longer or shorter period between the ages of 20 and 35 when marriage is most common. The probable explanation is 123 that the normal increase of mortality during these years is nearly or quite neutralized by the steady transfer of many men from the less healthy bachelor state to the more healthy married state. The explanation finds some support in the fact that during these years the death rate of bachelors and of husbands treated separately rises steadily with age. On the whole, the evidence justi- fies the inference that marriage exerts a directly beneficial influence on men’s health and prospects of longevity. For wives the facts are less favorable. In New York the death rate of wives between 20 and 29 is greater than that of single women at the same age period. The difference is slight and part of it no doubt is due to the fact that wives 20 to 29 years of age are, on the average, more than two years older than spinsters belonging to the same age group. But as less than half the difference can be thus explained, it seems clear that in New York, as in most other areas in which the facts have been determined, during the early years of married life wives have a higher death rate than spinsters and probably that the differ- ence is largely due to the dangers attend- ing childbirth, especially among those bearing a first child. THE BIRTH RATES There are no American birth rates which extend over a long series of years and may be trusted as accurate. In default of evidence from this country I have used in the diagram the birth rates for England and Wales since 1838 and for Berlin since the beginning of the last century. (See Fig. 11.) The diagram shows that the birth rate was probably at its maximum about 1875 and has decreased almost steadily since that date, that the decrease in England has been about one-third and in Berlin about one-half of the maximum amount, that the variations both from year to year and through longer periods were greater in the city than in the entire state, that the decrease since 1876 has been almost uninterrupted, that there was a marked depression in both areas in 1890, and that Berlin had a much more notable depression in 1871. If in THE FALLING BIRTH RATE IN BERLIN AND ENGLAND Formerly the fluctuations in the annual birth rate seemed to depend on natural conditions, but for the last generation there has been a steady fall which is generally ascribed to © artificial conditions. that married people are gradually learning how to avoid having children. Although its causes are many, the principal one is believed to be Up toa certain point, this decline in the birth rate was a natural result of the decline in the death rate. Otherwise population would probably have increased faster than wealth. But if it goes any farther, the results to the race may be serious. the earlier diagram we had used the death rates for Berlin, high points on that curve would have been revealed in 1871 and 1890 when the birth rates were low. As a rule influences which tend to increase deaths tend also to decrease births, and influences which tend to decrease deaths tend to increase births. This appears even in the rhythm of rach day, Italian figures apparently showing that deaths are most frequent and births least frequent in the after- noon. There is also a yearly as well as a daily rhythm traceable in the figures but in this case the reciprocal relation- ship is between conception as mirrored in the births nine months later and deaths. There is some evidence that during the late spring and early summer and again during the late fall the death rate is low and the conception rate high. There is some evidence, likewise, that during the late winter and the late summer the death rate is high and the conception rate low. This recip- rocal relationship between births or conceptions and deaths appears also in the case of any great social calamity. 124 (Fig. 11.) As a war or a pestilence raises the death rate, so likewise it depresses the birth rate, and in estimating the social effect of either it is of the first importance to consider not only the deaths it has caused but also the births it has pre- vented. For example, in Massachusetts between 1860 and 1864 the death rate rose from 18.7 to 22.8, an increase of 4.1 per 1,000, and the birth rate fell from 29.3 to 24.2, a decrease of 5.1 per 1,000. In Sweden continuous and trust- worthy records of births and deaths have been maintained without a break since 1749, a longer period than in any other country. The year 1773 was marked by the heaviest death rate of this century and _ two-thirds and during that year the birth rate was also lower than in any year before or since. The most universal and fatal epidemic which has afflicted civilized countries of recent years was probably the first of the recent visitations of influenza, which spread over Europe and America in the winter of 1889-90 and caused in New York State about 5,000 deaths. Wherever the births were reported and published by months one finds, nine Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths months after the influenza epidemic was at its height, a marked shortage of births. There were at least 200,000 fewer births in Europe in 1890 than the average annual number for the preceding five year period. THE CHANGE OF TENDENCIES Now the most marked change in the birth rate during the last half century, a change revealed by a comparison between the two diagrams, has been the gradual decline and almost complete disappearance of this reciprocal rela- tionship between births and deaths and the appearance in its place of a tendency for births and deaths to change in the same way rather than in opposite ways. Before proceeding to consider the causes, let me set forth the facts a little more fully. 1. The birth rate and death rate now remain approximately the same in any given country during any few years. The sharp annual variations which characterized these rates and which are still traceable in the statistics of un- developed countries are disappearing. 2. The tendency of both death rates and birth rates is to undergo large and important modifications in longer peri- ods of time. The sharp up or down movements in both curves connected with such causes as war, pestilence or famine on the one hand, or bountiful harvests and cheap food on the other, are being succeeded by a steady pro- gressive downward movement in the death rate and the birth rate. Regarding the birth rate in the United States we know practically nothing. But in default of this information I have found an available substitute by comparing the number of children under five years of age at the date of each census with the number of women 16-44 years of age at the same census. The results are given in the following table, in which the figures before 1850 are estimated from such data regarding sex and age as the earlier censuses afford. During the sixty years 1850-1910 the proportion of children to 1,000 women of child-bearing age decreased in the 125 Children under 5 years of age to women 16-445 years Date of age 1800 976 1810 976 1820 928 1830 877 1840 835 1850 699 1860 714 1870 649 1880. - s 635 1890 554 1900 541 1910 508 United States by 191, or an average of thirty-two in each decade. There are only about seven-tenths as large a proportion of children in the United States now as there were in 1850. If we assume that the change will continue in the direction in which it has been moving ever since 1860 and at this average rate of thirty-two in a decade, the number of children under 5 in the country to each 1,000 women 16-44 will be as follows: 1920 476 1930 444 1940 412 1950 380 2000 220 2050 60 2060 28 2070 0 The figures indicate that, if changes like those which have been in. progress in the United States since 1850 were to continue unchecked for a century and a half there would be no children left. Let me not be understood as predicting a continuance of the movement for any long period in the future. But often the best method of bringing home to ourselves the vast sweep and significance of the changes revealed by statistics is to project them into the future and see whither they lead. No doubt social movements do not occur along straight lines. On the contrary sharp inflections in the curves of social change are frequent. But it is one of the main duties of statistics to point out the trend of the stream along which society is moving and thus perhaps to arouse a desire for a change. This tendency to a decline in the 6In order to reduce estimates to a minimum in the earlier decades ages 16-44 were chosen instead of 15-49, the more usual limits. 126 birth rate is in nowise confined to the United States. On the contrary the movement in most European countries has been in the same direction. In twenty-four European countries, all, except Ireland, Portugal and Bulgaria, ’ for which the records are at hand, the birth rate 1901-10 was lower than in the preceding decade and in nearly all of them it was lower than in any earlier decade. In considering the causes of this great change, let me refer first to the position of Herbert Spencer. He has argued that the various organs of the body compete with each other for nourishment and growth, that the surplus not re- quired by the individual is all that can be devoted to the continuance of the race, that no other system makes de- mands upon the body as heavy as those of the nervous system, that civilization and education are steadily increasing this drain and decreasing the surplus. He finds, therefore, a natural and inevitable connection of a physiological kind between an advancing civilization and a decreasing birth rate. Some students of American statistics have sought to find support for this position in our fragmentary and elusive material. I cannot go farther with the question this morning than to express my judgment that these efforts have not been successful and that there is no conclusive evidence, statistical or other- wise, in support of Spencer’s contention. While admitting the heavy and increas- ing demands upon the nervous system made by modern conditions, I would point out that the decreased death rate and the decrease of sickness by which it is probably attended mean an increase of human vitality and so of the surplus to be drawn upon. Whether the increased expenditure on the nervous system equals or exceeds this increased surplus no one has even tried to prove. Until that is done I believe the Spencer- ian theory must be deemed only a theory. THE ‘‘RACIAL POISONS”’ Nor can we admit, as others have argued, that the decreased birth rate in civilized countries is due either to the The Journal of Heredity growing abuse of alcohol or to the spread of venereal disease. Such arguments have come mainly from special students of these social evils and such students often lose the sense of proportion and find a relief from every social ill in the one reform on which their eyes are riveted. Walker explained the decrease in the American birth rate by the menace to the American standard of life from the influx of swarms of immigrants accus- tomed to cheap food and clothing and bad housing and to the effect otf this menace upon the birth rate primarily of the native stock and ultimately of the entire population. This explana- tion is improbable, because the decrease as we have seen began as early as 1810, when immigration was an un.mportant influence, and has been matched in Australia, where it must be due to other causes than that assigned by Walker, since Australia has had no great influx of immigrants. Turning from these inadequate expla- nations, the true reason for the fall in the birth rate is that in modern times, mainly within the last half century, births and the birth rate have come under the control of human will and choice in a sense and to a degree never before true. Our leading American authority, Dr. John Shaw Billings, put it as follows: ‘‘The most important factor in the change is the deliberate and voluntary avoidance or prevention of child-bearing on the part of a steadily increasing number of married people who prefer to have but few children.” Before this change began the birth of a child was, to be sure, the result of normal physiological processes, but in the vast majority of cases the birth itself did not indicate a deliberate preference for that result on the part of both or either of the parents. There is not a single one among the experts who denies that this is the great underlying cause of the modern decline in the birth rate of all civilized countries. FEWER BIRTHS NECESSARY In considering this change may I first suggest that some such change was an almost necessary consequence Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths of the great decline in the death rate? That is, if the death rate in Europe had declined as rapidly as it has and the birth rate had not declined, the popula- tion of that continent would now be increasing even faster than the wealth or the food supply. The standard of living would be sinking and we would probably soon relapse into our former ill state. .It is the decline in the birth rate, and that only, which has enabled mankind to grip and hold fast the advantages promised by the decline in the death rate. But there is a very important differ- ence between the two changes. It is probably to the interest of society in the long run that each individual should be given a chance to live out his life to old age, and social effort directed to that end is beneficial both to the individual and to society. Thus far the interests of the two coincide. For this reason the two have cooperated and are cooper- ating effectively to reduce the death rate. But in the matter of the birth rate there is a lack of adjustment be- tween the interests of society and those of the individual. Society is deeply concerned that enough children should be born to secure its own permanence and a reasonable increase and that those children should have the highest promise of service. The individual is deeply concerned not to compromise his own future by assuming responsibility for wife or family without the prospect of being able to maintain them in accord- ance with his standard of living. The individual may often see for himself or herself, therefore, a balance of advantage in abstinence from or postponement of marriage, in a childless marriage or a small family, while society from its point of view might conceive it to be most important that a given endowment of much social worth should be per- petuated. If there were time it would be easy to show that a low and diminishing birth rate is especially characteristic of many strains of population, like college gradu- ates of both sexes and the native American stock of the New England States, strains perhaps better endowed than the average population with heredi- 127 tary qualities the perpetuation of which is socially desirable. SIGNIFICANCE OF EUGENICS While persons engaged in grappling with public health problems should interest themselves in the various changes I have briefly outlined, the main question which my figures raise is this, How shall the desirable natural increase of the population be secured and at the same time the quality of the population be maintained or improved by securing at least a normal or average and, if possible, a more than normal birth rate and natural increase in the strains of population which are of the best stock and therefore likely to transmit qualities of greatest social worth? In this difficult field a few general principles may be stated dogmatically, which I would be glad to explain and defend, if there were time. 1. The death rate cannot be expected to fall much below where it now stands in healthy districts. 2. There is no such natural limit to a fall in the birth rate. 3. The spread in the volitional control of the birth rate is a change against which, even if we believe it undesirable, it is hopeless to struggle. 4. Legal regulations of marriage in the effort to diminish the number of births of diseased or otherwise undesir- able children seem likely, unless accom- panied by segregation, to do more harm than good. 5. The social service rendered by par- ents who have hereditary qualities of great value and make heavy sacrifices in other directions in order to rear families of normal size or larger is likely in future to be much better appreciated and requited. 6. Persons interested in maintaining the numbers and improving the quality of the population should aim not merely or mainly at a continued reduction of the general death rate but also at the gradual education of public opinion towards a readjustment of the birth rate in various classes which will enable society to gain from its best strains more than it can do under present conditions. WHAT THE SIZE OF AN EGG MEANS Current Belief that Small and Large Eggs Are Produced at the Beginning or End of a Hen’s Laying Period is Found to Be Wrong—Usually Appear When Hen is Laying Most Heavily and Steadily D. E. WARNER AND Ws. F. KIRKPATRICK Department of Poultry Husbandry, State Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn. and other observers that the very small and very large eggs which hens occasionally lay are the first or last eggs of the hen’s laying period. Lewis! states that “‘the extremely small eggs laid by hens during their laying period are common at the beginning or end of the hens’ laying period.” The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY? in a review of some recent work on Xenia in Fowls shows a photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industy, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and states that ‘eggs of any individual hen tend to become a litte smaller as she approaches the end of her laying period and the last one, it is generally believed, is likely to be a dwarf.”’ That this idea is wrong the writers have been able to demonstrate by a study of the abnormal eggs laid by the hens in the third and fourth egg laying contests held at the Connecticut Agri- cultural College, Storrs, Conn., for the year ending October 30, 1914, and up to June 1, 1915. The number of eggs laid by the 1,820 hens during the 20 months’ period was 199,137 of which 103 were small (less than .09 of a pound) and 89 were large (over .179 of a pound). The small and large eggs had been credited to the hens that laid them and the weights of the individual eggs also had been taken. The 103 small eggs were laid by only 85 hens, showing that only a small percentage of the hens laid a small egg during their first year of |: IS believed by some poultrymen 1 Productive Poultry Husbandry, page 306. laying. Four hens out of the 85 laid two small eggs at different periods of their productivity. One hen, No. 900, laid fourteen small eggs at different periods and did not have a single normal egg to her credit when she was removed from the pen. This is an exceptional case and further studies are under way in order to determine the cause. NO REST PERIOD The first attack on the mass of figures was intended to determine whether a hen usually rested after lay- ing a small egg. It was found that only two eggs out of a total of 103 indicate a resting period*® after the production of a small egg. In every other case the small egg was found in an almost uninterrupted series of normal eggs. This seems to prove conclusively that small eggs may be laid at any time during a hen’s laying period and that most small eggs are laid while hens are at the height of production. Out of the 103 small eggs, 42 show no resting period whatever; in 34 cases the hen rested on the following day, in 13 there was a resting period of 2 days, in 4 cases there was a pause of 3 days, 8 cases show an average period of 6144 days, and only 2 cases, as noted above, showed a real resting period. But none of these interruptions of the laying is great enough to be considered a real testing period; none of them is greater than is often found with any normal hen during the period of her greatest ® JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. 6, No. 5, May, 1915. 3 Bulletin No. 82, Connecticut Agricultural College. rests after becoming broody is about 19.2 days.’ 128 “The average length of time that a hen A SMALL EGG APPEARS UNEXPECTEDLY Eggs laid by one hen on six consecutive days are shown in this photograph. one exception, of average size. They are, with The abnormally small egg appears in this series without the slightest warning. The hen has not had any resting period before laying it, nor does she take a resting period afterward. The study of many cases of this sort shows that small eggs are not “‘pullets’ eggs,’’ or the last eggs laid by hens, as is often supposed, but that they usually appear at a time of greatest egg yield, and are probably due to some mechanical interruption in the hen’s egg-forming organs. egg yield, the last two cases excepted, of course. Having investigated the records of the hens after they laid small eggs, it seemed well to inquire what they were doing before. Seven records seem to indicate that some small eggs were laid after a hen had had a resting period of from 14 to 25 days. Most of the records show, however, that the small eggs are laid without any previous resting period cf the hen. The figures also showed that as a rule hens do not lay extremely small eggs at the beginning of their laying periods, but that such eggs are laid at a time when the hen is laying most heavily. It seems clear, therefore, that the small egg is not due to the fact that it is a hen’s first attempt, or to the fact that it is the end of her laying period, and represents exhausted power. A fairer assumption as to the cause of these small eggs would be that they are due to some mechanical interfer- ence with the hen’s normal functions— that they are laid whenever a particle of blood, foreign element, or an un- developed yolk is drawn into the passage where the shells are formed, and that contractions of the oviduct (Fig. 12.) then cause an egg to be laid completely formed, but without having undergone normal development. STUDY OF LARGE EGGS After consideration of the small eggs, the records of production of large eggs were then examined. Eighty-nine were found to have a total weight of 18.35 pounds or an average weight of .206 of a pound. Of these eighty-nine large eggs, nearly 99 per cent were laid at the time of heavy production, and in most cases the hen did not rest after laying such an egg, but continued her uninterrupted yield of normal eggs. “The cause of hens laying double- yolked eggs is due no doubt to the simultaneous or almost simultaneous liberation of two yolks and_ their incorporation in a single set of egg membranes,’* or ‘‘by the successive discharge of separate follicles at times varying from simultaneous to the normal period and by the subsequent union of the eggs in the duct due to a difference in the rate of passage of the successive eggs.” It further appeared that in most cases the hen did not rest before laying a large egg any more than she did after 4 Lillie’s ‘‘ Development of the Chick,” page 26. 5 Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 3, No. 5, February, 1915. 129 (ey ‘Sty) ‘uoy B JO AJIT OY} UL dDUvOYTUsIS je1ioods ou sey 3289 paxOA-o[qQnop JO aS1e] B YeY} ASO} SB SasBo YONs Jo Apnys oy} Woy steadde yy “uaY AIOAD YAM ‘ATJZUONboIy M990 satios dy} Ul syRoiq Yons ynq !Aep-a]suIs B Jo ysal BV Aq paMOT[OJ SeM B39 ad1v] BY} (MOL[Aq UMOYsS) aSBd | i Aep o]s8uis o osdey oy} ynoy4yIM ‘pournsor sem BurAvy peuou oy} UoYy} pue ‘poreodde Ajusppns 330 a81R] B (QAOGE UMOYS) ASD 4SIY BY} UT = *aZI g g & S e jeuliou jo sésa surAvy] pue ‘Ajrepndo1 SurAvy yyoq oie Aoyy, “suay OMy JO Jo ArOysTY sulAv[-8380 oY} Ut SAPP DATYNIASUOD XIS soidai ydeis0j0 NINYVA LDOOHLIM HWINOD SOOU WOUV'I ‘ What the Size of an Egg Means such a performance. Forty-five of the large eggs were laid without any previ- ous resting period, thirty-one were laid with a resting period of one day before, and ten were laid with a resting period of two days. 131 It seems obvious, therefore, that neither small nor large eggs are neces- sarily laid either at the beginning or end of a hen’s laying period, but that they are most often laid during the time of heavy egg production. - TABLE I.—Weight in Grams of Smail Eggs and Weight of Eggs Immediately Preceding and Following. No. days. 1 2 3 a 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1911-1912 Hen No. 263 54.4 45.4 49.9 13.6 49.9 54.4 49.9 49.9 1912-1913 Hen No. 126 68.0 68.0 63.5 18.1 68.0 63.5 3-01 OSs 1913-1914 Hen No. 629 49.9 49.9 49.9 13.6 49.9 54.4 54.4 54.4 1914-1915 Hen No. 806 48.2 48.6 47.5 47.5 27.4 48.0 48.4 48.6 48.2 TABLE I].—Weight in Grams of Large Eggs and Weight of Eggs Immediately Preceding and Following. No. days. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1911-1912 Hen No. 219 58.8 58.9 58.9 86.2 544 54.4 544 544 49.9 1912-1913 Hen No. 144 58.9 58.0 90.7 63.5 58.9 58.9 58.9 58.9 1914-1915 Hen No. 862 58.9 58.9 58.9 90.7 544 58.9 63.5 58.9 63.5 1914-1915 Hen No. 321 70.1 50.4 91.9 564 56.9 56.9 HOAb Sal Civilization and Climate CIVILIZATION AND CLIMATE, by Ellsworth jn the past the same type seems to Huntington. Pp. xii + 333, price $2.50 net. pave prevailed wherever a great civili- Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. By experimental tests and an appeal to history, Professor Huntington sup- ports the thesis that a particular kind of climate is necessary to the develop- ment of a high civilization and that man is, therefore, more dependent on his environment than he is wont to suppose. The conditions which seem essential to the writer are a fairly high average temperature with moderately large daily fluctuations. This peculiar type of climate prevails today wherever civilization is high, the author thinks; zation arose. Therefcre such a climate seems to be a necessary condition of great and permanent progress, although by no means the only, or the most im- portant condition—much less a cause. In supporting this thesis, the author is led to an extended discussion of the importance of race, in which he shows admirable poise. The book is unusual, as the presentation of a novel and val- uable hypothesis, in a most interesting manner, and with an amount of well- balanced judgment which writers of books like this seldom show. HEREDITARY NOSE BLEED Tendency Runs Through Three Generations of a Family—Manifests Itself at Adolescence and Disappears after a Few Years—Possibly Connected with Sex! Wiis C. LANE University of Maine, Orono, Maine people who had nose bleed nearly every day, and from no apparent external cause such as injury or exertion. Last spring a third case of this peculiar nose bleeding was found. It so happened that all three of these people were related; and I was told of other cases among their relatives. An inquiry was made and, with the aid of a relative, thirteen cases of this peculiarity were found, all of which are represented on the accompanying chart. Most of the members of this greater family (of which all names will be absolutely withheld) live in neighborhoods where I am acquainted; I know personally most of the individuals represented on the chart and all of those possessing the character in question. Those individuals who possess the trait have frequent, copious and regular nose bleedings, not apparently arising from such causes as injuries, excitement, exertion, or like factors. These bleed- ings first manifest themselves, in either sex, at the period of adolescence, and continue until the individual is 18 or 20 years of age. In a few cases the bleed- ing occurs daily, in other individuals about three times a week. The loss of blood does not seem in any way to incapacitate the subject, save to stop work or play for a moment or two while the blood is flowing. With but one exception all the indi- viduals who showed this peculiarity were healthy, vigorous, well nourished and developed rapidly after puberty. Indeed, it appeared that those individ- uals who bled from the nose the most y Peet years ago I knew two young valuable suggestions. 132 frequently and who lost the most blood showed the greatest activity and de- veloped most rapidly. Invariably in case the regular nose bleeding did not occur the subject would have headache and a general bodily and mental depression which would be relieved by nose bleeding. In other words, there was a general blood congestion with its accompanying symp- toms, which symptoms disappeared after the blood pressure was reduced. In fact, nose bleeding was sometimes purposely induced to obtain relief when the regular bleeding did not occur. Individual No. 2 in the second generation exhibited the peculiarity most strongly. His nose would bleed profusely every day. This was espe- cially marked in his sixteenth year, and yet at this time there was a remark- able body growth. He worked very hard, seeming never to tire, and was never sick. The nose bleeding dimin- ished the next year and ceased entirely in his eighteenth year. Individuals Nos. 1 and 5 on the chart are characterized by typical vicarious menstruation in addition to the peculiar nose bleeding. The latter occurred quite regularly about three times a week and ceased at about the eighteenth year. Individual No. 4 in the third genera- tion also showed this peculiar vicarious function at times. Individual No. 3 had nose bleed more or less frequently up to her death which resulted from an uncontrollable nose bleed at the age of 45. None of the other cases exhibited anything unusual ' Dr. Raymond Pearl, to whom thanks are hereby given, has criticized this paper and made N- NORMAL a » 8- NOSEBLEED Bone es" Fe h, ; | ) N) HOW NOSE BLEED IS INHERITED Nothing is known about the first generation here charted, but from then on it appears regularly in some of the members of each generation. except the regular nose bleeding that ceased at the age of 18 to 20. Considering that this peculiarity first manifests itself at puberty, 1t perhaps bears a very close relation to the developing sex organs. It may be that the internal secretions of the gonads are being poured into the system and stimulating blood formation faster than the body can take care of it, and the excess blood leaves the body by breaking through the mucous membrane of the nose. The superabundance of blood would help to account for the rapid development and increased activity at this period. As the internal secretions and the body came to be adjusted to each other, we may suppose that the phenomenon diminished and_ finally disappeared (with the one exception). Davenport? gives a few cases of dis- eases of the blood and with evidence that the tendencies are inherited. The peculiarity herein described is probably very similar or the same as one Daven- port gives under the caption ‘Nose bleed (Epistaxis).”’ This trait differs from hemophilia in that it occurs in both sexes, only for a few years, and then disappears; and to 2 Davenport, C. B. “Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” p. 153. (Fig. 14.) all appearances the blood coagulate normally. Some people who suffer from catarrh have frequent but irregularly occurring nose bleed. This is usually due to the erosion of the mucous membrane and generally is induced by slight injuries, and is in no way correlated with sex development. One frequently encounters people who have a hypersensitive nose, so that very slight injuries result in bleeding. This trait usually is apparent long before puberty; if proper precautions are taken bleeding does not occur; and _ the absence of bleeding is not followed by depression. In fact these cases are apt to be weakened by bleeding. Such bleeding seems to result from high pres- sure of blood on very thin and delicate membranes. It is altogether possible that individual No. 3 on the chart was of this type. The accompanying chart well shows the distribution of the trait in question. The blank spaces in the first and second generations are those from whom no data have so far been obtained regarding the trait. The blank spaces in the third generation represent individuals New York, 1911. 133 134 The Journal who have not yet passed childhood. There are a number of children already in the fourth generation and it will be interesting to watch their development and those of the third generation to see whether new cases of nose bleed appear. The maladjustment between blood formation and the body requirements of Heredity may be inherited. At present all that can be said, from the data we have, is that it occurs in three generations of one family. Further search may reveal its appearance in more of the first generation or of their descendants, and time may prove its development in the fourth generation. The Tendency to One of the most extraordinary cases of human fecundity is that recalled by R. Berger in the Zentralblatt fur Gynakologie (1914, 10) on the authority of the “‘Gessellschafter von 1834.” The case is that of a man whose first wife had quadruplets four times, triplets three times and twins ten times; and whose second wife had triplets once and twins ten times. The man was, therefore, the father of sixty-eight children. Dr. Berger assumes, as both wives of the man were thus fecund, that the tendency to multiple births Immigration European emigration to the United States is likely to increase after the war, according to Professor Robert De C. Ward of Harvard University, who writes in the Eugenics Review (London, January, 1916).. At the same time, the physical and mental quality of the immigrants is likely to show a decrease over the standard which has prevailed in the past. A _ serious situation is therefore confronting eugenists. As measures which will aid in preventing the deterioration of the national stock, Dr. Ward suggests a heavier fine for steamship companies which attempt Multiple Births was due to the father rather than the mother; but the idea seems hardly tenable, for the production of several children at once is naturally due to the production of several ova at once, and it is hardly conceivable that the father has any influence in the production of ova. Yet as a recent study of the inheritance of twinning in sheep has likewise seemed to indicate a slight influence on the part of the sire, in the production of twins, the whole question deserves a careful examination. after the War to bring mentally defective aliens to the United States, more thorough examina- tion of immigrants at port of entry, extension from three to five years of the time in which an immigrant may be deported if he becomes insane, and an extension of the list of classes of immi- grants who are excluded altogether. But more effective than any single measure, Dr. Ward thinks, would be a measure which would restrict immigra- tion in general. He favors some such provision as the reading test embodied in the Immigration Bill which was vetoed last year by President Wilson. PRIVEE CAILVES Some Families of Cattle Produce Many of Them, Others None—Heredity Involved But Its Working Not Simple—Attempt to Breed a Strain of Livestock That Will Produce an Unusual Number of Young Seems Practicable only one offspring at a birth could be made, without loss of any desirable qualities, to produce two or three, it would be a distinctly practical applica- tion of genetics. One of the necessary preliminaries to such a step is a careful study of cases where twins or triplets are born. It is not very uncommon for a cow to produce twin calves, but triplets are decidedly rare. One set of them! is shown in the accompanying photo- graph (Fig. 15) from their owner, N. P. Sorensen, of Bellingham, Wash. This particular case is somewhat puzzling because it seems to be isolated. So far as is known, the mother of these triplets had never produced more than one calf at a time, previous to this; and the sire is not known to have produced any other triplets or twins. Furthermore, the strain to which they belong appears to be no more prolific of twins or triplets, than is any other strain of Holstein-Friesians. The three calves have grown nor- mally, and the two bulls promise to be valuable breeders. The heifer, however, does not give any indication of sexual maturity, and it is probable that she is what stock men call a “free martin,” |: animals which normally produce an infertile female born as a twin toa male (or two males, in this case). Although no other plural birth has been recorded for this family, it is usual to find, where such a case is investigated, that several plural births have occurred. Raymond Pearl, for example, in tracing the history of the triplet calves shown in Fig. 16, found? that their dam had the following record: Three offspring, one at a time; then two pairs of twins in succession; next triplets; then a single calf and finally the pair of triplets represented in the photograph. It would appear that, as the cow grew older, the tendency to multiple births increased. Information in regard to the ancestry was not available in this case, but E. N. Wentworth has reported? an instance of twins in three generations, on a farm near Cocheco, N. H. MODE OF HEREDITY Data for investigating the heredity of this tendency in livestock are naturally scanty, but in man they are more abundant. The fact that a tendency to bear twins is due to inheritance, is pretty generally accepted, but no one has yet been able to say how this 1 The mother of these calves is Eldred Clothilde’s Josephine 2d, a purebred Holstein-Friesian cow (registry No. 23525) belonging to the famous De Kol strain from which most of the fine Holsteins in the United States are derived. Her sire was De Dikkert 3d’s De Kol Paul, 23525, and her dam Eldred Clothilde’s Josephine, 50837. In February, 1910, the cow illustrated was purchased by N. P. Sorensen, of Bellingham, Wash., and since then has produced the following calves: Caroline Josephine, born May 10, 1910; female 160284. Adriana Josephine, born April 16, 1911; female 163034. Sir Johanna Aaggie of Mt. Springs, born April 24, 1913; male 139860. Joe de Kol, born May 9, 1914, male 154992. Joe de Kol 2d, born May 9, 1914; male 154993. Josephine 3d, born May 9, 1914; female, not registered. The last three calves named are the triplets shown in Fig. 15. The mother was born October 28, 1904. The sire of the triplets is Sir Johanna Aaggie Fayne 10th (No. 81867). 2 Bull. 204, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, September, 1912. 3 Breeder’s Gazette, Vol. LXII, p. 133, July 24, 1912. THREE CALVES AT A TIME After bearing a single calf three times in succession, the Holstein-Friesian cow here shown suddenly bore triplets. to what extent heredity is responsible for this multiple birth. known that heredity is one of the causes of such births. As little is known of her ancestry, it has been impossible to find From other studies, it is If a thorough investigation of many cases like this were made, ways might be found for getting a strain that would regularly produce at least two calves at a time, instead of one. tendency is inherited, for the results are irregular. W. Weinberg, whose study dealt with large numbers of cases, decided‘ that in man the tendency to- ward multiple births is inherited in Mendelian fashion, apparently behaving as a recessive; but the results did not altogether bear out this simple state- ment, and he concluded that although heredity was at the bottom of it, external factors also played an important part. No single external factor was as im- portant as heredity, he thought, but the sum total of external factors was probably more important than heredity. (Fig. 15.) Weinberg’s methods of investigation, being statistical, were hardly sufficient to decide this point, and all that can be said at present is that heredity is at least an important factor in the produc- tion of plural births. Few attempts to increase the fecun- dity of a strain by selecting the animals which produce an unusual number of young, are on record. To a certain degree, of course, such selection is always going on, half unconsciously, for animals which are poor breeders are discarded, while those which are good breeders are valued highly and bred 4 Archiv fur Rassen- und Gesellschafts-Biologie, Band 6, pp. 339, 470, 609, 1909. 136 THEIR MOTHER HAD FOURTEEN CALVES AT EIGHT BIRTHS She is a grade Guernsey, while the sire was a grade Hereford. The male calf (in the center) resembled his mother in color and markings, while the other two (infertile females or “free martins”) inherited the color and markings of their father, including the white face which is so characteristic of the Hereford breed. Photo- graph reproduced by courtesy of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. (Fig. 16.) regularly. But deliberate attempts, ex- tending over a series of generations, have rarely been made. EXPERIMENT OF DR. BELL One of the most notable experiments is that of Alexander Graham Bell, who for a quarter of a century bred his sheep steadily with a view to getting the ewes to produce more young at a birth. His method of procedure® was to select for breeding each year the ewes which had extra nipples, above the single pair regularly present. There appears to be an association between extra nipples and extra fecundity. When Dr. Bell dis- posed of his flock, a short time ago, he had built it up to a point where none of the ewes had less than four nipples and many of them six, and where twins were produced in a large majority of the births. Having kept a careful record of his flock, Dr. Bell was able to find some of the external conditions that seem to be involved in the production of twins in sheep. Among them are maturity of the mothers, mating in October, and a rapid increase of weight at the time of mating with subsequent loss of weight. The last-named factor was controllable, and he had some success in increasing the number of twins born, by feeding up the sheep just before mating, and letting them lose weight afterward. So far as is known to the writer, no such attempt at breeding for fecundity has ever been made with cattle. It would be a tedious and expensive under- taking, but if the character is really inheritable, one ought to be able to breed it into other animals, after- it had once been “‘fixed”’ in a given strain. It would therefore appear that the attempt to produce a family of cows that would yield a large proportion of twins and triplets, might be a practicable and profitable proceeding. 5 See THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 47-57; February, 1914. 137 WILD TURKEYS Domesticated by American Aborigines—-Hybridity of Present Stocks—Habits of Birds in the Woods— Changes Produced Under Domestication Review of a Book by Epwarp A. McILHENNYy, Avery Island, La. key has inevitably attracted con- stant attention since the days of the first explorers of America. The literature to which it has given rise is considerable, but it is doubtful whether any writers give a more accurate close- range view of the fowl than do those of the book here reviewed.! As to the first appearance of the bird on this continent, authorities differ. Marsh described a species under the name of Meleagris altus from the Post- pliocene deposits of New Jersey, which is now held to be the same as Cope’s M. superba from the Pleistocene of the same state. The material on which this species was based consisted of a few damaged leg-bones, which Dr. Shufeldt, who reviews the subject in the present book, thinks may not have belonged to a turkey at all. The same may be said of another of Marsh’s prehistoric species, M. antiquus, described from a wing-bone found in Colorado; and to still another species, M. celer Marsh, re-created from a few doubtful bone fragments which, it is admitted, may not all have belonged to the same individual. In short, a careful re-examination of the case shows no well-authenticated turkeys in the geologic record of America. Doubtless they existed, but we have not the material to prove it; and, as Dr. Shufeldt says, “It is often a positive detriment to science, in my ARGE and handsome, the wild tur- ‘The Wild Turkey and Its Hunting. By Edward A. Mcllhenny. graphs. Pp. 245, price $2.50 net. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1915. opinion, to create new species of fossil birds upon the distal ends of long bones, and surely no assistance whatever to those who honestly endeavor to gain some idea of the avian species that really existed during prehistoric times.” When we come to the historic period, however, we at once find the turkey in practically all the wooded country of North and Central America. The first description seems to have been given by Oviedo in the thirty-sixth chapter of his ‘““Summary of the Natural His- tory of the Indies,” which appeared about the year 1527. ‘‘He speaks of it as a kind of Peacock found in New Spain, of which a number had been transported to the islands of the Spanish Main and domesticated in the houses of the Christian inhabitants.”’ IMPROVED IN MEXICO The Spaniards found them thoroughly domesticated in Mexico, the tame breed having been brought to a size twice that of the wild birds, and the Aztec emperor Montezuma is said to have raised thousands of them to feed the animals of his zoological garden. From Mexico or Yucatan they were introduced to Europe, having reached England, appar- ently, as early as the year 1524, and quickly becoming very plentiful there. From England and Spain they spread over the rest of the continent. As the Mexican turkey differs in many respects? from those of the United Illustrated from photo- The book was written by Mr. Mcllhenny largely from notes left by Charles L. Jordan; two chapters are con- tributed by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, of Washington, D. C. * The systematic position ‘of the various turkeys has been much disputed. At present the North American forms are all credited to one species, Meleagris gallopavo, the type of which is furnished by the Mexican bird, while four subspecies are distinguished in the United States. In Greek and Latin the name Meleagris designated the Guinea-fowl, and the early writers on the turkey appear to have thought they were dealing with a variety of that bird. The name Turkey was formerly thought to be related in some way to the Turks, but is now believed to be either an American Indian name or to be derived from the call of the bird itself. 138 WILD TURKEYS COMPETING FOR A MATE These two males have been attracted by a photographer, who is hidden in the brush and imitating, with a caller, the love note of the turkey hen. The males stalk up and down, in such a case, and go through an elaborate performance for the purpose of impressing the hen. States, the result has been that the domesticated turkeys of Europe differ somewhat from those of the United States. During the last century the various forms have been crossed and intercrossed in the United States, so that the domestic flocks of bronze turkeys mostly contain recent infusions of wild-turkey blood, while the wild flocks have a great deal of domestic blood. On this point we read: “In countries thickly settled, as in the one where I now write, there is a great variety of wild turkeys scattered about in the woods of the small creeks and hills. Many hybrid wild turkeys are killed here every year. The cause of this is: every old gobbler that dares to open its mouth in the spring is within hearing of farmers, Negroes, and others, and is a marked bird. It is given no rest until it is killed; hence there are few or no wild turkeys to take The one at the left is just beginning the ‘“‘strut,’’ which is described in the text. Photograph from ‘‘The Wild Turkey and Its Hunting.” (Fig. 17.) care of the hens, which then visit the domestic gobbler about the farmyards. Hence this crossing with the wild one is responsible for a great variety of plumages. “T once saw a flock of hybrids while hunting squirrels in Pelahatchie swamp, Mississippi, as I sat at the root of a tree eating lunch, about 1 o’clock, with gun across my lap, as I never wish to be caught out of reach of my gun. Sud- denly I heard a noise in the leaves, and on looking in that direction I saw a considerable flock of turkeys coming directly toward me in a lively man- ner, eagerly searching for food. The moment these birds came in sight I saw they had white tips to their tails, but they had the form and action of the wild turkey, and it at once occurred to me that they were a lot of mixed breeds, half wild, half tame, with the freedom of the former. I noticed also 139 140 The Journal among them one that was nearly white and one old gobbler that was a pure wild turkey; but it was too far off to shoot him. Dropping the lunch and grasping the gun was the work of but a second; then the birds came round the end of a log and began scratching under a beech tree for nuts. Seeing two gobblers put their heads together at about 40 yards from me, I fired, killing both. The flock flew and ran in all directions. One hen _ passed within 20 paces of me and I killed it with the second barrel. A closer exam- ination of the dead birds convinced me that there had been a cross between the wild and the tame turkey. The skin on their necks and heads was as yellow as an orange, or more of a buck- skin, buff color, while the caruncles on the neck were tinged with vermilion, giving them a most peculiar appear- ance; all three of those slain had this peculiar marking, and there was not a shadow of the blue or purple of the wild turkey about their heads, while all other points, save the white tipped tail feathers, indicated the wild blood.” INCREASE IN BRAIN POWER It appears that there are numerous small anatomical differences between the typical wild and typical tame tur- key, one of them being a difference in the size of the brain cavity. ‘‘Men- tally the average wild turkey is stronger than the average domesticated one, and I believe it will be found that in all these long years the above influences lof domesticity] have affected the size of the brain-mass of the latter species in the way above indicated, and per- haps it may be possible some day to appreciate this difference. Perhaps, too, there may have been also a slight tendency on the part of the brain of the wild turkey to increase in size owing to the demands made upon its functions due to the influence of man’s nearer approach and the necessity of greater mental activity in consequence.”’ Data are still lacking to determine precisely the extent to which the wild turkey changes in a few generations of domestication. J. D. Caton, who has of Heredity bred many wild turkeys in captivity, writes on this point: ““My experiments establish first that the turkey may be domesticated, and that each suceeding generation bred in domestication loses something of the wild disposition of its ancestors. Sec- ond, that the wild turkey bred in domes- tication changes its form and the color of its plumage and its legs, each suc- ceeding generation degenerating more and more from these brilliant colors which are so constant in the wild turkey of the forest, so that it is simply a question of time—and indeed a very short time—when they will lose all their native wildness and become clothed in all the varied colors of the common domestic turkey; in fact, be like our domestic turkey—yes, be our domestic turkey.” The loss of this plumage must be a bitter pill for the male to swallow, if we are to accept the picture of him which is vividly painted for us. He is a regu- lar Turk, we are informed, polygamous in the extreme and desirous above all of a well-filled harem. ‘He cares not a bit for the rearing or training of his family; in fact, it has been alleged that he follows his mates to their nests and destroys and eats the eggs. This I do not believe, nor will I accuse him of such conduct. He is a vain bird and craves admiration, and acts as if he were a royal prince and a genuine dude, and he will have admiration though it costs him his life. He is a gay Lothario and will covet and steal his neighbors’ wives and daughters; and if his neigh- bors protest, will fight to the finish. He is artful, cunning, sly, at the same time a stupendous fool. One day no art can persuade him to approach you, no matter how persuasively or persistently you call; the next day he will boldly walk up to the gun at the first call and be shot. He has no sentiment beyond a dudish and pompous admiration for himself, and he covets every hen he sees. He will stand for hours in a small, sunny place, striving to attract the attention of the hens by strutting, gobbling, blowing, and whining, until he nearly starves to death. I believe he would almost rather be dead than Mellhenny: Wild Turkeys to have a cloudy day, when he is deprived of seeing the sun shining on his glossy plumage; and if it rains, he is the most disconsolate creature on the face of the earth.”’ SEXUAL SELECTION Thanks to the activity of hunters, males are much fewer than females; consequently the polygamous nature of the bird is favored. Beyond this, how- ever, it appears that there is a consider- able amount of sexual selection, many gobblers having large harems_ while others remain unmated. At mating time the males often fight each other, but the writer contradicts Audubon’s statement that the weaker are then killed by the stronger. ‘“‘I have seen many encounters as he describes, but have never in all my life seen one gob- bler killed by another, or even crippled, although I have seen two or three birds fight together for hours at a time. Nor have I ever found a gobbler dead in the woods as the result of such an encounter, or even in a worried condi- tion. I have killed many old gobblers and found their necks and heads cov- ered with blood, with spur punctures all over their breasts; but this never stopped them from gobbling, nor are these wounds deep, as the spur, which is an inch and a quarter long in the oldest of them, can only penetrate the skin of the body after passing through the heavy mail of the thick, tough feathers.”’ Although such an idea is regarded with disfavor by many biologists at the present time, the writer’s account indicates that he considers sexual selec- tion to be dependent principally on the selective choice of the hens, whom the males endeavor to attract by the well- known “gobble,’”’ and a variety of other evolutions which are thus described: “In the early morning, during the spring, a gobbler will fly from his roost to the ground, strutting and gobbling, whether a hen is in sight or not; this is done to attract the hens, and it is then you will hear the puffs to which Audu- bon refers. This sound is produced by the gobbler in expelling the air from its lungs, at the beginning of the strut, 141 the sounds and motions of which have never been satisfactorily described. While going through the strut the gob- bler produces a number of notes and motions that are of interest; first, the wings are drooped until the first six or eight feathers at the end of the wings touch the ground; at the same time the tail is spread until like an open fan and erected at right angles to the body; the neck is drawn down and back until the head rests against the shoulder feathers, and the body feathers are all thrown forward until they stand at about right angles to their normal place. At the same time the body is inflated with air, which, with the drooping wings, spread tail, and ruffled feathers, gives the bird the appearance of a big ball. Having blown himself up to the full capacity of his skin, the gobbler suddenly re- leases the air, making a puff exactly as if a person, having inflated the cheeks to their full capacity, suddenly opens the mouth. As the puff is given, the bird steps quickly forward four or five paces, dragging the ends of the stiff wing feathers along the ground, mak- ing a rasping sound; he throws forward his chest, and, gradually contracting the muscles, forces the air from his body with a low, rumbling boom, the feathers resuming their normal posi- tion as the air is expelled. Three dis- tinct sounds are produced: Puff, cluck, b-o-o-r-r-r-m-1.. At the termination of the gobbling season the primaries of the wings, which are used to produce the cluck, are badly worn by the con- tinued dragging on the ground.”’ PRESERVING THE TURKEY A performance of this sort is naturally conspicuous and since the days of Audu- bon it has been prophesied that the wild turkey would soon become extinct, due to the activity of hunters who follow his call from considerable distances (it is said the gobble can be heard for two miles in favorable atmospheric conditions). There is no game, how- ever, we are told, that holds its own so well as the wild turkey. In the south- ern states the bird is still to be found in reasonable abundance, and, says the writer, “if these states will protect them 142 The Journal of Heredity by the right sort of laws, I am of the opinion that the birds will increase rapidly, despite the encroachment of civilization and the war waged upon them by sportsmen. It is not the legiti- mate methods of destruction that deci- mate the turkey ranks, as is the case with the quail and grouse, but it is the nefarious tricks the laws in many states permit, namely, trapping and baiting. The latter is by far the most destruc- tive, and is practiced by those who kill turkeys for the market, and fre- quently by those who want to slaugh- ter these birds solely for count. No creature, however prolific, can stand such treatmentlong. The quail, though shot in great numbers by both sports- men and market hunters, and annually destroyed legitimately by the thousands, stand it better than the wild turkey, although the latter produces and raises almost as many young at a time as the quail. “There are two reasons for this: One is, the quail are not baited and shot on the ground; the other reason is that every bobwhite in the spring can, and does, use his call, thus bringing to him a mate; but the turkey, if he dares to gobble, no matter if he is the only turkey in a radius of 40 miles, has every one who hears him and can procure a gun, after him, and they pursue him relentlessly until he is killed. Among the turkeys the hens raised are greatly in excess of the gobblers. This fact seems to have been provided for by nature in making the male turkey polygamous; but as the male turkey is, during the spring, a very noisy bird, continually gobbling and strutting to attract his harem, and as he is much larger and more conspicuous than the hens, it is only natural that he is in more danger of being killed. Suppose the proportion of gobblers in the beginning of spring is three to fifteen hens in a certain stretch of woods. As soon as the mating season begins, these gobblers will make their whereabouts known by their noise; result—the gunners are after them at once, and the chances are ten to one they will all be killed. The hens will then have no mate, and no young will be produced; whereas, if but one gobbler were left, each of our supposed fifteen hens would raise an average of ten young each, and we would also have 150 new turkeys in the fall to yield sport and food. It has always been my practice to leave at least one old gobbler in each locality to assist the hens in reproduction. If every hunter would do this the problem of maintaining the turkey supply would be greatly solved.” The Age of Parenthood There is a widespread idea that people formerly married very early in life, and now marry very late. Census figures have demonstrated that as far as concerns the United States, during the past half century, young people are marrying today at an earlier average age than formerly. Genealogical data compiled by Charles Nutt of Worcester, Mass., indicate that five or six genera- tions ago marriage took place at about the same time as nowadays. In the Colonial period, he finds that the aver- age age of parents at the time their children were born is about 31 years. This is an indirect way of getting at the facts, but it tallies with the investi- gation of C. L. Redfield, who found that the average age of fathers was 32 and of mothers 29, in a large number of New ingland families. As families were larger formerly than now, it is evident that parallels between the ages of parents then and now must be drawn with care, if based on such averages as those here given. i a ie Ate ur BREEDING FARM CROPS IN IOWA H. D. HucuHes, Ames, Iowa HE Farm Crops Section of the Iowa Experiment Station has under way breeding projects with oats, winter wheat, barley, corn, timothy, and red clover. 1. Oat Breeding. (In cooperation with Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.) The present projects in oat breeding were begun in 1906. The work consists primarily, first, of isolating and test- ing pure lines from commercial varieties, and second, breeding pure lines from crosses. Several hundred pure lines have been isolated annually from the various com- mercial varieties which have given greatest promise in our variety test plats. These pure lines have been tested in head and nursery rows for growth, vigor, and productivity. Those which appeared most promising have been in- creased and tested under field conditions. In all, something over 8,000 pure lines have been isolated and tested during the years 1906 to 1914. One hundred and twenty-five pedigreed varieties are now included in our variety tests. Two of the most promising have been dis- tributed to farmers in sufficient lots to plant one acre of each, the pedigreed oats being compared under field condi- tions with the best commercial varieties which the farmers have been able to secure. In 1913 the pedigreed oat, “Towa 103,” outyielded commercial varieties approximately five bushels per acre. In 1914 the pedigreed varieties, S105" and. “°105,"° each outyielded. the commercial varieties more than four and one-half bushels per acre. Prior to 1908, J. D. Norton, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, made a large number of crosses. The product of these crosses was transferred to the Iowa Experiment Station in 1909. Several thousand selections have been made and tested in the nursery. The most promising of those that have proved to be pure lines have been in- creased and are beirig tested in the variety test plats and comparisons made with commercial varieties and other pure lines. 2. Winter Wheat Breeding. This project started from a foundation stock of eleven different varieties in 1906. From these, several hundred pure lines have been selected and tested out annually in head and nursery rows. During the past four years at least 500 heads have been secured annually from fields away from the station. During the years 1906 to 1914 approximately 8,000 pure lines have been tested out and either multiplied or discarded. Some 150 pedigreed strains are under comparison in twentieth-acre plats and others are being compared in tenth-acre plats. Seed sufficient to plant one acre of the two most promising and_ best growing varieties, “Iowa Nos. 404 and 327,” have been distributed to each of a number of farmers in various por- tions of the State, these to be compared with a plat of similar size planted under the same conditions, using the best commercial seed which they could get. In 1913 these pedigreed varieties out- yielded the commercial sorts an average of one and one-half bushels per acre. 3. Barley Breeding. This project was begun in 1911, the object being to produce strains or varie- ties of barley suitable for brewing pur- poses and which could be successfully grown on the drift soils of lowa. After comparing various varieties in variety test plats for several years, pure lines were isolated from the most promising, these being tested out in head and nursery rows. 4. Breeding Silver Northern Iowa. This work was begun in the spring of 1910 when 300 of the best ears of Silver King corn which could be secured were planted in ear to row trials. During 143 King Corn for 144 the five years 1910 to 1914 over 1,000 ears have been tested out in this way. Approximately 10 per cent. of the mother ears showing the best performance have gone into the crossing plats, the best of these crosses going into multiplication and into field trials. Some fifty-seven crosses have been tested out at the breeding stations and the progeny of about ten of these crosses has been distributed to several hundred farmers in the northern part of the State for comparison with their own corn. In 1913 the improved Silver King out- yielded all varieties with which it was compared, an average of approximately five bushels per acre. 5. Reid’s Yellow Dent Breeding Work. A definite project looking to the im- provement of the ordinary Reid’s Yellow Dent was begun at Ames about 1905. From 1905 to 1914 over 2,000 selected ears of Reid’s Yellow Dent corn have been tested out in ear to row plats. The ears showing the best field performance are carried over each year to go into the crossing plat. One very desirable strain known as “Towa 203”’ has been developed, which, in test trials, has an average of about twelve bushels per acre over ordinary Reid’s from which it came. Enough corn to plant one acre was supplied last year to each of several hundred farmers in central Iowa for comparison with their own corn. 6. Breeding Red Dent Corn. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the prepotency of the color character in Reid’s Yellow Dent corn. This investigation was begun in 1913, so that it has been under way for only two seasons. During each of these seasons the per cent of red and yellow ears produced by different shades of red mother ears as well as by yellow ears with red parentage has been noted. In 1914 some 20,000 hills were included in the test. 7. Correlation Studies with Corn. The object of this investigation is to determine the relation between the ear characteristics of seed ears and yield, also the relation between the stalk characteristics of the plant producing the The Journal of Heredity seedearand the yielding power of the ear. The characteristics of the various seed ears which have been planted in ear to row test plats have been noted in a study of the relation between the char- acter of the ear and yield. So far the work has consisted simply in securing the data. We propose to compile this data in the near future. This part of the work was begun in 1907. The study of stalk characteristics as related to yield was begun in 1910 when full and detailed notes were made on the characteristics of some 500 stalks grown under different climatic condi- tions. The ear produced by each stalk was saved and planted ina separate plat the second year, when the yield was determined. From 400 to 500 indi- vidual plants and an equal number of plats have been used in this work each year. While but little of this data has been compiled, we believe that some rather striking correlations between the character of the stalk and the yielding power of the ear will be found. 8. Timothy Breeding. This project was begun in 1910 when some 3,000 plants were put out in the nursery. From approximately 300 strains compared in row trials some twenty have been advanced to multi- plication plats where they are under further comparison. A few of the best of these will be placed in isolated multi- plication plats the coming fall. 9. Clover Breeding. (In cooperation with Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.) This project was begun in 1910 when a large number of selections were made from specimens secured in the vicinity of Ames, Iowa. In 1912 we secured from the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agricul- ture various lots of seed coming from all parts of the world. These were planted in nursery plats where indi- vidual plants were seeded and the best individuals isolated for continued breed- ing and multiplication. Some fifty-five of the best individuals have been multi- plied and are being compared for vigor, leafiness, seed production, and resist- ance to winter killing and disease. The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 4 - April, 1916 CONTENTS The Slit-Eyed People, by H. P. Stuckey...................0........ M7 Germinating Coconuts, by O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle............. 148 Eugenics Research in Bohemia.................0..0.0.00.0006 0000000 ee 157 Encouragement for Superior Parents.............................. 157 Success in Controlling Sex..... Bs eh lads ar eee mice We Sie 158 Course of Lectures on Eugenics..................................... 164 Spotted Asses, by Albert Ernest Jenks........................... ~. 165 Bad tyes and Bad Hearts... o23 si 268 oe RS A ae ee 168 War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad............................. 168 Why Children Run Away (Review of a book by Charles B. Davenport) 169 Finding the Prepotent Sire, by J. M. Hover........................ 173 Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency ............................... 178 Sale.of Canadian: Cattalosin. 35.055 652,05 02 yn Gah ew ett 178 The Pitanga, by A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe................ 179 Genetics at Washington Experiment Station....................... 185 War, Science Civilization (Review of a book by William E. Ritter).. 186 The ‘‘Practical Eugenic Movement”’............................... 189 New Publication on Genetics..............0..000 00.0 ccc eee eens 189 Rare Genetics Publications Available.............................. 189 Department of Genetics at ILlinois College of Agriculture.......... 199 The Strawberry, a Triumph of Plant Breeding..................... 191 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, March 27 1916. (‘aoa1d -sIquoIy) ‘soXo [eULIOU Sey [11d B :aAOqe ‘ydvs8ojoyd nay Aq UMOYs st se ‘s,1oyyVF ayy OAT] SoAO ALY sXoq 9914} oY fT, ‘“Uarppiyo inoy pey aavy Aaya pue ‘uBWIOM [eWJOU B patiieu (Ydvisojoyd aAoqe ay} Ut Jo] 94} Je UMOYs) JoUyeF oY L ‘SULOp o1e WOIP[IYyO 9Y} Se ‘apts 9UO OF FI BUA} JO peay ayy yorq Surmosyy Aq A[uO {Joa das UD [eNPIArpur oy} ynq “[euWoU st JYSIs oY, *SoA9-JI[S YILM UlOg o1v UOT{eIOUES Yous Jo SJoqUIDUU ay} JO “T[P JOU yNq “aos SNOLLVHANAD HIOA HONOYVHLL NOY SGITALRA GALORLLSNOD ASTALL st | ! ies Sey - PEOPLE. Constricted Eyelids Found in Four Generations of a Georgia Family—vVision is Normal—Defect is Not Sex-Linked and Might be a Mendelian Recessive He P. Stuckey > Horticulturist, Georgia Experiment Station HILE in the mountains of \ \ / northeastern Georgia last sum- mer, I met a family which is interesting from the stand- point of the geneticist, because of the well-marked inheritance of a peculiar type of eye. One of the men of. the family and three of his children are shown in the photograph opposite. I saw a number of members of the family and made inquiries about others. The pioneer of the family in this section was the great-grandfather of the children whom I photographed, and I have the authority of residents of the locality for saying that he showed this restricted eyelid. Nothing is known about his past, so he must stand as the first individual in our family history. Nothing being known of his wife, it must be assumed that she was normal. They had a son, whom I saw, and who is the grandfather of the children illus- trated in the frontispiece. This man, now elderly, has the constricted eye- lids well marked. He married a woman with ordinary eyes, and they became the parents of nine children, six of whom had the slit-eyes, while three had eyes that were entirely normal. Among the children with the affected eyes are both boys and girls, so it is obvious that the defect cannot be inherited in a_ sex-linked fashion, as is color-blindness and one form of night-blindress. These nine children form the third generation of the family history. One of them, the man shown in the frontis- piece, married a normal woman, and they have four children, three boys (shown in the frontispiece) with con- stricted eyelids, and one girl who is quite normal. The knowledge available therefore amounts to this—that the defect appears in some of the members of four genera- tions, and that it is not limited to either sex. The history might give rise to a suspicion that the trait is a simple Mendelian recessive, but of course the fact could not be established with the data from only one family, and that a small one. The defect is limited wholly to the lids. The eyesight is perfect, and the affected members of the family are able to earn their living in competition with normal individuals. Due to the con- striction of the lids, however, the per- sons with this trait have difficulty in getting clear vision unless they throw their heads back or turn them to one side, as the children are doing in the picture. Not being a medical man, I cannot tell the exact nature of this affection— it may be a failure of the nictitating membrane to be absorbed, in which case current theories of heredity would suggest either the absence of the factor for normal development, or the presence of an inhibitor for normal development. But such speculations are of little value when the data are so slender, and I do not offer any hypothesis as to the genetic nature of the case; I merely offer the facts and the photographs, which speak for themselves. 147 GERMINATING COCONUTS Huge Seeds Have Remarkable Adaptations for Growing in Dry Climate—Cavity in Nut Serves Like a Stomach or Wet Nurse for the Young Plant—The Coconut not Naturally a Sea-shore Palm and Not Dispersed by Sea O. F. Cook anp C. B. DoyLe Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. OCONUTS are seeds. They are (3 the largest of all seeds, except the so-called double coconuts of the Seychelles Islands, in the Indian Ocean, which are the seeds of a huge fan palm (Lodoicea sechellarum). The dou- ble coconuts are five or six times the size of true coconuts, weighing 30 to 40 poundseach. No other seed approaches the size of a large coconut, and few seeds, if any, afford such interesting specializations to assist in the germina- tion and growth of the young plant. These special characters or adaptations are of the utmost interest as affording the best illustrations of the influence of selection upon the progress of evolution. The germinating coconut has been studied in detail by several authors from the structural and chemical standpoints, but the remarkable internal growth of the embryo has not been adequately described and illustrated. Several va- rieties of coconuts sent from Panama were received in a germinating condi- tion, so that it was possible to get pho- tographs of the stages of germination as well as of the varietal differences. THEORY OF DISTRIBUTION BY SEA Appreciation of the specialized char- acters of the coconut has been hindered by the theory of maritime distribution. The coconut has been described very often in books of travel and natural history, and even in formal scientific works, as a plant that has been widely distributed in nature through the agency of ocean currents. It has always been considered a native of tropical sea- coasts, specially equipped for floating to other coasts and islands. It is true that the coconut is provided with a 148 tough fibrous husk from one to two inches thick, which enables it to remain afloat for a long time. It is also pro- vided with a coating of wax on the surface of the husk, as though to render the nut impervious to water. It is not surprising, therefore, that writers who approach the subject from the stand- point of structure alone should continue to rely on this apparently unimpeach- able proof of the habits of the plant in nature. There is no direct evidence, however, to support this theory, for the same type of husk is found in the seeds of many other related species of palms which do not grow on sea-coasts, and are not distributed by water. That the husk of the coconut is thicker than that of the other related species, merely con- forms with its larger size and the greater danger of breakage when falling to the ground. The waxy coating of the husk is not a unique character, for it is found in nearly the whole group of palms, the small fruits of many inland species being more waxy than the coconut. NEAR RELATIVES ARE AMERICAN All of the palms that are closely related to the coconut are natives of America, most of them being found in Brazil. It is true that the coconut palm is most abundant and attains its greatest economic importance in the islands of the Pacific, but there is noth- ing to show that the habits of the palm would enable it to exist permanently, or in a truly wild state, in a littoral or oceanic environment. Although this idea of the coconut as a native of the Pacific islands appears in most of the text-books and general works of refer- (CL ‘SItq) (‘peonpey) ‘oprs s}t uo Burcq] optyM yYystr ayy UO yeYy ‘uoTsod 4y8udn ue ut poyeurties pry 1J9] UO JNU oY} yeYy MoYs synoids oy, ‘sodvys yuaJOYIp YIM sayjorrea sory} Suryuosordos ‘eureueg wor, synUOD09 Surnoidg — MSOH SLI NI GHSOTIONA LOANODOD FHL 150 The Journal ence, it is entirely contrary to the opin- ion of writers who have been familiar with the actual conditions and behavior of the palm in the Pacific. Such wri- ters agree that there are no wild palms, that the presence of coconuts is every- where the work of man, and that the palms do not survive for any great period the withdrawal of human assist- ance.! ADAPTATIONS FOR GERMINATION The unique habit of the coconut of preserving a store of water in the interior cavity of the seed, the very large amount of food material stored in the “‘meat”’ of the nut, and the very thick, tough, fibrous husk are the most specialized features. Assuming that these pecu- liarities were necessary to assist in germination, it is reasonable to believe that the coconut palm must have developed in a relatively dry climate, where the young plants had to grow to large size before they could reach sup- ‘plies of moisture in the soil. Such extensive provisions for the storage of food and water would seem to be unnecessary in a maritime plant able to draw moisture from sandy beaches flooded twice a day by the tides. The distance to permanent moisture on a sandy beach is very short; in fact the sand is never really dry at all except at the surface. For a plant able to thrive on a salt solu- tion, a covering of an inch or two of sand would be sufficient protection against drying out. The great size of the nuts would be a disadvantage for a seashore palm as keeping the seeds from being buried in the sand. The palms that live on the seashore, such as our southern palmettoes, all have small seeds. It is only when we think of the coco- nut as growing in an interior region with an alkaline soil and subject to pro- longed drought, that we can appreciate the significance of the large seed, or think of the large store of food and moisture, and the very thick husk as characters that give the palm special 1 Cook, O. F. U. S. National Herbarium, 7:257—293, 1901. The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm. History of the Coconut Palm in America. of Heredity adaptation to the natural condition of environment. Many of the palms re- lated to the coconut are forest species, or at least able to develop in partial shade. The coconut, on the contrary, is extremely intolerant of shade, and must have had its development in a region where other vegetation was absent or relatively sparse and open. MOISTURE IN THE HUSK The coconut is certainly well equip- ped to protect the embryo or the young seedling from the danger of dry- ing. In addition to the moisture car- ried in the meat of the nut and in the central cavity, a still larger supply can be carried in the fibrous husk, and this may even be replenished from rains or other surface water after the young plant has begun to grow, and the husk opened and partly decayed. In addi- tion to thus acting as a sponge, the husk serves the young plant in another way, as a medium for starting the growth of the roots before they enter the soil. The whole process of germination may be completed inside the husk. And not the germination alone, but the subsequent growth of the young plant, may go on for months without any external contacts, the leaves often attaining considerable size before the roots have extended beyond the fibers of the husk. A SELF-POTTED PLANT In the Philippine Islands where thousands of these palms are cultivated, it is often the custom to tie the nuts in pairs and hang them over a pole, fence, or around posts. Under these condi- tions the nuts will obviously receive no water from the soil, and it is apparent that they require no further attention, for in a few months the young plant has pushed its way through the husk and can be placed in its permanent location in the field. The coconut seedling, with its ample provision for food and moisture and its fibrous husk for the accommodation Contributions from the Con- tribution from the U. S. National Herbarium, 14:271-342, 1910. (7 ‘8tq) (peonpey) “Asny oy} OFUT SUIMOIS UVES 9q UPD YOIYA\ JO $}OO1 5Yy ‘amsy jesus dy} ut ynoids puv UOpe]AjOo dy} JO OZIS DAT}LJOI OY} OST OJON *JUOWYOe}4v Jo yuTOd oY} Ie8U JopjnoYs jouTysip o10W vB BuUTAeY Jo] oy uO yey ‘odeys UW JayIp suopeyAjoo oy, “A}AVO [eIJUOO SY} OUT SMOIB 4eYY ,,JOO} BUISIMU,, 10 UOpPaTA}09 oY} Jo sozts jualoyIp oy} Aq poyeorpur ‘uorvuTuI9s Jo ssoooid oy} UT sase}s da1Y4} SuTjUasoIdos ‘] “Sy UT UMOYS S}nU ayy JO SUOT}OeS [eULPNyTBUOT LONOOOD FHL 40 WHO LOOMIS TWNYUENI WHERE THE TREE GETS ITS START This ungerminated coconut has been cut open lengthwise tc show the embryo, which lies in a small cavity in the meat, at the stem énd of the nut. When germination begins the embryo grows at both ends: outward to form the young plant and inward to fill the central cavity and digest the milk and endosperm, thereby supplying nourishment for the growth of the plant. of its roots, may be described as a self- potted plant. So well adapted for this purpose is the coconut fiber that it is in general use by gardeners in Europe and America as a medium for the germination of delicate seeds, or as an ingredient of fine potting soil. GROWTH OF THE EMBRYO The use of the husk is still better appreciated when we take into account the remarkable processes that go on inside the shell of the germinating coconut. In spite of the huge size of the other parts of the seed, the embryo or young plant that exists before germi- nation begins is hardly larger than the proverbial grain of mustard-seed. It is cylindrical in form and hes in a small cavity in the endosperm just under- neath the largest of the three “eyes” of the shell. There is no direct connec- tion between the embryo and the stored food material, or between the embryo and the ‘“‘milk”’ in the central cavity. (See Fig. 3.) In order to 152 Photograph magnified about 2% times. 3 (Fig. 3.) utilize these food supplies, the embryo has to take them over by slow processes of digestion and absorption. When germination begins the embryo elongates and becomes enlarged at both ends. From the outer end arise the plumule and the roots, while the internal growth results in the formation of a large bulbous mass of spongy tissue, pure white in color, with many grooves and narrow ridges running lengthwise on the surface. All through this spongy mass, techni- cally the cotyledon, are ramifications of vascular strands, which converge and become fibrous and woody at the narrow “neck”? which connects the absorbing tissue with the stem. (See Fig. 6.) That the surface of some of these cotyledons is distinctly rougher and more irregular than others can be seen in Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 2 the wrinkles are narrow, parallel ridges, while Fig. 5 shows the wrinkles broader and distinctly irregular. Differences in the general shape of these organs are also apparent, THE YOUNG COCONUT’S *“*“WET NURSE” Sprouted coconut with husk removed, showing a moderately advanced stage of germina- tion. The cotyledon has swelled and its surface is covered with narrow, regular wrinkles. This surface takes up the ‘‘milk’”’ of the nut and supplies it to the young plant above; and also digests the soft layer of ‘‘meat’’ or endosperm. Natural size. (Fig. 4.) 154 The Journal of Heredity and may afford means of distinguishing some of the varieties. The function of this cotyledon is to absorb the endosperm and carry the food material over to nourish the grow- ing parts of the young seedling. In order to be absorbed, the food materials stored in the endosperm have to be digested, and the digestion is accom- plished by ferments secreted by the cotyledon, as in the familiar change of starch into sugar in the malting of barley and other grains, preceding the formation of alcohol. THE COCONUT’S STOMACH The digestion of the endosperm is evidently more rapid at the places where it is in contact with the coty- ledon. The softening of the surface elsewhere (see Fig. 5) may mean that the milk of the germinating nut be- comes charged with a digestive ferment secreted by the cotyledon. Hence it may be considered that the fluid-filled cavity of the germinating nut, in addi- tion to its storage function, serves like a stomach, to provide for a more rapid digestion and absorption of the stored food materials than would be possible by the direct action of the cotyledon. It is easy to understand that such a system might be very useful to the young plant in enabling it to make more rapid growth in short periods of favor- able conditions. If this view is correct, we may think of the milk as being recharged with food materials from the endosperm, to replace those that are absorbed by the cotyledon. That sugar is present in the cotyledon is evident from the sweet taste of the latter, and the very delicate texture suggesting sponge cake is altogether different from the hard oily ‘‘meat”’ of the nut. These enlarged cotyledons of the germinating nuts are considered luxuries and food for invalids by the natives of the Polynesian Islands and other parts of the tropics. In the native markets of towns along the west coast of Mexico the dried coty- ledons are sold under the name of ‘““manzanas de coco”’ or coconut apples. (See Fig. 6b.) OTHER INTERNAL CHANGES More detailed studies of what takes place inside the germinating coconut have shown interesting changes in the composition of the food materials. Thus Walker,? in his experiments with a selected series of nuts* in the Philip- pines, found that the total quantity of milk shows a marked diminution from 374 grams in an unsprouted nut to nothing when the sprouts had attained a height of 93 centimeters. A decided loss in the sugar content of the milk took place at the same time, falling from 2.3 per cent in the milk from the unsprouted nuts to 0.3 per cent in the ones which had sprouts 38 centimeters long. A decided loss in the total weight of the meat was also evident, as it dropped from 457 grams in the unsprouted nut to 148 grams in the nut with a sprout 93 centimeters long. The loss seemed to be due to a direct absorption by the cotyledon, the process taking place only in that portion of the meat located near the latter, but increasing rapidly as the cotyledon grows larger and comes in contact with the entire surface of the endosperm. This would be the case, necessarily, if the nuts failed to main- tain a supply of liquid in the cavity. The loss in the total weight of oil was fairly proportional to the loss in the total weight of meat. During the early stages of germination there appeared to be a concentration of oil near the coty- ledon, with a corresponding loss in that portion of the meat farthest away. The percentage of sugar decreased from 4.1 per cent in the unsprouted nut to 1.2 per cent in the nut with the longest sprout (93 centimeters.) The loss ap- peared to be due to the absorption of sugar by the foot, as in all cases less sugar was found in that portion of the nut in direct contact with the cotyledon than in the parts farthest away from the cotyledon. 2 Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, June, 1908. : ‘ Four pairs of coconuts of different ages but approximately of the same size were selected for this work by Dr. Walker. all to nuts with a sprout 93 centimeters long. The range in the age was from nuts which had not sprouted at — ee se ee ee ($ ‘8ig) ‘ozs eiInyeN ‘syyuoU AUeUT IOJ o1n}slour Ysnoue aq jsnut oimystout jo sorddns yuoueuneg ‘punois ‘aAoqe yuryd sunod oy 07 pooy }eoul,, JO suno& oY} JO 7BATAINS oY a10Joq poyoval 94} OUT JUSS Ud9q VAVY S}JOOI 9Y} Joye OUT} SUOT B JOJ oONUT}UCD APUT JUDUWTYSLINOU Jo ATddns ou Ajddns 0} pays 3981p sutoq Ay[enpeis st sty} ‘uLlodsopusa oy} JO doRjins J9UUL oY} UO ‘IOJOO JoyIep spt Aq peysinsurystp oq ues IAP] poeysesip Ayre >d Seah *4Jos V sp ya00 01d juourdoy [PAUP SB ps}es SnII00 OIOUT S9utod9q UOpa [A}09 LO ,,JOOJ SuIsInu, GHUONVAGVY WHHLAVA “LANODOD ONILLAOYdS I SOAIS HII. dU} ING porNsseP sri jUPId fo, ,>[[TU,, f re aes." ' ‘whos , 944 jo oro en! ms 9 [| THE SPROUT AND ITS FOOD SUPPLY A. Coconut seedling removed from shell showing narrow ‘‘neck’’ between the cotyledon ana the sprout through which the nourishment is carried. Natural size. B. Dried coconut cotyledons called ‘‘coconut apples,’’ (manzanas de coco) sold in the native markets along the west coast of Mexico. Natural size. C. Dried coconut sprout, with the cotyledon removed showing the fibers that arise in the cotyledcn and pass through the neck into the base of the young plant. These fibers serve no doubt to convey nourishment to the sprout, as well as to support the cotyledon at_the point of attachment. Enlarged about 2% diameters. (Fig. 6.) Cook and Doyle: Germinating Coconuts The total weight of the cotyledon increased from 19 grams in the un- sprouted nut to 228 grams in the nut with the longest sprout. The cotyledon weighed 19 grams in a nut that still had no sprout, increasing to 288 grams in the nut with the longest sprout. With the growth of the cotyledon there was a decline in the percentage of sugar, although not in the total quantity, but more sugar was found at the stage when the foot com- pletely filled the nut. It would be expected, however, that the amount of sugar present at any particular time would depend upon temperature, sun- light, moisture, or other conditions that would control the rate of growth of the young plant, or influence the process of digestion of the endosperm. With rapid erowth the sugar would be used, while checking of growth would enable new supplies of sugar to be accumulated. Tae SUMMARY The unique habit of the coconut of preserving a supply of water in the interior cavity of the seed, the very large amount of stored material or meat, and the very thick, tougH, fibrous husk are features that afford an extremely interesting example of specialization to assist in the germination and growth of the young plant. The cotyledons of the germinating nuts show considerable variation in shape, and also in the markings on the surface. Some of them ‘have rather shallow, parallel ridges, while others are deeply and irregularly furrowed. The formation of a soft, watery, superficial layer on the endosperm after germination begins indicates the pres- ence of an active fat-splitting principle in the milk, which partly digests the meat and transforms it into such a condition that it can be readily absorbed by the growing cotyledon. Eugenics Research in Bohemia An institution for research 1n eugenics was founded in Prag, Bohemia, on aly t2, -1913)— by. Drs. icarl Herfort and Arthur Brozek, who propose to make studies of the family history of school and hospital children in that city. Announcing their work in Eos (X, 3, 161-173, July, 1914) they report the preliminary study of fifty-six cases of feeble-mindedness, none of which was congenital. In almost all cases, how- ever, the family stock was neuropathic. They conclude that from the marriage of two individuals, each of whom is neuropathic but neither of whom is feebleminded, one or more of the children is likely to be feebleminded. Discussing the Mendelian heredity of feeble-mindedness, they conclude it is not a unit character but that it is due to multiple factors. The neuropathic con- stitution, they conclude, is a complex made up of a large number of inherited dispositions; and as the different parts of this complex are inherited separately, there is naturally wide variation ob- served in the character of neuropathic individuals. Encouragement for Discussing the methods of construc- tive eugenics, leading to an increase in the number of highly gifted individuals in the race, Dr. von Gruber (in Archiv far Frauenkunde und Eugenetik, II, 1, 109) favors grants for education of children and pensions for parents. To give money to parents for the education of superior children would, he thinks, make such children regarded as an asset, and inferior children as a lia- Superior Parents bility; not only would this lead parents to have large families, if they came of superior stock, but it would lead young people to regard the pedigrees of their prospective life-partners with more care, if they realized that intelligent choice in marriage was of distinct economic importance. The attention of citizens would thus come to be directed to the fact that superior children are of real value to the state and to their parents. SUCCESS IN CON TROLEING SEX Male-producing and Female-producing Eggs Regularly Distinct in Pigeons— Whitman-Riddle Experiments Result in Making Each Kind of Egg Produce Opposite Sex, Under Some Conditions—New View of Nature of Sex—Application to Human Society E TALK a good deal about the possibilities of sex-control— we who are interested in breed- ing. We would be much pleased if we could secure an excess of one sex, instead of the half-and-half which we usually get. If we could mate fowls in such a way as to produce nothing but males, or nothing but females, we would think we had reached the farthest goal conceivable—in that direction. But an approximation to such a re- sult has been obtained. Under excep- tional circumstances, it is true—but given those circumstances, it is being done continually. Professor C. O. Whitman, one of the greatest among the investigators and teachers of biology, who died in 1910, learned the basis upon which such matings may be made. After his death his work was continued by Dr. Oscar Riddle, who is getting the same results at the Carnegie Institution’s laboratory for the study of experimental evolution, in Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Dr. Riddle, moreover, undertook, and is still engaged in, a special study of many aspects of these matings, in an attempt to decide whether a real, or only an apparent, sex control is involved. His answer has already been given—a reversal of sex has been effected. The results of these investigations are not yet published, but from the addresses, abstracts and short papers of Dr. Riddle, beginning in 1911, a fairly comprehensive survey of results may now be obtained. To understand their results, let us first see what happens when we make a very wide cross in pigeons and doves, the material of their experiments. Or- dinarily breeders mate members of the same species. Sometimes we can mate 158 members of different species. Occa- sionally we can mate individuals of the next higher division, a genus; but we consider that a very wide cross. It is not often that we can go into the divi- sion above this, and mate members of two different families. But it can be done with pigeons. Now when birds (not hybrids) of two different families are mated, the off- spring produced are all males. In the whole history of the study there have been but two exceptions, and one at least of the females then produced was not perfect; the sexual development was rudimentary. Here, then, we have a certain kind of sex-control, for we find that we can produce all males from a cross of two different families. So wide a cross as that hardly ever takes place in artificial breeding, and probably much less often or never in nature. But it suggests to us that if we are to get an insight into sex-determination, we must depart from the normal conditions as far as possible. GENERIC CROSSES MADE Dr. Riddle has found it most conven- ient, in view of Whitman’s earlier re- sults, to work with crosses of two different genera. From such a mating, the eggs produced in spring and early summer hatch into all or nearly all males. But if such a pair of birds are made to “overwork at reproduction,” t. e. if they are not allowed to incubate their own eggs, and are made to lay eggs very rapidly, a pair each week or so, it will be found that as the season grows later, the eggs laid become progres- sively ‘‘weaker,’’ until those near the end of the laying period will hatch with difficulty or not at all. From those eggs that do hatch from the birds which Success in Controlling Sex become more and more exhausted, the proportion of females produced from their eggs becomes higher. Younger birds not previously “‘overworked”’ are not easily exhausted in this manner; but previously “overworked” old birds, under continued ‘‘overwork,’’ will cease the production of male offspring ear- lier in the spring or summer than did these same birds during previous years; and from then on to the end of the egg- laying period, their eggs will hatch out all or nearly all females. Now everyone knows that this is not what usually happens among. birds. There are two unusual situations or elements involved in obtaining these results: first, a wide cross; and second, an enforced increase of ‘reproductive overwork.” In ordinary matings of pigeons and of other fowls, the two sexes will hatch out in about equal numbers at any time of year. What is the mean- ing of this production, first of all males, later of all females, with the “over- worked” pigeon in crosses of two dif- ferent genera? There are several conceivable ex- planations. First, it may be true sex- reversal—eggs which were destined to produce one sex may have been forced to produce the opposite sex. If that be the real explanation, we are going to get an insight into the nature of sex and the methods of controlling it. But it is also conceivable that nothing so sensa- tional has happened. Perhaps male- producing and female-producing germs were formed in the usual manner, but for some reason only one kind was fer- tilized. Or perhaps one kind of germ died in the ovary, so that all the off- spring had to be of the sex represented by the other kind of germ, which sur- vived. Or perhaps there is a mechan- ical internal change in the female-pro- ducing germs which turned them into male-producing germs. In this last paragraph is summed up the whole of the problem which faced Dr. Whitman and Dr. Riddle. To the biologists, it is a much bigger problem than it may appear to be on its face, for they know that ordinarily two kinds of germs are produced, one of which will give rise to males and the other to 159 females, and it puts a very heavy strain on many accepted theories, to believe that one of these kinds could be made, by pressure upon the germ during its growth period, to produce contrary results to what the normal mechanism does. A change in the internal struc- ture of the cell involving chromosomal change, or elimination, could perhaps, on current views, be accepted without great difficulty; but if Dr. Riddle demonstrates that he has changed the sex-value of the cell without a corre- sponding change or elimination of the chromosome numbers, he will find, as he is certainly well aware, that biolo- gists here require very rigid proofs. TEN LINES OF EVIDENCE Ten different lines of evidence, or correlations with the breeding results, have been developed from the work of Dr. Whitman and Dr. Riddle, and they all seem to point the same way. To Dr. Riddle, only one conclusion is possible from them—namniely, that sex has actually been reversed, that male offspring have been hatched from fe- male-producing germs, and vice versa. The first correlation established re- sults from a study of the size of the ova, that is, the yolks freed from shell and albumen or “white.” The yolks of late summer and autumn, those which produce all or mostly females, are dis- tinctly larger than those of the early season, which produce males. The change in size is gradual, and consider- able. The pigeon regularly lays a clutch, two eggs, at an interval of a day or two apart. It was learned that the first egg of the clutch, in this experimental breeding of pure, non-hybrid females was rather regularly—there are excep- tions—smaller than the second. Whit- man had already shown that in the wild species with which he worked males predominate in hatches from the first eggs of clutches, and females from the second. So the conclusion was possi- ble that males usually come from smaller eggs, both for season, and for egg of clutch; females from larger eggs, the larger of the season and the larger of the clutch. 160 The Journal Still a third situation was found to give evidence that the smaller yolks are male-producing and the larger yolks female-producing. It has already been mentioned that females which are “ over- worked”’ tend, when older, to begin the production of females earlier and ear- lier in the season. Now a comparison of the size of yolks derived from younger and older birds has shown that those of younger (but mature) birds are smaller than those of older birds. This fact has been fully demonstrated. We have noted three kinds of evi- dence that smaller yolks produce males, larger yolks females. There is still a fourth piece of proof. It is known that the very first egg of life, and the first egg produced after a long period of rest, more frequently produce a female than do the first eggs of succeeding pairs or clutches. Study of the actual sizes of such yolks has shown that there is a reversal in size of these first eggs, cor- responding to the reversal in sex, so that here too the female sex is associated with the larger yolk. Yolk size was accurately determined in about 10,000 cases, and the association of smaller yolk with male producing germs, and larger yolk with female producing germs is well established. The conclusion is drawn that here two kinds of ova are produced, and the kinds may be identi- fied by size differences. Next, let us recall that in the pigeon (probably in all birds) two kinds of eggs are produced, but only one kind of sperm. There is breeding evidence, in addition to the evidence accumulated by Dr. Riddle, which would seem to establish this fact. The determination of sex therefore resides necessarily in the egg, and the sperm can be ruled out of this discussion. THE We get back to the heart of the prob- lem again. If there are two kinds of eggs—one which produces males, and the other which produces females—how is it that early in the season practically only males are produced, and later in the season only females? Is there only HEART OF THE PROBLEM of Heredity one kind of egg produced at each period? And is the kind reversed in the two periods? Quite impossible, Dr. Riddle answers. ‘“We can easily demonstrate, by weigh- ing or otherwise measuring them, that both kinds of eggs are produced through- out. What actually happens is that the ‘generic cross’ which produces all, or nearly all, males in the spring and all, or nearly all, females in the autumn, is utilizing in the spring a number of female-producing ova for the produc- tion of males, and in the later season is utilizing for the production of females ova one-half of which had initial inclina- tion for the production of females.” That this is true, is shown not only by weighing the eggs, but by a number of other lines of evidence to be cited later; and also “‘by the fact that if the same female which threw all males in the spring had been mated with another bird of her own kind, and made to lay eggs at a similar rate, then both males and females would certainly have ap- peared at all seasons.” It is only because we are studying a cross of birds, each from a distinct genus, and applying the pressure of “overwork,” that we are upsetting the normal con- ditions enough to see what is going on beneath the surface. We have now excluded two possible explanations of the observed sex-con- trol in pigeons. We have shown that it cannot be due to selective fertilization by the sperm—for there is only one kind of sperm. We have shown that it can not be due to selective elimination of ova in the ovary—for it is known that the two kinds of ova—male-producing and female-producing—are being laid all the time. The next possible objection to the supposition that we are dealing with a real case of sex-control, would be a technical one, alleging that everything which happens might be explained as differential maturation. To this Dr. Riddle answers: The maturation would have to be definitely differential in (1) the elimination of an X chromosome during the spring from one-half ‘In a paper read before the American Society of Naturalists, Columbus, Ohio, December 30, 1915. Success in Controlling Sex the ova, and the retention of this same X in the eggs of identical chromosomal constitution in the autumn. (2) The elimination of a Y chromosome from the other half of the eggs laid during the autumn, and the retention of of all these same Y’s in the homologous eggs laid in the spring. Alternative assumptions to (1) and (2) would be that the X’s of eggs laid in the spring became Y-like in the presence of the sperm from a wide cross, and only then become so; and that the Y’s of autumn eggs become gradually, in the presence of any kind of sperm, more X-like in quality. (3) That all other chromosomes than the sex-chromo- somes must display no such thing as a seasonal preference for ‘‘staying’”’ or ‘‘going,’’ since every observable character of the hybrids betrays an inheritance from both parents. If any one can accept such an incredible hypo- thesis of chromosome behavior, he must also face this fact: these sex-controlled experiments . produce several grades of females. Some are quite nearly males, although they lay eggs. Is it too hazardous to suggest that in one and the same egg the Y could hardly have ‘‘gone out’”’ to allow the egg to develop into a female, and yet have ‘‘stayed in’’ to deliver the relative masculinity which we easily detect and measure in this same female? If sex is directly the creature of a sex chromosome, the sex situation found in some of my female doves requires that the male-producing chromosome be eliminated from, and retained in, the same egg. In the face of these facts, it is wholly absurd to postulate a differential maturation as a basis for the observed phenomena of these sex- series. A true reversal of sex has been effected, and the possibilities of its being apparent rather than real have been excluded. Another line of evidence concerns “developmental energy”’ of the spring- to-autumn series of eggs of the doves. It has already been mentioned that under the conditions of these experi- ments the last few eggs of the season are weak, or fail altogether to hatch. These eggs are, however, the largest of the entire season. It will be seen that those germs that store most materials are developmentally the weakest germs. When we measure the length of life of the birds hatched, we find that the smaller eggs of the season, and probably too the smaller eggs of the clutch, give rise to the longest-lived birds. These smaller eggs furnish therefore this addi- tional evidence of greater developmental energy than is possessed by the larger eggs. Several hundred chemical analyses— each of a single yolk—have shown that the size increase of the eggs is accom- plished by actual increase of the various 161 solids of the egg; and that the increase from spring to autumn is gradual; there is nowhere any sudden break or varia- tion. In connection with the analyses it was found that the smaller, spring eggs (male-producers) contain more water than do the larger, fall eggs (female-producers), and a similar rela- tion seems to hold between the smaller and larger eggs of the clutches, as between the larger and smaller of the season. That is to say, the higher water content accompanies the male- producing germ, but the experimental procedures during the season carry all the yolks gradually to a lower level, and then all produce females. These various facts are taken by Dr. Riddle to mean that the male-produc- ing egg has a higher metabolism than the female-producing egg. If so, any- thing which increased the metabolism of an egg, which gave it greater vigor, would tend to make it produce a male. Now it is well known that crossing increases the vigor of offspring. Cross- breeding is used by every stock breeder to produce vigorous animals, and even the farmer sows by preference, cross- bred maize, because it yields more sturdy plants; so if we suppose that the amount of vigor is in proportion to the width of the cross, we will understand a possible explanation of the fact cited at the beginning of this paper, that when two distinct families of pigeons are crossed a higher metabolism is at once established and the offspring are all males. Another line of available evidence relates to the variation in weight of the birds themselves at different seasons. It is found that at the season when the female lays the largest eggs, she herself, and also her consort, are smaliest in size. It has further been found that the females hatched from smaller eggs are more masculine in their behavior than females from larger eggs of the same clutch, and that females hatched early in the season are more masculine than their full sisters hatched late in the season. The conclusion reached from weigh- ing yolks, and from yolk-analyses, is 162 The Journal confirmed by burning yolks in the “‘bomb calorimeter,’ and measuring the amount of heat liberated in burning the stored materials. This very accu- rate method of investigation gives results which confirm the results of breeding, showing that eggs which produce males differ quantitatively from eggs which produce females. The results show too that the storage capacity of the eggs increases gradually during the progress of the season. This storage is highest at the time ‘developmental energy”’ is lowest, and both these coincide with the female-producing period. POST-MORTEM STUDIES The tenth and last kind of evidence brought from these studies is gained by post-mortem examination of the repro- ductive glands. Many species of birds, it will be remembered, have normally only one ovary, the right ovary regularly failing to develop, or degenerating rapidly after beginning to develop. This is true of pigeons and doves. But it is found that females hatched under conditions which accentuate the female- ness—for example, late in the season following crowded egg-laying—fre- quently have the right ovary developed. From this Dr. Riddle concludes that “the same pressure which carries the eggs of spring from male-producing to female-producing levels, also carries the earlier female-producing level to an- other yet more feminine.” In short, Dr. Riddle thinks, from the many kinds of evidence here outlined, that the nature of sex lies in the nature of differences between levels of metabol- ism, that the two levels are normally associated with different amounts of chromatin, or different chromosome numbers. But he considers these differ- ential amounts or aggregates of chro- matin as merely a means of insuring two diverse metabolic levels, and thus the two sexes; and he asserts that ‘if a new metabolic level is forced upon the germ, as in our experiments, the sex of the resulting offspring must coincide with the sex that can develop from this level, and this quite regardless of whether the of Heredity level was established through a differ- ential chromatin relation or value, or by other means.” . . . “Males arise from germs at higher levels, females from the lower.” If it is merely a matter of level, and not a matter, as many have supposed, of some mechanical difference in struc- ture, it is obvious that one might sanely hope to reverse sex. All that would be needed would be to exert sufficient pres- sure of an appropriate sort. Normally the two different kinds of eggs remain at different levels; one regularly produces males, the other females. To exert the heavy pressure necessary, Dr. Whitman, and later Dr. Riddle, made wide crosses. _ The pressure thus exerted (speaking metaphorically, of course), is sufficient, while both birds are producing their “strongest germs,’ to force female- producing eggs to a male-producing level. But when the cross is not of more than generic value, and the birds are made to yield weaker and weaker germs through reproductive overwork, the earlier male-producing level is followed in the weaker germs by a lower female-producing level. A SKEPTICAL AGE Every year a number of individuals claim to have controlled or reversed sex. Consequently, the biological world has become decidedly skeptical on the subject. ‘‘The insufficiently controlled experiment, the novice and the quack are the trinity of evils that has begotten this widespread skepticism,’ says Dr. Riddle. At least one good effect it has had— any experiment which professes to show a control of sex is submitted to an extraordinarily stringent examination. Very few of the experiments stand this test, but there are a few, made by biologists of repute, which seem to have withstood criticism successfully, though in all, or in nearly all of these, it has been impossible to disprove one or another of the possibilities urged by the ‘‘chromosomists.’’ Most of these publications have appeared since Dr. Riddle’s first short statement? in 1911 2 Paper read December, 1911, before the American Society of Zoologists at Princeton; ab- stract in Science, N.S., Vol. 35, pp. 462-463, March 22, 1912. Success in Controlling Sex of the results with pigeons. These and two or three earlier experimental inves- tigations have been cited in a more recent publication by Dr. Riddle as having a common basis of agreement with his results, and with his theory of the causation of sex. The German biologist Richard Hert- wig and his pupils have succeeded in producing an excess of males from frog’s eggs, by allowing these eggs to become “overripe”’ (take up water) before they were fertilized. Dr. Helen Dean King at the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, has done just the opposite. By drying toads’ eggs before they were fertilized she secured as high as 90% females. The results agree with those of Dr. Riddle, when it is remembered that he found male-producing pigeon eggs con- tained more water than did the female- producing eggs. Hertwig increased the water content of frogs’ eggs, and pro- duced males; while females were pro- duced when Miss King decreased the water content of toads’ eggs. Sex appears to have been controlled by Whitney in one of the lowest worms, and by Woltereck with a small crust- acean. Finally, there are some obser- vations on cattle, and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell’s work*® with sheep, which Dr. Riddle interprets in the light of his own work. The most notable thing about the studies that have been made on the doves and pigeons, and the thing that distinguishes these studies from prac- tically all others that lead in this direc- tion, is to be found in the systematic attempt to decide, in this most favor- able material, whether the sex-control is real or apparent. We have already indicated the results of the inquiry. SOCIAL APPLICATIONS The many theories about sex-control in man are usually based on observa- tions in other animals, but as some of the essential facts in man are not known, all attempts at sex-determination at 163 present are futile. But if Dr. Riddle’s work withstands the searching examina- tion which it is sure to receive as soon as it is published in full, and if it is agreed that sex is a plastic thing which can be changed by sufficient pressure (again speaking figuratively), then it would appear that sex-control in man is not so impossible as it has sometimes been thought to be in recent years. Apart from this very obvious appli- cation of a knowledge of sex-control in human society, the new idea of the nature of sex opens up some interesting possibilities to the eugenist. If the Whitman-Riddle observations on pigeons should be found substantially to hold good for man, we would be in the way of understanding the existence of so many masculine women and effeminate men in the world—the men and women who make up that “‘inter- mediate sex’’ of which much has been heard lately. Sex-conservation, perhaps, will be one of the future planks in the eugenics platform. As Dr. Riddle once pointed out, there are in this country probably more masculine women than feeble- minded individuals, and more effem- inate men than criminals. From a biological point of view, they are usually regarded as undesirable. “At present we look upon the appearance of the inadequately sexed individual as in- evitable; just as a generation ago we looked upon the presence of the feeble- minded as inevitable. But once we realize that sex—its kind and quantity— can be controlled, we are brought face to face with many new possibilities, and some new responsibilities, in this direc- tion. %* If the amount of sex possessed by a man or woman is partly dependent on the influences which surround the indi- vidual—on the environment, in short— perhaps we are making a mistake by throwing men and women into environ- ments which are constantly becoming 3 See the JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 47-57, February, 1914. Some of the other cases are described by T. H. Morgan in his book on Heredity and Sex (New York, 1913). 4 This and the succeeding quotations are from Dr. Riddle’s paper on “The Determination _ of Sex and Its Experimental Control;” in Bull. of the American Academy of Medicine, Vol. XV, No. 5, October, 1914. Some of the material was also published in the Journal of the Nat. Inst. Soc. Sci., Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 39-42; December, 1915. 164 more similar, and into activities which are growing ever more parallel. The idea of the biological equality of the two sexes has, in Dr. Riddle’s view, been taken altogether too much for granted in modern civilization. “However definitely an equality may exist from social, political or ethical points of view, it is doubtful whether this can be truthfully asserted from any biological standpoint.” Man and woman differ in every cell of the body. The differences are numerous, and the whole problem complicated. Those who think they have solved it by lay- ing down a “fundamental equality”’ of the two sexes may conceivably be considerably disturbed by biological progress in the future. There is one other outlook which Dr. Riddle thinks his work opens up to the eugenist. NEW HOPE FOR EUGENICS. “You well know,” he says, ‘that eugenics in our day lays chief stress upon heredity—upon the transmission, intact and unchanged—from parent to offspring of weakness or of strength, of fitness or unfitness, of the manifold characteristics of the organism. And the chief remedy suggested rests upon an elimination of the bearers of weak or unfit germs from the citizenship per- The Journal of Heredity mitted to leave offspring. And it is of course wholly right that the emphasis now be placed on heredity since it is the ready practical instrument—the one that can be used, and indeed one that the race may never cease to use. “But is there not a lot of fatalistic philosophy in the conception that man- kind’s exaltation and power require that mankind eliminate from all share in posterity the base and the weak? Shall man—a maker of environments— when confronted with the problems of his own improvement permanently and sadly turn to the crude and original methods of nature herself? ‘At least to those biologists and men of medicine who believe that life- processes are controllable—developmen- tal processes along with the rest—that conception and that remedy will not seem final. To those of us who realize that one characteristic, namely sex, has already been controlled, indicating that in nature all are controllable if our industry will but put light where our ignorance now enthrones mystery; to some of us, the production of strength from weakness, of more fit from the less fit, and better from the best, will seem more in keeping with the present general aim of our science, which is to secure control over all life-processes.”’ Course of Lectures on Eugenics The Young Men’s Christian Associa- tion of Washington, D. C., is presenting a public course of free lectures on eugenics under the direction of Paul Popenoe, of the American Genetic Asso- ciation. The speakers are as follows: March 14, Paul Popenoe, ‘Prenatal Influences;’’ March 21, Prof. Roswell H. Johnson, of the University of Pitts- burgh, ‘‘What Feminism May Do;” March 28, Alexander Johnson, Field Secretary, Committee on Provision for the Feebleminded (Philadelphia), ‘“Bad Breeding in Washington;” April 4, Paul Popenoe, ‘‘Laws of Heredity in Man;” April 11, A. E. Hamilton, New York, ‘‘What One Baby Did for Race Betterment ;”’ April 18, A. E. Hamilton, “The Gist of Eugenics;” April 25, Dr. Alexander Graham Bell will close the course with an address containing the unpublished results of some of his recent research in heredity. col- ored muzzle and belly areas. March 14, 1914, I passed by train through Charleston, Arizona, where there were three large brown burros feeding near the station. One of them had a blaze-face, and its right fore foot was also white to well above the ankle. The next day near Marfa, Texas, I saw two other white-faced brown burros. After that I felt that there was nothing new under the sun—even in the mark- ings of burros. IN MEDITERRANEAN LANDS April and May, 1914, were spent in north Africa in Algeria and Tunisia, and in Sicily. In those countries I saw literally thousands of asses or donkeys. There were the usual ones of light fawn color, the browns, the blacks, the ash- grays, and a few which were white!, but 1 Lydekker speaks of the Damascus breed of asses as frequently exhibiting white animals. —The Horse and Its Relatives, p. 222. 165 A “BLAZE” FACE BURRO IN ARIZONA Spotted horses, dogs, cows are common enough, but did you ever see a spotted ass? perhaps the rarest of the spotted domesticated animals, except man himself. Tis One of the reasons for this may be that the ass has not been subjected to such severe selection in breeding as have most domesticated animals, and spotting or partial albinism seems to develop under stringent selection, while it is extremely rare in animals living under wild conditions. I neither saw spotted ones nor spoke with men who had noted them. Near the close of May we were in Naples. One day a beautiful, spotted donkey, spirited and high-stepping like a hack- ney, dashed past me around the corner of Piazza del Plebiscito. He was prob- ably fourteen hands high, and dragged a gentleman’s stylish two-wheeled cart with unusual speed and action. He was white, except for dark (brown) ears, a nearly continuous dark dorsal line, and dark spots on the shoulder from four to six inches across. For ten days I kept my eyes open in Naples for that dashing donkey, but I never saw him again. Later, however, I saw three others of the same appearance, though these 166 Photograph by Albert Ernest Jenks. (Fig. 7.) latter animals were somewhat smaller, and plodded along the roads as donkeys are supposed to travel. One was at Sorrento across the Bay from Naples. He is shown in Fig.-8. One of the other two was on the road from Amalfi to Cava, and the other was in the outskirts of Cava. All four of the spotted don- keys noted in or near Naples were, apparently from their markings, of the same breed. All were white with dark ears, dark dorsal stripe, and a few other dark areas arranged bi-laterally with noticeable symmetry. I was told by the owner of the spotted donkey photo- graphed in Sorrento that his father had obtained it near Naples, probably a short distance to the north, and that in SPOTTED DONKEY AT SORRENTO, ITALY The leopard has spots and, according to tradition, does not change them; the ass, on the con- trary, has not spots and appears very reluctant to acquire them. But here is an Italian specimen which is mostly spot, the original dark color being reduced to a few patches. His facial expression lends some support to a theory that has been advanced—that albinism is due to a lack of vigor. that vicinity there were others of the same appearance. It has seemed worth while to call attention to these two types of asses, the ‘‘blaze’”’ face, and the white with bi-lateral dark areas, because it ap- pears that asses spot much less fre- quently than other domestic animals, with the exception of the elephant and the camel. SPOTTING AND DOMESTICATION So far as I am able to learn there are few exceptions to the rule that the members of wild species are typically or specifically marked. There appears to be no exception to the rule that in domestication all have yielded indi- viduals which are spotted with white. To what is this due? Is the seemingly more frequent spotting of domestic animals (including human) due to an upsetting of the normal process of Photograph by Albert Ernest Jenks. (Fig. 8.) pigment metabolism in the conditions of domestication? Is the seemingly more frequent spotting of domestic animals due to the protection in domes- tication which saves the spotted indi- viduals from the destructive selective forces which prey upon the animals of a natural (or “wild’’) environment? No matter which one of these conditions is the cause of the frequent spotting of domestic animals, and granting that both may have contributed, selection in breeding or forced interbreeding, or both, have probably greatly aided pro- duction of spotted domestic animals. Selection by man has saved the spotted animals (even perfecting breeds with well-fixed spotted pattern), while clothing has saved the spotted man by making selection against spotted indi- viduals more largely impossible. My col- league, Dr. C. E. Johnson, Department of Animal Biology, University of Min- 167 168 The Journal nesota, calls my attention to the fact that the ass, camel, and elephant have been the subjects of selective breeding to a relatively low degree as compared with most of the other domestic ani- mals. The number of ‘breeds’? among them is very small. This fact lays strong emphasis on selective breeding as the important factor in the spotting .? Short bibliography of piebald humans: of Heredity of domestic animals. However, we have the cases of spotted humans which are certainly not due to selective breed- ing. In the case of the human I am obliged to believe that domestication with its frequent large demands on nervous energy plays an important part in the production of the albinotic spottings of the skin.? 1. Hutchinson, Sir Jonathan, ‘‘On Paleogenetic Face-pattern in Acroteric Piebalds,” pp. 1479-1481 of The British Medical Journal, vol. I, June 18, 1910. . Simpson, Q. I. (with W. E. Castle), ‘‘A Family of Spotted Negroes,”’ pp. 50-56 of A meri- can Naturalist, January, 1913. Albinism in Man, Atlas, Part 2, (London, 1913.) 2 3. Pearson, Karl, (with E. Nettleship, C. H. Usher, and B. C. Lamb), A Monograph on + . Stannus, Dr. Hugh, ‘Anomalies of Pigmentation Among Natives of Nyasaland; A Contribution to the Study of Albinism,” pp. 333-365 of Biometrika, October, 1913. 5. Jenks, Albert Ernest, ‘‘A Piebald Family of White Americans,” pp. 221-237 of American = Anthropologist (N.S.), vol. XVI, No. 2, April-June, 1914. 6. Cockayne, E. A., M.D., ‘‘A Piebald Family,” pp. 197-200 of Biometrika, November, 1914. Bad Eyes and Bad Hearts As the latest theory of heredity assumes that every inherited factor in the germ-plasm affects not one but many parts of the body, interest in searching for these parallel effects, these “correlated variations,’ is in- creased. J. Strebel finds an association — between certain hereditary forms of eye-defect (ektopia, myopia) and a weak heart, and reports the discovery in the Archiv ftir Rassen- und Gesell- schafts-Biologie (X, 4). Evidence is not sufficient to show how close the relation between the two facts is, or whether indeed it is really a matter of heredity, rather than of chance associa- tion. It should be easy to collect further cases to determine whether these hereditary defects of the eye are regularly accompanied by defects of the heart. War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad Intelligent live-stock breeding is going by the board in France and Germany, and production ‘regardless of con- sequences” is being insisted upon, according to the Agricultural Gazette of Canada (p. 206, March, 1916). The exportation of cows is said to have been prohibited and orders given that all cows must be bred, no matter whether in accordance with a scientific plan of herd- and breed-improvement. ‘‘This means,’ says the Gazette, “that the education of a century will be partly undone abroad, and a breed of worse than grades—mongrels— is likely to be created that will have to be regener- ated.”’ Probably the result will be that Europe will have a much smaller amount of purebred stock for export after the war, than before, and American breeders will therefore be thrown more upon their own resources. . WHY CHILDREN RUN AWAY Nomadism a Racial Trait, Inherited in Connection with Sex—Evidenee from the Lower Animals and from Children—A Study of the Inheritance of Temperament Review of a book by CHARLES B. DAVENPORT Director, Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. HEN a child runs away, the \ \ / mother usually ascribes its truancy to mere ‘“naughti- ness,’’ or bad companions, or maybe original sin. But the child’s motive, according to Dr. Charles B. Davenport,' is the same as that which makes its parents visit Europe, or its Uncle John start off on a fishing trip. The causes ascribed for these various actions are usually quite different from the real cause, which is the primitive racial instinct to wander— an instinct so deep-seated that it is found in lower animals as well as in man. We all have it, presumably; but some of us have it so hedged around by conventionalities, and the habits of civilized society, that we never really feel the call of the wild, or the blind impulse to start off somewhere—no matter where. Others are so impelled by this instinct that only lock and key can keep them in one place. “It is a familiar observation,’’ Dr. Davenport begins, ‘‘that persons differ greatly in their capacity for remaining quiet and satisfied for. a long period in one place. One occasionally meets a woman who, though living within 30 miles of a metropolis, has, in the 80 years of her life, been there only once. At the other extreme are the tramps and gypsies who travel constantly or with only slight intermissions, and many of whom have repeatedly visited all quarters of the globe.’ On the other hand, there are those who do not travel constantly but who, leading a settled life, occasionally are impelled to jump over the traces, to run away, sometimes in a trance or dazed condition. In short, the impulse to break camp and “‘hit the trail”’ is a very widespread one. Dr. Davenport describes all its forms by one name—nomadism, and drives the point home by quoting James Russell Lowell: ‘“‘The American is nomadic in religion, in ideas, in morals, and leaves his faith and opinions with as much indifference as the house in which he lives.” Most of us Americans will probably be disposed to plead guilty to nomadism, of the literal kind, at least. Our ances- tors must have had a certain amount of it, or we would not be here. Americans probably represent a selection of the more nomadic individuals of Europe, and it is no shock to learn that we are all at heart nomadic. A tendency to wander is indeed characteristic of pri- mitive man and most animals. It is one of the traits, Dr. Davenport says, which sharply sets us off from most plants—although the botanist might tell a different story. But look at our poor relations, the anthropoid apes—they seldom sleep twice in the same place. Or take the birds—the migratory habits of some species are notable. Others, on the contrary, are permanent residents of a place, seldom traveling more than a few miles, particularly if they are ground birds on a small island. This difference in the migratory habits of birds suggests to Dr. Daven- 1 The Feebly Inhibited: Nomadism, or the wandering impulse, with special reference to heredity; Inheritance of temperament. by the Carnegie Institution, 1915. Pp. 158, price $1.50. Washington, D. C. Published 169 170 The Journal port that nomadism is not a matter of social influences or of reading travel advertisements. ‘‘Whether a_ species tends to travel far or tends to stay near its home depends upon its constitu- tional factors—its instincts. The dif- ferences between men in respect to these points are as truly specific as the differences between swallows and grouse, and are as truly due to differences in inherited instincts.” But, it will be objected, the strength of the wandering instinct in a man varies. Once I wanted to join the Navy in order to “see the world;” then I stayed twenty years on the same job, quite contented. This alleged instinct of nomadism therefore cannot be really a constitutional trait, or it would not be subject to such fluctuations. On the contrary, Dr. Davenport answers, we find that even the birds do not migrate all the time—only twice a year. We would expect the instinct to show itself only periodically. And we have other good evidence that there really is an inherited trait of nomadism. We have already mentioned that the great apes have this instinct; and the basal instincts of these animals are the same as those of man. Then consider the primitive peoples and their migra- tory habits. If we look around the world we are driven to conclude that a wandering tendency—an absence of fixed abode—is widespread over the globe. “Indeed, it might be said that fixity of abode is a relatively recent acquisition, as yet only found in cer- tain peoples in which the sedentary habit is highly developed; and that, consequently, it is not to be wondered at if even in a non-nomadic people like most of the Chinese, the French, or the Swiss, the racial trait of nomadism should persist in certain families, or after having been eliminated, have crept in again.” The extraordinarily common tendency to run away which children show, as every mother knows to her sorrow, is another bit of evidence proving that nomadism is really an inborn trait. The early life of the child, it is assumed, repeats the early life of the race; there- of Heredity fore it is no surprise to us that children, “true to their function of revealing the past, sometimes almost as soon as they have acquired the upright habit of locomotion, as if intoxicated by ‘out- of-doors,’ start off and, by some inner impulse, go on and on with no idea of where or why, tempted by an open gate or by the instinct to follow a man or a vehicle, or as a just-hatched chick fol- lows any moving thing.’”” ADOLESCENT RUNAWAYS There is one more place where we must look for evidence. At the ado- lescent period the instincts are more highly developed than at any other time of life. If there is any wide- spread instinct of nomadism, it ought to show itself then. So it does. Kline, who collected 501 cases of runaways, found the greatest number of them occurred at the age of 15 years, and plenty more at 13 or 14. From such evidence, Dr. Davenport feels justified in concluding that nomad- ism is a racial trait, a matter of heredity. In modern America, which has lured to itself the restless and those in whom love of ancestral home is weak, we naturally expect to find many families showing the romadic trait; and he has collected the histories of 100 of these families, embracing 616 individuals, on which he bases the present study. A glance over the array of cases shows immediately that most of the nomads are - males. That is exactly what the reader would expect, no doubt. Not only is it easier for a man than a woman to ride the brake-beams, not only is it easier fora man than a woman to roam through a life of vagrancy and avoid arrest, not only is man’s courage of the kind which faces more readily the dan- gers and inconveniences of such a life; but, one would say, the nature of the male sex is such, and the nature of the female sex is such, that we would expect a life of nomadism to be more congenial to a man than a woman. Man is the active, restless, energetic, aggressive animal; woman is the contrary. We express the same idea in very superior language, nowadays, by saying that “2 Quoted by Davenport from G, Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 376; New York, 1904. aaa neil Why Children Run Away woman is relatively more anabolic and man katabolic. Whatever words one uses, the facts are indisputable; his- torically woman’s place is in the home (we use the words without any political implication) and man’s réle is that of the hunter and fighter. Under such conditions it is no sur- prise to us to find that there are more male than female nomads in Dr. Daven- port’s tables. If nomadism is really an instinct, we are quite prepared to find it associated with sex—a sex- limited trait. Nomadism might be considered as much a sex-limited trait as is a mustache. But Dr. Davenport does not adopt this obvious explanation, apparently* because there are a good many women nomads. Disregarding the fact that even women have some hair on the face, and some women have a great deal, he thinks that nomadism cannot be a sex- limited trait, since we find so many women displaying it. Now there are, it will be recalled, two ways in which an inherited char- acter can be associated with sex. First, it may be sex-limited; that is, it may be due to the secretions of the male sex-glands. Second, it may be sex- linked, that means according to current theories, that the factor for this trait “just happened”’ to get in the same chromosome with the factor which determines sex. So sex and a sex- linked character have to go together, but they are not due to the same cause, nor is one the cause of the other; their association is merely a coincidence. Evidently, nomadism is associated in some way with sex. As Dr. Davenport has ruled out the first and most obvious explanation—that it is sex-limited, he has only one other possibility? to ex- 171 plain the greater number of affected males. It must be a sex-linked trait, like color-blindness. TEST OF THE HYPOTBESIS Fortunately, it is easy to test the correctness of this hypothesis. With- out going at length into the theory of sex-linkage, we may say that it demands at least one simple result in the present case: if Davenport’s explanation is right, then matings where the father is nomadic and the mother neither no- madic nor of a nomadic family, must result in no nomadic offspring whatever. The boys cannot be nomads because they cannot inherit a sex-linked trait from their father, but only from their mother. As neither the mother, nor her family, in this case had it, she cannot transmit it to them. The girls cannot be nomadic in either case. In families where the father is a nomad and the mother stays at home supporting the children by taking in washing, or some- thing of the sort, the children must all have a perfectly domestic disposition, according to Davenport’s hypothesis; they will not run the streets at nights, or steal rides on freight cars, or go to sea, or take to the road, or do anything else that nomads do and well-ordered chil- dren do not. We turn to Davenport’s table 5, which lists the matings of this critical kind. It lists thirty-two boys and eighteen girls. Instead of no nomad boys and no nomad girls, of this num- ber, we find sixteen nomad boys and five nomad girls. The hypothesis does not hold good, and although Dr. Davenport makes an attempt to explain the discrepancy in several legitimate ways, the difference seems to the reviewer to be too big to 3 Against the hypothesis that nomadism is essentially a male characteristic is, he says, “the fact that nomadism is by no means confined to the male sex; in certain matings, daughters as well as sons are nomadic. function of a particular type of mating.”’ that in which both parents are nomadic. alike, should be nomadic. families. The distribution of the nomadic trait among the offspring is, then, a The critical mating to test this hypothesis would be All the children from such a mating, girls and boys But Davenport’s table of matings of this type contains only four No sound conclusion can be drawn from such a small number; but even there, it is worth noting that he gets one non-nomadic child, where his hypothesis requires that there should be none whatever. 4 That is, only one other possibility in heredity. Of course, it may be said that the difference is one of training, girls being kept at home with mother while boys are turned out to roam the streets with ‘the gang.” Probably this is a real factor in bringing about a larger number of nomadic men than women, but Dr. Davenport does not discuss it. 172 be overlooked, particularly as similar difficulties are found in the tables of some of the other types of matings. That nomadism is hereditary, Dr. Davenport’s study goes far to prove. That it is hereditary as a sex-linked character, the study does not prove. Moreover, many of the facts cited by Dr. Davenport—for example, that the nomadic instinct fails late in life, just as the sexual instinct does—indicate that it is really a sex-limited rather than a sex-linked character; that its associa- tion with sex is not wholly a matter of accident, as he assumes that it is. If there is anyone who has not an- swered to his own satisfaction the question Why Girls Leave Home, we can at least give him a clue. It is because they inherit some of the qualities properly belonging to their more unstable, restless and nomadic brothers. INHERITANCE OF TEMPERAMENT Following his study of nomadism, Dr. Davenport undertakes an analysis of the distribution in families of tem- perament or its expression in mood. This is a problem of great fundamental importance, and it is a pleasure to note that eugenists are showing a tendency nowadays to attack such problems, instead of concentrating all their atten- tion on degenerate conditions or trivial traits of no concern to the race. We all recognize a certain average of normal temperament, says the writer, and we also recognize that this may change to an increased activity and elated emotional tone, on the one hand, or to a decreased activity and lower emotional tone on the other. He em- braces all moods in these two divisions: the ‘hyperkinetic state”’ is that marked by one or all of the following elements: destructiveness, exaltation, homicidal acts and. threats, irritability, psycho- motor excitement, and violence. The “hypokinetic state” is on the whole the opposite of this, marked by anx- iousness, worry, fear, slow movement, and so on. Finally, there is often an alternation of these two states. The existence of these two contrasted moods, and the fact that an individual The Journal of Heredity often passes from the one to the other, will be recognized by every one. But an examination of family histories shows that in some families there is a prevail- ing tendency for the one condition, in other families for the other. Dr. Dav- enport undertakes the task of bringing under one general scheme the inheri- tance of these various types of mood, and evolves the following hypothesis: There is in the germplasm a factor, &, which induces the more or less periodic occurrence of an excited condition (or an exceptionally strong reactibility to exciting presentations) and its absence, e, which results in an absence of extreme excitabi- lity. There are also the factor, C, which makes for normal cheerfulness of mood, and its absence, c, which permits a more or less periodic depression. Moreover, these factors behave as though in different chromosomes, so that they are inherited independently of each other and may occur in any combination. This hypothesis is tested on eighty- nine families, embracing 629 progeny, many discrepancies are ascribed to “imperfect dominance,’ and in con- clusion Dr. Davenport says “it is morally certain”’ that the hypothesis is correct. Even though the confession of a doubt be tantamount to a confession of immorality, the reviewer cannot accept the conclusion with as much confidence as Dr. Davenport does. It seems to him that the whole analysis of moods is open to attack from the psychologists, and that the formula used to explain the heredity would explain almost anything. In other words, the reviewer cannot help feeling that Dr. Davenport has made the case much simpler than it really is. He presents data on the inheritance of temperament in twins and the inher- itance of the suicidal impulse. Even though it may eventually be found that his analysis of the inheritance of mood is not exhaustive, he must be given credit for having attacked an interesting, complicated, and important problem, and for having shown that in our daily behavior, where the power of heredity would perhaps be little sus- pected, our reactions are largely due to the hereditary nature of our tem- peraments. FINDING THE PREPOTENT SIRE Only Cne in a Thousand, in the Guernsey Breed of Cattle, Is Likely to Bring Marked Improvement to the Breed—Advanced Register the Only Way of Discovering Him J. M. Hover Professor of Agriculture, Bethany College, Bethany, W. Va. HE superiority of one parent or breed in determining the charac- teristics of its offspring is termed prepotency. The fact that marked prepotency occurs in only a few animals in every breed makes it an important consideration in animal breeding. Indeed, nearly all of the so-called families in the various breeds, and in fact some of the breeds, owe their origin to amale or female ancestor which was strongly prepotent in fea- tures recognizable and useful to man. While prepotency is generally thought of in connection with some useful char- acter, it is not necessarily an advan- tageous thing. It is conceivable that an animal could be prepotent in a way diametrically opposite to the end sought by the breeder. In such a case the sooner the breeder recognizes and elimi- nates such an animal from his herd the more quickly will the desired results be obtained. In using the term here, however, we shall have in mind only prepotency in the production of but- terfat. Inasmuch as the dairy industry must rest upon an economic foundation, and since heavy production of milk and butterfat is the basic factor in profit- able dairying, it is just as important, and perhaps more important, that the sires of “‘boarders’”’ be eliminated in cattle breeding as it is to eliminate the “boarders”’ themselves. This can best be accomplished by the development of methods for the recognition of the prepotent animals and strains in pro- duction in the various breeds and the general use of these, both in grading and in building up purebred herds. The following study of the Guernsey breed was made with the idea of dis- covering, if possible, those animals and strains which have had, and are likely in the future to wield, the largest in- fluence on the breed so far as higher production is concerned. Prepotent animals are usually dis- covered through the performance of their offspring, sometimes long after they themselves have died or perhaps been slaughtered in the prime of their breeding career. Probably discovery of prepotent animals will constitute an essential feature of breeding in the future, but the advanced register, if utilized properly, will eliminate in a large measure much of the chance attendant upon breeding and impres- sive sires may be selected with a cer- tainty heretofore impossible. There are, without a doubt, in the untested stock of the country many great producing sires and dams, but the progressive breeder will scarcely take the risk of selecting sires from these, especially when they are not related closely to a tested strain of proven merit. INDIVIDUAL PREPOTENCY There are doubtless many ways in which the data of the advanced register might be used to discover those animals which have been most powerful in influencing the high production of the breed. The common method is to regard the number of advanced registry offspring as the test. This is open to the following criticisms: (1) Some of the greatest animals may be used in 1The data for this paper were secured from the Herd Register and Guernsey Breeders’ Journals of the American Guernsey Cattle Club. 173 174 The Journal small herds and therefore have rela- tively few get, whereas an inferior animal may be used in a large herd and have relatively many get. (2) The advanced registry standard is so low that with judicious feeding and care almost any animal can make the advanced registry requirements. In- deed, at the present time the average requirement for the advanced register is practically 125 pounds below the average performance of the cows in the advanced register. This relation of different classes as compared with requirements is indicated in the fol- lowing table: of Heredity anything like conclusive results. Most of the older sires would be entirely excluded from such a list. When the advanced register is older, this method of study would be more feasible than at present. At the present time what seems the best method is to set a higher hypo- thetical standard of excellence for the offspring and judge the great sires by this. There is no practical reason for applying a similar test to the dams because these will be discovered through the achievements of their male ances- tors or male descent. Indeed, if a prepotent dam does not have a pre- AVERAGE PRODUCTION COMPARED WITH ADVANCED REGISTRY REQUIREMENTS Class Age Average Fat Record Average A. R. Requirements A 5 up 490.4 360.000 B 414-5 480.3 350.875 Cc 4-414 457.4 332.625 D 344 439.9 314.375 E 3-3 411.8 295.125 F 244-3 400.1 276.875 G 2-24 Shins 259.625 Average 436.74 rt Wy Seay if! It appears from the table that the number of advanced registry cows which a certain sire has may therefore more properly be considered an indi- cation of opportunity, prolificacy, or business expediency, than a test of prepotency in production, since a breeder in the habit of testing would place more daughters of his herd sires in the ad- vanced register than one who did not, and a prolific bull in a large herd which is being regularly tested, may have an exceptionally large number of daughters in the advanced register without really being a sire of great producers. It is probably true, however, that when one daughter of a sire makes an unusually large record, his other daughters at- tract attention and are therefore tested, and in such cases the number of ad- vanced register daughters might bear some relation to his merit. Another method of studying pre- potency in any breed, which would seem to be very promising, would be to compare the daughters of various sires with their dams, and note the extent of increase. Here, however we find the data far too limited to give potent son or perhaps grandson, her influence on the breed as a whole be- comes practically negligible, however superior an animal she herself may be. This is due, of course, to the relatively large number of progeny of the male as compared with the female. In setting a higher standard we choose to select 600 pounds of butterfat pro- duced by a mature cow as the basis for a discriminatory study. We select 600 pounds as a standard because it may be safely assumed that any cow making such a record possesses individual ex- cellence as a producer; for it is exceed- ingly doubtful whether such a record could be made from an ordinary cow through any artifice of feeding and. milking. Using the same scale of increase (which appears to be sub- stantially correct) as is now used in the advanced register, the 600 pounds standard for the different ages would be as indicated in the table on page 175. From that table it may easily be seen that 490.5 pounds of butterfat for a 2-year-old cow is considered a 600- pound record, since such a cow could in all probability make such a record ee Hover: Finding the Prepotent Sire byS ADVANCE REGISTRY REQUIREMENTS AND 600 POUNDS STANDARD Class Regular Requirement 600 pounds Standard A 360.00 600.00 B 341 .75—360.00 581.75—600.00 iC 323 .50—341.75 563 .50—581.75 > D 305 .25—323.50 545 .25—563.50 E 285 .00—305.25 527 .00—545.25 F 268 .75—285.00 508 .75—527 .00 G 250.50—268.75 490 .50—508.75 upon re-entry when mature. In com- puting ‘“‘the mature cow equivalent”’ for any cow it will be found simplest to subtract the individual entrance requirement for the cow in question, and add this to the actual record made. Thus, a certain cow at 2 years of age made 606 pounds of butterfat. The entrance requirement at this age is 250.5 pounds of butterfat. Now, ac- cording to above formula, we have (360— 250.5) + 606 = 715.5 pounds, or the theoretical production of this cow at 5 years and above. If a certain sire happens to produce a single daughter with a 600-pound record, we do not have in this alone adequate proof of his breeding capacity. This may be due to the dam, or, per- haps, a fortuitous variation. If, how- ever, he produces three or more such daughters, the suggestion of individual prepotency becomes very strong. With this thought in mind we have, in the table at the botton of this page, listed all sires which have produced three or more daughters with records the equiva- lent of 600 pounds. From the table it will readily be seen that we have up to December, 1915, only thirty-twag sires which have produced three or more “ equivalent of 600 pounds”’ daughters. There may be many others which were capable of such a ALL SIRES HAVING AT LEAST THREE ‘EQUIVALENT OF 600 POUNDS” DAUGHTERS Reg. Birth No.of A. R. No. of ‘600 Ib.” No. Date Daughters Daughters Nmap whsinesoh thaeeNia ss — =: See oe a ae. 9001 1903 17 14 Tran ae Wit yoROSes Kein or, tac a stole a cereiora ce 8336 1901 24 12 mime ne OCI. Poke cis ary ole wiaed etm o's 1836 §©1905 23 11 inapre Via shen Sisequel’ 2\: At. .cqeperss oe 11462 1900 64 9 imp: Gov. of the Chene.:. 21... 0....2. 10563. 1904 21 9 napsswonds Marre): fo sk oe piece oe 14359 1903 24 7 ap Galascye Soe queliy ct. Basck Matus 16904 =1904 38 6 [Rea Gl OMe ete iat tee sae meee de ee aN 8917 = 1903 11 5 Stranford’s Glenwood of Pinehurst...... 13609 1906 12 4 edarce iavgicinons eevee ep the aca ttencd: 11893 1907 5 4 Dolly Dimple’s May King of L......... 12997 1907 5 4 Charmante:s Rose Kunow: 2.4) 2.92 cf8 11746 1906 8 ft ei ou ia Shem ree eave. erackaierar eed eae 11084 1906 7 4 liewel'selndependences ann.on e020 ee 10324 1905 9 4 HethrowBascyes ee mera. CE ES 11366 1906 8 4 riplet Cham pron were io rank 13067 = =1907 12 4 edvardeBbayee cement cas 11074 1905 10 4 Imp. Golden Secret of Lilyvale......... 10028 1904 10 4 Justinee’s Sequel of the Preel.......... DAO. OP ter 17 + [Bavantomney rem tee cra ie ee 11611 1905 5 3 inipsCoras"Gov.e of Chilmarke ay y.5 oe 8971 1903 28 3 Glenwood’s Main Stay 16th............ 9384 1903 9 3 Glenwood’s Reputation................ 7687 =1901 15 3 Glenwoods's!sirantord).s.4r ssc a+ oo 9386 1903 15 3 iB LU TSL9n 11215 | RP a Ren RD SNR Tae AAR ere 4781 1896 11 3 SL EE See See et aa Lee OO Ae ce 63 1904 27 a limprebtoldenvlN i. 2. ether Siren sickens 12179 1906 5 3 Fernwood of Homestead............... 7448 1901 9 3 Gniyd etic. ee atta. Pee Es, 3966 1894 5 3 pent ets XeeISIO’ 64.6 Wo \onn oie sae 7992 1902 28 3 Glenwood Boy of Haddon............. 4605 1895 36 3 itipabucAoneueTOE bs. , soi vc as os. hoe2o” L905 13 3 176 record but do not have it because (1) some were used in small or grade herds and had little opportunity; (2) some are still too young to have many of their offspring tested; (3) some were too old at the time the advanced reg- istry system was inaugurated; (4) many breeders do not test, hence records of daughters are unknown; (5) some breed- ers secure better and some _ poorer records as a result of different methods of feeding, etc. However, it seems certain that, regardless of the fact that a few worthy sires might perchance be excluded for the above and other rea- sons, we do have here 32 proven sires whose offspring have increased and may be depended upon in the future to increase the average production of the breed. Up to December, 1915, there was a total of 254 sires who had produced one or more “equivalent of 600-pound”’ daughters. In other words, 32 sires, or only 12.6% of the total number of sires of 600 pound daughters, have three or more such daughters. This indicates that sires of great producing cows are relatively few in number. There were up to December, 1915, 417 cows having records the equivalent of 600 pounds. The 32 sires listed above, produced 156 of these 417 cows. Therefore, we note that 12.6% of the sires of ‘600-pound”’ cows produced 37.4% of those cows. Restating these facts in tabular form, we have the following data: 222 sires produced 261 “equivalent of 600-pound”’ daughters, or 1.17 each. 32 sires produced 156 ‘equivalent of 600-pound”’ daughters, or 4.87 each. Thus, the 32 sires above, were more than four times as prepotent as the remaining 222 sires of ‘600-pound”’ cows. When we observe that these 32 sires are only .092% of the male animals registered in the American Guernsey Herd Books and 2.20% of the 1,454 sires of advanced register cows, the tremendous importance of the few strong sires, from the standpoint of improving the production of the breed, becomes quite apparent. Indeed, it can be safely assumed from the above The Journal of Heredity facts that less than one out of every thousand of the registered male animals will have a marked tendency to lift the production of the breed above the 600 pound level. STRAIN OR FAMILY PREPOTENCY What has been said above refers more particularly to individual prepotency or the tendency of a sire to get produc- ing daughters. It is clear that a knowl- edge of the prepotent strains can only be gained by a study of the ancestry and descent of our great producing animals. When we study the pedigrees of the thirty-two sires in the above list, a noteworthy fact presents itself, namely, that they may nearly all be placed in a few groups according as they trace directly to some notable ancestor. These groups are as follows: GROUP A Related to May Rose II 8648 E. G. H. B. Charmante’s Rose King. Golden Noble II. Imp. King of the May. Imp. May Rose King. Imp. Golden Secret of Lilyvale. Jethro Bass. Dolly Dimple’s May King of Langwater. Lavaton. Beda’s May King. GROUP B Related to Masher R. G. A. S. 705 P. 5. Imp. Masher’s Sequel. Justinee’s Sequel of the Preel. Imp. Galaxy’s Sequel. Triple Champion King Masher. Charmante’s Rose King. Imp. Cora’s Governor of Chilmark. GROUP C Related to Governor of the Chene R. G. A. S. 1297 BS: Imp. Governor I of the Chene. Imp. Holden IV. Imp. Cora’s Governor of Chilmark. King Masher. Imp. The Conqueror II. GROUP D Related to Imp. Glenwood Girl 1693 Glenwood Main Stay 16th. Glenwood Stranford. Glenwood Reputation. Glenwood Boy of Haddon. Stranford’s Glenwood of Pinehurst. Hover: Finding the Prepotent Sire GROUP E Related to Sheet Anchor 2934 Ledyard Bay. Charmante’s Rose King. Triple Champion. Glenwood’s Reputation. Glenwood’s Main Stay 16th. Beda’s May King. GROUP F Related to Imp. Sir Champion 58 Guydette. Rinaldo. Buckthorn. GROUP G Related to Imp. Fernwood Lily 1468 Starlight’s Excelsior. Fernwood of Homestead. GROUP H Miscellaneous Imp. Lord Mar. Jewell’s Independence. Masher 63. It is readily apparent that in the larger groups above we have the most important representatives of what may properly be regarded as.the Guernsey families. Thus we have the “May Roses,” the ‘‘ Mashers,”’ the “Governor of the Chenes,”’ the ‘‘Glenwoods,”’ and the “‘Sheet Anchors.”’ Groups F and G, while perhaps not commonly recog- nized as families, if we judge from the animals listed and others that may soon have three ‘600-pound”’ daughters, may properly be so regarded. The miscel- laneous sires might be regarded as representing potential families requiring only the intelligent and consecutive effort of breeders to establish them. Breeders must depend upon intelligent selection for whatever breed improve- ment is to take place in the future. Intelligent selection presupposes on the part of the breeder: (1) An appreciation of individuality as related to performance and other desirable characters; (2) a knowledge of ancestry in relation to breeding capacity for performance, pro- lificacy, constitutional vigor, etc. It follows, therefore, that a knowledge of the prepotent strains in the various breeds, whether it be for performance, - prolificacy, constitutional vigor or other characters, becomes an invaluable aid in selection. There are three systems of breeding iw represented in the ancestry of the above listed sires, viz., outcrossing, inbreeding, and line breeding. From these pedi- grees it would be difficult to adduce sufficient evidence to prove the super- iority of any one system. *Group F offers a good illustration of a strain probably made prepotent by close breeding, 7. e., line and inbreeding. The dam of Guydette was an inbred cow. Rinaldo is the son of Guydette from a closely related dam. The May Roses have also been in and line bred to avery considerable extent. Theo- retically close breeding by rendering character more pure, ought to give a more prepotent strain, and this theory seems to hold true in practice for a number of notable sires. However, it must be observed that some of the best sires in the breed are outcrosses between several of the leading families as in- stanced in the case of Charmante’s Rose King. The Guernsey, in common with all pure bred cattle, is prepotent over the ordinary stock of the country. This is an important asset to the progressive farmer because he can, by the utiliza- tion of good purebred sires, render his herd in a few years nearly, if not in fact, the producing equivalent of a purebred herd. The writer has observed a large number of calves by Guernsey sires, born to very ordinary cows of mixed breeding and in nearly every case the offspring showed very definitely the outstanding Guernsey characters. The greatest value of the advanced register comes through its revelation of great producing cows and sires of the breed, and, through them, of the pro- ducing strains. It thus aids in the only way man probably has for permanently improving the breed, 7.e., by selection in breeding. There are, however, some weaknesses in the system. In the first place, the best cows are repeatedly retested for still higher records. Since the test period is twelve months, the period between consecutive calving is prolonged to such an extent as materially to decrease the offspring of the best cows. Furthermore, the rich feeding to which such cows are subjected probably interferes with the reproduc- 178 tive function with the same result. These are weaknesses which might be overcome to a large extent (1) by making the test period the same as the gestation period, (2) by establishing a herd ideal in breeding rather than an individual cow ideal, 7.e., by breeding for a ‘‘500-pound or 600-pound equiva- lent’? herd rather than a 1200-pound cow. By stating records of young cows in terms of mature cow equivalents, a uniform herd standard can be estab- lished without the necessity for so much retesting which probably often obscures the real value of a cow as a breeding The Journal of Heredity animal by involving the element of training in production. CONCLUSIONS By way of summarization it may be said: (1) Marked prepotency is limited to a comparatively few animals; (2) Strongly prepotent sires usually belong to prepotent families or strains; (3) Prepotency is probably enhanced by inbreeding; (4) Prepotency may become a valu- able aid to intelligent selection in breeding for greater production. Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency The view of Dr. William Healy, director of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute of Chicago, that heredity is only a minor factor in juvenile delin- quency, is not shared by Dr. W. J. Hickson of the psychopathic laboratory of the municipal court in Chicago. Ina recent interview, Dr. Hickson said: ‘After all these opportunities of learning and checking up, and the efforts of men of science to spread the informaticn, we still see many people who would solve the delinquent boy problem by trying to ‘change the leopard’s spots’ by envir- onmental means. “Tf the boy is normal, environment has little or no influence on him. “Thanks to the laws of heredity, some of our greatest men have attained eminence despite the slums in which they were born and raised. “The normal boy will take care of himself in any environment. That playgrounds, social centers and the like are good for him, no one will deny. That they are essential is not true, because normality means adaptability. “These social agencies do not reach the defective, and cannot.” Dr. Hickson concludes that most juvenile delinquency is due to mental defect, the greatest cause of which is heredity. A campaign for ‘negative eugenics’’ would therefore be desirable. Sale of Canadian Cattalos The Canadian government has pur- chased twenty cattalos (hybrids be- tween the American bison and domestic cow) from the estate of the late Mossom M. Boyd, of Bobcaygeon, Ontario, whose breeding experiment was de- scribed in the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY for May, 1915. Sixteen cows and four bulls made up the herd purchased, which was sent to Scott, Sask. The Boyd estate retained thirteen, three of which have been killed. The remain- ing ten will be bred in a continuation of the experiment, which aims to transfer to the domestic (Polled Angus) cattle the valuable hump and fur of the buffalo. The government herd will be bred along similar lines. THE PITANGA A Valuable Fruit of Brazil Which Deserves to be More Widely Cultivated— Successful in Florida and California— . Methods of Propagation A. D. SHAMEL Physiologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and WILson POPENOE Agricultural Explorer, U. S. Department of Agriculture “that the pitanga dropped from the hands of Nature, while she was at play one day, and became at once a charm to the eye and a delight to the palate. Each fruit is a glowing ruby, suspended by a delicate stem amidst the cool, green leaves of the pitanga tree, a challenge alike to the covetous eyes of children and of birds; nor can the decrepit old man, bowed down with the weight of years, escape its attractions, for he seats himself beneath its shade to meditate upon the Eternity which is approaching. Surely, Brazil does not have to envy Europe her cherry trees, bending in May under the weight of their ruby fruits; our pitangas surpass them both in beauty and in taste.” These lines from one of the ablest of living Brazilian naturalists testify to the esteem in which the pitanga is held throughout those parts of Brazil in which it is found, and indicate some- thing of the beauty of this fruit—rare as yet in most other tropical and sub- tropical countries, but’ worthy of ex- tensive cultivation. During our visit to Brazil in 1913-14, made primarily for the purpose of studying the Navel orange in its native home, Bahia, we were particularly impressed with the value of two native fruits which were found abundantly in the coastal cities. One of these, the jaboticaba, was described in the July, 1914, issue of the JouRNAL OF HER- EDITy. The other, which is the sub- ject of this article, is better known outside of Brazil than the jaboticaba, le IS said,’’ writes Padre Tavares, but its cultivation is by no means so extensive as we believe its value war- rants. Following a stay in Rio de Janeiro, our expedition, consisting of P. H. Dorsett and the writers, moved to Bahia for the purpose of making a detailed study of the Bahian Navel orange, the parent variety of the Washington Navel. The results of this study have been described by the senior author in the JOURNAL OF Herepity for July, 1915. Of the many interesting plants found in connection with the culture of the Navel orange at Bahia, few were so conspicuous and none so interesting as the pitanga, Eugenia uniflora L., of the Myrtle family. Many of the roadways in Cabulla and other Navel orange dis- tricts of Bahia were found to be bor- dered on either side with beautiful and well kept hedges of this plant, as were the driveways or walks leading to the residences of many orange growers, which are usually set back some dis- tance from the road. Frequently pit- anga trees are grouped near the houses, furnishing an abundant supply of fruit for home use. The general cultivation of this plant among the orange groves of Bahia, both as an ornamental and for fruit production, suggested its possi- ble use for similar purposes in the orange growing districts and warmer portions of the United States. DESCRIPTION The pitanga, as usually seen, is a broad, compact shrub, but occasionally it forms a slender trunk and becomes a small tree up to 30 or 35 feet high. Its foliage is deep green 179 A TROPICAL RIVAL OF THE CHERRY Cherries fail to grow well in the tropics, but Brazil has a fruit which might largely take their place. This is the pitanga, a member of the Myrtle family, whose beautiful red berries possess an aromatic pungency almost unknown in the fruits of cooler climates. Photograph of fruit grown at Miami, Fla., natural size. (Fig. 9.) Shamel and Popenoe: The Pitanga and glossy, the new growth of a rich wine- color. The flowers, which are about half an inch broad, have four white petals, with a tuft of stamens in the center, and are delight- fully fragrant. They are produced singly on slender stems about an inch long, and are followed by bright crimson fruits, of the shape of a small tomato, deeply ribbed, about an inch in diameter, with a thin skin and melting, juicy flesh of aromatic, spicy flavor, com- parable to none of the temperate fruits but somewhat resembling other members of the Myrtaceae. The single large seed, about the size of a cherry stone, lies in the center of the fruit and is easily removed. Technically, the species may be described as follows: An arborescent shrub or small tree, com- monly branching close to the ground, broad, compact, sometimes developing a trunk 1 to 2 m. in height, with an erect, rather broad crown. In Brazil it often attains a height of 6 or 8 m.; in Florida it does not usually exceed 4 or 5 m. Branchlets thin and somewhat wiry, glabrous. Barklhght brown, very smooth. Leaves subsessile, opposite, entire, reddish when young, emitting a pungent odor when crushed, the blades ovate, shortly acuminate at the apex, rounded to subcordate at the base, 3-5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, glabrous, finely pellucid-punctate, deep green above, paler beneath, midrib slightly impressed above, midrib and the rather few transverse veins slightly raised below, the transverse veins uniting toward the margin; petiole not over 3 mm. long, slender, grooved above. Flowers white, fragrant, solitary upon slender glabrous peduncles 1144-2'% cm. long in the axils of the leaves. Calyx tube cylin- drical, the lobes pale green, oblong, concave, rounded at the tips, 4 mm. in length, ciliate, reflexed. Petals 4, oblong-obovate, concave, 8 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, ciliate. Stamens numerous, erect in a large cluster, the fila- ments 4-6 mm. long, white, filiform, the anthers oval, pale yellow. Style slightly longer than the stamens, filiform, the stigma simple. Ovary quadrilocular. Fruit a berry, one or sometimes two-seeded, depressed-globose, 2-3 cm. in diameter, prominently eight-ribbed longitudinally, deep crimson, shining, crowned by the persistent green calyx lobes, the disk small, sunken. Epicarp thin, membranous; mesocarp soft, juicy, crimson, of pungent, subacid flavor. Seeds spherical when 1, hemispherical when 2, commonly under 1 cm. in diameter; seed coat membranous. While generally known as Eugenia uniflora L., it has one or two synonyms which are occa- sionally seen. Chief among these is E. Micheli Lam., a name which was used in this country until a few years ago and is still commonly applied by some foreign writers. Nurserymen in Florida and California have 181 sent out numbers of plants under this name. Stenocalyx Michelit Berg was used by Barbosa Rodrigues, one of the best known Brazilian botanists, and following him other Brazilian writers have used it. Myrtus brasiliana L. is an obsolete name occasionally seen in old works, while Plinia rubra L."and Plinia pedunculata L. are also listed in the synonymy of the species. Piso and Marcgrav called it Ibipitanga. DISTRIBUTION The pitanga is indigenous in Brazil, extending over a wide area. Tavares! states that it is found in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Parana, Santa Catha- rina, and Rio Grande do Sul, where it grows along the banks of water courses and rivers, and in the edges of the forest. It is common in cultivation throughout many other sections of the country. It is interesting to note that Thomas Green,? im 1823; listed: the pitanga as a ‘“‘native of Goa in the East Indies.”” Goa is a small Portuguese colony on the western coast of the Indian peninsula, and during the early days of Portuguese colonization there was an interchange of economic plants between this colony and the Portu- guese possessions in America, resulting in the cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.), the guava (Psidium guajava L.), and other American plants becoming thoroughly established in India, while the mango, the carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.), the jak (Artocarpus integrifolia L.), and other oriental fruits were transferred to Brazil. Quite prob- bably the pitanga was carried to Goa along with other Brazilian plants, and Green took it to be indigenous. Many of the citrous fruits which were estab- lished in Brazil by the Portuguese may also have come from Goa by way of Portugal. The name pitanga, by which this fruit seems universally to be known in Brazil, is undoubtedly of Tupi origin. The Tupi Indians inhabited a large part of Brazil at the time of the dis- covery, and the names which they gave to many indigenous plants have per- sisted to the present day, though their meanings have in many cases become obscure. Martius*® states that pitanga 1 Tavares, Prof. J. S., ‘‘As Fruteiras do Brazil,’ in Broteria, Vol. X, fasc. V, Braga, 1912. 2 “Universal Herbal,’ Vol. I, London. 3 Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens, Vol. II, Leipsig, 1867. 182 is derived from the Tupi verb piter, to drink, and anga, odor or scent; one may assume, therefore, that the name was given in reference to the character- istically aromatic juice of the fruit. In other countries the culture of the pitanga is generally very limited. No references to its culture at Goa have been found in recent literature, but we may presume that it is still grown in that region. It is cultivated in northern India at the botanic garden of Sahar- anpur, and is offered in the catalog of this institution under the name of ‘Brazil Cherry,” but the statement is made that it does not fruit abundantly in that climate. It is grown in Ceylon, where, according to Macmillan, it is called Goraka-Jambo. Tavares states that it is cultivated in China, but we can find no other authority for this. It seems quite probable that it may have been introduced in the Portuguese colony of Macao, near Canton, where the climate would probably be very favorable to its growth. It is said by Wilder, who calls it the “French Cherry,” to be a common garden plant in Hawaii. In French it is generally called cerise de Cayenne, or Cayenne- cherry; Dr. Trabut* states that it would rapidly become popular in Al- geria if it produced more abundantly, having been found to be quite hardy along the coast. Emile Sauvaigo,’® an- other French writer, states that it is the commonest tropical fruit cultivated in the vicinity of Algiers; he gives it the common name of cerise carrée as well as that applied by Trabut. In Cuba it is occasionally seen in gardens, and is called cereza de Cayena. Inthe United States its culture is limited to Florida and California, but it is grown very successfully in both these regions. In 1887 P. W. Reasoner® wrote, ‘‘ The tree is quite frequently met with in Orange County and middle Florida, and is gaining in favor as a fruitbearing plant.” At the present time it is common in gardens along the East coast, especially The Journal of Heredity in the vicinity of Miami, where the fruit has recently commenced to appear in the market, and on the West coast from Fort Myers northward. After the plants have attained the requisite age they fruit abundantly, often pro- ducing two crops a year. In California the pitanga has never become so common as in Florida. It is, in fact, rare in California gardens, and undoubtedly worthy of much more extensive cultivation. Dr. Franceschi’ reported that it was growing in Monte- cito in 1895. In recent years quite a few plants have been disseminated by nurserymen in California. In the United States the name Surinam-cherry is much more common than pitanga, and is, in fact, the one generally used. HABITS OF GROWTH At Bahia, Brazil, the pitanga was found much more commonly as a hedge plant than in any other form, but such plants produce much less fruit than those allowed to develop naturally. The largest trees seen in Bahia, at the Roga Coronel in the suburb of Roma, were about 15 feet high, with trunks six inches in diameter. At Agua Com- prida, near Bahia, on the ranch of Col. Joao de Teive e Argollo, we found a magnificent specimen nearly 35 feet high, with a trunk 15 inches in diameter. These trees, in December, which is one of the spring months in Bahia, were loaded with their bright red fruits. Considerable variation was noted on different trees, in regard to quantity, shape, size and color of fruit. Dr. V. A. Argollo Ferrao, to whom we are indebted for invaluable assistance dur- ing our stay in Bahia, stated that he had frequently observed this varia- bility of individual trees, and suggested the possibility of improving the pitanga by careful selection of seeds. Bud selection would not be practicable at present, since seed propagation is the only method generally employed in Brazil. By planting seeds from trees 4In Revue Horticole de l’Algerie, XII, p. 161, 1908. 5 Les Cultures sur le Littoral de la Mediterranee, p. 207, Paris, 1913. 6 Report on the Condition of Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruits in the United States in 1887, p. 25, Washington, 1891. 7 Santa Barbara Exotic Flora, p. 33. Santa Barbara, Cal., 1895. = ey ie - Fe ph Pi >i a re +p abs a at KS ? Re & ef’ A: a PITANGA HEDGES ALONG THE ROADWAY This scene near Bahia, Brazil, shows one of the best uses of the pitanga—to form a hedge. But it is not limited to this use, for it makes a shapely tree, and bears even more heavily, when planted alone. its strikingly beautiful berries indoors. In northern climates, it might be used as a pot plant, and produce It is remarkable for the great speed with which it develops its fruit, which in the tropics is sometimes ripe within three weeks from the appearance of flowers. (Fig. 10.) which bear abundantly, and whose fruits are of good size and quality, marked improvement could probably be secured. This has recently been illus- trated in California with the feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana Berg), a plant be- longing to the same family; seeds from selected fruits have produced much better results than those taken without regard to parentage. Two varieties have been offered by Reasoner Brothers of Florida; one the ordinary crimson-fruited pitanga, and the other ‘“black-fruited,’’ being con- siderably darker in color than the common type. Tavares mentions two 183 184 The Journal varieties which occur in Brazil, but states that they appear equally good to him. There ‘are so many varia- tions among seedlings that it would undoubtedly be an easy matter to distinguish a number of horticultural varieties; it would be less easy, however, to insure their coming true from seed. When some readily applicable means of vegetative propagation has been found, more attention can profitably be given to this subject. Fortunately, there appears to be less variation among seedlings than occurs among many tree fruits which have been subjected to long cultivation, the pitanga being com- parable in this respect to its near relative the strawberry guava (Psidium cattleranum Sabine.) THE FRUIT AND ITS USES Bahian pitangas were found usually to be slightly less than an inch in diameter, flattened, deeply ribbed, and commonly containing one seed with a thin, gray seed-coat which becomes papery when dry and is easily removed. The size of the seed varies greatly in fruits from the same tree and is not always the same in proportion to the size of the fruit. Several large fruits were found which had comparatively small seeds and a large amount of soft, juicy, spicy pulp. Miss Thompson’, who has recently made an analysis of pitanga fruits in Hawaii, finds that they contain a total of 9.30% solids, of which 1.93% are insoluble. The percentage of acids is 1.44, of protein 1.019, and the total percentage of sugars 6.06. Fat is present in about .6%. The uses of the fruit are numerous. As a fresh fruit, when fully ripe, they are delicious, though sometimes the novice finds their strongly aromatic, almost pungent flavor peculiar and even disagreeable. The jelly which is made from them possesses a character all its own, and vies with guava jelly in popu- larity among Bahians. It impressed us as being a product of unusual merit. Pitanga sherbet is an especial favorite in Bahia, and is regularly served in all 8‘The Composition of Hawaiian Fruits and Nuts, Exp. Sta., 1914. of Heredity the cafés. It is of a beautiful deep salmon color, and delicious in flavor. A liquer is sometimes prepared from the fruit, and also syrups and wines which are considered by the Brazilians to have medicinal value, being stom- achic and facilitating digestion. Aside from the fruit itself, the foliage is extensively utilized by the Bahians, being highly esteemed for decorative purposes. In the notes made by one of the writers on Christmas Day, 1913, the following paragraph appears: “The people use pitanga branches to decorate carts, animals, street cars, and houses. The leaves are scattered over the floors of the living rooms in the houses, and when crushed under foot give off a delightful, refreshing, pungent aroma.” The use of this plant for decorative purposes at Christmas time is probably more extensive in Bahia than is the use of holly in the eastern United States; it seemed to be, in fact, the most popu- lar decorative plant of the region. During the holiday season bunches of pitanga branches were offered for sale by vendors on almost every street. In the United States, the fruit is usually eaten while fresh or is made into jelly. Pitanga sherbet should be tried by all who can obtain the fruits, how- ever, and other uses will doubtless present themselves as the fruit becomes better known in this country. THE CROP A remarkable thing about the pitanga is the short time which elapses between the appearance of the flowers and the ripening of the fruits. Tavares assures us that the fruits are ripe within three weeks from the time of flowering, and in Florida, where the climate is not so tropical, they ripen within five or six weeks. In Brazil the plants bloom in September and ripen a small crop in October, flowering again for the main crop about December or January. In Florida the main crop is produced in March, with a few late fruits extending the season until May or June, and sometimes a second crop late in sum- mer. In California the season is ee tember or October. ” in the Report of the Hawaii Agrl. Shamel and Popenoe: The Pitanga The plants are said by Bahians to fruit regularly, one grower estimating the number of fruits produced by an individual bush at 5,000, or sometimes more. In Florida they appear to fruit very regularly and abundantly, after they have attained sufficient age. Ap- parently it requires several years for the plants to come into full bearing, as they are of rather slow growth. It has frequently been reported in California that the plants do not fruit well. Probably this is due in many cases to lack of sufficient age, since old plants at both Santa Barbara and Orange have borne good crops. During the first four or five years little fruit seems to be produced. PROPAGATION AND CULTURE Thomas Green gave the following directions for germinating the seeds: “Set the stones fresh from their places of natural growth in small pots filled with light earth, plunge them into a hot-bed, observing to keep the earth moist, but not wet. In about six weeks the plants will appear; when about 4 inches high, separate them very carefully, plant each in a small pot, plunge them into a hot-bed again, and carefully shade them until they have taken root. Treat them in the 185 same way as other tender plants from the same countries, keeping them plunged in the tan-bed, and water- ing them sparingly in winter.”’ These directions have been followed by one of the writers at Riverside, Cal., and have given very satisfactory results. The seeds usually germinate well, if planted while fresh; at Reasoner Brothers’ nurseries, Oneco, Fla., they are allowed to remain on the ground under the tree until they germinate, when the young plants are’ taken up and potted. It can thus be seen that there is no difficulty in starting the seeds, and they transplant readily. Tavares states that the plant prefers a light, sandy soil. It grows well in south Florida on shallow, calcareous soils, and almost equally well in Cali- fornia on sandy loam. Unless trained, the plants usually assume a_ bushy, compact form, and branch close to the ground. They require no unusual care and seem to be fairly drought resistant, though coming from a moist region. The amount of frost which they will stand when young is not great, but they have passed successfully through tem- peratures of 27° or 28° above zero F., and when they have attained three or fours years’ growth they should stand even lower temperatures without any injury whatever. Genetics at Washington Experiment Station the rstudies or anheritance at the Washington State Agricultural Experi- ment Station have been conducted with wheat, oats, barley and rye. The investigations with wheat include the qualitative characters and smut resist- ance. The inheritance of such specific characters as beards, head length and grain color, and the general characters of drought resistance, milling quality and stiffness of straw are among those which are being investigated. Many of the specific characters have been found to behave in a manner that can be definitely predicted when certain varie- ties are crossed. The inheritance of some of the more general characters remains to be determined. The difference in the resistance of different varieties of wheat to smut has been determined. Various crosses are being made for the purpose of producing more valuable varieties with a less ten- dency to smut. The studies with oats include the inheritance of panicle type, glume color, hullessness, etc. Similar studies are being made with barley. In the work with rye attempts are being made to obtain a variety without beards. Three generations or four crop seasons are necessary to determine the inheritance of specific characters of unknown value. WAR, SCIENCE, CIVILIZATION Biologist Protests Against the Kind of Biology Preached by Militarists—Defective Politics Resting on Defective Understanding of Nature Makes War Now Possible—Changes in Public Sentiment That Will Make War Unlikely—What the United States Could Do Review of a book by WitiiAM E. RITTER Director of the Scripps Institution for Biological Research of the University of California, La Jolla, Cal. HE idea of settling by arbitration the question as to whether a hungry man may take a loaf of which he has the full strength to possess himself is chimerical and quixotic. So says a recent German writer, attempting to justify wars of expansion. Taking this statement as a starting point, Professor William E. Ritter, of the University of California, has under- taken! to show what modern biology would say about war of that type. In the first place, he strongly objects to the tendency of militaristic writers to justify wars among men on the mere ground of a struggle for survival among the lower animals. Admitting the truth of the statement made in the first paragraph of this review, he remarks that it does not cover the whole case. “Such situations constitute what militarists of the Homer Lea and von Bernhardi type regard as the biological necessity for war. As a biologist, I would insist that the argument which would make war everlastingly necessary on such grounds implies a limitation to the conception of ‘biological’ that is utterly inadmissible by biology itself. Biology never stops and never can stop in its dealings with any animal by regarding it just as an animal in an unrestrained sense. It always deals with some particular kind or spectes of animal. The fish must be treated as a fish, and the bird as a bird. . Neither can be disposed of by merely attending 1 War, Science and Civilization, by William E. Ritter. French & Co., 1915. 186 to such general attributes as need for food and propagation, common to both, and to all animals. ‘In exactly the same way is it im- possible for biology to consider man as just an animal. If it touches him at all it must touch him as the human animal. Confusion of thought in this matter, not only among laymen but among many biologists, is amazing, and has led to the most bizarre specula- tions about man, some of these being truly direful in their effects on human outlook and conduct.”’ If biology, then, is to be drawn into the discussion of war, it must insist that man be considered as distinctly a human animal, endowed with reason, and foresight, and inventive talent, and humane sentiments. Given these endowments, man de- humanizes himself if he does not use them to forestall situations that would make hunger press so severely on him as to lead him to war. This is a ques- tion of the proper distribution of the earth’s resources. THE HEART OF THE PROBLEM “This brings us to the kernel of this discussion, and, as it seems to the writer, to the supreme question our nation will have to grapple with if it would accomplish anything significant toward world peace. That question is, Can we present any practical plan whereby nations foremost in the march of civilization shall be assured such Pp. 125; price, $1 net. Boston, Sherman Ritter: War, Science, Civilization portions of the primal resources of nature as are necessary to enable them to maintain the places they have won, without having to resort to war to secure them?”’ “Stating the matter still more pointedly, is an international arrange- ment possible whereby a nation might under certain circumstances give over to other nations portions of its territory or other economic advantages peace- fully, deliberately, and without im- mediate and definite compensation? The suggestion even in the form of a question will probably seem too absurd to merit a moment’s thought by practical men. My own categorical answer to the question is, no, as long as politics, national and international, rest on a philosophy of nature and human nature so defective as that on which they now do rest; but yes, if political practice could be based on a philosophy that should conform to the actual facts of nature and human nature.” Politics can never be scientific, Dr. Ritter thinks, because it is devoted to the meeting of exigencies, the dealing with matters of expediency, which are quite alien to the spirit of science. But if politics can not be a science in a strict sense, yet it cannot measure up to the real needs of modern civilization, unless it rests on a foundation a large part of which is science. An essential part of this foundation would be the recognition of those general principles of nature and human nature upon which man, the human animal, would base his efforts to ward off in effective fashion crises of national want, and thereby avoid being placed in the position of the hungry man who takes by force the loaf of bread. WAR DEFEATS OWN END From this point of view, it is of first importance to recognize that war de- feats its ownend. It is anomalous that a system of distributing the necessities of men’s existence among the political divisions of the earth, should be in vogue whereby in order that men may get that which they must have, they are obliged to destroy a large portion 187 of that for which they are striving. Those who defend war as a means of gaining territory or other economic advantage, and refer to the biological struggle for existence as a justification, forget the nature of the Sub-human struggle. That results in the destruc- tion or defeat of some of the combatants merely; while the struggle among human beings, especially those living under civilization, results in destroying not only some of the combatants, but much of the goods over which they fight. From this standpoint, so-called civilized warfare is far less scientific than the pillaging warfare among savages, which aims chiefly at capturing and carrying off the goods for which it is waged. Further, when politics invokes the support of biology to justify war, it must recognize that “‘Nature’s resources are actually limited for partly civilized man, but potentially unlimited for fully civilized man.” So far as nature and science are concerned, there is ample reason to believe that civilization might ensure its own progress indefinitely, even though “pressure of population upon means of subsistence’”’ be accepted as an inevitable concomitant of that progress. But an essential condition of continued progress would be the utiliza- tion of all the resources of nature to the fullest extent. In the way of doing this stands the stupendous obstacle of existing political ideas and practices relative to the ownership of its primal resources. “It seems unescapable that if science is to be enabled to do its best for civilization, some way will have to be found to overcome this difficulty. Nothing could be further from scientific than the way Africa and the Pacific islands are being allotted among the civilized nations. Perhaps there is little hope of early reaching a rational basis in this matter. Surely there would be none were it not for the fact that civilized men are ruled so largely by general theories held in the blindest way; but that these theories may undergo profound change when personal interests are seen to be at stake; and that, on the whole, right theories appeal more to normal men than wrong ones.” 188 The Journal All of the combatants in the present world war believe that they are fighting for the cause of civilization; but they do not define what they mean by civil- ization, and it is doubtful whether they really know. To the author, Civiliza- tion “is the one-word designation of the grade of evolution for one organic species, Homo sapiens, in respect to those attributes which set it off most sharply from all other species. It 7s evolution, though only a part of it, albeit an overwhelmingly important Part.” Now civilization in this sense, the author goes on to show, is incompatible with great empire. ‘More disastrously fallacious reasoning was never carried on than that according to which a nation’s status in civilization is de- pendent upon its territorial and econo- mic extent. : . . The reasoning that would justify strife for unlimited pos- sessions just for the sake of having them, would be paralleled by reasoning that because the individual cannot live without food, therefore he should try to eat all the food in sight.” The nation which wishes to achieve a high degree of civilization, then, can- not spend its energy squabbling over boundary lines, but must devote itself to developing civilizing processes. It must recognize that science furnishes the groundwork for a great rational faith in man’s capacity for indefinite progress. It must recognize that the phenomena of cooperation, coordina- tion or, as the author prefers to say, integration, are just as much a part of evolution as are the phenomena of differentiation, which we usually have in mind when we think of evolution. The militarists who are seeking shelter behind biology commonly ignore this, and speak of a “right of conquest” as something sacred, because it has existed in the past. “Such arguing is intolerable to a consistent evolutionist. In the use made of the doctrine by political leaders, diplomatists, and militarists, the utmost contradictoriness and confusion prevail. On the one hand they borrow from biol- ogy and use with the greatest assurance such vague phrases as ‘struggle for of Heredity existence’ and ‘survival of the fittest,’ while on the other hand they seem quite oblivious to the essential idea of for- ward movement and growing interde- pendence among men, the very essence of progress in civilization.” “From the standpoint of biological evolution, progress in civilization may be characterized as the differentiation and intensification of love and intellect, and of the intellectualizing of love and the affectionizing of intellect.’ A CHANGE IN POLITICS Now the author inquires, if such a view of human nature were generally adcpted, as being based on scientific grounds, and if man should at the same time get “the mighty faith that there is practically no limit to nature’s capacity for yielding to man all those things which, from sources outside himself, he truly needs,’ what would be the psychological result? What would be the effect on the attitude and conduct of men toward one another and toward nature? On the negative side, it would banish the dread of the “tragedy of popula- tion,’ which has been present ever since Malthus created it. On the positive side, it would imbue productive effort with a religious zeal. The tasks of conserving, developing, distributing, and wisely using the forces of nature, would be viewed in a truer light. Men would really gain a religious feeling, which would direct them in subjugating nature, rather than in subjugating men and nations. “Tt remains to ask what our nation might do at this time to forward this greatend. Manifestly we cannot escape playing some part in the grim world- drama now being staged. The answer may be short and sharp. Two sorts of things may be done; indeed, must be done, if the part we play is to be positive and honorable. One sort will pertain to the nation itself; the other to its relations with other nations.” The first thing to do is to “subject ourselves to a self-examination the like of which we have hitherto known little about.”’ It will result in the increase and improvement of our education, Ritter: War, Science, Civilization culture, and the pursuit of art and science. The second is to put into practice the principles which underlie civilization, by showing other governments that we are willing to help them get what they need for their own greatest development. As a hypothetical case, Dr. Ritter suggests that we might turn over to Japan some of our non-contigu- ous possessions, in order that her congested population may have room to breathe. “The possibility of conditions in which the policy of England would be 189 to help Russia to better seaports, if Russia truly needs them; of France to help Germany to more and better room in Africa for colonization, if Germany’s needs in that direction are clear; and of Germany to help Japan, the United States, and Great Britain to free the whole Pacific from need of extensive armaments, might be counted on to fill millions of persons the world over . : with an enthusiasm that would be irresistible and permanent because sus- tained by reason as well as by emotion. “This is idealism, but it is scientific idealism.” The ‘‘Practical Eugenic Movement”’ The “Practical Eugenic Movement,”’ an organization directed by T. W. Shan- non, of Delaware, Ohio, has more than 7,250 members, according to a recent letter from Professor Shannon. It pub- lishes a monthly magazine called Prac- tical Eugenics, which is said to have more than 4,000 circulation. The move- ment and organ are devoted largely to euthenics, emphasizing such factors as sex hygiene, temperance, care of the baby, personal hygiene and a war on tobacco, and a widespread propaganda is carried on through lectures. New Publication on Genetics The first issue of Genetics, a bi- monthly periodical record of investiga- tions bearing on heredity and variation, appeared at the end of February. It contains as frontispiece a hitherto un- published portrait of Gregor Mendel, and the following papers: ‘‘Non-disjunc- tion as proof of the chromosome theory of heredity,” by Calvin B. Bridges; “The numerical results of diverse systems of breeding,” by H. S. Jennings; and “Hereditary anchylosis of the proximal phalangeal joints (sympha- langism),’’ by Harvey Cushing. Genetics is edited by a board, of which Prof. George H. Shull, of Princeton is the chief, and is published by the Princeton University Press. It is announced that it starts with about 270 subscribers, who pay $6.00 each per year. Rare Publications on Genetics Available Through early members, the American Genetic Association has come into pos- session of several complete sets of the Proceedings and magazine of the Ameri- can Breeders’ Association, and the volumes of the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY previous to the present year. These entire sets of the Association’s publica- tions are offered for sale as wholes, and the secretary will be glad to correspond with any one interested in securing a collection of these publications. ([[ Sty) ‘amy yunys Jo odAq afqenyea pue Mou v astuosd YOIyM JO OA} YsBaT Ye ‘pouteyqo udeq oAvY sJURINUT Jo sodAy JoULJSIP Moy ‘UOL]B1NUNS PoIIq-SsO1O ISI 9Yy ysno1y} poliivo useq sey YUNYS oy} Ul suUOTzeyNUT jo UOTssILUSUeI} oY} JO Apis WY “polpNys Used sAvY 90N}}9] Ul Sassoto sotods snoioumN ‘ssoi30id ut st speurureur Aroye10qR] [[euIs uOdN Yorvasay *S}UOpNys oJenpeis puv ss1oruos AY ynoqe s[[otus os1n09 poouvape uv ‘s]Uopnys QNE JO JUOUTT[OIUS Ue sey SoLjoUL UI oSIMOD AreJUOUIIJO UY “SJUOpNys [eINyMOLIse poulesj}-yjom jo wn -OLLIND OY} 07 Soja Jo doULZIOdUTT OY} OZTUZOII 0} SasaTJOD [eINJNoLUIsy oy} Jo ISI oy} Suowury sea stoul]] Jo A}IsIoAIUy) oY} Ww oMYMOLIBy Jo oBa]JoD oy, “SUOTZVSLSoAUT PUP Sasinod oY} Jo ddIeYO Yoo, uosjopiod “VY “[ 4d ose sreaX Moy ‘souls ATIpeoys uMOIS sey pue O8v sivod AULW yIOduaARG “Y URad Aq UNsaq SBM SoT}OUOD UT YOM OY, “SOOYJO OA} PUB “ULOOL IVUTULAS “WOOL SSP]o ‘K1OPVIOGR] OJLNPLAS B ‘WOOIOIO}S B ‘SWIOOI [RUTTUR OM SUTe{UOD pure ‘opIM Joo} ZF PUL SUOT Joo} ZF] SI Surpying oy, “Ssurpyinq MOU S}I 0} poAours4 Uo ATJU9001 SBY STOUT] JO AIsIOATU_, dy} Je oINYMOLISW JO oaso]JOD) oY} UL Solouor) JO UOISIAIC] OL 2 Re hala: = SL Ue . AYNALTNOMDV JO ADATIOO SIONITH LV SOLLANAS AO LNAWLYVdad THE STRAWBERRY, A TRIUMPH OF PLANT BREEDING systematic plant breeding accom- plished in horticulture during recent ??? |: one asks, ‘‘What has deliberate, years?’ no general answer can be given. In some fruits scientific plant breeding is still almost unknown. The varieties of cherry, for example, which are grown in the United States are practically all of unknown origin; they appear by accident and some one recognizes their merit and propagates them. In other fruits much more has been done by scientific breeding, but probably with no single fruit has more been accomplished than with the straw- berry. Of the 200,000 acres or thereabouts which are planted to strawberries in the United States, it is probable that 90% are planted to varieties which have been produced during the last quarter of a century, as the result, not of chance, but of intelligent manipulation by breeders. Strawberries have been grown in this country ever since it was first settled, but the original strains bore fruit only in the early summer. One of the greatest advances in the industry was the introduction of the fall-bearing or ever-bearing varieties, the first of which was Pan-American, produced by Samuel Cooper, of Delevan, N. Y., in 1898. This was a sport from the variety Bismarck, which bore only in the early summer. Mr. Cooper produced a number of seedlings by self-fertilization from this sport, and then crossed them with each other and back on the parent. In this way a number of other more desirable varicties were obtained. Crossing Pan-American with Dunlap (Senator Dunlap), a widespread and famous variety, Harluw Reckhill, of Conrad, Iowa, produced in 1908 the variety Progressive, which has proved one of the most popular in the northern States. The number of plants of Pro- gressive in existence at the present time cannot be much short of 700,000,000 or 800,000,000—a pretty good record for eight years. Dunlap itself, which has long been the most widely grown northern variety, originated with Rev. J. R. Reasoner, of Urbana, IIll., in 1890, but was not introduced to the trade until 1900. It was the result of definite breeding. The variety Klondike, which makes up probably nine-tenths of the area planted in the southern States, was produced as long ago as 1895 by Robert Cloud, of Louisiana, as a result of a carefully planned cross. Why, it may be asked, has intelligent plant breeding been so much more widespread with the strawberry than with any other fruit? The ease with which results are got appears to be the principal reason. Crosses are easily made, seedlings are easily grown, and they multiply so rapidly by runners that a large stock can be obtained in a very short time. Thus a commercial breeder, if he can produce something really good and keep it under his control for a few years, is able to offer for sale a large enough stock to bring generous financial returns. This seems to be the principal reason why the strawberry grower can get varieties produced with a view to meeting his definite needs, while the grower of many another fruit is forced to content himself with varieties that appeared by accident, and may be far from ideal. Encouraging Race Suicide “Some day,” says the March Eugeni- cal News, ‘“‘it may be regarded as a crime against society to publish such an advertisement as the following which has been running in the Survey : ‘Wanted — Married couples without children, between the ages of 30 and 45, to take charge of cottages’ at a school for boys.’’ But not 1f they pre- fer caretakers of inferior quality. 191 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Civilization and Climate By ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON ‘‘An interesting book on the relations between climate and humin energy. The book is fascinating, and well worked out—the better, perhaps, for keeping to its subject, and avoiding cther considerations which must enter into an index of civilization.” —The Athenaeum. Price $2.50 net, postpaid. Problems of Genetics By WILLIAM BATESON “One of the most stimulating and suggestive books for students of Evolution and Heredity which has appeared since the rediscovery of Mendel’s law.’’—Science. Listed in the New York Times Book Review among the ‘(One Hundred Best Books of the Year.”’ E [Price $4.00 net, postpaid. The Physiology of the Amino Acids By FRANK P. UNDERHILL “Every physician who wishes to keep abreast with this important development in physi- ology should take advantage of the opportunity offered by Underhill to obtain the necessary information in so concise, inexpensive and readable a treatise.”—Journal of Amzrican Medical Association. Price $1.35 net, postpaid. YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT mm mr tr 1 I 1 I fH He Ee Ee ee ee ee me Sileeas 54 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | An Introduction to Heredity and Eugenics BEING WELL-BORN By MICHAEL F. GUYER Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin; President of the American Microscopical Society An up-to-date, comprehensive, and conservative study, embodying the latest results of scientific investigation in clear and understandable English. It is strong on the theoretical side but. emphasizes especially, and illustrates fully, the practical application of the theories. Although just issued it is being used as a text-book in many American colleges and universities. Prescott F. Hall, Secretary Immigration Restriction League, Boston: Condensed and clear statement of the latest results of scientific research in heredity. David Starr Jordan, Chancellor Leland Stanford Jr. University: A remarkably full and accurate statement of what we really know of the science of eugenics and its application to human life. C. H. Parker, Zoological Laboratory, Harvard University: Decidedly the best of American texts on eugenics. With analytical table of contents, glossary, references for further reading and study, and a complete index. 12mo. Cloth $1.00 net. The publishers will send a copy of BEING WELL-BORN on approval to any reader of this magazine i ee ee - . The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Publishers, Merrill Union Cire!e, Indianapolis, Ind’ mt i i 0 em ee Be Be Fe Fe Ee Fe ee The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 5 May, 1916 CONTENTS Is Twinning Hereditary?, by C. H. Danforth....................... 195 Laws to Restrict Miscegemation............. 0.02. e eee eect ee eees 202 AGB OW willeELOrin sy Wen tet. esi eee aon sana? drags Ra ce oe, aide 203 What They Say about Inbreeding in Europe, An Interview with Write Gao re tee ey oe kore coke tic strc eae tc Secreta, bd are eae 204 Growing Melons on Trees, by J. E. Higgins........................ 208 Crimecrandshleredtbyrer Ace alec ooo ese hese en Oe en eee 220 To Study Exceptional Children........................ regis TANS 220 Heredity of Albinism, by Charles B. Davenport.................... 221 A Family with Abnormal Hands........................0... 000404. 224 Inheritance of Fertility in Swine...............0.0.. 0.0.0.2... 0000 ae 224 Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns, by Sarkis Boshnakian................. 225 CGenetiesimiE ducation 6/255 bes dia ceod so nd yas VR Pe a ee ee 236 Unirsudl Pecunaiby, tn sa. Gow, foi. x voles) chs Rv eee es 236 Heebleminded AGribies. 515 -'toeoe 5 ob adlsteae apcuet’s tea ocd Ritu invs Cte Wheel 236 Eugenic Survey of Nassau County, N. Y.....................00e0e 237 Genetic Survey of Kansas City...............0.0. 00.0000. c ce eee eee 238 Nebraska‘ Sterilization Mawis.. cs. 5o a .% coke sss view ulin ptaaniote cease Mew 238 The Drama in the Service of Eugenics............................. 238 The Latest “‘Siamese Twins”? on Record.......................... 239 Prizesifor Kugenic Studies: .. 2.550.055 s:.6 .0ces unl ae Joh eb aw bun on 240 Defectives in District of Columbia..............................04.. 240 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, Anril 26, 1916. 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Problem Much More Complicated Than It Appears at First Sight—Two Kinds of Twins—Possible Influence of the Father—The Frequency of Multiple Births C. H. DANFORTH Department of Anatomy, Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Mo. P \HE layman is often impatient with the indefinite character of much of our eugenic information. It is not easy for him to understand the difficulties that attend an investiga- tion into the heredity of what may seem to be a single clear cut characteristic. For this reason it may be of interest to point out a few of the obstacles met in such a study. The question of a possi- ble hereditary tendency for twin produc- tion may be selected for this purpose. The problems encountered are not identical with those that would be met in the investigation of the heredity of some other characteristic but they are in a measure similar and will serve to furnish a typical example. The occasional occurrence of twins among the offspring of man and other animals that usually produce only one offspring at a time, has always been a matter of interest to both the popular and the scientific mind. This interest is due not so much to the fact that these mammals may sometimes produce two or more young at a birth as to the extreme similarity that frequently exists between the young thus produced. The causes that result in twin produc- tion, however, are not fully understood, and still less is known of the rdle heredity plays in this connection. If one attempts to learn more about the heredity of twinning he is forced to consider a number of subsidiary ques- tions which are in themselves of consid- erable interest. It is the main purpose of this paper to call attention to the bearing of some of these secondary considerations in relation to the question of an hereditary tendency toward twin production. Incidentally a few frag- mentary data from family histories are also presented, but the writer is still collecting this material! and has little hope that it will be in shape for final publication for some time. THE ORIGIN OF TWINS One of the first questions to be raised at the beginning of an investiga- tion into the existence or non-existence of any hereditary tenaency is: What is the exact nature of the characteristic in which this tendency is to be sought? It might seem that nothing could present less difficulty in this connection than twinning. But such is far from being the case. In the first place, it may be recalled, embryologists hold that twins arise in two very different ways. In one case, two separate egg cells, from the same ovary or from opposite ovaries, are fertilized each by a separate sperm cell. The resulting embryos develop inde- pendently like the different members of an ordinary litter. They need have no greater resemblance to each other than brothers and sisters born at different times, and the chance that they will be of like sex is the same as for any two consecutive children in the same family. Such twins are variously designated as fraternal, heterologous, biovular. ‘There seems to be ample evidence that many pairs are of this sort. In the case of the other class of twins, it is claimed that both members of the pair are derived from a single egg that has been fertilized by a single sperm. At some time subsequent to fertilization two centers of growth appear in the 1 The writer of this paper will welcome family histories in which several pairs of twins occur, or other data bearing on the question of hereditary twinning. 195 (‘[ ‘B1q) ‘Aueuties saseo Joy}O OU are o1O ‘SOUBIQUIOLU [B}IO} JO JaS ajeiedas pue Idol Ayyeo1 Aoyy }t qyoadxa pyhom auo UPYy IPTIUUIS o10ul yy} pure ‘uoIp “yeptuNts AIOA io ‘Ayrurey sty} ur uMOUY szatdr4y JO Sut} jo 2A0 JOUTISIP 9aIY} JUAS9 ‘s1a}SIS IO SI9Yy}OIG Jay} JO Auv jo yey} UPY} JoyrTep St tiey Ih id aie suorxojduwioo puv ney ‘soso Toy, *s]]90 389 99IY} 10 OMY ‘9u0 WO} peALlep S wor} sjadiy asoy, UL SOAT}EJAI ayeIpouTUE oY} Suoule ajojduroo v yor) pey Aoy} Svs YW Itoy} Papua}ye OYM JO}OP oul ysnoyyye ‘eorjuapr sues ou Aq ore soinyzwy Loy} BY} WIS od [TEM YEA -[tyo woeytY} JO ysadunoA oy} o1V oy, ‘woryeArasqo Areurpso 0} oI jeysinsurstpur AT[Borjoe Udy} Jopisuoo AT[eNsN SUIT} YSI IY} JOF Woy} 9S OYM aidoag += ¢8uojaq spi13 voy} 9soY} OP SsefO YOryA UY aq Avut ‘poaarfaq st pt ‘syed, “suruutayy Areyipatoy JO JapNys oy} S}UOTFUOS 7VYy suLa|qoid yNoYyIp oy} JO 9UO 9yeAYSN]TE SNOT “4 ; ZNOK OL AMTTV MOOT STHID ASHHL Od Danforth: Is Twinning Hereditary ? embryonic cell-mass and from each of these centers a_ distinct individual develops. Such twins, known as zden- tical, homologous, or uniovular, are always of the same sex and, moreover, often show the most striking similarity.2, The evidence in favor of the existence of this type of twins is drawn from many sources and seems quite conclusive.* It will be apparent from the foregoing that there are at least two fundamentally different classes of twins which must be taken into account in a study of hered- ity. Biovular twins, since they owe their existence to the simultaneous ovulation of two ova instead of one, must be explained entirely by reference to some attribute of the mother and could not possibly be due to any char- acteristic of the father. Uniovular twins, on the other hand, might con- ceivably be due to factors supplied by either the father or the mother or, like a recessive character, to some inherent peculiarity. in the germ cells of both parents. In one case the characteristic is manifested in the parental generation (mother), in the other it appears in the filial generation (twins themselves). This is an obvious and important dis- tinction. Indeed it might be argued that the occurrence of uniovular and biovular twins represents two entirely distinct and unrelated phenomena. Yet this point is frequently neglected in studying twins from a statistical or hereditary standpoint. Simon Newcomb’s memoir? “‘A statis- tical Inquiry into the Probability of Causes of the Production of Sex in Human Offspring,’’ may be mentioned as one illustration of such an oversight. In this article it is shown from very extensive data that twins are of the same sex much more frequently than can be explained by reference to the laws of ‘chance. Even so careful a student as Professor Newcomb, proceeding from 197 this fact and completely ignoring the possibility of the existence of these two types of twins, tried to prove that the sex of twins, and therefore all embryos, is determined subsequent to*fertilization. If, however, the current views as out- lines above are correct it follows that, while the data presented by Newcomb are exactly what would be expected, his arguments from them are practically pointless. THE TWO KINDS OF TWINS Since embryologists insist that stu- dents of heredity recognize the existence of these two classes of twins, the next question that arises is as to how they may be distinguished. It is commonly assumed that twins of opposite sex are necessarily biovular, while those of similar sex may belong in either class. It therefore becomes a question of passing judgment on the degree of resemblance between the members of each pair where the sex is the same. This is no easy matter. On the one hand biovular twins may sometimes closely resemble each other as is shown by the fact that two brothers or sisters born several years apart are frequently very similar. That uniovular twins, on the other hand, may be very different is strikingly indicated by those cases in which one of the individuals has suffered from some handicap before birth, or is reduced to a mere parasite attached to its more vigorous partner. Identity is rarely attained. The relation of the foetal membranes in which the twins develop has been proposed as a criterion, and it is probably true that any pair of twins which at birth are found to be surrounded by a single set of membranes have come from a single ovum. But it does not neces- sarily follow that those surrounded by separate sets of membranes are biov- ular. That they frequently are not 2 The extent of this similarity, which may reach even to the finger prints, has been studied by Professor Wilder and others: see H. H. Wilder in the American Journal of Anatomy, vol. i. 3 The following observations may be mentioned: (a) in some lower forms it is possible experimentally to cause two embryos to develop from one egg; (b) in the case of the North Amer- ican Armadillo, it is definitely established that four young regularly develop from each egg; (c) embryos showing all grades of division from a slight bifurcation to complete separation of individ- uals are actually found. 4 Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication No. 33. . 5 This is the present view of Sobotta and others, but such data as are referred to in the text seem to throw some doubt upon it. PLURAL BIRTHS ARE NOT AN UNMIXED BLESSING “The stork is one bird that does not go South with the millionaires in winter, but remains up North conscientiously on the job,”’ says Charles Hopper, of 1620 Race Street, Cincinnati, Ohio. Thus Hopper, in announcing the birth of triplets, announces at the same time a cheerful outlook on life. His three latest daughters, who were just a week old when the photograph was taken, are here shown in the arms of their grandmother, Mrs. Elizabeth Koch. ‘The Hopper home is no strange place to the stork, who has made seven previous visits. This is the first time he has ever been so generous in any one call, however, all of the other children having been born singly. Photograph from Paul Thompson. (Fig. 2.) Danforth: Is Twinning Hereditary ? so is suggested by the following rea- soning. It is found,® for example, that of 37,621 pairs of twins born in Germany and France, there were 13,315 cases in which one twin was a boy, the other a girl. Now an interpretation that may be put on such data is this: These 13,315 cases represent half of the biovular twins—since such twins have equal chances of being of the same or of opposite sex. This means that of the whole number roughly 26,630 cases represent biovular twins and the re- maining 10,991 cases represent uniovular twins, from which it appears that 29+ % of all twin cases are uniovular.’ The textbooks of obstetrics published in Germany and France, basing their statement on the relations of foetal membranes, generally give the number of uniovular twins as about 15%. Here is a discrepancy that seems to have been generally overlooked, but it is very probable that the difference between 15% and 29% represents the number of cases in which uniovular twins develop in separate sets of foetal membranes. POSSIBILITY OF OTHER KINDS There is another point that cannot well be overlooked in this connection. Prof. Thorndike*® found that when the degree of similarity between the two members of different pairs of twins is measured and plotted for a large number of cases the resulting curve is smooth and not two-humped as might have been expected. The mode falls at a point higher than that for comparisons be- tween ordinary brothers and sisters, but considerably below the point represent- ing identity. If twins fall only into the two classes usually postulated it is difficult to see how such a result could be obtained. Similar study of other, and if possible, more extensive material is greatly needed. It may ultimately be possible to show that Thorndike’s smooth curve repre- 6 Simon Newcomb, op. cit. 199 sents the leveling effect of like environ- ment reacting on biovular twins and of somatic variation affecting uniovular twins, but it may also be that the two types mentioned do not represent all the classes of twins, for it must be admitted that theoretically there are other possi- bilities. One such possibility is sug- gested by the work of Boveri’ and others on the eggs of bees and sea-urchins. It was found by these investigators that the entrance of the sperm to the egg occasionally stimulates a precocious division of the latter so that the sperm nucleus is able to unite with only one half of the original egg nucleus, leaving the other half to develop (in these lower forms) parthenogenetically. If such a condition were to arise in man, the second half of the egg nucleus might, so far as is known, be fertilized by one of the innumerable superfluous sperm cells, in which case we would perhaps get a pair of twins derived from one egg and two sperms. Such three-germ twins might even be of opposite sex, yet they should be more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters. The at present puzzling distribution of twins in certain families could be explained very well on this assumption, but such a postulate lacks proof, and one must proceed cau- tiously in introducing new hypotheses. FREQUENCY OF TWINS For the student of heredity it is always desirable to know the “normal incidence”’ of the character under inves- tigation. Knowing this it is possible to calculate, on the assumption that the characteristic appears fortuitously, the probability that it will be found once, twice or oftener in groups of a given size. With this information at hand one may then determine whether the character- istic regularly appears in certain families enough oftener than the laws of chance would explain to warrant regarding it as hereditary. The approximate incidence of twin births as a whole is easily obtained. 7 Miss Margaret V. Cobb has recently applied the same reasoning to American data with similar results. Science, N.S., Vol. XLI, No. 1057, pp. 501, 502. April 2, 1915. 8 Archives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, No. 1, 1905. 9 This work is scattered through numerous journals dealing with experimental embryology, etc. TWINS FROM TWO DISTINCT EGG CELLS As they are of different sexes, it is probable that they are not from the same egg cell; and the difference in their appearance, at first sight, is considerable. that the hair is the only visible feature in which they differ widely. (Fig. 3.) The Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C. For example, it is stated” that in Prussia one birth in eighty-nine results in twins; in Naples, one in 158; in Russia, one in thirty-two, etc. In certain provinces of China twins are said to be almost unknown. Of the 75,030 births recorded in St. Louis 10 Textbooks of obstetrics, etc. births, the Russian on 6,000,000, 200 But closer examination shows Photograph from during the five years from February, 1910, to February, 1915, 828 are re- ported as twins or triplets. This indi- cates that the incidence of multiple births here is about one to 90.6. Of course these figures tell nothing of the relative frequency of the different classes The Prussian statistics are said to be based on 13,000,000 FROM ONE OR TWO EGG CELLS? The most obvious difference between these twins is that one drinks faster than the other. In features the resemblance is close. Yet no one can say from mere inspection whether they represent the twinning that is due to the fertilization of two egg cells, or the twinning that is due to a single egg cel! splitting in halves; and as the two kinds of twinning are very likely inherited in a different manner, the study of the problem is made difficult. graph from the Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C. of twins, a decided handicap for the student of heredity. THE HEREDITARY TENDENCY The kind of evidence that one gets as to the heredity of twinning may be indicated by reference to a group of fifty St. Louis families. The investi- gator had no knowledge of any of these families until in each case, the birth of twins was reported to the bureau of vital statistics. On looking into the family histories, it was learned that these fifty new-born pairs of twins had 171 older brothers and sisters born singly and twenty (ten pairs) who were twins. The frequency of twins among the brothers and sisters of twins then is about 1:18. In the mothers’ fra- ternities there had been 318 single births and ten pairs of twins (1:32), and in the fathers’, 219 single and eight pairs of 1 There is indication that this is also the case with Shropshire sheep. Photo- (Fig. 4.) twins (1:37). Comparing these figures with the ‘normal incidence’’ for St. Louis (1:90.6) one is justified, especially since essentially similar figures are obtained from more extensive data, in concluding that twin production is frequently a family peculiarity. Analyzing the individual families, evidence is found that what seems to be biovular twinning is hereditary in the direct female line. The tendency to uniovular twinning likewise seems to be transmitted through the female and, since the incidence of twins is higher than normal in the fraternities of the fathers of twins,!! it is probable that it may also be transmitted through the male. Whether there is any relation at all between the two types is an open question. While some of these families furnish beautiful charts indicative of an hered- See Rietz and Roberts, Journal of Agricultural Research, September, 1915. 201 202 itary tendency for twinning, others are frequently met with in which, while there may be a record of many indi- divuals in several generations, only one pair of twins appears. In these in- stances the twins sometimes seem to be biovular, sometimes uniovular. Such family histories may indicate that while twinning is in some way hereditary in most instances, it may nevertheless at times appear sporadically. The most probable inference to be drawn from this fact would seem to be that the ability to produce twins is_ possibly common to all strains and that the fre- quency of twin births in different lines is merely relative. It is not likely, on the one hand, that strains will be found in which twins never occur nor, on the other hand, in which there is nothing but twins. But that such causes as may tend toward twin production” are more constant or react more effectually in some lines than in others seems evident. That one of the factors com- monly involved in the case of both uniovular and biovular twinning is he- reditary seems to be well established, although it cannot as yet be stated 12 There is not space to discuss these causes in detail. A slight transient hyper-acidity of the uterine important influencing factor (biovular twins). The Journal of Heredity whether or not the method of trans- mission is Mendelian. SOLUTION NOT IMPOSSIBLE In the foregoing discussion an attempt is made to give the “‘setting’’ of a con- crete problem in the study of human heredity for which purpose the question of twinning is selected. The obstacles that are met in attempting to solve this problem are found to be of such a nature as to prevent a quick arrival at final conclusions, but they are not such as to discourage the hope that a definite solution of the problem may be ob- tained. Before such a _ solution is reached, however, a number of inci- dental, and perhaps unforeseen, ques- tions must be disposed of. These questions often call for excursions into somewhat remote fields of investigation, but this fact instead of detracting from the interest of the study or the urgency for its prosecution, adds materially to both. It is only through the careful evaluation and correlation of all these contributary data that entirely satis- factory conclusions can be hoped for. Many obstetricians consider age an fluids has been suggested as a factor favoring the production of uniovular twins. Laws to Restrict Miscegenation Twenty-eight states have laws or constitutional provisions forbidding the intermarriage of negroes and white persons, while twenty States have no laws on the subject, according to Albert Ernest Jenks, who reviews the legislation in the American Journal of Sociology (March, 1916). In ten States, bills introduced in the legislatures and aimed at forbidding negro and white marriages were defeated in 1913, largely through the activity of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. This association announces that it does not favor intermarriage, but objects to such legislation on the ground that it is ineffective and discriminatory, that it leads to the degradation of negro women, and ‘for the physical reason that to prohibit such intermarriage would be publicly to acknowledge that black blood is a physical taint, some- thing no self-respecting colored man and woman can be asked to admit.” Prof. Jenks points out that in the States which have laws, these laws differ widely in the interpretation placed on the word ‘‘negro.”’ “If effectual legal barriers against negro-white amalgama- tion are desirable,’ he concludes, “‘they should perfectly agree as to the legal and racial status of the so-called ‘negro,’ and miscegenation of every form and every instance between negro and white persons must be made a felony in every American State.”’ A FOWL WITH HORNS Here is a Wyandotte cock with well-developed horns on each side of the head. They are similar in character to the spurs which regularly grow on males of the domestic fowl, and are attached to the skin only, having no connection with the skull. The horns are about 1 inch in circumference at the base; the straighter one is 2 inches long and the curved one 3 inches long. The bird was raised by Dominic Lynch of 1934 Ruan Street, Philadelphia, Pa., and killed last Thanksgiving. The head came into the possession of Charles H. McLaughlin, 1500 North Alden Street, Philadelphia, who brought it to the office of the JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, and furnished the data about it. He had it mounted by David N. McCadden, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. From the point of view of development, these horns are merely medified feathers, which in turn are, like the cock’s spurs, merely modified scales of the skin. It is difficult to explain why these spurs should have appeared on the bird’s head, but there seems to be no reason why they should not do so. On the other hand, it is conceivable that such horns might be produced artificially by grafting spur tissue on the fowl’s head when it was young. Mr. McLaughlin asserts that these horns are wholly a natural growth. The taxidermist who mounted the head writes that they appeared to be a natural growth, consisting merely of modi- fied feathers. Such a growth is to be considered merely a freak, and probably would not be inherited. (Fig. 5.) WHAT THEY SAY ABOUT INBREEDING IN EUROPE last few years to be recognized in Europe as one of the most valuable instruments of the live stock breeder. So says Chr. Wriedt, who has spent the winter in the United States as a repre- sentative of the Norwegian department of agriculture, studying the position of breeding and genetics here. Mr. Wriedt notes that, apart from the professional geneticists and a few great breeders, those concerned with live stock in the United States still display a good deal of suspicion and misunder- standing of the use of inbreeding and linebreeding. European breeders, too, used to be skeptical. Their attitude was influenced largely by the authority of the German scientist, Settegast, who dominated the field of live stock breed- ing half a century ago, and who de- nounced consanguineous breeding in every form. “The first impartial investigation,” says Mr. Wriedt, “was started by Count Georg Lehndorff, who was in charge of the governmental horse- breeding operations in Prussia for a generation, and exercised a great influ- ence for good on the art of breeding. Through studies of the pedigrees and progeny of thoroughbred horses, he came to the conclusion that moderate inbreeding! was largely responsible for the best records; and his publications, beginning about 1880, mark the com- mencement of the new school of breeding in Germany. “But the turning point, in Germany, is the publication in 1909 of A. de Chapeaurouge’s great book on inbreed- ing, in which he analysed the pedigrees of English thoroughbreds, Anglo-Norman [stew year has come during the 1JIn other words, what we call line-breeding. trotters in France, and the best private studs of East Prussia. He was in many ways a pupil of the Australian, Bruce Low. The greatest defect of de Chapeaurouge is that he was born too soon to be a good geneticist—he is quite out of sympathy with the Mendelian movement. “His work was based wholly on prac- tical breeding; on the analysis of actual pedigrees. It really led to the founda- tion of a whole school of breeding on the continent, and to the foundation of the German Genetic Association,’ a power- ful organization which has worked inces- santly to promote intelligent breeding. PEDIGREE-STUDY EMPHASIZED “The guiding spirits of this association are two able men, Dr. Felix Hoesch, the president, a breeder of Belgian horses and swine, and Dr. Georg Wilsdorf, the secretary, who is in charge of live- stock breeding in the province of Brandenburg. These men combine to an unusual degree the viewpoints of the practical breeder and the geneticist, and under their leadership the German Genetic Association has published a series of valuable yearbooks, fifteen monographs on various breeds, and a score of bulletins on topics in scientific breeding, particularly as related to the study of pedigrees. Pedigree-study is, in fact, the keynote of the association’s activity, and the interest which the breeders take in it may be judged from the fact that Wilsdorf’s ‘Pocket Pedigree Book’ for the black and white cattle, a breed corresponding to the Holstein- Friesians, is now in its fourth edition.” “And what do they learn from all this pedigree study?” Much of the so-called inbreeding in Europe is not of a close character, and in the United States would never be called inbreeding, but merely line-breeding. to have 3,400 members. 204 The difference, of course, is merely one of degree. 2 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Zachtungskunde. Its headquarters are in Berlin, and it is said Inbreeding “In general,”’ Mr. Wriedt said, ‘“They learn this: that in every breed the valuable strains or families are found to contain the names of a very few ancestors, repeated a great many times. In short, that the valuable part of any breed is due to a small number of ani- mals, usually sires; these sires, which we would call prepotent, have been used as much as _ possible, through inbreeding and linebreeding. “The secret of the great successes in live stock breeding, then appears to be merely that the valuable ‘blood lines’ were picked out and conserved through inbreeding.” “And this inbreeding does not lead to disaster?” “Not at all, if the animals are good; Take for example the famous Kladrub breed of horses in Bohemia. It is probably the purest breed in the world— one of the few breeds of horses that has any right to call itself pure. THE KLADRUB BREED “Its foundation was a Spanish breed of heavy carriage horses which had been closely bred and kept pure for many hundreds of years, when it was taken to Austria in the sixteenth century for the use of the court. The chief char- acteristics of the breed are the Roman nose, arched neck, heavy crest, great height (17 or 18 hands) and extravagant gait. The breed is a very small one, rarely consisting of more than a hundred individuals, but they are regarded in Austria as the finest parade horses in the world, and may be used only by the royal family and by the Archbishop of Olmttz in Moravia. They are ordi- narily seen only on great occasions, when the emperor drives in state behind six or eight of them, all grays or all blacks—the only two colors found in the breed. As they are all for ‘show’ their trotting speed is only a few miles an hour—this gives them a chance to exhibit their fancy action. “New blood is very seldom intro- duced into this breed, and because of the small number of animals existing, inbreeding must have been quite close for several centuries. In recent years no stronger inbreeding than cousin in Europe 205 matings has been practiced; yet the Kladrub horses probably represent in their history more inbreeding than any living breed. Are they degene rate? Not a bit. The only unusual result is that it has become very difficult to tell when the mares are in heat. But there has been no diminution in fertility, nor any increase in the number of weak or defective animals. They are very slow to mature, seldom reaching full size before the sixth year; on the other hand, they remain vigorous to a_ very advanced age. “This long-continued example of in- breeding shows that if the stock is good at the start, inbreeding will fix the type. It is a pity that these animals are not available for experimental purposes, for according to theory they ought to be extraordinarily prepotent. It would be of great value to find out whether this is actually the case when they are mated with other breeds. “The Percherons offer a great ex- ample of inbreeding and prepotency,”’ Mr. Wriedt continued. ‘‘Most of the good animals today trace back in several lines to the two stallions Brillant 755 and Brillant 756. A GREAT PREPOTENT SIRE “But the most conspicuous example of prepotency which has ever come under my own observation is that of the Jut- land stallion, Aldrup Munkedal, born in Denmark in 1893. He is sire of practically all the sires of that very valuable and by no means inconsiderable breed called the Jutland breed.” ““And you believe, I suppose, that inbreeding increases prepotency?”’ “Certainly. Prepotency is simply the condition of being purebred— homozygous—for a large number of dominant characters. “Tf we understand that prepotency depends on having received the same dominant characters from both lines of descent, we realize that the surest way to produce prepotent animals is by in- breeding, where they are certain to get some, at least, of the same characters from both parents. Occasionally one may get an equally prepotent animal as the result of a cross, but then it is THE PUREST BREED OF HORSES One of the few breeds of live stock that can properly be called pure is the Kladrub breed of horses, produced in Bohemia for the use of the Austrian court on state occasions. They have been carefully selected and inbred for centuries, and are now considered by the Aus- trians to be the finest ‘“‘show’’ horse in the world. Only two colors occur, black and light gray. Inbreeding for dozens of generations has done no damage to this breed, despite the widespread popular belief that long-continued inbreeding is certain to be injurious. The carriage of Kaiser Franz Josef is shown, at the recent Eucharistic Congress in Vienna, photographed by Underwood and Underwood. merely a matter of chance. There is an excellent illustration of this in Hungary, with which you may not be familiar. “The Nonius breed is one of the most important of Hungarian breeds of general purpose horses. It is founded wholly on one stallion, Nonius, who was produced in France more than a century ago by mating an English halfbred to a Norman mare. In 1815 the Austrians carried him away as one of the prizes of war; he proved to be extraordinarily prepotent, in spite of his mixed ancestry, and is responsible 206 (Fig. 6.) for the existence of the valuable breed which bears his name today.” “And the Europeans are really im- proving their stock rapidly, by picking out the good blood lines and inbreed- ing?’ I inquired. “Undoubtedly. In Germany, Aus- tria, Holland and the Scandinavian countries, the movement has made great progress. It had done less in France and Great Britain. In general, I sup- pose this school of breeding is the strongest, where the publications of the German Genetic Association are best Inbreeding known. The president of that associa- tion, Hoesch, has made a wonderful success in building up the German country swine through moderate in- breeding, based on three prepotent boars.”’ “Not only is it important to know the good blood lines, but equally to know the bad blood lines. Sometimes a very injurious line of descent is dic- covered, quite unexpectedly, owing its origin to an animal who perhaps was a first-class performer but not a good breeder. We have one notorious case in a government-owned stallion in Norway, who appears to have been prepotent, but in bad, not good, characters. Every time we find his name in a pedigree, we expect to find unsatisfactory results.” EUROPEANS KNOW THEIR BREEDS “Do you think that European breed- ers know their breeds better than Americans do?” “T fear there can be no doubt about the answer to that question. So far as Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia are concerned, the bulk of the breeders are certainly better acquainted with the blood-lines of their breeds, than are the bulk of American breeders. This de- velopment has been rapid—it is largely since the time of de Chapeaurouge, or say the last seven years; for de Chapeau- rouge worked seventeen years on pedi- grees before he published his great book on inbreeding.” “And your advice to Americans would be if “That they study their pedigrees more diligently. The progress they have made—astonishing progress, in many lines—has been due to the isola- tion of good blood lines and the perpetu- ation of them,’ but this has been mostly unconscious. They will go more rap- idly and surely if they make certain just what are their best strains, and then use those strains to the limit. They will understand and enjoy their in Europe 207 work more if they will study genetics, although I do not pretend that a knowledge of genetics will work any revolution in breeding practice at present.” 3 “Can’t we proceed still more rapidly if we import the best animals of Europe?” “Oh, that is all a mistake!’’ Mr. Wriedt exclaimed vigorously. ‘‘You’ve done enough importing in most breeds. It was a real blessing to America that foot-and-mouth disease stopped the importation of Holstein-Friesian cattle from. Holland. You must remember that there is only one animal in a thousand that really builds up the breed. Now you undoubtedly have many such animals at the present time. The thing to do is to find them and use them, build on them. Then you have a permanent foundation; while 1f you continue importing animals from Europe, even though they be individually fine specimens, they may not be just what you need to establish strong blood lines in your breeds.” “But surely we couldn’t give up importing draft horses.” “Quite true. America’s greatest lack, in live stock, seems to me to be a good American breed of heavy horses. But you can easily produce such a breed, if the value of it is more highly regarded. That, and the full utilization of the excellent light horses of Virginia, appear to me to be the two most promising lines of horse breeding in the United States at the present time. ‘Finally, let me repeat the lesson which European experience offers to American breeders. Study the pedi- grees of your breeds, hunt up the ‘blood lines’ that are producing the greatest number of good performers, and perpetuate, multiply, intensify these blood lines by moderate inbreeding or, if necessary, by the strongest forms of inbreeding. If this is combined with stringent selection of only the best animals, the breeder cannot fail.’’ 3 A good example of this is furnished by the rapid improvement of Holstein-Friesian cattle. First, the breeders have found out which are the really valuable animals—the “seven day test” is a great help to that end; second, they are able easily to trace the relationships of these animals, thanks to the convenient Blue Book. GROWING MELONS ON TREES The Papaya an Important Tropical Fruit Which Offers Great Opportunities to Breeders—Remarkable Irregularities in Sex—Changing Male Trees into Females! J.B Hiceins Horticulturist, Hawait Agricultural Experiment Station, Honolulu, T. H. HE papaya, or melon tree, is one of the most important tropical fruits and because of its delicious quality and great yield is des- tined, I believe, to be one of the valu- able crops in the world’s horticulture in the future. Its future inportance will depend largely on the work of plant breeders, to whom it offers some unusually interesting features which I propose to consider in this paper. To those unfamiliar with the tropics, it may be said that this tree grows from a small seed to a height of 10 or 15 feet in a single year, takes on a load of fruit equal to that of a 10-year-old apple tree, and begins to ripen it about twelve months from planting. The large and beautiful yellow fruits, weighing on an average from three to six pounds, are much appreciated in the parts of the tropics where attention has been given to their cultivation, and are eaten by all classes of people. As fruit they fit into the same place in the dietary as the muskmelon, but to one who would inquire what they taste like the only reply is—they taste like the papaya. The species has been known by many common names in Mexico, Central America and the West Indies, all of which countries have been mentioned by different writers as its probable home. In English-speaking countries it has frequently been called the papaw, but this term should be dropped since its application to the North American papaw, a wholly unrelated species (Asimina triloba), is well established. The papaya will continue to bear for many years, but its period of profitable production is only two or three years, after which it is cut down to give place to young and vigorous stock. The growth is so rapid and the tissue so soft that a single stroke with a cane knife will sever the entire trunk, al- though it may be more than a foot in diameter. It might be supposed that so soft a structure could not support the several hundred pounds of fruit which not infrequently are borne, but since it is all carried close to the trunk and the strain is practically vertical, the breaking of a papaya tree is rare, although the large, picturesque, palm- like leaves expose a large surface to the wind. PECULIARITIES OF SEX From a plant breeder’s point of view, the most remarkable thing about the papaya is its sex. Speaking broadly, one would say that the male and female flowers are borne on different trees. This is an unsatisfactory situation, for male trees are of no value to the grower, except in the limited number necessary for pollination. Yet when the papaya is grown from seed, as has usually been done in the past, most of the resulting plants are males, and the grower’s profit is thereby much decreased. There are two ways of avoiding this difficulty. One which is already being used is to propagate the trees not by seeds but by grafting. Then one will propagate only female fruit-bearing trees, with just a few males. This method is very useful in prolonging the existence of valuable seedlings, but it is 1In the present paper the author has quoted freely from The Papaya in Hawaii,” by J. E. Higgins and Valentine S. Holt. 208 Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 32, 1914. HE LIKES PAPAYAS Most people do, even at the first trial. The papaya has a medicinal value, but it is a medicine that is decidedly pleasant to take. Belief in the great future of the papaya as a food crop, however, is based not so much on its medicinal value as on its food value and its heavy yield. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe, Miami, Fla. (Fig. 7.) : 210 somewhat expensive for a tree whose period of profitable production is so biied.? The other way is to breed a race of papayas which will carry both male and female flowers on the same tree, or which will bear perfect flowers which furnish the pollen needed for the ovaries on the same tree. A race of this sort could be propagated from seed, and there would be no loss to the grower through the production of non-fruiting males, as at present. Every tree would be fruitful, just as is the case with the apple, pear, and most fruits. The production of a hermaphrodite race like this is made possible by the fact that such trees exist in nature. The male flowers are not invariably confined to one tree and the female to another, but a dozen or more types of tree can be recognized; and these types form a precious material for the plant breeder. They have been described at some length in Bulletin No. 32 of the Hawaii Experiment Station;“but 1 shall mention the more important here. TYPES OF TREE Form 1. The first form to be considered is the ordinary female or pistillate tree of the dioecious stock. The female tree produces flowers exclusively pistillate, with no indica- tion of even the remnants of stamens (Fig. 8). The ovaries and the resulting fruits are of various shapes, inclining to the obovoid, with a diameter somewhat shorter than the major axis, and the surface smooth or only slightly ribbed. The fruits are usually borne singly on very short peduncles in the axils of the leaves. Form 2. The male tree (Fig. 12), the counter- part of that just referred to, produces only staminate flowers which, however, possess rudimentary or abortive pistils (Fig. 11), and hang in great profusion in cymose panicles on peduncles 2 to 5 feet in length. The flowers, unlike those of the female tree, have a long corolla tube in the throat of which are 10 stamens arranged in two series, the one having slightly longer filaments than the other. At the base of the tube may be found a small rudimentary pistil, quite devoid of any stigma. The Journal of Heredity Since all the flowers are of this type the tree abounds in pollen, but produces no fruit. In foliage and habit, other than as described, it resembles the female, and is indistinguishable until flowers appear. Form 3. Correae of Solms-Laubach.* This form is a departure from the last and is illus- trated in Fig. 11. It is identical with the tree just referred to except that a few of its flowers have pistils capable of fecundation. The rays of the stigmas may be perfectly formed or one or more may be aborted, giving rise to an unsymmetrical or gibbous fruit in which the corresponding portions of the placenta have failed to develop. The ovaries of the well- formed hermaphrodite flowers incline more to the elongated and cylindrical form than those of the pistillate tree and result in correspond- ingly different fruits. The corolla. tube is elongated as in the staminate flowers and the stamens are similarly located in the throat of the corolla, being brought into proximity with the stigmas. These bisexual flowers are larger than the staminate but in other respects are similar, except as has just been indicated. The number of such flowers varies from few to many, there being at times as many forming fruits on the long pendulous peduncles as are to be found on some pistillate trees, notwithstanding the fact that many have fallen. Often as the fruit develops the peduncle is not strong enough to sustain the weight and breaks off, such long fruit-stems inviting disaster from the winds. Form 4. Elongata, a hermaphrodite papaya (Fig. 9). This tree produces two types of flowers. One of these types is hermaphrodite and is in every way similar to a well-formed bisexual flower on the Correae form (form 3), except that it usually is larger and its pistil is more elongated. The other type of flower is staminate and is identical in appear- ance with the staminate flowers already de- scribed. Because of the presence of these two types of flowers, this form has been referred to in the earlier publications of this station as the monoecious papaya.? As experiments have proceeded, however, it has been discovered that the pollen from such staminate flowers, except in the case of one tree, has failed to fecundate any pistils up to the present time, and it has been applied to every type of pistil found in the station collec- tion. Since these flowers apparently do not function it seems incorrect at present to apply to this form of the papaya the term monoecious. They may rather be termed either pseudo- monoecious or hermaphrodite. Form 5. Sterile hermaphrodite. Form 6. Forbesi of Solms-Laubach. Briefly 2It has recently been observed at Miami, Fla., that the papaya degenerates rapidly when propagated by grafting. Grafted plants of the third and fourth generations from the original seedling of the Simmonds variety develop to a height of 3 or 4 feet only, produce a few small fruits, and are always yellowish and sickly in appearance. ] The papaya would appear to be a promising subject for grafting may have to be abandoned. experiments on degeneration in asexually reproduced plants. . ‘Oo i houses and should prove a most interesting plant for physiological experiments.—The Editor. ?Die Heimath und der Ursprung des cultivirten Melonenbaumes, Carica papaya. Ztg., 47 (1889), Nos. 44-49. 4 Hawaii Sta. Rpts., 1910, 1911, and 1912. On this account, propagation by It can easily be grown in green- Bot. PAPAYA TREE WELL LOADED WITH FRUIT Such crops as this, quickly obtained, make it seem probable that the papaya will have an important part in the horticulture of the future. The tree here shown represents the pistillate type, all of the flowers of which are female or fruit-producing. Inserted at the lower right hand corner is one of these flowers. (Fig. 8.) 212 stated, the most striking characters of this plant are as follows: On the long, pendulous peduncles, characteristic of the male tree, this plant produces its three types of flowers, staminate, pistillate, and hermaphrodite. The staminate are identical with those of the ordinary male tree and the pistillate with those of the female tree, but the hermaphrodite differ from those described above (form 3). These have a very much shortened corolla tube as in the case of the pistillate flower, the lobes being divided almost to the base of the ovary. On the edge of this short tube, quite near the base of the ovary, are attached only five stamens, and these are supplied with long filaments, which rest in furrows between the lobes of the ovary. These lobes are united at the base, but often separable at the upper ends. The resulting fruit is deeply furrowed. Form 7. Pentandria. This form produces hermaphrodite flowers of the same type as those just described (form 6). They have the corolla tube reduced to almost negligible length and the five stamens inserted on long filaments on this tube, near the base of the ovary. The ovary is deeply furrowed, with the stamens lying in the grooves between the lobes, thus giving rise to a deeply furrowed fruit. There are also staminate flowers of the ordinary type, and these are borne with the hermaphrodite.in short clusters as in the case of form 4, CHANGE OF SEX It is a fact worthy of note that some of these forms are not constant. One may assume the réle of another. Per- haps the most primary change of sex which takes place is to be observed in the appearance of hermaphrodite flow- ers on trees that have previously pro- duced only staminate inflorescence. That is, form 2 may pass into form 3 or form 6. Not only is it known that such changes take place, but the conditions which may bring them about have been under observation. This ‘‘fruiting of the male papaya’”’ takes place most freely in cool climates outside the tropics or at high altitudes. In Hawaii it may be seen that these trees fruit more abundantly on the mountains than near the sea level. In torrid climates the fruiting of the ‘‘male’’ is rare. It is to be remembered in this connection that all the staminate flow- ers of the male trees possess an unde- veloped or an abortive pistil. The only change in the cases mentioned consists in the development of this pistil, result- ing in a hermaphrodite flower. It is a matter of record that complete change of sex occasionally occurs when The Journal of Heredity the top is cut off from a purely stam- inate tree. Such treatment may result in the new tree top producing pistillate flowers exclusively, or the tree may become a hermaphrodite of the Elongata form. A tree of changed sex characters is shown in Fig. 13. It was formerly staminate and, being without fruit and useless to the owner, it was cut back to a stump and was used to suspend a back yard clothes line. Without any other known change in conditions it took on the fruit-bearing characters shown in the illustration and produced pistillate flowers exclusively on all of its branches. It is to be noted, however, that such changes take place with no certainty or regularity. At the Hawaii Experiment Station, the cutting back of a c-nsider- able number of staminate trees on some occasions has produced no difference in sex, while at other times a small per- centage of pistillate and of hermaphro- dite fruit-bearing trees have resulted. It is worthy of note that no record has been found by the writer in the litera- ture of the papaya which would indicate that the pistillate or female tree has ever changed its sex. ORIGIN OF THE HERMAPHRODITE Because the hermaphrodite form is of great importance from the stand- point of the breeder, as will be shown a little later, it may be interesting to inquire into its probable origin. It is apparent that the form Correae is only a slight departure from the ordinary male or staminate tree. Now com- paring Correae with the hermaphrodite Elongata, it will be observed that the hermaphrodite flowers on both trees are the same and produce fruit of the same elongated form, but the trees differ only in three minor particulars: (a) In Elongata the flower clusters are greatly shortened; (b) It produces larger fruits usually; and (c) Its stam- inate flowers do not produce fertile pollen. It would appear that Elongata has been derived from the ordinary male or staminate tree, through Correae, by an increase in the number of hermaphro- dite flowers and the shortening of the clusters and of the fruit stems. Very little effort has been made to A HERMAPHRODITE TREE The Elongata type of papaya, here shown, produces two kinds of flowers. One is a male, staminate, or pollen-bearing flower, which, however, ordinarily bears no good pollen; the other type of flower is a bisexual one, the flowers not only producing fruit, but pollen as well. Trees of this type offer great promise for producing a strain that will combine the two sexes on the same plant, and not make it necessary, as at present, to have a number of male trees which, although they produce pollen, yield no fruit and therefore are counted by the grower as drones. (Fig. 9.) AN UNDESIRABLE TYPE This is the elongata, a more productive specimen of which was shown in the preceding illus- tration (Fig. 9.) fore gave no fruit. In the present case, a majority of the flowers have been male, and there- The goal of the breeder will be to weed out such trees as this and keep only those which bear a minimum number of male flowers and a maximum number of hermaphrodite flowers. from the elongata tree, showing both stamens and pistil. improve the papaya by systematic breeding. There has been some selec- tion on the part of growers who natu- rally plant the seeds from particularly pleasing fruits. Because other forms have been little known and observed, the most of such selection has been with the dioecious papaya, and here there is an inherent difficulty even in the way of the scientific breeder. Seed from a pistillate tree will necessarily be a cross of two individuals. The charac- ters of the female plant may be known, but those of the male plant are utterly unknown. The parent stock from which both came may be known, but since there is wide variation in the fruit of 214 Inserted in the lower left-hand corner is a hermaphrodite flower (Fig. 10.) two pistillate trees from the same stock it is reasonable to suppose that there will be the same wide variation in the male or staminate trees. The variation between the pistillate trees can easily be determined because their fruits are in evidence and can be tested; but the characters which are inherent in the male or staminate tree, and which will be transmitted by it to its progeny, can be determined only through the long process of actual hand pollination, the sowing of the seed thus produced, and the testing of the fruit. Even then what portion of its excellent or indif- ferent qualities may have been inherited from its male parent cannot be known. MODIFIED FORM OF THE MALE TREE The Correae type, shown at the left, is essential a male tree which has a few flowers capable of bearing fruit. The long stems on which the fruits hang are a typical feature. At the right are shown staminate (male) flowers, one of which has been cut open to show its structure. (Fig. 11.) Furthermore, the difficulty is increased by the fact that papaya trees usually degenerate after a few years. At least pistillate trees usually fail to produce good fruit after a few years of growth, although they may continue to produce indifferent fruit for many years. There- fore, even if the inherent characters of the male or staminate tree could be determined with reasonable accuracy, before any such determination could be made the tree would have become too old to be in a reliable state of virility if it degenerates as rapidly as the pistillate tree. Propagation by grafting will aid in overcoming this difficulty, but it appears reasonable to suppose that the process of producing a stable variety of good quality by the use of this dioecious type would be extremely long and tedious. The hope, therefore, must lie in the use of a hermaphrodite type. Here it is possible to select an individual of known qualities. This may be used as the sole parent stock or may be combined with another parent of known qualities. What mixtures there may be in the individual at the start may not be known; but through repeated selections and the elimination of undesirable characters, it should be possible to produce a reasonably pure strain, pro- vided, of course, that the stock is kept pure by constantly avoiding cross- pollinations with plants of different characters, a process which is necessary in all plants reproduced by seed and whose flowers are subject to accidental cross-pollination. A further practical difficulty in the use of the dioecious type, from the standpoint of the papaya grower, as well as the breeder, is the fact that a very large proportion of the trees from any given lot of seed are likely to be 215 216 The Journal staminate, or malés, and therefore use- less, only a few trees being necessary to pollinate all the pistillate trees. It is impossible so far to distinguish the staminate from the pistillate trees in the early stages of their development. Therefore, in any papaya orchard planted with the dioecious type, a very large percentage of the trees must be cut out after they have grown almost to maturity, resulting in unevenness and irregularity in the orchard and much loss of time and space. For this reason, together with the difficulties of breed- ing, the dioecious type probably will be largely eliminated. BREEDING HERMAPHRODITE FORMS Turning to the hermaphrodite forms with more hope of results, we find that a number of experiments are being con- ducted. Here it is possible to deal with a single individual mother plant. One of the first facts to be determined is the extent to which the offspring of such a parent may be expected to be fruit- bearing trees. It was known from earlier observation, without any def- inite experiment, that a large number of the seeds from a fruit of a herma- phrodite flower produce fruit-bearing trees, either pistillate or, like the parent, hermaphrodite. A tree was found in a Honolulu orchard producing fruit of excellent flavor. The fruit from which the seed was taken was of the long cylindrical form, but it cannot be stated that all the fruits on the tree were of that shape. Its flowers were apparently staminate and hermaphrodite, and so far as ob- served, of the Elongata form, but it is probable that the apparently staminate flowers were non-functioning. The flowers had not been hand-pollinated, and it is therefore impossible to state whether they were self-fertilized or otherwise. The seeds were planted May 2, 1910, and later thirty-five of the young plants were set in the orchard. Of these, thirty-four were hermaphro- dite and one was a staminate tree. The hermaphrodite flowers on most of the trees were of two types, some of the Elongata form and others resembling Pentandria, with corresponding differ- of Heredity ence in the fruits. The best one of the trees from the standpoint of uniformity of cylindrical shape in fruit was also of very good flavor and a reasonably good producer; it was selected for further breeding. Two of its flowers were hand- pollinated each with its own pollen and carefully protected. The seeds collected from these two fruits were planted, and it was found that 94% of the result- ing trees were fruit-bearing, being either pi tillate or some form of hermaphrodite. This is an encouraging result, so far as the elimination of the males is con- cerned. It is probable that by the continued use of hermaphrodites of the Elongata form as a source of pollen as well as for the pistil-bearing parent, male forms may be largely eliminated. CROSSING THE DIFFERENT FORMS It has been found possible to cross quite freely most of the different forms of the papaya, as would be expected from the fact that they all are merely slight modifications of the same species. Among the experiments now in progress is one to determine the sex resultants arising from the crossing of a pistillate of dioecious origin with pollen from a hermaphrodite. If, as is expected, the progeny will be chiefly pistillate and hermaphrodite, then desired characters that may be found in any dioecious stocks may be combined with herma- phrodite stock. Like other tropical fruits, the papaya still offers an almost virgin field to the plant breeder. But enough has been done to make it certain, I think, that a strain can be established which, com- bining the two sexes on the same tree, will produce from seed a desirable fruit, without the production of a great many useless male trees. The successful achievement of this task, and the dissemination of the resulting strain, will give a tremendous impetus to the culture of the papaya, But there is still another possible field of work—namely, crossing with other species. It is probable that there has been considerable hybridizing of Carica by natural means, and breeders have not wholly neglected the genus. I will not CCL Bry) “ymax Jeaq [pA yorum jo auo Azada Seed} sonpodd [IM ‘poos wo1y poyesedoid usym ‘yor urerys e Bury308 Aq pue !see1q sutonpoid-yimay ATUO ‘ATOATVeJOSOA ‘BurTyeBedosd Aq :sAeM OM} ut orny{no vAeded 04 yorqmerp [eorjovsd yeoI8 sty} oyeTAGO 07 UayEIJopuN PACY SIOpsetq JURTq “SSeTYJIOM aAoid 04 ATUO ‘IvaA v IOJ Toyeatyno oy} Jo out} oy} eye} puv purl eyz Adnooo oioJosoy} seo1y esoyy, ‘“JoMOoy Aoyy [TUN soezy aqeTTYsId ayy Wo1F oyeUTUTeYsS BY Ysmnsurystp jouurs suo 1oF “APLIMYeUT YORer Aoy} [JUN JOF parvo oq ysntu Asyy, *edAy ouosIp sty, Jo oq [[IM seo} 94} Jo J[ey ‘spseas Aq uoryesedoid jo waysks quasaid ay} Jopun yng = “JaMo1S ayy Aq JOAVT YIM UO paxooy you ATJUeNbasuoo ore AsyL, “yMaz ou ynq ‘ueyjod jo uorsnjord yvaI8 B HAOUOD AHL HO .ANOUG., DAL “WML WIV V eonpoid s9e14 aso, ++ A « ar ~ >. 7 CHANGED FROM A MALE TO A FEMALE This tree started life as a male in the back yard of Dr. John T. Gulick, the geneticist, in Hono- lulu, As it produced no fruit, it was cut down to a stump and by supporting a clothes line. Losing its head apparently brought a change of allowed to earn its keep f heart, for it proceeded to send forth new branches which were not male, but female, and bore good fruit, as the photograph shows. Such reversal of sex by heavy pruning 1s not rare in the papaya, but the change does not always take place when desired. (Fig. 13.) Higgins: Growing Melons on Trees attempt to enumerate the various species which have been crossed, since they have so far led to no commercial result. But it still seems possible that hybridization of the papaya with some more hardy species will produce a fruit which can be grown outside the tropics. Carica cundinamarcensis is one of the hardiest species. It stands considerable cold weather and bearsanacid fruit which is pleasant to the taste when properly cooked. If this could be combined with the papaya, a hardy form might be produced which would mature a good fruit in the southern United States, for example; while the true papaya can with difficulty be made to mature good fruit even in southern California, although it flourishes in southern Florida. IDEALS IN BREEDING THE PAPAYA There seems to be no good reason to doubt that it will be possible to breed a papaya combining at least many of the most desirable characters and to hold the variety reasonably stable by the same means as are employed in maintaining seed varieties of vegetables and garden flowers. This presupposes segregation or hand pollination in either case, the latter being the method which most breeders will be compelled to follow because of the proximity of other varie- ties over which they have no control. The simplicity of hand pollination in the papaya and the large number of seeds resulting from one operation render it a very practical means even for commercial seed production. It may be well to outline here some of the ideals which the breeder should have in mind in his search for Mende- lian characters which may be combined. 1. Vigor of tree—It is important with the papaya, as with other species, to use vigorous individuals as parent stocks. 2. Early and low fruiting habits— There is a wide variation in the plants in this respect, some producing no fruit on the first five or six feet of the stem, while others bear fruit which almost touches the soil. It is believed that this 219 character may be transmissble, and the advantage of early and low-bearing trees is obvious. 3. Freedom from the branching habit—Trees that produce s«le branches freely require considerable pruning to prevent the numerous new shoots from taking the nourishment which should go to the fruit. 4. Productivity but not excessive bearing—Trees that have long bare spaces on their stems and those whose fruits are so numerous as to crowd each other should be avoided in favor of such as have the fruits well spaced with just sufficient room to mature normally. 5. Hermaphroditism—tThe reasons for preferring hermaphrodite stock have already been pointed out. It is essen- tial to a profitable industry that the number of “‘drone’’ male trees be kept very small. 6. Suitable size in fruit—The size that will be most desirable will depend upon the purpose to which the variety is to be put. For home use or for the fresh fruit market the extremely large varie- ties are not popular, and the breeder of table varieties will not, therefore, at- tempt to originate such forms. On the other hand there is a place for these, if the fruit is to be grown as feed for poul- try or other live stock. For papain production, other things being equal, the large fruit would be best. 7. Yield in papain*—Where the pro- duction of papain is made an industry there can be little doubt that the aver- age yield of this drug could be very greatly increased by judicious breeding. 8. Uniformity of shape—The breeder must seek to establish varieties which will have reasonable uniformity of shape as well as symmetry and smoothness. It is not necessary that all varieties be alike, but there must be uniformity in pack. In breeding from hermaphrodite trees there will be a large number of pis- tillate trees in the offspring. Although the long form is not necessarily confined to the hermaphrodite tree, nevertheless pistillate trees do not usually yield fruit of this shape. For this reason the 5 The juice of the fruit and sap of the papaya tree contain an active principle called papain, the effect of which is similar to that of pepsin. It is used medicinally, and also to clarify beer. Its digestive property is so great that raw meat placed in diluted juice will disappear altogether.—The Editor. 220 breeder may think it best to work for two forms of fruit—the long, tending to cylindrical, for the hermaphrodite, and the obovoid for the pistillate. The fruits of such an orchard would be packed as two varieties. 9. Uniformity in ripening—This is an important consideration. Some papayas ripen and decay at the outer end or the point while the inner half near the stem is too green to be eaten. The ideal papaya in ripening shows its first yellow- ing along the ribs about midway of the fruit and ripens uniformly toward each end. 10. Coloring before softening—Some fruits ripen with very little color, while others acquire a beautiful golden yellow when still hard, and may be kept for several days. The latter are so much more attractive on the table and in the market that they should be sought after in breeding. 11. Color of flesh—Those of pale whitish flesh must give place to the fruits of yellow, pink, or red color Crime and The National Committee on Prisons has organized a committee on eugenics to consider the constitutional basis of criminalistic behavior. The inquiries The Journal of Heredity within. Recently some have been grown at this station with a quite decidedly reddish hue. 12. Easily separable placenta—If the placenta adheres tightly to the inner portions of the fruit and is more or less buried in the flesh, it is difficult to remove the seeds without marring the appearance of the fruit. On the other hand, it is a distinct advantage if the placenta and seeds can be readily removed without scraping the flesh. 13. Flavor—This is without doubt the most important factor to be con- sidered. Experience has shown that specific flavors can be transmitted, and this affords the breeder an opportunity to originate and establish varieties of high quality. These flavors cannot well be described, but are easily recog- nized and appreciated. 14. Keeping qualities—The ideal pa- paya should be a good keeper, and this character has been found often enough in the fruit of individual trees to lend much encouragement to the breeder. Heredity into family history are to be made by a field worker trained by the Eugenics Record Office. At present, opinions of experts on the subject differ widely. To Study Exceptional Children In connection with Stanford Univer- sity, in California, there has recently been established a research fellowship for the psychological and pedagogical study of backward and mentally defec- tive children. The endowment is known as the C. Annette Buckel Foundation. The first fellow under the foundation was J. Harold Williams, who devoted himself chiefly to the study of the in- telligence of delinquent boys, largely at the Whittier (Cal.) State School. A second bulletin has been issued by Lewis H. Terman, outlining the aims and purposes of the foundation, from which it appears that five lines of re- search are proposed: (1) Backward and feebleminded children; (2) delinquent or potentially delinquent children; (3) nervous, morbid, or psychopathic chil- dren; (4) children of superior ability; (5) normal children. The prospective plans for the development of the work call for an enlargement of the present foundation to include two or three addi- tional fellowships with an annual value of $1,000 each; two office or laboratory assistants; one or two field workers to collect data on the heredity of exceptional children, and a_ research professorship. More remotely there is contemplated the establishment of a hospital, school or home for the first- hand study of exceptional children, and for the practical training of special teachers of such.—Eugenical News. HEREDITY OF ALBINISM ROBERT ROY (FIG, 14) That albinism in rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, etc., is inherited as a recess ve trait is the experience of all breeders. law is a priori probable but it is obviously difficult to secure cases for what is the best test of recessiveness, viz., the exclusively albinic progeny of two albinic parents. Some years ago Mrs. Davenport and I recorded That albinism in man follows the same . (American Naturalist, December, 1910) three pedigrees giving the progeny of the matings of two albinos. 221 MRS. ROBERT ROY (Fig. 15) whom I have always found trustworthy. These families were recorded as the Luc. family, two children, both albinos—of albinic parents; the Pri. family, one albinic child of two albinic parents; and the R. family, an albino child of two albinic parents. The surname of this last family which we did not then feel at liberty to divulge, but which we are now per- mitted to publish, is Roy. Robert Roy (Fig. 14), of New York, now about fifty-five years of age, was one of a fraternity of ten, all but himself pig- mented—one with jet black hair. Their father had very dark brown hair and their mother sandy hair. Robert Roy married, about 1880, a Miss They were all based on the statement of Robert Roy, of New York City, »)) THEIR SON, K. C. ROY (Fig. 16) Annie L. W. (Fig. 15), with whom he was associated in shows. Three other of her fraternity were albinos and eight were pigmented. Their only child, born, like his mother, in Pennsy lvania, was King Charles Roy (Fig. 16). The resemblance of the son to his mother is mar rked in the lower parts of the face; to his father in the upper part of the face. I may add that the albinism is practically complete in father and son; there is no nystagmus but rather marked photophobia, especially in the son. C. B. DAVENPORT Director, Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington) Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. bo bo ios) A FAMILY WITH ABNORMAL HANDS The possessor of these hands recently arrived at Ellis Island, N. Y., by Asst. Surg. Howard A. Knox of the United States Public Health Service. where he was examined Inquiry showed that his father was normal; the paternal grandmother had webbed fingers on both hands, but the fingers involved could not be learned; a paternal male cousin had deformities ‘exactly like those shown here, except for the rudimentary digit growing from the first finger of the left hand in this case; a sister of this cousin was described as an imbecile. The case well illustrates how a stock of rather low mentality is often characterized by physical defects, which are evidently due to heredity though not identical in each genera- tion. Photograph from the United States Public Health Service. (Fig. 17.) Inheritance of Fertility in Swine Study of 3,546 litters of pigs is re- ported by Edward N. Wentworth and C. E. Aubel in the Journal of Agricul- tural Research (March 20, 1916). Previ- ous studies had indicated that fecundity is to some extent an inherited character, although the degree of resemblance between parent and off-spring in this respect is not large. Cross-breeding has given some reason to suspect that a number of distinct, inheritable factors influence fecundity; it is also certain, 224 of course, that fecundity is influenced by numerous factors which have nothing to do with heredity. The analysis of data showed some evidence of the presence of three distinct hereditary factors, but further research will be required before any result can be an- nounced with confidence. The study is obviously an important one, in view of the great value of high fecundity in domesticated animals. BREEDING NEPHROLEPIS FERNS ‘‘Fver-Sporting” Types and the Methods of Propagating and Disseminating Them—New Forms May Be Obtained from Spores of Nephrolepis Ferns—Suggestions for Practical Growers SARKIS BOSHNAKIAN College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (of which the popular Boston fern is the best-known repre- sentative) can be divided in two groups, on the basis of their genetic behavior; first, those which show varia- tion only when propagated sexually, by spores; and second, those which produce new varieties asexually. The first group includes more than ninety species and varieties, all of which are either found growing wild in semi- tropical regions or have been produced from spores by breeders. Of these may be mentioned the widespread com- mercial varieties Nephrolepis exaltata, cordata compacta, plumosa, davallioides, canaliculata, and so on. The second, and more interesting, group is limited to the Boston fern, botanically known as Nephrolepis exal- tata bostoniensis, and all its sports, of which we have many. In a state of nature, ferns are often hybrid. The sexual organs are located in such a position as almost wholly to prevent self-fertilization. The spores, found in large numbers as_ kidney- shaped, brown, fruiting bodies on the under side of the leaflets, produce occa- sionally new forms when sown. So far as results show, the ferns of the first group breed true when propagated asexually, and in England a large num- ber of new varieties, such as concinia, and May: have been produced in this way from seedlings. The ferns of the second group, that is those derived from the asexual varia- tions of the Boston fern, may also be propagated from spores, despite the general belief that the spores are sterile. SERNS of the genus Nephrolepis I have raised a number of seedlings from the spores of the Boston fern and of some of its sports; those with finely divided leaves produce no fruiting bodies, but the others with uncrested leaflets yield spores in abundance. GERMINATION IS SLOW It is considerably harder to grow the ferns of the second group than those of the first, or of eother *genera- > ihe ferns of the first group with the excep- tion of a few, such as N. davallioides, N. d. furcans, and perhaps some others, germinate promptly at the end of a certain number of days. N. exaltata, for instance, takes twenty-six days to germinate, and N. plumosa twenty-four; all the spores germinate at almost the same time. Such is not the case, however, with the Boston ferns. Out of thousands of spores, only a few may germinate at the end of a month or more; the rest keep appearing, a few at a time, for many months afterward. They are very sensitive to the amount of moisture which surrounds them; and since nowhere, so far as I know, are directions given for germinating the spores of these plants, it may be useful for me to discuss the subject before proceeding to treat of the more usual, asexual method of propagation. In an experiment to determine the best medium in which to sow Boston fern spores, different materials, such as loam, sawdust, paper pulp, filter paper, asbestos, cinders, cotton and leaf mold were used. The comparative efficiency of different containers was also tested. The results showed that the best medium was well-decayed oak- 225 4409 THE ORIGINAL BOSTON FERN This fern, familiar to every plant-lover, has been particularly useful to breeders because it is constantly producing new forms—it is an “ever-sporting’”’ variety. From this parent type sixty-five new varieties have been introduced to the trade, some of which have proved valuable and been retained, while others which were not of superior value in any one respect have disappeared. Probably the possibilities of the Boston fern are by no means exhausted, and it therefore offers an attractive material for amateurs as well as commercial breeders, since it can be propagated indoors, with little space, and thereJare no great difficulties to be overcome or expenses to be incurred. leaf moid. The advantage of this lay in its moisture absorbing and retaining property. The surface of leaf mold being uneven, the spores sown will fall on the projecting tips of the small pieces of leaf mold where the moisture hardly rises by capillarity but the spore is surrounded with a saturated moist atmosphere; they may also fall down in between the leaf particles where they come in contact with a microscopic film of moisture. All the intermediate conditions exist also, so that no matter what the moisture requirement of the 226 (Fig. 18.) spores, some of them will fall in a position where conditions are favorable. As to containers, a clean pot not less than 6 inches in diameter seems to be the best suited for commercial work, For research work, where the exclusion of any foreign spore is necessary, the use of large preparation dishes with a depth of at least 34-inch gives the best results. The preparation of the medium in which to sow the spores differs also from that suggested for other ferns. The bottom of a clean pot of two-thirds THE FERN’S REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS The crescent-shaped masses found on the backs of many fern leaves are sori or aggregations of spore-cases. From a commercial viewpoint their presence is a drawback rather than an advantage—they are unsightly and not needed since in cultivation the fern is ordinarily propagated by runners rather than by spores. depth is filled to about 11% inches in depth with clean broken crocks and large pieces of cinders. Over this, finely screened leaf mold is placed and is packed down somewhat firmly. The surface of the leaf mold should be about 34-inch below the upper edge of the pot. The leaf mold should never be sterilized. Sterilization of the leaf mold is not desirable because with the cooking or baking of the leaves during the process of sterilization toxic substances are produced. This process also kills all living organisms, so that when spores of fungi or molds fall on the surface of this sterilized medium, they are abso- lutely free from competition, and they grow rapidly over the surface of the pot, either destroying the fern spore or giving off poisonous products which prevent the spore from germinating. Since Nephrolepis ferns are not found (Fig. 19.) wild in North America, leaf mold which the grower procures from the woods may be considered absolutely free from such spores. The pots are to be filled with this compost, and boiling water then poured over the contents, to kill grass seeds, worms and insects which may be present. Most of the seeds present will be destroyed after 20 minutes, and the surface of the leaf mold in the pot will then be almost sterile. As soonas it cools down, a little finely screened fresh leaf moldis scattered over it. The soil in the pot is thus inoc- culated with ordinary soil bacteria which grow very rapidly and spread over the surface; spores of fungi falling on a soil thus quickly populated with soil- bacteria will make a very small growth or none at all, but the germination of the fern spores is not interfered with in any way. 227 A GROUP OF SPORANGIA (SPORE-CASES) Each of these capsules (here magnified about 100 times) contains a large number of ovoid spores, the reproductive cells, three of which can be seen in the upper left-hand corner. Although this method of reproduction is called sexual, the spores themselves have no sex—or rather, they are a combination of the two sexes in one. When they become ripe they are shed upon the ground, where they germinate and give rise to little sexual plants, called prothallt, shown in the next illustration. After the spores have been sown on the surface of this medium, the pot is covered with a piece of glass and then set in a saucer filled with water, in a partly shaded propagating frame. The saucers are placed on clean cinders over which lime has beenscattered. This keeps away insects, worms and molds. At the end of four weeks or more the spores begin to germinate and form the so-called prothalli—heart-shaped, leaf- like plants which attain a diameter of a quarter of an inch, when fertile. From each of these develops a new fern. When the first leaves appear the prothalli should be removed in small clumps or singly with.a pair of forceps and planted half an inch apart in flats or pans containing leaf mold to 228 (Fig. 20.) which a little finely sifted soil has been added. Later they are transferred into 214-inch pots. The seedlings obtained in this manner are, as they grow, carefully watched for the appearance of new types, which are isolated and studied. Most of our commercial varieties are sports of N. exaltata bostoniensts. This variety probably originated near Boston some thirty years ago. The first recorded sport of commercial importance occurred during the early part of 1898 and since then there have been produced over sixty-five commer- cial varieties of which about fifty are of American origin. In order to produce new types it is necessary to raise a large number of Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns different varieties. This can be profit- ably practiced by persons who are engaged in growing ferns for com- mercial purposes, because they have under their observation a large number of plants which they are already grow- ing for the market. The plants during their development are closely examined and those which show a tendency to differ in foliage or in habits of growth are isolated and grown directly in benches. The somatic variations, such as are found among ferns, may occur in a portion of a frond, or on the stem or fous Stack; sor «6m the rimmners. “The only variations which are of any value to the breeder are those which can be isolated. Not all variations can be utilized. WILL NOT GROW FROM CUTTINGS There is no way of isolating a varia- tion which occurs on a portion of a frond, for unlike some ferns and certain dicotyledonous plants, a portion of the leaf cannot be induced to strike roots to form an independent plant when brought directly in contact with soil. When the stem is above the level of the soil and an entire frond happens to differ from other fronds which arise from the same stem, the probabilities are that the variation or the somatic mutation, as it is sometimes called, has taken place on the stem. It is neces- sary to plant them deep enough to -cover the base of the leaf which one wishes to isolate. Most of the old leaves are removed in order to allow the development of new fronds. If the variation has occurred in the stem it is likely that the new fronds arising from the base of the sporting leaf will re- semble one another. On account of the depth at which the plant is set the base of these fronds including a portion of the crown will tend to strike roots. It must be remembered that this is not a sure method of separating a sported plant. In order to obtain the expected result there are three condi- tions which must be satisfied. In the first place the sported portion must extend over a considerable area around FERN PROTHALLUS This peculiar little plant (here magnified more than fifty times) grows from the fern spore and lies flat over the ground. It contains the male sexual cells (an- theridia) at the region marked ae , while there is a female reproductive cell or archegonium at the point marked ®. When ripe, the antherzoids make their way towards the egg cell with which one of them unites. This fecunda- tion starts the growth of a fan-shaped leaf-like structure, the base of which strikes roots and becomes an indepen- dent plant, whereupon the prothallus dies and decays. This indirect method of reproduction in the ferns is remark- able, ferns not giving rise directly to ferns, but rather to prothalli. (Fig. 21.) the base of the rachis of the leaf (called the stipe); in the second place, from this region new fronds should develop which will be like the sported frond observed; and thirdly, this region must root in such a manner that it will develop into an independent plant which it will be possible to isolate from the mother plant. For a sport of the second type, that is, when the variation takes place on a portion of the crown, the time it takes to satisfy these three conditions may vary from several months to a year or more, in sorne cases a negative result IT REALLY IS AN “EVER-SPORTING” VARIETY This: Boston fern shows variations in size and shape of leaflets in every part of the plant. It is a curiosity to the geneticist, but almost worthless from the standpoint of the practical breeder, because these small variations will probably not “breed true.’’ Frequently, however, a whole plant varies from its parent in some striking way; and such sports as that are perpetuated and form valuable new varieties. (Fig. 22.) Boshnakian: Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns being a possibility. For this reason unless the variation is absolutely new it is not profitable to keep the plants very long and rely upon the law of chance. SPORTS ON RUNNERS The sports which are commercially utilized and which are easiest to isolate are those which appear on some portion of the runner where new rooted fronds are produced. When such a new type is discovered the entire plant with its runners is lifted from the bench, care being taken not to disturb the soil around the root system, and trans- planted to a separate bench where the plant can be closely and frequently examined. The leaves of the mother plant near the sported fronds are cut back, for in this way more light is allowed to reach the new fronds and development of new buds is thus en- couraged. It is a good plan not to sever the new fronds from the parent plant until the former has made about five leaves, for until that time the small fronds are nursed by the mother plant. At this stage the original plant may be removed by cutting the runner which connects the two plants. In order to produce more fronds and allow the rooting of runners a little soil is sifted over the plant to bury the crown. Some growers object to this method claiming that such a practice tends to produce decay at the base of the leaves, but after having practiced this method many times, and in some instances even after burying the crowns about an inch below the surface of the soil, I have never observed decay to take place; but on the contrary, in an experiment with N. wiridissima to see the effect of deep planting I found more leaves on plants whose crowns were set one-half inch below the surface of the soil, than on plants which were not planted deep. While the plant is developing in size the commercially desirable and un- desirable characters as well should be studied, for it will be a waste of time and of valuable space to multiply a plant which is commercially worthless. The following are the characters pad which are to be considered in determin- ing the merit of a new fern: The plant must be either an tmprove- ment over another form or be a class by itself. As we have already a®’good many types the chances are that the new sport will resemble some other variety; and unless it is an improvement over those already existing, the demand for it will be very slight. The improve- ment may not necessarily be in all characters, but no matter how few these improvements, they should be pro- nounced and striking enough to make the variety better than any already on the market. When N. Piersoni was being introduced in 1903 it reeeived many prizes and was in great demand for some six years. It is now out of the market because other varieties with similar type of fronds, such as Whitmani and elegantissima with their “compacta” and “improved”’ forms, show such marked improvements in their habits of growth. But varieties like superbissima and its derivatives viri- dissima and muscosa being unlike other ferns cannot be compared with other forms; therefore, being a class by them- selves, they have created a market of their own. Those ferns are most profitable which can be raised to a marketable size in the shortest period of time. This period varies with the rapidity of growth of the plant. There are three growth char- acters which are desirable: in the first place the fronds should develop rapidly; in the second place numerous buds should arise in the central area of the plant to give it a dense form; and finally it should send out runners freely. The last character is especially important from the view point of the wholesale florist, as the latter is con- cerned mainly over the rapid propaga- tion of the plant. Beauty and attrac- tiveness alone without rapidity of growth do not make a new variety a commercial possibility. There are a few nephrolepis ferns which receive prizes wherever exhibited, but due to the fact that they are slow growers their sale is limited to private collec- tions. On the other hand, ferns like bostoniensis and Scotti which originated ve ~ A: ft SOME DESCENDANTS OF THE ORIGINAL BOSTON These leaves of modern commercial varieties show how widely some of the sports differ from their parent. c, N. muscosa; d, N. verona, e, N. magnifica; f, N. superbissima. Their trade names are as follows: a, Nephrolepts viridissima; b, N. Millsu; While these forms are relatively stable, they are all likely in turn to give rise to valuable new sports, from time to time. (Fig. 23.) respectively aboutthirty and fifteen years ago, by virtue of their rapid propagat- ing habit are still favorites. They are leading commercial varieties in spite of the presence of numerous competing sorts of recent introduction. UNIFORMITY IS NECESSARY Not less important is the uniformity of the size and shape of the smaller leaves known as pinnae. The plant should not show a tendency to “revert”’ or show any variation in any part of the leaves. Such a plant should not be allowed to appear on the market, for besides being a failure, it may some- times affect the reputation of the firm which introduces it. In most cases it is possible to produce a pure-breeding strain by subsequent propagations by divisions. Some ten years ago, when few varieties existed, a number of them, such as Piersoni and Fosteri, in spite 232 of their constant reverting habit were able to remain on the market for a number of years. But now that we have so many varieties, competition is very keen, and unless the plant proves to be a uniform breeder its introduction should not be allowed. From what has been said above, one should not be led to conclude that all commercial varie- ties will breed absolutely true. All of the sports of bostoniensis occasionally revert back to the original type in different degrees, and so far as I know this cannot be avoided entirely. For this reason the trade makes allowances for rare reversions. But plants which revert frequently find no place on the market. Symmetry of the plant is another desirable character. Lack of symmetry is to some extent due to defective methods of potting, exposure to light, and careless overhead watering, yet in THE APPEARANCE OF NEW VARIETIES At the right (b) is Nephrolepis magnifica, a dwarf asexual descendant of the original Boston fern. a is a sport from this dwarf, and differs widely from its parent, particularly in showing greater vigor. many cases the natural habit of growth of the variety is responsible for these defects. A variety with a rank growth of fronds is most likely to produce an unbalanced plant. Dense and bushy plants are least liable to lack symmetry. Multi-pinnate, that is, finely divided ferns, such as Smithii, and Goodii, unless they be large specimens, grow unsym- metrically. In these and similar varie- ties the defect is due to the weakness of the rachis of the leaves. The rachis can hold the frond upright so long as the latter is small; but when the fronds develop to full size they become heavy and hang down, spoiling the symmetry of the plant. A tri- or multi-pinnate fern with a heavier rachis that can support the weight of the developed It has one undesirable characteristic—namely, that its roots sport, and therefore it cannot be depended on to breed true. frond sporting back to the mother (b) type. from the original Boston, but with the drawback that it is inconstant. sion of this form d, a constant variety of value might be obtained. At c is shown a little d is another root sport, not very different By further divi- (Fig. 24.) frond will create a ready market. A sport of Smithi recently introduced under the name of N. verona seems to possess this desirable character and its outlook is promising. Sort or masses of spores on the under- side of the leaves are objectionable, because they form undesirable brown spots of considerable size; and further- more when these ripen, the spores fall on the surface of the leaves below giving them a rusty appearance. Ferns with finely divided leaves, and young plants plants with undivided leaves, are free from spores, but the latter in most cases begin to produce spores when they get old. On account of lack of air circulation at the base of the plant, in some forms 233 7 Be ng ' .” Aa ; . 24 . eS A DELICATELY GRACEFUL VARIETY The descendants of the Boston fern differ widely (as was shown in Fig. 23) in the extent to which their leaflets are divided. The form here shown, Nephrolepis Smithii, is the most finely divided of all the commercial varieties, and therefore possesses an appearance of lightness and airiness which has made it a great favorite. (Fig. 25.) Boshnakian: Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns compactness of foliage causes decay of the center of the plant. Thisis especially evident in those varieties whose leaflets are very thickly set on the rachis. Such forms, if possible, should have an open center. When the originator is convinced that his plant conforms with the desirable characters just discussed he should begin to increase its numbers. This is best done by planting the fern in a bench and allowing plenty of space around it for the runners to radiate in all directions. These runners, like those of the strawberry plants, root at intervals and give rise to new small plants which can be easily severed after they have made five or more leaves. These little plants are first potted in small pots; in late spring or early summer these are again planted in benches where they are allowed to develop and produce runners. The new plants arising from these are severed in the same manner as before, and the practice is repeated until the desired number of plants for introduc- tion are obtained. INTRODUCING A NEW VARIETY The success that the new variety will have on the market will depend entirely upon the proper methods of introduc- tion. There are many instances where a certain variety has been sold on a very large scale although there has been a similar variety already on the market; but because of lack of proper methods of introduction the latter has had little more than a local sale. Since this paper has been prepared primarily for the practical breeder, it will not be out of place to give in con- clusion brief suggestions of the best procedures which should be followed in the introduction of new varieties of ferns. The number of the plants which the originator should have on hand before introducing depends entirely upon the degree of his ability to dispose of the plants and upon the excellence of the variety itself. For a good variety, from 5,000 to 30,000 plants and even more will be necessary. Depending upon the ease with which the runners 250 root it takes from three to four years to obtain them. The first customers are usually the wholesale growers of ferns who buy the plants in,order to produce larger ones after growing them for some time. They offer them to the market while the supply is still limited. The originator must naturally have enough on hand to supply these growers and to keep on supplying ferns while the latter are developing their stock of plants. The minimum time required for growers to put their stock on the market is probably six months. During this period the introducer may have a monopoly on the stock, and being free from competition can hold his price high. If, due to the lack of necessary green- house space, the grower cannot multiply his plant to the desired number, he will find it profitable to communicate with one or more large wholesale growers who will agree to raise part of the stock and return a certain percentage of the profit from the sales. There are, of course, many other agreements which can be made. Inthe case of N. Amerpohlii, for instance, part of the stock was shipped from Janesville, Wis., where it originated, to two wholesale growers in Philadelphia. When the stock had been increased, it was offered for sale simultaneously by these three firms. It will usually be found profitable to disseminate a new variety of fern in spring. When some of the greenhouses, especially carnation houses, are vacant during late spring and summer months, the benches can be profitably utilized for the growing of ferns. It is not necessary to change the soil for these plants. Violet houses are also excellent for ferns in summer. The runners root before the benches are needed for the regular crop. These rooted runners may be potted in 2144-inch pots. By the following spring they develop good sized plants. Another advantage of spring dissemination is the opportunity of exhibiting specimen plants at the fall flower shows. As wholesale buyers are very critical about a new plant which has notjyet stood the test of time, no effort should 236 be spared in showing all its merits. It is advisable not to begin to advertise until three or four months before the time set for dissemination, or a few weeks before some important flower show, so that those interested may eagerly look for the new plant at the The Journal of Heredity exhibitions. If it is advertised too early people are apt to forget about it by the time it is to be introduced. Skillful and attractive methods used in advertisements and displays will almost entirely determine the reception and success of a newly introduced fern. Genetics in Education One hundred colleges or universities in the United States are giving courses specifically in either eugenics or genetics during the present school year, according to a census made by the Eugenical News. This list does not include the agricultural colleges, which present much of the same material in their courses on breeding. Unusual Fecundity in a Cow A remarkable case of fecundity in a half-blood Hereford is reported by E. C. Wetherbee, Jr., of Marshalltown, Iowa, a member of this Association. The cow, which belongs to William Harkemeyer of Benton County, was herself a twin, born in June, 1909. In December, 1911, she dropped two calves; December, 1912, one calf; January, 1914, two calves, and December, 1915, three calves. Feebleminded Adrift There are about 15,000 feeble-minded in Massachusetts, of whom 3,000 are now receiving State care, according to the League for Preventive Work (Bos- ton) which has just published a booklet with the title ‘““Feebleminded Adrift.” Of the 12,000 for whom no State pro- vision is made, many are protected in good homes. Another group are sex- ually passive, industrially competent, and capable of adjusting themselves to community standards. For neither class, it is declared, is State segregation necessary or desirable. Approximately 2,000, however, can always be found in other public institutions. Those com- mitted to insane hospitals are usually held in permanent custody; the others drift in and out of almshouses, prisons and reformatories. These 2,000, there- fore, a constantly shifting group, repre- sent many thousand unprotected feeble- minded in the community, for whom custodial care is essential. The development of State schools for the segregation of the feebleminded, it is pointed out, meets the require- ments of economy, justice and efficiency. Their per capita cost for maintenance is less than that of other institutions. They furnish a simple environment which is adapted to the needs of defec- tives and which enables them to live happily on their own plane. They offer specialized industrial training which renders many of the inmates wholly or partly self-supporting within the institu- tion, transforming them from demoral- izing and destructive forces into pro- ductive members of the State. They furnish protection both to Society and to the feebleminded for whom community life means danger and _ exploitation. And finally, by permanent segregation, they prevent the procreation of a new generation of defectives, thus cutting off at the source one of the greatest of social ills and striking at the root of the physical and moral degeneracy, pauperism and misery, alcoholism and crime, with which feeblemindedness is inevitably linked. The Massachusetts State Legislature of 1915 appropriated $50,000 for the purchase of 880 acres of farm land near Belchertown, in the western part of the State, and it is hoped that the present legislature will appropriate $150,000 annually for five years, for the construc- tion of buildings to house 1,000 inmates. EUGENIC SURVEY OF NASSAU COUNTY, NEW YORK ; feller Foundation has made pos- sible the immediate beginning of a eugenic survey of Nassau County (Long Island), N. Y. It will particularly attempt to find the amount of mental deficiency existing. During recent years, the burden of caring for defectives has in many States become almost crushing. New York is now spending more for the insane alone than for any other purpose except educa- tion, the amount being about one-fifth of the State’s total revenue. Massa- chusetts is spending one-third of her entire income on the support of those who require state care. In many other States the problem is rapidly reaching similar proportions. The growing recognition that many— perhaps the greater part—of these de- fectives are the product of defective heredity, has brought a realization that the stream can, without much difficulty, be greatly diminished at its source. The first requisite is to know the facts in regard to the distribution of defect in an unselected population. Hitherto, studies have been made largely in institutions, and there has been no comprehensive study of an ordinary population. Nassau County, with a population of about 100,000 in a rather small area, divided between farms and towns, seems to offer a good opportunity for ascertaining the conditions in a com- munity that is probably fairly typical of a great many in America, and some of its residents have been public-spirited enough to undertake the work of making as accurate as possible an estimate of the number and kinds of mental de- fectives at large, in order that the State may better be in a position to consider what the situation demands. It is well known that the number of defec- tives now receiving State care is only a part of the number which ought to RB: A GIFT of $10,000, the Rocke- receive such care; but no one knows what proportion. The Nassau County survey will help to answer this question for the State of New York, and to,a less extent for other eastern States. MENTAL TESTS TO BE USED The first step will be to select for special examination all those children and adults who are known to the educa- tional, poor-law, police or health authori- ties as having failed to hold a normal place in the community either by reason of unteachableness, or moral deficiency, or imperfect social adaptation. This will mean the examination of backward, atypical or unruly children in schools, children and adults in almhouses and other institutions, inmates of prisons and others known to the police, children and adults in receipt of outdoor relief, persons known to the medical profession or others as being possibly defective. The examination of these people will consist of an inquiry into the family, social, and personal history, and a series of mental tests. But the collection of data regarding these abnormal persons would possess little value, unless at the same time data were secured about the normal indi- vidual living in the same environment. The survey will, therefore, undertake to secure information about every one in certain selected districts. The infor- mation about those who are apparently normal will not be so full as about those who are apparently defective; but there will be an endeavor to get a certain minimum amount of information about each one, which would establish his normal mentality and would make possible eventually the construction of normal statistical social standards for the county, pertaining to the facts of heredity, progress at school, and amount of education, occupations and earnings, 237 238 social position, civil condition, fertility, and physical health. The labor, therefore, will consist of the examination of selected persons in all parts of the county and all persons in selected parts of the county. It is estimated that this will take at least four months, and that several months more will be required for working up the data. The State of New York has furnished the services of Dr. A. J. Rosanoft, of King’s Park Hospital, to direct the survey; with him will be one or more medical examiners furnished by the United States Public Health Service, eight field workers to investigate the Genetic Survey “The Southwest School of Hygiene of Kansas City, Mo., under the director- ship of Dr. Belle S. Mooney, is organiz- ing a Eugenic Survey of the city with the cooperation of the Board of Educa- tion,’ says the February Eugenical News. ‘‘The plan is to secure the family history of all the school children The Journal of Heredity family histories of the individuals ex- amined, and several clerical assistants. Headquarters will be at Mineola, the county-seat. General direction of the survey will be in the hands of a committee, consisting of Dr. Charles B. Davenport, chairman; Samuel P. Duggan, Elizabeth E. Farrell, Homer Folks, Dr. August Hoch, Dr. A. J. Rosanoff, and Dr. Thomas W. Salmon. The survey was initiated and will be partly financed by the Nassau County Association, a citizens’ organi- zation which has hitherto taken an active interest in the problems of eugenics and cacogenics in its district. of Kansas City and not simply the history of the back- ward children. This is an important step in the right direction. No class of society can be rightly studied apart from its fellows. Our studies of human heredity have thus far been too one- sided.” This will make a valuable check on the Nassau survey. Nebraska Sterilization Law Sterilization of feebleminded and in- sane is provided by a law passed by the 1915 session of the Nebraska legislature. It provides that all inmates of state in- stitutions for the feebleminded and insane, the penitentiary, reformatory, industrial home and schools, and other state institutions, who are subject to parole or discharge, shall be examined by a board of five physicians, who shall inquire into the “innate traits, the mental and physical conditions, the personal records, and the family traits and histories.” If they find that chil- dren of the individual would probably inherit a tendency to feeblemindedness, insanity, or degeneracy, he shall not be given his liberty unless he is sterilized by such an operation as the board of physicians may indicate. The consent of his family and of himself, if possible, must first be obtained. The Drama in the Service of Eugenics The ‘“‘eugenic plays’’ hitherto pre- sented have been, in general, presenta- tions of negative eugenics and sex- hygiene, and have generally merited the description of unpleasant plays. The Eugenics Section of the Pitts- burgh Academy of Science and Art be- lieved that a pleasant play dealing with positive eugenics would be a valuable piece of propaganda. Through its dra- matic committee it discovered the value of George Middleton's ‘‘The Unborn,” and this was recently presented in the Northside Carnegie Lecture Hall. The impression it made was so evident that it is to be repeated on May 2 in another part of the city, and possibly in some other Pennsylvania cities. The per- formance was made possible by the cooperation of the Little Theater Com- pany, an amateur organization of Pitts- burgh. The play, which lasts only twenty minutes and deals with volun- tary childlessness, was followed by a spirited discussion. THE LATEST “SIAMESE TWINS” ON RECORD Suzanne and Madeleine Durand, born in Paris on November 28, 1913, were, joined face to face by a band of hard flesh about a foot in circumference, near the bottom of the breast bone. The two abdominal cavities were in communication through this hollow link, and the small intestines of one girl could be drawn through the link into the other girl by the mere act of breathing, provided one let out her breath while the other drew in hers. The vital organs of the two were complete and separate, however. The twins were separated by Dr. Gustave Le Filliatre on March 4, 1914, and at last reports were growing healthily. The photograph shows them with their nurse, before they had been cut apart. This is said to be the ninth operation of the kind on record. Such twins as these give support to the idea that so-called “‘identical’’ twins are the product of a single egg. Photograph from Paul Thompson. (Fig. 3.) LH DYNAMIC EVOLUTION By CASPER L. REDFIELD Price $1.50 DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is identical with the energy known in mechanics, and is governed by the same laws. $1,000 Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA- TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY- NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY for February, 1916. GP; PUTNAM Ss; 3SONS NEW YORK and LONDON Prizes for Eugenic Studies A committee on promotion of the ideal of racial well-being created by the National Council of Education an- nounces that a fund of $1,000 for each of four years has been offered by an anonymous donor. A prize of $100 is open to graduate classes of two-year normal courses in each of four sections of the country. Similarly a prize of $150 to members of graduating classes of colleges and universities in the same sections who have had two years of work in education or home economics. The prize is awarded to the class that makes the best cooperative study on the topic, ““The supreme object of education should be to make the next generation better than living generations.”’ The first prizes will be awarded to the class of 1917. Notice of intention to compete should be sent before May 1, 1916, to Dr. H.C. Putnam, Rhode Island Avenue, Providence, R. I., of whom further de- tails can be obtained.— Eugenical News, Defectives in District of Columbia There are few states which have made less provision for mental defectives than has the Federal Government, and at the present time practically all the feeble- minded, some hundreds in number, in the District of Columbia are allowed at. large without any restraint or oversight. Representative Tinkham of Massa- chusetts has introduced a bill (H. R. 13666) into Congress providing for an 240 institution for the feeble-minded in the District of Columbia, appropriating $500,000 for it and outlining a method of commitment. The measure is receiv- ing the active support of the Commit- tee on Provision for the Feeble-minded (Philadelphia), and deserves the assist- ance of every one who is interested in proper care for the defective classes in the nation. — The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 6 June, 1916 CONTENTS War, Immigration, Eugenics (Report of the Committee on Immi- URL MORTEM E Se re nay SEY co NCAR a eee oe Ae eige f 243 What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class’? Children?................... 248 Eugenics and Agriculture, by O. F. Cook........................... 249 The Non-Inheritance of Acquired Characters...................... 254 festing ‘Crmuinal Offenders: 2.57. .06.0% «8: ne hs Pb seen a LL 255 German Suggestions for Constructive Eugenies.................... 262 Seu Wee able. ©4558 UN ee Se RITE en inh OY eet 263 What is Happening to the Hawthorns?, by L. M. Standish.......... 266 Vigor and Heredity, by J. Lewis Bonhote (reviewed)................ 279 Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics, by John Merle Coulter (reviewed) 279 Variability Curve Following Law of Chance........................ 280 Dia nee ue MURINE Lb! ogee ea te ake hy omnia ae TE 281 Redfield Broadens and Explains His Offer of $1,000................. 286 | WW eo Pore PS EES Na da as he AO Ie ed ie A heal ear Sande? 1) te 287 Some English Suggestions for Eugenics...................... 288 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, May 25, 1916. (‘aoatdstyuory) = *ATTeJUSW 4YSLIq 00} sUOU puno} Q19M INOF dq} JO OMY | sonbisAyd 1ood puv viuayyse jeyiuasuod jo sojdurexa aie } Ajoyerpourunt vary} oy} puve ‘punoisoJoj oy} UT ‘eq SuLmMseow oy} Jopun Aoq oY, “poeyonpuoo st susrye jo UOlyeUTUTeX9 [BOIS tyd ay} MOY SMOYS ‘9dIAIOG YITeOH oyqnd Saqeqg powuy oy} Wwody ‘ude Is0j0yd osAoqe L ‘siturpe Me] juasaid < OY} YSIYA Sesse[o 9[qersepun -190 AapNpoxe 0} pue ‘ysnos0yy O1OUL UOLPBUTUIeXe sty} ayeuU O} ‘papsau YonuUL st “19ABMOY ‘UOTPLISISOT MON “UOT eyNde 1d ay} 0} SUOT\Ippe a Sutoq JO asiwoid aAts OY Aue yoeq puas 0} Jopso ut ‘<]jequow pue AypeorsAyd ‘yuvsrsrurutt AIDAD 1S9} DIALOG YYBIP{ W(qng 39}21G peytuy sy} Jo suo SI MHOK MAAN SGNVIST SITTA LY SUINVYHOLNINT ONINTIAV Xa ‘ysop 94} JO J9] 94} 09 WAR, IMMIGRATION, EUGENICS Third Report of the Committee on Immigration, American Genetic Association ALEXANDER E. Cance, Amherst, Mass. IrRvING Fisher, New Haven, Conn. Prescotr F. Hatt, Boston, Mass., Chairman Ropert DeC. Warp, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary the American Genetic Association herewith submits its third report. There is one vacancy in the membership of the committee, Prof. James A. Field having resigned. A crisis has been reached in our immigration policy. The war has, for the moment, very largely reduced the flow of aliens to our shores. For the first time in many decades we have breathing space. On the other hand, the effects of the war upon the peoples from which our future immigration will come are likely to be far-reaching. This fact will, after the war is over, bring us face to face with many new and difficult problems which need careful considera- tion at the present time. We must think clearly, decide wisely and act quickly. We need new immigration legislation. We need it at once. There are two aspects of immigration after the war which concern us at this moment. One is the probable future volume of immigration. The other is its probable mental and physical character. The demoralization of industry; the breaking-up of homes; the greatly ig | NHE Committee on Immigration of increased burdens of taxation; the desire. to fly from the horrors of future wars; the widespread misery and hopelessness; the return to the United States of aliens who went home to fight and who will bring back with them many of their countrymen who have never been here— these and other causes will operate to bring us an increase in immigration which seems likely to surpass anything that we have ever known. Already plans are being made by foreign com- panies for the establishment of new steamship lines to bring emigrants from Europe and Asia to the United States as soon as the war is over. Prof. J. W. Jenks has pointed out that recent wars have usually resulted in a large and almost immediate increase in emigration from the European countries which were at war. WHY MANY WILL NOT COME On the other hand, there will be tendencies which may operate to cut down emigration from certain European countries. An enormous amount of constructive work will have to be done in the general rehabilitation of what the war will have damaged or destroyed. Immense numbers of skilled and also of unskilled workmen will be needed for these enterprises. Owing to the thin- ning of the ranks of the most efficient laborers, by death or by injury, during the war, wages of some classes of work- men may rise, but whether the impover- ished nations of Europe will be able to compete in any general way with our American wages, and thus keep their people at home, yet remains to be seen. Again, it is not unlikely that some of the European governments will take steps to discourage, to check, perhaps even for a time to prohibit emigration. The work of reconstruction will go on most actively and most effectively in the countries of northern and _ western Europe, where the state and industry are well organized, and where the plans for reorganization will be carefully prepared. It is, therefore, from these same countries, from which we have in the past received our all-round “‘best’’ immigrants, that we are likely to see the greatest falling off in immigration. On the other hand, in the countries of southern and eastern Europe and of 243 244 The Journal western Asia, immigration from which has been on the whole more of a problem, because of the differences in race, political institutions, education and social habits, there will not be the same organized reconstructive work. From these countries, therefore, so largely in the more primitive condition of agriculture, the forces tending to pro- mote emigration will be operative to a greater degree than before. Thus the great preponderance of southern and eastern Europeans, already the most striking feature in our recent immigra- tion, is likely to be still further increased after the war is over. Balancing the reasons for a possible decrease in our immigration after the war against those which will bring about an increase, the weight of probability is strongly on the side of a marked increase. INCREASE OF DISEASE No one who has at heart the future of the American race can fail to view with concern the probable effects of the war upon the physical and mental condition of our immigrants. The introduction of pestilential war diseases, such as cholera, typhus, typhoid fever and the like, is not greatly to be feared, although some of our medical men are already viewing this problem with much con- cern. On the other hand, the more subtle and much less easily detected venereal diseases, which are always rampant in great armies in war time, and the mental breakdowns, of which there are so many thousands of cases among the soldiers at the front, present another aspect of the health problem which is far more serious. The final report of Lord Sydenham’s Royal Commission on Social Diseases (cable summary, March 2, 1916) dwells particularly upon the effect of the war upon the prevalence of venereal disease, and looks for a far more serious condition of this problem after the war is over. Great numbers of soldiers, although not actually afflicted with any specific disease, will eventually come to the United States, maimed, crippled, wounded, enfeebled by illness or expos- ure, or mentally unstable. The fittest, of Heredity mentally and physically; those who in the past have had the initiative and the courage to emigrate, will be dead, at the prime of life, or will be needed at home to carry on the work of rebuilding and reorganization. These are the men whom Europe will do its utmost to keep at home. The least fit are most likely to emigrate. Many of those who, because of mental or physical disability, will find themselves least able to earn a living abroad, will be the very ones most likely to be “‘assisted”’ by relatives and friends in this country to ‘“‘come to America.”” Against the emigration of such persons the European governments will not set up any barriers. There are good grounds, therefore, for expecting, with reasonable certainty, that our immigration in the next few decades after the war will be of a lower physical and mental standard than it has been in the past. WAR AND THE BREED The question as to the probable effects of the war in the more distant future, upon the unborn generations, is obviously a_ difficult one. Opinions vary greatly in regard to it. As a rather extreme representative of one side, one may turn to Dr. David Starr Jordan’s latest book, whose title clearly indicates the message which its author seeks to bring, ‘““War and the Breed: - the Relation of War to the Downfall of Nations” (1915). War, as Dr. Jordan strikingly puts it, “impoverishes the breed.”” The strongest and best men are the ones who are killed or injured, and who leave few or no children. The weaklings live, marry and continue the race. The result is an inevitable im- poverishment of the stock. Dr. Jordan notes the reduction in the required height of French soldiers as the result of the Napoleonic wars and the killing off and wounding of the taller men. The French and German babies of 1870-71, who came to be mustered as soldiers twenty years later, were found to be an inferior lot of men. And, more recently, as noted by Dr. Jordan in Science (New York), a similar condition has occurred in Japan. The Japanese War, Immigration, Eugenics children born at the time of the war between China and Japan, twenty years ago, became conscripts in 1915. According to the Asahi of Tokyo, as translated in the Japan Chronicle, the number of conscripts in Tokyo decreased over 16%. For Japan as a whole there was an increase of conscripts in 1915, but the rate of increase was only 30 to 50% of the normal. Furthermore, a lowering in the quality of the new soldiers is distinctly observable. The Asahi says that “most of those who underwent conscript examinations this year were born during the war and therefore are sons of those too old or too weak to go to the front, and so it is no surprising thing if the conscripts of 1915 are of exceptionally delicate con- stitution.’’ This “impoverishment of the breed,” in Dr. Jordan’s opinion, is an inevitable resuit of war. The longer the conflict continues, the more serious will be the effects upon future gen- erations. The weakling fathers—too young, too old, or too feeble to fight— and the improperly nourished, over- worked and harassed mothers of Europe are handing on to their children who are now being born an inheritance of physical and mental unfitness which will mark not only this generation but future generations, through the long vista of the time to come. An increase in the number of defective children, now and hereafter, is a condition which Europe must face, and which, because it will affect the character of our immi- grants, vitally concerns the United States. Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the Smith- sonian Institution, contributes to Dr. Jordan’s book an opinion as to the probable effects of heavy artillery firing on the nervous systems of soldiers in the war. He believes that subjection to the constant roar of the firing will “result in a more or less defective mental or nerv- ous state in the progeny of such individuals.” SOME COUNTERBALANCES Dr. Jordan’s view may be thought rather extreme. The problem is a highly complex one. There are not lacking those who take a different posi- tion. It is pointed out that wars have 245 been so constant, not only in Europe but over most of the world, that if wars do result in racial deterioration, national degeneracy should have fol- lowed them. Again, it is urged that by no means all of the physically and mentally fit who go to war are killed, or are so impaired in body or mind as to be undesirable fathers for future generations of offspring. The number and the quality of the men who will survive the war is at present an unknown and indeterminable element in the problem. Prof. Roswell H. Johnson, of the University of Pittsburgh, has recently warned us! against sweeping and unqualified statements that war is either good or bad in its effects on the human race. Some wars are mainly good, others mainly bad. A conscripted army is likely to be physically, and probably also in other respects, superior to the bulk of the population. The conditions of poverty, improper sanita- tion, and inadequate medical treatment in the homes tend toward a deterioration of the race. Many factors must thus be taken into account. In summing up his argument, Prof. Johnson says: “In the present war it would seem that the high quality of both sides compared with the rest of the world is so predominant a dysgenic factor that, together with the other dysgenic fea- tures, the eugenic results are over- balanced. The human species there- fore, on account of this, is at present declining in inherent quality faster than in any previous length of time.” In connection with this particular subject, it is highly significant that Germany, which is universally recog- nized as preeminently the military power of the world, and whose scientific study of military problems is so thoroughly organized, should already be giving serious attention to the racial effects of the war. On October 26-28, 1915, there was held in Berlin, a Tagung fur die Erhaltung und Mehrung der deutschen Volkskraft—surely a highly significant designation. Over 1,000 delegates attended, and the proceedings were marked by an extraordinary unanimity of sentiment. It was recognized that ‘war kills the best, the bravest, the 1 JOURNAL OF HerepitTy, Vol. VI, No. 12, December, 1915. 246 The Journal healthiest, eradicating once for all the finest strains of the race.’”’ There was serious discussion with a view to bring- ing about an increased multiplication of the fit by various means, chiefly the assistance of large families of healthy stock. From the foregoing considerations it appears that the effect of the Great War upon the United States will, unless all signs fail, be profound and far-reaching. For it will affect the mental, physical and even moral characteristics of mil- lions of our future immigrants and of their descendants. PROPOSED LEGISLATION There is a bill which passed the House of Representatives on March 30, 1916, by a vote of 308 to 87 (H. R. 10384), which, all things considered, is the most comprehensive immigration bill ever introduced into Congress. It is the result of years of careful study of our present law and of its workings. Its provisions, as the commissioner- general of immigration says in his last annual report (June 30, 1915), ‘contain the result of experience and investiga- tion—of the experience of administrative officers, extending over nearly a quarter of a century, in the enforcement of various statutes regulating immigration, and of the investigations “conducted variously but in particular by the Immigration Commission, created under the act of 1907, the report of which, comprising forty-two volumes, was sub- mitted to Congress in December, 1910.” The provisions of this bill “have been drawn with great care and thought- fulness, . . . by them the law is made certain in its definitions and clear in its terms throughout—+mprovements badly needed in the existing statute.”’ The bill aims to protect the United States against the incoming of mentally and physically, and of otherwise unfit and undesirable aliens. It also embodies several provisions which would insure more humane treatment to the aliens themselves, and would, to a large extent, do away with the hardships involved in the deportation of aliens who are ex- cluded at our ports, by preventing their original embarkation. of Heredity The bill is largely a codification of our existing immigration laws, but embodies several important new eugenic provi- sions. Attention is here called to the more important changes which its enactment would make in our present laws with reference to the exclusion of the mentally and physically unfit. In regard to the better detection, exclusion and deportation of this group there is no essential difference of opinion among those who have the future of our race at heart. The unanimity of feeling in this matter is encouraging; but, in view of our past experience with mentally and physically defective aliens who have been admitted to this country, it is not surprising. MORE STRINGENT MEASURES To the excluded classes the bill adds persons of constitutional psychopathic inferiority and persons with chronic alcohoism. That many persons not properly to be certified as insane but who would, in many cases, become insane soon after arrival, could be kept out under the former provision, has long been the opinion of the physicians, the alienists and the immigration officials who have made a special study of this subject, and who have for years strongly urged the inclusion of this new provision in our immigration law. Chronic alco- holics, who are surely undesirable mem- bers of our community, are often discovered by our examining surgeons, but as the law does not now state specifically that they shall be excluded they must in most cases be allowed to land. The new bill excludes vagrants, and persons afflicied with tuberculosis in any form. It also aims to prevent the embarkation of aliens afflicted with idiocy, insanity, imbecility, feeblemind- edness, epilepsy, constitutional psycho- pathic inferiority, chronic alcoholism, tuberculosis in any form, or a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, by imposing upon steamship companies who bring such aliens a fine of $200 plus the amount paid by the excluded alien from his initial point of departure, provided the Secretary of Labor is satisfied that the defects could have been detected by a competent medical exami- —-.- ~~ War, Immigration, Eugenics nation before embarkation. This is an excellent and humane provision. It would go far toward making these companies more careful in the sale of passage tickets, and would save many unfortunate aliens the disappointment and hardship of being deported after arrival at our ports. The present fine is $100, has been shown to be too small to be really effective, and does not cover as many cases as are above enumerated. A new fine of $25, plus the alien’s transportation expenses, is established in cases of certain other less serious mental defects, and of physical defects which may affect an alien’s ability to earn his living. BETTER EXAMINATION The new bill provides for a very much more thorough medical examina- tion of arriving aliens, especially with reference to the detection of mental disease; gives the medical inspectors the exclusive services of interpreters, and suitable facilities for the detention and examination of the aliens. This amendment has been strongly urged by the united action of the most im- portant scientific bodies in the United States which deal with the prevention and treatment of mental disease; by state medical associations, and by indi- vidual physicians all over the country. That our medical inspection has been hopelessly inadequate has long been known to the experts. We have not had enough medical inspectors, and those on duty have not had adequate facilities for their work. Thus it has come about that in spite of our law prohibiting the admission of insane and mentally defective aliens, our institu- tions have been filling up with just these people. As Dr. T. W. Salmon, of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, has well said: “There is no reason for the acceptance of a single insane or mentally undesirable alien except inability to determine his condition.”’ It is a very significant fact that, with the decrease in immigration since the war, particularly at New York, a more rigid medical inspection has become possible. This “intensive examination”’ 247 has resulted in a marked increase in the numbers of aliens certified as having physical or mental defects. It has also resulted in increasing the percentage of the total arrivals who were debarred or returned within three years after landing from 2.6% in 1914 to 6.1% in 1915. “Certainly,” says the commissioner- general, “‘there could be no better or more convincing argument .. . for in- creasing the medical force sufficiently to insure that no alien shall be admitted to the country until he has been sub- jected to a medical inspection really calculated to disclose his mental or physical deficiencies.”’ With this state- ment all public-spirited citizens will surely agree. The new bill extends from three to five years the period during which aliens may be deported who at the time of entry belonged to one or more of the excluded classes; who have become public charges from causes existing prior to landing; and of some other groups. This extension of the deportation period has been urged, year in and year out, by heads of institutions who have had to do with dependent, defective and delin- quent aliens; by organized charitable societies, and perhaps most strongly by the former commissioner of immigra- tion at the port of New York, Hon. Wm. Williams, whose thorough, sane and illuminating study of the whole immigration problem has contributed greatly to our understanding of the subject. It is the conviction of all the unprejudiced experts who have studied this problem that a five-year deportation period would relieve our penal and char- itable institutions of an enormous financial burden, reaching into the millions of dollars, and would rid our communities of large numbers of defec- tives who otherwise would remain here, many of them a burden upon State or city, and many of them starting long lines of defective and delinquent children. SAFEGUARDS FOR THE ALIEN The new bill strengthens the provi- sions of existing lawregarding the ‘‘White Slave” traffic; makes the inspection of steerage quarters more _ thorough; compels steamship companies, when 248 deporting aliens, to give such aliens as good quarters as those for which they paid on the voyage to this country; makes possible the expulsion from the country of alien anarchists and crim- inals, even when they have become such after entry; and in many other ways provides for the welfare of the alien as well as for the welfare of the United States. All these new provisions regarding the. more effective exclusion and the deportation of mentally and physically unfit aliens have been carefully drawn, as above stated, after consultation with experts who have seriously studied these particular aspects of our immigration problem. They were all suggested and strongly urged upon Congress years before the war broke out. Their enact- ment into law should have been effected long ago, under the usual conditions of normal immigration. But every argu- ment in favor of this legislation has gained weight, incalculably, in view of the probable effects of the war upon the character of our future immigrants. As the commissioner-general says in his last annual report, the adoption of these The Journal of Heredity amendments now ‘‘becomes an impera- tive necessity.” It is for the best interests of our future race; it is for the best interests, in the long run, of human- ity at large, to prevent, as far as may be possible, the coming to this country of the mental and physical derelicts of the war. It is unfair and ungenerous to future generations of Americans to saddle upon them the tremendous burden of supporting, not only the present generation of these people, but the long lines of their descendants. It is not doing our share in the promotion of race betterment if we, who have the matter in our own hands today, do not act at once, before it is too late. The Committee on Immigration of the American Genetic Association heartily endorses the provisions of the pending bill which are directed towards the more effective detection, exclusion and depor- tation of mentally and physically unfit immigrants, and urges upon the officers and members of the American Genetic Association to make every possible effort to secure favorable action by the Senate upon this bill. What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class’? Children? Eugenicists have often pointed out that the costly “special classes’ in public schools, for the education of pupils who are distinctly backward, are founded largely on ignorance; that many of the pupils in them are feeble- minded and can never be brought up to the level of the normal child, or given effective education of the usual kind. It is therefore interesting to note the results of an investigation made by the school department of Detroit, Mich., of the records of 100 pupils from the “special classes’? who had left school at 16 years of age, and who had in no case been out longer than five years. Of the 100 cases, 61 were boys and 39 girls. Their present status, summarized, is as follows: Girls Boys Number of children born......... 3 0 IMarriediics.. 6, eee ee onen eee Gj 0 pexually-immoralis. oerans sees 14 0 WOK s Oh ce Sn etait icin aera 16 39 Gared foriat,- Nome. 743 wees eee 15 11 Inkanistipitions as oe ec cieie oe ee 1 5 Have been arrested.........+...- 4 13 1D [ MAKES ee tired fia be fee ag eB ap pee SS voice a og a yd friend 71. The happiest and---------- contented man is theone™ ss 22 lives a busy and SONGS poe AD. ‘The sbest sadvices 9. eae = usually crag gene Penns obtained: 5.02224 sae one’s parents. Sy te a hs Spe thingssare 225-1 28 satisfying {O--any ordinary: 25-2 2 than con- genial friends. BE: ees hee S ai rules (Ones 2 ois See Se associa- Hons sero Sos friends. It does not follow that a person is abnormal, simply because he fails on this or any other single test. It is highly essential that all tests be 7nter- preted, and, naturally, such evaluation should be made only by persons having a wide experience in these matters. The ‘‘Opposites”’ test is one which is being widely recognized as very useful. The patient is given a list of words such as good outside quick tall big loud white light happy false like rich sick glad thin empty war friend He must write down as rapidly as possible the words which mean _ the exact opposite of ‘each of these. A normal person can write them almost as rapidly as his hand can move the pencil; but a feebleminded individual, even though he has spent a number of years in school, becomes bewildered at such a task. In examining the higher levels of intelligence the manner in which the individual reacts to complicated direc- tions is frequently suggestive. An ex- ample of such a set of instructions is given in Fig. 3. The useful “form boards,’’ described by Dr. Howard A. Knox in the JouRNAL oF Herepity for March, 1914, together with those of Healy, etc., are much of Heredity employed; they require the person examined to fit blocks into their proper places in a frame. Some people insist on putting round pegs into square holes, and that in itself is significant. The Healy pictorial completion test shown in Fig. 2 is a test for apperceptive ability. Writing with the aid of a mirror, as illustrated in Fig. 4, gives an idea of the subject’s ability to learn, and of his motor-control. Memory, concentration, and other easily tested abilities are also observed, and the examiners are finally able to give an accurate judgment of whether the subject is mentally capable of holding his own in competition in the world, or whether he is so constituted that he requires special care. INVESTIGATION OF HEREDITY The family history is one of the most interesting and essential features of the study which this laboratory makes of its patients. The special investigators, who have made a careful study of this part of the work, visit the home of the patient, the schools he attended, his favorite resorts, etc., and not only gather data concerning his behavior, habits, peculiarities, etc., but also make special inquiries concerning the mental and physical peculiarities of the patient’s brothers and sisters, parents, grand- parents, aunts, uncles, etc. The report of these investigators is usually of assistance and sometimes a decisive factor in making a diagnosis of the patient’s condition. It is already ap- parent that heredity is an important element to be considered in a study of cases of the criminal type. “Crime,’”’ says Dr. Bisch, ‘should never be considered apart from men- tality. Hitherto the police department has presented facts regarding evidence of guilt when the prisoner was brought before the presiding judge. Now, in addition, the department also furnishes certain facts regarding the mental responsibility of the offender. This step is a logical one and is another proof of the practical value which psychology possesses. If a man is feebleminded at his fifth conviction, he was just as feebleminded at his first WRITING WITH A MIRROR IS HARDER THAN IT LOOKS The boy examined is given a card with a pattern traced on it, and is asked to follow this pattern with his pencil, guiding himself solely by the reflection of the pattern in a mirror. A shield just above his hand prevents him from seeing the movements of his pencil, except by the aid of the mirror. Almost anyone finds this difficult at the first trial, but after half a dozen attempts the normal person can follow the diagram correctly, while the feeble- minded person is almost as much puzzled on the tenth trial as on the first. The test therefore aids in showing how much capacity a person has for learning, and how quickly the mind adjusts itself to a new problem, conviction; it will pay the community, therefore, to examine, segregate and properly treat prisoners before arraign- ing them, instead of waiting until they reach the court or penitentiary. The psychopathic laboratory is a huge sieve, its aim being the selective classification and disposition of the criminal popula- tion. It is not a sentimental under- taking—it is scientific, wise and humane.”’ The reader will probably agree with this verdict. Why, then, one naturally (Fig. 4.) asks, is the criminal offender not handled in this manner everywhere? Largely, it must be supposed, because of the Tack of public knowledge sufficient to educate public sentiment. Chicago has two psychopathic laboratories for juvenile offenders, and here and there sporadic work is being done; but New York is absolutely the only place in the United States where adult offenders are examined systematically in the light of their mentality and their family history before being brought to trial. 261 262 Although only a short time in exist- ence the psychopathic laboratory has already demonstrated beyond question that what is urgently needed is an institution for feebleminded criminals. These individuals never will be normal and it is folly to sentence, release, rearrest, and sentence them all over German Suggestions for Germany continues to take an active interest in proposals for making good the eugenic loss caused by the war. An article by Dr. von Behr-Pinnow in the Archiv fir Rassen- und Gesellschafts- Biologie (XI, 3) is thus summarized in the last issue of the Eugenics Review: There are two means of increasing the population. One is by combating the causes which lead to a fall in the birth rate; the other is by keeping the death rate low. The people, beginning with school children, must be enlightened with regard to the importance of large families. The housing laws ought to be modified, hygienic homes secured for all, and every attempt by houseowners to discriminate in favor of childless couples as employes or tenants checked. Recognition ought to be given to large families by the government and ex- pressed in a scale of wages (including supplementary payments) for all persons employed by the state, proportioned to the size of their families. The same thing should be enforced if possible (there are legal obstacles in the way) in the case of persons privately employed. Children must be discouraged from leaving their parents’ home before they are of age and spending their wages on themselves alone, instead of giving a share (20%, the author suggests) to their parents; for this leads only to a decrease in the size of families. Working people can frequently be heard to say nowadays that it does not pay to have children, for in old age one gets nothing The Journal of Heredity again as is the procedure nowadays. The criminal insane and the feeble- minded of ordinary types are fairly well cared for in some States, but the feeble-minded of criminal tendencies are a special class and should receive special segregation and training suited to the grade of mentality they possess. Constructive Eugenics from them. The imperial insurance laws should likewise be altered in favor of married people and large families; and engaged and newly married couples must be protected (by the withholding of their names and addresses) from the flood of advertisements of contraceptives and the like which is now poured out on them. There ought also to be more stringent penalties for such advertise- ments, and physicians alone should be permitted to give public instruction in regard to the limitation of offspring. Infantile mortality can be decreased by providing free nurses, midwives and medical attendance to all insured women, by the payment of full insurance money for sickness during the last six weeks of pregnancy, and by granting premiums equal to one-half the sick pay for twelve weeks after confinement in winter or twenty-four weeks in summer, to all insured mothers who nurse their own children. New pro- visions in regard to the insurance of motherhood are also wanted, and better facilities, provided by the local govern- ment boards, for the care of infants and smallchildren. Private societies formed for the same end and for the care of orphans must also be encouraged and assisted by the state. Funds can be raised in part by an extra tax on the unmarried and childless couples, in part by confiscation by the Government of the estates of people who die intestate and have no heirs within the third degree of succession. “BULLDOG” CATTLE Niata Breed, Described by Darwin, Becoming Exceedingly Scarce—Presumed Mutation Accounts for Extraordinary Jaw and Face—Inheritance of Peculiarities Is Blended HE peculiar jaw characteristic of a bull-dog is a mutation which is not confined to the dog alone, but appears from time to time in other animals. It has been reported in foxes, and Charles Darwin found a whole race of cattle in South America which Showed this peculiarity. Writing of his trip through the province (now the department) of la Colonia in Uruguay, he said:! “On two occasions I met with in this province some oxen of a very curious breed called fiata or niata. They appear externally to hold nearly the same relation to other cattle which bull or pug dogs do to other dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project beyond the upper, and have a corresponding upward curve; hence their teeth are always exposed. Their nostrils are seated very high up and are very open; their eyes project outwards. When walking they carry their heads low, on a short neck; and their hinder legs are rather longer compared with the front legs than is usual. Their bare teeth, their short heads, and their upturned nostrils give them the most ludicrous self-confident air of defiance imaginable. “Since my return, I have procured a skeleton head through the kindness of my friend Capt. Sullivan, R. N., which is now desposited in the College of Surgeons. Don F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected for me all the information he can respecting this breed. From his account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago they were rare and kept as curiosities at Buenos Aires. The breed is universally believed to have originated among the Indians southward of the Plata, and that it was with them the commonest kind. Even to this day, those reared in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilized origin, in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow easily deserting her first calf, if visited too often or molested. It is a singular fact that an almost similar structure to the abnormal one of the niata breed, characterizes, as I am informed by Dr. Falconer, that great extinct ruminant of India, the Siva- therium. The breed-is very true; anda miata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves. A niata bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces offspring having an _ inter- mediate character, but with the niata characters strongly displayed; according to Senor Muniz, there is the clearest evidence, contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases, that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the niata bull when crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, the niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle, but during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, the niata breed is under a great dis- advantage, and would be exterminated if not attended to; for the common cattle, like horses, are able just to keep alive by browsing with their lips on twigs of trees and reeds; this the niatas cannot so well do, as their lips do not join, and hence they are found to perish before the common cattle. This strikes. me as a good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only at long intervals, the 1 Darwin, Charles, ‘‘Voyage of the Beagle,” p. 158 ff. New York, 1909. 263 SUPPOSED REPRESENTATIVE OF THE BULL-DOG CATTLE This cow is believed to be a hybrid, although judging from descriptions it cannot be a full- blood, fata, the race in Uruguay which was first brought to the attention of science by Charles Darwin. upper lip, to such an extent that in many specimens the two lips do not meet. it arose asa mutation. (Fig. 5.) rarity or extinction of a species may be determined.” Knowledge of the fata breed has been little increased since Darwin’s time and, so far as the writer is aware, no photographs of it have been pub- lished. The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY therefore undertook, nearly three years ago, to find what had become of this curious bovine race, and to secure illustrations of it. A fruitless corre- spondence was conducted with numer- ous South Americans, but finally a member of this association, B. Lorenzo Hill, of Montevideo, interested himself in the case, and for the past year has prosecuted a diligent search for informa- tion about the breed. The principal newspapers of Uruguay cooperated by printing the American Genetic Associa- tion’s appeal, at the instance of Mr. Hill, and another member of the association, 264 It is characterized, among other peculiarities, by a short neck and Apparently Don Hugo A. Surraco Cantera, Inspec- tor Nacional de Ganaderia y Agricultura, exerted himself actively in the quest. He was finally able to secure the accom- panying photographs from a rancher in the district of Chubut. They were at once published in several of the most widely circulated newspapers of Monte- video, accompanied by another appeal from the Uruguayan Department of Agriculture, in which ranchers were asked to assist the American Genetic Association in getting more detailed information. But in view of the evident rarity of Nata cattle at the present day, it seems advisable to publish these photographs in the JOURNAL OF HERED- Iry without further delay. A comparison of the accompanying photographs, with Darwin’s description, makes it seem probable that the animals pictured are not full-blood fatas, but a REMNANT OF A NEARLY EXTINCT BREED Because of their unusual jaws, Darwin says, the fiata cattle could not pasture successfully when food was scarce, and therefore were crowded out by other types. The breed is supposed to have arisen among the Indians, but the production of high-grade Herefords and other improved breeds in Uruguay nowadays makes such an animal as the fiata no longer profit- able, and it appears to have become almost extinct. first cross between the filata and a common cow, for the peculiarities of the head are certainly much less than Darwin’s description would lead one to expect: The difficulty which has been en- countered in finding any trace of these cattle at the present time indicates that the race has become practically extinct. Judging from the appearance of the cows, it could never have been very valuable, and the introduction of the best European breeds, particularly the Hereford, into Uruguay in recent years has raised the standard of live stock so much that, presumably, it is no longer profitable to keep fiata cattle. Add to this the possibility that the physical peculiarities of the breed have con- tributed to their disappearance, as Darwin describes, and it will readily (Fig. 6.) be understood that their numbers might ' diminish greatly in the course of half a century. Live-stock breeding has now reached such a high point in Uruguay that it is not probable that any one hereafter will care to breed such cattle as these for commercial purposes. In order to pre- vent the entire disappearance of an interesting variation, it would be worth while for some zoological garden to secure specimens of the fiata. Full- blood specimens, if they can be secured, would be of much value to geneticists, and ought to be fully as interesting to the public as the common stock-in- trade which every zoological garden in the world keeps on hand, with pathetic fidelity to traditions, and which every frequenter of such institutions has seen at frequent intervals throughout his life. 265 WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE HAWTHORNS? Half a Century Ago Only Ten Species Were Recognized in North America, Now There Are More Than 700—Several Lines of Evidence Indicate That Many of the New Forms Are Not New Species but Natural Hybrids L. M. STanpDIsH Botanical Laboratories of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. HOSE interested in the origin of species cannot afford to overlook Crataegus, the hawthorn genus, on account of the extraordinary multiplication of species in that genus during the last fifty years. Gray’s Manual of Botany in 1867 records ten species and four varieties; in 1869 his classification is the same, while Focke in Engler and Prantl’s ‘Die nattrlichen Pflanzenfamilien” gives only thirty or forty species for the whole North Tem- perate zone. Since 1900, however, the increase in the number of species of the genus has been enormously rapid. In 1901 Britton’s Manual for the northern states west to the hundredth meridian records thirty-one species; in 1903 Small’s Flora of the southeastern United States of America gives 185; in 1905 Sargent’s Trees of North America, 132; while Gray’s New Manual, published in 1908, describes sixty-five species and fifty varieties. In 1910 those who had discovered the new forms were N. L. Britton, eight species and two varieties; W. W. Eggleston, ten species and three varieties; C. D. Beadle, 144 species; W. W. Ashe, 165 species, and C. S. Sargent, 524 species and six varieties. This unusual state of affairs was noticed by H. K. Brown (1).! In 1910 in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club (page 152), he published an ac- count of his investigation of the subject in an article entitled ‘The Genus Crataegus and Some Theories of the Origin of Species.”” He had written to the leading authorities: C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum; C. D. Beadle, Director of the Biltmore Herbarium; W. W. Eggleston of the New York Botanical Gardens; Ezra Brainerd of Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt., and Mr. Dunbar of the Park Depart- ment, Rochester, N. Y., and asked them a series of questions hoping to get their opinion as to the cause of the extraor- dinary multiplication of species in the last fifty years. The question that headed his list was: ‘Why did not the systematic botanists discover the large number of species of Crataegus years ago?’ The answers that he received were varied in the extreme. Sargent thought that their search was not sufficiently thor- ough; Ashe that they only used dry material; Beadle that their work was largely herbarium work; and Brainerd that they held in those days broader conceptions of what constituted a species. The next question on Brown’s list was: ‘Do you consider that the species now being described are elementary species?” The general consensus of opinion was that most of them were new species while some of them were mere fluctuations, and some were forms that have already been described and have escaped notice on account of the large numbers of new species in the genus. SAID TO BREED TRUE For his next question Brown asked: “Do these species breed true?’’ Sargent had planted over 3,000 numbers of seeds, and so far had found no evidence that they did not; the others agreed ! The numbers in parentheses refer to the list of authors cited at the end of this paper. 266 PERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN View of pollen sack of Crataegus coccinea, a hawthorn whose pollen shows no signs of sterility, practically every grain being perfect. that they did, although Brainerd had had no personal experience in raising them from the seed. As to the question, ‘‘ Will the different species hybridize?”’ Sargent had seen no evidence of it; Ashe thought that many did, and that ‘doubtless some of those called species are hybrids.’’(1). He did not think, however, that these hybrid forms were any more numerous in this genus than among the nearly related species of oaks. Beadle and Eggleston thought that they probably did, and Brainerd, although he had never hybridized any himself, knew of many cases that appeared to be natural hybrids—“‘local species, each quite inter- mediate between the supposed parents with which it is associated’”’ (1). Dun- (Fig. 7.) bar had seen no evidence of hybridizing, but thought it very possible. The last question as to whether the new species had arisen as mutations brought out extremely varied opinions. Sargent did not answer the question; Beadle thought that they had; Eggles- ton that some were hybrids and some were mutants; Ashe that probably some were mutants—‘‘some of the forms in the Molles group in Missouri and Illinois would seem to be mutations leading to the inference that some of the species in this group may have origi- nated in this manner. The variations in the Pruinosae in the Appalachians, and the localized valley species also indicate mutation origin” (1). Brainerd thought that there might be mutants, but it would be very hard to prove, and 267 A MIXTURE OF GOOD AND BAD POLLEN Section of a pollen sack which may represent any one of a very large number of forms of Cra- taegus. Part of the grains are perfectly formed, the rest are shriveled or empty. This is the usual condition of pollen in hybrid plants, and is one indication that many of the North American hawthorns are hybrids. Dunbar believed in the Darwinian view of gradual change in evolution. In the midst of so much conflicting opinion there seems to be one point on which all the authorities agree, and that is the extreme variability of the genus. Sargent alone during the last twenty years has numbered his new forms up into the thousands, and the process of multiplication appears to be still going on. Unusual variability in plants is gener- ally considered good evidence of hybrid- ism, and it is more than probable that the hawthorns of the United States share with the European species in particular, and with the other Rosaceae in general, a marked disposition to hybridize. Luther Burbank has, as it were, specialized in producing variations by means of crossing; and his work, done on such a wholesale scale, 1s 268 (Fig. 8.) based on the principle that hybridism breaks up the continuity of inherited characteristics and results in the appear- ance of variations. EVIDENCE FROM STERILITY For further and more exact evidence we can turn to the morphological peculiarities of hybrids. Partial or complete sterility is and has long been recognized as an important basis of distinction between crosses and genetic- ally pure species. To be sure, when the parent forms show a considerable degree of compatibility, the fertility of the offspring may be practically normal or even entirely so. Then again sterility may be largely eliminated by selection; but it is not present except when crossing is possible, it does not occur in monotypic species, and it is absent in genera that are isolated either geo- TOTAL LACK OF GOOD POLLEN Longitudinal section of pollen sack of a hawthorn numbered 317 by Professor Sargent. Every grain in sight is shriveled or empty; there is not one which is capable}of germination. graphically or phenologically (2). The sum of the evidence seems to point just one way—when absent the plant may or may not be of hybrid origin; but when pollen sterility is present, we have a clear indication of mixed ancestry. Thus, morphologically we have a simple means of determining the purity of a species—often otherwise a difficult matter in the diagnosis of constant or relatively constant hybrids. And these constant hybrids are by no means as infrequent as we have grown to believe. Burbank’s ‘“‘Phenomenal,”’ a cross be- tween Rubus fruticosus and Rubus idaeus,” 1s aS constant as the purest species (3). The hybrid alfalfa (Medi- cago media), a combination of the common purple alfalfa and the yellow Such a condition is frequently found in hybrid plants. (Fig. 9.) Medicago falcata, is one of the oldest known hybrid races (3). It has been constant from the beginning as was proved when the cross was repeated by Urban. In the genus Anemone, Janc- zewski obtained the same results. He found that some characters would split, but that others would remain constant; and that when only such were present, hybrid races with new combinations of characters resulted which were as con- stant as the best species of the same genus (3). As far as I know no mor- phological study has been made of the pollen of these crosses, but they were quite fertile enough to reproduce them- selves without any appreciable diminu- tion in number. If found in the wild state, they would have been described 2 This is practically the same as the loganberry, a hybrid which is now being widely grown on the Pacific Coast, and which appeared as a natural hybrid between a blackberry and red rasp- berry. Evidence as to whether the loganberry breeds true from seed is conflicting; certainly it does not always do so. 269 A BAD LOT OF POLLEN GRAINS The hawthorn numbered ‘417 S. L.,”’ was good for anything. as species on a par with their parents. Such is particularly the case of the cross between Anemone magellanica and the common Anemone sylvestris. As I have already mentioned, hybrids may have all degrees of pollen sterility from no appreciable amount to complete abortion of the grains. The hybrid Aegilops speltiformis is a very interesting constant race which is sufficiently fertile to propagate itself (3). It was formerly believed by Fabre and others to be a transition from some wild species of grass to the ordinary wheat—not a cross but a transition. Godron was success- ful in producing it artificially, however, and found it to remain constant. He discovered that although the hybrid between Aegilops ovata—a small weed- and the common wheat is of itself sterile and produces no good pollen, when this in turn was fertilized by the pollen of the common wheat, it gave rise to a secondary hybrid which is no other than Aegilops speltiformis. 270 Those shown here are all shriveled and imperfect. seems not to have produced a single grain of pollen that (Fig. 10.) Linaria italica—a hybrid toad-flax between Linaria genistifolia and Linaria vulgaris which has been repeated by De Vries in his own garden (3), is so sterile that it has to be cross-pollinated before it will give its normal yield of seed. STERILITY AMONG THE Among the Crataegi I found on microscopic examination that Crataegus praeclara—a species grown at the Arnold Arboretum, and not yet described as far as I know—is an example of complete abortion. It was found to contain no normal pollen grains. The anthers, which to all external appearance were robust and healthy, were found to be nearly devoid of contents. The anther sack or cavity was almost entirely filled up by the inner wall of cells which had apparently grown out into the sack instead of being absorbed as the pollen grains developed. As a matter of fact, the pollen grains did not develop HAW THORNS WHERE TWO GROUPS OF HAWTHORNS OVERLAP Area perpendicularly shaded indicates range of Coccineae, while area horizontally shaded indi- cates range of Intricatae. normally at all, but appeared to be collapsed and quite lacking in contents. After embedding the C. praeclara flowers in celloidin, and after staining the sections cut with hematoxylin and safranin, examination of the pollen grains showed them as _ irregularly elongated, brownish colored bodies— greatly in contrast to the triangular, opaque, and thoroughly stained normal grains that one would expect to find in a pure species. In cases of this nature, the plant must be cross-fertilized before it can propagate its kind. Upon looking over 171 different forms of Crataegus, I found all degrees of pollen sterility. Thirty-five I classed as pure although many of them showed some grains of abortive pollen; sixty I classed as having from 10 to 50%; forty-one from 50 to 75%; and thirty- five from 75 to 100%. As a result of an examination of the 171 specimens of Crataegus, I found the extraordinary state of affairs that roughly not quite one-fifth had normally developed pollen; while seventy-six (or (Fig. 11.) within nine of one-half the total number) had between 50 and 75% sterile pollen. It is only fair to add that these species were largely among forms of such comparatively recent appearance that a considerable proportion of them have not yet been described. Out of the most sterile group (from 75 to 100%) twenty of ‘the thirty-five species in the group could not be found in either Gray’s New Manual or Sargent’s Man- . ual of the Shrubs and Trees of North America; thirty-five of the forty-one species in the next group (50 to 75%) and twenty-nine out of the group with normal pollen, had not been described in either of these manuals. The Intricatae form one of the most interesting groups of the genus Cratae- gus: first because all the species of this class were once included in the Coccineae, before they were raised by Sargent to their present status; and second because an examination of the pollen of as many species as I could acquire among the two groups showed such contrasting results. cpl PERFECT POLLEN GRAINS, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED The pollen grain is a single cell, enclosed in two transparent envelopes and consisting of a nucleus surrounded by nutritive material. The latter supplies nourishment for the growth of the pollen tube, down which the nucleus slips to unite with the ovule and thus start the growth of a new plant. Gray ascribes to the Coccineae nine species and one variety of enough importance to constitute a paragraph. I was able to investigate the pollen of four forms: three of them _ species, namely, C. anomala, C. Pringlet and C. pedicellata; and the one variety, C. coccinoides var. dilatata. I also exam- ined two more—one of which was to be found in Sargent and not in Gray, and one of which may not yet be described. These two were C. delecta and C. flabellata. I found that the pollen of all these forms was practically normal, never showing more than 10% abortive grains. I was unable to procure any of the local species: of this group, but these, as can readily be seen on studying the following chart, are so situated geographically that they might easily be of hybrid origin. 272 The pollen here shown is that of C. coccinea. (Fig. 12.) Gray: Coccineae of Northeast Coast of U.S. A. Montreal and Central Maine 1. C. holmesiana, south to Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, west to Michigan. In moun- tains to North Carolina *(var. vi/lipes, south of Pennsylvania in mountains). 2. *C. anomala, North Adams, Mass., and Albany, N. ¥. 3. C. cocc. var. dilatata, south to Rhode Island, west to Missouri. Northwest New England 1. C. Pringlei, south to Pennsylvania, west to northern Illinois. * (var. exclusa, Vermont and northeastern New York.) * (var. lobulata, Vermont and northeastern New York.) 2. C. polita, south to Delaware, west to Southern Michigan. Middle Belt 1. C. pedicellata, South Connecticut, south to Pennsylvania and Delaware, west to southern Ontario and northern Illinois. 2. C. coccinoides, southwest Indiana to eastern Kansas, southwest Indiana to eastern Kansas. POLLEN GRAINS OF C. COCCINEA Two complete grains of pollen are heré shown, enormously magnified. The dark patches in their centers are the nuclei, which are supposed to be the carriers of most, if not all, of the heredity; surrounding the nuclei is nutritive material. It will be noticed that the outer envelope of the grain is marked by thin spots, through which a pollen tube can easily break and grow down into the ovary of the plant to be fertilized. Missouri 1. * C. Kellogit, St. Louis, Mo. 2. * C. lanuginosa, Webb City, southwestern Missouri. 3. * C. pyroformis, southeastern Missouri. Sargent: Middle Belt (Forms Not Listed in Gray) 1. * C. Eamesii, Connecticut, rich, moist soil. 2. * C. Neo-Londonensis, Connecticut, bor- ders of woods. 3. * C. Hill, northeastern Illinois, open woods, river banks, rich, moist soil. 4. * C. assurgens, northeastern Illinois, open woods, river banks, rich, moist soil. 5. * C. acclivts, northeastern Illinois, banks of rivers at Rochester and Niagara. 6. * C. delecta, northeastern Illinois, open pastures and wood borders. 7. * C. sertata, northeastern Illinois, open woods, rich, moist soil. Note: Forms marked (*) are of purely local distribution. The forms of the group as a whole are seen to be either of extremely wide range of distribution or they are ex- tremely local; and these local forms never occur in an area not already covered by two or more of their more cosmopolitan cousins. These facts I consider significant. It is also of inter- est to note that all the new species recorded in Sargent but not in Gray and belonging to this group are confined to purely local distribution—two in (Fig. 13.) Connecticut, and five in northeastern Illinois. I venture to guess that if the pollen of these forms were to be investi- gated, it would show a high percentage of sterility. Examination of the pollen conditions of the Intricatae, on the other hand, proved them to be surprisingly sterile. Gray ascribes to the group six species and one variety. Of these seven forms I have investigated five: C. Boyntont. C. foetida. ‘C. coccinea L. C. apposita. C. apposita, var. Bissell. Sargent describes three more forms not mentioned in Gray, and of these I was able to ascertain the pollen condi- tions of two: C. Buckleyt. Thus of the ten different forms that make up the Intricatae, I have looked into the spore conditions of seven and in no case have I found a flower that is not strikingly sterile. I was able to examine the pollen of one of the two extremely local species of the group— C. venusta, which is confined to the open oak and hickory woods on the dry 273 C. venusta. FEW GOOD, MANY WORTHLESS Crataegus No. 367 S. L., showing a few perfect (dark) pollen grains and many shriveled (light), imperfect grains. origin. these is a hybrid and not a real species. slopes of Red Mountain in the southern part of Birmingham, Ala.—and I found it to be about 75% abortive. It is of interest to note among the Intricatae as well as among the Coccineae that the extremely local species only occur in localities already covered by other mem- bers of the group, and the same char- acteristic of overlapping in the range of distribution is evident. Distribution Chart of the Intricatae: Gray 1. C. coccinea L., eastern Massachusetts to southwestern Vermont, southeastern New York, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, rocky woods. 2. C. apposita, western Vermont to rocky woods. 3. C. apposita, var. Bisselli, Massachusetts and southwestern Vermont to New York, Virginia, woods. 4. C. Boyntoni, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, mountain woods. 274 and south- York, Virginia, Massachusetts New Such a condition is regularly found in a great many plants of hybrid The assumption is therefore worth testing, that the hawthorn which produces (Fig. 14.) 5. C. biltmoreana, Virginia, North Carolina, mountain regions. 6.7 'G_ esionen Albany, N. Y. Intricatae: Sargent (Forms Not Listed in Gray) Central Massachusetts to 7. C. Buckleyi, Tennsessee, Virginia, moun- tain slopes. 8. C. Sargenti, northern Georgia, southern Tennessee, Alabama, woody bluffs. 9.* C. venusta, Red Mountains, Birmingham, Ala., woody slopes. By means of the accompanying map (Fig. 11), I have tried to diagram the distribution of the Coccineae and of the Intricatae. The areas attributed to each group are bounded by the extreme limits of the various species in the group; while the local species I have indicated by crosses. Although the map cannot bring out the overlapping of different species within the separate groups, it does show THE POLLEN OF CRATAEGUS HARBISONI Perfect and imperfect grains seem to be present in about equal numbers. Although C. Har- bisoni has been described as a good species, the condition of the pollen reminds one of such cases as the Velvet Bean artificial hybrids, where exactly one-half of the pollen was worth- less. of hawthorn are not species at all, but natural hybrids. the overlapping in distribution areas of the two large groups. Massachu- setts, southern Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware are states common to both the Coccineae and the Intricatae, as are also the mountainous regions south through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and northern Georgia and Alabama. It seems to me highly probable that the Intricatae—this group of compara- tively new species which are also so closely allied to the Coccineae that the older systematic botanists included them under this last heading—may have an even closer -relationship with them. Pollen sterility is a generally accepted characteristic of hybrids, and the Intri- catae as a whole appear to share this trait with them. If crosses could be worked out with different species of the Coccineae for one or both of the parents, There is reason to suspect that ‘‘C. Harbisoni” and many other supposed species (Fig. 15.) it would not surprise me if most of the Intricatae could be artificially produced. This, however, would be a long and tedious experiment owing to the years of maturation necessary before the hawthorns can bear seed. Neverthe- less, from whatever stock the Intricatae may have sprung it seems to me very significant and a fact worthy of further study that the group as a whole is marked by such an extreme degree of sterility—a degree which is unusual even for the genus Crataegus. The fact that C. venusta occurs only in the open oak and hickory woods on the dry slopes of Red Mountains near Birmingham, Ala., made the form of sufficient interest for me to look up the other forms of Crataegus which were native to the state. I found that in Alabama alone there were described in Small’s second edition of his Manual of the Southern States, sixty-four species 275 THE POLLEN OF CRATAEGUS HARBISONI The pollen illustrated in Fig. 9 is here shown still more highly magnified. It will be seen that the empty grains fold up very neatly, their envelopes being provided with creases for that (Fig. 16.) purposes. of which forty-two were strictly local in their distribution. Red Mountain being in northern central Alabama, I found that in this area, even when I limited the count to those forms which grew in upland woods, there were still thirty different species; and of these thirty, twenty-two were extremely local. Here again in the case of C. venusta, we seem to find ideal conditions for natural hybridization combined with a high degree of spore sterility. In answer to Mr. Brown’s question in regard to mutation in this genus, Ashe cites the Pruinosae and Molles groups as showing some indication of its presence. Since the Molles have only one of their species native to Massachusetts, I have made no study of them; but I was able to secure a number of the Pruinosae, and as to pollen sterility they seem to exemplify the conditions of the genus as a whole. In Gray’s Manual (1908) to the 276 Pruinosae are ascribed six species and eight varieties of which all but C. pruinosa var. dissona and C. pruinosa var. philadelphica are considered close enough to species to constitute a separate paragraph. Varieties which are placed in this category are thought “so distinct and peculiar that they are not unlikely to establish the claim” and be considered species. In fact this prediction has largely come true; as of these eight varieties, Sargent describes seven as species and only one—var. dissona—as a true variety. The results of the investigation of the Pruinosae was as follows: % of Sargent Gray abortion C. cognata var. latisepala 1S C. pruinosa C. pruinosa 60 C. robbinsiana_ var. beckwithia 50 C. deltoides C. deltoides 50 C. fusca var. philadelphica 40 C. conjuncta var. conjuncta practically pure Forma dissona Forma dissona practically pure CAN THIS BE A GOOD SPECIES? Pollen grains of Crataegus cognata, highly magnified. A few of them are seen to be perfect, while an equal number are quite incapable of germination. If such a condition were found in the pollen of a single species, it might not attract great attention, but when hundreds of species, in the genus Crataegus, are found to have this kind of pollen, the botanist naturally inquires what has happened. Among the Pruinosee then, we find conditions much the same as in the rest of the genus—a relatively small proportion of the species showing normal pollen and more than half showing pollen markedly abortive. In view of the fact that unusual sterility and an unusual amount of variation are char- acteristic of hybrid races, the question of mutation among the Crataegi seems to resolve itself into a matter of hybrid- ization; and in fact, this is the conclu- sion which Mr. Brown reaches even without this important morphological evidence. In 1908 (1) he crossed the English hawthorn—C. monogyna—with the na- tive C. Brainerdi: in 1909, he and William Moore made cross pollinations between the majority of the native appearances (Fig. 17.) species with the result that in all cases the fruit set and matured, to all external entirely normal. The theory which he reached as a result of his investigation was that the enormous increase in the species of the genus is due to extensive hybridization since the dense forests have been cleared (2). The irregularity in the number of stamens and pistils, the variation in shape of leaves and color of anthers (from white to dark purple), the occur- rence of plants with characteristics of two different species which grow in the near neighborhood, and the occurrence of numerous local species—one of which is peculiar to almost all of the states east of the Mississippi—all these facts in his opinion point to extensive hybrid- ization. No sufficient tests have been 277 278 made, however, to prove beyond a doubt whether or not hybrids of Crataegus are stable—circumstantial evidence seems to indicate that they are, but no such extensive experiments in breeding as would be necessary have been attempted on account of the difficulties due to the slow maturation of the plant. STUDY OF THE ROSE FAMILY Since Mr. Brown’s article in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club wast published, nevertheless, work carried on in the Harvard laboratories under Prof. E. C. Jeffrey by C. S. Hoar on the raspberries, and by Miss R. D. Cole on the roses, and also my own examination of the hawthorns, have revealed among the Rosaceae a large number of hidden or crypthybrids which are constant in their character and which are recognized by systematic botanists as good species, but which may be distinguished from normal species by the sterility of their reproductive cells. These crypthybrids, while they are extremely important from the evolu- tionary standpoint on account of their enormous variability and the consequent multiplication of species, must never- theless not be given credit for the origin of species. Although in answer to Mr. Brown’s questions Ashe, Beadle and Eggleston appeared to favor the idea that at least some of the new species of Crataegus might be mutants, investiga- tion of the morphological character- istics of the genus backs up Brainerd in his emphasis of the extraordinary tend- ency towards hybridization among the Rosaceae. I quote what he had to say on the subject (1). “In Europe the few species [of Crataegus] cross in many ways (Focke’s Pflanzen-mischlinge p. 146). I know of many cases which appear to be natural hybrids or local species each quite intermediate between the two supposed parents with which it is associated. The Rosaceae are of all others the most disposed to hybridize. I should expect the same in Crataegus as in Rosa, Rubus, Geum, Amelanchier and Malus. The condition in Crataegus is much like Rubus, Rosa and Viola. The Journal of Heredity The multiplication of even stable forms that may result (in the working out of Mendel’s laws) from one pair of parents is astonishing.”’ To summarize the evidence set forth in this paper, we find among the Crataegi an extraordinary amount of comparatively recent multiplication of forms; we find also, large numbers of local species combined with unusual sterility. Out of the 171 specimens examined only thirty-five could be considered uncontaminated with regard to pollen conditions, while seventy-six showed from 50 to 100% of abortive grains. Sterility partial or complete of the reproductive cells has long been recognized as a characteristic of hybrid- ism; and forms which are ordinarily accepted as species frequently reveal past genetical contamination by pollen infertility. Among the Rosaceae, a family showing an unusually strong tendency to hybridize, examination of the pollen conditions discloses a great number of these hidden hybrids. The Intricatae on account of their unique position seemed worthy of study in this connection. In the first place they are a relatively new group so closely allied to the Coccineae that they are included in the group as far as they were known to the older systematists. They show a smaller range of distribu- tion both collectively and individually than do the Coccineae; they only occur in localities where there is a possibility of crossing; and they have a degree of sterility unusual even for the genus Crataegus. This seems a_ suspicious combination of facts. Investigation of the other groups in so far as I could get material, parallels the condition found in these two groups—that among the more widely distributed species the pollen is apt to be good, while in those of more local range the pollen is largely abortive. This evidence is exemplified by C. venusta—a form extremely local in its range and growing under circum- stances ideal for cross fertilization— which proved to be 75% sterile. The study of this genus has brought out evidence of both systematic and morphological character to indicate the What is Happening wide-spread occurrence of hybridism; and in conclusion I think we must face the fact that among the Crataegi at least extreme variability is linked with to the Hawthorns ? 279 extensive hybridization and the con- sequent multiplication of species, rather than with mutation and the problem of the saltatory origin of species.* ’ The material for this study was collected at the Arnold Arboretum, and I wish to express my thanks to Prof. C. S. Sargent for this courtesy. I am also indebted to Prof. E. C. Jeffrey, in whose laboratory this study was made, for the use of his apparatus as well as for his advice and criticism. LITERATURE CITED 1. Brown, H. K.: “The Genus Crataegus and Some Theories of the Origin of Species.” Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 1910. 2. Jeffrey, E. C.: “Some Fundamental Morphological Objections to the Mutation Theory of De Vries.’””’ American Naturalist, 1915. 3. De Vries, Hugo: “Species and Varieties, Their Origin by Mutation.”’ Also: 4. Bartlett, H. H.: “The Experimental Study of Genetic Relationship.”’ of Botany, March, 1915. (Lecture IX.) American Journal 5. Henry, A.: Lecture before Royal Dublin Society. March 6, 1914. 6. Jeffrey, E. C.: “Spore Conditions in Hybrids and the Mutation Hypothesis of De Vries.”’ Botanical Gazette, October, 1914. 7. Jeffrey, E. C.: “The Mutation Myth.” Science, 1915. The Relation of Vigor to Heredity VIGOR AND HEREDITY, by J. Lewis Bonhote. London, Adlard & Son and West Newman, 1915. Geneticists have been so carried away with the idea that characters are unchangeable that some of them have given little study to the modifying effects of outside influences on the ex- pression of inherited traits. Mr. Bon- hote thinks they have made a funda- mental mistake, and asserts that not only is the expression of a Mendelian character—its dominance or lack of dominance, for example—largely de- pendent on vigor, but that new varia- tions arise from that cause. Further- more, he believes vigor to be inherited, Pp. 264, illus., price 10s. 6d. net. and has carried on breeding experiments to demonstrate it. His method of measuring an animal’s vigor by its color is not the most accurate con- ceivable, but he draws some _ highly interesting generalizations from his ex- periments and from extended observa- tions on species in the wild. His controlled evidence is limited in extent and great weight cannot be placed on it, but the book is at least highly suggestive and ought to lead to a broader view of heredity than is now held by many experimental biologists. An Elementary Text-Book on Evolution EVOLUTION, HEREDITY AND EUGENICS, by John Merle Coulter, professor of Botany in the University of Chicago. Coulter, publisher, Bloomington, IIl., 1916. “The thinking of today that is most significant is thinking in terms of evolution. Intelligent interpretation of life depends upon it,” says Professor Coulter)" Yet ib 4s a. fact. that the ‘average citizen’ has but the vaguest ideas of what evolution is.’ He has therefore undertaken to give definite Pp. 133, illus., price 50 cents. School Science Series No. 5, John ideas in a little book adapted for use by high school and college classes in elementary biology. The great extent of ground to be covered necessarily involves a summary and dogmatic method of treatment. The four pages allotted to eugenics are particularly inadequate. VARIABILITY CURVE FOLLOWING LAW OF CHANCE Photograph of beans rolling down an inclined plane and accumulating in c« ympart- ments at the base which are closed in front by glass. The exposure was long enough to cause the moving beans to appear as caterpillar-like objects hopping along the board. If we assume that the irregularity of shape of the beans is such that each may make jumps either toward the right or toward the left in rolling down the board, the laws of chance lead us to expect that in very few cases will these jumps be all in the same direction as indicated by the few beans collected in the compartments at the extreme right and left. Rather the beans will tend to jump in both right and left directions, the most probable condition being that in which the beans make an equal number of jumps to the right and to the left as shown by the large number accumulated in the central compartment. If the board be tilted to one side, the curve of beans would be altered by this one-sided influence. In like fashion a series of factors—either of environment or of heredity—if acting equally in both favorable and unfavorable directions, will cause a collection of ears of corn to assume a similar variability curve when classified according to their relative size. Such curves are used by biometricians in classifying and studying variations in plants and animals. Photograph by A. F. Blakeslee, Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. (Fig. 18.) 280 LAUGHING AND CRYING What Is Their Use?—Probably Safety Valve for the Body When It Is Affected by Emotions—Their Evolutionary Origin HY do you laugh when a man \ \ / slips on a banana-peel? Great philosophers have pon- dered on the problem. Spencer and Bergson have tried to explain it. The latest discussion, and one of interest and lucidity, is that of Dr. George W. Crile.1 He starts with the assumption that the habit of laughing must be of some use to the race, and then he undertakes to show what this use is. As a preliminary, we must understand just what we mean, physiologically, by laughter. It is ‘‘an involuntary rhyth- mic contraction of certain respiratory muscles, usually accompanied by certain vocal sounds. It is a motor act of the respiratory apparatus primarily, al- though if intense it may involve not only the extraordinary muscles of res- piration, but most of the muscles of the body. There are many degrees of laugh- ter, from the mere brightening of the eyes, a fleeting smile, tittering and gigeling, to hysteric and convulsive laughter. Under certain circumstances, laughter may be so intense and so long- continued that it leads to considerable exhaustion.” “What causes laughter? Good news, high spirits, tickling, hearing and seeing others laugh; droll ‘stories; flashes of wit; passages of humor; averted injury; threatened breach of the conventions; and numerous other causes might be added. It is obvious that laughter may be produced by diverse influences, many of which are so unlike each other that it would seem at first sight improb- able that a single general principle underlies all.” If we are to find a general principle, we must proceed from some elementary 1 Crile, George W., “‘The Origin and Nature of the Emotions.”’ Go;, 1915: facts: Mane Dr, .Crile”. telilss is. 1s “essentially a motor being.’’ He is organized for action. The sight of a mad dog, let us say, tends to produce action in the beholder; the body auto- matically gets ready to run or to fight. These various responses of the body to this situation probably occur before the man himself has realized the situation, and the emotion of fear which is aroused in him results, it is supposed, from the activities of the body in preparing for retreat or defense. Not only are the brain-cells stimulated by the sight of the mad dog, but the ductless glands at once set to work to pour into the circulation their energizing secretions, thus putting the body in a position to meet the unusual demands made on it. In other words, an emotion (say, fear) 1s accompanied, or perhaps the result of, the preparation of the body for unusual action. If the action takes place, the fuel which has been released, the sources of energy which have been made available,” are used up, and the body returns to its normal condition. NECESSITY FOR ACTION But suppose that no action follows the emotion—what happens? The blood is full of ‘‘emergency rations,” which are not needed and which therefore have to be eliminated as waste products, thus putting atax onthe system. That is why emotion unaccompanied by muscular action, is more injurious to the body than is muscular action alone. Suppose, then, that one were so impelled to anger that he got in fighting mood, and wanted to hit somebody. He might pursue three courses: 1. He might perform no physical act, Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders 2“Eninephrin, thyroid and hypophyseal secretions are thrown into the blood streams, while that most available fuel, glycogen, is also mobilized in the blood.” 281 MAN pleased, or when tickled. IS NOT THE ONLY PRIMATE WHO LAUGHS Darwin long ago pointed out that the great apes shared with man the habit of laughing when The photograph above, from Underwood and Underwood, shows Mike, the clever chimpanzee in the London zoo; Dr. Crile considers that he is laughing although, according to Darwin, the chimpanzee does not ordinarily put so much heart in it, but contents himself with grins and chuckles. but merely give expression to the emo- tion of anger. This would, for the reasons pointed out above, be distinctly injurious to him. 2. He might hand his coat to the nearest innocent bystander, roll up his sleeves, and “let go’’ with the result, if the other man were not too big, that he would completely satisfy his anger and return to normal. 3. He might immediately turn and run around the block, or engage in some other violent exercise. This would consume all the motor-producing ele- ments mobilized by the body and, again, would leave him normal. It is not proposed, from these state- ments, to insist on the moral that you should fight every time you get hot 129 (Fig. 19.) under the collar, but merely to point out that when a strong emotion is not followed by some physical action, the body suffers. Now laughter consists of physical action, of muscular exertion. It serves, Dr. Crile says, “precisely such clarifying purposes as would be served by the gymnastic exercises of an angry man. As it seems to me, the muscular action of laughter clears the system of the energizing substances which have been mobilized in various parts of the body for the performance of other actions. “If this be true, the first question that presents itself is, “Why “Is the respiratory system utilized for such a clarifying purpose? Why do we not laugh with our hands and feet as well?’ ”’ Laughing and Crying The answer seems to him obvious. Were laughter expressed by the hands the monkey, who shares with man the privilege of a hearty laugh, would fall from the tree. Were it expressed with the feet, a man would either fall down or be temporarily “crippled.” The muscles of the face and chest seem to be the most available ones at liberty to perform this action, since they do not incapacitate the subject for any other action that may be useful to him. It may be supposed, then, that in the course of evolution, natural selection has picked out these muscles and fixed on them the duty of relieving a man of the effects of his emotions, by the exercise which we call laughing. “Let us test this hypothesis by some practical examples. The first is an incident that accidentally occurred in our laboratory during experiments on fear which were performed as follows: A keen, snappy, fox-terrier was com- pletely muzzled by winding a broad strip of adhesive plaster around his jaw so as to include all but the nostrils. When this aggressive little terrier and a rabbit found themselves in close quarters each animal became completely governed by instinct; the rabbit crouched in fear, while the terrier, with all the ancestral assurance of seizing his prey, rushed upon the rabbit, his muzzle always glancing off and his attack ending in awkward failure. “This experiment was repeated many times and each time provoked the seri- ous-minded scientific visitors who wit- nessed it to laughter. Why? Because the spectacle of a savage little terrier rushing upon an innocent rabbit as if to mangle it integrated the body of: the onlooker with a strong desire to exert muscular action to prevent the cruelty. This integration caused a conversion of the potential energy in the brain-cells into kinetic energy, and there resulted a discharge into the blood-stream of activating internal secretions for the purpose of producing muscular action. Instantly and unexpectedly the danger passed and the preparation for muscular action intended for use in the protection of the rabbit was not needed. This 3 Spencer, Herbert, ‘‘The Physiology of Laughter.” (New York, 1872), p. 203. 283 fuel was consumed by the neutral muscular action of laughter, which thus afforded relief. _ “A common example of the same na- ture is that encountered on the street when a pedestrian slips on a banana peel and, just as he is about to tumble, recovers his equilibrium. The onlookers secure relief from the integration to run to his rescue by laughing. On the other hand, should the same pedestrian fall and fracture his skull the motor integration of the onlookers would be consumed by rendering physical assist- ance—mence. there — would” be, sie laughter.” THE EFFECT OF A JOKE Dr. Crile attempts to apply this view to laughter produced by a joke. Jokes, he says, consist of two parts; in the first, the reader’s emotion is stirred by the presentation of some _ situation which seems to call for action, and in the second he is suddenly shown that he has been hoaxed, that it is a false alarm. This element of incongruity has long been recognized as the basis of much humor, and in Se far as. it as, Dr. Crile’s explanation will in many cases cover the resulting laughter. Other cases may be explained as asso- ciation of ideas. Obviously, however, there must be ramifications of the subject, and some of them were ingeni- ously explained by Herbert Spencer, whose discussion of laughter is in many ways like that of Dr. Crile, although the latter has the advantage of much work in physiology which has been done since Spencer’s time. The phil- osopher offers? this case: “You are sitting in a theater, absorbed in the progress of an interesting drama. Some climax has been reached which has aroused your sympathies—say, a reconciliation between the hero and heroine, after long and painful mis- understanding. The feelings excited by this scene are not of a kind from which you seek relief; but are, on the contrary, a grateful relief from the painful feelings with which you have witnessed the previous estrangement. Moreover, the sentiments these fictitious personages In “‘Tllustrations of Universal Progress’” TEARS ARE OF GREAT VALUE TO THE RACE They may not always be appreciated by the individual, or the individual's parents, but his- torically, according to Dr, Crile, they act as a safety valve for the body, just as laughter does. When a strong emotion is felt, the blood is filled with substances intended to be used in muscular action. If no action follows, the blood is overloaded, and this surplus fuel would have to be eliminated as waste matter, at considerable expense to the system. But either laughing or crving will take the place, to some extent, of more violent physical action, and use up the ‘‘emergency ration’’ which otherwise, to speak figuratively, would cause indigestion, Photograph from the Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C. (Fig. 20.) Laughing and Crying have for the moment inspired you with, are not such as would lead you to rejoice in any indignity offered them; but rather, such as would make you resent the indignity. And now, while you are contemplating the reconciliation with a pleasurable sympathy, there appears from behind the scenes a tame kid, which, having stared round at the audience, walks up to the lovers and sniffs at them. You cannot help joining in the roar which greets this contretemps. Inexplicable as is this irresistible burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in escaping from mental restraint; or on the hypothesis of -a pleasure from relative increase in_ self-importance, when witnessing the humiliation of others; it is readily explicable if we consider what, in such a case, must become of the feeling that existed at the moment the incongruity arose. ? American Genetic Association Offers $100 for Information about Them—A Native Fruit That Has Been Long Neglected But Contains Much Promise of the United States, the least known is probably the papaw,! which grows in the forests from the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic, west to Oklahoma and as far north as New York and Michigan. As an ornamental tree or shrub, it is occasionally grown even beyond these limits. Belonging to the family of Annonaceze or custard-apples, the papaw has a good deal in common with those delicious fruits. Its creamy pulp is of exquisite texture in the mouth, while its distinc- tive flavor and its aroma, often too pungent, give it a decided individuality. The shiny black seeds occupy more space than is desirable, in most speci- mens. The poor shipping quality of the fruit doubtless accounts largely for the fact that it is so little known outside of the immediate localities where it grows wild. It is not considered eatable until it is dead ripe and has begun to turn blackish in color; it sometimes hangs on the tree until Christmas, although it will have reached maturity in the latter half of September, when the flesh is usually yellow, occasionally white. Good indi- vidual fruits, according to Little,? usually weigh about half a pound apiece, but sometimes they attain a pound in weight. Not only is it too soft to ship, under most circumstances, but it does not keep well after it is picked. Sometimes it can be held for a number of days, if picked a little firm, but ordinarily it must be eaten from the tree. The drawbacks of the fruit, then, are largely of acommercial character. They are drawbacks which can probably be (). ALL the important native fruits 1 Asimina triloba Dunal. removed by intelligent breeding. With this idea a number of individuals have undertaken during the last few years to improve the papaw; but there is still plenty of room for work, and the Ameri- can Genetic Association therefore feels the desirability of calling attention to the papaw, and pointing out the attrac- tiveness of the problem it offers. BEST SEEDLINGS WANTED Among the wild trees along the creeks and in the underbrush of the river bottoms, there must be many a seedling which combines superior quality with a tougher skin and greater firmness than usual. Probably farmers have picked out some of these trees and transplanted them to the orchard. The American Genetic Association wants to locate these superior trees, in order that they may be made available for rapid propagation;, and a member has given $100 as a stimulus to the search for the superior specimens. Two rewards are offered from this fund. Fifty dollars will be paid for the largest individual tree, and $50 for the tree, regardless of size, which bears the best fruit. The offer will terminate on January 1, 1917, thus including the coming crop-season in which members (or others interested) can keep an eye open for superior specimens. The award for the largest tree will be made on the basis of photographs. The conditions to be observed are as follows: Photographs must be on glossy paper, not smaller than 4x5 or 34x 5% inches, and must be of sufficient excellence to allow repro- duction in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY or else- where. Photographs in which the tree is so small that its details cannot be made out, can- not be considered. The measurement of. the So little is the papaw known that its very name has been stolen from it and applied, through a confusion in sound, to the tropical papaya or tree-melon (Carica papaya) which was described by J. E. Higgins in the JouRNAL or HEReEpITy for May, 1916 (vol. vii, pp. 208-220). The genuine papaw is no more related to this tropical papaya than it is to the apple or strawberry, and the application of the name papaw to the papaya should be stopped. 2 A Treatise on the Papaw, by James A. Little, Cartersburg, Ind. Pp. 18, price 25 cents. This is the only thing published on the subject aside from an occasional magazine article. 291 EAS : at + P) oh ate i We es ’ Fs, ‘4 y | sy : i Aly UE gah re } oe 4 THE PAPAW TREE IS HIGHLY ORNAMENTAL It is worth growing around any home, merely for its beauty. Those who know the tree only as it grows in dense thickets can hardly realize what an attractive form it develops when standing by itself and given some care. Its glossy leaves, not unlike those of a magnolia in appearance, attract the eye; even without the added charm of its flowers and fruit, it would be worth a much more conspicuous place in American horticulture than it now holds. The tree can be grown without much difficulty from seed, and is easily grafted. (Fig. 1.) (‘z ‘Byq) ‘skepemou yuepog ey} ur rejndod Ayysnf ul quoWAsUBIIe [eJUOUTeUIO OF ATQeITUIpe FOS} SpUsT JT “OSOTS AIA YOU ST 9OULTGUIASEI ay} YSsnoyyye ‘yoy enplarput ue sassossod ynq ‘snonordsuoo you St 4] Surmoooq st tory afAqs osouvdef oyy -AyJOY, & JO JOMOP oY} OF pouoHT] Uoeq sey puv JOTOO UT ystdind st4z *poziad Apysry yt soxyeur yor Ap AVdVd AHL 4O YIMOTH 294 | The Journal of Heredity tree must be given in detail. In making it the only method which may be followed is to take the circumference of the trunk at two feet from the ground. It is desirable that the full height of the tree and spread of branches, as well as the girth, should be stated; if they cannot be measured exactly, they should be estimated. Photographs should, when pos- sible, contain some object, such as a human figure, which will aid in giving a realization of the size of the tree; but such figure should be beside, not in front of the tree. It is nec- essary that the photograph should include the whole tree. If there are other trees growing beside it and cutting off part of it these other trees should be included in the picture. Con- testants may send photographs of as many different trees as they like. With each photograph, a statement should be submitted telling all that is known about the tree, with reference to its age, the size of crop it bears, the quality of the fruit; the character of the soil and surrounding vegeta- tion. It is particularly necessary that photog- raphers should state whether there are many other papaw trees in the neighborhood— within a radius, say, of five miles. If the tree is on private land, and likely to be destroyed, the fact should be mentioned. It will be helpful if photographers can tell to what extent the tree is subject to attacks by disease or insects. In short, the council desires to gain as much information as possible about the papaw trees of the United States; but it im- poses as few hard-and-fast restrictions as possible, because of the varying conditions under which photographs may have to be taken, or under which they have been taken at some time in the past. The tree should be shown with full summer foliage. All photographs submitted will become the property of the American Genetic Asso- ciation, to be kept as a scientific record or used in any way taat the council may think desirable. In the award for excellence of fruit, it will not be necessary to submit a photograph of the tree, since many of the best papaws grow in dense thickets where it would be impossible to make a picture. It will be necessary, however, to give a description of the tree from which the fruit is taken, telling approx- imately how large it is, exactly where located, and whether or not it can be transplanted, or twigs obtained for grafting. The amount of fruit it bears should also be stated. The contestant must send by parcel post to the office of the American Genetic Association, 511 Eleventh Street N. W., Washington, D. C., at least six fruits, all from the same tree, and all ripe enough to be eaten. The award will be made on the basis of the excellence of flavor, small number and size of seeds, but more particularly on the condition in which the fruits reach this office, taking into consideration the number of days they have been in transit; for the great need of the market is for a fruit that will keep and ship well, and if these qualities are once obtained, selection of the best for propagation can be depended on gradu- ally to improve the quality. The same tree may, of course, be en- tered for both awards—for size of tree and for quality of fruit. CULTIVATED TREES ELIGIBLE If anyone is cultivating the papaw and has produced a variety that he considers of superior excellence, it will be entirely permissible for him to enter this in competition. The award is not limited to wild trees; although the number of trees in cultivation is believed to be so small that it is probable some of the many wild trees will be found superior to anything known in orchards. It is the hope of this association that the superior trees found will be propa- gated by grafting, and a large quantity of them secured within a few years. The papaw can be grown from seed, but only with difficulty from suckers, while transplanting is recognized to offer much trouble. One correspondent describes the general experience when he says, “I have been growing papaws for seventy-five years, not willingly but because I could not help it. It is claimed there is no way to kill a papaw except to transplant it and try to make it grow.” Grafting in the spring has been found to offer no great obstacles, however, and is the best means of propagation, from the plant-breeder’s point of view. Budding has not given good results, but this may be due to wrong technique. So far as is recorded, the papaw has not been grafted on any stock except its own, and there appears to be no necessity for any other stock. One of the promising fields for plant- breeding, in connection with the papaw, appears to be in hybridizing it with its close relatives, the tropical annonas, the genus which includes the bullock’s- heart, sweet-sop, sour-sop, and the Where Are the Best Papaws? incomparable custard-apple or cheri- moya. ‘These fruits are larger and finer than the papaw, but too tender to grow in the United States except in southern California and southern Florida. There would appear to be a good chance that they could be crossed with the papaw, and a fruit produced THE PAPAW Cross section of a fruit, natural size, photographed by W. E. Rum- sey, of the West Virginia Experi- ment Station. The flesh is ordin- arily yellow but sometimes white, and custard-like in consistency, with a peculiar pungent aroma. (Fig. 3.) which would be hardy in a large part of the United States, while superior in quality to the papaw itself. So far as is recorded, this cross has never been made. PROPAGATION FROM SEED It may be helpful to give the advice of the late James A. Little on the 295 propagation of the papaw. To grow seedlings, he writes, ‘“‘“My plan, which has been entirely successful, is to make a hill like a watermelon hill and*plant about five seeds two or three inches deep in the fall. In part for protection but mainly for shading the plants when they come up I place a barrel with both heads out over the hill and let it remain for a year or two. After that the barrel may be removed and then the plants will bear the sun. It must not be expected that the plants will come up until the harvest or later. The plants will not get more than 2 or 3 inches high the first year, but the root will be proportionately much larger than the top. The second year the plants will grow 6 or 8 inches high and after that they will greatly increase in growth from year to year. It will take them six or eight years to come into bearing.” More recent experiments than those of Mr. Little indicate that if planted as soon as taken from the fruits the seeds lie dormant in the soil for one year and germinate the second spring. There appears to be little difficulty in trans- planting the young seedlings from the seed bed to the nursery row and getting plants 12 to 18 inches tall in two years, providing they are grown in rich garden earth. Transplanting has to be done in the spring before any growth starts. Finally, as the season of ripening is coming on, it will be of interest to quote Mr. Little on the value of the fruit. “The principal use of the papaw,’’ he writes, ‘is to eat from the hand but - there are other uses that it can be put to. It makes splendid custard pie. There is no finer dessert than papaw eaten with cream and sugar. It is used to make beer the same as the persimmon by putting the fruit in a jar, mashing it, and putting water on it and letting it stand until fermented. It also answers to make pudding just the same as per- simmon pudding is made. It is also said that brandy equal to peach brandy is made of papaws. Marmalade which is equal to that of pears or peaches may be made of papaw. The custard may be spread on a board and dried like 296 The Journal of Heredity pumpkin leather. Papaws may be kept in their natural state till midwinter or longer by laying them downinoats. At this present date, January 27, Mr. Thompson has them down in oats that are just as good as when taken from the tree.’’ On this last point, another cor- respondent writes that he has found no better place to store them than in the dry leaves at the base of the tree. Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples Hall al-’ Uqdah bi-Mulakhkhas al-IfAdah fi Intaj al-Awlad hasab al-Iradah (The Untying of the Knot in a Comprehensive Resumé on the Production of Children according to Will), by A. J. Arbeely, M.D. Pp. 193, price, $2.50. Published by the author, 1723 U Street N.W., Washington, DC. The title of this book, implying that it is devoted to sex-control, fails ade- quately to describe its nature, for the theory of sex-control (based on nutrition and the influence of the parental mind) occupies only a third of the book, although it is said to be based on 1,000 cases. In the first two-thirds of the book the author, a Syrian physician with forty years of experience, gives a general treatise on eugenics, marriage and parenthood. It is written in a wholesome tone, with abundant detail, and gives an amount of information about heredity and race betterment which has not hitherto been available in the Arabic language, although the ancient Arabs had some sound empirical ideas on the subject. Muhammad is reported to have commanded, ‘Select your wives with a view to offspring,” and again to have said, “Avoid the rank plant which grows on a dung-hill.” When asked to explain this he replied, “T had in mind the woman who is beautiful but whose ancestry is bad.” Marriage and parenthood were held in the highest esteem, but the veneration of them was sometimes carried to an extreme, as is reflected in another say- ing credited to the prophet, “A fecund black wife is preferable to a sterile white one.” Dr. Arbeely does not attempt to discuss this phase of the subject, which offers an attractive field of research for some Orientalist. It should be added that the literary style of the author is admirable, as those who know his lexicographic and journalistic work would expect. Feeblemindedness and Charity More than half of the men who, in New York, apply to the Joint Applica- tion Bureau for Aid or patronize the Municipal Lodging House are morons, according to the estimate of Charles B. Barnes, Director Bureau of Employment of the State of New York. If careful examination should prove his estimate to be correct, he says, “it would mean an entire change in the attitude of the courts, charitable organizations, and the public generally toward them. We would no longer seek to ‘rehabilitate’ them. The long and weary path of attempting to make them self-support- ing would be abandoned. ‘The attempt to ‘reform’ them, in the sense in which it is now used, or the obtaining from them of promises to reform, would not be made. Other disposition would have to be made of them. We would com- mence to treat our mentally defective as well and with as much consideration as we now treat our physically defective, and no more stigma would be attached to the one than to the other.” For treating the feebleminded among the applicants for charity, he declares that the farm colony with forcible detention is the only practical plan; by this means most of them could be made self-sup- porting, while at the present time most of them are annually costing society far more than they earn. On economic as well as humanitarian grounds, there- fore, a revision of methods of distrib- uting charity, which would eliminate the feebleminded, appears to be justified. MUSICAL ABILITY Bases of it Inherited by Nearly Everyone—Difference in Ability Due More to Training Than to Heredity—Means for Bringing Latent Ability Into Expression Mrs. EVELYN FLETCHER Copp, Prookline, Mass. T IS generally supposed that musi- cians are born, not made. Amodern student of heredity, for example, writes of musical ability: “This quality is one that develops so early in the most marked cases that its innateness cannot be questioned. A Bach, matured at 22; a Beethoven, publishing his compositions at 13 anda Mendelssohn at 15;a Mozart, composing at 5 years, are the product of a peculiar protoplasm of whose tenacious qualities we get some notion when we learn that the Bach family comprised twenty eminent musicians and two-score others less eminent.” Following out this line of attack, let us look a little further for evidence that musical ability is innate. Of the Bach family I shall not speak, for its history is well-known: it presents an amount of musical genius unrivaled in history. But if we examine the ancestry of other great musicians, including some of those mentioned by the writer just quoted, we find little to indicate that their preem- inent musical ability was due to any extraordinary combination of heredity. Among such cases is Haydn. His father was a wheelwright, his mother had been a cook and, although both were fond of music, neither could be reckoned a musician as we diagnose the term. Schubert is another example; and the immortal Robert Schumann had. no ancestors who were even slightly addicted to music. Even the musicians who can point to a musical parent or grandparent have, in many striking instances, seemingly failed to transmit to their offspring even a trace of their stupendous ability. Another interesting point which strikes even the casual observer of the musicians of the past is that musical heredity seems to be anti-suffrage. When hered- ity might seem to have caused musical ability in the sons, the daughters seem usually not to have been extraordinarily benefited; and in this connection it is also of interest to note that, while many women have excelled as vocal or instrumental performers, the originality necessary to musical composition has been conspicuously lacking and there are no women who come even within hailing distance of Beethoven, Mozart, Handel and a dozen other men we might name. A COMMON INHERITANCE Now, I do not propose to argue from : these facts that musical ability is not a toatter of Jhetedity.. lf thimk iis. 7a matter of heredity, but that almost everyone possesses the heredity. Twenty years of teaching give me reason to believe that, although great genius will doubtless continue to be sporadic and unaccountable, real musical ability is much more common than has been supposed. Genius, like murder, will out. It cannot be suppressed by en- vironmental obstacles, but talent, often overlooked, may be discovered and brought to great perfection. It seems, indeed, that music, like poetry, may be a primal talent; that, as all children are born poets, they may also be born musicians and also, very similarly, that as 999% of humanity lose all poetic faculty during the years of early child- hood because of the artificial conditions of modern child life, so the very large majority of children lose their native musical ability through lack of training of the ear and mind during their most susceptible period. Education should come to the help of heredity to reclaim and develop man’s natural gift. We are all born with ears and they are formed for hearing as the eye is for seeing; they are, moreover, capable of hearing far more and better than they 297 (‘% ‘B1yq) ‘sjoquiAs uspoom jo suevaur Aq ‘yye}s 94} UO Wdyy soyeO0] UAYy a1qe} 943 ye Aoq 9Yy} pUe ‘sajzOU dy} SUTeU SOO paplospul[q omy ay} ‘ould oy} UO SsayoU spuNos Way} Jo oUO :ARA\ ZUI}SOJOJUI Ue UT YO @ATTISOg surimboe o1e poydeis0j0yd o19y Usrpyo oy, «= “Sururesy sodoid yytm ‘auoAue ysowye Aq posmboe oq ues YoOIyM puTUT 94} JO UOT}OUNy & 4ynq ‘IJaq0e -1eyo payoyur Ajdieys & suvaul ou Aq SI 4I yey SoyeoIpuT ‘IoADMOY ‘BOUDPIAD YUSIAY = “APIGV [BOISNUL JO ddULYTIOYUT oY} UT 9yeUN AIO} ApIe|MoIed se Jossassod sjt paxIvul YOIYM 4leI] UIOqUI ‘aIvI B palapIsuOD Usaq Uda}JO SEY—popUNOS SI JI USYM 9jOU [BOISNUI B OWIBU 07 ART]IGe 94I— YONI BATISOg LAID NHOUNT ATAAISOddAS V DNININOOV Copp: Musical Ability are accustomed to doing. We carry them around with us everywhere, but we really pay very little attention to them. We let our children speak in a slip-shod, indistinct way and we listen carelessly. We leave good talking and singing to the professional musicians and orators, which is just as unreason- able as to leave: good seeing to the professional artist and poet. We are only just beginning to learn what the normal ear is capable of, for instance in the matter of Positive Pitch, that is, ability to recognize and name musical tones. The lay public has been accus- tomed to consider Positive Pitch as a gift wrapped in the exclusive tissue of genius and doled out to the ultra musical only. One who can enter a room where a musician is singing or playing and say, “He is singing high C, or baritone B,” has hitherto been looked upon as a prodigy. This is by no means necessarily true. By proper training this power may be acquired, speaking very conservatively, by 80% of normal children. Children who have been thought to be entirely lacking in musical ability, some of them appar- ently tone deaf, after a few months of training are able to sing “‘Center C”’ on demand and to recognize it when it is played or sung and they soon become equally familiar with the other musical tones. HUNDREDS OF CASES STUDIED I base this statement on the experi- ence of having taught some hundreds of children; the corroborative experi- ence of the teachers I have trained would add hundreds more cases. Cer- tainly I do not say that every one ‘can acquire, by training, this once mysteri- ous gift of Positive Pitch, but I know that most people can do so, if they begin at an early age. This surely indicates that musical talent is much more widespread than has been thought and that the cases we have quoted of the appearance of won- derful ability in the children of seemingly non-musical parents, may be merely instances of the inheritance of latent characters. 299 Some children will, of course, not acquire Positive Pitch as quickly as others. There are children who dq not so easily learn to write English from dictation as others; but do we therefore allow them to give up and say that they cannot be taught? By the time he is ten or twelve any normal child can learn to write correctly from dictation five hundred words or more. Now, taking every white and black key on the piano there are only eighty-cight. Given a fair chance and a mind unmes- merized by the idea that reading music and Positive Pitch are difficult and require special gift, a child may as easily see mentally the sign for any sound as he sees the words that he hears you dictate to him in English. That the results of music study have hitherto been so meagre is due to parental indifference and the faultiness of the methods of teaching music. Teachers have insisted that the child should not be allowed to play the piano by ear, claiming that this will ruin his musical ear and make reading by sight impossible! Fancy a mother fearing that if her child speaks English first by ear, he will never learn to read it! As music is primarily an art making its first and greatest appeal through the ear, it is unreasonable to suppress the interest and initiative which naturally appear first through the ear and then, later on, by laborious ear training lessons to try to get back the interest and power which we have ignored during the most formative period of the child’s life. MUSIC EASILY ACQUIRED The acquirement of musical education is or should be comparatively easy, not only because of the smallness of the musical vocabulary (consisting as we have said of only eighty-eight tones), but also because of the universality of its notation. The present system of musical notation, though perhaps not perfect, has this great advantage, that it is the same all over the civilized world, so that when one learns it in America, the musical thoughts of France, Spain, Germany, Italy or Rus- sia are equally accessible. A child (*¢ ‘Styq) ssed yeoisnul oy} Surjoe pue surddeyo ‘Buryorew Aq ‘pooysiapun Ayisea os savy Aoy} WY 07 UOTSsaidxo [eorsAyd aA1s 0} paMoyT[e ole Aoyy yey} o[durts pue read OS soUodeq SSUIY} OS9y} JO UOTJd|a0U0) [eJUSW 9Yy pure ‘sYyysud| snoleA JO Ssyoo]q jo suvowt Aq “dja ‘s}Sor ‘sojou-Joyrenb ‘sojou-jjey Jo onyea oy} 4yYysne} Suteq MoU ole UdIp[IYD “oIsNuUI UJapoul Jo SUOISIAIp -oluty} oy jo 965 Ppo[MOU pue AC J SUL[VO} 9ATPIJOP B OAPY suosiod AuPrul Jey ULE} ION st yt “you IO ond} oq STU} Ioyqoy *SUIUTE IY Ajiea jo }[Nsol 94 Ajatoul sq APU JL JBY} 9JLOTPUT OF BOUBPTAD SWIOS PIVMIOJ }ysno1q savy s}stsojoyoAsd AT}UId91 ynq ‘o}eUUT pdtopIsuOd Useq BUOT SeY UTYZYAI Jo asuas VY JISOW AO SNOISTAIG-HINIL GHL ONINAVAT A LESSON IN MODULATION As against the view of extreme eugenicists, that musical ability is an inherited trait, which you either do or do not get from your parents, many psychologists claim that music is a universal, natural method of self-expression, and that every normal individual possesses the ability to develop it just as he possesses the ability to develop the power of expressing himself in English, or whatever his mother tongue may be. The numerous individuals who are considered or consider themselves ‘‘absolutely unmusical”’ are held to be the results of lack of education, or wrong methods of education, in this form of expression. Mrs. Fletcher- Copp has found that children, if allowed to develop their ability in a natural way, can soon reach achievements that many adults of long training cannot surpass. This photograph shows one of her means of teaching children modulation. By this simple piece of ap- paratus, on which different chords can be represented by movable pegs, no less than fifteen different simple ways of modulating can be easily taught to any child. With such a stock of experience, he will know more than the average teacher. Of 700 music teachers. Mrs. Fletcher-Copp says she found only three who could modulate easily and happily, and they did not pretend to understand what they were doing. (Fig. 6.) learns to read. English easily and well during the first six years of his school life (thac is from the age of six to twelve) ; he might just as easily learn during the same time to read fearlessly and well the universal language of Music. If you were to visit a public school and express surprise that the wash- woman’s daughter reads as well as the child of your own cultured neighbor, you would be told that “thanks to the System,”’ the advantages of birth are being wonderfully counterbalanced; that, though the effects of a few gen- erations of culture may tell in other ways, no one is dependent upon his 301 302 forefathers for ability to read, spell or write. Scientific teaching makes these things possible to all mankind. Exactly as normal is the ability to learn to read and think music. The first conclusion, then, which I venture to lay before students of heredity, is that they have, with the material at present available, no proper ground for drawing conclusions as to the distribution of musical talent in the population; because there is a great deal which is merely latent, having been denied the possibility of expres- sion. The inheritance of a trait and the expression of a trait are two different things. No student of heredity would consciously ignore the distinction, but in the study of the inheritance of musi- cal ability they have unconsciously ignored it, and therefore their results do not correspond with the reality. Time and again, as I have said, I have taken children from families where there was apparently no musical ability, and where the child himself was supposed to be utterly deficient in music. The student of heredity, I fear, would ‘unhesitatingly have set down such a child as non-musical because of failure to inherit the prerequisites. Yet this child, after being educated in a natural manner, has acquired Positive Pitch, has learned to compose, to express his own feelings musically, and to analyze compositions which would baffle many teachers. Thus, although a child may come from a supposedly unmusical family, it by no means follows that the child cannot develop musical ability of a high order. On the other hand, what of the cases 1 This view has been developed of late years by a number of psychologists. The Journal of Heredity where the child of two musical parents fails to show talent? I have in mind one striking case of this sort which I met years ago. The father was a pianist of international renown, the mother a gifted musician. They hoped, of course, that their child, with its double inheritance, would sur- pass either one of them: they confidently expected such a result. The child was set to studying music at an early age, but made no progress whatever; he was declared to be dull, uninterested, hopeless. I was naturally curious to find the reason for this state of affairs: and they were not hard to find. Almost the first inquiry I made disclosed the fact that the child showed a dislike for tedious hours of practicing, and was therefore frequently shut up in a dark closet for an hour or two at a time, to instil in him a greater love for his lessons, and a spirit more obedient to the wishes of his parents. Small wonder that he lost interest in music; and without interest, without an eagerness to learn, little can be’ done. But where the interest and will exist, it is an unusually defective child that cannot acquire a considerable amount of musical ability; and the same to a less extent holds good of adults.!_ Perhaps it may be of inter- est if I explain in a little detail the views on this point to which twenty years of teaching have brought me. If the motive for studying music be made clear and the method of teaching be sound, we may count confidently on the results. Browning says, “It is better Youth should strive, tHrough acts uncouth, towards making, than In the Archiv fur die gesamte Psychologie, XXXIV, 12, pp. 235-253 (Leipzig, 1915), Siegfried Bernfeld of Vienna cites two university students whom he studied, each of whom was supposed to be utterly unmusical, until the exertion of the will, as he says, led to the development of considerable enjoyment of music. He concludes: ‘‘The individual's reaction to music is by no means wholly decided by the nature and quantity of his psychophysical tendencies. It is influenced to a certain degree by the will to be or not to be musical . . . Even when accurate tests have shown that a person possesses all the elements of musical ability, it cannot be foretold with certainty whether he can acquire musical appreciation, for it is possible that an inhibition with retroactive force against music may exist in him, a will to be unmusical, or at least to seem so to himself and others." Cf. also Sterne, die differentielle Psychologie (1911), p. 265. For the opposite view, that heredity is the primary factor, consult Hans Rupp, Ueber die Priifung musikalischen Fahig- keiten; Ztschft. f. die angewandte Psychol., IX, Nos. 1 and 2; also C. B. Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (New York, 1911), p. 48. The psychological literature on music is large; for an interesting account of how musical ability is measured see Carl Emil Seashore, Psychology in Daily Life (New York, 1913), pp. 196 ff.—The Editor. Copp: Musical Ability 303 COMPOSITION OF A 13-YEAR-OLD BOY Acting on the principle that music is as natural a form of self-expression as are words, Mrs. Fletcher-Copp tries to get children to express their feelings in this way. The above com- position represents the thought of a 13-year old boy after studying a picture called ‘‘The Last Outpost,”’ in which an Indian who has been driven from the ancestral hunting-ground of his tribe contemplates the waters of the Pacific with the thought that if he is again forced by the white man to move, it can only be into the ocean. repose on aught found made.” We have made the mistake in music teaching in the past of putting the finished prod- uct of another’s mind before our children and forcing them to copy it. Behind this mistake is the wrong motive. The main idea was to force the child to copy, parrot-like, at the earliest possible moment, the thoughts of some one else. Music was looked upon merely as a means of adornment, as something to be plastered on the outside to add to the attractiveness of the child. The motive is altogether wrong. Not slavery to someone else’s ideas but freedom to express one’s own ideas should be the aim. Watch a tiny child seated on his mother’s knee. She has been playing and he has been told to keep his little paddies on her wrists, but presently he pushes her hands aside and substi- tutes for the beautiful composition his own incoherent pattings and poundings of the keys, striving “through sounds uncouth”’ to express himself; but, alas! he is stopped. It is as though a two- year-old should toddle to his mother (Fig. 7.) and stammer with his crooked little tongue, “See, mama, ve sun is playing hide and go seek wif me,” and the mother should say, “You must not talk that way, my child. You should say, as Homer writes, ‘Lo! Dawn the rosy- fingered, opes wide the gates of Day.’”’ What would be the effect of this classical method of teaching English upon one’s joy and proficiency in acquiring the mother tongue? METHODS OF EDUCATION The motive, then, for learning musical notation must be for the purpose of freeing the child by giving him the means of expressing his own ideas on paper as well as giving him pleasure in reading easily and joyfully the thoughts of others. The means used for the attainment of these ends are most important. They must cultivate as many of the child’s senses as possible. If he can feel the symbols as well as see them; if he may see them in a big, tangible form; then through this touch contact and through this ready sight, it 304 The Journal occurs to him to place the symbols thus and so and then to find out on the piano what the symbols so placed by himself will express when sounded. We, therefore, give the child notes of heroic size to play with and a loose-noted key board to take to pieces and become familiar with by putting together again. We have further invented games which call into play qualities of mind the lack of which has wrecked many a musician in the past; games which cultivate the ability to think calmly, coherently and quickly before others, games which require rapidity of thought and action and which develop unselfishness, gener- osity and balance, mental, emotional and technical. It was not music which made for the lack of these qualities as has often been insinuated; it was a lack of the most valuable traits of a true musician, missed by acquiring a certain musical veneer without real, scientific, educational growth. In the past to be a musician was almost a synonym for being character- ized by nervousness, lack of balance, general peculiarity and uselessness in practical life; but, to repeat, these deficiencies were not because of music but rather proved a lack of musical development in its entirety. If we will consider music as a lan- guage, not so much of the intellect, as of that finer, higher, more spiritual part of us, a language which this soul of ours needs; and if we will then consider all the sensible things we do to acquire other languages and try these same things for the attainment of the musical language, we may make some interesting discoveries. When a 5-year-old child speaks English it is because he has thought it and has his own thoughts to express. First in music, then, a child should be led to think his own music, to speak his own music before he is taught to copy. He cannot become an independent thinker by first being wholely and solely a copyist. Impro- vising and modulation in music are equivalent in English to power to express the sense contained in a prose paragraph or in a verse. It is like taking six adjectives, three nouns, two verbs, and three prepositions and making a sentence of Heredity out of them. These rudimentary exer- cises in English lead to more or less freedom in the art of expression of ideas if we have any to express later on. We do not say at the outset that there is no earthly use in having the child participate in such and such exercises because he will never be an author; the being an author is submerged in the practical usefulness of self-expression. Precisely the same attitude should be taken in regard to music if it is to be allowed to do the good and be the good to us that it may be. When we take an idea from a poem or an essay and express it in our own words, we are improvising in English. Are we never to do this in music? Can we get nothing except the literal thought word for word as we read it? THE VALUE OF MUSIC The value of learning music is not in the number of pieces one may play, but in the musical thoughts one can think. Real music is self-expression and, far from making the child self-centered, it should make him most sympathetic of the efforts of others. A child who has made his own Reverie or dream has the keenest appreciation of a “real com- poser.’”’ We know that to trim a hat does not cause one to be unappreciative, but the reverse, of a well-trimmed hat. So it is with cake-making, dress-making, story-making, poem- and music-making. We do not complain because so few of the boys and girls, who during their school days wrote essays on ““The Dog,” “Our Country’s Flag” or “A Visit to Grandmother,” fail to become authors or authoresses. We are satisfied if they are able to express themselves well in spoken or written language as required by the demands of every-day life. But there are times when every human being feels the need of a language beyond the power of words. Plato said, ‘‘Music is to the mind what air is to the body.” Now air is a necessity but we moderns have not believed music to be a neces- sity. We have considered it merely an accomplishment. How much more it might be! Just the other day a boy of 13 brought to me the little composition which is reproduced in Fig. 7. He had Copp: Musical Ability seen the picture weeks before of a lonely Indian standing against the sunset sky, gazing in calm desperation into the ocean at his feet. This would be the next move if he were ordered further west. The picture was called “The Last Outpost” and it stirred up feelings in the boy’s heart which presently got out on paper (much the safest, healthiest place for them) in the form of this little composition. This is only one example of oh, so many natural outbursts of feeling in music. Every human being feels at some time or other the need of music, but this music which he needs is not the artificial substitute which has usurped the place of the real thing. Music can be to each only what he is capable of hearing, feel- ing and understanding. Therefore when one sits at the piano and plays a Beethoven Sonata which one cannot think, cannot analyze, cannot mentally hear—plays exactly in the manner of the Herr Professor—one is exemplifying the parrot in music and this is an unsatisfactory accepting of the unreal for the real, which gets us nowhere. 305 Man is not the sum total of his words but of his thoughts and it behooves us to stop copying words, words, woxds in music and to begin to think and to express ourselves. When we really believe what we say, that “nothing is too good for the American child,’ we shall give him eight years’ training in the public school in self-expression in music and the results will prove beyond cavil the source and cause and meaning of music. They will also, I am sure, leave no ground for the belief now entertained by some geneticists, that musical ability is a rare “unit character’’ due, as has been alleged, to some “‘defect in the protoplasm”’ which only a few families possess; they will show on a large scale what my own experience has already made clear to me, that musical ability is part of the universal inheritance of man, just as the ability to talk is, and that the differences between individuals in respect to it are due much more to training than to differences in the heredity. Official Register of Selected Plants in Hungary The Hungarian Minister of Agricul- ture has accepted the scheme proposed by Emile Grabner in his report presented in 1913 to the Royal Institute of Plant Breeding ot Magyarovar and has issued an order regarding an official register of selected plants in Hungary. On the basis of this regulation, the State recog- nition and official registration of selected Hungarian plants came into force, on September 1, 1915. The Royal Insti- tute of Plant Breeding is responsible for the keeping of the official register. The effect of this provision will be to give an additional impetus to plant breeding which of latter years has already made such rapid strides in Hungary. On the one hand it will protect Hungarian growers from the adulteration of seeds and the false description of inferior seeds, and on the other hand, it will afford a safe guarantee to the purchasers of the strict selection of the species the seed of which they wish to acquire. At the same time, the Minister of Agriculture has authorized the said Institute to present, as soon as possible, detailed schemes regarding the develop- ment, on a large scale, of the intensive selection of Hungarian plants. The ‘Minister considers it desirable that the work of selection should not be left merely to a few enthusiasts but should be taken up in a methodical manner by all practical agriculturists, with the close collaboration of the said Institute.— Bulletin of International Institute of Agriculture, Rome. Crossing Apricots and Peaches with Cherries The wild Compass cherry has been crossed with the apricot and the peach, at the Minnesota state fruit-breeding farm. A number of seedlings have been secured but have not yet fruited. The cherry was used as the mother parent, and the hybrids resemble the pollen- bearing parent strongly in every in- stance, according to Supt. Charles Haralson. A BOTANICAL PARADOX D. F. Hiccins, Pekin, China ( of is supposed to be the home of many strange things, among which those of the vegetable kingdom are not the least. There are giant persimmons, to four inches in diameter, and better to eat than Americans can imagine, for all the ‘“‘nucker”’ is gone before they are ripe; and there are full-grown pine trees not over two feet high. Lilliputian lemon trees grow in one’s parlor and bear fruit ready to be picked for the fish when it is served in the dining-room The Chinese farmer is a pastmaster, in an empirical way, of the arts of bud- ding and grafting. The ‘English”’ walnut is indigenous to China. One day I made a visit to the Great Bell Temple, a few miles northwest of the city of Peking, and there I found a botanical wonder which outdid all that I have ever seen or heard about. In grafting, it is generally thought that the species must not be far removed from each other; but here I found a specific gap of a botanical phylum, and an evolutionary gap of geologic periods of time, covered, I was assured, not by human means, but by nature’s accidents. In the court of this temple is a pine tree (Pinus sinensis) from the side of the trunk of which, at about 8 feet above the ground, is growing a healthy elm tree (Ulmus pumila) about 1 foot in diameter. The junction is shown in detail in the accompanying photograph. Around the junction there is no sign of any break in the bark of the pine tree. Here is a problem for plant chemists. Can the food solutions of the gym- nosperms be utilized by an angiosperm? and I would ask the students of genetics: Can the “sport’’ form of variation, so often credited with the origin of new species, extend to such a violent dis- ruption of nature’s continuity as this? Or, did one elm seed, of the millions which have doubtless lodged in the crevices of pine tree bark, so sprout and take root that, through inherited or environmental advantages, it was able to assimilate the nutritive sub- stances of the pine? Or has Chinese arboriculture surpassed itself, and per- formed this union which almost staggers reason? This is truly a very wonderful thing, but this is not al]. In the crotch of the pine, some 18 feet above the ground is still another deciduous angiosperm grow- ing from the same pine tree! This tree is a paper-mulberry (broussonetia pa- pyrifera.) At the time of these obser- vations, in the spring of 1915, it was about 2 inches in diameter, and growing lustily. The fruits, somewhat like syca- more balls, were about half grown. It would be interesting to know if definitely recorded instances of such growths as these are to be found else- where. (Note—Unless there is definite evidence to the contrary, it would be much easier to believe that the pine tree is partly hollow, and that the elm and paper-mulberry have sent their roots down into earth and decaying matter in the hollow trunk.—The Editor.) The A. G. A. and the A. A. A. S. The American Genetic Association, being affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, is entitled to have two repre- sentatives on the council of the latter organization. Prof. Albert F. Blakeslee of the Carnegie Institution, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., and Prof. 306 Zdward N. Wentworth of the Kansas State Agricultural College have been appointed to act in this capacity. The next meeting of the American Genetic Association will be held in New York City, December 26-30, in connection with the meeting of the A. A. A. 5S. Hy sil | THE STRANGE GUESTS OF A PINE TREE In the court of the Great Bell Temple, a few miles from Pekin, stands this Chinese pine from which are growing two deciduous trees which are about as little related to the pine as any trees could be. One, to which the man is pointing, is an elm; the other not plainly visible in this photograph, but to be seen more clearly in Fig. 9, is a paper-mulberry. The Chinese are pastmasters in horticulture, but it is impossible to believe that they could graft such diverse species as these. The botanist might have abundant faith to believe that the lion and lamb will lie down together, but, unless he had seen it, he would probably be unable to believe the story which this picture tells. Photograph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 8.) laa “ ; \j ; ANN Wh ie’ aA Ae AN INCOMPATIBLE HOUSEHOLD Near view of an elm growing from the trunk of a pine. In the crotch of the pine, above the elm, may be seen the small b'ack trunk of still another tree—a paper-mulberry, the foliage of v-hich occupies much of the upper right-hand part of the photograph. The elm and paper- mulberry are so different from the pine that it is hardly believable that they could live on its sap, but it may be that the trunk of the pine is partly holiow and contains earth and decaying matter which furnish nourishment for the strangers lodging on it. Photograph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 9.) EE a POSLIVIZE OUR NEGATIVE EUGENICS A. E. Hamitton, New York, N.Y. port of the people for programs of segregating and colonizing our hered- itary defectives in a really large way, we will have to present a program that is alive with the spirit of ““something to do.”’ Merely caging people who are a nuisance doesn’t arouse much genuine human interest, or at best this interest is academic. But tell a man that you can take a lot of human damaged goods and make it into a useful constructive factor in our national life, and he will sit up and listen. Charles Bernstein, Sancrarendent of the Rome State Custodial Asylum, at Rome, New York, has given negative eugenics a golden text that shines. He turned twenty-five of his higher grade inmate boys into Boy Scouts (all I: WE are going to get the moral sup- of them passed the tenderfoot require- ments), uniformed them and sent them up into the Adirondacks for a month of summer camping last October. He asked Governor Whitman if these boys couldn’t be used in reforesting work. They had plenty of time, they loved to work out-of-doors, they were well super- intended by George Kuehn, a nature- loving Scout Master who could get that gang of state wards to do anything within reach of their possibilities, and do it happily and well. Governor Whit- man was willing, but some small-minded political parasites found a_ technical objection to State employment of such labor and threw sand in the bearings of theenterprise. But Bernstein persisted. The boys were sent up to camp, and incidentally a carload of seedling spruce THIS BARE HILL WILL BECOME A FOREST And the change will be due to a bunch of boys who now represent only waste human material, in most places. The feebleminded are not able to compete on equal terms with the normal, in the struggle of the world’s work, but they are abundantly able to do many kinds of work, and do it well, if they have proper direction. They might be made an asset of the State, instead of the liability they are at present, if more people had a sympathetic understanding of their possibilities. (Fig. 10.) 309 DO THESE Popular ignorance tends to confuse the feebleminded with the insane and imagine that they should be caged in the interests of public safety. individuals who are, mentally, merely good-natured, irresponsible children. BOYS LOOK DANGEROUS? Asa fact, most of them are strong, healthy They require careful supervision, but giv en that they may live not only happy but productive lives. The campaign for “negativ e eugenics”’ should be devoted to putting the defectives not only where they can do no harm but even more to putting them where they can do good. The conservation team here shown is made up from boys at the Rome State Custodial Asylum, N. Y. (Fig. 11.) was left on a siding of the railroad nearby. The door of this car was open, and boys will be boys. Two by two they carried off the young trees, and planted them over a space of some one hundred and fifty acres. They did the work admirably, so well indeed that the State Commissioner of Conservation commended it warmly, and said it ranked as high as any work done by regular paid labor. Just one hundred and fifty thousand trees were set out, all in a spirit of fun and play. The keep of these boys as state wards, plus the cost of transportation, amounted to $400. The net value to the State of the work they did was $1,000 and in twenty years time there will be a broad green monu- ment to the boys’ memory. There are hundreds of thousands acres of national land that need re- 310 foresting and conservation work. There are several hundred thousand unfortu- nate young men and boys who cannot compete favorably with their fellows in the world who could do this work if they were rightly directed. Camp colonies in summer, transportation southward in cold weather for work down there, insti- tutional housing in winter where neces- sary—all these things are coming, and they will come all the more quickly as people are told such stories as this, and stories such as Alexander Johnson, of Vineland, can tell by the ream of the possibilities that lie in subnormal ner- vous systems. Eugenics will make progress just about in proportion as it eliminates its em- phasis on pathology and concentrates on the positive aspects of human possi- bility. HYBRID TREES Many Natural Hybrids, as Well as Sports, to Be Found—Artificial Hybridization Leads to Production of Trees Valuable for Their Great Vigor— What Has Been Done and What May Be Done A Review By W. H. Lams United States Forest Service, Washington, D. C. orchard trees is now a _ well- established art, but breeding timber trees has hardly been undertaken. The importance of such work is being recognized, however, and Prof. Augustine Henry has made a notable contribution in his study of natural and artificial hybrids.' His recent paper on the black poplars? offers some excellent examples of the occur- rence of natural hybrids and the value of artificial ones. The cultivated species of Populus which have been found desirable for commercial plantings, he points out, are without exception of “unnatural” origin, in that they are either sports or hybrids, and not ordinary species. “A sport is usually a solitary phenom- enon, arising either as a sporadic peculiar seedling from a seed, or developing out of a bud ona tree as a single branch with some peculiarity of twig or leaf. A sport may be looked upon as a freak, not forming the starting-point of a new species, but speedily becoming extinct if left to nature. Sports, when of interest on account of the curiosity or the beauty of their appearance, are propa- gated usually by grafts, layers; being only in rare cases per- petuated by seed. Some sports are due to arrested development. The tree, in the course of its life, often passes through stages, like those of an insect. The seedling of many species differs from the adult tree as a larva from a butterfly. The infant ash has simple BR eeiert short-lived plants and cuttings, or leaves. The sport known as the simple- leaf ash is simply a seedling ash, which has never progressed to maturity and may be called a persistent larval form. The Irish yew was found in 1767 as a seedling on the mountain behind Florence Court in Fermanagh, and is characterised by all the branches being directed vertically upwards and all the leaves spreading radially around the twig. This is apparently also the seedling stage preserved. All the myriads of Irish ‘yews, now scattered throughout the world, are cuttings either from the original tree at Florence Court or from trees that were derived from those cuttings. THE LOMBARDY POPLAR “This upright, so-called fastigiate form may occur as a sport in any species, the best known being the Lombardy poplar, which originated on the banks of the Po about 1700 and subsequently spread over the world. The Lombardy poplar and Irish yew are striking examples of the immense number of individual trees of a sport that may exist, this abundance being entirely due to human agency. Left to nature, these two remarkable forms would never have multiplied, and would have ceased to exist, once the original trees had succumbed to old age or injury. The fastigiate sport is of rare occurrence in most genera, usually only a single original tree being recorded. Amongst, however, the cypress and juniper families, fastigiate seedlings are 1 Henry, Augustine, ‘The Artificial Production of Vigorous Trees, ’’ Jour. of Dept. of Agric. and Tech. Instr. for Ireland, XV, 1, 1915. Xe 2 AprlsdO0s. 2 Henrv, Augustine, “The Black Poplars.’ Reviewed by W. H. Lamb in Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters, Trans. Royal Scot. Arboricult. Soc., pp. 14-27, January, 1916; also in Gard. Chron. (London), LVI, pp. 1, 46, 66, July, 1914. 311 A NATURAL HICKORY HYBRID This tree, which is believed to be a cross between the pecan (Hicoria pecan) and the shellbark hickory (H. laciniosa) is standing in a rich river bottcm 12 miles from Mt. Vernon, Ind. Like most first-generation hybrids, it is a vigorous and rapid grower, but perhaps for this very reason its leaves and branches are tender and succulent—at any rate it seems to attract all the insect pests in the neighborhood. ‘This is not always the case with hybrid trees, however, for many of them are superior to their parents. The immense size of the nuts which this hybrid bears can be judged from one which the man at the right of the picture holds in his hand; in Fig. 15 a single one of them is shown natural size. Photograph from the United States Department of Agriculture. (Fig. 12.) Lamb: Hybrid Trees common; and the upright habit appears to come true from seed. The Mediter- ranean cypress has been known in this peculiar narrow form for centuries, but always cultivated. In the wild state, as in the mountains of Cyprus, the tree is widespreading in habit. The common juniper, however, is often fastigiate in the wild forests of Scandinavia. This exemplifies the difficulty of strict defini- tion in nature, as the fastigiate habit, which is a rare sport in most trees, becomes in the junipers and cypresses almost a normal form, capable of being perpetuated by seed.” If sports among forest trees are more common than has been generally sup- posed, the same is true of hybrids. Prof. Henry mentions the hollies of Great Britain, which include numerous hybrids and sports, as well as good species. American naturalists are famil- iar with the hawthorns, whose hybridity has lately been demonstrated by Prof. E. C. Jeffrey of Harvard and his pupils.® The extraordinary state of affairs in the hawthorn genus (Crataegus) may best be realized if we recall that more than 700 alleged species of Crataegus have been described, whereas, of all other trees in the United States put together, there are only some 600 species. HYBRID OAKS The willows are known to hybridize widely, and the various species of oaks readily cross with any of their near relatives that happen to be growing near. Prof. Henry cites an interesting oak hybrid in England: “The results of the experimental sowings of the seeds of numerous elms which I made in 1909, together with an investigation into the history of the Lucombe oak, given in a paper read by me at the Linnean Society on the seventh of April, 1910, threw new light on many hybrid trees in cultivation, which had not previously been recog- nized as such, in spite of the fact that no one could find these trees anywhere in the wild state. The statement often made that a particular tree was a ‘variety of garden origin’ was no 3Standish, L.M. What is Happening to the Hawthorns? 6, pp. 266-279, June, 1916. Sih explanation. The Lucombe oak was observed in the Exeter Nursery in 1765 as a seedling, which differed from its parent, a Turkey oak (Quercus cerris), in being much more fast in growth and in retaining its leaves during winter till March. Lucombe propagated this seed- ling by grafting, and believed it to be simply a sport of the Turkey oak. In 1792 it bore acorns from which numerous seedlings were raised, no two of which were alike, while some strongly resembled in bark and leaves the Cork oak (Q. suber). Lucombe’s son then correctly surmised that it was a hybrid— the flower on the Turkey oak, from which the acorn producing it was formed, having been fertilized by the pollen of an adjoining large Cork oak. “This case illustrates several well- known laws in regard to hybrids: “1. The first cross is usually of excep- tional vigor, more vigorous than either parent. “2. When the first-cross reproduces itself by seed, the second generation consists of classes of individuals, which differ from one another and from their parent. The first-cross never comes true from seed, but produces a mixed and varied offspring. “3. None of the individuals of the second generation equal in vigor the first-cross. This was also clearly estab- lished in the case of the Lucombe oak. “Other common trees, of which no history is recorded, doubtless originated in the same way as the Lucombe oak, namely, as chance seedlings (the result of accidental crossing by wind or an insect), which observant nurserymen or -gardeners found desirable to propagate on account of their vigor. The intro- duction in quantity into Europe during the seventeenth century of North Amer- ican trees, which grew alongside similar but distinct European species in parks and gardens, was the occasion of con- siderable hybridization. Trees like the black Italian poplar and the London plane, which have nowhere been seen wild, are intermediate in botanical characters between an American and a JOURNAL OF HeErepiIrTy, VII, 314 European species in each case, and are undoubtedly first-crosses. These two trees have been traced back to 1700, about which date the American parents had been long enough in Europe to bear flowers.” THE POPLAR HYBRIDS The black poplars, it will be remem- bered, are represented by only two species, one native to Europe and the other to North America, and both having well-marked geographical varie- ties. The European species, Populus nigra, is distinguished from the Amer- ican tree, Populus deltotdea, by the absence of cilia (tiny projecting hairs) on the margins of the leaves, and by the absence of glands on the base of the leaf-blades in front. These character- istics are present on the leaves of the American black poplar. The author designates the glabrous form of the European black poplar as Populus nigra var. typica, and the pubescent form as Populus nigra var. betulifolia. The glabrous black poplars of North America are given as Populus deltoidea var. monolifera, growing from Ontario to Pennsylvania, and Populus deltoidea var. occidentalis, growing in the region directly east of the Rocky Mountains, from Saskatchewan and Alberta to New Mexico and western Texas. The pubescent American black poplar is Populus deltoidea var. muissourtensis, which grows in the south and south- eastern parts of the United States, ascending the Mississippi basin to Missouri. This variety, the author believes, may be taken as the type of Populus deltoidea, being most likely to be the form represented by the original description of Marshall. THE CAROLINA POPLAR But the chief importance of Prof. Henry’s contribution lies in his extensive study of the cultivated black poplars, which has resulted in the valuable dis- covery that they are almost invariably of hybrid origin. Most interesting to American foresters is the discovery made concerning the Carolina poplar which has been so extensively cultivated here. A great many of our writers The Journal of Heredity have felt that this name, ‘Carolina poplar,’’ was one invented by nursery- men to overcome the unpopularity of the cottonwood. Some have even believed that the Populus nigra of the trade was nothing but our Populus deltoidea grown in France and Belgium and returned to America under the false designation. Muchrelief, therefore, will be experienced by reputable dealers, and by their patrons as well, at having Prof. Henry’s determination of the true nature of the cultivated black poplars, and especially the Carolina poplar. Originally the author felt that this tree was merely a form of our Populus deltoidea, which had undergone mutation in its floral parts after cultivation in Europe. But now it is determined that the tree is a hybrid between the true black poplar of Europe (Populus nigra) and the southern form of our native black poplar (Populus deltotdea var. Missouriensts). In addition to the Carolina poplar, a number of hybrids are illustrated and described by Prof. Henry which have been derived from the typical black poplar of Europe and the northern form of our black poplar (Populus deltoidea var. monolifera). These are: P. serotina Hartig, P. regenerata Schneider, P. Eugenet Simon-Louis, P. marilandica Bosc., and P. Henryana Dode. Further, two forms are described as having arisen from the hybridization of the European black poplar with hybrid forms. These are P. robusta Schneider and P. Lloydiit Henry. WHY NOT A HYBRID SYCAMORE? Viewing this work in the light of the previous researches of Prof. Henry on the artificial production of vigorous trees, it will be observed that the author has first demonstrated the prac- tical importance of propagating first generation hybrids. He has then ascer- tained that the poplars already recog- nized as especially desirable for cultiva- tion are of hybrid origin. The two papers, therefore, present most forcibly the great importance of initiating inten- sive work on the artificial production of vigorous trees, and suggest that special attention be directed toward the hybrid- A CLUSTER OF PECAN NUTS The pecan is a species of hickory and its nuts, here shown natural size, are enclosed in pods or husks. It is becoming an important crop in the southern states, due to the isolation and propagation of superior varieties instead of dependence on mixed seedlings, as in the past. ization of species of many genera. Our sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, for ex- ample, is one of the most rapid growing of our hardwood trees. But it is afflicted with a fungus disease which causes the leaves to fall almost imme- diately after they have appeared in the spring. The restored foliage does not appear to suffer, however, and the tree Photograph from the United States Department of Agriculture. (Fig. 13.) does not appear to be greatly retarded in its annual growth, for notwithstand- ing this infirmity, the tree holds first place in size among North American hardwoods. But the tree is being replaced by the European sycamore or plane (Platanus orientalis) in street and landscape plantings, as the exotic species appears to be immune to this disease. 4 Lamb, W. H., in JouRNAL oF HEreEpity, VI, 9, pp. 424-428, September, 1915. 316 The Journal The possibility of producing a vigorous hybrid between these trees is immedi- ately suggested. In fact one may already exist. The London plane, Pla- tanus acertfolia, has never been found growing wild and exhibits character- istics intermediate between the Amer- ican and the European planes. But without doubt, it would be highly profitable to experiment with hybrids of known parentage. A large field for profitable research is thus opened up by the possibility of artificially producing trees having excep- tional vigor. The oaks, chestnuts, lin- dens, and many other important genera offer a fertile field for experimentation. And at the present time the importance of such work can scarcely be over- estimated. How little has been done is made strikingly clear by Prof. Henry’s his- torical review. He ascribes to Klotzsch the credit for the first hybridization, with the production of pine, oak, alder and elm hybrids at Berlin in 1845. The results were good, but the work attracted little attention. VIGOROUS WALNUT HYBRIDS The frequent production of hybrid walnuts in California led Luther Bur- bank to take up this genus, and he called attention to the valuable qualities of the first-generation hybrids, which grow so rapidly that experienced for- esters will scarcely credit the figures. Trees of the so-called Paradox walnut (Juglans regia, the Persian or “English” x J. californica) at Santa Rosa measure 80 feet in height and 6 feet in girth after fifteen years of growth. The hybrid known as Royal (J. californica x J. nigra, the black walnut of the eastern United States), appears to be an even more rapid grower, one specimen being credited with a height of 100 feet and a girth of 9 feet after only sixteen years of growth. Another magnificent walnut hybrid is that on the James River, Virginia, which was described by Peter Bisset recently.’ As to the quality of the wood of these hybrid trees—a point of prime impor- of Heredity tance to foresters—Prof. Henry remarks: “Tt is a popular belief that fast-grown timber is necessarily soft and com- paratively worthless. This is a fact in most conifers; but in one class of broad- leaf trees, the wood of which is char- acterized by large pores in the inner part of the annual ring, the contrary is true, as the faster the timber of these trees is grown the stronger and denser it becomes. This class includes oak, ash, chestnut, hickory, and walnut, the species in fact that par excellence produce the most valuable timber. ‘All the more reason, then, for efforts to produce fast-growing crosses in the case of these precious trees. To quote from the conclusion of my paper of 1910:.‘In countries like our own the only hope of salvation for forestry is in growing timber rapidly; and we have been helped in that by the introduction of fast-growing conifers like the larch, the Corsican pine, and the Douglas fir. But it is essential to grow the more valuable classes of non-coniferous tim- ber.’ The difficulty of growing the ordinary species of oak, ash, and walnut is the long period required for their maturity, which renders hopeless, except on the best soils, all chance of an ade- quate financial return. Without vigo- © rous first-crosses, the most valuable classes of timbers can only be grown in limited quantity.” THE CAUSE OF VIGOR Although many geneticists have speculated on the problem, no one has yet been able to offer a satisfactory explanation of the extraordinary vigor displayed by hybrids. Some of the Mendelian hypotheses put forward are plausible, but have so far remained unproven. The observed vigor, as Prof. Henry points out, “is distributed over the whole plant, and is as conspicuous in the roots as in the stem and leaves. What we actually observe is not only an acceleration of, but also an increase of cell-division in all parts of the plant. The cells divide very quickly, continue to divide, and thus build up a taller stem, a more extensive root-system, etc. 5 Bisset, Peter, “The James River Walnut.’’ JouRNAL oF HereEpity, V, 3, pp. 98-102, March, 1914. NUTS OF THE SHELLBARK HICKORY This is one of the commoner hickories of the central United States; its nuts, here shown natural size but without their husks, differ greatly from those of the pecan. of a cross between the two species is shown in Fig. 15, the following illustration. Apparently this alteration in the nature of the division of the cells is not asso- ciated with any visible change in their structure. Miss Marshall, who exam- ined for me many sections of the growing points of hybrid poplars and their parent species, could find, as the result of three months’ observations, no tang1- ble differences in the size of the cells or nuclei, in the number of the chromo- somes, etc. “Tt is possible that the stimulus which causes growth (7. e., cell-division) to commence and to continue is some soluble chemical compound or enzyme. The enzyme in the hybrid may be more complex and more effective than the enzymes in the species. Whether the injection of soluble matter obtained from a hybrid into the growing points of one of the parent species would stimulate the latter to increased cell- division, might be worth trying, if the experiment could be carried out. “Whether the amount of vigor in hybrids is directly associated with the degree of relationship between the individuals which are crossed is a disputable point, but one of practical The result (Fig. 14.) interest in the selection of parents for crossing experiments. One of my most vigorous hybrids (Populus generosa) is derived from two parents so little related that they are placed in two distinct sections of the genus. A cross between two races of the common alder shows considerable vigor, though the parents are so closely allied that they can only be distinguished by the most trivial characters.” But whatever the explanation of this vigor may be, no one who has worked with hybrids is likely to question its existence; and that fact is sufficient to make breeding justifiable. PROPAGATION “An important question is the propa- gation of these vigorous crosses, once they are created. The first-cross does not come true from seed, and it would be a great drawback if we were obliged to wait till the newly made trees bore flowers and fruit. The first-cross, in short, can only be multiplied by vegeta- tive reproduction. This is easy when the trees are readily propagated by cuttings, as in the case of poplars and 317 318 willows, or by layers, like the Hunting- don and Belgian elms. We may resort to grafting low on stocks, which should be perhaps seedlings of one or other parent. This method will serve when cuttings and layers are not available. It is evident, that, when a valuable hybrid has been produced, it can be propagated and be put on the market, if necessary, without delay.” A few suggestions on the technique of cross-pollinating trees may be useful to those who want to try the artificial production of vigorous trees. Both HYBRID NUT Cross between pecan and shellbark hickory, borne by the tree shown in Fig. 12. The nut is natural size, and en- closed in its husk, one side of which has been removed. It is of small value, commer- cially. Photograph from the United States Department of Agri- culture. (Fig. 15.) male and female flowers should be protected with bags, in order to prevent the possibility of a mix-up in heredity through the presence of foreign pollen. The male flowers should be bagged < week before they shed their sola, while the female flowers may be pro- tected for a fortnight before the stigmas The Journal of Heredity are receptive and a week after the cross- pollination has been made. If the tree with which one is working has perfect flowers and is to be used as the seed- bearing parent, the pollen-bearing organs must of course be removed at an early stage, with a needle-pointed forceps. This operation is a delicate one, par- ticularly if it must be carried out at the top of a lofty tree, swaying in the wind. Sometimes it may not be necessary, if the flowers are protected by nature from self-pollination. In the case of the ash and elm, for example, the stigmas are receptive some days before the anthers shed their pollen. Under these circumstances, the pollen from another species may be applied to the stigma, and no attention paid to the anthers. HANDLING TREE POLLEN “Pollen spoils by keeping, but it often must be kept for some time till the stigma of the female parent is receptive. It is often obtained from distant coun- tries where trees of the desired species, flowering early, can be found. It is best kept in a small glass tube either corked or plugged with cotton wool. Pollen is usually collected by cutting off the flowering twigs and placing them on white paper in a dry place for one or two days. “Pollen is applied with a camel’s hair brush, and a minute quantity is suffi- cient for each stigma. The stigmas are to be pollinated when receptive, indi- cated by the presence on them of sugary solution or by their change to a brighter hue. Pollen grains may not be able to germinate on the stigma of another species, and yet be capable of fertilizing it, if germination could be induced. The transference of a drop of the substance secreted by the stigma of the pollen-bearing species to the stigma of the other parent might induce germination. The best time for pollina- tion is in the warm part of the day, between 11 a. m. and 3 p. m. in early spring. Cold, wet days should be avoided.” It is not a very long time, in the history of the world, since the English gardener Fairchild produced the first Lamb: Hybrid Trees artificial hybrid plant on record, in 1715, by fertilizing the stigma of a carnation with the pollen of a Sweet William. Since then, the process of artificial cross-pollination has transformed com- mercial horticulture and agriculture. There is good reason to believe that it will find an equally widespread applica- tion in forestry, and it is probable that Europe will undertake the work rather than the United States. The American continent still contains a large supply of virgin forest. Many years ago, however, the European forests passed the virgin stage and became the objects of thorough silvicultural management. They became an agricultural crop. Even in normal times the planted timber is recognized as entirely inadequate for the domestic requirements, but the present war has placed a responsibility upon the European forester greater than can possibly be appreciated. Timber reconnaissance, after the close of the war, will reveal an awful destruction of 319 forest growth... Never before in the history of the world has military activity been so destructive. The great battle wave, extending from Ostertd to Belfort, and from Riga to Persia, flows to and fro, while artillery of unprece- dented caliber, great jets of liquid fire, and clouds of deadly gases, reduce the forests to desolation. The strategic value of the forests, so often mentioned in official dispatches, but too plainlv indicates approaching necessity for in- tensive reforestation projects, a work which will be so imperative as to render studies on accelerated reforestation of the greatest economic importance. The investigator, therefore, who can produce trees which will exceed the natural species in vigor, will be rendering the most valuable public service. If he can accelerate the reforestation of the battlefields of Belgium and France, he will be rendering a priceless contribution to the national welfare. Wanted: A There is a possibility of an opening in teaching plant breeding in the Division of Agriculture at the lowa State College. The candidate should have had some practical experience along plant industry Plant Breeder lines, preferably in horticulture. Fur- ther information may be had by ad- dressing Professor S. A. Beach, head of the Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Ames, Iowa. Eugenics and Military Preparedness The relations of war to national eugenics have often been pointed out; the eugenic aspects of military pre- paredness are less often considered. Starting with the axiom that prepara- tion for war should bear in mind the necessity of safeguarding national eu- genics as far as possible, we arrive at . the following conclusions: 1. A military establishment should be composed of men of as advanced an age as is compatible with military efficiency. 2. It should not be made up of cel1- bates. Short enlistments might be val- uable in favoring marriage. 3. Universal conscription would ap- pear to be better than voluntary ser- vice, since the latter is highly selective. 4. Officer’s families should be given an additional allowance in pay for each child. This would aid in increasing the birth-rate, which appears to be very low among army and navy officers. 5. Means should be worked out to establish men, at the end of enlistment or the end of hostilities, as rapidly as possible economically, so that they may not be forced by economic pressure to refrain from marriage or parenthood. 6. ‘Preparedness,’ in the ordinary sense of the word, is highly desirable in order that the loss of men may be minimum, especially during early days of war when, if unready, a nation would probably lose heavily. These appear to be some of the con- siderations, which should be regarded in advance of war, if the necessity for defense is to be made as little of a handicap, eugenically, to a nation as possible. EXTRA FINGERS AND TOES P | ‘HE occasional appearance of one or more fingers or toes in excess of the normal number is tech- nically known as polydactylism, and offers one of the most puzzling problems in heredity. Generally, the mode of inheritance of abnormalities of this sort is fairly plain and follows a simple scheme, but polydactylism has so far baffled all attempts to reduce it to rules; it appears to be almost anarchical. One of the reasons for this doubtless is that polydactylism may be due to a number of different causes. The guinea-pig may be cited in this connec- tion, for it offers abundant material for study. It ordinarily has three toes, but in 1905 Prof. W. E. Castle of Har- vard University found a four-toed speci- men which he bred and from which he has succeded in establishing a “four-toe” strain. It has now gone through fifteen or twenty generations, yet the character is not absolutely fixed. Pure-bred four-toes, when mated with their like, will occasionally produce three-toed individuals (which, however, are able to transmit the four-toe character to their offspring), just as pure-bred three-toed individuals when mated together will occasionally, al- though more rarely, produce a four-toed individual. Prof. Castle describes the heredity of the character as “partly blending, partly segregating;’’ that is, its inheritance is that of a simple Mendelian character, but one whose visible expression varies greatly. The character is neither dominant nor reces- sive, he holds, but is directly modified by crosses. “It is quantitatively variable,”’ he writes, ‘‘so that by selection one can establish high-grade or low-grade strains of polydactylism, and normals of poly- dactylous ancestry often transmit the character. It is as good a Mendelian character as many others, but (1) lacks dominance, (2) is variable, and (3) is affected by crosses; 7. e., blends to some extent or is contaminated. Strong sup- port for this interpretation is afforded by a recent paper on the inheritance of 320 flowering time in peas (Hoshino, 1915) in which it is shown that the character studied is subject to partial blending but is clearly Mendelian, for it is coupled with the color factor in crosses of red with white varieties.”’ MENDELISM IS QUESTIONABLE A Mendelian character with all the exceptional behavior which Dr. Castle describes is, however, a rather difficult character to follow, and many geneticists prefer to say that polydactylism in guinea-pigs is not yet demonstrated to be a Mendelian character. The explanation of the appearance of this fourth toe in guinea-pigs is simple: it represents merely a reversion to the ancestral condition. The ancestor of the guinea-pig, in fact, had five toes, and it is therefore likely that a fortunate geneticist will some day find this fifth toe cropping out, and thereby succeed in reestablishing a five-toed strain. Prof. J. A. Detlefsen of the University of Illinois actually found one such animal in his breeding experiments, but it was sterile and could not be used to produce a new race. Fowls, too, had five-toed ancestors, and although most birds of the present day have only four toes, a fifth toe sometimes appears. It might naturally be supposed that this represented the cropping out of the ancestral character; but Bateson and Davenport have shown that as far as the best known breeds of domestic fowl—the Dorkings and Hou- dans—are concerned, the fifth toe is not a reversion, but an abnormality due to the splitting of one of the toes (the hallux). How such a race might originate is graphically shown by the accompanying photograph (Fig. 16) of a Racing Homer pigeon, sent in by I. O’Neill Brenan of Brisbane, Queens- land. Here it is clearly seen that one of the toes has split, during develop- ment, producing a bird with five toes. This bird, bred to one of its own sisters, produced one squab that had an A PIGEON WITH FIVE TOES Asarule, extra toes are rare in birds, but a few breeds of domestic fowl have regularly five toes. These breeds probably originated in such a bird as the pigeon shown here, the hind toe being split. The split toe is inherited to some ex- tent, and long continued breeding and selection would doubtless result in the establishment of a five-toed breed of pigeons. Photograph from I. O’Neill Brenan, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. (Fig. 16.) extra toe on one foot. If sufficient has been said, very rare save for the effort were made, probably a strain of five-toed pigeons, corresponding to the five-toed Dorking fowls, could be estab- lished on this basis. It would be many generations before all the birds had five toes, but if the five-toed individuals were regularly selected for breeding, it can hardly be doubted that this selection would eventually produce an effect. The relative constancy of the five-toed condition in Dorkings and Houdans, as compared with instability in guinea-pigs is probably due very largely to the fact that the domestic fowls have been stringently selected for five toes. The five-toed condition in birds is, as domestic fowl. Geneticists have made numerous crosses of the five-toed breeds _ with four-toed ones, in order to work out the inheritance of the trait, but they have not met with great success. Pro- fessor Castle holds that it is a Mendelian trait and that its irregular behavior goes to prove that Mendelian characters are variable; but most geneticists do not admit that Mendelian characters are variable in this way, and are therefore confronted with considerable difficulty in making the evidence conform to Mendelian expectations. Bateson can only suggest that polydactylism “is perhaps due to a dominant factor which 321 LEFT HAND OF ITALIAN IMMIGRANT The first joint of the little finger appears to have split in two at a very early stage in the develop- ment of the hand, with the result that two little fingers have been produced. This seems to be the way in which extra fingers and toes ordinarily appear in man. In this case the extra fingers are complete in joints and tendons, but often they are much more rudimentary. (Fig. 17.) RIGHT HAND OF ITALIAN IMMIGRANT The extra finger is almost identical with that of the left hand, shown on the opposite page. Abnormalities of this sort are usually hereditary, although the heredity is frequently irregular. From an X-ray photograph made by the U. S. Public Health Service at Ellis Island, New York, and sent in by assistant surgeon Howard A. Knox. (Fig. 18.) 324 can be inhibited or suppressed as the result of the presence of other factors. In poultry,” he continues, “‘we know by experiment that the presence of an extra toe may behave as a dominant, following the simple rule with fair regularity, but in other families the number of domi- nants produced is too small and trans- mission may occur through normals des- titute of extra toes. Such facts point to the existence of some unknown com- plications in those families.” POLYDACTYLISM ,IN MAN In man it is well known that an extra finger or toe sometimes appears; but as we know of no ancestor, within hun- dreds of millions of years, who had more than five, human polydactylism can not be like that of the guinea-pig—the ap- pearance of an ancestral character. It may, therefore, most conveniently be assumed to be due to a splitting of one or more of the ordinary digits, which may be so extreme in degree that the individual possesses a “double hand”’ of 10 fingers attached to one wrist. The most ordinary type consists of the pres- ence of one extra finger, as is shown in the Italian immigrant whose hands were photographed at Ellis Island, N. Y.., recently (figs. 17, 18). Dr. Howard A. Knox, assistant surgeon of the U. S. Public Health Service, who sent in these photographs, calls attention to the in- teresting feature of the case—that the extra fingers function completely, each having fully developed joints and tend- ons. They seem to have been produced by a division of the little fingers in two. Dr. Knox investigated the family history of the immigrant as far as was possible, and found that one uncle (probably maternal, but there is doubt on this point) has an extra digit on the right hand only. But its location was the same as that in the subject here The Journal of Heredity shown. The immigrant’s second son, about 23 years of age, has one extra digit on each hand and each foot. Such a family history is fairly typical of most of those which describe poly- dactylism in man. The condition re- appears in almost every generation, but it is frequently not quite the same, and appears to be distributed without regard to any regular form of procedure. Davenport shows this plainly, despite his optimistic expression, when he writes, “The peculiarity of supernumerary fin- gers and toes is one that is inherited in nearly typical fashion. I have worked extensively on polydactylism in fowls and there can be little doubt that the character behaves the same way in man. The extra toe is due to an additional unit so that when one parent has the extra toe the children will also have it. However, it sometimes happens that the offspring fails to produce the extra toe; but such persons, becoming in turn parents, may produce the polydactyl condition again. . The eugenical conclusion is: poly- dactyl persons will have at least one- half of their children polydactyl. Those quite free from the trait, though of the polydactyl strains, will probably have only normal children.”’ This conclusion may be a rough ap- proximation to what usually happens, but it cannot be held to be an exact statement of the mode of heredity of polydactylism. Nor is any one in a position at present to give such an exact statement. We can only say that the appearance of extra fingers or toes (they frequently go together) is inherited to a high degree, but without any dis- coverable regularity. Fortunately, the trait is one that possesses no eugenic significance, and we can therefore view our ignorance with more complacence than if the trait really possessed im- portance to the race. Origin of the White Blackberry The white blackberry put in the trade by Luther Burbank some years ago 1s a good example of the production of a marketable fruit by the recom- bination of existing characters. The parents are said to be Lawton’s black- berry and an insignificant cultivated bramble of the eastern states. The latter has pale amber berries and is probably an albino variety of the same species of blackberry as _ Lawton’s. Burbank crossed the two and selected from the progeny (presumably in the second generation) individuals that pos- sessed the shape and qualities of the Lawton and the color of the bramble. CHANGE OF SEX IN HEMP Mutilation Makes Female Plants of Cannabis Sativa Produce Male Flowers— Change in Nutrition Probably Responsible for the Result FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. sex ratios in dioecious species of plants and animals is one of the most debatable topics of genetics. The experimental results thus far re- corded are not only varied but occa- sionally contradictory. When viewed as a whole, however, they seem to indi- cate that maleness and femaleness are not always fixed characters, but frequently appear more like responses of the devel- oping organism to external stimult. Of all the external factors that have been supposed to determine sex, food ranks first. Indeed, many biologists now believe that the determination of sex is in the last analysis a problem of nutrition. It is also remarkable that in nearly every instance in which food affects the sex ratio, favorable nutritive conditions tend to produce females and unfavorable conditions males. Nevertheless the food theory of sex de- termination fails to account for the sex ratio of 1:1 commonly found among unisexual individuals. A Mendelian theory of sex deter- mination now popular not only explains normal sex ratios in dioecious species but receives considerable support from studies of sex-linked inheritance. The fundamental basis of this theory as expressed by a distinguished geneticist is that “‘sex has its beginning in gametic differentiation and is finally determined beyond recall in the fertilized egg by the nature of the uniting gametes.” The hypothesis also carries the assump- tion that one of the sexes is heterozygous for a sex factor and the other homozy- gous. Though subject to criticism, this theory is admirably adapted to the factorial method of analysis and appears to explain many facts of sex inheritance. [= possibility of altering normal The difference of opinion regarding the effect of external stimuli upon sex ratios has led the writer to investigate the following questions: (1) Can sex ratios of dioecious plants be altered by modifying conditions external to their germ cells? (2) Is the alteration thus obtained limited to individuals of one sex? (3) How do the results harmonize with the Mendelian conception of sex determination? MATERIAL As hemp is composed almost wholly of distinctly unisexual individuals it was chosen as a favorable species for the investigation of sex ratios. In addition to its separation of the sexes, it develops in its females a heavy and dense growth of foliage by which they may readily be distinguished from the males. In fact, at the time of flowering the plants may be recognized at a distance as male and female. The proportion of males to females which normally appeared under the field conditions where the experiments were made was approximately 1:1. Monoecious individuals aiso appeared in relatively small numbers, as will be subsequently shown, but they were distinctly female in type and prepon- - deratingly female in flower development. METHODS Disturbances of the plant’s physio- logical equilibrium were induced by the removal of flowers and vegetative parts and by the injection of chemical sub- stances into the stem. In addition to the removal of parts some plants were given further treat- ment by enclosing their tops in Manila bags to diminish the intensity of the light falling upon the newly developing flower buds. 325 MALE AND FEMALE HEMP PLANTS At the left is the female or pistillate plant, at the right the staminate or male. In addition to the difference in flowers, the two sexes differ markedly in habit of growth, as is seen. By mutilation, each sex can be induced to take on the characters of the other; a change which may be due to interference with the plant’s normal process of nutrition. Photo- graph by Lyster H. Dewey. (Fig. 19.) Pritchard: Change of Sex in Hemp The use of chemicals was limited to the year 1909. To facilitate their introduction small holes were cut into the pith cavities and afterwards closed with paraffin. In 1914 no leaves or branches were detached but all flowers and flower buds were removed from branches and stem. The counting of the flowers—a labori- ous process—was done by fives and tens but this nowise interfered with the observance of the staminate and pistil- late character of the flowers. EXPERIMENTS Plants were grown for the investiga- tions at Madison, Wis., in 1909, 1912, 1913 and 1914, but owing to a poor stand in 1912 and the writer’s absence in 1913 when the treatments should have been given, the experiments for these two years were not completed. Hence, the results are limited to the two years’ investigation in 1909 and 1914. As no further opportunity has been found to continue the work it seems better to publish the results now ob- tained than to wait an uncertain period for the accumulation of further data. In 1909, male and female hemp plants were used in approximately equal num- bers. As each plant had at the time of operation already borne a large number of exclusively staminate or exclusively pistillate flowers, any degree of visible 327 monoeciousness could easily have been detected. The 263 plants treated were mutilated by removing their flowers and flower buds, their leaves, and varying pro- portions of their stems; the tops of twenty were also bagged; and the stems of sixty others injected with 1 to 2 ounces of one or more of the following chemical solutions: calcium nitrate 1/10%; zinc sulphate 1/10%; dextrose 5%; maltose 5%; peptone 1%; aspara- gin 446%; potassium iodide 3%; pyridin 95° formic acid 16000: acetic acid 60” n : Be 30° sodium hydrate 300” 100” 60° Alteration of sex occurred under several different treatments. Either covering the top with a Manila bag or injecting into the stem a solution of dextrose, maltose, glucose, asparagin or pyridin was accompanied by a modi- fication of sex. In each instance, how- ever, the removal of parts constituted a part of the treatment. In fact the removal of parts was the only factor common to all the sex-developing re- sponses. Hence it was probably the chief cause of sex alteration. Of the 163 plants which reproduced flowers after treatment twenty-nine or 17.8% developed some flowers of the opposite sex. Four of these plants were males, the other twenty-five females. TABLE I.—Proportion of Monoecious to Dioecious Hemp Plants Found on Successive Dates at Madison, Wis., in 1909 { Number of dioecious plants ep pesneeuies B z oO O yaar Date of examination Imonoecious monoecious Field Male Female plants | plants | MEPLEHMER 2Ore : 5. A Mee are aera k tase 49 43 8 8.0 A SEs 21000 ef A oes ae ace ena ta 96 99 5 pa B Pep.cembercGOknaw emcees em eee eee: 0! 174 26 6.5(13.0) | A DIGROBEE berths Sulit... Wao eect ae 0 (= 187 13 3: 25(6.5): |B MORAL OR te Mus hn ta eae se ca R tects sain ct Nest hapa 0 84 16 8.0(16.0)?) B Oetober a secure cyte. se ak tot eer 0 47 3 3.0(6.0) B *As no male plants under these conditions formed perfect flowers, the omission of male plants in the counting records from September 30 to October 18 gives the percentage of monoeci- ousness for only the female type. The true percentages of monoeciousness are one-half the values inclosed in parentheses as represented by the figures at their left. 2 Late maturing plants. 328 The Journal It may be argued that temperature or some other factor due to an advancing season was the effective stimulus rather than the removal of parts but this makes little difference as it would still be an external stimulus. The same statement may be made with regard to the possible effects of chemicals and diminished light intensity. However, the percentage of monoeciousness was determined on sey- eral successive dates in two neighboring fields designated respectively as A and B. These results are presented in Table I. The percentage of monoecious. plants in field A was much larger than in field B. This may have been due to wider spacing, as the plants in field A stood farther apart than in field B and consequently were larger and better fed; or it may have been caused by some inherent difference in the seed. If we exclude the records of late maturing plants, made on October 1, the table shows no evidence of an increased percentage of monoeciousness as the season advanced. The results for 1914 are presented in Table II. As they show unmistakeable evidence of sex alteration from the use of external stimuli they are published in detail. Both the number and char- acter of flowers removed as well as those that subsequently developed are in- cluded. As shown by the table, sex was not altered by bagging the tops but was very decidedly altered by the removal of flowers. Of the fourteen male plants that formed flowers after the operation only three developed pistils but every female plant produced both stamens and pistils in abundance. In fact the proportion of stamen-bearing flowers formed on female plants greatly excceds that ordinarily formed on monoecious plants. As a check on the experiments re- corded in Table II, twenty-eight female plants were tagged at the time of the foregoing operations and carefully ex- amined at the end ot the season for the appearance of male sex organs but not a single stamen had developed. It is evident from the experiments and their checks that changes in sex of Heredity were induced by the removal of flowers and flower buds, probably through alteration of the food supply. The production of pollen and ovules is an exhausting process. As soon as male hemp plants shed their pollen they turn yellow and die. The removal of flowers and flower buds from the female plants when their reserve food is at a minimum probably makes the nutritive conditions less favorable for the development of the new buds and in accordance with the food theory of sex determination, causes an excess of male development. The appearance of pistillate flowers upon a few treated male plants, however, is difficult to explain upon this basis unless we assume that these particular flowers received more than their share of the food supply. If the effect of flower removal on the food supply has been properly inter- preted, it is evident that the proper method of inducing pistillate develop- ment in male plants is through high feeding, especially about the time of flower formation. This should be done through the soil in such a way as not to interfere with the plants’ normal physio- logical activities. CONCLUSIONS The foregoing experiments show that sex of hemp is alterable by the removal of flowers. While only a few male plants produced pistils, they constituted 14 to 21% of the total number of males reproducing flowers after the operation. It is quite probable that if the proper stimulus were used pistil formation could be induced in all the males. The females were very responsive to _the stimulating effect of flower removal. In fact in the second year’s experiments every female operated upon produced an abundance of stamens. The results do not seem to support the theory that sex is wholly a matter of zygotic constitution—one dose or amount of an inherited sex factor producing one sex and two the other, but indicate that both males and females are potential hermaphrodites as believed by Darwin and Strasburger. Pritchard: Change of Sex in Hemp 329 TABLE II.—Alteration of Sex Ratios in 1914 Number of flowers appearing after operation Number of flowers removed? Plant Additional Under sack On remainder of plant number is treatment Male Female pene Female a a Female 1 16,030 0 Top bagged 640 0 1,040 0 oe 55 9,780 Top bagged 101 432 8,420 621 at 560 5,500 Top bagged 875 97 5,085 5,910 4 0 | 7,355 | Top bagged 43, | 980 S22 ISH100 5 0 7,370 Top bagged 11 65 655 3,280 6 18,875 0 MiG yay ap reaevely Wes ee tee Oalieaue Recta sellobhe wares aealince cinewed c are 0 9,090 Top bagged 250 320 210 1,300 12 10,280 0 Top bagged 630 0 4,860 0 i3 0 9,690 Top bagged 56 415 225 4,360 14 0 4,640. Top bagged 0 0 950 4,295 15 0 10,640 Top bagged 42 385 463 2,510 16 25,185 0 Top bagged 870 0 10,150 0 17 0 3,690 Top bagged Soe 450 505 2,840 18 20,275 0 Top bagged 575 0 4,535 0 19 0 7,450 Top bagged 120 1,265 605 5,580 2D 11,520 0 Mopy OAs ced | Pay. vcaca ae ard Oisec tare fit brates teens hee meee tee ee 23 0 11,680 Top bagged 890 780 4,750 9,340 ais 341 8,990 Top bagged 720 750 3,250 3,870 Shee 25,000 0 | Top bagged 480 0 2,590 0 38 28,370 0 Top bagged 540 0 5,140 3 39 0 7,820 Top bagged 15 420 a2 2,530 40 0 10,650 Top bagged 184 470 269 3,410 41 0 9,380 Top bagged 5 880 3 2,340 42 0 8,920 Top bagged 258 470 275 3,490 43 0 8,220 Top bagged 75 380 125 7,850 46 0 9,370 Top bagged 125 350 336 3,160 8 17,450 0 None exe ASR Ast aby aa te 840 | 0 9 0 9,625 LN fore Ste AI I, MS eR LNA Se Ra 550 | 4,575 10 8,140 0 DY GRE h ale opp aya Macoered «oes 0 461 11 0 10,211 PS heel hee Shas, SI Te te mates 375 6,735 20 0 10,360 INOS ih ierecoans aie aisle alate kegewen 2,005 2,270 21 23,845 0 INormed jotta: 2 Paceslitecoteey a arlare | etanarad cen she Wellner ne eae ee 24 8,240 pomet ee File oe 5 ln a oe eae NE i 3210 9,480 25 0 10,770 Nilo ya vets bpae Ce ey ces en a pens open ee 2 US ine moo oO 26 0 9,110 INOREr AAA N oti me an tale in Grama te oa 267 | 4,560 28} 60 5,680 OREN ca) Mitten? Dall saber ER isey 5 382 8,460 29 23,500 Wontar e aay si dntee SER sasaki ay 7,205° 3] 0 30 10,290 IWicire 4 )E'4 olf tance aalree Reaianaralae 2,280 10,220 31 17,320 0 None pb crepe eee ae cae 9,110 0 32 9,750 0 OGG Va hilNe teaey ccs lure ee 2,250 1 33 0 8,460 POTN Foy Meee a tals A Sietesas ot 215 5,280 34 0 10,530 |i (03 CO Se 8 Sei ded pee ir 850 8,410 35 0 9,760 L611 ae heen A LAr tarts, Oa 45 6,770 36 23,440 0 PROC A Lilatanrtuct a actuals tis. teens 1,060 0 44 10,440 0 EMIS Sb Bile Parezy cteveepleunc Os cle male 830 0 45 15,360 0 | (a) 2 a ae 0 ee 1,560 0 47 0 6,890 PRC, Vi Vs eR OH) aretha son dy oot a 39 370 48 0 4,140 ISHARES AIT 3. 6 2c, cab eal eek wee aa aes 400 1,120 1 Monoecious plants. 2 These were all the flowers on the plants at the time of operation. CONCERNING PREPOTENCY The Idea Belongs to Practical Live-Stock Breeders, Not to Geneticists—How Prepotency May be Obtained by Breeders—How It May Be Explained By Geneticists. THE EpIToR The term “prepotency”’ is one which originated among practical breeders, not geneticists. It is a descriptive term which has been found useful for covering a number of different, but related, facts. It has the further merit, scientifically, that it describes these facts without implying adhesion to any hypothesis which, in its application to these facts, has not yet been proved. It is as a descriptive term that live- stock breeders habitually use the word, and it is in this sense that I used it in writing about Brigham Young; An Illus- tration of Prepotency, in the February issue of this journal. A member of this association, who prefers to remain anonymous, writes that he is ‘greatly moved”’ by the article, which ascribes the quality of prepotency to Brigham Young; first because he doubts whether my use of the term pre- potency is correct and second because he doubts whether on the evidence pre- sented Brigham Young had the superior influence as a parent which has been ascribed to him. As prepotency is a subject of general interest and of first importance to stock breeders as well as to students of genetics, it is worth while to give it further consideration. First let us decide what prepotency means. The Century Dictionary is in accord with the usage of the breeders when it defines the word as meaning “preeminent in power, influence, force or efficiency; prevailing; predominant.” As applied to heredity the dictionary says it would mean of superior power or influence in hereditary transmission, as a quotation cited from Darwin shows. If we turn to Darwin’s discussion of the subject in Animals and Plants, we find that he was unable to formulate any general rules concerning prepotency, superior influence seeming to inhere (1) in some cases in one character as 330 against a contrasted one (cases we should now describe as due to Mendelian domi- nance), while in other cases superior influence seemed to inhere (2) in one sex (cases which he described as sex-limited inheritance and which are now known to form a special category of Mendelian inheritance). In still other cases (3) Darwin believed one race or species to have superior influence in crosses with another race or species. DARWIN'S EXAMPLES As examples which we should place in category (1) Darwin mentions “purple- blossomed”’ peas as prepotent in crosses with ‘‘white-blossomed,” and fowls of normal plumage as prepotent in crosses with silkies. Fantail pigeons he regards as lacking prepotency in crosses with pouters and barbs, yet records the oc- currence of a silky sub-variety of fan- tails which invariably transmits its silky feathers in crosses. Hence lack of pre- potency does not inhere in fantails as regards all their characters but only as regards their fantail character. Other examples belonging in our category (1) noted by Darwin are dun color in horses, dark spotting in sheep, hornlessness in cattle, normal flowers of the snap- dragon and of Linaria in crosses with peloric flowers. As examples which we should place in category (2) Darwin mentions color- blindness in man, ‘‘the hemorrhagic diathesis’”’ (haemophilia?) and certain plumage characters of poultry and pigeons more often transmitted by males than by females. As examples of category (3) Darwin mentions the ass as prepotent in crosses with the horse, ‘‘the prepotency in this instance running more strongly through the male than through the female ass, so that the mule resembles the ass more strongly than does the hinny.” He IS THIS SIRE PREPOTENT? A West African Negro, his English wife, and their nine children. To a white observer, the father would appear at first sight to be prepotent, in determining the visible characters of the offspring; but, says a member of this association, “these children resemble their mother as well as their father. of nose and thickness of lips. as those of the father.” the Negro and the Chinese are ‘“‘prepotent’’ in crosses with the white race. Journal of Genetics, II, 2. (Fig. 20.) further cites on the authority of Gartner some species crosses of Nicotiana (to- bacco), stating that N. vinceflore is prepotent in crosses with N. paniculata, but that in crosses with N. quadrivalvis the latter is prepotent. Numerous and extensive studies made in recent years of Nicotiana hybrids show beyond ques- tion that the prepotency (dominance) inheres in single characters, not in the characters of either parent as a group. The same is in all probability true of horse-ass hybrids, but the sterility of all such hybrids has precluded demon- strative breeding tests. On the whole we find in Darwin’s ex- amples abundant illustrations of Men- delian unit-character inheritance, but no clear case of anything else. Darwin The children are of intermediate skin-color, hair form, breadth The characters of the mother are as truly dominant He therefore considers it ambiguous and inaccurate to say that After Bond, was evidently confused on the subject; and of course he knew nothing about Mendelism. He failed to distinguish be- tween prepotency of one or more char- acters in an individual and prepotency of the individual as a whole. . The live-stock breeders of the present day likewise fail to make this distinction. In general, they speak as if prepotency were a function of the individual. Many modern geneticists object to this attitude, holding it to be vague and confusing; they are unable to picture clearly to themselves any way in which an animal could be prepotent as a whole, although their work with differ- ent unit-characters leads them easily to understand that an animal might have a number of prepotent or, tech- Jo 332 The Journal nically, dominant characters, and there- fore seem to be prepotent as an individual. “But,’’ writes my correspondent, ‘if there really exist, as Darwin supposed and as the literature of breeding based on pre-Mendelian conceptions implies, individuals or races having superior power of hereditary transmission as regards all their characters, their exist- ence must be regarded as of the greatest theoretical interest and practical import- ance, and no effort should be spared to discover them.”’ THE CASE OF BRIGHAM YOUNG The illustration of Brigham Young in the February issue of this journal, seemed to my correspondent to be an attempt to demonstrate a case of indi- vidual prepotency. As a fact, I ex- pressed no opinion as to whether the prepotency was general or was confined to certain characters; I enumerated certain characters as indications of prepotency and left the reader to interpret them as he liked. Shape of mouth and nose were mentioned as being strikingly alike in father and daughters, and a friend of the Young family was quoted as saying that “‘all the daughters are distinctly Youngs in feature, voice, appearance and tempera- ment. None is great as their father was great, but all are Youngs.”’ Interpreting this as a claim of general or individual prepotency, my corre- spondent writes: “Ts the case of Brigham Young evi- dence of individual or racial prepotency ? The evidence is incomplete. We may admit that the daughters look like their father. Most daughters do. They probably also look like their mothers. We have no means of judging whether they look more like one parent than the other, because the picture of the other parent is not given for comparison. Yet this is the very point on which we are asked to pass judgment. The jury calls for Exhibit B, the pictures of the mothers, before bringing in a verdict. ‘There are in the group of daughters, according to the legend, three pairs of full sisters. These. three pairs are plainly more like each other in features of Heredity and expression than any other pairs which can be formed within the group. This fact shows that the mother as well as the father had influence in determin- ing the features of these daughters. Which had the greater influence, the mother or the father, we have no means of judging. “The author speaks of shape of nose and mouth as being features in which resemblance is shown to the father. Suppose this be granted. No two have noses and mouths exactly alike. Per- haps the mothers had something to do with these differences. But even if there were practical identity between father and daughters in shape of nose and mouth, we should be dealing with two single characters only. These might be dominant characters, but that would not prove Brigham Young a _ dominant parent. “Suppose we examine a photograph, which Bond (Journal of Genetics, 1912) has published, of an English woman, her West African husband, and their nine children, for evidence of prepotency. (See Fig. 20.) The children all have dark skin, black curly hair, broad noses and thick lips, in all of which features they resemble their father. Surely, you might say, this is a prepotent sire. But these children resemble their mother as well as their father. The children are of intermediate skin-color, hair form, breadth of nose and thickness of lips. The characters of the mother are as truly dominant as those of the father. A white race calls the children black- hybrids, but a black race might with equal propriety call them white-hybrids. A study of later generations would probably show also that the several characters observed in the children vary independently of each other in later generations, that they are not a group of correlated characters at all.” The illustration given is particularly pertinent, because anthropologists have often spoken of the negro (and also the Chinese) as prepotent in racial crosses with whites. It cannot be denied that this is a loose use of the term, which is not likely to be of much value to science. I do not consider that the illustration of the negro-white The Editor: Concerning Prepotency cross is wholly parallel to the illustration of Brigham Young and his daughters; I am still of the opinion that the daugh- ters, despite the fact that they come from eight different mothers, resemble each other as much as do ordinarily the children of a single mother; and I am of the opinion that the father may therefore properly be called prepotent, as the term is ordinarily used. It seems to me that the uniformity of mouth, nose and ears furnishes a good illustration. But I certainly would not lay much weight on the illustration as an evidence of the existence of either character prepotency or individual pre- potency; it is nothing more than an illustration, although as good a one as I have ever seen in human material. To get any real light on the problem, I think we must stay in the field of live- stock breeding, where the problem arose. MR. ROMMEL’S OPINION To get light here we called on the secretary of the American Genetic Association for information as to the attitude of intelligent modern breeders; he was asked particularly whether in re- gard to individual prepotency geneticists had from their more limited experience overlooked a principle recognized among practical breeders. His reply is as follows: ‘Concerning individual pre- potency, I will say that this has been made the subject of two of the regular Saturday afternoon conferences of the officers of the division. It is the con- sensus of opinion that from the stand- point of the geneticist there is no such thing as individual prepotency in ani- mals; that is to say, that no animal is prepotent in every character. There have been many animals that were‘ pre- potent in certain characters, or even in many characters. From the stand- point of the practical breeder there is individual prepotency in that certain animals have been prepotent in pro- ducing the things for which the breeder is striving. “The inbreeding by which a char- acter of interest is made prepotent will automatically make the factors affect- ing other characters homozygous, will give some prepotency to these characters 333 (as far as they are due to dominant factors), and will give the individual an appearance of individual prepotency. “As an example may be mentioned’ the case of the Standard-bred stallion, Peter the Great, 28955. He has 216 sons and daughters with records of 2.30 or better. This is a good example of prepotency in the matter of speed and included with this must be various other characters, not measurable per- haps, which enable these horses to go a mile in such fast time. “There are on record a few other stallions which have more sons and daughters with records of 2.30 or better, but none of these stallions is. living at the present time. “As other examples may be mentioned famous Holstein and Guernsey bulls, famous because of the fact that they have sired a large number of daughters which have made records large enough to admit them to the Advanced Register. In order to make these records these animals must have had the requisite constitution, capacity, and nervous tem- perament, without which such records would not have been possible. The sires were undoubtedly prepotent in such characters but these are not measurable. “One of the best examples of pre- potency in beef cattle is that of the Shorthorn bull Avondale. This bull has sired a large number of excellent bulls and heifers indicating that he was prepotent in a large number of char- acters. “T trust that this statement will give you a clear idea of what is in our minds; I think that it is the idea in the minds of practical breeders. “Very truly yours, ““Geo. M. RoMMEL, “Chief, Animal Husbandry Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture.” Evidently, then, the idea of individual prepotency which the breeders hold, and by which they mean that a certain animal has superior influence in hered- itary transmission, covers many causes or supposed causes. Thus in one con- nection or when used by one person it may mean (as it actually does in 334 The Journal Darwin’s ‘‘Animals and Plants,” (1) Mendelian dominance (2) sex-limited Mendelian inheritance or (3) predomi- nance as a group of the characters of one parent over those of the other. In other cases it may mean only (4) a high degree of excellence as regards some inherited character or the ability to transmit the same. BREEDERS’ EXPLANATIONS If we go a little farther and inquire what explanations the breeders have offered for the various results that they lump together under the name of indi- vidual prepotency, we find these: 1. “Maximum efficiency of all organs,”’ as indicated “in the expression of the countenance and in the general bearing, behavior and carriage,’’! or, ina word, vigor. 2. Existence of the breed for a long period of time ‘“‘on a favorable soil.’” 3. Length of time in which a variety or breed has been under domestication. “Tt is generally assumed that an old species or variety is prepotent over a more recent species or variety.’’ 4. Mutation. ‘High prepotency does not arise through normal variation, but must rank as a heritable sport or aber- rant variation.’’* 5. Accompaniment of a mutation. “In nature, prepotency may arise spon- taneously and abruptly along with sports in one or more directions.’ 6. As a result of natural selection, of Heredity through a gradual process of evolution.® 7. Inbreeding. 8. “Purity of blood.” 9. Sexual development.’ 10. “The lack of affinity in certain characters, which makes it difficult to blend them.’’’ 11. Telegony.® 12. Maternal impression.” 13. Physiological relation between dam and offspring, which is supposed to make the dam prepotent over the sire.!! 14. Relative maturity of parents, old animals being thought to be prepotent over very young ones.” 15. Degree of ripeness of germ-cells, fully mature gametes being prepotent over immature gametes." 16. Relative strength of ‘nervous organization” —whatever that may mean. 17. Degree of functional develop- ment, either of an individual or of his immediate ancestors. Certainly we have here a beautiful example of a term that means all things to all men. Some writers regard it clearly as a function of individual characters, others regard it clearly as a function of individual animals, others do not stop to ask what it does mean; others look on it as a highly variable quantity, as J. Cossar Ewart, who says :16 ‘“‘An animal (male or female) may be prepotent in some respects and not in 1 Marshall, F. R. Breeding Farm Animals, p. 90. Chicago, 1911. 2 Von Oettingen, B. Horse Breeding, p. 222. London, 1909. 3 Ewart, J. Cossar. The Pennycuik Experiments, p. xii. London, 1899. 4 Galton, Francis. Nature (London), July 14, 1898. 5 Ewart, op. cit., p. 44. 6 Thid. 7 Cf. Dexter, William Hart. Methods Used by the American Jersey Cattle Club in Perfecting the Breed. In A. B. A. Proc. IV (1908), p. 37: “‘ Prepotency will be shown in the general appear- ance, which should be thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious blending of the parts with each other. There should be evident vigor, style, alertness, and a resolute appearance with abundant nervous energy.” 8 Shaw, Thomas. Animal Breeding, p. 105. New York, 1901. 9 Thid. 10 Or even ‘‘paternal impression’! A genealogist writes me with reference to the Brigham Young photographs: “I fancy that I can see that the force of affection, which may exist in the heart of either parent at the time of creation, determines where the likeness will fall. . . . The one who loves the most copies in the offspring the features of the one loved.” 11 Mentioned by Davenport, E. In Breeders’ Gazette, vol. lx, p. 82. Chicago, 1911. 12 Ewart, J. Cossar, Address to Zoological S2ction, British Association, 1901; quoted by Reid, G. Archdall. The Principles of Heredity, p. 69. New York, 1905. 13 [hid. 14 Cited by Davenport, E. Principles of Breeding, p. 568. Boston, 1907. 16 This is the idea developed by C. L. Redfield in Dynamic Heredity (New York, 1915) and elsewhere. 16 The Pennycuik Experiments, p. 44. i dn, Yee ee, De oO The Editor: Concerning Prepotency others (and this whether the prepotency has been acquired through inbreeding or as a ‘sport’), or prepotent with one mate and not with another, or prepotent one year and not the next; because prepotency is of necessity subject to the influence of variation and reversion, and also doubtless of nutrition—more espe- cially of the germ-plasm prior to fertilization.” THE COMMERCIAL ELEMENT When a term has so many and so varied explanations, it might seem impossible to comprehend them all in any one definition. But if we view the question solely from the standpoint of the stock-breeder, I think we will find that these definitions really are summed up in one idea: To -him, prepotency is less a genetic than a commercial question: the prepotent sire is the one that produces a large propor- tion of offspring of high market value because of their possession in an eminent degree of the valuable commer- cial characters of the breed.” From a genetic point of view, un- fortunately, we can not reduce this complexity to simplicity, as we have done from the practical breeder’s point of view by assuming that it is, in the last analysis, merely a matter of dollars and cents. If we analyze “‘prepotency”’ from the standpoint of the geneticist, rather than that of the breeder, we find that it may appear in a number of ways, and that of two animals, one may be the more prepotent in one respect, the other in another. Its prepotency may be shown by 1. Greater influence on the mean grade of the offspring. 2. Greater uniformity in offspring. 3. Greater influence (1 or 2) on second and later generations. 4. Influence (1, 2, or 3) in greater variety of crosses. 335 5. Influence (1, 2, 3, or 4) in greater number of characters. Facing such a situation, I think ge- neticists might well avoid the use of the term ‘‘prepotency’’ and employ more definite words to express more circum- scribed ideas. But I do not think this need deprive live-stock breeders of the use of the term, as some geneticists would insist. After all, the word is the property of animal breeders, who use it to cover a fairly definite result, although a result that may be reached in various ways and capable of various explana- tions. My position in regard to prepotency, in short, is that it is a descriptive term belonging to practical breeders, not to geneticists. It is used by breeders in a way that they understand and find use- ful. The geneticist should not try to interfere with this use unless he can substitute something better; and at present I do not think he can. THE MENDELIAN EXPLANATION What he offers is, in general, the idea of dominance of Mendelian characters, to replace the idea of dominance (pre- potency) of an individual.” There is room for a good deal of discussion on this point, and I shall not take time here to discuss it. What the breeder wants is prepotent animals, and what he wants the geneticist to tell him, is how he shall proceed to get them. I mentioned, in the note on Brigham Young, three possible methods: (1) con- sanguineous marriage; (2) assortative mating; (3) chance. The _live-stock breeder might term these (1) inbreeding, (2) pure-breeding, (3) haphazard breed- ing or random mating. Of these, the first is considered by general recognition among intelligent students of breeding, to be the quick and effective way of securing prepotent animals. No student of pedigrees can doubt that inbreeding does result in prepotency. 17 This suggestion was made by Dr. Sewall Wright of the Bureau of Animal Industry, at the conference mentioned by Mr. Rommel. To Dr. Wright I also owe the five-fold division of the subject from a genetic point of view, which is given a few paragraphs later. 18 Hover, J. M. Finding the Prepotent Sire. April, 1916. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, vii, No. 4, pp. 173-178, 19 See e. g., Wentworth, E. N. Prepotency. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, vi, No. 1, pp. 17—20, January, 1915. 336 The Journal Starting from this observed fact, it is very easy to frame a hypothetical expla- nation of why inbreeding and pure- breeding produce prepotency. Most geneticists would probably agree on it. The explanation which fits the facts is this: that prepotency is due to the pres- ence of a number of homozygous factors for the valuable characters of the breed.?° Ordinarily these factors will have to be dominant, but it is not difficult to think of cases where prepotency, within a single herd, say, might be due to the possession of homozygous recessive factors. Inbreeding will make factors homo- zygous, if they were not so to start with. So will pure breeding, the mating of like with like, accompanied by selection, as it usually is. It is therefore easy for a Mendelist to see why a purebred animal is ordinarily prepotent over a scrub. Further, although the breeder is se- lecting for only a few characters, and rendering these homozygous by appro- priate mating and selection, he is auto- matically, at the same time, making other characters homozygous. Making a breed homozygous (1.e., prepotent) in one dominant character will tend to make it homozygous (1.e., prepotent) in all dominant characters. Thus the appearance-of “individual prepotency”’ will be increased. of Heredity I do not say that this is the explana- tion of prepotency, but it is at least an explanation which, so far as I can see, brings the observed facts in harmony with Mendelian results.?! Whatever be the origin of prepotency, from a genetic point of view, the experi- ence of breeders leaves little doubt as to the best course to follow, in the light of our present knowledge, if one wishes to secure that commercially valuable result known as prepotency. It may be ex- pected from the mating of the best ani- mals, selected to the same standard (7.e., pure-bred) or better still, related by blood; and by selection in each gen- eration of the animals that have the desired character in the highest degree..- The prepotency thus obtained is a measurable fact. It can be explained by a Mendelian hypothesis which makes it a matter of homozygous, dominant characters; but such an hypothesis is, in respect to the valuable traits of farm animals, still unproved and I do not think we are in a position to say whether or not it covers the whole ground. And until the geneticists have supplied the necessary proof, practical breeders will continue to talk about prepotent indi- viduals, when they refer to individuals that are prepotent in a certain number of commercially valuable characters. 20 Since we are dealing with hypotheses, I add that this condition should be accompanied by a minimum number of necessary complementary factors and a maximum number of duplicate factors; and, as Wentworth suggests, linkage may also be involved. ' : . 21 It is quite possible that the breeders are right in claiming that inherited vigor plays a part in prepotency. C ( L : some of the geneticists think impossible. If so, this would make a very near approach to that ‘‘individual prepotency’’ which Until proof is forthcoming, it would be well to keep an open mind and not say that there is no such thing as individual or general prepotency, even though many supposed cases of it are shown to be merely cases of character prepotency. The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 8 August, 1916 CONTENTS Mothercraft, by Mary L. Read................0 06 b eee eee eee 339 Rufant Mortality Meeting: bo ic i ins Sea ea thei ts le Pe os Cans 342 Consanguineous Marriage, by the Editor.....................--..5 343 The Inheritance of Emotional Control (Review of a Bulletin by A. W. Finlayson)......... Re tee eh re We, Oe cone vm 346 Eugenics Education in St. Louis.............-..6 0500s e eee eee eens 346 Inheritance of Baldness, by Dorothy Osborn....................... 347 Mhe Nassau County Surveyrc un... < ee jee fe cee eres eye edne eee es 355 Evolution and Man, by Maynard M. Metealf.................. ed 356 Pollinating Fruit Trees, by Leslie Gordon Corrie................... 365 Bounties for Babies in France..................... RS OR ee ee he tte: 369 Sorrel Color in Horses, by L. P. McCann..................-.5...5-: 370 A Magnificent Flowering Vine..............---2--60e se eee seee sees. 372 Philippine Horses, by David B. Mackie.........................--- 373 New Oat Varieties for Mainme......- 2. 0..6 6. ioc see ie nee eee 382. Raspberry Breeding in New York.....-........--. 0-200 e eee eases 383 The Journal of Heredity. is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, JuLy 25, 1916. STORY HOUR AT THE MOTHERCRAFT SCHOOL There are two ways of training girls for motherhood: one is to put them in a class-room, with a text-book, and lecture at them; the other is to let them actually care for children of various ages, under careful supervision. The former method is that generally adopted nowadays, but the latter method, the only psychologically sound one, is that championed by the Mothercraft movement. (Frontispiece.) MOTHERCRAFT An Attempt to Make the Education of Girls Fit Their Requirements—Work Done, in Private Schools—Should be a Part of the Public Schools—An Important and Immediately Practicable Phase of Constructive Eugenics Mary L. Reap Educational Director, National Association for Mothercraft Education, New York, N.Y. From Pennsylvania woman writes me: a young “T am one of many girls whose training has fitted them for almost any position except the one of wife and mother. Since my marriage almost two years ago I have struggled daily to run the house economically and make up the deficiency in my early education. Now that the baby is coming I am facing a job for which I am even less prepared than for the other, and when I think that our baby’s life may pay the forfeit for the mistakes I make in this direction, I am afraid of the future. Where can I find anything that will help me to learn how to take care of myself now and of the baby later? I shall be very grateful to ycu for anything you can give me.”’ The letter is only one of very many that I have received. What propor- tion of the young women in the educated and well-to-do class would express similar sentiments, if they were questioned’ I venture to estimate somewhere near a majority. The girls themselves are not to blame for this state of affairs; but someone is to blame. It is one of the riddles of history why, when the life and welfare of children are of such vital concern to the family and the race, society has never taken the trouble to see to it that the women in whose charge these precious baby lives rested were highly trained and fittingly prepared for their responsi- bilities. Some people have even said it was not “nice” for young girls to think they would ever be mothers (although they knew they would and so did everyone else)—therefore it was not proper for them to be told about how to care for babies. Sometimes they were instructed in other house- wifely arts; but when it came to the care of the child, the young mother usually has had to gain her experience at the expense of her own baby. We are now beginning to see that such a state of affairs is criminal, and that the young girl needs education in what I have called Mothercraft, above everything else. But I would emphasize at the outset that Mothercraft should be conceived as a much larger matter than merely instruction as to how one should treat a baby when it cries. It should include as much as possible of the knowledge essential to founding a family and carrying it along successfully. As a beginning, it should teach the girl a good deal about the qualities she should possess and that she should seek in the man she marries. How unromantic! you say. Not at all. There is no essential contradiction between romantic love and eugenics. A young woman knows a hundred young men, but is in love with only one (or possibly none) because the others do not embody the ideal that she has fashioned. Every young woman (and the same is true of men) has such an ideal, perhaps only vaguely defined but certainly felt, with which she is in love, for which she searches, and with which she some- times invests an acquaintance only to discover later her illusion. This ideal is composed of the most alluring quali- ties and personalities she has known or read about. EUGENICS AND LOVE What normal young man would be likely to fall in love with a girl, how- ever pretty, even charming, who he knew could be the mother only of 339 340 The Journal sickly, peevish, stupid children to in- herit his name and perpetuate his family, or who would refuse to assume the burden of motherhood? What normal young woman would be at- tracted by any “fairy prince,’ how- ever romantic, wealthy, handsome, if she were aware that his children would be doomed to early death, weakness or imbecility, and that she herself would be made a sufferer for life?) The wide- spread tendency of young men and women of the present day to include eugenic qualities in this romantic ideal is itself sufficient evidence. Young men and women are generally too well balanced to marry simply from eugenic consideration without romantic love, although this is less reprehensible than marriage simply for title, livelihood, for social distinction, for personal creature comfort without consideration for either eugenics or romantic love. It was with the most comprehensive idea of what such an education might possibly include, and the coining of a word which I hoped might define it to others, that I founded in New York City, in 1911, the School of Mother- craft. From the outset, the work was arranged for young women of at least high school education, and some of the students have been graduates of col- leges or boarding schools. The pedagogical principles on which I proceeded were those of my former teachers, John Dewey and G. Stanley Hall. Students must “learn to do by doing.”’” Some visitors once expressed surprise and some disappointment be- cause they said they had come expecting to see a school but what they found was a home. I considered this one of the greatest tributes they could have given the work. The school has always been conducted in a private residence, with resident students and a little group of resident children, ranging in age from a few months to seven years. Besides the resident students, many day students have come for special classes. The home conditions and spirit are carefully maintained. In addition to their classes and recitations, students have several hours each day of practical work in the house- of Heredity hold and with the children. They learn their cooking by assisting in the preparation of meals and the cooking for the children. They learn how to do all the phases of household work by assisting the housekeeper, who is also the home economics teacher. Much attention is given to learning how to economize time and energy in doing the housework. The family budget is studied and they find out how to make the best use of a family income of $1,200 a year, with discussions, as well, of incomes down to $800 and up to $3,000 a year. They go to the shops and learn how to buy household fur- nishings and linens, and the clothing for little children. They learn how to market, going with the instructor to do the week’s provisioning. One of the practical problems which they reach by the midyear is buying the food for the family, and providing a balanced diet, in variety of appetizing food, at $2.50 a week per person. WORK WITH CHILDREN But the most unique work is that with the children. At first the students simply live and play with the children, as members of the household, learning how to be with children and not do them harm—a lesson which few adults have ever learned. They observe the nursery ‘‘mother”’ as she cares for the physical needs of the children, and they participate in the group play with the kindergarten teacher. By degrees, as they learn the principles of child hygiene and psychology, they have practical experience, still under the supervision of instructors, in the daily physical care of the children at each age (including the baby), in story- telling, nursery games and songs, kin- dergarten handwork, nature-study. They learn how to take the important physical measurements of the children, the physical inspections that a nurse or physical education director would make, and how to study the disposition, mental traits and character of children. Some of the students are preparing for their own home-making. Others are preparing for social work in settle- ments, day nurseries, orphanages, as Read: Mothercraft superintendents, investigators or teach- ers. These have special opportunity for observing all phases of social work in New York City and for acquiring practical experience in connection with some of the local institutions or societies. Other students are preparing for the vocation of mothers’ assistants or nur- sery governesses. This 1s a new voca- tional opening for educated young women in this country. Many parents now realize that a crude or immature girl, untrained and without either ex- perience or judgment, is not a fit person to place in charge of a baby, or a little child at its most impressionable period in life. There is a large demand for trained mothers’ assistants who are women of personality and education, but for lack of a training school few women have been prepared to fill these positions. The students preparing for this vocation have experience as part- time assistants, going by the day or the week to private families until they have had a wide range of such experience. Before a student receives her cer- tificate she must have demonstrated by actual work in the school that she can manage the household with effi- ciency, patience and economy; do any phase of the household work and put system and economy into that work; take the care of the baby or any of the children; make a personal study of a child and outline the program for its personal care and mental development; conduct the play and daily natural discipline of ‘little children under home conditions; she must have accumulated a fund of child lore—rhymes and songs, plays, handwork, and stories that have been carefully selected for their fitness and educational value as well as their interest to little children. To an outsider the curriculum of a mothercraft school suggests a selecting from the courses given in a number of different professional schools—kinder- garten, home economics, physical edu- cation, nursing—brought together and taught in a home, from the home point of view. Although there are still very few places in the United States where a young woman can get practical instruc- 341 tion in Mothercraft, yet parts of the work are being taken up by various agencies. Some of the State univer- sities and some of the expensive and fashionable boarding schools are devot- ing special attention to home-making. Most girls’ schools now offer some do- mestic science, but in most cases it is very brief, chiefly of a laboratory type, concerned with household mechan- ics, not concerned with practical or eugenic aspects. The hundred or more Little Mothers’ Leagues in the New York City public schools are doing something in infant care for younger girls. There are a number of hospitals over the country where nursery maids are trained. Mother- craft is opposed to the training of crude nursery maids. Even the idea of training intelligent mothers’ assis- tants is quite secondary to that of the training of future mothers. Such voca- tional training of educated young women is being done more widely in England and Germany than in the United States, many of the day nurseries abroad having educational departments. Education in Mothercraft, however, is not a subject that should be left to private schools; it is an essential part of public education, and many prominent educational authorities have recognized this fact in principle, though school boards and trustees with the tradi- tional ultra-conservatism of educational systems, are slow to put the idea into practice. With a view to furthering the wider acceptance and adoption of this prin- ciple the National Association for Moth- ercraft Education is being. formed, with headquarters in New York City. Its objects specifically are: (a) To maintain a School of Mothercraft in or near New York City, providing for resident and non-resident students, extension classes, visiting instruction; having a kinder- garten, resident nursery, public reference library. (b) To develop branch schools of Mother- craft throughout the United States; and to conduct extension classes and institutes. (c) To encourage similar education in homes, societies, schools and colleges. (d) To hold conferences of its members and others interested. (e) To educate public opinion by circulating literature, by meetings, by exhibits. 342 The Journal (f) To cooperate with institutions. organiza- tions and individuals working toward the same general purpose. Eugenicists have expressed hearty sympathy with the idea of Mother- craft education, appreciating that it is in large part a genuinely eugenic movement, and not a mere matter of euthenics; that it antedates and goes deeper than some phases of the ‘Save the Babies’? movement, which in some quarters even disregards the interests of eugenics. Let us quote some of Gal- ton’s own words: “Man is gifted with pity and other kindly feelings; he has also the power of preventing many kinds of suffering. I can conceive it to be within his power to replace Natural Selection by other processes that are more merciful and not less effective. This is precisely the aim of eugenics. Its first object is to check the birth rate of the unfit, instead of allowing them to come into being, though doomed in large numbers to perish prematurely. The second object is the improvement of the race by furthering the productivity of the most fit by early marriages and healthful rearing of their children. Natural Se- lection rests upon excessive production and wholesale destruction; eugenics in bringing into the world no more indi- viduals than can be properly cared for and those only of the best stock.” Galton considered as a worthy eugenic measure the providing of a dowry for worthy young women, who in England in his day had limited prospects of marriage without such accessory. In our day and country this has no mean- ing. It is the adolescent girl, who in our country has almost unlimited free- dom of choice as to whom she will marry—or whether she will marry at of Heredity all— who holds the control of the future of the family and the race. It is she who controls the birth rate, infant mortality, the divorce rate, monogamy, polygamy or promiscuity, social wel- fare. According to her ideals, her fore- sight, her wise direction of instincts will society progress or deteriorate at its very foundations. Shall she be left to meet these responsibilities with only the guidance of impulse and naivete, with the impression that to anticipate them seriously is unbecoming and abnormal? Naturally, she is not in- terested in technical essays, charts, diagrams, research reports, controver- sial discussions in genetics and social psychology and pathology. She will rarely appreciate her responsibilities through such channels until after her important decisions have been made— if ever. But there is for her a direct avenue. She instinctively loves little children and loves to be with them. Mothercraft education, with its inti- mate daily life with little children, is teaching eugenics in a language she can understand. From her training in the care and education of these little tots she eagerly comes with personal ques- tions of eugenic import; she begins to realize that it is natural and normal for her to anticipate this phase of her future and to prepare herself for it; and she seriously develops her ideals for her own family. Mothercraft education is constructive eugenics, based upon the maternal in- stinct inherent in every girl, peda- gogically utilizing the nurturing, play, work and childlife interests of young womanhood. Truly, for these young women it is not learned theses, but a little child that shall lead them. Infant Mortality Meeting The next meeting of the American Association for the Study and Preven- tion of Infant Mortality will be held in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, October 19-21, 1916. The section on Eugenics will hold no meeting. Prof. M. F. Guyer, of the University of Wisconsin, who is now chairman of the eugenics committee, is arranging a meeting for 1917. CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE Subject Often Regarded by Unscientific Methods of Thought and Effects Misunderstood—Consanguinity in Itself Probably Has no Genetic Impor- tance—The Hereditary Traits Are the Things To Be Considered— Marriage of Kin May Be Either Good or Bad in Effect ? THE EDITOR OW often have we been told of H those “isolated communities where consanguineous marriage has led to an appalling amount of defect and degeneracy!’ Any one of us could name a dozen of these “‘horrible examples” offhand. Without question- ing the facts, one may question the interpretation of the facts, and it seems to me that a wrong interpretation of such stories is partly responsible for the widespread and almost superstitious misunderstanding of consanguineous marriage at the present time. The Bahama Islands furnish one of the stock cases, and Dr. W. C. Rucker has just put in my hands a copy of Dr. Clement A. Penrose’s account of the situation there.1_ What the traveler says has a very familiar sound: “In some of the white colonies where black blood has been excluded, and where, owing to their isolated positions, frequent intermarriage has taken place, as for instance at Spanish Wells, and Hopetown, much degeneracy is present, manifested by many abnormalities of mind and body... «: Lam strongly of the opinion that the deplorable state of degeneracy which we observed at Hopetown has been in a great measure, if not entirely, brought about by too close intermarrying of the inhabitants,” and so on. To demonstrate his point, he took the pains to compile a family tree of the most degenerate strains at Hopetown. There are fifty-five marriages repre- sented, and the chart is overlaid with twenty-three red lines, each of which is said to represent an intermarriage. 1 Penrose, Clement A., ‘‘Sanitary Conditions in the Bahama Islands.’ of Baltimore, 1905. This looked like a good deal of con- Sanguineous mating, but I thought I would test the matter a little further, so I started with the fraternity at the bottom of the chart—eight children, of whom five were idiots—and traced out their ancestry. In the second generation it ran to another island, and when the data gave out, at the fourth generation, I was a little surprised to find that there was not a single case of consanguineous marriage involved. I picked out another fraternity con- sisting of two men, both idiots and congenitally blind, and a woman who had married and given birth to ten normal children. In the fourth genera- tion this pedigree, which was far from complete, went out of the islands; as far as the data showed there was not a single case of consanguineous marriage. There was one case where a name was repeated, but the author had failed to mark this as a case of intermarriage, if it really was such. If we assume that it was a first-cousin marriage, yet almost any one of us may have one first-cousin marriage in the preceding four generations of his pedigree. I am unable to share the conviction of Dr. Penrose, that in the two pedigrees which I investigated, we have an example of the nefarious workings of intermarriage. CONGENITAL BLINDNESS Finally, I traced out a fraternity to which the author had called particular attention because three of its eleven members were born blind. The defect was described as “optic atrophy asso- Geographical Society 343 344 ciated with a pigmentary retinitis and choryditis” and ‘this condition,’”’ Dr. Penrose assured us, “is one stated by the authorities to be due to the effects of consanguineous marriage.”’ Fortunately, the pedigree was fairly full and I was able to carry several lines of it through the sixth generation. There was, indeed, a_ considerable amount of consanguineous marriage involved. When I came to measure the amount of inbreeding represented by these blind boys, I was struck by the fact that it is almost identical with the amount represented by the present Kaiser of Germany.’ The coincidence seems to me eloquent. I am unable to see in such a history as that of Hopetown, Bahama Islands, any evidence that consanguineous mar- riage necessarily results in degeneracy. It seems to me that Dr. Penrose himself points to a potent factor when he says of his chart, in another connection: “Tt will be noticed that only a few of the descendants of Widow Malone (the first settler at Hopetown) are indicated as having married. By this it is not meant that the others did not marry; many of them did, but they moved away and settled elsewhere, and in no way affected the future history of the settlement of Hopetown.”’ I have an idea that, by moving away, they did very decidedly affect the future history of Hopetown. Who are the emigrants’ Inmost cases, probably the more enterprising and intelligent, the physically and mentally superior of the population, who rebelled at the limited opportunities of their little village, and went to seek a fortune in some broader field. The best went; the misfits, the defectives, stayed be- hind to propagate. Emigration in such a case has the same effect as war; it drains off the best stock and leaves the weaklings to stay home and propagate their kind. Under such conditions, defectives are bound to multiply, re- gardless of whether the marriages are consanguineous. “Tt will be seen at. a glance,” Dr. Penrose writes, ‘‘that early in the history 2See von Gruber and Ridin, Fortpflanzung, Vererbung, Rassenhygiene, p. 169. 1911. with results for which the The Journal of Heredity of the Malone family these indications of degeneracy were absent; but they began in the fourth generation and rapidly increased afterward until they culminated by the presence of five idiots in one family. The original stock was apparently excellent, but the present state of the descendants is deplorable.”’ Now three generations of emigration from a little community which even today has only 1,000 inhabitants, would naturally make quite a difference in the average quality of the population, eugenically speaking. In almost any population, a few defectives are con- stantly being produced. Take out the better individuals, and leave these defectives to multiply, and the amount of degeneracy in the population will increase, regardless of whether the de- fectives are marrying their cousins, or unrelated persons. The family of five idiots, cited by Penrose, is an excellent illustration, for it is not the result of consanguineous marriage—at least, not in a close enough degree to have ap- peared on the chart. It zs doubtless a mating of like with like; and biologically that is all that consanguineous marriage is. Only, if two people are related by blood, they are more likely to carry the same hereditary traits than are two strangers. This is by no means always the case: if two inmates of an institu- tion for the deaf, or the feeble-minded, or the epileptic, marry (they are doing it frequently, in most parts of the United States) it is perfectly obvious that they probably have the same in- herited defect; while the chance that children with one of these defects would result from the marriages of first cousins, in whose family the defect was not previously known, is practically nil. Honesty demands, therefore, that consanguineous marriage be not credited consan- guineous element is in no wise respons- ible; and the prevailing habit of picking out a community or a strain where con- sanguineous marriage and defects are associated and loudly declaring the one to be the cause of the other, is a perni- Munchen, The Editor: Consanguineous Marriage cious evidence of the lack of scientific thought that exists almost everywhere. Most of the studies of these isolated communities where intermarriage has taken place, illustrate the same point. Davenport, for example, quotes* an anonymous correspondent from the island of Bermuda which ‘‘shows the usual consequence of island life.’’ He writes: ‘‘In some of the parishes (Somer- set and Paget chiefly) there has been much intermarriage, not only with cousins but with double first cousins in severalcases. Intermarriage has chiefly caused weakness of character leading to drink, not lack of brains or a certain amount of physical strength, but a very inert and lazy disposition.” . It is difficult to believe that anyone who has lived in the tropies could have written this, except as a practical joke. Those of us who have lived in the warmer parts of the world know by observation if not by experience, that a “weakness of character leading to drink’? and “an inert and lazy dis- position” are by no means the preroga- tives of the mbred. And in connection with the latter part of the indictment, the hookworm should not be forgotten. If we are going to credit consan- guineous marriage with these evil re- sults, what are we going to do when evil results fail to follow? What about Smith’s Island, off the coast of Maryland, where all the in- habitants are said to be interrelated, and where a physician who lived in the community for three years failed to find among the 700 persons a single case of idiocy, insanity, epilepsy or congenital deafness? What about the community of Batz, on the coast of France, where Voisin found five marriages of first cousins and thirty-one of second cousins, without a single case of mental defect, con- genital deafness, albinism, retinitis pig- mentosa or malformation? The popu- lation was 3,000, all of whom were said to be interrelated. What about Cape Cod, whose natives are known throughout New England for their ability? ‘“‘At a recent visit 345 to the Congregational Sunday-School,’’ says a student, ‘“‘I noticed all officers, many teachers, organist, ex-superin- tendent, and pastor’s wife all Dyers. A lady at Truro united in herself fours quarters Dyer, father, mother and both grandmothers Dyers.”’ EXPERIENCE OF BREEDERS And finally, what about the experience of livestock breeders? Not only has strict brother and sister mating—the closest inbreeding possible—been carried on for twenty or twenty-five genera- tions, experimentally, without bad re- sults, and even with good results; but the history of practically every breed shows that inbreeding is largely re- sponsible for its excellence. Dr. Penrose adopts a common atti- tude toward these facts. “I cannot conclude from them that close and continued intermarriage among human beings is unattended with evil results,’’ he informs us, ‘‘for we can never be certain that the same conditions are followed in the reproduction of the human species as are enforced in the breeding of animals. The organiza- tion of the human being is so complex, and the nervous system so delicately balanced, that it is difficult, if not absolutely impossible, to establish a human type, and to agree as to what constitutes good human stock. Nothing is more difficult than to find a perfectly normal man or woman, and if we cannot agree as to what constitutes a normal type, how are we to decide as to what constitutes an abnormality? Inasense, a genius is as abnormal on one hand as an idiot on the other, and it is impossible to draw a line between a being with normal mental capacity and one which is slightly below the standard.’’ What does all that mean, in connec- tion with the marriage of kin? Pre- cisely nothing. Consanguineous marriage will doubt- less continue, for many years, to exist in a fog of superstition, but the time is past, it seems to me, when any one can question the facts from the genetic point of view. If we know anything 3 Davenport, Charles B., ‘“Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” pp. 184 ff. New York, 1911. 346 The Journal about heredity, we know that con- sanguineous marriage, being the mating of like with like, intensifies the inherit- ance of the offspring, which gets a “‘double dose”’ of any trait which both parents have in common. If the traits are good, it will be an advantage to the offspring to have a double dose of them; if the traits are bad, it will be a dis- advantage. The marriage of superior kin should produce children better than the parents; the marriage of inferior kin should produce children even worse than their parents. In passing judgment on a proposed match, therefore, the question to be asked is not, ‘‘Are they related by blood?’’, but ‘‘Are they carriers of desirable traits?’’ That is, perhaps, a rather cold-blooded way to put it, but of Heredity once in a while, at least, a marriage 1s regarded in a cold-blooded, genetic light, as the number of letters to me, asking advice about consanguineous marriage, abundantly proves. The nature of the traits can be told only by a study of the ancestry. Of course, characters may be latent or re- cessive for many generations, but this is also the case in the population at large, where the chance of unpleasant results is so small that it would be foolish to weigh it. If the same congenital defect or undesirable trait does not appear in the previous three generations (includ- ing collaterals) of two cousins I know of nothing in genetics which would discourage them from marrying if they want to. The Inheritance of Emotional Control Tue Dack FamILy, a Study in Hereditary Lack of Emotional Control. Wendt Finlayson, Field Worker of Warren State Hospital, Warren, Pa. Eugenics Record Office, Bulletin No. 15. B. Davenport. Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., May, 1916. This study of several hundred related individuals, covering three generations, in the mountains of Pennsylvania, describes another large group of socially worthless people, the descendants of two Irish immigrants. The stock is char- acterized by “restlessness, quarrelsome- ness, loquacity, abuse, pugnacity, inter- mittent outbursts of violent temper, and sex offense,’’ as well as laziness, mental dullness, alcoholism, and the other usual marks of a degenerate strain. The preface tells us that “the present study is of especial value since it illustrates again the fact that the aberrant behavior of each family group is stamped with By Mrs. Anna Preface by Charles Pp. 46, price 15 cents. Cold Spring its peculiar characteristics; because into each a unique combination of hereditary elements has entered.’”’ This may be true, but the present study offers no proof, since no systematic attempt is made to allow for the influence of the environment, and no adequate evidence is offered that the various emotional traits described are in reality due to inheritance. But although the study may add nothing to our knowledge of heredity, it is useful sociologically as picturing a kind of family stock which is costly to the race, and unfortunately all too numerous in some parts of the United States. Eugenics Education in St. Louis The St. Louis Eugenics Educational Society now has nearly two _ score members, according to a letter from the secretary, C. R. Paine. The scope of the organization is much broader than the term ‘“‘eugenics”’ ordinarily includes, embracing as much environmental influ- ence as inheritance. ‘‘We feel,’ Mr. Paine writes, “that the present eugenic thought is not only very academic but quite chaotic in its ordering; not having as yet found a clear base-line for thinking, systemizing and methodizing. Consequently the present thought is very impersonal; seeking more after negative factors than positive ones; more after heredity than environmental- social influences; law than education in its broad popular sense; statistics than life.”’ INHERITANCE OF BALDNESS _. Various Patterns Due to Heredity and Sometimes Present at Birth—A Sex-limited Character—Dominant in Man—Women Not Bald Unless They Inherit Tendency from Both Parents! DoroTHY OSBORN Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio HERE are several distinct pat- terns of baldness. They vary in extent from the small spot, not uncommon, to entire bald- ness which is exceptional. Among the most common patterns are complete baldness on the top of the head, that involving only the crown, that giving the appearance of an extremely high forehead, and that covering the top and, back -of -the:, heads: The: hair associated with baldness may be thin, normal or heavy. Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of baldness. Some of these are diseases of the scalp, ill health, pressure of tight hatbands on the scalp, and heredity. Recently an article appeared in a popular magazine declaring that baldness is entirely due to the indiscriminate wearing of hats, not necessarily tight. Not baldness itself, but the shape of the head is inherited and in wearing hats the con- sequent pressure on the blood vessels nourishing the scalp causes the loss of hair. The main argument in support of this theory was that women never become bald. In collecting data for this paper all types of hair were recorded as thin, normal or heavy. Questions were also © asked as to how long heavy hair was retained, the pattern and time of appearance of baldness if present, the kind of hat worn, and what was used to prevent baldness. The results show that baldness is undoubtedly hereditary. Two families with exceptionally heavy hair were traced, and no baldness could be found in either one. Ordinary tight hats had been worn by the men, which had not affected the persistence of the hair. Incase the hair was exceptionally heavy in youth more than a normal amount was retained to an advanced age. NO BALDNESS HERE A head of thick, fine hair, at the age of 33. Father of this subject is now 61 years old with abundant hair. Both father and son wear tight hats. There is no baldness in the family history. (Fig. 1.) In the first chart, III 3 had very poor health, but until her death at thirty-five her hair was always re- markably heavy. Ill health had had no noticeable effect. Her niece, IV 12, now twenty years old, who originally 1 Contribution No. 48 from the Department of Zoology and Entomology, O.S. U. This work ~was done in a course in genetics under the direction of Prof. William M. Barrows. 347 T OMOHDMOK H} () (H) @ : fo ww ie. A FAMILY IN WHICH NO BALDNESS HAS APPEARED (Chart 1) Squares represent males and circles females; solid black symbols (used in subsequent charts, but not in this one) indicate baldness. H=heavy hair, N=a normal amount, T=thin hair, ? indicates uncertainty as to baldness, due to lack of information. Particulars as to the individuals on the above chart follow: ‘Generation I. I 1 ‘had at least a normal amount of hair, and it may have been heavy. had heavy hair, and many members of her family had exceptionally heavy hair. had at least a normal amount of hair, and I 4 probably heavy. Lye L-3 I 5 had thin hair. Generation II. II 1, II 2, II 3,II 4,11 5,andII 6 had heavy hair, and retained same through- out life. II 8, II 9, and II 10 had heavy hair. Generation III. III 1 had heavy hair. II 7 has thin hair, is now eighty-nine, and retains her normal amount of hair. II 11 had thin hair. III 2 has very heavy hair. III 2 had very heavy hair, and although in poor health for a number of years, retained it until her death at thirty-five. III 6 both have heavy hair. sixty years of age. anormalamount. IV 5 died in infancy. IV 7 has exceptionally heavy hair. IV 11 has very heavy hair, and IV (Fig. 2.) had a normal amount of hair, has lost much through poor health. In the other family studied, one man, now sixty, has been in very poor health for a number of years, but there has been no noticeable effect on his hair, which is very heavy and coarse. Returning to chart 1, II 7 and I 5 both had very thin fine hair, but re- tained it until very late in life. I 5 died at ninety-three and II 7 is now eighty-nine. Her husband, II 6, had heavy coarse hair and their daughter, 348 III 4 died at the age of thirteen which makes data doubtful. III 5 and III 7 has exceptionally heavy hair and retains same at III 8 has about normal hair. Generation IV. IV 1, IV 3, and IV 4 have very heavy hair. IV III 9 had heavy hair. 2 has not much more than IV 6 has not much more than a normal amount. IV 8 has about the normal amount. extremely heavy hair, very similar to his father’s. IV IV 9 has 10 has slightly less than normal. 12 has less than a normal amount, due to illness. III 8, has a normal amount of moder- ately fine hair. The husband of III 8, now sixty, has exceptionally heavy coarse hair, common in his family. The children of this mating show an interesting variety of amounts and textures of hair. IV 8 has a normal amount of moderately fine hair; IV 9 has exceptionally heavy, coarse hair like his father’s; IV 10 has not quite a normal amount of moderately coarse hair; IV 11 has very heavy, fine hair, and IV 12 has rather thin fine hair. TWO CASES OF PATTERN-BALDNESS The same individuals are shown in each picture. The man at the right (upper, in the second picture) had heavy, coarse, curly hair until twenty years ago, when he began to lose it very gradually. His father had the same pattern of baldness; his mother’s family had thin hair but no baldness. the age of 19, and his son developed the same pattern at the same age. grandmother of the man here shown was bald. From the two families traced definite conclusions cannot be drawn as to the inheritance of the amount of hair. Number of individual hairs and tex- tures are probably inherited separately, the appearance of amount being de- pendant on both. The families which were traced in reference to baldness show that it is inherited as a sex-limited trait. It is dominant in men, is inherited directly from father or mother to son, but is recessive in women. Apparently a du- plex condition in women is necessary to bring it out. This is the same condi- tion that Thos. R. Arkell found in the inheritance of horns in sheep.? Partial baldness sometimes occurs in women in case there is illness in addi- tion to a simplex inheritance. Where there is not the tendency to baldness the hair is slightly affected by poor health and sometimes falls out, but is regained upon the recovery of good health. Moreover, as has already been stated, some individuals in very poor health do not lose any hair. 2 Arkell, T. R. “Some Data on the Inheritance of Horns in Sheep.” The lower individual has thin, straight hair; baldness appeared at The maternal (Fig. 3.) In one family, unfortunately not charted, the father became very bald before he was thirty. His only son showed the exact pattern of his father’s baldness at birth. The only hair on the head was in a fringe above the ears and at the back. Later hair came in on the top of the head, presenting a normal appearance. The boy is now nineteen years old and is beginning to lose hair above the forehead. This seems to indicate that the pattern is present at birth. Congenital baldness must not be confused with pattern baldness. In the former there is no hair whatever, eyebrows are lacking and nails are poor or faulty. Instead of hair there is sometimes a downy fuzz. One family observed has shown this trait for the three generations about which anything is definitely known. The grandfather, father and mother were completely bald from birth. The seven sons and one daughter have never had any hair. The only grandchild, son of the oldest boy, also shows the same peculiar trait New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. 160, May, 1912. 349 pe) BALDNESS PASSED THROUGH WOMEN (Chart 2) Symbols the same as in the preceding chart. Generation I. I 1 had a normal amount of hair. I 4 had a normal amount. I 3 is questionable. I 2 was very bald but at what age is unknown. Generation II. II 1 was not bald but amount of hair is unknown. II 2, IJ 3 and II 4 were all very bald but age of appearance is unknown. had thin hair. Generation III. III 1 is questionable. II 7 is questionable. a carrier, inheriting the trait from her mother who was also a carrier. 1 never became bald and had at least a normal amount of hair. IV 2 Generation IV. IV now past middle age, is a carrier but has never shown the trait herself. IV 4 and IV 5, have never shown any signs of baldness. half brother, was also very bald. Generation V. V of his father’s family. In all of these cases the nails were abnormal. /~ Charts 2, 3, 4 and 5 illustrate clearly the general laws of the inheritance of pattern baldness. Chart 2 is presented to show that in case a woman inherits the simplex condition she does not become bald herself, but transmits bald- ness, in the long run, to one-half of her sons and also the possibility of trans- mission to one-half of her daughters. A bald man with a simplex inheritance transmits in the same way. I 1 had a normal amount of hair, but may have been a carrier. I 2 was bald. Three out of four sons of this mating, 350 1 became very bald between the ages of twenty-five and thirty. Il 5 had anormal amount of hair. II 6 II 2 had anormal amount of hair but was undoubtedly III 3 is questionable. Her sisters, IV 3, IV V5a (Fig. 4.) IV 6 was very bald. II 2,11 3, and II 4, were all bald, and the only daughter, II 5, was probably a carrier. Her husband, II 6, was never bald. The daughter of this couple, III 2, inherited the trait from her mother and transmitted it to two sons, IV 6 and IV 7, and, at least, one daughter, IV 2. She was married twice but as nothing is known in reference to the hair of either husband, and more- over, as a son by each marriage was bald, it was concluded that the trait was inherited through her. IV 1 was never bald, so could not transmit bald- ness. IV 2 must be a carrier, trans- mitting the trait to her son, V 1. Osborn: Inheritance of Baldness In chart 3 the trait is inherited for four generations, directly from father to son. II 5 became very bald at forty, as did both of his sons, III 5 and III 6, and also his grandson, IV 4. In the families charted, where the inheritance is direct from father to son, the pattern and age of appearance vary slightly in succeeding generations. In this case in chart 3 baldness covers the entire top of the head and extends down almost to the neck. The hair is lost at about forty years of age. II 8 inherited baldness ‘from his father, I 2, but accurate information could not ber secured. IV a, a-woman, has) a bald spot at the back of her head. Her father, III 4, was bald and her mother, III 3, was a carrier, inheriting the “trait fron her father, 11 .1.. 786 118 15.01 AManrgeleloforachralaultokge\ akan chet e ehrt an weReMeny Gear 765 104 13.59 Hourshybommenivdrens: 84.0. ks eae: 705 95 13.47 Yt EheMonmrCniUnremien 2s -cseet ptnesas a eee cee 6306 82 13.01 Sixth pornyehuadken s: . ok.. 4 claw hee 542 40 7.38 Deven bornsehtldrens wee Ji he. ee 450 Se ila PY) Bish the pOLischildrenies mtu. wee cera: 369 30 8.13 INiriahel aly] ofoyane tel abi Kelsi ale pean te oe, Dees ia tae ea 271 22 8.11 Menmunmornscoic ren] twee. es rains ens 181 20 11.04 Eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth born children........... | 188 21 ala stl7/ MOTs Waa sere ae a | 5,689 / 802 14.09 the first-born, that infant mortality is higher among the first-born, that the health of the first-born child,. during its early years, is below par? INFLUENCE OF NATURAL SELECTION Natural selection appears to offer a satisfactory explanation. At the birth of the first child, the maternal mechan- ism is less well adapted to its work than is the case at subsequent births. Par- ticularly in the case of middle-aged women, physicians say that the strain to which the child is subjected at birth is greater at the first than at subsequent parturitions. The first-born child is, therefore, more stringently selected than are his brothers and sisters; a greater percentage of the first children die at birth. Now if we make the assumption that those who die are, on the average, inherently weaker than those who survive the ordeal, it follows that the average of strength, among the first- born adults in a population, would be higher than among the second or later born; not because they were as a rank superior physically from the start, but simply because a greater proportion of the weaklings were eliminated at the start. by birth-rank. See JoURNAL oF HEREDITY, Vol. If, then, we draw a sample of long- lived people from the population, we would expect to find more first-born among them because the initial in- cidence of natural selection left the surviving first-born more fit, on the average, than the surviving second, third, or fourth-born. This hypothesis may well be supple- mented by the fact which biometricians® have found, that the elder children are more variable in respect to longevity, than are the later-born. Increased variability naturally gives all the more scope for the action of natural selection; and while those who vary in the direc- tion of physical inferiority will be elimi- nated at birth, the survivors will repre- sent children who vary in physical superiority to a greater extent than do their younger brothers and sisters. This variation will naturally result in the production of a considerable number of long-lived individuals. If the facts have been correctly inter- preted, then the prevalence of first-born in a collection of long-lived individuals has a real biological foundation, and is not a mere statistical fallacy. This conclusion is supported by the fact, V, p. 268. Researches cited by H. H. Hibbs, Jr., (Infant Mortality, p. 56, N. Y., 1916) show that in many cases the infant mortality is lowest when the mother is under 20 and when the birth in question may fairly be supposed to be her first, in a large proportion of cases. These data may not be so weighty as the larger series quoted by Pearson, but should at least be taken into account. > Beeton, Mary and Pearson, Karl. pp. 50-99, London, 1901. Inheritance of the Duration of Life. Biometrika, Vol. I, 398 The Journal found long ago by biometricians,* that elder children tend to live longer than younger ones. The investigation in question did not deal directly with the first-born, but is obviously parallel to a certain extent. Dealing with a thousand or more pairs, Miss Beeton and Pearson then found the following average ages at death: Elder Younger All adult adult adult PSTD. acts k hee ee 57.795 59.924 55.667 BroOnner... «260s 56.568 58.560 54.575 Here an elder brother or sister was one who might have been born one year or twenty before the younger brother or sister. For both sexes, it seems that the elder lived about four years longer than the younger. The result appeared so interesting to them that they secured 1,051 pairs of brothers and 733 pairs of sisters where the interval between births was known, and further studied them. ‘The data,” says Prof. Pearson, ‘‘are not quite the same as for our pairs of adult brothers and sisters given above, but they show much the same advantage, 1.e., four years to the elder. They further dem- onstrate that longevity is correlated with position in the family.’ This fact is suggestive for the source of other variations in the characters of an array of brethren. It may be that variability within the array is not purely random, but correlated like variability in lon- gevity, with birth order. Our numbers show that on the whole the earlier-born members of a family are the stronger, or at any rate fitted to survive the longer.”’ It was possible from the data to work out interesting formulae for pre- 6 Beeton and Pearson, ubt supra. 7 The facts as given by Beeton and Pearson, p. Mean excess in life of elder.............-.00055 TOLER CCSS 5 halo Asc Arca See ehee Co, Ca Mean interval between births................. Mo Fab ay tories CORAM oe” ot ATA! fp (RED of Heredity dicting the probable excess of life (e) of an elder brother or sister from a knowl- edge of the birth interval (7), both being taken in years: Elder brother e 7 Elder sister e 8 “Thus a brother born ten years before another brother has probably seven years greater duration of life; a sister born ten years before another sister has probably about six years greater duration of life.” It is hardly necessary to add that these formulae will rarely hold good in individual cases, but apply only when a large population is dealt with. While these Beeton-Pearson data may appear to conflict in some ways with the Genealogical Record Office data which I have compiled, it must be pointed out that they are not directly comparable. The former were taken from pedigrees kept by the Society of Friends in England, while the latter are isolated cases picked out of a very heterogeneous population, on the basis of a single fact—that an individual had reached advanced age. In conclusion, it has been shown that among the long-lived people in the United States, first-born are propor- tionately more numerous than any other children. It is suggested that this may be because they are (a) more variable in respect to longevity and (b) subjected to a more stringent selection at birth. Previous work showing that earlier-born children in a family live longer than later-born appears, as far as it goes, to corroborate the validity of the conclusion reached from a study of the Genealogical Record Office data. 54, are: Brothers Sisters ee ktry Serer ire 4.289 yrs. 4.542 yrs. eT eR te 22.0053 yrs. 22.1325 yrs. RAG Ate seta ete 6.462 yrs. 6.7503 yrs. MY oo eC 4.3530 yrs. 4.6856 yrs. 1062 + .0206 .1201 + .0246 USUAL GROWTH HABIT OF WHITE-BARKED PINE A typical specimen in appearance, but larger than usual. The tree stands on what was doubt- less once a grave or the site of a small temple; remains of the grave or buildings have long since been obliterated by farmers. This beautiful pine has been introduced to the United States, but appears to lose its white color if it is grown in a moist locality. Photo- graph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 5.) THE WHITE-BARKED PINE D. F. Hicerins, Peking, China N ONE of my first trips sight-seeing around the ‘city. of Peking, when almost. anything.new and strange was. taken “quite as a matter of course, I remember seeing in the enclo- sure of “‘Coal Hill’’ some pine trees whose snow-white bark shone out from their green foliage. I wondered at the time why it was that the Chinese whitewashed their pine trees. Later, however, in excursions into the country, I found that my whitewashed pines were not whitewashed, but that they had a white bark. I became interested in this curious tree, and later, largely through the inspiring acquaintance formed with Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer of the United States Department of Agriculture, I took a number of photo- graphs which may be of interest to the readers of the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY. The tree (Pinus Bungeana) is most striking and noble in appearance, and 399 THE PINE IS OFTEN PLANTED NEAR A TEMPLE ‘his specimen stands in the ground of Tan Chao Ssu, a famous temple in the mountains west of Peking. With the brilliant white bark and clear green foliage among the yellow and green tile roofs, all against the dark green of juniper and oak-clad hills, it is a sight not oon to be forgotten. This is the finest specimen seen among several hundreds in the vicinity of Peking. Photograph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 6.) Higgins: The White-Barked Pine would form an attractive addition to any park or estate. There is a feeling of awe and mystery inspired by the flashes of brilliant white through a shadowed grove such as might arise if elves were lighting fox-fire by day. The fact that the trees are planted principally about grave sites does not tend to lessen this feeling. Besides being used for ornamental purposes around graves, they are also to be found in many of the temple grounds which abound on the plain around Peking and nestle in the moun- tains west of the city. I have seen no trees not planted by man, but I have heard that this tree grows wild in the low mountains west of Paotingfu, some 401 distance southwest of Peking. The species seems to be one nearly extinct, and which thrives only in narrow cli- matic limits. Its introduction into the United States would be worth while attempting, however. Mr. Meyer has superintended the securing of one of these trees which has been placed over the grave of W. W. Rockhill, late United States minister to China. The Chinese name of the white- barked pine is “pai kuo sung,’ pro- nounced locally about Peking, “pai- kuor-sung,” ‘‘the white fruit-pine.” This name is due to its white bark, and to the use of the seeds as a delicacy and in confections. On the Proportion Discussing ‘‘Defect in germ-plasm as a cause of delinquency” in an editorial in the July issue of the Journal of Delinquency, Thomas H. Haines, direc- tor of the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research, concludes that 25% is about the limit of feeblemindedness that can be found in any unselected delinquent population—for example, the inmates of a penitentiary or reform school. Feebleminded is here used to mean that “they are so poorly endowed with in- telligence that they are unable to manage themselves and their affairs with prudence.” Better tests are of ‘‘Born Criminals’’ needed, Dr. Haines says, to get at the mentality of the rest of the de- linquents. ‘‘That there is mental ab- normality of some sort underlying the moral perversion, in a large per- centage of not insane and not feeble- minded delinquents, we are free to grant. » But -there: is) much, ‘ab- normal mentality that is not due to defect in germ-plasm.” This, Dr. Haines thinks, is the result of bad education, and can be corrected in many cases by proper treatment. For the hereditarily defective mind, little can be done. The Inheritance of Feeblemindedness In the May and July issues of the Journal of Delinquency, Arthur S. Otis, of Stanford University compares the conflicting views on the manner in which feeblemindedness is inherited. There can be no doubt but that heredity is to a large extent accountable for different degrees in brightness;- the question is whether or not these different degrees of brightness can be said to be inherited as Mendelian unit characters. After reviewing the conflicting views, Otis concludes that no good case has yet been made out by the Mendelists, and that while Mendelian heredity of degrees of intelligence is easily conceiv- able, it cannot be proved until we have more knowledge of the development of the mind, and better means of measuring our quantities. 1 The office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, United States Department of Agriculture, has sent out seedlings of this pine (Inventory No. 41954) secured by Mr. Meyer, and these are now growing at various places in the United States. Dr. C. S. Sargent is growing in the Arnold Arboretum, Boston. A large specimen introduced earlier by It does not show the white- barked character, and it is quite possible that this will only appear on specimens grown in a dry climate. The Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction will be glad to correspond with anyone who wishes to grow this pine in the United States.—THE EDITOR. POLLINATION IN THE PINE LANTS which depend on the wind have presented an impenetrable ex- for fertilization must necessarily terior. At the base of each scale have pollen adapted to travel by are two _ ovules, not enclosed in air. Ifa plant regularly depends on bees or other insects to carry its pollen, the pollen-grains are likely to be sticky and fairly large. If, how- ever, the pollen must be transported by the wind, then the grains must neces- sarily be as light as possible and some- times, as in the pine, they are furnished with wings or air sacs to buoy them up. So equipped, pollen grains can travel almost incredible distances. Engel- mann, a careful and trustworthy ob- server, reports: “The property of the pine pollen to float for a long time in the air, and to be carried by storms to very distant localities, is well known. I have found in streets of St. Louis after a rainstorm from the south, in March when no pines north of Louisiana were in bloom, pine pollen which must have come from the forests of Pinus australis on Red River, a distance of about 614° of latitude or 400 miles in a direct line.”’ The male and female flowers of the pine are quite distinct, as will be seen from Fig. 8, but are borne on the same tree. The male cones appear in the eastern United States late in the fall, lie dormant through the winter and ripen their pollen in the spring, the pollen being ready for dispersal in May or June. In March or April the female cones can be distinguished; they develop rapidly until they are mature at the same time as the male cones. At about the time that the staminate flowers are launching their clouds of glistening pollen on the wind, the axis of the female cone elongates, thus forcing open the scales, which hereto- fore have been pressed together and 1In Trans. St. Louis Academy, Vol. IV, p. 159, 402 FECUNDATION OF THE OVULE The ovule or egg-cell of the pine (P. austri- acus) is here photographed, immensely enlarged, about one year after it was pollinated. The pollen grain has lain dormant within it for that length of time, but is now beginning the actual fertilization. In the center of the egg can be seen the large maternal nucleus at the top of which the functional male nucleus has made a deep depression—a feature characteristic of the pines. Very shortly it will enter the egg- nucleus at this point and the two nuclei will unite, bringing together the hereditary material which each carries and thus starting the development of a new tree. At the upper end of the ovule a large vacuole is seen as a clear spot, to the left of which is the second male nucleus, which takes no part in fecundation. Photo-micrograph from David M. Mottier, Bloomington, Ind. (Fig. 7.) FLOWERS OF THE PINE At the base of the spike is a cluster of male cones, which have already opened and begun to shed their pollen. Grains of the pollen can be seen sticking to most of the pine-needles in the photograph. Above is a single female cone branching from the slender twig. The pollen of the pine is carried by the wind, insects playing no part in the pollination of this tree. Photograph, much enlarged, by David Fairchild. (Fig. 8.) GRAINS OF PINE POLLEN They show little tendency to stick together, whereas the pollen of plants that depend on insect visitors is often exceedingly sticky, so that it will adhere to the legs and bodies of insects. The pollen of the pine is much smaller than that of most plants; it is here shown as seen by reflected light. Photo-micrograph by David Fairchild. (Fig. 9.) THREE-CELLED POLLEN GRAIN The pollen of pines is adapted to travel with the wind by the possession of wing-cells or balloons. The grain consists of three cells, one of which is fully developed and contains the nucleus, while two at the sides are hollow and contain nothing but air. They buoy up the nuclear cell and enable it to travel almost incredible distances—as far as 400 miles in extreme cases. Drawn by W. H. Lamb, of the U.S. Forest Service. (Fig. 10.) Pollination an ovary as is the case with most flowering plants, but lying quite ex- posed, as with all the gymnosperms or ““naked-seed”’ plants. Pollen drifts into the openings between the scales and slips down to the base, where some of the grains fall on the ovules. There is an opening to each ovule, and the opening is surrounded by a collar of cells which form a tube to receive the pollen. When the pollen grain is once inside this tube leading to the ovule, the opening closes up so that it cannot get out. Shortly afterwards, the scales of the cone are said to close up once more, thus protecting the ovule during the course of its further develop- ment.” With many flowers, fertilization— that is, the union of the sperm-cell and egg-cell—takes place almost imme- diately after, pollen has reached the ovule. But in the pine there is an extraordinary delay, often covering a period of thirteen months. The pollen- . grain does indeed begin to germinate immediately after it has entered the ovule. But when it has gone through a few divisions, and put forth a pollen in the Pine 405 tube, it rests for a year. Not until late in the following spring, in most species, does it actually reach the egg-cell. When fertilization does take place, it is more thorough than in many: species. Not only do the nuclei of the two cells unite, but the cytoplasm of the two cells fuses, whereas in many cases the cytoplasm—that is, all the material surrounding the nucleus—of the male cell is rejected. To obtain a good photograph of the process of fertilization is a very rare thing, but Prof. David Mottier, of Indiana University has sent the re- markable one reproduced in Fig. 7. Here the two nuclei can be seen, just about to unite. Most, if not all, of the heredity of the species seems to be carried in the nucleus of the cell; con- sequently it is the union of cell-nuclei that constitutes the essential fact in zygosis or fertilization. By this act the inherited characters of the male and female parent are brought together, to lie side by side in the individual which results from the growth of the fertilized cell, and to be shuffled up, recombined and segregated in its posterity. Breeding Sugar Cane Four generations of seedling cane are being grown at the Porto Rico experi- ment station, Rio Piedras, P. R., and several new varieties of value have already been developed. It has been found almost impossible successfully to pollinate cane by hand, because of the smallness of the cane flower, the height at which the inflorescence is produced, and its brittleness. Success has been had, however, by planting two varieties in parallel rows, a_pollen- sterile variety on the leeward side of one pollen-fertile. The wind does the rest. State Survey in Illinois The Illinois Committee for Mental Hygiene is contemplating a state-wide survey of the amount and ramifications of mental defect. The work would be centralized in Chicago. This action is in line with that taken recently by a number of communities, and must eventually be followed by the whole nation, as the realization becomes more widespread that a large part of the crime and misery is due to inherited mental defect, and that most of it can be wiped out, within a generation, without excessive labor or expense. 2 For a careful technical account see Ferguson, Margaret C. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Life History of Pinus, etc. Washington, 1904. A CHANGE IN SEX-RATIO Overwhelming Preponderance of Male Births Among Certain Tribes of Costa Rican Indians—Females in Great Majority Among Adults—Tribes Rapidly Disappearing HENRY PITTIER Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. Zeitschrift fir Ethnologie a short note on the Tirub, or on what is left of that once powerful tribe, dominat- ing the plains and mountains bordering on the present boundary line of Costa Rica and Panama. ‘The abode of these remnants is now restricted to the upper reaches of the Tararia or Changuinola River, included in the territory of the latter republic. In the above mentioned contribution, there were given some statistical data showing the rapid decrease of the Tirub and the unusual numerical dis- proportion of the sexes, the great majority of children being males. I visited these natives in 1898 and the statistical information reproduced about five years later from my diary was given as a résumé of the complete census made during my expedition, the originals of which had been mislaid. Not very long ago, these detailed sheets of my census were found. They cover not only the whole Tirub tribe, but also the larger part of the Bribri of the Costa Rican Talamanca. In view of the numerous researches and publications referring to sex determination and con- trol, these data appear so interesting that I now undertake to prepare them for publication. I do this also in justice to the readers of my former article and because such information may throw some light on the process of disintegration of a race. The above cited paper dealt with a |: 1903, I published in the Serlin portion only of the Tirub, and showed a proportion of thirty-six females to 100 boysamong the children. It further stated that since the first known census, in 1700, when the tribe numbered about 2,300, there has been among them a steady and rapid decrease in the natality until in 1898, there were left fifty-seven individuals, among whom were fourteen boys and five girls under marriageable age. The real figures at that time as shown below should have been given as eighty-nine individuals with thirty- one boys and eleven girls, and a slight predominance of the males among the adults. Among the children, however, the given sex ratio remains the same with the new totais. It was shown further that the same process of rapid extinction, indicated not only by a lesser natality but also by a great exaggeration of the sex ratio, existed in another Costa Rican tribe, the Guatusos, living at the head- waters of the Rio Frio. In 1896, Bishop Thiel found it to consist of only 203 individuals, seventy of whom were females, the ratio being fifty-two of these to each 100 males. In the same expedition during which the Tirub information was gathered, I made also, as stated above, an exten- sive survey of the inhabitants of the valleys and mountains of Uren in the Costa Rican Talamanca. These people belong to the Bribri tribe, another part of which inhabits the district of Arari, which I did not visit at the time. There 1 Similar disproportionate sex-ratios are said to have been found among the Indians of Guate- mala and Nicaragua, and parts of South America, but in no case has the state of affairs been described by such an accurate census as Mr. Pittier was able to make. E. Westermarck cites the travelers’ accounts in his ‘‘History of Human Marriage,’ Chapter XXI. Among other primitive peoples, it would appear that the proportion of girls born is sometimes equally excessive. In civilized countries there appears an extraordinarily steady ratio of something like 105 boys to 100 girls born.—The Editor. 406 Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio 407 is also a small settlement of the same The results of both the Tirub and Indians in the Cabagra Valley, on the Bribri censuses are now given in full, southern watershed of the cordillera. as follows: I. Census of the Tirub Tribe. Adults. Children. Totals. | : | _ Grand Name of locality. | eee | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Brasike istehouse....... 1 1 3 0 4 1 5 Brusik 2d house....... 1 1 2 0 3 1 4 Brasil; $d house: 5... ily En] 3 2 0 3 3 6 iusteiniwn hes ote De 4 5 0 | 7 4 11 Heri Glee ce any teh 1 3 3 0 | 4 3 7 SCRE GI Kam Ae th cu Reena hl 5 5 5 0 10 5 15 JsNieaMicl OVORS a eae eee eg 3 5 3 3 6 8 14 PES Gee prea. it 2 3 y, | 4 4 8 Winter ease crane heey. 1 4 2 3 3 i 10 Temisik (Songs6)...... Dae 1 3 3 5 4 9 EouseselO se 18 29 31 11 49 40 89 II. Census of Part of the Bribri Tribe. (a) Bribri Mountains, Talamanca. Adults. Children. Totals. Name of locality. | 3 : ere Males. | Females. Males. |Females.| Males. | Females. SEU ELECS ae eae Re pane 5 5 6 3 lal 8 19 Sitltuzeeerer ete ee 2 2 2 0 4 2 6 Wika etas se vektie a0. 28 2 2 0 2 2 4. 6 IDGESADETR ss fa ee 4-8 3 3 3 2 6 5 11 NUR Zt ey es ee vag meets 4 3 4 3 8 6 14 15.2 6 (=). a, eee eee 3 7 1 1 4 og 12 Ee 7s tie croc sae iia 3 4 2 2 es 6 11 NO) Himinttiers eteieeeies eee 2 2 2 1 4 3 if 1B Yo] Of a ee eNO ee aaa 2 S he 3 4 8 12 Asjeikenaten ee seas es ee ae 3 6 3 1 6 7 13 OKA KItSAl ys seve oe 2 4 0 9 2 13 15 DGGZ vee re ds 2 3 1 2 3 5 8 SUIS aaa er ests 4 3 0 0 4 3 7 PS STEORI a ou aie ein 4 4 0 1 4 5 9 (i tAg: - Sei aera eee ae 5) 2, 3 0 6 2 8 Dutsibetev@)r . at.-5 5 3 2 1 8 4 12 ID Aa OR apse, re 2 i a 2 4 9 1S: Wintisicath ae stan eh ceat tk 1 3° 2 1 3 4 7 ANGI cia Ja tee WArirona ain aE amt tte 4 6 3 1 il 7 14 BAS Dietel a eters neces | 3 4 2 1 5 5 10 eSTini katie tes eis ecto ee 3 4 3 2 6 6 12 Vos maa] 0755 2 Wie Me se ae 2 5) 0” 0 2 3 5 novela hs a) Meee easy Mu 3 0 1 2 4 6 Rigi 43. 3 ee 2 4 2 3 4 i) 11 Moro kdipess reds ee 2 4 2 3 4 7 11 MGI che ae, no bine. thes 44 3 0 3 2 6 8 INGO os. Soar et eens 7 5 2 1 9 6 15 408 ' Name of locality. Burtibeta Améokitsa ist house........ Amokitsa 2d house OWS y talon lh ene ee. eee ween: PR Ate a mcsitehe ole ene ee Surébeta | Dek6é-t Surtik eleanor eee SI GUIS Mote lces Gls pss eee aes PII T TIC ee orbs Agen coe ees Sie Karkadzeua Bilcatg: Ss teste ties teh ee Adults. | Males. | Females. Tsimukurki PRODOOLIDCS. oc 0 yes oe lens Sauskurki Sausbeta MN Se Soin 2S c Saco pase es ne Datsi-kurki Sklikote Dicdéte. 1st house:...-....<-; Decéte 2a *house: .: 05. 423 Dicétevo@ HOUSE..2.50..- 2 Dicéte 4th house........... Dicéte 5th house Dicéte 6th house...........| Bekurkttrcss stare cc tn eee ee NeaGAIKITSaet. bc orc die ee aes NSO DLT « 51 eee Skartbkitsa Dutsdkurki Sata ec rele ahe eh er AGL AIBED 655.000 «vie Phe crm tt Korblifiak PIACIONGON.. Bierce’ seinen Tsurikurbri 1st house.......| Tsurikurbri 2d house Murusikdio Ogdi Mountain Bribri Plain Bribri CeuC ROE 6 Se OeKe'* © (b) Inner plain of Talamanca. The Journal of Heredity Children. Males. Females. | 3 3 1 0 2 6 1 0 3 oa ee 0 3 a es 0 2 Ces 0 3 5 0 3 4 5 1 0 5 Cea ee 1 2 ae ier 0 1 3 0 1 3 3 2 Tega 2 4 | 5 Oe | 2 Bt oly PSO 1 4 ee ean 3 3 ee 3 4 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 0 3 130 166 74 58 BROAN KR WHE WWNHNHNHE NUN KORN RPWOR RPO UR PAIN OLN HE WUEWWRENARP NN SWWRENPRAR RE WNW RK BNE WNHNUORUNOWNNOUWRNNOND WwW WN OR COOCWOOWON FPR OR ROR rPODWOSKFF ee ee 61 32 130 166 | 74 58 59 76 | (Ol 32 189 242. | 135 90 Totals. Males. NWWWDUUNMAUNRE NO DAUW UE UW = WOW BP WWROA KP SR WON ENHWHADN WNHH ANUS 204 120 324 | | Females. CD He G2 U1 OW HE ED 1 OW WR DW — WOW COUN BPW EWAR KON N WHEE ERR RCN 108 224 108 Grand totals. — dDOO * i _ CONOUEATEOAMWNNTOKPAMNUMAGOWDWNA OD — Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio 409 Males and females to each 1,000 of population, Tirub Brbrig ko Ski eae Males. Females. eee 202 326 Children 348 124 |General 550 450 {Adults 288 369 ;Children 206 137 |General 494 506 Tribe or part of tribe. Females to each 100 males. Males to each 100 females. Adults. PET UL ree ee athe Sea eanete ieee 161 Bribri (Mountain)................. 128 Bribrit (Plain) pe no pci) fess 129 Bribri (General). .55.0.2.45.85 6 3 4- | 128 Children. Adults. Children. 36 62 262 78 78 128 52 78 191 67 78 150 The known history of the Tirub shows that during the seventeenth century, they constituted a powerful nation, which extended its sway over all the neighboring tribes. They made frequent raids on these, plundering, killing the men, carrying away women and children. The fact that at that time and as long as they were able to maintain their supremacy, they were essentially exoga- mous, and also polygamous, should perhaps not be overlooked when study- ing the probable causes of their decad- ence. The existence at one time of both conditions is proved not only by» repeated documentary mention of the abduction of females of all ages, but also by tradition and actual occurrence. The Térraba Indians still speak of a time when each man was allowed several wives, and also of the punish- ment inflicted by the friars when the monogamic rule imposed by them was infringed. On the other hand, during my residence in Térraba, one of the former Tirub colonies in the Diquis Valley, I became acquainted with several natives who had taken their wives from among the Bribri and Cabécara of the northernslope. Asked about the reason why they had gone so far to find their matrimonial mates, one of these men tried to explain that such wives were more ‘‘recatadas,”’ 7.e., modest or shy, than those of his own surroundings, but others referred to the fact that such was the practice among their forebears and that this was encouraged by the missionaries. Notwithstanding all the evidences of the practice of exogamy before the advent of the Spaniards, I must not omit to mention that there are also vague indications of the tribe having been at one time organized in two clans between which marriages took place exclusively, as will be explained in connection with the Bribri. The decadence of the Tirub started with their subjection by the Spaniards at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The persuasion of the mis- sionaries and the fear of a bloody re- pression put an end to the inroads on their neighbors and to the practice of exogamy. A considerable part of the tribe was led away to the several colonies founded by the friars in other parts of the country and no small number were driven to the Spanish settlements to become the slaves of their conquerors. Worse still, smallpox, pulmonary and catarrhal infections, almost always fatal among them, and other imported dis- eases took a heavy toll among the once strong and warlike nation. Heretofore, they had roamed freely over mountains and vales, spending the dry season fishing and hunting in the extensive plains along the coast and retiring with the accumulated pro- visions for the rainy winters in the sheltered fastnesses of their hinterland. In the plains were also their extensive plantations, built up for each family by the common work of the community with the accompaniment of eating and drinking revelries, as is still the custom 410 among the Talamanca Indians. Their crops consisted mainly of cassava and plantains, to which squashes and red peppers were probably added. Maize was hardly cultivated and beans were certainly unknown, since up to the present day they are found but seldom among the aborigines of the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica. DRIVEN FROM THEIR HOMES While this simple diet remained plentiful, the nation continued to thrive, until strangers began to invade the more accessible parts of their territory. Year after year these came in growing numbers, settling themselves in the fields of the hapless natives, who were thus robbed of their subsistence and frightened back into the narrow valley of the Tararia. The climax of the spoliation came about the time of my visit, when speculators grabbed what was left of the rich lands of the plains in prevision of future operations by a large banana concern. These changes took place gradually, and gradually too, the living conditions of the natives became more impaired The narrow talweg of the valley, swept year after year by the torrential freshets of the larger streams, could not be tilled profitably, and the slopes are everywhere too steep for permanent cultivation. So the crops were forcibly reduced to a scanty minimum. The fish which abound in the lower course of the river, become scarce in the upper reaches and, at the time of my visit, the forest game had practically dis- appeared. All this necessarily resulted in a slow starvation of the Tirub, with the corresponding lowering of the vitality of the race. The resistance to diseases and other adverse conditions became less, the rate of mortality in- creased and with a diminished number of births came also the disturbance of the ratio of sexes as vividly shown in the above tables. Among the Bribri, the process of attrition has been about the same, though perhaps a little slower. These were among the people subjected to the dire oppression of the Tirub during the period preceding the arrival of the The Journal of Heredity Spaniards. At that time also they were more or less obliged to seek the seclusion of their mountains, their enemies extend- ing over most of the beautiful inner plain of Talamanca. Besides they paid tribute, according to tradition, to the Misquito Indians, who at that time dominated the coast from Gracias a Dios in the North to beyond the Chiriqui Lagoon, as is indicated still by numerous localnames. A tradition gathered from the old men in Bribri has it that each year, the flotilla of the warring Misquitos would appear at a certain time at Cahuita Point, and a slave runner was dispatched to the Bribri bearing the insignia of command, a cane made of the cacique wood. This put the whole tribe on the way to the coast, every man and woman loaded with propitiatory presents. After the Span- ish occupation, this dependency came to an end, though very much against the will of the Misquitos, who tried by every means to maintain it, and even penetrated once far into the Talamanca Valley with their dugouts after they had succeeded in crossing the dangerous bar at the mouth of the Tarire. On this occasion, however, they were not satisfied with provisions and cotton clothes, the usual tribute levied on the Bribri, but a number of women and children were carried away into cap- tivity. After the last appearance of the Misquitos and the retreat of the Tirub into their own valley of the Tararia, the Bribri enjoyed a relative quiet and attained some prosperity under the easy rule of the friars. Not that they submitted altogether meekly, for there were times of open revolt, when mis- sionaries and colonists were pitilessly massacred and the churches and in- cipient towns destroyed. These out- bursts were of course followed by bloody reprisals, but on the whole the tribe maintained itself in a relatively pros- perous condition even to the last days of the past century. MARRIAGE BETWEEN CLANS With relation to marriage, their customs were very ditterent from those of the Tirub. While polygamy was the Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio rule, the wives were taken from inside the tribe, according to a system which we might call semi-exogamic. The whole tribe was divided from the oldest times into two clans, each one of which was considered by the other as its conptiaty. «lune: men of, one. clan. could marry only in the opposite clan, to which the children would also be- long, the head of the family being not the husband, but the eldest brother of the mother. This custom was still rigidly enforced at the time of my exploration of Talamanca (1891-1898), when I succeeded in obtaining the complete list of the families forming each clan of the Bribri. Owing to this arrangement, the inner life of the tribe was not perhaps so deeply disturbed by the advent of Spaniards as was the case among the Tirub, and this is one of the explana- tions of the reason why the decadence of the Bribri has proceeded more slowly, as shown by the above tables. One of the first facts which draws the attention when studying these is the reversal of the ratio of sexes when we pass from the adult to the child genera- tion. Among the former the number of females is far above the normal in all cases, while among the children the male element is overwhelmingly pre- ponderant. It would seem, therefore, that the change has been a very sudden one, and this puts more difficulties in the way of a satisfactory explanation. That the adverse circumstances under which these natives live have been rapidly on the increase during the last years is an evident fact. The question is whether it would be sufficient argu-- ment to explain both the decrease in 411 natality and the great disturbance of the sex ratio. It has been suggested that certain native tribes limit the number of females by killing part of the baby girls at their birth. This, however, would not explain the present case and furthermore it certainly does not apply with regard to the Bribri Indians, among whom I lived for nearly three years and into whose more intimate life I pried almost at will. Not being an admissible ex- planation for the Bribri, this. could not be used as to the Tirub, whose case is more or less identical. On the other hand it is generally admitted that there is an automatic correlation between the birth rate and sex ratio on one side and the general vital conditions of the race on the other. The only apparent exception to that law is the presence of artificial condi- tions as produced by abuse of wealth and excessive physical refinement, as are known to exist in great cities and which lead so surely to race suicide. Under normal conditions, a_ strong, healthy stock tends to increase and with a higher rate of birth there is also a surplus in the number of females. Under adverse conditions, the facts become reversed. For instance, in a nation depleted of men and resources by war, natality is less and the proportion of males considerably larger. While statistical proof of these facts is in- adequate, there is some evidence to support them, and they formed the base of the explanation given in my former paper. Whatever this explanation, it is evi- dent that factors have been in operation among these Indians that have resulted in a definite and pronounced alteration of the sex ratio. Research Work at Sing Sing At the annual meeting of the National Committee on Prisons it was announced that a fund of $20,000 a year for five years has been guaranteed to provide medical and scientific treatment for the prisoners at Sing Sing. The Com- mittee on Eugenics has begun opera- tions in cooperation with the Police Department of New York City to arrive at the constitutional or hereditary factors in anti-social behavior with the aid of carefully compiled family his- tories.—Eugenical News (Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, July, 1916.) HEREDITY OF HAIR-FORM TRAIGHT hair is the primitive history, and resulted in the various form found in the human race, forms known as curly, kinky (or frizzy) but in some sections, particu- and wooly. The difference is in the larly those inhabiting the tropics, form of the individual hair: straight a modification appeared very early in hairs are round in cross-section, while AMERICAN NEGRO x FILIPINO HALFBLOODS. = (Fig. I.) Heredity of Hair-Form the curved ones are seen, in cross- section, to be flattened, being some- times only half as thick as broad. Going farther back, we find that the difference in appearance is due to a difference in the shape of the follicles from which the hairs grow: straight hair develops in a plain, cylindrical follicle, while the follicle which pro- duces the flattened types of hair is curved and inclined in relation to the skin. Apparently this change is one, the possibility of which is often present in human germ-plasm, for it breaks out occasionally when there is no heredi- tary history back of it, so far as can be discovered, for a number of generations. It was noticed very early in the Mendelian study of heredity that these types were inherited distinctly and segregated. Davenport pointed out! that the curved condition seemed to behave as a dominant and the straight condition as a recessive, although his figures show that this does not hold strictly true, so that it is probable we 413 are here dealing with a number of different heritable factors, instead of a single one—unless we suppose that it is a single factor which is subject to much variation. The accompanying photographs from David B. Mackie, of Manila, show two sisters at Pangasinan, Philippine Is- lands. They are the offspring of a Philippine woman who had the straight hair characteristic of the Malays, and an American negro with wooly hair. This father, however, in Mr. Mackie’s opinion, had some white blood, and therefore may be considered heterozy- gous for hair-form. Were this not the case, we should expect to find all his children with curling hair. The fact that one of the sisters has distinctly curling hair and the other distinctly straight hair is in itself fair evidence that the father was not a pure-blood negro. The photograph graphically illustrates the fact that hair-form is not a blending, but a segregating, character in heredity. Effects of Alcohol on Germ-Plasm That alcohol acts on the germ-plasm in such a way as to cause defects in offspring, has long been believed, but those who have investigated the evi- dence know that very little of it is valid. Dr. Raymond Pearl of the University of Maine is carrying on experiments with fowls to test the effect of alcohol, and finds no evidence that it has the effects attributed to it. A preliminary account of his experiments is given in tue Proc) Am: Philos. Soc:, - lV, ‘pp: 243-259. He treated nineteen fowls with alcohol and raised 234 chicks from them. “Out of twelve different char- acters for which we have exact quantita- tive data, the offspring of treated parents, taken as a group, are superior to the offspring of untreated parents in eight characters” and inferior in two, while in the remaining two characters there is no distinguishable difference. The infant mortality, among chicks of treated parents, was decreased, the chicks were heavier than normal when hatched, and grew faster than the average. No deformities were found. Dr. Pearl thinks the effect of the treat- ment was to eliminate the weaker germs in the parents, so that only the stronger germs gave rise to offspring. He is continuing the experiment with larger numbers of birds to get data for several generations. 1 Davenport, C. B., ‘“‘Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” p. 34. New York, 1910. CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR IN THE ANCESTRY OF THOMAS A. EDISON dinary ability to support fa- tigue, and to work many hours at a time with little food or sleep, is well known, and the inventor frequently attributes this ability to his abstemiousness. George W. Bar- ton, of Washington, has recalled this in a letter to Alexander Graham Bell, in which he quotes from an interview with Edison, by Dr. Richard Cole Newton, in the Ladies Home Journal several years ago, as follows: “Years ago a book fell into the hands of the great-grandfather of the present Thomas A. Edison, the famous in- ventor. It was the story of an Italian nobleman, Lodovico Cornaro, who at the age of forty was told by his physi- cians that he had but a short time to live. “Cornaro lived in an age—three hundred and fifty years ago—when eating and drinking cut a prominent figure in the lives of Italians, and this nobleman concluded that his broken health was due to over-indulgence. He resolved to change his mode of life and demonstrate a truth or two to the physicians. “After some experiments in his diet he cut down his daily ration of solid food to twelve ounces, the equivalent of three-quarters of an ordinary five- cent loaf of bread. Next he deter- mined to let fresh air into his house, and to live himself in the fresh air as much as possible and avoid all conten- tion and worry. With these funda- mental laws for healthful living he built up for himself an ideal mode of life. Health came back to him, and at the age of eighty-three he made known to the world, in print, what he had done and how he had thrived by his method. “| azar A. EDISON’S extraor- CORNARO’S LONG LIFE “His health had now become as good as it had been before he had injured it 414 as a young man by improper living, and at the age of eighty-six he again reported on his vigor, his happiness and his freedom from all the ills of advanced age; at ninety-one he reported again and at ninety-five he added still further to his wonderful book that anyone may read today. He died at the age of ninety-eight, having lived fifty-eight years, in good health, beyond the date fixed for his demise by his physicians— and he outlived them all! ‘““So impressed was the great-grand- father of the present Edison with the sane and rational story of this fine old Italian nobleman that he took the teachings to himself and lived along the line of Cornaro’s methods for years. He died at the age of one hundred and two years. “The example of Mr. Edison’s great- grandfather’s long and healthy life was naturally not lost upon the son, and he—the present inventor’s grandfather— followed the same teachings and died at the age of one hundred and three. ‘The example of the grandfather of the present inventor was in turn im- pressed upon his sons, of whom there were seven. They all lived according to the teachings of Cornaro, and the example set before them by their father and grandfather, and all seven sons lived to be more than ninety years old! “One of these sons was Samuel Edison, father of the inventor. He followed in his eating and in his daily life the example of his father and lived to the age of ninety-four years, passing away without apparent illness. .He suffered no pain, life seeming to have come to its end in nature’s way. “This, then, was the marvelous record of abstemious living and conse- quent old age handed down by great- grandfather, grandfather, and father and six uncles to the present Thomas A. Edison. He determined that ‘what was good enough for his ancestors was good enough for him,’ and decided to Constitutional Vigor in Ancestry of Thomas A. Edison 415 live the same life. This he has done with the result that the great inventor finds himself today, at the age of sixty- five, in sound health; with the wonderful record that he has been sick just four times in sixty-five years; he has had three or four headaches, and two or three winters ago he had a slight cold, the first in ten years. He has also had an attack of so-called middle-ear disease, from which he recovered in two or three weeks. This was in 1908, since which time he has been very well and hard at work. “ Naturally everyone will ask, what is this marvelous routine that has made possible this wonderful record? In the first place the routine is not marvelous at all; it is stmply common sense, which, if followed by more of us, would obviate nearly all our illnesses and make it possible for us to reach the ages at- tained by Mr. Edison’s ancestors, and to enjoy as good health as does the great inventor himself.” FALLACIOUS REASONING Unfortunately for the interviewer’s conclusion (which appears to be Edi- son’s own) there is abundant evidence to prove that long life is due largely to heredity. -The fact that an ascetic dietary is in this case associated with long life by no means proves that it causes long life. “Tf Thomas A. Edison should live to be a nonagenarian or centenarian as he intimates he will through this methodical mode of a restricted diet, would it be a fair scientific deduction to attribute his longevity to the heredi- tary factor, or to his ascetic dietary?” Mr. Barton asks. To this Dr. replied as follows: “Both heredity and environment are undoubtedly factors in producing lon- gevity. My researches indicate that the possibility of long life depends primarily upon the possession of a good constitution (which is an inheritable characteristic); and secondarily upon good habits of living (which are not inheritable). “The case cited by you, of Edison’s ancestors, is obviously one in which heredity is involved; for you have here a man living to 102 years of age, having a son who died at 103, and seven grandsons who all lived to be over 90. “It is inconceivable to me that a system of diet could possibly be the cause of so extraordinary a result. It is more reasonable to suppose that a tendency to longevity existed in the family, and that the good habits of life permitted it to come into expres- sion. In this connection it is interesting to know that a hereditary tendency to longevity appears in many families in spite of the prevalence of most unhy- gienic conditions. “The case of the Italian nobleman, Lodovico Cornaro, who lived to be 98 after having been given up by his physi- cians at 40, is interesting but by no means conclusive, because nothing is said about his ancestors. It is true that he attributed his long life to his system of diet; but in most of the cases I have investigated where the excellent habits of life were supposed to be the cause of the longevity, I have found that the individuals came of long-lived stock.”’ Bell Banns Law Proposed in Georgia The desirability of a good banns law, as an aid to sexual selection, has been pointed out in this Journal. By -pre- venting hasty and ill-considered marri- ages, it would probably tend to better matings from a eugenics point of view. The following news item from the daily press is of interest in this con- nection: “Atlanta, Aug. 20.—A strict measure intended to curtail immorality and the divorce evil by preventing hasty marri- ages probably will be passed by the present session of the legislature. “The bill provides five days must elapse from the time a marriage license is taken out before a ceremony can be performed; that there must be at least two competent witnesses; that the issue of a license must be published, and sworn statements must be made as to age and previous marriage.’’ PYRONIA A Hybrid Between the Pear and Quince—Produces Abundance of Seedless Fruit of Some Value—Many New Combinations Might be Made Among the Relatives of the Pear Dr. L. TRABUT Botanist of the Government of Algeria, Algiers ARLY in 1913, Mr. Veitch, of kK London, sent me some cions of a hybrid he had recently obtained between Pyrus and Cydonia. He called this interesting creation Pyronia, and asked me to study it under the more favorable climatic conditions of our region. Since this new plant had proved to be an attractive ornamental shrub in the climate of London, I thought that in Algeria the fruits might be comestible, and Pyronia might become one of our cultivated orchard trees. The cions received were therefore grafted on well-grown stocks of a Moroccan pear recently described! (Pyrus gharbiana Trabut), which were growing in poor soil at the Botanic Station. In November of the same year the cions had made a growth to 2 meters, and were as large as one’s thumb at the base. In 1914 the first fruits appeared on variety A. In the spring of 1915 they flowered abundantly and set a large quantity of fruit. The observations here described will deal only with the variety A, to which [ have given the name X Cydonia Veitch var. John Seden. It may be described as follows: A vigorous tree resembling the quince, the wood brown with numerous lenticels. Leaves light green, the vernation very peculiar; one side of the leaf blade is inrolled, as in the pear, the other side, in place of being inrolled symmetrically, encircles the first so perfectly that the vernation may be called convolute. It is therefore intermediate between the conduplicate vernation of Cydonia and the involute vernation of Pyrus. Leaf- blades elliptic, entire, villous when young though very sparsely so on the principal veins and the petiole, the venation irregular; petioles one-third to one-fourth as long as the blades. Stipules inserted at the base of the petiole, villous, on vigorous shoots attaining a length equaling that of the petioles. The leaves adjacent to the flowers which appear in the first flower- ing period are larger than the normal ones, and less attenuate at both ends. The flowers are produced in clusters of three at the ends of the branchlets, each group arising from a cluster of large leaves arranged in a rosette. The pedicel bears two bracteoles near its base, one sometimes a third of the way up the pedicel. Calyx, with five deltoid lobes slightly incurved, pilose on both surfaces but more heavily so outside, the margins glandular-toothed. Corolla large, 5 cm. broad, aestivation quincun- cial, the petals suborbicular, distinctly clawed, quite glabrous, white, tinged with rose, especially before anthesis. Stamens twenty, the filaments nearly erect in the ten alternating with the petals, curving in the others. Anthers violet, 3 mm. long, the pollen normal in appearance. Styles five, free, the ovary with five locules each containing two superposed series of three ovules. The fruits are, abundant, developing from nearly every flower, hence they are grouped in threes at the ends of the branchlets. A second period of flower- ing occurs after the first, solitary flowers, which also produce fruits, appearing at the ends of the branchlets of recent growth. In these flowers the corolla persists, and as the receptacles enlarge the petals take on a greenish tint. At the beginning of autumn there is a third period of flowering, but the fruits produced do not ripen. 1In Bull. de la Station de Recherches Forestiéres pour l’Afrique du Nord, Alger, 1916. 416 Trabut: Pyronia ie i oe 417 aa FRUIT OF QUINCE X PEAR HYBRID The fruit is seedless, is almost intermediate between the two parents in character, and seems to promise some commercial value. It is proposed to call it Pyronia, a combination of the two generic names Pyrus (pear) and Cydonia (quince). This is a satisfactory trade name, but will not be accepted by the botanists who, it is suggested, may call it X Cydonia Vettchi1. (Fig. 12.) graph actual size. All of the fruits which I have been able to examine were seedless. During the early development of the fruit the two rows of ovules can be seen clearly in each locule, but later when the locules have increased considerably in length they are seen to be empty. The form of the fruit is unusual and characteristic, cylindrical, slightly longer than broad, with a short peduncle arising from a shallow cavity, the eye situated in a deep basin, open, the calyx lobes persistent. The skin is_ thick, rough, green or yellowish-green, abun- dantly covered with red dots like that of a pear. The flesh is white, granular, firm, juicy, sweet, slightly acidulous with an agreeable quince-like perfume. The season of ripening is October and November. It is not yet possible to state with confidence what place Pyronia will take Photo- in horticulture. The fruits which I have eaten were picked before they were fully ripe; the flesh was pleasantly flavored but firm as in a half-ripe pear. When cooked, the fruits seemed to be intermediate in character between a pear and a quince. In 1915 an attempt was made to pollinate flowers of Pyronia with pollen from various pears, but no fruits were obtained. I did not attempt to polli- nate with quince pollen, though that might offer a better chance of success. The validity of the genus Pyronia, proposed by Veitch, is open to discus- sion, because some botanists do not admit the validity of the genus Cydonia. The character of the ovules, six in each locule, arranged in two series of three, one superposed upon the other, seems to bring Pyronia nearer to Cydonia than to Pyrus. LEAVES AND FLOWERS OF PYRONIA The flowers resemble those of the quince parent slightly more than they do those of the pear parent. As the pear genus has been found to hybridize without great difficulty, Dr. Trabut suggests that many new combinations might be made in it, yielding new fruits of possible value. A hybrid between the apple and pear has already been secured, but its commercial value is not yet ascertained. This new genus created by hybridiza- tion may, without inconvenience, be maintained at least by horticulturists, if not by botanists who follow a fixed code of nomenclature. Botanists, it is true, have already made apples into pears, but practical. horticulturists do 418 Photograph actual size. (Fig. 13.) not appreciate the scientific necessity of such a change. In the aggregate of its characters Cydonia Veitchit isintermediate between Cydonia and Pyrus. It constitutes a bigeneric hybrid. Botanically this hy- brid appears to be sterile, but horticul- Trabut: turally it is decidedly fruitful, yielding an abundance of well-formed, seedless fruits. This first attempt to hybridize the quince and the pear should encourage To Prevent Waste of With a view to finding and conserving especially valuable variations in the human race, the Civic Club of Alle- gheny County (PennsylVania), has es- tablished a Committee on Exceptionally Able Youths. Blanks are being sent to the school principals of Pittsburgh, with the following letter: “The Committee on Exceptionally Able Youths of the Civic Club of Alle- gheny County is conducting psycho- logical tests to find the most exception- ally gifted youths in Pittsburgh and vicinity who have dropped out of school prematurely or will do so before they have had the training appropriate to their abilities. Our work is limited to the very few individuals who have im- pressed the teacher or principal as having extraordinary ability, when this ability, without assistance, is not likely to receive proper development. Some- times the families could afford further Pyronia 419 plant breeders to make new attempts to combine the quince with those primitive species of Pyrus which have given us splendid and highly esteemed varieties of pears in such great numbers. Potential Ability schooling and would provide it if they had tangible evidence from us of the very high qualities of the son or daugh- ter. In other cases, a scholarship is necessary, and our recommendation will suffice to secure a number of these. “Will you, therefore, select one or two individuals as described, who are in the eighth grade or high school or who have left school in the past few years, and send us their names and data as called for in the accompanying blank. We will then make an appoint- ment when these individuals and others will be tested by a series of mental measurements.” . The chairman of the committee, Professor Roswell H. Johnson of the University of Pittsburgh, is a eugeni- cist; the other members, Professors We V.. Bingham, “).)B- Miner,.G..C: Basset and F. A. C. Perrin, are psy- chologists. A Study of Rural Epilepsy NINE FAMILY HISTORIES OF EPI- LEPTICS IN ONE RURAL COUNTY. State of New York, State Board of Charities, Bureau of Analysis and _ Investigation. Eugenics and Social Welfare Bulletin, No. 7. Albany, N. Y., 1916. The Department of State and Alien Poor in New York is taking an unusually intelligent view of its work, in the publication of the series of pamphlets above noted. One of its functions being established by law as the investigation of “‘the condition of the poor seeking aid,” it is going to the bottom of the problem. The present bulletin is de- voted mainly to a general review of the nature of epilepsy, in which it appears that heredity is held directly responsible for something like one-half of the cases. It has been estimated that there are in the United States perhaps as many as 175,000 epileptics—a population equal to that of the State of Wyoming. New York has a large colony for them (the Craig Colony) in Livingston County, and the families of nine inmates from a neighboring county were traced by Miss Florence Givens Smith, the results being presented in this bulletin. She has contented herself with publishing the facts, wisely refraining from any attempt to deduce laws of heredity. CARMAN’S WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS Many Supposed Hybrids in the Rural New Yorker Series Show no Trace of Rye Characters—Only One Variety Originated from Real Wheat-Rye Hybrid— Descendant of This is Probably Still Grown C. E. LeIicuty Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. the Rural New Yorker from 1876 to 1899, achieved, in addition to editorial success, some remark- able successes as a plant breeder. His work in breeding potatoes is probably the most noteworthy, although his work with wheat and his accomplishment of crossing wheat and rye are of no mean proportions. About the time that he took up his editorial work (1876 or 1877) he turned his attention to attempts to improve wheats, first by selection, second by changing spring into winter wheats, third by crossing, and last by hybridizing wheat and rye. In the Rural New Yorker of August 30, 1884, is shown what is probably the first illustration (Fig. 14) ever pub- lished of a hybrid between wheat and rye. The cross, however, had been effected by A. S. Wilson, of Edinburgh, Scotland, who presented his results April 8, 1875, in a communication to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, without giving any illustration. The plants secured by Wilson were sterile and the hybrid therefore was not carried further than the first generation, the matter then being allowed to drop. Carman apparently knew nothing of Wilson’s experiment at the time his work was done. The hybrid secured by Carman furthermore produced a few seeds, with which experimentation was continued and from the progeny of which a variety was produced and disseminated. Fy the ke S. CARMAN,}! editor of This cross between wheat and rye was made in the season of 1883.2 A head of Armstrong wheat, a popular variety later known as Landreth, and today as Martin Amber, was selected for the mother, because it is a beardless, hardy, prolific variety, as much so as any of the 250 kinds tested on the Rural grounds, unless it may be the Diehl- Mediterranean, a bearded variety of hybrid origin. The anthers were extracted by the aid of a pointed stick as soon as the head was out of the boot, while they were perfectly green, and the head was covered, bound with worsted’ for several days, when pollen of rye was applied to the stigmas from the point of a knife. This was repeated the next day, and the next, the head being again covered after each operation. Thus, before, while, and after he sup- posed the stigmas were receptive, pollen from rye was applied. In this head ten more or less imperfect kernels formed which were planted late in September about a foot apart. Nine of these germinated, passed through the winter, and matured grain the next year, some being early, some medium, some late. There was no perceptible difference in the appearance of the plants during their early growth, except that some tillered more than others, but there were noticeable differences in the matured heads produced by the several plants. From the illustrations and accom- 1 For a short account of the life of Mr. Carman and some facts concerning his several achieve- ments in breeding, see an article by Dr. E. M. East, in THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol.vii5 No. 2, pp. 65-67, February, 1915. 2 The date, 1882, given in one account is evidently an error. ee 3 This is according to an account given in the same year, 1883, although in 1886, in reviewing the work, it is stated, ‘‘the head was then bound with tissue paper,” which was temporarily removed for pollinations. 420 Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids WHEAT-R YE This is the first illustration ever published ot a wheat-rye hybrid, and represents Carman’s own work. It appeared as Fig. 339 in the Rural New Yorker on August 30, 1884. (Fig. 14.) panying descriptions it is seen that the heads of eight of the plants produced, excepting that plant represented by Fig. 339 which will be considered later, differed from each other (1) in awn length, some having very short awns like the mother plant, others consider- ably longer awns, although none could 421 be considered as fully bearded; (2) in color of chaff, some having white, others brown chaff; (3) in size and color of kernels produced—this, however, may be due to difference in maturity; (4) in straw color, some having lead-colored, others golden-colored straw. These eight plants were in later accounts referred to as “‘those from the fertile plants of the original cross” and ‘‘the eight original plants resembling wheat (or the female parent) more than rye,”’ while the remaining plant, Fig. 339 (reproduced herewith, Fig. 14) is referred to as “‘the nearly sterile plant”’ or the plant which ‘most resembled tye. The best of the heads produced by these plants were selected for further growing. “The plot of about one- twentieth of an acre’’ where these were grown ‘‘presented the next season when the heads appeared, as varied an appear- ance as if kernels of all the most dissim- ilar wheats in cultivation had been sown.” Among forms appearing were club-shaped and tapering heads, bearded and beardless heads, while the straw was yellow, dark brown or purplish. The size of heads, number of kernels produced, and size of kernels all were variable. NO TRACE OF THE RYE After careful examination of the available records and illustrations there appears to the writer no evidence that in these eight plants or in their progeny there existed any trace of rye. It is further apparent to one familiar with wheat-rye hybrids and with hybrids between different varieties of wheat that these eight kernels, supposed to have developed as the result of the fer- tilization of emasculated wheat flowers with rye pollen, must have actually resulted from fertilizations of wheat flowers with wheat pollen. How this fertilization occurred in a head suppos- edly emasculated before its pollen was ripe is not known, but there are several possibilities, among which is this: If, as seems probable, worsted was used to wrap the head after emasculation, wheat pollen may have sifted through this from other flowers nearby. It is well A GRAIN OF variety 1 ‘of Martin Amber. known that the glumes of emasculated wheat flowers when not fertilized will remain open for some time and if not protected by pollen-proof covering will often be fertilized by pollen, probably air-borne. Again, some fault not appar- ent may have existed in the technique. Be that as it may, these eight plants how no signs of being wheat-rye hybrids, although at them must have different varieti least some of been hybrids between of wheat. CARMAN’S ERRONEOUS BELIEF Although these ‘‘eight resembling $9? original plants wheat more than rye’”’ cannot ARMSTRONG WHEAT with which Carman made his wheat-rye hybrids; it now goes under the name Photograph much enlarged. (Fig. 15. S be admitted to be actual wheat-rye hybrids, they were so considered by Mr. Carman. In all his later reference to them they are always considered to be hybrids of wheat and rye. Of all the wheats originated by him, the varieties first to be introduced, in 1889, included two descended through con- inued selections from these ‘“‘fertile lants,”’ these being Nos. 2 and 3. 30th of these varieties were believed to be half rye, half wheat by parentage, hough they had no appearance of rye in any Introduced at the same these two wheats time as Four others, known as Nos. 50, 51, 53, res] ect. ~ A GRAIN OF RYE It will be readily seen that there are numerous small differences between this seed and that of wheat, and that the influence of rye would be clearly discernible, if present, in a hybrid. After carefully examining the descriptions of Carman’s various supposed wheat-rye hybrids, hybrid, the rest being nothing and 55, originated by crossing different varieties of wheat. These were offered in August, 1889, by J. M. poe & Co: aE New York City, at 25 cents for a package containing twenty- ae grains, or the collection of six sorts for $1. Mr. Leighty reaches the conclusion that only one of his original nine was a real but wheat. Photograph much enlarged. (Fig. 16.) In 1890 these six varieties were distributed free to applicants by the Rural New Yorker, and the varieties of special interest here were named as follows: “No. 2 (hybrid wheat-rye) has been named 423 424 The Journal Willits after the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. “No. 3 (also a wheat-rye hybrid) has been named Roberts after Prof. I. P. Roberts, of Cornell University.” Although the names applied augured well for these wheats, they apparently proved of little commercial value and so far as the writer knows, are not in existence as varieties grown anywhere today. Turning now to the “nearly sterile plant,’’ or the one that ‘“‘most resembled rye” (Fig. 14),4 of the nine described above, it is evident from the illustration and descriptions that it was neither wheat nor rye, but had the modified characters of each. The shape and general appearance of the head, the arrangement and number of spikelets, and the glume characters were all such as are commonly found in wheat-rye hybrids. The culm resembled that of rye, except in color, having the whitish down near the head which never appears in wheat. This plant bore ten heads® which produced but nineteen kernels, thus being nearly sterile. All of these characters combined allow no question of this plant being actually a hybrid between wheat and rye. MUCH VARIATION IN PROGENY The grains produced by this plant were carefully sown and fourteen or fifteen plants resulted, which passed safely through the winter and produced altogether 107 heads, the single plants having from two to thirteen heads. As shown by an illustration which Carman published, they are all rather long, tapering, slender, and _half-bearded, with more spikelets than in wheat, in their appearance giving abundant evi- dence of rye relationship. The char- acteristic hairiness on the culm beneath the head is depicted in each case, although such hairs might theoretically be lacking in some of the plants in this second generation: Some of the plants were feeble in growth and partly sterile. Others were remarkably vigorous in growth, with strong stems and many heads. Some ripened with the earliest wheats, others continued green until of Heredity after the latest wheats had matured. The seeds varied in size, some being even larger than wheat, but as a whole they appeared to be wheat and yet had somewhat the shape of rye. Rejecting all inferior heads, enough grain was saved from the best to plant a plat of about 1/30 (or 1/20) acre, that is, single kernels in the inter- sections of 10-inch squares. Regarding the crop grown Carman writes: “It is a matter of very great surprise to us that in this plat there is such a variety of heads that if evidence were suddenly placed before us that all of the varieties of wheat in cultivation sprang from accidental crosses between rye and wheat, we should accept it as in har- mony with the appearance of these plants. The down does not appear upon the culms of some, while others are covered more thickly than the parent stems. The straws of some of the plants are three times the thickness of ordinary wheat straws. Some of the heads are beardless, others as much bearded as barley. Some heads are of the shape of Clawson, or the female parent Arm- strong (tapering); others are club- headed, with and without beards. Some of the heads are compound. Our readers must remember that this twen- tieth of an acre of plants, so strongly dissimilar, all originated from a single seed, one of the ten kernels which four years ago was the result of crossing rye upon wheat.”’ The New York World in 1886 con- tained this description of the plants in this plat: “Some of the plants were dwarf, not over 2% feet high, with culms thrice as heavy as any ever seen in the pure wheats. Heads 7 inches long were not uncommon. Some were bearded heavily, others were beardless, and still others showed every intermediate stage. Some were club-headed, with breasts or spikelets densely crowded towards the top. Some bore compound spikelets, that is, two breasts growing instead of one, and the head partially double-breasted on each side of the rachis. Some heads were shapely, others twisted, with long, curly awns and culms as crooked as the heads. Some heads were larger and contained more kernels than any wheats we have ever seen growing in this climate. Others were feeble, narrow heads, scarcely 2 ‘The portrait is true, except that the beards are nearly twice as long asshown.”’ (43: 557.) 5A later account states ‘14 heads” and “17 grains.” Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids A WHEAT-RYE HYBRID This grain is one of four produced ona wheat head from flowers cross-polli- nated by C. E. Leighty. Although it is a genuine hybrid, it shows no traces of the influence of the rye (male) parent. The hairs at the top have been slightly retouched to make them more visible. Photograph much enlarged. (Fig. 17.) inches long. The straws were all colors, from yellow to dark purple. They were of all thicknesses, from the size of rye to that of a small slate pencil. Some were densely downy, others smooth. Some were wiry and strong, others weak. These plants were maturing variously, some with rye, some with wheat, while many were still perfectly green, with a good promise of not ripening at all. These strange plants, all from one seed, vary so remarkably, are so entirely different from either wheat or rye, that nothing short of seeing them can give the reader a good idea of them or enable authorities on grasses to intelligently consider the matter.’’ Long and faithful effort was expended in the task of fixing selections from the wheat-rye hybrids. In 1892 this state- ment was made concerning the progress up to this time: “The illustration (Fig. 226) is a photo- engraving of typical heads of what we have alluded to as those hybrids 425 between rye and wheat which are distinctly neither wheat nor rye; in other words, they are new grains. For some years we despaired of ever fixing them. Seeds from bearded, long, narrow heads, as shown at No. 1, were just as likely as not to produce beardless, club heads as shown at No. 6, and all the intermediates as shown at Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, though the heads of the same plant varied only in size, the same as fixed varieties vary. Again, the downy stem wasinconstant. Seeds from plants with stems as downy as the chaff of velvet-chaff wheat would produce culms without down, though we have never known a smooth stem to produce one with down. It will be remembered that the stems of the rye for an inch or so below the head are always fuzzy or downy, and that this peculiarity in the rye-wheat hybrids must come from the male parent, rye. The quantity of down, however, is variable. Some of the stems of the hybrids are densely downy or plush-like, while others are just like the stiffer fuzziness of rye. Here again the stems of a plant are all alike. It never happens that one or several stems of a plant are fuzzy while the others are not. “The heads shown in the illustration are those of varieties which seem to be fairly well fixed. The beard or beard- lessness, the downy stems, and the general shape are quite constant. They vary chiefly in the size of heads, some plants from the same seeds yielding plants some of which bear heads twice as long as others. Selections are now being made to secure the largest heads. The grain itself is just as distinct as the heads. The kernels are long, of a dark amber color, while there is so little starch in them that they seem almost translucent like horn. It is reasonable to assume that such grain would make a highly nitrogenous flour. Of this, however, nothing is positively known. “The down extending 2 inches or more below the heads is not apparent in our illustrations.” In 1892 there were introduced three new varieties originated by Mr. Carman, 426 The Journal these being Nos. 1, 4, and 52. Nos. 1 and 4 are described as follows: No. 1.—By parentage half wheat, half rye. Mother parent Armstrong. Heads compact, symmetrical, pointed, bearded; brown chaff. Three grains to a spikelet, eight spikelets to a side. Kernels hard, reddish or dark amber. Straw very strong and of medium height. As early as rye. Thought to be very hardy. No. 4.—By parentage half wheat, half rye. Mother plant crossed progeny of Armstrong. Heads symmetrical and absolutely beardless; brown chaff. Three grains to a spikelet, eight and nine spikelets to a side. Dark amber kernels. Stems very strong. Ripens with re, No. 52.—Originated as a pure wheat cross. From the data given it cannot be ascertained whether these two varieties were actually descended from the true wheat-rye hybrid or whether they were descended from the supposed hybrids as were No. 2 (Willits) and No. 3 (Roberts). No. 1 apparently survived longer than any other of the varieties intro- duced up to this time, as it was offered to the trade by the seedsman intro- ducing it up to and including 1898, while in the meantime the others had been dropped from the lists. It is not known to the writer that any of these varieties are now grown, although a variety called ‘“‘No. 4” was seen growing in New York State in 1912, the characters of which agreed with the meager description obtainable of the variety. In 1894 two further introductions of wheat varieties were made, these being No. 57 and No. 6. Although No. 57 was not originated as a cross with rye, it is perhaps the best of all introductions made by Mr. Carman, and a description is appended. “Peter Henderson & Co., of this city, now offer for the first time two of our wheats which the firm has kindly named Rural New Yorker No. 57 anid Rural New Yorker No. 6. The first is a heavily bearded variety, the parentage of which is one of our crossbred varieties fertilized with a crossbred of Velvet Chaff. The down (‘‘velvet’’) upon the glumes is very light, though perhaps heavy enough to resist the green fly, but not dense enough to invite mildew, which is often an objection to Velvet of Heredity Chaff. We have raised our hybrids and crossbreeds only upon very small plats. From such trials, the No. 57 appeared to be a heavy yielder, with large, symmetrical, heavily-bearded heads, and tall wiry culms. It is a strong, vigorous grower, stools freely, and has never been winter-killed. “The Rural New Yorker No. 6 is one of the rye-wheat hybrids, though all appearance of rye has disappeared except that the culms just under the heads are now and again downy as in rye. The downiness of the stem is variable. We have tried by selection for many years to fix it without any approach to success. Of all our rye- wheat hybrids, the downy culm is permanent in but one, and that resem- bles rye in several other respects. The Hendersons have found that No. 6 ‘succeeds and produces heavy crops on poor, thin land, where pure wheat could not be successfully or profitably grown.’ This surely is a most valuable characteristic. Figure 165, page 630, shows the plant, one head, and several kernels.”’ THE ONLY REAL HYBRID From this description and from a statement made elsewhere concerning its origin, it seems that No. 6 is actually descended from the true wheat-rye hybrid obtained in 1883. It is note- worthy for this fact, since it is the only variety introduced by Mr. Carman whose record, so far as determined by the writer, clearly indicated such origin. This variety is also still being grown, at least a variety bearing this name is now included among the wheat varieties of several experiment stations. In common with the breeders of his day, Carman believed that the parents of a hybrid were equally represented in all self-fertilized individuals of subse- quent generations. There might be variation in form but not in composition. He thought that by again fertilizing with rye pollen any plant of his first or later generations of wheat-rye hybrids, all intervening generations having been naturally self-fertilized, plants three-quarters rye by parentage would be secured. These plants or their Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids progeny in turn being again fertilized by rye pollen would produce plants seven-eights rye by parentage. By continuing this process plants fifteen- sixteenths rye, and so on in the same fractional series, could be secured, the further generations thus all the time approaching pure rye in composition. The laws of Mendel were not then known. Actuat:d by the desire to produce rye in this way, and thus, if possible, to throw some light on the origin of wheat and rye, Carman, with true scientific spirit, made the crosses as required by the theory, carefully year after year. A head on one of the eight “fertile plants of the original cross’’ was emasculated and pollinated with rye pollen in 1884. One kernel resulted, which grew and produced twenty or twenty-two heads on which were three kernels. This was apparently an actual hybrid of wheat and rye, the female parent being wheat, as pointed out above. It was considered to be, how- ever, three-quarters rye. These three kernels grew and two produced plants, but their subsequent history cannot be accurately followed from the accounts given. TRIALS COME TO AN END A head of one of the hybrids most resembling rye was emasculated and pollinated with rye pollen in 1885. On this, seventeen kernels were formed, which resulted in fourteen plants the next year, these being considered as three-quarters rye. By following this 427 system with one (or possibly both—the account is ambiguous) of these lots of supposed three-quarter rye plants ‘“‘sev- eral plants were produced with a sup- posed parentage seven-eights rye,’”’ and at least one with a supposed parentage of fifteen-sixteenths rye. The supposed fifteen-sixteenths rye plant was entirely sterile, and the supposed seven-eighths plants were nearly all sterile. In spite of these discouragements the experi- menter continued until finally he writes: “This trial has come to an end through necessity or through causes over which we had no control, viz., absolute barrenness of the latest progeny.” The. beliet. as expressed that” “aay, endeavors to originate a hybrid which shall be more than three-quarters rye will prove ineffectual.”” No variety of supposed three-quarters rye parentage was apparently ever actually introduced, although one known as No. 11 was placed for propagation and introduction, but no later account of it is found. In 1897, several years after his differ- ent wheats had been distributed, some one asked “‘Are there any of the Rural hybrid wheats that you believe to be ahead of all other kinds in hardiness and prolificacy?’? The candid spirit of the man is shown in the reply: ‘‘No, we have not received any reports which would justify us in placing any of the Rural hybrid wheats above the popular kinds of today. . Of the crossbred wheats which have originated at the Rural Grounds, the R. N. Y. No. 57 is very promising.’”’ And so the matter stands. Correction Through an editorial blunder; the paper on Pollinating Fruit Trees, in the last issue of the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY was credited to Leslie Gordon Corrie. The paper was written by, and should have been credited to, Reg. W. Peters, director of the Queensland Acclimatiza- tion Society, Lawnton, Queensland, Australia. Mr. Peters was formerly associated with William Bateson at the John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton, Surrey, England, and took up the work in Australia last year. Mem- bers should note this correction in their copies of the August issue, in order that they may not repeat the error in making citations of Mr. Peters’ paper at any time in the future. COLLARETTE FLOWERS T. D. A. CocKERELL, Boulder, Colo. HE first collarette dahlia was ex- hibited in 1900, and placed on the market in 1901. This apparently unique variety, called President Viger, possessed the peculiarity of having supplementary lobes, of variable shape, at the base of the ray-corollas. These lobes or processes being white or nearly so, against the dark crimson back- ground of the rays, were very effective, and the variety was at once recognized as an important addition to horticul- ture. During the last fifteen years the original collarette dahlia has been crossed with numerous other varieties, giving a long list of collarettes, of various colors. It might readily be supposed that the collarette form was something abso- lutely new when it appeared in the dahlia less than twenty years ago. Experience with various compositae throws doubt on such an opinion, be- cause we find that certain variations crop out here and there in diverse but more or less related genera, at different times and places. The variations of Dahlia, Helianthus, Ratibida, etc., run so closely parallel that whatever occurs in one we begin to expect in the others, while it appears increasingly probable that the whole group has been producing the known series of variations at intervals during past ages. The “‘origin”’ of a variety, as recorded, thus has to do only with the first occasion when it chanced to be detected on coming to the surface, as it were, of the stream of heredity. The first collarette sunflower, of the chestnut and vinous forms of Helianthus annuus, was obtained in our cultures at Boulder, Colo., in 1915. Quite un- expectedly, a considerable number of plants showed this character, but the supplementary lobes were narrow and 1Arnica pedunculata is common at Boulder. very variable, not nearly as showy as in the dahlia. The essential structure was, however, quite the same. This year we have a piece of ground devoted to collarettes, and by continued breeding and selection it is probable that the type will eventually be much improved. The evidence seemed to indicate that the collarette sunflower had arisen for the first time in cultivation; but on September 24, 1915, I found a wild plant (H. annuus lenticularis) in Boulder, having genuine collarette characters. There was only one head on the plant, the last of the season, and in this two of the rays were tubular. There is apparently a connection between the variation with tubular rays and the collarette, as is especially indicated by Arnica pedunculata Rydberg! var. n. tubularis, found by my wife at Boulder, June, 1915. In this variety the ligules are tridendate: at the end, as in the typical form, but are variably tubular below, with a liguliform process on each side of the mouth of the tube. From this condition to a collarette Arnica would be no great step. The latest and in some ways most surprising collarette to be discovered is in the long-headed cone-flower, Rati- bida columnifera.2 This form (var. nov. appendiculata) was found by the writer at the base of Flagstaff Hill, Boulder, July 8, 1916. The rays possess long appendages, usually a pair, arising from the throat. Although Ratibida is so different in many respects from Helianthus, having a long conical receptacle, the pappus a rudimentary crown, and the very pecu- liar dise-bracts with a long dark crim- son spot on each side, the variations run parallel in the most astonishing way. The form with wholly or partly chest- nut red rays, parallel with the red sun- Apparently Nelson is correct in considering A, monocephala Rydb. to be a form of pedunculata, but wrong in referring them to A. fulgens. “Wooton and Standley write columnifera in place of columnaris, the former name having a year’s priority. 428 COLLARETTE SUNFLOWERS From the original lot in cultivation at Boulder. The upper one is vinous, the lower chestnut red. The first record, with this illustration, was made in the Gardeners’ Chronicle (London), November 6, 1915, p. 295. (Fig. 18.) COLLARETTE CONEFLOWERS [The coneflower (Ratibida columnifera) is common on the Western prairies; but the speci- mens here shown are the first ones ever brought to light which are characterized by a collarette. The dark-rayed head in the middle is var. pulcherrima. (Fig. 19.) Arnica peduncalala Si ABNORMAL RAYS IN COLLARETTE FLOWERS 1. Ray of the first collarette dahlia (President Viger) showing the additional lobes described in the text. 2. Ray of the collarette coneflower with long, narrow, additional lobes. 3. Arnica pedunculata var. tubularis: variation in rays, showing appendages at throat of tube. (Fig. 20.) flower, was described by DeCandolle under the name pulcherrima as early as 1836. This year Miss Hazel Andrews has found at Boulder a variety with pale yellow rays, like the ‘‘primrose’”’ sunflower, and if this is crossed with pulcherrima, the F, will certainly in- clude a vinous Rafibida. Varieties of Ratibida columnifera with twin or double heads, with short rays, with tubular rays, and with rays incised at the end, all exactly parallel variations of the Helianthus annuus group. There is no reason for ascribing all these parallel variations to “‘reversion”’ to some common ancestor possessing such characters; we must rather suppose that the genetic composition of the whole group of genera is such that these particular changes arise from time to time, without reference to the environ- ment. Whether, in any given case, they are due to original variations of the germinal substance, or are due to the cropping out of characters for which determiners have existed in the chro- mosomes for ages, may be extremely difficult to decide. Annual Meeting of the A. G. A. The next annual meeting of the American Genetic Association will be held in connection with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in New York City in the week following Christmas. It is anticipated that that week will bring together one of the largest gatherings of men of science that has ever met in the United States. Members who desire to present papers at the meeting of the American Genetic Association should notify the secretary as far in advance as possible. Papers which are suitable will be pub- lished in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY; others may be published by the authors elsewhere. Further details will be an- nounced as soon as possible. Breeding Citrous Fruits All possible combinations of citrous fruits are being made at the Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal., according to Director H. J. Webber. Among the most important are: (1) Combinations of the mandarin and the tangerine with the good varieties of the common orange to obtain large fruited varieties with the easily removable skin of tangerine and the quality of common orange. (2) Cross of tangerine and blood oranges to secure blood tan- gerines. (3) Crosses of lemon with blood oranges to secure blood lemons. (4) Crosses of blood oranges with pomelo to secure blood pomelos and the like. 431 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | DYNAMIC EVOLUTION By CASPER L. REDFIELD Price $1.50 DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is identical with the energy known in mechanics, and is governed by the same laws. $1,000 Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA- TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY- NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY for February, 1916. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK and LONDON | ff fff | ff HH 1 eh a ye Be I I I I lL LL LL LS FH The Genealogical Magazine (Established 1890) Published Quarterly—December, March, June, September Three Dollars a Year EDITORS Eben Putnam John E. Bowman, S.T.B. S. P. Sharples, S.M. George Andrews Moriarty, A.M., LL.B. Charles S. Remington their manuscript is approved, may make arrangements for its publication as matter additional to the regular issue. Se se adie desiring to have family lines printed in the magazine, if Maternal or Paternal lines showing inheritance of particular traits will be welcomed. The contents of the magazine are of general interest—historical, genealogical, antiquarian. Considerable space is devoted to printing records. Especial attention is devoted to material throwing light on the origin of American families and the migration to this country. Specimen copy, 25 cents Address: 26 Broad Street, Boston, Mass. ft I ff I on i The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 10 October, 1916 CONTENTS Portrait of Karl Pearson (frontispiece).............................. 434 Pent PREC 8 etree LLY ge at ois 2 hhh ede, Gasol Vu EO an ee, ewe 435 DMCC EI Wen LEHR Gy, he Be Sacks Rage ME ha en Bee eed ue 442 Fecundity and Stamina, by A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr..................... 443 Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with Children...................446 Increased Activity in German Eugenics............................. 146 AnApOlOmy LO sawing) over on Prot. _F., H. ~Pike, of “the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, was asked for his opinion in regard to the evolutionary origin of yawning, and has sent the following remarks, with a warning that they are partly fact and partly hypothesis. “Luciani in his Human Physiology, vol. 1, p. 438, speaks of a deep inspira- tion as a part of the general process of yawning. He regards it as the external expression of ennui, drowsiness, hunger, and the like, but it does not seem to me that the ventilation of the thorax is the primary object of yawning. On our present views of the nature of the stimulus to respiration, the ventilation of the thorax keeps pace with the chang- ing hydrogen ion content of the blood. An increase in the concentration of the hydrogen ions is accompanied by an immediate increase in the depth or rate of the respiratory movements. There is normally a deeper inspiration than usual occurring every few breaths, and it does not seem probable that there is a sufficient accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood under any ordinary conditions to require any extreme effort such as yawning would indicate if its main purpose were to ventilate the lungs. A little vigorous exercise will remove the immediate cause of yawning, but it will also result in a greater ventilation of the thorax and lungs than occurred during yawning. MUSCULAR MOVEMENTS “Vawning, in a state of nature, involves certain attendant movements and sounds that are absent in the human subject, after a course in a young ladies’ finishing school or any similar institution. The dog gives a sort of whine and stretches his other muscles, particularly those of the fore legs, as well as those of the head and jaws. I am more and more inclined to regard yawning as an expression of a state of approaching fatigue, very much analo- gous to the other stretching movements of muscles in general. It may be a sort of involuntary exercise to keep one awake until a safe place for sleeping may be found. There is always a little quickening of the faculties after a deep yawn, and this is more pronounced if there is an attendant stretching of the muscles. One might imagine that the impulse to sleep might begin to come upon an animal while still out in the open, and that, if no warning sign were present, he might lie down in the open and go to sleep in a place exposed to attack from enemies. The continued yawning may be sufficient to keep him awake until he can reach a place of safety. This particular kind of utility may be lacking in civilized man, but the whole mechanism persists un- changed. To a certain limited extent, yawning might be regarded as a vesti- gal function if regarded from this point of view alone. But I am not sure that yawning has ceased to be useful to civilized man. The onset of yawning may interrupt a process which might otherwise be carried to a harmful degree. A student begins to yawn in the evening, and, unless he resorts to some measures to overcome his drowsiness, the inter- ruption to his work is likely to become so great that he seeks relief in sleep. If he employ measures to drive away his drowsiness, such as the use of strong coffee, a walk around the block, or other similar things, he may be able to _ go on working, but he is pretty certain later on to feel, more severely than ever, the effects of fatigue, and he may suffer great injury if he persists too long in dis- regarding these warning signs of nature. 447 A WARNING FROM NATURE Yawning is commonly said to be a means of ventilating the lungs, but ventilation appears really to be a very small part of the act. It seems more likely that it is a warning of drowsiness and need of sleep. On this hypothesis it could easily be shown to be useful in natural selection. Suppose an animal traveling in the open is suddenly overcome with fatigue and the need of sleep: if he went to sleep on the spot he would be exposed to enemies and perhaps perish. The yawn warns him to look for shelter and rest, and there seems to be a slight quickening of the faculties after yawning which aids the animal to get to a place of safety. The act may still be of use to man in a similar connection, warning him when he has worked long enough and needs to seek repose. This explanation is hypothetical, as the subject has been little studied; but yawning appears at any rate to be a very primitive function, going back far beyond the mammals in the scale of evolution. Photograph from the Nursery Studio, Washington, D.C. (Fig. 5.) An Apology “T think Luciani ts right in regarding yawning as an expression of drowsiness, but I believe also that too much emphasis has been placed on the factor of ventilation of the lungs. Asa matter of fact, if one yawns widely, there is a total cessation of the movements of the thorax and diaphragm during the period when the mouth is most widely open. This I attribute to the stimulation of the endings of the glossopharyngeal nerve in the pharynx and uvula by the stretching of these portions of the alimentary tract at that time. It is well known that stimulation of the glosso- pharyngeal nerve will stop all respira- tory movements immediately. Such a cessation normally occurs during swallowing. At the moment anything touches the uvula, respiration ceases immediately. One can feel the stretch- ing of the pillars of the fauces and of the pharynx and uvula, or, more correctly, the part of the soft palate immediately to each side of the uvula, when the mouth is widely open in yawning.”’ Not only is yawning a very primi- tive adaption (if, indeed, it be an adapta- tion) but it appears to go back to a remote stage of evolution, perhaps far below the age of mammals. On this point Dr. Pike remarks: “In thinking over the matter super- ficially it appears that the primitive respiratory neuro-muscular mechanism is the part particularly concerned. In for Yawning 449 fishes, the respiratory system involves the musculature of the mouth and possibly of the pharynx, and the, nerves concerned are the fifth, seventh, ninth, tenth and twelfth cranial. The diaphragm and the phrenic nerve have not yet made their appearance, and the intercostal nerves and muscles are not concerned in the respiratory move- ments. That is what I mean by the primitive neuro-muscular respiratory mechanism. The muscles of the face and pharynx are involved in yawning, and the fifth, ninth, tenth and twelfth cranial nerves are also involved. I do not know where in the animal scale yawning first appears, but I should imagine that we might expect it in all the mammals, and possibly in some of the poikilothermal forms. It seems to be present in birds. In some respects, it approaches the type of respiration that is seen in cases of approaching death. In such circumstances, we have again the participation of the primitive neuro-muscular respiratory mechanism. The mouth is opened widely, often with a quivering or un- steady movement, and the thorax does not participate to the same extent as in normal respiration. The movements of the thorax may persist, altered in rhythm, to be sure, but nevertheless present, during yawning. I think that this is further evidence of the fact that yawning is related to the primitive mechanism.” Why Do Women Become Mothers? “The facts, shorn of sentiment,” says Mrs. Leta S. Hollingworth in the July Am. Journ. Sociology, ‘are: (1) The bearing and rearing of children is neces- sary for tribal or national existence and agerandizement. (2) The bearing and rearing of children is painful, dangerous to life, and involves long years of exacting labor and self-sacrifice. (3) There is no verifiable evidence to show that a maternal instinct exists in women of such all-consuming strength and fervor as to impel them voluntarily to seek the pain, danger and exacting labor involved in a high birth-rate.’’ The pressure of insidious forces set at work by certain “radiant centers of social control’’ has made women bear children in the past, she thinks, but she con- siders that her sisters are now on the eve of being emancipated, and that henceforth they will bear few children, unless they get “‘adequate compensa- tion, either in money or in fame.” RELIGION AND BIRTH CONTROL NTAGONISM of the Roman Cath- olic church toward the “birth control” movement is well known. This antagonism is based on theo- logical grounds, but it has frequently bee on pointed out that the result, whether the church has the fact in mind or not, will be to give the church a slowly increasing preponderance in numbers, in any community where the popula- tion is made up in part of Catholics and in part of Protestants. The Church of Latter-Day Saints of Jesus Christ, popularly known as the Mormon church, has taken a similarly antagonistic stand on birth control. Theological objections are raised against it; but in this case what may be called the eugenic aspect, the problem of altering the relative proportions of different classes in a population, is clearly seen and acknowledged. In the July issue of the Relief Society Magazine, an official publication issued at Salt Lake City, five of the twelve elders who make up the supreme council of the organization state their views on birth control. Elder Rudger Clawson says that it is sinful to restrict the num- ber of children in a family, continuing: “Woman is so constituted that, ordinarily, she is capable of bearing, during the years of her greatest strength and physical vigor, from eight to ten children, and in exceptional cases a larger number than that. The law of her nature so ordered it, and God’s command, while it did not specify the exact number of children allotted to woman, simply implied that she should exercise the sacred power of procreation to its utmost limit.”’ Elder George F. Richards writes: “My wife has borne to me fifteen chil- dren. Anything short of this would have been less than her duty and privilege.” : The eugenic view of the subject is most clearly seen by elder Joseph F. Smith, Jr., who points out: ‘The first great commandment given 450 both to man and beast by the Creator was to be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth; and I have not learned that this commandment was ever repealed. Those who attempt to pervert the ways of the Lord, and to prevent their offspring from coming into the world in obedience to this great command, are guilty of one of the most heinous crimes in the category. There is no promise of eternal salvation and exaltation for such as they, for by their acts they prove their unworthiness for exaltation and unfitness for a kingdom where the crowning glory is the con- tinuation of the family union and eternal increase which have been promiscd to all those who obey the law of the Lord. It is just as much murder to destroy life before as it is after birth, although man- made laws may not so consider it; but there is One who does take notice and his justice and judgment is sure. “T feel only the greatest contempt for those who, because of a little worldly learning or a feeling of their own superiority over others, advocate and endeavor to control the so-called ‘lower classes’ from what they are pleased to call ‘indiscriminate breeding.’ “The old Colonial stock that one or two centuries ago laid the foundation of our great nation, is rapidly being re- placed by another people, due to the practice of this erroneous doctrine of ‘small families.’ According to statistics gathered by a leading magazine pub- lished i in New York, a year or two ago, the average number of children to a family among the descendants of the old American stock in the New Eng- land States, was only two and a frac- tion, while among the immigrants from Zuropean shores who are now coming into our land, the average family was composed of more than six. “Thus the old stock is surely being replaced by the ‘lower classes’ of a sturdier and more worthy race. Worth- ier because they have not learned, in these modern times, to disregard the Religion and great commandment given to man by our Heavenly Father. It is indeed, a case of the survival of the fittest, and it is only a matter of time before those who so strongly advocate and practice this pernicious doctrine of ‘birth con- trol’ and the limiting of the number of children in the family, will have legis- lated themselves and their kind out of this mortal existence.” It is proper to point. out that birth control is not, as the public seems to suppose, an integral part of the eugenics propaganda. Many eugenicists advo- cate it; many others oppose it. In either case, it must be regarded as a fact with which eugenics must deal. If one section of a community limits the number of births, and another section does not, it is easy to calculate how soon the latter section will supplant the former, and there are plenty of object lessons such as Mr. Smith cites, in the old colonial stock of New England A RELATIVE MATTER The eugenicist, of. course, is more interested in the quality than in the quantity of the population. The quan- tity is important only in a relative way. In opposition to Mr. Smith and other people without adequate knowledge of Some New Most of the water-liliss commonly grown in gardens are chance hybrids. The Missouri Botanical Garden has started systematic breeding work with them, on the one hand to purify some of the strains and on the other hand to produce more desirable hybrid com- binations. One Nymphaea has already been produced by four generations of Birth Control 451 biology, the eugenicist holds that there is a difference in the inherent quality of various sections of the population, and that if an inferior section multiplies much more rapidly than a superior section, the result will be very serious from the standpoint of national effi- ciency and racial progress. Precisely such a result has taken place in the United States during the past half-century. It is unquestionable that the number of births has been much limited in the economically most efficient sections of the population of the United States, and very little limited in the least efficient sections. It is also unquestionable that the spread of the birth control propaganda in the “lower classes’ is at the present time very rapid. Whether or not one approves of that spread, it is certain that the birth-rate in those classes is likely to fall, thus checking the very serious differential nature of the present birth-rate. . If, at the same time, eugenics can succeed to some extent 1n increasing the birth rate among the socially most valuable sections of the community, then the present demonstrable deteriora- tion of the American stock, as a whole, will gradually become less menacing. Water-Lilies inbreeding which bears only pink flowers, the blue having been eliminated altogether. A hybrid of a _ might- blooming and day-blooming species has been secured which has the advantage of remaining open longer than ordinary day-flowering species. It is stated that water-lilies are easily crossed, and many amateurs might work with them. Yak Increasing in Canada In 1909 the Duke of Bedford gave six yaks to the Canadian government. They are now at Banff, Alberta, and have increased to fourteen. The Cana- dians hope to make them useful as the fcundation of a breed of hardy cattle for the north, just as the American Government is planning in Alaska. The latter experiment was described in the JOURNAL OF HeReEpITY for January, 1916 (Vol. VII, p. 48), where an illustration was published. FORGOTTEN BUD VARIATIONS Early Orange Growers Found Many ‘‘Sports” but did not Recognize Their Significance—Origin of New Varieties—Great Care Needed in Propagation to Get only the Most Desirable Variations L. B. Scott Assistant Pomologist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. HE work which A. D. Shamel, of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has done in demonstrating the variations existing within standard citrus varieties has awakened practical citrus growers at least to a realization of the great individual tree differences in their own plantings and also to the surprising frequency with which bud sports occur in standard citrus varieties. The investigational work and obser- vations made by members of the staff in California, Florida, the Gulf States, Brazil and Cuba have shown that all citrus varieties in every section have this tendency to break up into a number of different strains. These strains are found occurring as whole trees, as limb sports and as individual fruit sports. It is most interesting in this connection to note that some of the old citrus pioneers of thirty years ago observed striking instances of bud variations, but unfortunately were unable to cor- relate the observations which they made or to realize that they had within their grasp a principle which has since been demonstrated by Mr. Shamel to be of vital importance to all citrus growers. Even a casual perusal of the old files of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations will show that the old horticulturists, both in Florida and California, were attempting to explain the variations which they observed. As a rule, a sporting fruit was generally explained as having been caused by cross-fertilization. An ex- ample of such an explanation is con- 452 tained in the following extract of a letter from E. H. Hart, Federal Point, Fla., February 10, 1887, addressed to Prof. H. E. Van Deman, Pomologist of the United States Department of Agri- culture: “T send you today as per enclosed shipping receipt a box of oranges setting forth the contrasts between their normal condition and after having been sub- jected to fertilization with pollen from the Navel orange. These ought to prove conclusively the effect of hybridiz- ing upon the fruit as well as the seed. You will observe not only striking modifications in shape but also in the flavor. The varieties most clearly re- sembling the Navel in habit of growth and outlines of fruit are much more readily affected except perhaps in the case of Citrus nobilis, which although the very antipodes of the Navel struc- turally as well as geographically, never- theless mixes with it more often than any. It is somewhat singular too that propinquity does not always favor the mixture as trees at a little distance are more often affected than when both kinds have been grafted onto one stock.”’ The tendency of all citrus varieties to throw Navel sports is very pronounced; the fact that Mr. Hart observed this in 1887 is interesting although his explana- tion of the cause was wrong. On March 12, 1887, J. E. Cutter, a prominent citrus grower and nursery- man, of Riverside, Cal., sent in to the Department at Washington a number of samples of orange varieties. Included in the list were two distinct lots of A NAVEL GRAPEFRUIT This variable fruit (photographed actual size) shows two great deviations from the original condition of the grapefruit. In the first place, it has Icst its seeds: in the second place it has taken on a navel, just like that of the navel orange. In the case of the grapefruit, the navel is scarcely visible from the outside. This fruit is of no particular value com- mercially, but serves graphically to illustrate the fact that extreme bud variations or “sports’’ are constantly taking place in the citrus fruits, and probably in all other culti- vated fruits. _tion to this principle. (Fig. 6.) Paper Rind St. Michael fruits borne on two separate trees. One of these lots Mr. Cutter designated as the normal Paper Rind St. Michael and the other as “‘Reverted Types.”’ In commenting on the “‘ Reverted types”’ he said: “The “Reverted Types’ of the St. Michael are from a tree which is bearing at the time the usual type of the same. A comparison of these ‘Reverted Types’ with the usual and with common oranges shows that the St. Michael, so highly prized for its splendid quality, juiciness and solidity . . . is itself a sport. Specimens are occa- It is highly necessary that horticulturists keep on the lookout for such varia‘ions, and that they propagate from the desirable, not the undesirable ones. orange industry of California is now bein The g almost made over, in some sections, by atten- sionally found which are half ‘Paper Rind’ and half ‘Reverted.’ ” On April 21, 1887, in reply to a request for further information con- cerning the St. Michael variations he wrote as follows: PAPER RIND VALENCIAS “In my former letter I used the term ‘reverted type’ [of St. Michael oranges] to indicate an orange that has sported back to the normal form, appearance and quality. These ‘reverted types’ grew on the same trees and among the usual kind of ‘paper rind’ St. Michaels. 453 STRIKING VALENCIA VARIATIONS At the left-is shown the Standard Valencia orange, a California variety which has almost a monopoly of the eastern markets in the summer. Valencia, to which the name of;Paper Rind has been given. of the last generation indicates that this particular bud sport has often occurred. At the right is a bud sport of the Evidence from orange growers This particular Valencia strain appears to be identical with the true Paper Rind St. Michael which originated as a bud variation of the St. Michael. (Fig. 7.) I therefore regard them as proof that the ‘paper rind’ St. Michael is a sport. You will remember that the ‘reverted types’ were of the thicker skin, deeper color, and looser texture of common fruit while the ‘paper rind’ is the thinnest of skin, pale and exceedingly compact and firm textured.” Mr. Cutter’s observations as to the origin of the Paper Rind St. Michael are all the more interesting in view of the fact that in the course of the fruit improvement investigations which Mr. Shamel is conducting in California, a smooth, thin skin strain of Valencia orange has been found which apparently is identical with the Paper Rind St. Michael. The finding of this strain of Valencia, and the fact that Mr. Cutter in 1887 observed a St. Michael tree the fruits of which reverted back to a larger coarser strain would seem to be almost conclusive proof that the Paper Rind St. Michael variety originated as a bud sport or bud variation. How valuable it would be if we could secure authentic information concerning all our fruit varieties. No doubt if we could $54 Photograph slightly reduced. get at the truth concerning the origin of our fruit varieties we would find that many varieties of supposedly “‘chance seedling’’ origin had in reality originated as bud variations. Mr. Cutter sent samples of the sport- ing fruits to a number of people in Florida and E. H. Hart, of Federal Point, Fla., previously referred to, ina letter on May 21, 1887, to Prof. H. E. Van Deman made the following com- ment: “Yours of the eighteenth together with Mr. Cutter’s letter and_ the Specimens of oranges were received today. Fruits like these are occasion- ally seen upon our orange trees and in general I have attributed their pecu- liariities to cross-fertilization but in a strongly marked case like that tree of Mr. Cutter’s, it must be owing either to the influences upon the condition of the tree of the injuries formerly re- ceived, or it may be an instance of bud variation. The reverting tendency may have existed in the particular bud used in working over the tree. I have an old bearing tree which has always produced Scott: Forgotten Bud Variations these varying types of oranges very abundantly and although I have not given much thought to the subject, yet the bud-variation theory seemed the easiest way of explaining the difficulty.” After discussing some other subjects he gives an instance of bud variation which has come under his own observa- tion. “The orange known here as Duroi is frequently marked with ribbed segments differing in exterior from the remainder of the affected specimen which would suggest the permanency of the reversion theory in that particular variety.” MANY VARIATIONS Other instances of bud variations were mentioned by Mr. Hart in a letter of May 9, 1888, to Prof. Van Deman: “TI would remark here that. the normal shape of Hart’s Late is oblong— often to a marked degree—but growing as they do all about among other kinds, the shape is modified by admixtures. I notice the same in the case of Early Oblong, which are often so changed in form as to be hardly recognizable.” A very careful student and a recog- nized authority on pomological matters in Florida at this time was the Rev. Lyman Phelps, of Sanford, Fla. Ina letter from him under date of May 6, 1887, to Prof. Van Deman he makes the 455 following observations concerning bud variations: “I send you three. oranges this morning by mail, two flat ones—they” are a sport of some kind from an Italian orange, not from seed but from bud. I have perhaps a hundred trees budded from a tree imported by Gen. H. S. Sanford and this particular tree has borne this shaped orange continually. It is more solid than any of the fruit on the other trees and most of the speci- mens show umbilical marks.”’ John Carville Stovin, of Winter Park, Fla., in a letter written May 20, 1887, to Prof. Van Deman, states: “The best Italian orange grown at Belair and imported by Mr. Sanford has sported into a Navel in one tree on my place.”’ These few instances have been chosen from many which might be given for the reason that the observations were made by men prominently identified with the fruit industry of their day. These observations simply add _ their support to the rapidly accumulating mass of evidence, going to show that variations have existed within standard fruit varieties in greater numbers than anyone has dreamed were possible, and also that great care has to be used in selecting budwood in order that the chance of propagating undesirable vari- ations may be eliminated. Improving the Wheat of Sweden The introduction of several new varieties of wheat is reported by H. Nilsson-Ehle in the Sveriges Utsades- forenings Tidskrift, summarized in the International Review of Agriculture. The latest productions of the Sval6of station are named Pansar and Fylgia; their yields are respectively 140 and 135 if the native Swedish wheat is taken at. 100. The work of the Sval6f station, which offers one of the most conspicuous successes in both the theory and prac- tice of plant-breeding, was described by its director in the JOURNAL OF Herepity for July, 1914 (Vol. V, No. 7). Annual Meeting of the A.G. A. The annual meeting of the American Genetic Association will be held in New York City, December 26-31, in connection with the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science. Members who wish to contribute papers to the program should communicate with the secretary as soon as possible. HEREDITY AND THE MIND Many Kinds of Logical Evidence that Mental Traits Are Inherited in the Same Way and to the Same Extent as Physical Characters—Educators Must Deal with This Fact, and not Be Misled by Dogmas of Speculative Psychology THE EDITOR some psychologists and educators, to attack the inheritance of mental traits. Of course, it is granted that some sort of a groundwork must be transmitted, but we are asked by the extremists to believe that this is little more than a clean slate on which the environment, particularly during the early years of life, writes its autograph. ‘“What is often called heredity,’’ we are told,! “‘is merely the expression of the subconscious ego, whose origin can often be traced back to early childhood, to the time when the acts of their parents and their example left their impress in the unconscious.” “Tdiosyncrasies of action, peculiari- ties, sympathies, likes and dislikes, prejudices, preformed judgments, ag- gressiveness, passivity, marked artistic ability and tendencies, temperament, these and many more traits,’’ we are informed,” ‘‘have been explained on the basis of acquired complexes. And as far as the evidence and explanations are concerned, they both seem quite valid.” “Every child,’’ we are assured,* “at the outset of his life is a little impulsive being, pushed indifferently toward good or evil according to the influences which surround him.”’ Such criticisms are a useful stimulus, but they must be given no more weight than they deserve. If it were true that heredity can deal only with the physical, and not with the mental, then eugenics would have |: IS the fashion nowadays, among ! Waldstein, L. Grenzfr. des Nerven u. Seelenlehre, Band 9 (1908), Heft 62, p. 8. Journav or Herepity, Vol. VII (1915), p. 450. * Kohs, S. C. New Light on Eugenics. %’ Bruce, H. Addington, in The Century Magazine. little excuse for existence; for its primary object is to increase the amount of ability in the race, and it depends for success on the belief that differences in ability are due to differences in heredity. But is it true? Has genetics no valid evidence that mental traits are inherited ? PROGRESS IN ANALYSIS IS SLOW It must be admitted that the analysis of the inheritance of mental traits is proceeding slowly. This is not the fault of the geneticist, but rather of the psychologist, who has not yet been able to furnish the geneticist with the description of definite traits of such a character as to make possible the ex- haustive analysis of their individual inheritance. That department of psy- chology is only now being formed. We might even admit that no in- herited ‘“‘unit character” in the mind has yet been isolated; but it would be a great mistake to assume from this admission that proof of the inheritance of mental qualities, in general, is lacking. The psychologists and educators who think so appear either to be swayed by the necessity of supporting dogmatic or metaphysical views of the mind, or else they think that resemblance between parent and offspring is the only evi- dence of inheritance that we can offer. The father dislikes cheese; the son dis- likes cheese. ‘“‘Aha, you think that is the inheritance of a dislike for cheese,”’ cries the psychologist, “but we will Das unterbewusste Ich und sein Verhaltnis zu Gesundheit und Erziehung. Quoted by Kohs, infra. The phrase is borrowed from Pascal, a fact which gives an idea of Bruce’s psychological orientation. 456 The Editor: Heredity and the Mind teach you better.’ An interesting ex- ample of this sort of teaching is furnished by Dr. Boris Sidis, lately professor of psy- chology at Harvard, whose feelings are outraged because geneticists have repre- sented that some forms of insanity are hereditary. He declaims for several pages‘ in this fashion. “The so-called scientific method of the eugenists is radically faulty, in spite of the rich display of colored plates, stained tables, glittering biological speculations, brilliant mathematical formulae and com- plicated statistical calculations. The eu- genists pile Ossa on Pelion of facts by the simple method of enumeration which Bacon and the thinkers coming after him have long ago condemned as puerile and futile. From the savage’s belief in sympa- thetic, imitative magic with its consequent superstitions, omens, and taboos down to the articles of faith and dogmas of the eugenists we find the same faulty, primi- tive thought, guided by the puerile, imbecile method of simple enumeration, and controlled by the wisdom of the logical post hoc, ergo propter hoc.” Now if resemblance between parent and offspring were, as Sidis supposes, the only evidence of inheritance of mental traits which the geneticist can produce, his case would indeed be weak. And it is perfectly true that “‘evidence”’ of this kind has sometimes been ad- vanced by geneticists who should have known better. But this is not the real evidence which genetics offers. The evidence is of numerous kinds, and several lines might be destroyed without impairing the validity of the remainder. It is impos- sible to review the whole body of evidence here, but some of the various kinds may be indicated, and samples given. The reader will then be able to form his own opinion as to whether 4Sidis, Boris, M.A., Ph.D., M.D. Neurosis and Eugenics. Vol. XXI, No. 10, pp. 587-594, New York, October, 1915. 457 the geneticists’ proofs or the mere assurances of a few psychologists like Sidis are the more weighty. 1. The analogy from breeding experi- ments. Tame rats, for instance, exhibit about as much life as a bag of meal; their offspring can be handled without a bit of trouble. The wild rat, on the other hand, is always ready to fight at the drop of the hat. Prof. W. E. Castle, of Harvard Uni- versity, writes:> “We have repeatedly mated tame female rats with wild males, the mothers being removed to isolated cages before the birth of the young. These young which had never seen or been near their father were very wild in disposition in every case. The observations of Yerkes on such rats raised by us indicates that their wildness was not quite as extreme as that of the pure wild rat but closely approached tha Who can suggest any plausible expla- nation of their conduct, save that they inherited a certain temperament from their sire? Yet the inheritance of temperament is one of the things which the psychologists most ‘view with alarm.”’ If itis proved in other animals, can we accept the psychologists’ declara- tion that it is wholly impossible in man? EVIDENCE FROM SEGREGATION 2. The segregation of mental traits. When an insane, or epileptic, or feeble- minded person mates with a normal individual, in whose family no taint is found, the offspring (generally speaking) will all be mentally sound, even though one parent is affected. On the other hand, if two people from tainted stocks marry, although neither one may Medical Review of Reviews, Dr. Sidis’ article may be good medicine for the patients of the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute, Portsmouth, N. H., but it is not good science. How little he knows of elementary biology is revealed by an allusion (p. 591) to ‘‘some miraculous germ-plasm (chromatin) with wonderful dominant ‘units’ (chromosomes).’’ A college freshman in biology would be ashamed to think that chromosomes and hereditary unit characters are the same thing. A distinguished psychologist who does not know the difference, and who writes of ‘dominant chromosomes,” is hardly a competent critic of the facts of heredity. 5 Dr. Sewall Wright called my attention to this critical evidence, and Dr. Castle furnished the details, in a letter dated August 4, 1916. He adds, ‘‘I am not satisfied that a clear statement can be made at the present time as to the inheritance in later generations. But my impression is, from handling large numbers of second generation rats, that there is little evidence of segregation and I am inclined to think that the inheritance is blending. As to the principal question which you raise whether temperament is inherited or not there is no doubt. The only question arises as to the precise manner of its inheritance.” 458 The Journal be personally defective, part of their offspring will be affected. This production of sound children from an unsound parent, in the first case, and unsound children from two apparently sound parents in the second case, 1s exactly the opposite of what we should expect if the child gets his unsoundness merely by imitation or “contagion.” The difference cannot reasonably b> explained by any differ- ence in enviro.ment or external stimuli. Heredity ofiers a satisfactory explana- tion, for some forms of feeblemindedness and epilepsy, and some of the diseases known as insanity behave as recessives and segregate in just the way mentioned. We can show abundant analogies in the inheritance of other traits in man, lower animals, and plants, that behave in exactly the same manner. So far as I am aware, no psychologist has yet come forward to ‘“‘demonstrate’’ that feeblemindedness is due to a sub- conscious complex formed in childhood, instead of to heredity, but some of them appear to be moving in that direction. No one would allege that all mental defect is due to inheritance; perhaps only a small part is, although all data now available indicate that the part isa majority. But there are many cases in which the heredity factor can hardly be denied without stultification; and if mental defects are inherited, then it is worth while investigating whether mental excellences may not be. EVIDENCE FROM TWINS -3. The persistence of like qualities regardless of difference in environment. Any parent with open eyes must see this in his own children—must see that they retained the inherited traits even when living under entirely different surroundings. But the histories of twins furnish the most graphic evidence. Galton, who collected detailed histories of thirty-five pairs of twins who were closely alike at birth, and examined their history in after years, writes,® ‘In some cases the resemblance of body and mind had continued unaltered up ® Galton, Francis. 7 Woods, Frederick Adams. 8 Op. cit., pp. 170-171. Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 167. Heredity in Royalty. of Heredity to old age, notwithstanding very dif- ferent conditions of life,’’ in other cases where some dissimilarity developed, it could be traced to the influence of an illness. Making due allowance for the influence of illness, yet “‘instances do exist of an apparently thorough simi- larity of nature, in which such differ- ence of external circumstances as may be consistent with the ordinary condi- tions of the same social rank and country do not create dissimilarity. Positive evidence, such as this, cannot be out- weighed by any amount of negative evidence.” Dr. Frederick Adams Woods has brought forward’ a piece of more exact evidence under this head. We know by many quantitative studies that, in physical heredity, the influence of the paternal grandparents and the influence of the maternal grandparents is equal; on the average one will contribute no more to the grandchildren than the other. If mental qualities are due rather to early surroundings than to actual inheritance, this equality of grandparental influence is incredible in the royal families where Woods got his material; for the grandchild has been brought up at the court of the paternal grandfather, where he ought to have got all his “‘acquirements,”’ and has per- haps never even seen his maternal grandparents, who therefore could not be expected to impress their mental peculiarities on him by “contagion.” When Woods actually measured the extent of resemblance to the two sets of grandparents, for mental and moral qualities, he found it to be the same in each case: as is inevitable if they are inherited, but as is incomprehensible if heredity is not responsible for one’s mental makeup. ENVIRONMENT IS POWERLESS 4. Persistence of unlike qualities re- gardless of sameness in the environment. This is the converse of the preceding proposition, but even more convincing. Here again, I quote Galton,* with a London, 1907. New York, 1906. The Editor: Heredity and the Mind preliminary remark about the nature of twins. There appear to be two ways in which twins are ordinarily produced. They may be the result of the simultaneous fertilization of two egg-cells, in which case they are no different from ordinary brothers, or sisters, except that they happen to be born simultaneously. On the other hand, they may be produced by a division of a single egg-cell, at an early stage in development; in such cases they are always of the same sex, and very closely alike, as one would expect from the fact that they are really halves of the same individual. In the former quotation from Galton, we dealt with the second class, the so- called identical twins, who are very much alike at birth for the good reason that they have identical heredity. We found that this heredity was not modi- fied, either in the body or in the mind, by ordinary differences of training and environment. A few of Galton’s his- tories of ordinary, non-identical twins, follow: One parent says: “They have had exactly the same nurture from their birth up to the present time; they are both perfectly healthy and strong, yet they are otherwise as dissimilar as two boys could be, physically, mentally, and in their emotional nature.”’ Another writes: “I can answer most decidedly that the twins have been perfectly dissimilar in character, habits and likeness from the moment of. their birth to the present time, although they were nursed by the same woman, went to school together, and were never separated until the age of 15.” “Very dissimilar in body and mind,”’ is the description of another parent. ‘‘The one is quiet, retiring, and slow but sure; good tempered, but disposed to be sulky when provoked—the other is quick, vivacious, forward, acquiring easily and forgetting soon; quick-tempered and chol- eric but easily forgetting and forgiving. They have been educated together and never separated.”’ Again, ‘“The two sisters are very differ- ent in ability and disposition. The one is retiring, but firm and determined; she has no taste for music or drawing. The other 459 is of an active, excitable temperament: she displays an unusual amount of quick- ness and talent, and is passionately fond of music and drawing. From infancy, they have rarely been separated even at school, and as children visiting their friends, they always were together.”’ If, in the face of such examples, the psychologist can maintain that differ- ences in mental make-up are due to different influences during childhood, and not to differences in heredity, he certainly has a colossal faith in his theories. We are not obliged to depend, under this head, for mere descriptions, but can supply accurate measurements to. ‘demonstrate our pointy site waue environment creates the mental nature, then ordinary brothers, not more than four or five years apart in age, ought to be about as closely similar to each other as identical twins are to each other; for the family influences in each case are practically the same. Thorn- dike, by careful mental tests, showed? that this is not true. The ordinary brothers come from different egg-cells, and, as we know from studies on lower animals, they do not get exactly the same inheritance from their parents; they show, therefore, considerable differ- ences in their psychic natures. Real identical twins are two halves of the same egg-cell, they halve the same heredity, and their natures are therefore much more nearly identical. Again, if the mind is molded during the ‘“‘plastic years of childhood,” chil- dren ought to become more alike, the longer they are together. Twins who were unlike at birth ought to resemble each other more closely at 14 than they did at 9, since they have been for five additional years subjected to this supposedly potent but very mystical “molding force.” Here again Thorn- dike’s exact measurements explode the fallacy. They are actually, measurably, less alike at the older age; their inborn natures are developing along predestined lines, with little regard to the identity 9 Thorndike, E. L. Measurements of Twins. Arch. of Philos., Psych., and Sci. Methods, No. 1, New York, 1905; summarized in his Educational Psychology, Vol. III, pp. 247—251,New York, 1914. Measured on a scale where 1=identity, he found that twins showed a resemblance to each other of about .75, while ordinary brothers of about the same age resembled each other to the extent of about .50 only. The resemblance was approximately the same in both physical and mental traits. 460 of their surroundings. Heredity ac- counts easily for these facts, but they cannot be squared with the idea that mental differences are the products solely of early training. THE EFFECT OF TRAINING 5. Differential rates of increase in qualities subject to much training. If the mind is formed by training, then brothers ought to be more alike in qualities which have been subject to much training, than they are in qualities which have been subject to little or no training. Thorndike’s measurements on this point show the reverse to be true. The likeness of various traits is deter- mined by heredity, and they may be most unlike in traits which have been subjected to a large and equal amount of training. Twins were found to be less alike in their ability at addition and multiplication, in which the schools had been training them for some years, than they were in their ability to mark off the A’s on a printed sheet, or to write the opposites to a list of words— feats which they had probably never before tried to do. This same proposition may be put on a broader basis.'° ‘In so far as the differences in achievement found amongst a group of men are due to the differences in the quantity and quality of training which they had had in the function in question, the provision of equal amounts of the same sort of training for all individuals in the group should act to reduce the differences.” “If the addition of equal amounts of practice does not reduce the differences found amongst men, those differences cannot well be explained to any large extent by supposing them to have been due to corresponding differences in amount of previous practice. If, that is, inequalities in achievement are not reduced by equalizing practice, they cannot well have been caused by in- equalities in previous practice. If diff- erences in opportunity cause the differ- ences men display, making opportunity more nearly equal for all by adding The Journal of Heredity equal amounts to it in each case should make the differences less. ‘The facts found are rather startling. Equalizing practice seems to increase differences. The superior man seems to have got his present superiority by his own nature rather than by superior advantages of the past, since, during a period of equal advantages for all, he increases his lead.” This point has been tested by such simple devices as mental multiplication, addition, marking A’s on a printed sheet of capitals and the like; all the contestants made some gain in efficiency, but those who were superior at the start were propor- tionately farther ahead than ever at the end. This is what the geneticist would expect, but fits very ill with the popular psychology which denies that any child is mentally limited by nature. MEASURING RESEMBLANCE 6. Direct measurement of the amount of resemblance of mental traits in brothers and sisters shows that it is on the average equal to that of physical traits. It is manifestly impossible to assume that early training, or parental behavior, or anything of the sort, can have influenced very markedly the child’s eye color, or the length of his forearm, or the ratio of the length of his head to its breadth. If we measure the amount of resemblance between two brothers in such traits, we may say very confidently that our measurement represents the influence of heredity; that the child inherits his eye color and other physical traits of that kind from his parents. The resemblance, meas- ured on a scale from 0 to 1, has been found to be about 0.5. Pearson measured the resemblance between brothers and sisters in mental traits—for example temper, conscien- tiousness, introspection, vivacity—and found it on the average to have just the same intensity—that is, about 0.5. Further measurements of this sort with other traits are needed; but if future investigations confirm Pearson’s finding that the resemblance between brothers '°The quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Thorndike’s Educational Psychology, pp. 304-305, Vol. III. The Editor: Heredity and the Mind and sisters for mental traits is the same as it is for physical traits, then we can- not help being struck by the remarkable coincidence. Or is it a coincidence? We have the measurement of a large number of traits; and as Pearson points out, any mathematician who calculates the chances that it 1s a mere coincidence, will find the odds so heavily against him that it is hardly conceivable that it is a mere coincidence. Prof. Pearson was obliged to conclude that it shows mental traits are inherited in the same way, and to the same degree as physical traits. This line of reasoning has not proved wholly acceptable to many psychologists; but none has yet been able to offer any other sensible explana- tion of the supposed coincidence. Prof. Pearson writes:!! “It has been suggested that this resemblance in the psychological char- acters is compounded of two factors, inheritance on the one hand and training and environment on the other. If so, you must admit that inheritance and environment make up the resemblance in the physical characters. Now these two sorts of resemblance being of the same intensity, either the environmental influence is the same in both.-cases or it is not. If it is the same, we are forced to the conclusion that it is insensible, for it cannot influence eye-color. If it is not the same, than it would be a most marvellous thing that with varying degrees of inheritance, some mysterious force always modifies the extent of home influence, until the resemblance of brothers and sisters is brought sensi- bly up to the same intensity! Occam’s razor!” will enable us at once to cut off such a theory. We are forced, I think literally forced, to the general conclusion that the physical and psychical charac- ters in man are inherited within broad lines in the same manner, and with the same intensity. The average home environment, the average parental in- fluence is in itself part of the heritage of the stock and not an extraneous and 4 Biometrika, Vol. III, p. 156. 461 additional factor emphasizing the re- semblance between children from the same home.”’ A paragraph from Schuster! may” appropriately be added. ‘After con- sidering the published evidence a word must be said of facts which most people may collect for themselves. They are difficult to record, but are perhaps more convincing than any quantity of sta- tistics. If one knows well several mem- bers of a family, one is bound to see in them likenesses with regard to mental traits, both large and small, which may sometimes be accounted for by example on the one hand or unconscious imita- tion on the other, but are often quite inexplicable on any other theory than heredity. It is difficult to understand how the inheritance of mental capacity can be denied by those whose eyes are open and whose minds are open too.” Broadly speaking, it is of course true that man inherits nothing more than the capacity of making mental acquire- ments. But this general capacity is made up of many separate capacities, all of these capacities are variable, and the variations are inherited. Such is the unmistakable verdict of the evi- dence. It follows, then, that the only sure way to increase the amount of mental ability in the race is by encouraging parents who have ability to produce offspring, and by discouraging parents who lack ability from producing off- spring. In this way ‘the level-- of ability—at least, potential ability— will inevitably rise with each generation. It follows, too, that attempts made by educators to create ability by education, where the inherited capacity does not exist, are doomed to failure. On the other hand, a scientific system of edu- cation which would ascertain what innate capacities the child has, and develop them as far as was desirable would probably produce a surprisingly effective result. Our conclusions as to the inheritance of all sorts of mental capacity are not 2 “William of Occam’s Razor”’ is the canon of logic which declares that it is foolish to seek for several causes of an effect, if a single cause is adequate to account for it. 13 Schuster, Edgar. Eugenics, pp. 159-160. London, 1913. 462 The Journal based on the mere presence of the same trait in parent and child. They are based on many different kinds of proof of the most critical sort, which is often ignored but has never been contro- verted by the unscientific school of educators and the speculative school of psychologists. The evidence is good as far as it goes; and one may freely admit that it does not go far enough. That it goes no farther is not the fault of the geneticist, but of the psychologist. While a small body of able men is now steadily build- ing up a Psychology of Individual Differences, some of the most brilliant members of the profession are preferring to deal with affirmations and verbal concepts rather than with facts. If a luxuriant new hypothesis seems to make of Heredity it necessary, this type of psychologist appears to feel no hesitation about cover- ing inheritance with a cloud of dust and then asserting that the concealed object never existed. It is not surprising that some educators have been misled by this sort of procedure. The geneticist objects to any con- tinuation of it. The mass of exact and critical quantitative evidence for the inheritance of mental traits is still intact. Though we cannot yet isolate particular functions of the brain and show the precise mechanism by which they are inherited, we have nevertheless ample evidence to show that they are inherited—that, in general, the basic differences of the mind are as much due to ancestry as are differences of the body. German Horse-Breeding and the War The German Genetic Association has published a large volume investigating the war’s effect on horse-breeding. A review of the industry prior to the war is given, then the effect of mobiliza- tion is described. Details are given of the part played by various breeds in the field and how well they have met expectations. The evil effects of war on the industry are analyzed and means suggested of overcoming them and keeping horse-breeding up to a high level: it is suggested, for example, that the best breeding stock should not be exposed to danger, and, on the other hand, that all stock which shows itself particularly valuable during the actual experience of war should be noted, and used as much as possible for breeding subsequently. The practical but. all- inclusive nature of the book forms a good testimonial to the usefulness of the Deutsche Gesellschaft ftir Ztich- tungskunde which could prepare and publish it in the middle of the war, as it has done. An Experiment in Sunflower seeds form an important source of oil in Russia and Th. Sazy- perow has therefore undertaken to breed a strain which will be resistant to rust and other plant diseases. He crossed Helianthus annuus with H. argophyllus and describes the first two hybrid generations in the Bulletin of Applied Botany, Petrograd, May, 1916. Rust resistance is reported to be a Mendelian recessive, inherited separ- Sunflower Breeding ately from certain forms of leaf which were thought to be important in pre- venting the development of rust. It will be recalled that Biffen found rust resistance in wheat was also an inherited character. The discovery that disease resistance in plants is an aspect of Mendelian heredity, opens up a wide field for practical and theoretical ad- vances in genetics. Mr. Sazyperow is continuing his researches. MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES Close Resemblances between Species May Be Protective, but Their Origin Is Difficult to Explain through Natural Selection A REVIEW HE theory of mimicry in butter- flies is one of the most attractive of the fascinating speculations which the early Darwinians put forward. It has long been part of the stock in trade of the text-book writer; but for a long time, too, there have been protests against the theory. R. C. Punnett, Professor of Genetics in Cambridge University, has now collected the evidence in a beautiful book, lucidly written and illustrated with colored plates.1. The work is a good example of the way in which many lines of biological investigation may be brought to a focus to throw light on a problem in evolution. “Mimicry,’’ Prof. Punnett says, “is a special branch of the study of adapta- tion. The term has sometimes been used loosely to include cases where an animal, most frequently an insect, bears a strong and often most remarkable resemblance to some feature of its inanimate surroundings. Many butter- flies with wings closed are wonderfully like dead leaves; certain spiders when at rest on a leaf look exactly like bird- droppings; ‘looper’ caterpillars simulate small twigs; the names of the ‘stick-’ and ‘leaf-’ insects are in themselves an indication of their appearance. Such cases as these, in which the creature exhibits a resemblance to some part of its natural surroundings, should be classified as cases of ‘protective resem- blance’ in contradistinction to mimicry proper. Striking examples of protec- tive resemblance are abundant, and although we possess little critical knowl- edge of the acuity of perception in birds and other insect feeders it is plausible to regard such resemblances as being of definite advantage in the struggle for existence. However, it is with mimicry and not with protective resemblance in general that we are here directly concerned, and the nature of the phe- nomenon may perhaps best be made clear by a brief account of the facts which led to the statement of the theory. ORIGIN OF THE THEORY “In the middle of the last century the distinguished naturalist, H. W. Bates, was engaged in making collec- tions in parts of the Amazonregion. He paid much attention to butterflies, in which group he discovered a remarkably interesting phenomenon. Among the species which he took were a large number belonging to the group Itho- miinae, small butterflies of peculiar appearance with long slender bodies and narrow wings bearing 1n most cases a conspicuous pattern. When Bates came to examine his catch more closely he discovered that among the many Itho- miines were a few specimens very like them in general shape, color and markings, but differing in certain ana- tomical features by which the Pierinae, or ‘whites,’ are separated from other groups. Most Pierines are very differ- ent from Ithomiines. It is the group to which our common cabbage butterfly belongs and the ground color is generally white. The shape of the body and also of the wing is in general quite distinct from what it is in the Ithomiines. Nevertheless in these particular districts certain of the species of Pierines had departed widely from what is usually 1 Mimicry in Butterflies, by Reginald Crundall Punnett, F.R.S., Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics in the University of Cambridge. University Press, Cambridge (Eng.), 1915. price 15 shillings. Pp. 188, 463 464 The Journal regarded as their ancestral pattern and had come to resemble very closely the far more abundant Ithomiines among whom they habitually flew. To use Bates’ term they ‘mimicked’ the Itho- miines, and he set to work to devise an explanation of how this could have come about. The “Origin of Species’’ had just appeared and it was natural that Bates should seek to interpret this peculiar phenomenon on the lines there laid down. How was it that these Pierines had come to depart so widely from the general form of the great bulk of their relations, and to mimic so closely in appearance species belonging to an entirely different group, while at the same time conserving the more deep-seated anatomical features of their own family? USEFULNESS OF CHANGE “If the change was to be regarded as having come about through the agency of natural selection it must clearly be of advantage to the mimicking forms; otherwise natural selection could not come into operation. What advant- age then have the Ithomiines over the majority of butterflies in those parts? They are small insects, rather flimsy in build, with comparatively weak powers of flight, and yet so conspicuously colored that they can hardly be mis- taken for anything else In spite of all this they are little subject to the attacks of such enemies as birds, and Bates attributed this to the fact that the juices of their bodies are unpalat- able. According to him their striking and conspicuous pattern is of the nature of a warning coloration, advertising their disagreeable properties to possible enemies. A bird which had once at- tempted to eat one would find it little to its taste. It would thenceforward associate the conspicuous pattern with a disagreeable flavor and in future leave such butterflies severely alone. The more conspicuous the pattern the more readily would it be noticed by the enemy, and so it would be of advantage to the Ithomiine to possess as striking a pattern as possible. Those butterflies showing a tendency to a more con- spicuous pattern would be more im- of Heredity mune to the attacks of birds and so would have a better chance of leaving progeny than those with a less con- spicuous pattern. In this way varia- tions in the direction of greater con- spicuousness would be accumulated gradually by natural selection, and so would be built up in the Ithomiine the striking warning coloration by which it advertises its disagreeable properties. Such is the first step in the making of a mimicry case—the building up through natural selection of a conspicuous pat- tern in an unpalatable species by means of which it is enabled to advertise its disagreeable properties effectively and thereby secure immunity from the at- tacks of enemies which are able to ap- preciate such advertisement. Such pat- terns and colors are said to be of a ‘warning’ nature. The existence of an unpalatable model in considerable num- bers is the first step in the production of a mimetic resemblance through the agency of natural selection. BEGINNING OF CHANGE ‘“We come back now to our Pierines which must be assumed to show the general characters and coloration of the family of whites to which they belong. Theoretically they are not specially protected by nauseous properties from enemies and hence their conspicuous white coloration renders them especially liable to attack. If, however, they could exchange their normal dress for one resembling that of the Ithomiines it is clear that they would have a chance of being mistaken for the latter and con- sequently of being left alone. More- over, in certain cases these Pierines have managed to discard their normal dress and assume that of the Ithomiines. On theoretical grounds this must clearly be of advantage to them, and being so might conceivably have risen through the action of natural selection. This indeed is what is supposed to have taken place on the theory of mimicry. Those Pierines which exhibited a variation of color in the direction of the Ithomiine ‘model’ excited distrust in the minds of would-be devourers, who had learned from experience to associate that par- ticular type of coloration with a dis- A COMMON AMERICAN CASE OF MIMICRY These two butterflies are familiar to everyone who has observed insects in the United States, and are generally regarded as offering an example of mimicry. coloring, a rich brown and black, is even more similar than their pattern. Their Below is the Monarch butterfly (Danais archippus) which is supposed to be unpalatable and shunned by birds after they have had one taste; above is the Viceroy (Limenitis archippus) belonging to a totally different family which is supposed to be edible. By mimicking the appearance of its larger and distasteful neighbor, it is supposed that the Viceroy secures protection from attacks by birds. Photographs natural size. (Fig. 8.) agreeable taste. Such Pierines would therefore have a rather better chance of surviving and of leaving offspring. Some of the offspring would exhibit the variation in a more marked degree and these again would in consequence have a yet better chance of surviving. Natural selection would encourage those varying in the direction of the Ithom1- ine model at the expense of the rest and by its continuous operation there would be built up those beautiful cases of resemblance which have excited the admiration of naturalists.”’ 465 466 Following Bates’ work in South America, Alfred Russell Wallace de- veloped the theory for the butterflies of the Indo-Malayan region, and Tri- men for those of Africa. In each in- stance abundant cases of supposed minicry were found. MULLER’S CONTRIBUTION oe We may now turn to one of the most ingenious developments of the theory of mimicry. Not long after Bates’ original memoir appeared at- tention was directed to a group of cases which could not be explained on the simple hypothesis there put forward. Many striking cases of resemblance had been adduced in which both species obviously belonged to the presumably unpalatable groups. Instances of the sort had been recorded by Bates him- self and are perhaps most plentiful in South America between species belong- ing respectively to the Ithomiinae and Heliconinae. On the theory of mimicry all the members of both of these groups must be regarded as specially protected owing to their con- spicuous coloration and distasteful prop- erties. What advantage, then, can an Ithomiine be supposed to gain by mimicking a Heliconine, or vice versa? Why should a species exchange its own bright and conspicuous warning pattern for one which is neither brighter nor more conspicuous? To Fritz Miller, the well-known correspondent of Dar- win, belongs the credit of having sug- gested a way out of the difficulty. “Miuller’s explanation turns upon the education of birds. Every year there hatch into the world fresh genera- tions of young birds, and each genera- tion has to learn afresh from experience what is pleasant to eat and what is not. They will try all things and hold fast to that which is good. They will learn to associate the gay colors of the Heliconine and the Ithomiine with an evil taste” and they will thenceforth avoid butterflies which advertise them- selves by means of these particular color combinations. But in a locality by the supporters of the mimicry theory. the supposition.” The Journal of Heredity where there are many models, each with a different pattern and color complex, each will have to be tested separately before the unpalatableness of each is realized. If, for example, a thousand young birds started their education on a population of butterflies in which there were five disagreeable species, each with a distinct warning pattern, it is clear that 1,000 of each would devote their lives to the education of these birds, or 5,000 butterflies in all. But if these five species, instead of showing five distinct warning patterns, all dis- played the same one, it is evident that the education of the birds would be accomplished at the price of but 1,000 butterfly existences instead of five. Even if one of the five species were far more abundant than the others, it would yet be to its advantage that the other four should exhibit the same warn- ing pattern. Even though the losses were distributed pro rata the more abundant species would profit to some extent. For the less abundant species the gain would, of course, be relatively greater. Theoretically, therefore, all of the five species would profit if in place of five distinct warning patterns they exhibited but a single one in com- mon. And since it is profitable to all concerned, what more natural than that it should be brought about by natural selection?” TWO TYPES OF MIMICRY There are thus two generally accepted types of mimicry—the Batesian, where one species adopts the coloration of another, and the Miullerian, where a number of species adopt a common pattern. As to the facts, there is no room for dispute, but there is much room for dispute about the explanation of the facts. Wallace pointed out that there are five necessary conditions which must and do exist in any case of mimicry: 1. That the imitative species occur in the same area and occupy the very same station as the imitated. 2“In attributing this quality to the butterflies in question I am merely stating what is held I know of scarcely any evidence either for or against Mimicry in Butterflies 2. That the imitators are always the more defenseless. 3. That the imitators are always less numerous in individuals. 4. That the imitators differ from the bulk of their allies. 5. That the imitation, however mi- nute, is external and visible only, never extending to internal characters or to such as do not effect the external appearance. It is true, Prof. Punnett says, that these conditions often hold good, but there are few if any cases where they all hold good. When the problem 1s further examined, still more difficulties are found. For instance, the butterfly is frequently captured by birds on the wing; but though two species may resemble each other closely in colora- tion their manner of flight is sometimes so different that it is hard to believe a bird would not see the difference between them. Breeding experiments offer a further objection, Prof. Punnett thinks, to the idea that the mimetic pattern has been built up by natural selection from a long series of small changes. For the patterns are found to be inherited as Mendelian units and therefore, he thinks, must have appeared by one large step instead of a number of small steps: otherwise we should recover some of the intermediate steps by cross-breeding. It is not certain, how- ever, that this argument deserves as much weight as Punnett ascribes to it. DO BIRDS DISCRIMINATE?! Distinctly more convincing is the experimental evidence on the prefer- ences of birds. For when they are given a chance to select between a mimic and a model, they sometimes choose the supposedly unpalatable one and reject the one which resembles it, but is, by hypothesis, comestible. If enough evi- dence of this sort could be accumulated, it would obviously strike at the very foundations of the mimicry hypothesis. “It is safe to say,’’ Punnett thinks, ‘“‘that a number of species of birds have been known to attack butterflies—that a few out of the number feed upon butterflies systematically—that some 467 of the most persistent bird enemies devour the presumably protected forms as freely as the unprotected—but that in a few instances there is some reason for supposing that the bird discrimi- nates. Beyond this it is unsafe to go at present.” Monkeys eat butterflies readily, and appear to be more discriminating than birds. It is not impossible that they are really responsible for the establish- ment of some species of mimicry; for Punnett shows by mathematical cal- culations that even a small percentage handicap of one species is sufficient to alter its relative numbers greatly in a comparatively small number of genera- tions. In 1850, for instance, the pep- pered moth Amphidasys betularia was common in England; at present it has been practically supplanted by a darker form, A. doubledayaria. The cause of this change is obscure; it is suggested that the darker form may be hardier. The réle of natural selection in mim1- cry is still further limited by a considera- tion of what must happen in the early stages. Ifa white butterfly is to assume the protective coloration of a dark form, it appears that a small spot of dark color (which, according to the selectionists, would be the start of the change) would give no real protection. Prof. Punnett declares, ‘‘ Till the mimic can be mistaken for the model, natural selection plays no part. . . . The part now often attributed to natural selec- tion is to put a polish on the resemblance and to keep it up to the mark by weed- ing out those which do not reach the required standard.” From these facts, and others which have not been mentioned in this review, the author holds ‘‘that there are dif- ficulties in the way of accepting the mimicry theory as an explanation of the remarkable resemblances which are often found between butterflies belonging to distinct groups. Of these difficulties two stand out beyond the rest, viz., the difficulty of finding the agent that shall exercise the appropriate powers of discrimination, and the difficulty of fitting in the theoretical process in- volving the incessant accumulation of minute variations with what is at 468 The Journal present known of the facts of heredity.” “Looked at critically in the light of what we now know about heredity and variation, the mimicry hypothesis is an unsatisfactory explanation of the way in which these remarkable resem- blances between different species of butterflies have been brought about.” PUNNETT’S EXPLANATION Punnett’s own explanation tends to bring mimicry into the field of mutation and Mendelian heredity. He suggests that the number of different inherited factors for pattern and color, in butter- flies, is quite limited, so that the same assortment may not infrequently be brought together even though the group whose members exhibited the resemblance might, owing to structural differences, be placed in different families. In support of this he cites the analogy of the rodents, where the number of different hereditary factors for coat color is small, and the same colors may be found in the rabbit, the mouse and the guinea-pig. “On this view the various color patterns found among butterflies de- pend primarily upon definite hereditary factors the number of which is by no means enormous. Many of these fac- tors are common to several or many different groups, and a similar aggre- gate of color factors, whether in an Ithomiine, a Pierid, or a_ Papilio, results in a similar color scheme.” When a case of mimicry is thus estab- lished, practically by accident, natural selection may perhaps preserve it; but natural selection in this view can re- ceive no credit for creating the mimicry, as the older naturalists thought. This explanation is of course largely hypo- thetical, and Punnett does not pretend that the evidence is sufficient to prove it. of Heredity One can hardly deny, however, that he has made out a strong case against the omnipotent adequacy of natural selection to explain mimicry in butter- flies. And the book is significant as an expression of the widespread modern objection to the allmacht, the all- sufficiency of natural selection as a factor in evolution, which marked the pre- ceding generation and which still char- acterizes many popular writers and even a large number of biologists who are working in other fields and not in touch with the developments of genetics. It was once thought that, if an adap- tation appeared to be useful to the individual, natural selection could be invoked to account for its origin. Most geneticists now want to be shown. It is clear to them that natural selec- tion might preserve a case of mimicry, but it is not clear to them that it could build up a case of mimicry, starting with merely trivial variations. Natural selection as a factor in evolu- tion is probably more firmly established today than ever before. But its place is also more sharply defined than ever before, and it is no longer universally admitted to be responsible for creating adaptations. Many biologists reached this standpoint years ago, and the attacks being made on one strong- hold after another of the extreme selectionists have been successful. The attack on the natural selection ex- planation of mimicry in_ butterflies is only one of a long series which has resulted in giving a much clearer understanding of what natural selec- tion can do and what it cannot do. For this reason, as well as for its own interest, Prof. Punnett’s book deserves wide consideration. Research in Inebriety A research foundation has been organ- ized at Hartford, Conn., under the direc- torship of Dr. T. D. Crothers, the object of which is to make a scientific study of alcoholism and inebriety. The founda- tion is to be endowed and will become a permanent institution. Appeals are to be made to physicians all over the country to furnish records and histories of cases in order that they may be classi- fied and studied for the purpose of determining the laws that govern in- ebriety outside of the direct effects of alcohol. The institution will serve a practical end as well as becoming a center for research.—Engenical News. THE JUKES IN 1915 Huge and Notorious Clan Brought to Light by Dugdale Is Now in Its Ninth Generation—Members Have Moved to Good Environments but in Many Cases No Improvement in Their Character Is Visible—In Other Cases, by Eugenic Marriages, They Have Taken Places in Respectable Society A REvIEw! York merchant? who was interested in prison reform, made a tour of the counties to study jail conditions. In one mountain county he found six blood relatives in prison for various offenses, and undertook a study of their heredity. The result was the publica- tion, in 1877, of his study of the story? of their clan, to which he gave the fictitious name of “Juke.’’ Ever since then, it has been regarded as the example par excellence of bad breeding. Its origin was commonplace enough. “Into an isolated region, now within 2 hours’ railroad journey of the nation’s metropolis, there drifted nearly a cen- tury and a half ago'a number of persons whose constitutions did not fit them for participation in a highly organized society. This region was the frontier of that day and those who went there had many of the characteristics of our western frontiersmen of a century later. Some of them were hunters, some were extreme nomads (tramps), and like practically all extreme nomads were addicted to drink; some were miners and found at this place opportunity to make a living at an occupation that requires no capital and which may be readily abandoned or resumed; some were neurasthenic, found muscular ac- tivity and persistence in work irksome, and craved stimulants to lighten the labor of even minimum activities; some were feebleminded, and had found 1The Jukes in 1915. s 1874, Richard L. Dugdale, a New By Arthur H. Estabrook of the Eugenics Record Office. that Nature makes fewer demands on intelligence than does organized society; and still more were feebly inhibited and had either already so violently offended the mores, as to flee the ‘revenge’ of society, or had found that there was less tendency to repression of their intermittent, instinctive outbreaks where the arm of organized society was not yet long enough to reach. For all of such socially inadequate this retired, well-wooded and well-watered valley. afforded a haven of refuge at a day when the system of state ‘institutions’ had been little developed. “That there should be such strains in a colony that had been founded only three or four generations before is not strange when we recall that the emigra- tion of criminals and ne’er-do-wells, among others, to this new country was assisted, in order to relieve the congested centers of Europe, of some of those whose presence was incompatible with the development of high civic ideals. It is the descendants of such people, among others, that came to the region which the Juke family made notorious. THE EARLY JUKES “Here are some of the migrants or their immediate progeny: Max, the hunter and fisher, the jolly, alcoholic, ne’er-do-well; Lem, the stealer of sheep; Lawrence, the licentious, free with his ‘gun.’ Here, too, were found Margaret and Delia, the wantons, and Bell, who Pp. 85. Published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, September, 1916. 2 Dugdale was born in Paris, of English parents, in 1841. In 1851 the family came to New York City. Dugdale acquired a competence in commercial life and then devoted himself to philanthropy. He died in 1883. 3 The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity. By R. L. Dugdale. New York and London, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1877. The book has gone through four editions. 469 470 The Journal had three children by various negroes. So some negro and, doubtless, some Indian blood became in time dis- seminated through the whole population of the valley. “The progeny of such stock showed the expected reactions to their primi- tive environment. Some proved them- selves feebleminded, grew up inedu- cable, slovenly, and inefficient, ending their lives in the poorhouse. Some became vagrants, wandering hither and thither and sometimes disappearing from view altogether. Great numbers craved drink and regarded it as the greatest good and were unable to control in any degree their use of it as long as they had money or could be trusted for it. Great numbers saw no need of regulating and, indeed, many were unable to regulate their reactions to sex impulses; so that they lived lives of grossest promiscuity in sex relations. Some showed an ugly and quarrelsome disposition. Others, like Ann Eliza, became delusional and homicidal. In- deed, assault and battery, murder, and rape are rather common, especially among the illegitimate children of Ada. ‘“Not only was much of the original stock bad, but improvement which might otherwise have occurred was prevented by constant inbreeding. The nervous weaknesses, the mental in- sufficiencies were thus brought together from both sides and mentally and morally defective offspring were ren- dered more certain. Some outbreeding there was and where it was with better stock, the progeny had better intelli- gence and emotional control and lines were founded that were able to hold a good position in organized society. “Such were the Jukes a generation or two ago, when Dugdale studied them.’’* In 1911 his original manuscript was found, giving the real names and localities of the members of the clan, and with this as a clue the Eugenics Record Office wisely started to bring the study up to date, through the agency of Arthur H. Estabrook, who had already made a somewhat similar of Heredity study of the ‘“‘Nam”’ family, another great group of cacogenics. FAMILY NOW SCATTERED The Jukes in Dugdale’s time had lived largely on the industry of cement mining in their county; shortly after- ward this was abandoned, with the introduction of Portland cement, and eventually almost the entire clan had to emigrate. Estabrook found it scattered over fourteen States, and personally visited every member whom he was able to trace. Dugdale had described 709 individuals; Estabrook brought the number to 2,820, of whom 2,094 are of Juke blood; the others represent people © who have married into that family. In their original habitat the Jukes naturally had a bad environment— which they themselves had created. They likewise had a “bad name”’ and were of such evil repute that they were handicapped in business and _ social relations. When they left the valley, they went to places where their name was unknown and carried no stigma, where they had a fresh start and no handicaps. The Eugenics Record Office sought to determine what influence forty years of these varied environ- ments had had on the old stock. Did they become useful citizens when they had a fair chance and a square deal, or did they make a new but equally bad environment wherever they went? Estabrook’s book consists mainly of a detailed description of these people, including those found by Dugdale as well as those now living. It is accompanied by extensive genealogical charts. Dr. Davenport summarizes their record as follows: ‘First, on the whole, the later de- scendants of the Jukes, in Connecticut, in New Jersey, even in Minnesota, still show the same feeblemindedness, indolence, licentiousness and dishonesty, even when not handicapped by the associations of their bad family name and despite the fact of being surrounded by better social conditions. This is because, wherever they go, they tend 4The preceding paragraphs are from a preface which C. B. Davenport contributed to the work_under review. A HOME OF THE JUKES This two-room log cabin is occupied at the present time by a member of the Juke family. Some members of the great clan are useful members of society, but entirely too many of them, living in such places as this, are a burden whom society would be much better off without. It is not sufficient to move them into a better environment, for investigation shows that to a large extent they create their own environment—a bad one—wherever they go. (Fig. 9.) to marry persons like themselves. On the other hand, the dispersion has led some of these descendants to marry into better stocks and this is improving the quality of the germ-plasm. To be sure, this better germ-plasm into which the Jukes marry will sometimes become contaminated with the determiners for mental weakness and lack of control; but children who show such defects are more apt to be placed under restraint in their matings when they belong to families of fair social standing than when they arise in cacogenic communities. It is probable that, in the long run, the cheapest way to improve a bad germ- plasm is to scatter it. I do not, how- ever, recommend this course as superior to segregation; but only as a cheap and somewhat hazardous substitute. Inthe case of the Jukes there are so many dominant traits of feeble inhibition that scattering them is like scattering fire- brands—each tends to start a fire in a new place. One may doubt the wisdom of the operation of ‘Children’s Aid Photograph from Arthur H. Estabrook. Societies’ which send much bad germ- plasm to good farming communities throughout our Middle West. It will probably have, on the whole, the same sad effects that the transportation of convicts from London to Virginia and later to Australia have had on parts of those countries. GOOD HEREDITY ESSENTIAL ““The most important conclusion that may be drawn from Dr. Estabrook’s prolonged study of the Jukes forty years later is that not merely institu- tional care, nor better community enviroment, will cause good social reactions in persons who are feeble- minded and feebly inhibited, although, on the other hand, better stimuli will secure better reactions from weak stock than will poor stimuli. There is, in- deed, no conflict betwéen environment and heredity; each is a factor in all behavior. Environment affords the stimulus; heredity determines largely the nature of the reacting substance; 471 472 The Journal the reaction, or behavior, is the resultant or product of the two. The great mistake that social agencies have made in the past is that they have over- looked the constitutional or hereditary factor of the reaction. The chief value of a detailed study of this sort lies in this: that it demonstrates again the importance of the factor of heredity.” A more detailed examination gives little encouragement to those social optimists who think that Nature cures such plagues as the Jukes by bringing them gradually to extinction. With the increase of charity, of baby-saving devices, and misguided philanthropy, bad breeding tends rather to increase. The average fecundity of the Juke women is stated to be 3.526 children or, if those who have no children are excluded, 4.025 per female. From 20 to 30% of the births have been illegitimate. Of the 2,094 Jukes enumerated, 1,258 are now living in this country. “Although many are old, the great majority are now in the prime of life and reproducing continually. The younger? generation is still in school. “The Jukes of today are to be found in all classes of society. The good citizen, prosperous and rearing a family with good moral and mental stamina, has earned his place in the community. Then there is the more numerous class, composed of steady, hard-working per- sons who toil from day to day at semi- skilled or unskilled labor and make no deep impression on the community, but rear their children as well as their limited outlook on the world will allow, endeavoring at least to raise them to the parental social level. Again, there is the scum of society represented among the Jukes. These are inefficient and indolent, unwilling or unable to take advantage of any opportunity which offers itself or is offered to them. These form the real social problem of the Jukes today. SOME USEFUL JUKES “An attempt has been made to classify the living Jukes into these three classes. 5 This evidently refers to the eighth generation, two individuals. of Heredity There are 748 Jukes over the age of 15 considered in this connection. There are, roughly speaking, seventy-six in the first class, the socially adequate; 255 individuals are doing fairly well; 323 are typical Jukes of the kind described by Dugdale, and ninety-four were unclassified, due to lack of suffi- cient information. The writer realizes that these figures mean little except to give a comparative idea of the general proportion of the three classes. As time goes on many of the younger ones classed as ‘doing poorly’ may, through added responsibility and as the result of experience, enter the second or even the first class. Those who remain, not profiting by experience, are the mentally deficient, for whom nothing can be done except to give continual oversight or custodial care.” Consanguineous marriage in the group is studied with care and the inference drawn “that cousin marriage in the lines where there is mental defect tends to reproduce that defect and intensify it; but when there is mental and moral strength in certain characters on both sides there may, in certain matings, arise offspring who are superior to either parent.” The inheritance of eroticism and pauperism are similarly studied, but the results are hardly con- clusive, in view of the difficulty of defining such traits and of separating out the environmental influences. Crim- inality is believed to be largely feeble- mindedness. It was not to be expected that this study would throw much light on the heredity of specific traits, for it was not undertaken with that view, but with a view to determine the effect of a changed environment. Estabrook divides his treatment of the latter subject into “involuntary removals” and ‘‘voluntary removals.” In describ- ing the latter, he seems to overlook the fact that those who migrate voluntarily are likely to be superior to the average, or they would not have sufficient enter- prise to migrate. A fairer test of environmental influence is involuntary The ninth generation so far includes only The: Jukes in 1915 removal, under which head he lists 118 individuals who, before the age of 21, were placed in some institution (ex- cluding jail and prison). Even here, however, it may be doubted whether the environment of a poorhouse is a particularly elevating one, most of all when the individual is grown up before being taken there. The number of children of known parentage who were placed in a really good environment while very young is not great enough to warrant any conclusions. Dr. Esta- brook’s conclusions should be taken with reserves: “The institution, then, does not permanently improve the condition of some. These react afterwards in society as their sibs do who have not been in institutions. These have not inherited and so do not possess the potential traits which others can work upon and train. On the other hand, as has been stated above, many are helped and improved by institutional care and training. These individuals have a better inheritance and set of traits to develop and their better response to the new environment is due to the possession of those traits which can be molded and shaped by proper contact with others, so that in society they become good citizens.” The inferences are reasonable, but not adequately proved by the present evidence. PUNISHMENT A FAILURE Another 118 Jukes have been in penal institutions, and as the investi- gator remarks, “‘penal servitude as a cure for crime in the Juke family seems to have been a failure, as a feeble- minded person cannot be made normal through any sort of punishment.” Under the head of ‘‘eugenic matings” we are told that ‘‘a rough classifica- tion of the 399 fertile marriages among the Jukes gives 176 eugenic matings and 223 cacogenic matings. In the opinion of the writer, who has studied the people and their offspring, 55% of the matings are detrimental to the forward progress of the Juke family, while 45% may be considered eugenic or beneficial The standard of a 473 eugenic mating has been put low, as it is desired to give everyone the benefit of the effect of environment. Had these cacogenic matings been forbidden or if offspring had been prevented by sterili- zation, it is safe to say that in the next generation less than 5% of the whole offspring would have shown undesirable traits. As it is now, with unrestricted reproduction, over half the offspring either is mentally defective or has anti-social traits.”’ It is to be supposed that Dr. Estabrook made these state- ments after careful study, but to the superficial study of the reviewer they seem too sanguine, in view of the large number of anti-social traits that are recessive. The so-called eugenic mat- ings may be of immediate benefit to the Juke family, but it is to be feared that in the long run many of them will be highly detrimental to the nation at large. Finally, as to the bill which the law- abiding citizens of the State must pay: Dugdale estimated a loss to society by the Juke family from 1800 to 1875 of $1,250,000, not including the drink bill. In the ensuing forty years Esta- brook thinks the bill has grown to $2,093,685. ‘If the drink bill is added, this total becomes $2,516,685. It is estimated that $648,000 of pension money has been paid to the Jukes. Much, if not most, of this has been spent for whisky and the rest has furnished support which in most cases would otherwise have been furnished by pauper relief.” To counterbalance this, there are the earnings of the few Jukes who have been really productive. Three indi- viduals are particularly mentioned, whose total earnings are believed to be $160,000; others have been self-support- ing but little more. On the whole, there is very little offset to the bill. In a more eugenic age, such a clan as the Jukes will be looked on by Society as an unnecessary luxury. Finally, Estabrook’s general sum- mary will be given in full, although the reviewer thinks some of the statements need qualification: “The primary aim of this work is to present the facts of the lives of the 474 Jukes. For the past 130 years they have increased from five sisters to a family which numbers 2,094 people, of whom 1,258 were living in 1915. One-half of the Jukes were and are feebleminded, mentally incapable of responding normally to the expecta- tions of society, brought up under faulty environmental conditions which they consider normal, satisfied with the fulfilment of natural passions and de- sires, and with no ambition or ideals in life. The other half, perhaps normal -mentally and emotionally, has become socially adequate or inadequate, de- pending on the chance of the individual reaching or failing to reach an environ- ment which would mold and stimulate his inherited social traits. “There have been cited just previous to this certain cases of good citizens among the Jukes. In these men and women the bad traits which have held down their brothers and sisters have become lost and they are the fountain heads of new families of socially good strain. Heredity, whether good or bad, has its complemental factor in environ- ment. The two determine the _ be- havior of the individual. The social reformer and the student of eugenics must see that, no matter what the degree of perfection to which we raise the stand- ard of the environment, the response of the individual will still depend on its constitution and the constitution must be adequate before we can attain the perfect individual, socially and eugenically. “This study demonstrates the fol- lowing: “1. Cousin-matings in defective germ- plasms are undesirable, since they produce defective offspring irrespective of the parents’ somatic make-up. “2. There is an hereditary factor in licentiousness, but there are those among the Jukes who are capable of meeting the requirements of the mores in sex matters if only great social pressure is brought to bear on them. ‘3. Pauperism is an indication of weakness, physical or mental. The Journal of Heredity “4, All of the Juke criminals were feebleminded, and the eradication of crime in defective stocks depends upon the elimination of mental deficiency. “5. Removal of Jukes from their original habitat to new regions is beneficial to the stock 7tself, as better social pressure is brought to bear on them and there is a chance of mating into better families. “6. One in four of the Jukes is improved socially by care in Children’s Institutions. “7. Penal institutions have little beneficial influence upon persons of defective mentality. THE REMEDY “The natural question which arises in the reader’s mind is, ‘What can be done to prevent the breeding of these defectives?’ Two practical solutions of this problem are apparent. One of these is the permanent custodial care of the feebleminded men and all feeble- minded women of childbearing age. The other is the sterilization of those whose germ-plasm contains the defects which society wishes to eliminate. “The first is practicable, since there are now many custodial institutions for the feebleminded and epileptic and in some of these the patients are partly self-supporting. These institutions should be increased in number and capacity to receive all the defectives now at large and who must be cared for if the program of segregation is to be fully carried out. Out of approximately 600 living feebleminded and epileptic Jukes, there are now only three in custodial care. It is estimated that at the end of fifty years the defective germ-plasm would be practically elimin- ated by the segregation of all of the 600. “Sterilization of those carrying epi- lepsy, feeblemindedness, etc., is entirely practicable. Public sentiment, how- ever, does not favor such a practice. Contrary to public belief, sterilization would interfere with the real liberty of the individual less than custodial care.”’ 6 Dr. Estabrook and Dr. Davenport have both emphasized the extreme sexual license of the Jukes, and their infection with venereal disease. Life-long segregation for both men and women is the only remedy sterilization unthinkable. These facts seem to the reviewer to make which will adequately safeguard both society and the individual Jukes. WOMEN'S EYES AND POTATO SKINS HEN a photograph of the Keys quadruplets was pub- lished in the May issue of this Journal, a number of members commented on the eye color of the girls. It had been suggested that the four children probably represented the ‘identical’? type of plural births; that is, the case where a single fertilized egg-cell splits up, at the beginning of development, and a complete individual is produced by each separate half, or quarter as the case may be. Ordinary twins are produced by the fertilization of two separate egg-cells, and they are therefore not expected to be any more alike than ordinary brothers and sisters. But identical twins or quadruplets, being in reality only one individual divided up, are expected to show the astound- ingly close similarity which is occa- sionally found in life as well as in literature. \ ELERLREEEI PEEN YL | rey vig iki way LRICRLAMLELULGe ‘ ket PELLET +, gl yi EEREEES LOLRLLi Lp FELLELP ELE ee i ROBERTA Mona If the Keys quadruplets are of this identical type, it was asked, how can it be that three of them have brown eyes, while the eyes of the fourth are very clearly blue? The difference is easily seen in Fig. 10, and is confirmed by a letter from the father, who writes that three have brown hair and eyes, while Leota is a ‘“‘a perfect blonde.’” Now we have no proof that these quadruplets are ‘identical,’ in the genetic sense. The fact that they are all of one sex, and show a considerable resemblance, causes one to think that they may be. The fact that Leota has blue eyes is not necessarily evidence that they are not merely four quarters of one original egg. Prof. R. Ruggles Gates of the University of California has pointed out, in a letter to this Journal, that the discrepancy might be explained in the way that E. M. East LLELELELEEL EEE UNO CLE ND Wit ve SEE EEL ELD i PELE LEELEL YY Apa MARY LEOTA THE KEYS QUADRUPLETS ON THEIR FIRST BIRTHDAY Leota has the distinction of blue eyes; while the three others have brown. It is suggested that, like her sisters, she may have inherited the brown pigment, but that she lost it at some time while the eyes were developing. Such a loss of an inherited factor is often seen in plants. Photograph copyrighted by F. M. Keys. (Fig. 10.) 475 THE QUADRUPLETS AND THEIR MOTHER Mrs. Keys is 35 years old and weighs about 150 pounds. She has borne four children previously. The quadruplets, until they were nine months old, had no other food than mother’s milk. This photograph, showing themat the age of one year (arranged in the same order as in Fig. 10) is copyrighted by F. M. Keys. has explained the occurrence of pota- toes with white skins. ! The tuber of the wild potato has a purple skin, but in cultivation nowa- days we find two types, one with a purple skin and the other with a white skin. The latter corresponds to albino forms of other plants; it is ight colored merely because the agent that normally pro- duces pigment is not present. East found, as a result of inquiries and of his own breeding experiments, that colored skin and white skin formed a contrasted pair of Mendelian char- acters. Color was dominant, and the white skin could appear only if color was lacking. If a colored potato and a white potato were crossed, the off- spring were all colored; on the other hand when a white-skinned variety was propagated asexually, by its tubers, it (Fig. 11.) remained white generation after genera- tion. But when a purple-skinned variety was propagated by tubers, it did not invariably remain purple, generation after generation. All of a sudden, the purple might disappear, and one or more plants would be turned up with white-skinned tubers. Propagation being asexual, this loss of color could not be due to hybridiza- tion. It is the kind of a change which goes under the name of bud-variation, and East decided that it represented the dropping out of the character “color” at some time when the vegetative cells of the potato were dividing, during its period of growth. Study of similar bud variations in other plants convinced him that the same thing was. occurring there. ie Be ee bh) |) 1 Annual report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909-10, pp. 134-140. 176 Women’s Eyes and Potato Skins Seventy-five per cent of the cases, he thought, could be explained by the hypothesis? that ‘‘There has been sim- ply the loss of a dominant character and hence the appearance of a related re- cessive Character.’” -_ This hypothesis has been accepted by most geneticists as a good explanation of the sudden change of potato skins from purple to white. And as Dr. Gates has pointed out, it can also explain the sudden change of a girl’s eyes from brown to blue; for brown and blue, in the human eye, appear to be related to each other in the same way that purple and white are in potato skins; the darker color is domin- ant and the lighter one recessive.’ Now a field of potato plants, propa- gated by tubers (“‘eyes’’) really repre- sents just so many parts of a single individual. Similarly we may assume that these gquadruplets represent just 477 so many parts of a single individual. It is not asserted that this is the case, for we have no real proof. We make the assumption for the sake of illustra- tion. If the assumption is correct, then the blue in Leota’s eyes appeared be- cause the brown dropped out, just as in one potato the white may appear be- cause (the “purple drops .outt.lhe parallel is a homely one, but it strik- ingly illustrates the fact that heredity in man follows the same laws as heredity in the lower animals, and in plants. It is introduced here merely to point out that individuals are not necessarily all alike, even if they have identical heredity, as identical twins have and as potatoes or other plants propagated asexually have. There is always the possibility of ‘“‘somatic segregation,” which produces white-skinned potatoes and might be responsible for Leota’s azure orbs. Emigration after the War Eugenicists have called attention to the problems which may be presented by immigration from Europe after the war, but an editorial in the New York Times suggests another problem which has not been foreseen. Steamship pas- senger agents are quoted as saying that there will be a great exodus from the United States when peace is declared, many aliens going home to help rebuild their native countries. It is estimated that a million may go back, and that half of these will stay back. As evi- dence of the truth of this view, they point to reservations already made for passage, by citizens of warring nations. Those who are patriotic enough to go home and take part in a period of recon- struction are likely to be a superior lot of people, and froma eugenic viewpoint the United States can ill afford per- manently to lose half a million such residents, particularly if their places * Plant World, XI (1908), pp. 77-83. are filled by undesirable immigrants who may have been unsettled by army life until they are unwilling to go back to their old occupations. The ZJimes concludes: ‘Those who look for a great many immigrants say that some will come to avoid heavy taxes, some because they are unwilling to return to European mines and mills from the armies in which they have served, and others—a host of widows and orphans—to be helped by relatives and friends here. But it is admitted that several European nations will probably prohibit emigration, and that Great Britain plans to find land for her disbanded soldiers in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Predictions that a great number will come to this country are based upon arguments and reasoning that may be sound, but in the deposits of passage money the steam- ship agents have solid facts.” ’ The father of the quadruplets writes that his wife has blue eyes, as have all her “folks.” She is, then, homozygous for blue, and the brown must have come through her husband. He states that he and his eleven brothers and sisters all have dark eyes, that they “take after my mother.” eyes as most of his family have.” “My mother’s people all have dark hair and eyes,” he continues; ‘‘my father has blue The ancestry of the quadruplets is therefore full of blue eyes, and it is certain not only that there is blue in Leota’s eyes, as is easily seen, but that there is also blue in the eyes of her three sisters, although it cannot be seen because it is overlaid with the dom- inant brown. ARE MORE BOYS BORN IN WAR TIME? war will leave a great dearth of males in Europe, but it is some- times alleged that Nature provides a compensated sex-ratio in births during and after such periods. Readers of ik IS acknowledged that the present Westermarck’s ‘History of Human Marriage’’ will remember that, in Chapter XXI, he quotes many supposed authorities to show that more boys than usual are born as a result of a ereat war or other period of hardship. The facts, if substantiated, would be of importance to eugenics, but Wester- marck’s handling of statistics is highly uncritical, and few outside of the pro- fession are able safely to weigh ques- tions of vital statistics. It is therefore of interest to have the opinion on this point of Prof. Walter F. Willcox, of Cornell University, one of the foremost American statisticians. Writing to the Syracuse Post-Standard, he said: “It is common opinion among statis- ticians that the excess of males in the total births increases during or shortly after a destructive war. American birth statistics are meager and unsatisfactory and consequently we have little Ameri- can evidence for or against the opinion. The only bit I know of is derived from Massachusetts, where the excess of male births during the five-year period of the Civil War was slightly greater than in any earlier or later period since 1850, as the following figures show: Male birtlis to Period 1,000 femal» 1851-55... 1,068 VO5O-O0 ne hint acaet 1,063 EBGIHGS ik cel ateeer ee 1,077 NSO6 710: ..:.6.019 2 gases 1,065 1871-75.. 1,068 1976-805). ob. wr tee 1,065 1881-85 6 ies 1,062 1886-90. 5... 2. fee. ® 1,058 OO. cage Be wale 1,055 TEYG-OD welsh os ce 1,057 LOOT OS aia a ae wine 1,062 L90G=1G). Fon AO ee 1,056 IQIE-—-1S 5 es ea ce 1,061 “Among European writers, von Oet- tingen wrote in 1882: ‘The more the female population in any country ex- ceeds the male as a result of any dis- turbing influence, the larger the pro- portion of males in the children born;’ and von Mayr, a better authority, wrote in 1897: ‘After wars apparently a larger proportion of male children are born.’ Finally, in Prinzing’s Medical Statistics, published in 1906, is the state- ment that ‘after wars the excess of male children is said to increase. Ditsing speaks of this as a well-known fact which has never been doubted and von Fircks shows it from the figures for Germany after the wars of 1866 and 1871.’ But Prinzing adds that the increase did not appear in France after the war of 1871. “The statistical evidence is too slight to demonstrate the existence of such an increase in the proportion of male children born after a war, but does make it possible, if not probable.” Foundation to Teach Mothercraft Nearly a million dollars is left in the will of Mrs. Lizzie Merrill Palmer, widow of former U. S. Senator Thomas W. Palmer, to found a school where girls may be taught motherhood, ac- cording to the daily press. The will provides that girls unable or unwilling to pay the cost of their board at the school shall be educated free of charge. 478 ‘“T hold profoundly,” says the will, “the conviction that the welfare of any com- munity is divinely and hence insepa- rably dependent upon the qualities of its motherhood and the spirit and character of its homes.” It is specified that the school be established in Detroit or the township of Greenfield, asuburb. Girls of ten years and upward will be admitted. EXTREMES OF HUMAN STATURE A giant and two dwarfs from a circus. Stature is made up of so many different items that it has been very difficult to analyze its inheritance. Mendelian writers are accustomed to say that cases of dwarfism in which all parts of the body are reduced proportionately (as in the two above) are a recessive to normal stature, but there are probably many dif- ferent factors involved. Hereditary differences in some of the ductless glands of the body are thought to be, in part at least, responsible for great extremes of stature. Photograph from René Bache. (Fig. 12.). | | | | | | | | | : | | | | | | | DYNAMIC EVOLUTION By CASPER L. REDFIELD Price $1.50 DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is identical with the energy known in mechanics, and is governed by the same laws. $1,000 Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA- TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY- NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY for February, 1916. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK and LONDON i 1 i i a he ee HE TH SE EE LL The Genealogical Magazine (Established 1890) Published Quarterly—December, March, June, September Three Dollars a Year EDITORS Eben Putnam John E. Bowman, S.T.B. S. P. Sharples, S.M. George Andrews Moriarty, A.M., LL.B. Charles S. Remington UBSCRIBERS desiring to have family lines printed in the magazine, if their manuscript is approved, may make arrangements for its publication as matter additional to the regular issue. Maternal or Paternal lines showing inheritance of particular traits will be welcomed. The contents of the magazine are of general interest—historical, genealogical, antiquarian. Considerable space is devoted to printing records. Especial attention is devoted to material throwing light on the origin of American families and the migration to this country. Specimen copy, 25 cents Address: 26 Broad Street, Boston, Mass. mm ee ee ee SEE | | | A i | The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Vol. VII, No. 11 November, 1916 CONTENTS The Human Machine (Review of a book by Dr. George W. Crile)... .483 Annuals Viceturoror, Cae vA Gio Ate tc srs aac oy oe Rays soe ee Se eka She 493 Improvement of California Orange Groves.......................... 493 Mules That Breed, by Orren Lloyd-Jones. = =. 4. i ies eee ees 494 EKG GEST CCEME TRA Po ep eee), ct RE Re We eee Aes ne ta oe Is the Hybrid Origin of the Loganberry a Myth?.................... 504 Heredity bh ellasmar 255 2 sen hs ase een tee cts oka, Bis 1 Oe epee aru Oe Lobed Leaves in Maize, by J. H. Kempton...................... i a DUS Mutations in) the Potato:):.. 952). 2 325 sie Geek a Oo eee ak 5 NO iamdt ard OO GE MIMES: 30 os a. oheisks Ae ek eA ee ee dll Wirntaiions rin ayyalmuts® (fies 73 tape Sa ht ees cds ee oe cba Aan 523 Hereditary Nomadism and Delinguency............................ 923 ABVEllOWs SWEeEEH=E eae fo eI so Seeds ee ss Stn et PL et EE ome 523 Coéperation in the Production of California Grapefruit............. 924 Another German Proposal to Increase the Birth Rate...............527 PMS SLAG Yi Olean AIMS ee nye tee Deter ae le a oe ee 527 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, OCTOBER 27, 1916. + A HOUSE-FLY ESCAPING FROM VENUS’ FLY TRAP The plant will catch and devour any sizable insect that comes along; but small ones, even though the leaves have closed upon them, are allowed to escape as not being worth eating, just as a fisherman throws the small fish back in the stream because it would be more trouble to clean and cook them than they are worth. The above photograph, posed and highly enlarged, hows a house-fly emerging from the interior of the leaf, by crawling between the spikes. (Frontispiece. THE HUMAN MACHINE A Mechanistic View of Life Which Conceives Man as Being Merely a Venus’ Fly-Trap Many Times Multiplied—The Kinetic System for the Transformation of Energy—Origin and Function of the Emotions A REVIEW NE school of biologists has long () looked upon all life from a “mechanistic” point of view, holding that there is nothing mystical about a living being, but that if our knowledge were sufficient we could resolve its whole life into reac- tions; we could interpret everything in terms of physics and chemistry, with no unexplainable residue, no “‘soul’’ or “vital principle’’ left over. Dr. George W. Crile, Professor of Surgery in Western Reserve University (Cleveland, Ohio) has applied this hypothesis to his study of man and has brought the researches of many years together in a substantial volume! under the title of ““‘Man—An Adaptive Mech- anism.”’ Taking his stand with ortho- dox Darwinians—one might even say, with primitive Darwinians—Dr. Crile believes that everything in the human body can be interpreted as an adapta- tion, the result of the long process of evolution and the constant struggle for survival. “The fact is,” he informs us, “that the present form of man is the result of an inconceivably long and _ tedious process of addition and subtraction, of grafting character upon character in somewhat the same haphazard fashion as in certain mountains in South America stones are thrown by the wayfarer upon a lone Indian grave. Some land securely and augment the mound, while others fall at random and roll away, the desired result being achieved, however, a memorial to the one who lies beneath the pile. If the result of man’s haphazard assemblage of organs is to some extent adequate to the needs of his present environment, it is because during the age-long processes of evolution all the fatally awkward com- binations have been eliminated by a struggle so keen that the slightest varia- tion in the length of a leaf, the strength of a limb or the color of an egg, has given the victory to a rival species.” A good many geneticists would ques- tion the truth of this statement; but the value of Dr. Crile’s book does not lie in his contributions to genetics. He does not attempt to show in any instance how a certain adaptation has arisen— indeed he seems not to realize that there is any difficulty about this; but in ex- plaining the usefulness of some struc- ture, once it has arisen, he makes out a very plausible case. “The test of utility,’ he tells us, “may be applied to internal processes as well as to external manifestations in custom and social forms of man’s peculiar mode of adaptation by nervous reactions. On this basis man’s claim to a superior place among animals depends less upon different reactions than upon a greater number of reactions as compared with the reactions of ‘lower animals.’ Ability to respond adaptively to more elements in the environment gives a larger dominion, that is all.” THE NATURE OF ‘‘MIND”’ “Mind,” the word we use to express the reactions of man’s nervous mechan- ism, “‘is no phenomenon apart and dis- tinct from other functions of the nervous system. Indeed, mind, as we i 1Man—An Adaptive Mechanism. By George W. Crile, F.A.C.S. Edited by Annette Austin, A.B. Pp. 387, price $2.50. New York, The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Avenue, 1916. The photographs of Venus’ Fly-Trap, illustrating this review, were-made for the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY by John Howard Payne from a specimen furnished by Frederick V. Coville of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 483 VENUS’ FLY-TRAP This, the most interesting of the insectivorous plants, grows only in a small area on the coast of North Carolina. Although it draws most of its nourishment from the ground and the sun, like other plants, yet it is not entirely healthy and vigorous unless it has animal food. Several of the leaves on this plant are closed, having caught insects which they are now in the process of digesting. The process of digestion usually requires two or three weeks, after which the leaves open to reject the remains, but usually are never again active. Some- times, however, the same leaf has been made to digest several insects in succession. (Fig. 1.) find it in the ‘lower walks’ of life, is not confined to animals. Many plants ex- hibit in response to external stimuli protective reflexes which are analogous to the nervous reflexes of man. Notable among these are the drooping leaves of the sensitive plant when it is lightly touched, and the movements by which the Drosera and Venus’ Fly-Trap cap- ture and digest their prey when they are excited by the touch of an insect.” ‘In other words, the complex organ- ism differs from the simple only in the number of its reacting units and their attunement. It would seem, there- fore, that the manifold reactions of man differ only in number and complexity, but not in principle, from the simple adaptive reactions of Venus’ Fly-Trap.” This plant ‘‘possesses one of the most remarkable adaptive mechanisms in nature.”’ It ‘evinces just as much 484 power of perception and discrimination as is shown by the amoeba; indeed, almost as much as is shown by many highly differentiated organisms, such as the frog, for example. The fly-trap catches flies, eats and digests them and ejects the refuse. The frog does the same, responding to the adequate stim- ulus of the sight of a fly just as the fly- trap responds to its touch. Both the frog and the fly-trap catch insects by comparable motor mechanisms. Each depends on an adequate stimulus for the excitation of the mechanism as a result of which stored energy is set free to be manifested in the fly-catching reflex. Each then digests and assimil- ates the caught insect and when hungry catches another insect. “If the reactions of the human organism be reduced to their simplest terms, probably none will be found more The Human Machine intricate than this food-catching reac- tion of Venus’ Fly-Trap and the frog. The principal difference between these three living mechanisms is rather a difference in the range of activation by environment, resulting in the frog and in man in a larger number of reactions which in turn involve more complex effector mechanisms than are possessed by the fly-trap. Each reaction of man doubtless has more component parts than each reaction of Venus’ Fly-Trap, just as a large house contains more bricks than a small house.2 The most complex machine ever invented by man looks like a grotesque monster to the savage; yet its complex movements are compounded of the two simple move- ments of translation and rotation.” THE WORKING OF THE MACHINE If we similarly try to analyze the reaction of the fly-trap, we find three distinct stages: 1. The application of an adequate stimulus from without, 7. e., the touch of a fly. 2. Conduction of this stimulus from the tip of the sensitive filament to the motor mechanism of the plant. 3. The chemical and motor end effect, involving all the acts and organs used in closing the lobes and the killing and digestion of the insect. “In the three separate stages of adequate stimulus, conduction and end effect which compose the reaction of Venus’ Fly-Trap, we find all the essen- tial factors which enter into the life activities of man. Under adequate stim- ulus, for instance, are included the 485 activating stimuli produced by heat and cold, dust, débris, microdérganisms, food, air, water, light, poisons, blows— and by certain physical and chemical changes within and without the body, to which man through ‘evolution’ has become adapted through the creation of an adaptive response. Conduction is supplied by the central and autonomic nervous systems, that is, by the organs of touch, taste, sight, smell, hearing, pain, and by the chemical receptors for the initiation of certain reactions of chemical control. End effects are found in all the vital processes of motion and emotion, muscular activity, chemical change, psychic states, growth, nutri- tion, reproduction, thought, invention, social forms, government, war, religion, business, in short, in all the activities by which man’s life is distinguished from the immobility of the rock.”’ Such is the attitude toward life of the mechanistic school. It is, of course, open to criticism, but this is not the place to criticize it. Let us rather examine the details. “As we have seen, the presence of the adequate stimulus is the first requisite for reaction. As the lobes of the fly- catching plant close only upon the arrival of the insect stimulus, so every conceivable act, thought, or function, of the human body, requires an adequate stimulus for its manifestation, that. manifestation depending absolutely upon the previous experience of the organism or of its species with that stimulus. That is, the response to any stimulus depends wholly upon the biologic necessity which led to its oe 1h) aa : POV ax ? It is well known that Venus’ Fly-Trap, the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), and other plants possessing the power of motion can be chloroformed, when their movements are stopped just as in animals. On this point Dr. Crile contributes the following note giving a ‘“‘comparison of anesthesia in plants possessing a motor mechanism and in animals:;”’ “In peripheral nerves after exposure for varying periods of time to vapors of the various fat solvent anesthetics, e. g., chloroform, ether and ethy] alcohol, there is an increase in the amount of potassium in the medullary sheaths as shown microchemically by the potassium reagent of Macallum. A similar increased amount can be demonstrated as the result of mechanical or chemicalinjury. In those plants possessing a motor mechanism, e. g., Mimosa pudica and Dionaea muscipula, after exposure to the same fat solvent anesthetics there is a marked increase in the demonstrable potassium compounds. This increase occurs in the guard cells, in the chlorophyll granules, in certain modified conducting elements, but to the greatest extent in those areas of the plant which are most active in producing motion and which upon stimulation show a considerable turgor. Lipoid substances as demonstrated by osmic acid and scarlet red have the same dis- tribution as the potassium compounds. In plants asin animals the lipoid substances which contain potassium, e. g., lecithin and cholestrin, after the application of these anesthetics become so altered in their physical constitution that the contained potassium compounds can enter into the chemical combination with the reagent applied.” (‘7 “3tq) “uojayays stty nq surewior Sury}OU 10}¥] SYBOM MJ v ‘ATU UNY ud pue asdejjoo uostid ayy Jo septs oy} usyy ‘apisur Ayfeonuvsy Surzznq pivay aq urs UWITYOIA 9Y} oTTYM 8 JOT “PMY 9Atjsosrp vB ayasoas 0} uTsaq puv asojo Ajo} vIpawUUT Feat VY} JO SaqoT OM oY} “WoosuT sulMeio e Aq auop oq 4Y8rur se ‘uOTssadons yormb ut som} Ajo}Borap payonoy st 41 Jt ng ,,SUMETe as[ey,, Uo ABIouS SurjseM ysurese poqoo}01d yur[d oy} st Ay[njores Os—AjIAT}OR OU sasned ssou “WAY JYSII oY} JO YON} a[suIs B UBAD puy ‘aATS pynom dorpures @ se yons yono} 4481] e soop Joyj}ou +4[Nsoi ou ssonpoid Aqyensn ‘yorys Suypey e Aq apelu oq JYstuI se Yons ‘asay} Jo yono, Aavay y ‘ydessojoyd ay} ut afqista jou ‘syuoure[y 10 SIBY 9}BOT[OP INOF 10 aa1y} ae YoRa Jo sovVJIMs JoUUT ay UC dVUL-ATH AHL AO SAAVAT The Human Machine evolution. The response to a sharp blow by pain and retreat from the offending point; the response to an insect-like tickle by the desire to scratch; the response to a soft, caressing contact by pleasure and approach, are all specific to the species and the self- protective necessities as a result of which they were evolved in the or- ganism. Similarly, the more obscure and delicate responses of thought and sentiment, of ‘study,’ ‘invention,’ ‘am- bition,’ ‘industry,’ ‘joy,’ ‘sadness,’ aemorse, are, call dependent. upon: specific stimuli in the environment and are specific to one or another of the biologic purposes of self-preservation, nutrition or procreation.”’ THE USE OF TICKLISHNESS Some of these reactions to stimuli may have been of use once but are of little value under the conditions of modern civilization; “for just as the organism is slow in evolving adaptations to newly developed factors in the en- vironment, it is slow in discarding adaptations to an older environment, even such as may be a hindrance to life under present conditions. Such a relic of prehistoric peril is the tickle reflex. It is more strange than appears at first glance that the tickle reflex can be excited only in certain parts of the body, by but two types of tactile impression, and that it is invariably accompanied by a self-protective reac- tion. One type of the tickle reflex is elicited by a light running motion on the surface of the skin, which produces a sensation like that produced by a crawling insect, with an irresistible desire to scratch or rub the affected part. A sharpimpact causes pain, but if the adequate stimulus of contact which simulates the crawling of an insect be applied again and again in the same spot, it will cause each time the same tickling sensation. This re- flex was undoubtedly developed at a time when insects were a great menace to life, and when only those individuals who evolved an effective defense were able to prevail. It may even supply an explanation of man’s loss of hair in the upward march, since the presence 487 of hair would provide ambush for the insect enemy, and its loss, together with the evolution of the tickle sensation, would greatly facilitate defense.”’ “A second type of tickle reflex is elicited by heavy penetrating pressure in the region of the ribs, the loins, the base of the neck and the soles of the feet—the pressure simulating the pene- trating contact of a tooth-shaped body. The reaction in this case is a violent dis- charge of energy in the form of laughter with cries for mercy and frantic muscu- lar efforts to be free if the stimulus be continued. If one were tied hand and foot and were vigorously tickled for an hour, he would probably be as com- pletely exhausted as if he had run a marathon race or sustained a crushing injury; indeed, victims of torture in the Middle Ages were often killed by pro- longed tickling. “The fact that these ticklish areas are found in those parts of the body which are still and must always have been the points most frequently at- tacked by savage beasts leaves little doubt that this reaction developed at a time when man’s progenitors, like the carnivora of today, fought their enemies face to face with tooth and claw, and that this mechanism was acquired as a means of protection against valiant foes.” THREE KINDS OF REACTIONS Tears, sneezing, coughing and vomit- ing are among the other protective adaptations which Dr. Crile describes as being based on contact stimuli. There are other adaptations which are based on chemical stimuli. And finally, there is a third class of reactions, much greater in extent, which is based on the stimula- tion of what he calls “distance ceptors.” He explains: “Adaptation to environment in some species of animals, such as the oyster, is secured mainly by reactions to stimu- lation of the contact and chemical ceptors only; but in most animals there has been evolved a third method of adaptation to environment by which they are directed toward beneficial objects in their distant environment and away from those that are harmful, thus 488 The Journal securing a quicker and surer adjustment than would be possible through contact and chemical ceptors only.’’ In the third class of stimuli the animal as a whole responds, whereas responses to the contact and chemical stimuli usually involve only a part of the organism. This does not, however, change the essentially mechanical character of the occurrence. ‘‘The flight of the giant water buffalo at the sight of a lion, or the charge of the lion at the sight of its prey, is as automatic a reaction as is the withdrawal of the limb of a rabbit from the sharp prick of a thorn.’ The emotions offer good illustrations of this third class of stimuli. Fear, for exam- ple, is said by Dr. Crile to be intended to prepare the body to seek preservation by flight. ‘Striking evidence of the truth of this assumption is afforded by the fact that fear is experienced only by animals which depend for self- defense and species-preservation upon a swift locomotor reaction. The skunk, for example, whose chief means of protection is its odor; the porcupine, defended by its quills; the snake which repels its enemies by its venom; the turtle which is securely encased in its shell; the lion and the elephant secure in their superior strength—exhibit little fear, if any. On the other hand, the rabbit, the bird, the deer, the horse, the antelope, the monkey, and man—species which have ever had to struggle for their existence against stronger or swifter enemies—these are the animals which preeminently exhibit fear and an irrepressible desire to flee from danger.” The mechanism of fear is further discussed, and its effects are declared to depend largely on increased activity of the thyroid gland, the adrenals, the liver, and other glands, the secretions of which are either increased or dimin- ished. “In the light of this evidence many phenomena of fear and of other emotions may be explained. It is known, for instance, that men and animals under the stimulus of strong emotion possess an extraordinary amount of physical strength. This is explained by the fact that fear drives certain organs and inhibits others, so of Heredity that every particle of available energy is concentrated upon the fighting mech- anism. The advantage that this power must have given to prehistoric man in his struggles against superior foes in a wild environment is apparent to anyone who will allow his imagination to revert to those days of supreme physical contest. But that the tendency should persist today, in spite of the disappear- ance of most of the stimuli to active physical combat, so that, at the slightest hint of danger, man’s energies are drained, exactly as in the days of physical struggle, is one of the mis- fortunes of our insufficiently adapted state. THE EFFECT OF FEAR “So strong is the force of these ances- tral acts, so firmly established the action pattern of muscular response to fear stimulus, that now, whether a business catastrophe or an attacking enemy threaten, fear is expressed in terms of the ancestral flight to safety or fight for life which took place in the remote brute period of human history. In spite of the fact that by harnessing the forces of nature, and by social coérdina- tion, which reduces the number of motor reactions, man has progressed vastly in his methods of acquiring food and avoiding danger, his body still responds to the threatened moral or financial disaster, as if the old need for physical contest r2mained. His heart beats wildly; his respirations are quick- ened; he trembles and turns cold; his knees shake; beads of sweat stand upon his brow; he is pale and his mouth is dry; he feels faint and he may collapse. Whether the cause of fear be moral, social, financial or intellectual, the result is the same.” “As fear activates the body, so all emotions and psychic states activate the body and exhaust energy in propor- tion to the degree in which they repre- sent the physical activity attendant upon the phylogenetic forms of self- defense. As fear recapitulates the an- cestral act of flight from the enemy, so rage or anger recapitulates the act of attack and in like manner activates THE REMAINS OF A FEAST None of the leaves of the plant here pictured contained flies, but several of them held the remains of the little land crustacean commonly knownas the sow-bug. The photograph above shows an opened leaf, much enlarged, with the chitinous skeleton of its victim, from which all the meat has been dissolved. The acid secretion of the plant is almost colorless and slightly mucilaginous. The most common food of the plant, when wild, is beetles, but it will eat spiders and almost anything that comes too close to it. Obviously, however, flies, bees, etc., more frequently escape than do insects which have less power of flight. (Fig. 3.) the muscles that would be used were the physical fight made.”’ From such cases as have been cited Dr. Crile concludes that ‘‘the adaptation of man and kindred animals to environ- ment is secured by a series of physical and chemical reactions which are the outward expressions of a transformation of energy, by which the forces latent in food products that have been appro- 489 490 priated and stored in the organism are released to produce heat and motion.”’ He then undertakes to find the mechan- ism that thus transforms energy. A long series of experiments, which cannot be described here, leads to the conclusion that ‘“‘only the brain, the thyroid, the adrenals, the liver and the muscles are chiefly concerned in the transformation of energy.” ‘They merit therefore the distinction of being termed the kinetic system.” This brings him to his particular field of medicine and surgery—the field which he primarily wanted to investi- gate, for he felt that medical science was falling behind, because of its failure to adopt an evolutionary outlook. “The postulate that there is in the body a kinetic system, consisting mainly of certain organs, which are driven by the stimuli of the outer and inner environments of the body, throws light upon many problems of the medical clinic, as well as of human relations. According to this postulate, the body is a mechanism integrated and driven by the brain in response to adequate stimuli—contact, distance and chemical —arising within and without the body. The phenomena of health and disease are manifestations of the activity of this system. When the body mechanism is driven at a moderate speed by an environment to which the capacity of the body is perfectly adjusted, the result may be compared to that following the driving of any other machine by a careful and considerate master—a maxi- mum of work done, with a minimum of wear and tear on the parts. When fora short period of time or continuously the driving is at an excessive pace, there results a sudden or a gradual break- down, involving always the weakest link in the mechanism.”’ The observation that the degenerative diseases to which man is subject are not the same, in general, as those which attack woman, leads to an interesting speculation on the difference in nature of the kinetic systems of the two sexes. “The adrenals preéminently control the meckanism for increasing motor efficiency during short periods of in- creased transformation of energy. The The Journal of Heredity adrenals are the organs most heavily involved in muscular work. On the other hand, the thyroid controls the mechanism which regulates energy transformation during longer periods of increased activation. It is known that the thyroid enlarges during sustained periods of increased activity, particu- larly during infection, adolescence and pregnancy. Throughout the ages of evolution, the male has been chiefly the motor member of the family; he has been, not exclusively, but for the most part, the hunter, the fighter, the searcher for food—activities which have required increased transformation of energy dur- ing short periods of time, with propor- tionally heavy demands upon the acid- neutralizing mechanism of the body. The female, on the other hand, has borne the burden of procreation and of the lighter but more constant domestic tasks, and has been correspondingly dependent upon the mechanism for sustained physiologic efficiency, repre- sented chiefly by the thyroid. This age- long differentiation may conceivably have led to a corresponding differentia- tion in the physiologic expression of emotion, with a corresponding differ- entiation in the diseases caused by emotion. According to a striking state- ment made by Loeb, ‘Man and woman are, physiologically, different species.’”’ Dr. Crile goes on to illustrate the all-inclusiveness of the mechanistic philosophy. “Tf emotion, particularly fear, causes such far-reaching metabolic disturb- ances, why does it not produce even more baleful consequences? Indeed, why has not emotion wrecked the race? Is it because there are now certain agencies at work in society, which hold in check this harmful tendency, as immunity and phagocytosis protect the organism against bacterial menace, and as the custom of wearing clothes and building houses is a_ protection from the dangers of cold and wind and hostile strangers? Has there been evolved in man some counter-adaptation which provides a partial protection against self-destruction from the too- long-retained motor adaptation which we term ‘emotion?’ = é THE FLY-TRAP IN BLOOM The plant produces its white flowers in July and August; in the fall it loses it long-stemmed leaves (such as are shown in Fig. 1), which appear in the spring, and in their place puts forth short, broad-stemmed leaves such as are shown in the above drawing. Leaves of this form seem to be more suitable for withstanding the winter climate, but they are much less active in fly-catching than are the spring leaves. The plant can be cultivated in green- houses without much difficulty, and makes a fascinating object of study. Illustration from Crile. (Fig. 4.) 492 The Journal “In attempting to find an answer to these questions, we are led to contem- plate the fact that physical benefit is derived from those factors in life, which solace and reassure the mind, which ‘rejuvenate the spirit,’ which dispel worry, and which substitute faith and tranquillity of mind for turmoil and terror. On the principle that fear causes the dissipation and faith the conservation of potential energy, we can understand the far-reaching and abiding benefits of religion in all ages, among all peoples, throughout the whole human race, as far back as we have any record. In thus placing faith, hope and charity on the same plane with muscular ° reflexes, in their power to conserve the life of the race, we but give them their proper place in evolution as adaptations which have arisen coincidently with the need for such modifications.” THE BRAIN-MECHANISM We now return to the fly-trap for another lesson. “We know that the brain contains the mechanism that drives the body; we know that environment drives the brain and that environmental forces reach the brain through the mediation of the sense organs. But what is the mechan- ism within the brain by means of which a given stimulus causes different effects in different brains? Why will one man run away and another attack on receipt of identical stimuli? “We postulate that the adaptive reactions of the organism are executed by mechanisms, each of which, like a wireless station, awaits the arrival of the specific impulse which is to awaken it to specific response.’ In another paper he describes the brain as an organ that contains “innumerable patterns, each representing a mechanism for the per- formance of a specific act, and that the brain cells supply the energy—electric or otherwise—by which the complex act is performed, that the energy stored in the brain cells is by an un- known mechanism released by the force that passes over and activates the brain pattern; through an unknown property of these brain patterns each stimulus causes some change in the brain pattern of Heredity in passing through it so that the next stimulus passes with greater facility. This property of facilitating a stimulus increases with repetition that particular mechanism’s reception of the particular stimulus. This is the basis of educa- tion, of training, of establishment of the conventions, conduct, behavior, govern- ment—in short, the total behavior of the individual.” After describing the similarities be- tween the reaction of Venus’ Fly-Trap and a human reaction, Dr. Crile says: “In Venus’ Fly-Trap but one receptor and one effector mechanism has been evolved for but one adaptive reaction. In man many receptor and effector echanisms have been evolved for numerous reactions in response to numberless stimuli. MAN A COMPLICATED PLANT “If it were necessary for Venus’ Fly-Trap to catch its food by running, instead of by passive attraction, the plant would doubtless have evolved a mechanism codrdinating the organism for running—in other words, a brain. The difference between Venus’ Fly-Trap and man is the difference between the number of mechanisms possessed by each. A multiplication of the single action pattern of Venus’ Fly-Trap equals the mechanism of man.” Thus is man reduced to a complicated sort of fly-trap. Without going into the genetic and philosophical difficulties which this view involves, it may be said that as a working hypothesis in the field of med- ical and surgical research, the mechan- istic view is likely to be exceedingly fruitful for, as Dr. Crile points out, medicine has developed as a sort of household necessity, without any very broad biological foundation: “lacking the resources of assured scientific data or the support of codrdinated methods, it is no wonder that it is even now ina somewhat chaotic state.’’ Dr. Crile’s own contributions are noteworthy, and this review has unavoidably done him an injustice, in passing over masses of technical experiments which form the most original part of the book, and emphasizing biological principles which The Human Machine are in many cases not new, but merely used by the author as stepping stones. Dr. Crile’s own results are sufficient to prove that the mechanistic philosophy will lead to some interesting advances in physiology, surgery and medicine, even if its genetic foundations are not fully understood. And the results obtained by a great number of other investigators in the same field, while perhaps not so immediately put into practice as, for instance, Dr. Crile’s method of pre- venting surgical shock, are not less of fundamental importance. It is really astonishing that the evolu- tionary study of physiology should have 493 been confined to such a small number of workers, during the last half century, and should have made so little impres- sion on the layman, or even on the medical profession. Such books as the one under review, packed as it is with interesting facts and fascinating theories, of which only a few have been suggested here, cannot help but be of great use in stimulating that sort of study. And it is on exactly that sort of study—the study of man as a species, in relation to other species and to his own past history—that the social progress of the next century will largely depend. Annual Meeting Two general sessions of the American Genetic Association will be held in New York, December 26-30, in connec- tion with the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In addition there will be a number of meetings of each of the sections—plant-breeding, animal-breed- ing and eugenics. Members who desire to present papers should notify the of the A. G. A. secretary as soon as possible. Papers of suitable character will be published in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY, par- ticularly if they lend themselves to good illustration. As it appears that the program will be full, the length of papers will be limited to twenty minutes, unless special notice is given. Full details of the meetings will be published in the next issue of this journal. Improvement of California Orange Groves Owners of the largest orange groves in Southern California have already adopted the plan of keeping a record of the performance of each individual tree, and eliminating any trees that do not prove to be good producers, usually by top-working them with select buds. So far, however, it has not been found possible to get many of the owners of small groves to adopt this process. The California Fruit Growers’ Exchange is now planning to assist the growers in securing the record of trees in these small groves, taking advantage of the fact that small growers do not pick their own fruit, but entrust the task to the local association of the exchange, which sends out a trained gang of men to pick the fruit. It is now proposed to add to each picking crew a man whose duty will be to make a record of the production of every tree; and this report, furnished to the owner of the grove, will enable him to supplant the bad yielders with trees of a better strain, in many cases by topworking the drone or undesirable individual tree. The exchange has for several years been working on the problem of stand- ardizing the citrus pack; a cooperative and organized effort is now being made to standardize the production. MULES THAT BREED Occasional Cases Reported, Some of Them with Good Evidence—Two Recent Cases in America—Studies of Germ-Cells Indicate that Chance of Mule Breeding is Very Slight ORREN Lioyp-JONES Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa URING the three or four thous- and years in which mules have been habitually produced, there have been many _ conflicting statements of fact and theory in regard to the question of possible fertility among these animals. Numerous inci- dents and cases are on record calcu- lated to prove that mules occasionally exhibit generative powers. The affirm- ative side of the case may be opened by the French zoologist André Sanson (88), who uncompromisingly maintains (Vol. III, p. 145) the occasional fer- tility of female mules. He says “‘it does not seem inadmissible that the males of the same origin as the females which show themselves so easily fertile, would not themselves behave simi- larly,” and again “if there are fertile males, aS we are sure at present that there are fertile females . ’ Sanson’s claims are unusually broad—most writers are more conservative. N.S. Shailer (95) comments on the ‘singular fact that in only two or three cases have mules become _ fecund.”’ Cossar Ewart (’93) states that mules are generally incapable of procreation, “though some exceptions to this rule have occurred.’ Whitehead (08) in discussing the mule makes the paren- thetical remark that “‘the cross between a female mule and a stallion is known to have resulted in offspring.”’ Stories accompanied by statements of eye-witnesses, of the birth of a foal by a mule, and affidavits as to the true hybrid nature of the mother, present obvious difficulties to those who would summarily set aside the whole matter of fecund mules as a thing of myth and anecdote. At the time of publishing the book on Horses, Asses and Mule 494 ‘ Breeding in 1895, Tegetmier was a thorough disbeliever in all such cases, but in 1897, speaking of fertile mules, he mentions a case reported from Mexico and says that ‘‘this is one of the most detailed accounts of fertility in mules that has come under my notice,” and urges caution in opinionating. PREJUDICE IS STRONG Skinner (Youatt, 1854) examined very carefully the first-hand evidence in regard to the celebrated Norfolk case of a breeding female mule and proved to his own satisfaction its authenticity. He also recognized the deep-seated prejudice which people have against giving credence to fertility among mules for he naively remarks that “‘ Whatever doubt may arise hereafter, there is none now, of the truth of this case”’ (p. 432.) In this case the owner had noticed an abdominal enlargement in his female mule and had adjusted the shafts and harness to accommodate it, “but never suspected the mother’s being in foal because it was contrary to nature.” On April 23, 1834, she unexpectedly produced a colt. The mule had pre- viously pastured with a 2-year-old stallion. Subsequently on August 13, 1835, the same mule produced another colt, a female. Both colts seemed nor- mal, but died when afew months old. Mr. Gun, an English military veter- inarian in India, and apparently a faithful and efficient exponent of his profession presents (Fvzeld, September 17, 1898) in elaborate detail the events accompanying parturition in an Indian transport mule. This is indeed a case hard to refute. Two cases recently reported have come before me and I have been able to A HINNY WITH TWIN COLTS The large animal here shown is said to be the offspring of a half-blood Percheron stallion and a black Spanish jennet, and her twin foals (one of which lived only a few days) are supposed to have been sired by a gray mammoth jack. The colts would therefore be three-fourths ass and one-fourth horse. (Fig. 5.) collect some evidence on the matter, in the shape of statements and photo- graphs. One case first appeared in the No- vember issue of the American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Chicago, and again in American Farming for Feb- ruary, 1916. The facts presented below were furnished me by the owner and the veterinarian who attended the case. J..M. Bryant, of Quincy, Ind., about nine years ago bred a dark chestnut “half blood” Percheron stallion to a black Spanish jennet. The hinny thus produced is now 8 years old, 14% hands high and weighs 900 pounds. Her whole aspect is very ass-like, especially her hind parts, but Mr. Bryant says her head has more the appearance of her sire—her ears being dark chestnut color, the same as the stallion. The tail shows a good brush or switch while the ass has a “‘rat tail.”” She has never brayed like a jennet. Some have doubted her breeding until they heard her voice, which resembles more the neigh of a horse. Twice before the present case this female produced foals, but in both cases the birth was abnormal and the colts died. Dr. L. A. Ray, the veterinarian who attended the birth in question, says of these earlier foals, “They were much deformed and were unable to swallow, and one had a double head from the eyes down.”’ This “hinny’” was bred to a gray mammoth jack on July 7, 1914, and on July 11, 1915, ‘produced the pair of twins shown in the cut (Fig. 5). The twins were both females. One was 25 inches high, black with white points, and lived only 7 days. The other was 30 inches high and gray in color. Dr. Ray on February 17, 1916, 495 SUPPOSED CASE OF A FERTILE MULE The female is said to be out of a standard bred mare by a mammoth jack, which would make her a true mule. Bred to a black Percheron stallion, she is reported to have given birth to the colt shown, which would therefore be three-fourths horse and one-fourth ass. A better photograph of the colt is reproduced in the succeeding illustration. reports this colt as “‘very peculiar in make-up and very unthrifty.”’ x ak 2 SEEDS OF THE STRAWBERRY Part of the surface of a large, fully ripe strawberry is here shown, highly magnified. The shriveled pistils can still be seen projecting from under the seeds, except in a few cases where they have been rubbed off. As the edible ‘‘berry”’ is functionally merely a structure to carry the seeds, its size is roughly proportional to the number of seeds borne. therefore probably never be possible to breed a seedless strawberry, or even to reduce the number of seeds materially, for to do so would leave no reason for the existence of the “berry’’ and it would therefore not be formed. Photograph by John Howard Paine. (Fig. 6.) It will This table shows that practically all there. The Aroma and Gandy are the varieties grown in the South originated chief exceptions and they are grown ORIGIN OF VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES GROWN IN THE SoutTd, EXCLUSIVE OF THE STATES OF KENTUCKY, WEsT VIRGINIA, MARYLAND AND DELAWARE. Extent grown in the South. Variety % of total acreage Where originated A OmatkCeene ne a sake Eten 79 Hammond, La. JARO AAA). « 55) 6 ceo eed Reece 8 Kans. IMuSsionatnyaee eater tee oe 7 Norfolk, Va. CERIO 2s) 5 ONC ore ogee ae 2 Newport, N. J. PERCE ISTO Gee ye me ise ats 8 2 Judsonia, Ark. Ph OMlUpSOMee vee creak tel 1 Mt. Olive, N. Car. ELAM Wa yencaciece ects bees slightly Judsonia, Ark. Shr lbOUlSer ema etels eek slightly Judsonia, Ark. Mitchell eet ts wee. se slightly Judsonia, Ark. (TESTO WIA ste miereetena cea. : slightly Norfolk, Va. 15° oy Ln te slightly Mt. Olive, N. Car. Ornate nt tet tee tee Tees slightly Sarcoxie, Mo. Neuman <2 ie prirsce aot: slightly No. or So. Carolina Nick Oiimerm crac sess shghtly Dayron, Ohio. Market oy okie ere slightly Judsonia, Ark. Bureka tsi) ae res slightly Judsonia, Ark. Mellie see re.) ra eats slightly Judsonia, Ark. Champ: Clark: Sasa. seer slightly Nashville, Tenn. Bubachi.. a. Sacer oe slightly Princeton, IU. FR@HHAM sche, J nc os See ee ee slightly N. Car. Manes" Wiocs 2). Me cea slightly Harriman, Tenn. Gormeilles: 22 JSteek ek slightly Pouchatoula, La. By whom Re waCloud: F. W. Cruse. Volunteer. Volunteer. Louis Hubach. Volunteer. Louis Hubach. Louis Hubach. Volunteer. Volunteer. Volunteer. Chas. Shull. J. F. Beaver. Louis Hubach. Louis Hubach. Louis Hubach. Volunteer. J. E. Bubach. Volunteer. 540 only in the northern part. Of the lead- ing varieties originating in the South, the Missionary and the Thompson were found as seedlings and brought into cultivation. They form 8% of the total, while the Klondike and Excel- sior which are the result of definite breedingwork constitute 81% of the total. Further, certain of these varie- ties are grown extensively elsewhere. Thus the Klondike is a leading variety in California, Illinois, Maryland, and Delaware. The strawberry stands forth as one of the conspicuous examples of suc- cessful breeding and it is doubtful if any other fruit in the United States can show as remarkable a record.* The modern industry is, in fact, almost wholly the creation of modern scientific breeding. But the work is not finished. There is still room for improvement and op- portunity for the production of better varieties. The breeders of the South say, as the result of their experience, that the ideal strawberry of the future should possess the following qualities: 1. The plant should be as disease-resistant as the Aroma. 2. It should make runners as freely as the Klondike or Aroma. 3. It should be at least as productive as the most productive variety in each section. 4. It should have a perfect flower. 5. The blossoms should be as well protected from frost as the Missionary. The Journal of Heredity 6. The berries should be as uniform in size throughout the season as are the Aroma and Chesapeake in sections to which they are adapted. 7. The berry should be as uniform in shape as the Chesapeake in sections to which it is best adapted. 8. The berry should be as firm as the Klon- dike is in the South. a Pi The berry should be as solid as the Klon- ike. 10. The berry should be at least as large as the Klondike. 11. The berry should have as red a flesh as the Klondike. 12. The fruit should be as easy to pick as the Klondike, There are other characteristics that are desirable in varieties adapted to special purposes. Growers in central Florida must have a variety that ripens very early and continues to ripen through a long season as does the Mis- sionary. Canners do not like a berry having a cap as hard to remove as that of the Klondike. They do, however, desire varieties with its deep red color, and strong acid flavor. They also like a berry that retains its shape after cooking. Growers in some _ sections wish an early variety, the crop of which will ripen quickly, and be out of the way in order that they may turn to other farm work needing attention. Others wish two quick-ripening varieties, one following the other in season. ‘Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-Pigs and Rats STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN GUINEA-PIGS AND RATS, by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright. Pp. 192, 7 plates, price $2.50. Washington, D. C., Carnegie Institu- tion, 1916. Part I of this highly technical volume is an account by Dr. Castle of a trip to the home of the guinea-pig in Peru. He concludes that probably all of the differences in coat-color which fanciers now recognize appeared in South Amer- ica, where guinea-pigs have been bred for centuries as a source of meat, and observes that “‘the guinea-pig has under- gone in domestication more extensive variation in color and coat characters than has any other mammal.”’ He brought back three new races, and describes hybridization experiments with them. In Part III, Dr. Castle con- tinues his studies on selection in piebald rats, adding to the evidence for a modi- fication of the unit hooded character,and describes a case of gametic coupling in yellow rats. In Part II, Dr. Wright makes ‘‘an intensive study of the inheritance of color and of other coat characters in guinea-pigs with especial reference to graded variations,’’ in the course of which he develops a sug- gestive hypothesis to explain the physi- ological basis of the inheritance of coat color. ’Compare ‘‘The Strawberry, a Triumph of Plant Breeding,” in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY VII, p. 191, April, 1916. THE TIDE OF IMMIGRATION Indirect Results on Eugenics are Quite as Important as Direct Results— Admission of Too Much Unskilled Labor Said to be Partly Respon- sible for Fall of Birth Rate in Old American Population A REVIEW r NHERE are now in the United States some 14,000,000 foreign- born persons, together with other millions of the sons and daughters of foreigners, who although born on American soil have as yet been little assimilated to Americanism. This great body of Uitlanders, representing perhaps a fifth of our population, is not a pool to be absorbed, but the emptying in of a continuous stream, which, until the war, was steadily increasing in volume, and of which the fountain-head is so inexhaustible as to appal the imagina- tion. The character of this stream will inevitably determine to a large extent the future of the. American nation. The direct biological results, in race mixture, are important enough, although not easy to define; the indirect results, which are probably of no less importance to eugenics, are so hard to follow that some students of the problem do not even realize their existence. A few thinkers have indeed been pointing out for many years that the consequences of this immigration are much more far-reaching than we suppose. The American Genetic Association’s committee on immigration has been persistently urging! that the problem of regulating immigration should be lifted above the plane of party politics and placed in the field of statesmanship. The present war, which has temporarily almost stopped immigration, gives the nation an excellent opportunity to take stock of its affairs and adopt a rational policy for future guidance. For this purpose we need all the facts available, and Frank Julian Warne, special expert on foreign-born popula- tion of the thirteenth United States census, has done a service in publishing an account of “The Tide of Immigra- tony” Dr. Warne’s book? is not a master- piece—it shows much use of the scissors and paste-pot, and an atmosphere of special pleading. It has neither the brilliancy nor the biological viewpoint of such a work as Prof. E. A. Ross’s “The Old World in the New.” But it will be very serviceable because it is timely, because it brings together a great amount of information, and be- cause it is rich in the little details of politics which will be uninteresting five years hence, but which just now one wants very much to know. OLDER AND NEWER IMMIGRATION Dr. Warne follows the usual course by describing the immigration of the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century, most of which was from races closely allied to the Anglo-Saxon, and which strengthened the United States im- mensely. Then he tells how this stream dried up and was succeeded by a flood of Southern Italians, Slavs, Greeks and Russian Jews, and last of all by an overflow from the Eastern Mediter- ranean. A large part of the later immigration is ‘promoted; agents of 1See “First Report of the Committee on Immigration,’ American Breeders’ Magazine, Vol. iii, pp. 249-255, 1912; ‘Second Report of the Committee on Immigration,’ JOURNAL OF Herepity, Vol. v, pp. 297-300, 1914; ‘‘War, Immigration, Eugenics,’ Third Report of the Committee on Immigration, JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. vii, pp. 243-248, 1916. 2 “The Tide of Immigration,” by Frank Julian Warne. D, Appleton & Co., 1916. Pp. 388, price $2.50 net. New York, 541 542 transportation companies and others who stand to gain stir up the population of a country village in Russia or Hungary, excite the illiterate peasants by stories of great wealth to be found in the New World, take a mortgage on the farm, provide the immigrant with a ticket and start him for Ellis Island. Or else the immigration represents a floating supply of casual laborers, who drift in during a period of prosperity in America, and drift out when business depression curtails the demand for their muscle. ‘The fact is, and a startling fact it 1s, too, immigration today and in the large has become a colossal business enterprise—a huge commercial under- taking—the wholesaling of human labor for gain.” “The religious and political motives have almost wholly disappeared in favor of the economic in modern immigration.’ Naturally, such immi- gration is predominantly male. On the whole, females make up one-third of the inflow, but among some races— Greeks, Italians and Roumanians, for example—only one in five is a woman. Most of the immigrants are merely ignorant, vigorous peasants, imbued with a natural desire to make money. There is, however, a considerable ele- ment of undesirables—i on this it is element that eugenicists have fixed their attention, perhaps too exclusively, in the past. Dr. Warne charges that many of these undesirables are informed that the immigrant rush is greatest in March and April, and that they there- fore make it a point to arrive at that time, knowing the medical inspection will be so overtaxed that they will have a better chance to get by. When three or four thousand immigrants arrive in a single day, the examiners must pass them almost as rapidly as the conductor on the street car punches transfers; and it is naturally difficult to arrive at any sound judgment, as to the alien’s physical, mental, moral, and economic status and the possibility of his becoming a public charge. The Journal of Heredity The American Genetic Association has long demanded an increase of the facilities for inspection. But no in- crease would shut out all undesirables. Insanity, for example, appears among the aliens to such an extent that a large part of the inmates of State hospitals in States on the Atlantic seaboard are foreign-born.* Probably few of them were actually insane when they passed through the port of entry. Insanity, it must be remembered, is predomi- nantly a disease of old age, whereas the average alien on arrival is not old. The mental weakness appears only after he has been here some years, perhaps inevitably or perhaps because he finds his environment in, say, lower Man- hattan Island much more taxing to the brain than the simple surroundings of his farm overlooking the bay of Naples. The difficulty or impossibility of shutting out individually all the unde- sirable immigrants is so marked that many students, including Dr. Warne, have decided that the easiest and most effective solution is to put a wholesale restriction on immigration, such as is contemplated by the literacy test, which is designed not so much as a sieve, but as a measure to cut down the volume of arrivals. Such a restriction would likewise, it is claimed, diminish the social problems which the huge volume of immigration creates. With the general character of these social problems we are all familiar. Though it is true that much of America’s social progress is due to the immigrants of the past century, it is not less true that the immigrants of the last genera- tion have created some very difficult problems with their low standards of living and their inability to understand American ideals and institutions. These social difficulties, important enough, are more obvious and _ less insidious, probably less serious, than the economic difficulties which are laid toimmigration. The immigrant arrives ‘Of the total number of inmates of insane asylums of the entire U. S. of January 1, 1910, 28.8% were whites of foreign birth, and of the persons admitted to such institutions during the year 1910, 25.5% were of this class. Of the total population of the United States in 1910 the foreign-born whites constituted 14.5%.—Special report on the insane, Census of 1910 (published in 1914). The Tide of Immigration with a low standard of living. With prosperity and the example of Ameri- cans, he gradually adopts a higher standard of living; and just at that time his industry is swamped with a new flood of immigrants with lower standards, which drags down those who would otherwise rise. Such is one view of the case; others reply that, on the contrary, the influx of unskilled labor creates industries which mean more wealth and better jobs for the earlier arrivals, and for the old American stock. ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES Obviously, the ultimate effects of immigration depend largely on the question which of these views is more nearly correct. It is a question of whether the Americans and older immi- grants must directly compete for jobs with the new arrivals, or whether the new arrivals, although competing with each other, really furnish jobs for the longer-established and more skilled resi- dents of the country. Truth is doubt- less to be found on both sides, but Dr. Warne leans to the first view, and cites the Immigration Commission, among other authorities, in his support. Prof. H. P. Fairchild of Yale is quoted as follows: “It is claimed that the natives are not displaced, but are simply forced into higher occupations. Those who were formerly common laborers are now in positions of authority. While this argu- ment holds true of individuals, its fallacy when applied to groups is obvi- ous. There are not nearly enough places.of authority to receive those who are forced out from below. The intro- duction of 500 Slav laborers into a community may make a demand for a dozen or a score of Americans in higher positions, but hardly for 500. Further- more, in so far as this process does actually take place, it must result in a lowering of the native birth rate, for it is a well-known fact that in all modern societies, the higher the social class, the smaller is the average family.” Prof. Jeremiah W. Jenks, formerly a member of the Immigration Commis- 543 sion, wrote to President Taft that ‘“The number of unskilled workers coming in at the present time is sufficient to check decidedly the normal tendency toward an improved standard of living in many lines of industry. Figures col- lected by the Immigration Commission, from a sufficient number of industries in different sections of the country to give general conclusions, prove beyond doubt that in a good many cases these incoming immigrants actually drive out into other localities and into other unskilled trades large numbers of American workingmen and workingmen of the earlier immigra- tion who do not get better positions but rather, worse ones.” With this standpoint, Dr. Warne concludes, “‘ We must consciously realize that it 1s not conducive to the success of American democracy that the native worker should be content with a stand- ard of living as low as that of the [present] immigrant. This American is more than an industrial toiler; he is a citizen; also, he is a husband and a father. His wants are naturally greater in number and these he can satisfy only through wages. He is subject to in- escapable pressure from all those social, religious, political, educational, and economic forces which are back of that constant tendency so noticeable in the United States for the standard of living of the people to increase. The wages of the native worker should be released sufficiently from the competition of the immigrant to permit that elasticity which keeps wages within promising dis- tance of the standard of living. This can be influenced in part through better gov- ernmental regulation of the volume of immigration.” INCREASING THE BIRTH RATE The conclusion is worth emphasizing because, if well founded, it has an im- portant bearing on eugenics... It is pretty well recognized now that the low birth rate among the most useful and enlightened classes is principally eco- nomic in origin, and that it is useless to try to get people to have children if they cannot afford it. Any successful 544 eugenic propaganda must, therefore, be preceded by such economic and social changes as will make it economically and socially possible for young married people to have children; and it seems probable that a restriction of the volume of unskilled labor arriving in this coun- try would be one of those changes. Dr. Warne devotes two chapters to the argument that better distribution of immigrants, which is sometimes pro- posed as a panacea, would in reality produce little result. Apparently he would hardly go even as far as President Roosevelt who said that “distribution is a palliative, notacure.’’ Then, feel- ing sure that a considerable restriction of the inflow is desirable, he takes up the discussion of how this is to be se- cured. The Immigration Commission ap- pointed by President Roosevelt in 1907 made a report to Congress on December 5, 1910, in which it declared in favor of restriction and suggested the following possible methods: 1. The exclusion of those unable to read or write in some language. 2. The reduction of the number of each race arriving each year to a certain percentage of the average of that race arriving during a given period of years. 3. The exclusion of unskilled laborers unaccompanied by wives or families. 3. The limitation of the number of immigrants arriving annually at any port. 5. Material increase in the amount of money required to be in the posses- sion of the immigrant at the port of arrival. 6. Material increase of the head tax. 7. The levying of the head tax so as to make a marked discrimination in favor of men with families. Eugenically, it is doubtful whether (3) and (7), which would tend to admit only families, would be a gain or a detri- ment to the welfare of the race. (1) and (2) have been the suggestions which have aroused the most controversy. All but one member of the commission favored (1), the literacy test, as the most feasible single method of restricting undesirable immigration and, as readers know, three attempts to enact it into a The Journal of Heredity law have been made, but have been defeated by the vetoes of President Cleveland, Taft and Wilson. The measure is now pending before Con- gress again. Dr. Warne’s enumeration of the influences for it and against it is enlightening and interesting. PREVALENCE OF ILLITERACY Records for 1914 show that “‘illit- eracy among the total number of arrivals of each race ranged all the way from 64% for the Turkish to less than 1% for the English, the Scotch, the Welsh, the Scandinavian and the Fin- nish. The Bohemian and Moravian, the German, and the Irish each had less than 5% illiterate. Races other than the Turkish, whose immigration in 1914 was more than one-third illit- erate, include the Dalmatians, Bos- nians, and Herzegovinians; Russian Ruthenians, Italians, Lithuanians, and Roumanians.”’ To bar these illiterates, Elihu Root said, would be an advantage because ‘the coming of great numbers of people who are wholly illiterate and who have to take, of course, the lowest rate of wages, whose minds are not open to the ordinary opportunities for bettering their condition, does tend to break down the American standard of wages, and to compel American workmen, whether they be born here or be a part of the 9,000,000 who have come in since the war with Spain, to compete with a standard of wages and a standard of living that they ought not to be re- quired to compete with.”’ It will, Dr. Warne admits, keep out some who ought to come in, and let in some who ought to be kept out. It is, he grants, a test of opportunity rather than of character. It is not claimed to be perfect, or to be a test of the real character of the immigrant. ‘‘The literacy test is simply and solely a restrictive test and is proposed as such. In the belief of its advocates, it will meet the situation as disclosed by the investigation of the Immigration Commission better than any other means that human ingenuity can devise. It is believed that it would exclude more of the undesirable and a less The Tide of Immigration number of the desirable immigrants than any other method of restriction. It goes to the root of the evils, which are largely economic.” TEST A MERE RESTRICTION test is not aimed primarily at illiteracy. It is not aimed at the immigrant as such. Under favorable conditions the illiteracy of the immigrant is sooner or later reme- died. It is not directed against any particular race or against aliens from any particular country. It is directed primarily against the volume of immi- gration, and is justified in the fact that the conspicuous character of large numbers of immigrants is their ina- bility to read and write. And the literacy test is aimed at the quantity of immigration primarily, and solely for the purpose of bringing it within a reasonable degree of our ability to absorb and assimilate its elements.” In spite of its three defeats, it seems likely that the literacy test as a restric- “The literacy 545 tion of immigration will again be passed by Congress this winter, that it will again be vetoed by President Wilson, and that another attempt will be made to pass it over the President’s veto. This reopening of the question offers an opportunity of which eugenicists should take advantage. Whatever their views as to the best method of restric- tion may be, they should attempt to get more widespread a realization of the eugenic implications of excessive immi- gration, not only in the bad breeding which results from the admission of a certain number of physical and men- tal undesirables; but indirectly from the economic results. If they believe that excessive immigration of unskilled labor is partly responsible for the condi- tions which make it hard for a larger part of the population to have any, or enough, children, they should keep this fact to the front. Every such effort will aid to bring nearer the social and economic readjustments which a policy of national eugenics requires. Pollination Studies on California Fruits Plum and prune pollination investiga- tions have been carried on during the past three years by Hendrickson at the California State Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Observations in 1915 on 50,000 plum and prune blossoms and on 87,000 during 1916 show definitely that all varieties of the Japanese group of plums (P. triflora) are self-sterile with the possible exception of Climax. The varieties of this group seem to cross-pollinate readily. Of the Euro- pean varieties of plums (P. domestica), Tragedy and Clyman show distinct evidences of self-sterility. French and Sugar prunes seem to be self-sterile to some extent. Robe de Sergeant and Imperial prunes are distinctly self-sterile. Imperial, French, and Sugar prunes seem to cross-pollinate satisfactorily. An important observation during the season of 1916 has been the notice- able lack of pollinating agencies in some prune orchards. The normal set of French prunes was about 4% as com- pared with 19% on a tree which was covered with a mosquito net tent under which the bees were confined. During 1916 observations on almonds by Tufts show that there is a distinct pollination problem with this fruit. Thirteen varieties, including practically all grown on a commercial scale in California, proved to be wholly self- sterile under conditions existing at the university farm. Of still greater im- portance is the fact that the Nonpareil and I. X. L., two of the leading varieties, were found to be intersterile as well as self-sterile. Ne Plus Ultra was found to be very satisfactory as an inter- pollinizer with both I. X. L. and Nonpareil. Observations during 1916 by Tufts on cherries show that the leading com- mercial varieties grown in the State, including Napoleon (Royal Ann), Lam- bert, Bing, Black Tartarian and Black Republican, are self-sterile. There is also distinct evidence of intersterility between several varieties, for example, Bing and Napoleon. The work has not yet gone far enough to determine the best pollinizers for cherries in this State.—Annual Report of Director. AN IMMIGRATION POLICY Any Plan for Restriction Must Take Account of Asia as Well as Europe— Percentage Basis the Best One for Limitation—Arrangements Must be Made to Americanize Those Who Come SIDNEY L. GULICK Representative, Commission of Relations with Japan; 105 East Twenty-second Street New York, N. Y. HE need of adequate and wise immigration and Americanization legislation is imperative. Now, while war suspends the tide of new-comers to our shores, is the time for enacting the new laws to regulate the coming of fresh aliens. No one can foretell how large or small will be the immigration from the war-ravaged countries of Europe. One factor in the problem that is generally overlooked is this: Wages in America will be high after the war and demand for cheap labor will be urgent. Immi- gration companies and steamship lines will seek for fresh sources of cheap labor to bring to America. What is to prevent them from securing hundreds of thousands from West and North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor? Present laws afford no method of control either of the numbers or of the race types that may be admitted, if only they pass the physical tests now authorized. We have reason to expect a large immigration of peoples that will prove extremely difficult of Americani- zation. We need, therefore, a comprehensive and constructive policy for the regu- lation of all immigration, a policy that is based on sound economic, eugenic, political and ethical principles, and a program worked out in detail for incor- porating that policy into practice. Such a policy, moreover, must take into consideration not merely the rela- tions of America with Europe, Africa and West Asia, but also with China, Japan and India. The world has be- come so small and travel so easy that economic pressure and opportunity are now bringing all the races into inevitable 546 contact and increasing intermixture. To avoid the disastrous consequences of such contacts and intermixtures, and to enable the United States not only to provide for her own prosperity, but also to make to the whole world her best contribution for human _ betterment, we need policies that are based upon justice and good will, no less than upon economic and eugenic considerations. The following proposals are offered as a contribution to the discussion of these important matters. The need of regulating immigration from Europe and West Asia is so well recognized that nothing further will be said upon it in this brief discussion. It is important, however, that Americans should realize that the present laws dealing with Japanese, Chinese and Hindoos are quite obsolete. They are not only obsolete; they are positively dangerous. THE NEW ORIENT New Japan has already acquired the mechanical instruments, the political, economic and industrial methods, and the science, education, ideas and ideals of occidental civilization. New China is rapidly following in the footsteps of Japan. Both are increasingly self-con- scious and insistent on courteous treat- ment and observance of treaties. They are asking, with growing earnestness, for recognition on a basis of equality with nations of the West. The great world-problem of the twentieth century is undoubtedly the problem of the contact of the East and the West. Whether it shall bring us weal or woe depends largely on the United States. Shall our oriental policy Gulick: An Immigration Policy be based on race pride, disdain and selfishness? Shall it be entirely devoid of sympathy? And shall we rely on brute force for carrying it through? Or shall we give justice, courtesy and a square deal, refusing to be stamped by ignorance, ill-founded suspicion and falsehood? Shall we ‘“‘ prepare’”’ to main- tain by our military might a policy of arrogant disregard of their needs and feelings, or shall we remove dangers of conflict by a policy of friendly con- sideration and genuine helpfulness? The new Orient renders obsolete and dangerous our nineteenth century Asi- atic policy. Let us now promptly adopt a new policy—one that will pro- vide, on the one hand, for the just demands of the Pacific Coast States to be protected from a swamping Asiatic immigration; and yet that also pro- vides on the other hand for full cour- tesy of treatment and for complete freedom from race discrimination which is inevitably regarded as humiliating. The new policy should provide for observance of the spirit no less than of the wording of our treaties, and be thus in harmony with the principles of good neighborliness. THE NEW IMMIGRATION POLICY All this means that we need compre- hensive immigration legislation dealing with the entire question in such a way as to conserve American institutions, protect American labor from dangerous economic competition, and promote intelligent and enduring friendliness between America and all the nations, east and west, because free from differential race treatment. Restriction of immigration has been widely demanded in recent years. Three times Congress has passed a literacy test immigration bill. Three times has it been vetoed. But even if it became law, would it suitably and adequately regulate immigration? Would it avail in maintaining a wholesome proportion between the aliens and the naturalized? Moreover, a literacy test law could not wisely be applied to Asiatics, for it would admit millions. Do we not now need legislation, limiting immigration on a numerical 547 basis? Should not the annual immi- gration be adapted to our economic conditions? And should not that limi- tation deal equally with all races? Should not our immigration legislation, moreover, also provide for the rapid education and Americanization of those who are admitted? Such a policy and program consti- tutes one of the pressing needs of the times. Quite as important as military ““preparedness’’ to resist attack is diplomatic and legislative ‘‘prepared- ness’’ to reduce tension and promote international friendship. The following paragraphs present in barest outlines a constructive program for comprehensive immigration legis- lation: 1. The Control of Immigration. Immigration from every land should be controlled, and, if excessive, it should be restricted. The principle of re- striction should be applied equally to every land, and thus avoid differential race treatment. 2. Americanization the Principle of Control. The proved capacity for genuine Americanization on the part of those already here from any land should be the measure for the further immigra- tion of that people. Newcomers make their first contact with America through those who speak their own language. The Americanization, therefore, of new- comers from any land depends largely on the influence of those already here from that land. The number of new- comers annually admissible from any land, therefore, should be closely de- pendent on the number of those from that land who, having been here five years or more, have actually become American citizens. These know the language, customs and ideals of both peoples, ours and theirs. America should admit as immigrants only so many aliens from any land as she can Americanize. 3. The Proposed Restriction Law. Let, therefore, an immigration law be passed which provides that the maxi- 548 mum permissible annual immigration from any people shall be a definite per cent (say five) of the American-born children of foreign parents of that peo- ple plus the number of those from that same people who have already become naturalized citizens. The grandchildren as a rule do not know their ancestral language, and therefore do not aid particularly in the Americanization of newcomers. The permissible annual immigration from the respective peoples, as calcu- lated from the census of 1910, is given in the tables of the Appendix. They show that in general there would be no restriction on immigration from North Europe. The reverse, however, would be the case for the countries of South Europe. The permissible immigration from China and Japan would be less than that which has been coming in recent years. (See Appendix.) Provision should be also made for the protection of all newcomers from ruth- less exploitation and for their distribu- tion, employment and rapid American- ization. To aid in the accomplishment of these ends, the Federal Government should establish— 4. Bureau of Registration, Employ- ment and Distribution All aliens should register annually until they become American citizens, and should pay an annual registration fee, of say $10. We need to know who the aliens are and where they live, and they need to know that we know these facts about them. <) SOMATIC SEGREGATION E. J. Kraus YX HEREDITY AND SEX >’ 42 "4 | = TWO PHEASANT CROSSES - - - - - John C. Phillips RRS MENDELISM UP TO DATE A Review (= =9 ~ ve tt SAVING THE KOKIO TREE Robert A. Young and the Editor va, 4 \¥, GP 24 vere SEX IN LIVESTOCK BREEDING - —- — E. N. Wentworth Py ) wiv RACE HYGIENE IN GERMANY - - - G. Hoff 71%. \@-"o von Hoffmann 1 San! IGORROT X AMERICAN METIS - — — David B. Mackie OSTEOPSATHYROSIS — A Review ANCESTRY OF THE GOOSE A LOST OPPORTUNITY IN BEE BREEDING E. R. Root e" sf 4 ~~ ss pave UY KIN 2g a >, A NEW TYPE OF CATTLE FOR ALASKA v, o> ¢ Ke 7 . qe: Ke AK PY V pCi of Cay ,%| KXKAX= | He ia MMM ~. || j 0) ca TTT e aH) = o-< @ EV FX KRSNA BSA ROSA KOS AK ae BSA R SABES PESO DESIRES Mae ORGAN OF THE ie | \ AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, WashingtonD.C. p®. A . ———— i A a SA a¥ 2 Le, as _= aff ‘eh: , ; j = |= ‘s ‘ Bes Printed for CGreulation among Members Only ~ pa 4 TAY TAIT OV TO AION ATO ZI | TO UFR ATOM ITAY VPA IVT San KIA DUTTON TT TTT WHAT GENETICS IS Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants; it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground- work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and imitates herself.” ‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity, says William Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they wi!l appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. 4 STO 2 =v ,>. a —_ _ i. Pou RAAL OF. os 5k HEREDI Ty s b (ok WL) ( \ A monthly publication devoted to |= a\ eae ty Plant Breeding, Animal Breeding as oo x Y | and Gens . y << = ) $e ery , 1 KAX > > a4 SS FEBRUARY, 1916 S25 4 avs { 3 PIGEON BREEDING IN EGYPT ey | 2 KENO viv THE PERSIAN WALNUT - - - - - - - J. Russell Smith On? \ an! > ae 4 & 4 ae PROBLEMS IN WALNUT BREEDING - L. D. Batchelor eo—. MAK OK ey | WHAT TO SAY ABOUT MARRIAGE? - - A. E. Hamilton Ry KSO¢ ONO E aa? $1,000 FOR DATA ON HEREDITY 1 San 9KX Vv, aap pave AY, KIX cp ve v Se BUD VARIATION - - ---------- A. D. Shamel \® ( > @_—= CORRIEDALE SHEEP (20-94 as a F. R. Marshall aS "One, 9 OxKX SUGAR CANE THAT OUTGREW ITSELF - H.B. Cowsgill yr, > owe" : = oa" Q Op § =| | HEREDITARY NOSE BLEED - - - - - Willis C.Lane " OD ¢ = TOV VATU x ana TRIPLET CALVES Ouse = >< = We TURICE NN Geo 0 eee ee ee eae A Review = aps Oa ,% (E a) o.9 §e:< E BREEDING FARM CROPS IN IOWA - -H.D.Hughes | Ge <8 FAYE RAT ASA : = KE-SA\ S291: | oemee KAA? = aK pe = = rn | TTT @ ae NS eer MMM fe:=§ — oe WeaVata hs’ arhara’ as”. VJ et w YAVaVa Va AY ,WAV a> —~ Kes BS SARS So SOL Deal Be SABO SKS DON sy, —o oS Se :* 2 OS CO OSD 2 &, aE. HTT TTT a ORGAN OF THE le AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, Washington D.C. [ Wh Fis n ._ >_> ve a. af Te ae 3 Sr Printed for Cireulation among Members Only We é Fo GSU VGSU UGS Ua dU UW wine Fey gi,» VW d4 a @,e UI XxX) (Aid) KSA Kr X SFX KK KARA SAY KX fh fr SOS NGS ps FUTEUUAAQOVREYUAAANOOARYVON TOO AAAAOTPORAETAROOOURARTOORORUOOOTETOOUARTUAEOOOUOOOOOOOOUARATOOATOAVORAAOOAPO =: { es eE= _ = E= — el WHAT GENETICS IS “An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its.committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. . It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL’ (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Il, Nox, 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol: --V, Nos..5:.6,:7,.8, 9, 10, 1P and 12: Vol. Vi, Nos.°2,.3, 4,5; 6, 7, 9,.10, 11 and: 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. di osit Pobre | a President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, ger Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of a Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. | The American Genetic Association we a me 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 we 0 os —_ a —__ 0 —__ wo —__ 0 —__ 0 —__ 00 —_ 0 —__ wo - — me —_ 0» —__ 00 —__ 0» —__ 0 00 —__ 00 0.0 0 oo NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. C. 0 a et Genetics Literature | | HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIT' (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. -UiI, “Na:.°2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address — THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. oe 0 0 me vo ——_ 0 — ~ 0 —— 0 0 —_ 0 ——_ 0 ——_ The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Pg eee Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Sig Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Go. Ne a Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ngton, D HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, aoe National Chairman, Woman’s Welfare Department, National Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Genetics Literature arte | HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. | | | As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. Vi,jNOs-:2,:3,)4, 5,°6,. 7, 9; 11 and 12, ~ - . = Es FE ds Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. | | | | Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. a et a oe ro we wo oe The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of zoology. Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant ig Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant ndustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Cro a eeysoley and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women’s Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C, —— oo oo a ee —= ——— mm ee ee ee aa Ghe =. toe tke NAL, “OF sHEREDITYé Wi A monthly publication devoted to a\ Plant Breeding, Animal Breeding Am Sy, and Eugentes. ! a 4 "> ome NO ae ee: dl es Va GP 4 = KKK APRIL, 1916 ee @ tot THE SLIT-EYED PEOPLE = = - 2 .-- H. P. Stuckey pram. = S24 GERMINATING COCONUTS, O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle gels SUCCESS IN CONTROLLING SEX FX SPOTTED: ASSES) hoi 2.32) en Albert Ernest Jenks Ser "owe WHY CHILDREN RUN AWAY - - - - - - - A Review 4 p= =9 FINDING THE PREPOTENT SIRE - - - J. M. Hover an ®,' THE PITANGA- - - A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popence WAR, SCIENCE, CIVILIZATION - - - - - A Review DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AT ILLINOIS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE THE STRAWBERRY, A TRIUMPH OF PLANT BREEDING ie Ke . Ne ><) ve aie am aVe Vy Vee ORGAN OF THE ee } | \ AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION Washington D.C. é Ie en Printed for Greulation among Members Only as “¢ “a J) Ce) Ia ( OU UO UU Ubu Udo UcTou wine ou LOY TRY KSA K SEX KFRX KIX KCK SL SER ©, ‘SZ ax oe KO Sa +: > °, _ ~_ ES 2 —l oor WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’’ says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means . of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. se The Journal of HEREDITY A monthly publication devoted toPlant reeding Animal Breeding and Lugenucs & cis A FOWL WITH HORNS HEREDITY OF ALBINISM IS TWINNING HEREDITARY? BREEDING NEPHROLEPIS FERNS GROWING MELONS ON TREES INBREEDING IN EUROPE ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN GENETIC :ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON °- D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only VOLVII-Noh, MAY1916 _— WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. soe _ The Journal of HEREDIT A monthly publication devoted toflant,breeding Animal Breeding and Eugenics 'e0 be gv) JUNE, 1916 ‘“‘BULL-DOG” CATTLE EUGENICS AND AGRICULTURE TESTING CRIMINAL OFFENDERS WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE HAWTHORNS? REDFIELD BROADENS HIS OFFER WAR, IMMIGRATION, EUGENICS LAUGHING AND CRYING ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON - D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only WHAT GENETICS IS ‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in ‘his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. + Sel Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL' (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Ill, Ne. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos.'2;:.3,.4, 5,:7,:9).11-and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C. W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N Y. 0 0 OO OO OS SLD I AD NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D0. C. Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three éf these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL' (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. a a a NG Em) pa Sh A I nl -_ The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of wey Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women’s Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. gp 0 ee ne os nn no — ~ 0 ——_ 0 —_ 0 —__ 0 —__ 0 —__ wn —__ 0 —__ 00 —___ 0 —__ 0» —__ 00 —__ 00 —__ 0 ___ 00 __ 00 ___ 0 ___ 00 00 ___ 00 —__ 00 —___ 00 0 0» __ 0 —_ 0 o_o os NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D.C. Genetics Literature eer HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in™the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII’ (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V5 Nas... 5,6; 75.8, 9; 10, Tl and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. a EB J 8 — The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W.. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C. W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C DAVID FAIRCHILD, 4 yee Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, if. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of —T Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. + 0 —— 00 — 0 0 0 0 LLL OD NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. C. The Journal of HEREDIT A monthly publication devoted toPlantireeding Animal Breeding and Eugenics = : : : i \ Je 79 (38) JULY, 1916 HYBRID TREES MUSICAL ABILITY A BOTANICAL PARADOX LET’S POSITIVIZE OUR NEGATIVE EUGENICS WHERE ARE THE BEST PAPAWS? EXTRA FINGERS AND TOES CHANGE OF SEX IN HEMP PREPOTENCY ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON - D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only WHAT GENETICS IS ‘“‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate- son, ‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved: scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. The Journ al of HEREDITY A monthly publication devoted toPlant freeding Animal Breeding and Eugenics ( 4 os AUGUST, 1916 MOTHERCRAFT EVOLUTION AND MAN SORREL COLOR IN HORSES CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE INHERITANCE: OF BALDNESS POLLINATING FRUIT TREES PHILIPPINE HORSES ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN’ GENETIC*ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON ~- D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP | Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. oe ee | oa ae The Journal of HEREDITY | monthly publication devoted toflant,Greeding Animal Breeding and Eugenics g9, i} é SEPTEMBER, 1916 PYRONIA COLLARETTE FLOWERS A CHANGE IN SEX-RATIO HEREDITY OF HAIR-FORM THE LONG-LIVED FIRST-BORN ANCESTRY OF THOS. A. EDISON CARMAN’S WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS BABIES IN THE CURRICULUM POLLINATION IN THE PINE THE WHITE-BARKED PINE ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON - D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate- son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl- edge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems, and for the presentation of their results to the public. Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory, but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor- mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension, and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con- servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen- sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en- tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science that is of such personal importance to each individual. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen, students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity, are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. — —_— Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be ee to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C, | The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. First President, JAMES WILSON, Former Secretary of Agriculture. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi- mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis. CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N.Y IN: 7Y... GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H .HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc- tor of Henry te Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education, College of the City of New York. ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded Classes, Public Schools of New York City. HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Association, New York City. DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti- tute, Ward's Island, N. Y. DR. A. J. ROSANOFF, Resident Physician, Kings’ Park State Hospital, Long Island, N. Y. DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, ay Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na- tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super- intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash- ington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES ARY RUMSEY, New York, Nurs THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D0. C. Sa es Re i Sg — ——s 5 Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol, VI, Nos; 2;.3, 4,.5;7,-9; 11 and. 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. First President, JAMES WILSON, Former Secretary of Agriculture. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Roar of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I .; Washington, D W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge ment of Agriculture, Washington, D DAVID FAIRCHILD, A Plant Industry, U. of ons y? Coop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- icultural se hoetey in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of . Department of Agriculture, Washington, D ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C T. H. KEARNEY, Ph siologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant ndustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Ma cig oe Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. HERBERT ie WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi- mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis. CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of as rome Cornell Medical College, New York, Ye GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc- a of Henry ig 7 Psychiatric Clinic, Johns opkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHA LES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education, College of the City of New York. ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded Classes, Public Schools of New York City. HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Association, New York City. DR. AUGUST oar Director Psychiatric Insti- tute, Ward's Island, DR. A. aRGSANOFF, "Resident ie as Kings’ Park State Hospital, Long Island, N. DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medica Director, National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior niversity, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, “a Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na- tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). gt oe FISHER, Professor of Political Economy Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super- intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash- ington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. Rey eee ARY RUMSEY, New York, THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D.C. cc OL LLL LI LLL LL LLL LL LD TD Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII’ (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Ill, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4,5, 7, 9, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON, Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Soa Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y. THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. LL LL LLL LLL LLL LL A NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, DO. C. The Journal of HEREDIT o, | monthly publication devoted to lant Breeding Animal Breeding and. Lugenucs () 4 oes OCTOBER, 1916 PEAR BREEDING THE JUKES IN 1915 FECUNDITY AND STAMINA AN APOLOGY FOR YAWNING RELIGION AND BIRTH CONTROL WOMEN’S EYES AND POTATO SKINS ARE MORE BOYS BORN IN WAR TIME? EXTREMES OF HUMAN STATURE FORGOTTEN BUD VARIATIONS HEREDITY AND THE MIND MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON - D.C. Frinted for Circulation among Members only a it i i ts en 9 8 a ss i cn cee 8 ns ee 8 —) ns tt ns 9s —— 0 —— —— WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’’ says William Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”’ To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve- ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is published monthly and sent free to each member. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys- icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live stock, etc., throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the JOURNAL OF HeEreEpiITY, are $2; life membership is $50. If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you think is eligible for membership, write to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. —s The Journal of HEREDIT A monthly publication devoted toPlantreeding Animal Breeding and. Eugenics (,) 4 ess NOVEMBER, 1916 THE HUMAN MACHINE MULES THAT BREED ORIGIN OF THE LOGANBERRY IRIS BREEDING LOBED LEAVES IN MAIZE HAND AND FOOT PRINTS CALIFORNIA GRAPEFRUIT ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN: GENETIC:-ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON °- D.C. Printed for Circulation. among Members only i ts ns nt 8 ns ne ts es 0 en ee te | eh i EL LE EE LE ES Eh WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’”’ says William Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this. knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve- ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as ‘“‘the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is published monthly and sent free to each member. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys- icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live stock, etc., throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, are $2; life membership is $50. If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you think is eligible for membership, write to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. = —2.0 ——0n ——s » —— 2 ——00 ——-5 0 ——— 00 0 0 »« ——— 0 —— 2 ns —— 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 oo e a a ee —s The Journal of HEREDIT 7 monthly publication devoted toPlant freeding Animal Breeding and. Eugenics 9, e 4 DECEMBER, 1916 SOUTHERN STRAWBERRIES THE TIDE OF IMMIGRATION AN IMMIGRATION POLICY PITTED EAR LOBES LINEBREEDING THE GREAT UNMARRIED FECUNDITY AND LONGEVITY HARVARD AND YALE BIRTH RATES ORGAN OF THE AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON - D.C. Printed for Circulation among Members only WHAT GENETICS IS ‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’”’ says William Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.” To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve- ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “‘the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It owns the JouRNAL OF HerepITy, which is published monthly and sent free to each member. REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys- icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live stock, etc., throughout the world. Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the JourNAL OF Herepity, are $2; life membership is $50. If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you think is eligible for membership, write to THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A. o—— #2» —_90 ———0 0 ———« o—— ro 0 nn nt EE EB - . oo Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Il, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. a - x : aoe The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. First President, JAMES WILSON, Former Secretary of Agriculture. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C, W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. C H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi- mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis. CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc- tor of Henry FiSppe Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. ; CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education, College of the City of New York. ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded Classes, Public Schools of New York City. HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Association, New York City. DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti- DR. x WROSANOPR, "Resident Physici Kings Oy. ee 7% , Resident sician, Kings’ Park ea Hospital, Long Island, N. o' DR. THOMAS . SALMON, Medical Director, National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California ehesan. DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U ¥ Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). ; MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na- tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super- intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash- ington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, Ni in THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. ©. ._ os —— Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4.° Vol. IH, No. 2. Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. i i op 8 0 8 0 8 ns 8 9 0 The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Secrelary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. First President, JAMES WILSON, Former Secretary of Agriculture. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Aveheidisan tion: Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, ie lac eaio Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, 6 . Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Becker of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of free Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau Ay Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. WALTE ER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor _ of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi- mental Breeding, University ‘of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of sac Cornell Medical College, New York, Yi. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, III. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash. E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder Bs Eugenics Record Maas Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts ‘Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc- or of Henry Phi ipps . he Fg Clinic, Johns Ele Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education, College of the City of New York. ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded Classes, Public Schools of New York City. HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Association, New York City. DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti- fae Ward's Island, N. Y. DRA. 3. ROSANOFF, Resident Physician, Kings’ Park State Hos ital, Long Island, N. Y. DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon overs U. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na- tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman). DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary). NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, It IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super- intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash- ington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, ‘New York, Re $4 THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. » WASHINGTON, © Genetics Literature HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity, variation, eugenics, or genetics in general. The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these reports, which it offers for sale. Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2, now offered for $1. Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50. The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those who have copies for sale or exchange. In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE: Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol, 11], No: 2, Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY: Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12. Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de- scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. Address THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C. —e The American Genetic Association President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co. Washington, D. C. First President, JAMES WILSON, Former Secretary of Agriculture. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture Editor, PAUL POPENOE. COUNCIL ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C. W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Cambridge, Mass. BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y. O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, 0.5: Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. . H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH Plant Breeding ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Animal Breeding T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi- mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis. CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Ys GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass. HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash. E. A. MCILHENNY, Avery Island, La. Eugenics MRS. E. H .HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts ‘Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc- tor of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of anna ae Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education, College of the City of New Yor ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Marienteh es! Ungraded Classes, Public Schools of New York City. HOMER ‘FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Association, New York City. DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti- tee Ward's Island, N. i DR. A. J. ROSANOFF, Resident Ph sician, Kings’ Park State Hospital, Long Island, N. Y. DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman). DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon meng Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman). MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare we ea Na- tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second page Cerne DR. W. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, 0.8. Kiblnc Health Service, Washington, D. C (secretary). i 9 8 0 5 0 tt ee NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, ‘New Haven, Conn. DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super- intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash- ington, D. C. MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y. i coeaan 2 ARY RUMSEY, New York, THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the eg of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. ih eye t WAS Whee A iy it AyiNG? i rial af dt : A} it M ET, ene eT: uy ‘tf Mi bi! AON 4, aad at i) _ Welles 4 \ git pay OY : te rd ‘teh . ities ; rons “abe ; aes € : . ” ewIRKS Tae UNC 100135021