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The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
A MONTHLY PUBLICATION DEVOTED TO PLANT BREEDING
ANIMAL BREEDING AND EUGENICS
PUBLISHED BY THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
(Formerly called ‘‘The American Breeders’ Association’’)
VOLUME VII
*WASHINGTON, D.C.
1916
1 269t- Mar.\9
Requirements for Membership
the council, any person inter-
ested in the improvement of
the human race or the creation of
better plants and animals is eligible
for membership. The Secretary
will be glad to correspond with
those interested, and to send a copy
of the magazine for examination.
Annual dues, giving the right to
attend the annual and other meet-
ings, and to receive the magazine,
are $2; life membership is $50.
Address all communications to the
Secretary.
GS ite coi to the approval of
American Genetic Association
511 Eleventh Street N. W. Washington, D. C.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
INDEX TO VOLUME VII
THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, 1916
A
Ability, Musical. Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher Copp, 297
To Prevent Waste of Potential, 419
Acquired Characters, The Non-Inheritance of, 254
Age of Parenthood, The, 142
Agriculture, Eugenics and. O. F. Cook, 249
Alaska, A New Type of Cattle for, 48
Alaskan Berry Hybrids, 8
Albinism, Heredity of. Charles B. Davenport, 221
Alcohol on Germ-Plasm, Effects of, 413
A.A. A.S., The A. G. A. and the, 306
A. G. A. and the A. A. A. S., The, 306
A. G. A., Annual Meeting of the, 431, 455, 493
American Indians, Food Plants of, 47
American Metis, Igorrot X. David B. Mackie, 34
Ancestry of the Goose, 39
of Thomas A. Edison, Constitutional Vigor in the, 414
Annual Business Meeting of the Association, 76
Annual Meeting of the Council, 76
of the A. G. A., 431, 455, 493
Annual Meeting, The Association's, 570
Aphis, Ewing’s Study of an, 527
Apology for Yawning, An, 447
Apricots and Peaches with Cherries, Crossing, 305
Arabic-Speaking Peoples, Eugenics for. (A Review), 296
Asses, Spotted. Albert Ernest Jenks, 165
Association’s Annual Meeting, The, 570
Association, Annual Business Meeting of the, 76
B
Babies in France, Bounties for, 369
in the Curriculum. A. E. Hamilton, 387
Baldness, Inheritance of. Dorothy Osborn, 347
Banns Law Proposed in Georgia, 415
Batchelor, L. D. Problems in Walnut Breeding, 61
Bee Breeding, A Lost Opportunity in. E. R. Root, 46
Belling, John A. Hypothesis of Semi-sterility Con-
firmed, 552
Berry Hybrids, Alaskan, 8
Binet, Alfred, and Simon, Th., Review of Two Books by.
The Fundamental Work on Measurement of
infelhnence- Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite,
61
Birth Control, Religion and, 450
Birth Rate, Another German Proposal to Increase the,
527
Birth Rates, Harvard and Yale. John C. Phillips, 565
Births and Deaths, Fewer: What Do they Mean? Walter
F. Wilcox, 119
Births, The Tendency to Multiple, 134
Blackberry, Origin of the White, 324
Bohemia, Eugenics Research in, 157
Beahote. J. Lewis. Vigor and Heredity. (Reviewed),
279
“Born Criminals,’’ On the Proportion of, 401
Boshnakian, Sarkis. Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns, 225
Botanical Paradox, A. D. F. Higgins, 306
Boys Born in War Time, Are More?, 478
Breed, Mules that. Orren Lloyd-Jones, 494
Breed of Cattle, Altering the Galloway, 65
Breeder, Wanted: A Plant, 319
Breeders Should Keep Records, All.
mel, 564
Breeding Abroad, War Hurts Scientific, 168
Breeding, A Lost Opportunity in Bee. E.R. Root, 46
Breeding and the War, German Horse, 462
Breeding, An Experiment in Sunflower, 462
Breeding at Cornell University, Plant, 65
Breeding Citrous Fruits, 431
Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa. H. D. Hughes, 143
Breeding in Egypt, Pigeon, 50
Breeding in Kansas, Plant, 81
Breeding in New York, Raspberry, 383
Breeding, Iris, 502
Breeding Native Grapes, 60
Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns. Sarkis Boshnakian, 225
Breeding, Pear, 435
Breeding, Problems in Walnut. L. D. Batchelor, 61
Breeding, Sex in Live Stock. E. N. Wentworth, 29
Breeding Sugar Cane, 405
Breeding the Pecan. E. E. Risien, 87
Breeding, The Strawberry, A Triumph in Plant, 191
Bud Variation. A. D.Shamel, 82
Bud Variations, Forgotten. L. B. Scott, 452
“Bull-Dog”’ Cattle, 263
Burbank, Luther. (Review of a Book by Henry Smith
_ Willams), 558
Business Meeting of the Association, Annual, 76
Butterflies, Mimicry in (Review of a Book by R. C.
Punnett), 463
George M. Rom-
Cc
California Fruits, Pollination Studies on, 545
paltotnis Grapefruit, Codéperation in the Production of,
2
California Orange Groves, Improvement of, 493
Calves, Triplet, 135
Canada, Yak Increasing in, 451
Canadian Cattalos, Sale of, 178
Cane, Breeding Sugar, 405
Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids. C. E. Leighty, 420
Castle, W. E., and Wright, Sewall, Review of a Bookby.
Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and Rats, 540
Cattalos, Sale of Canadian, 178
Cattle, Altering the Galloway Breed of, 65
Cattle, ‘““Bull-Dog,” 263
Cattle for Alaska, A New Type of, 48
Champion of Darwinism, A (Book Review), 394
Change in Sex-Ratio, A. Henry Pittier, 406
Character in Grains, An Important, 32
Characters, The Non-Inheritance of Acquired, 254
Charity, Feeblemindedness and, 296
Cherries, Crossing Apricots and Peaches with, 305
Children, Long Life Means Many, 99
Children, Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with, 446
Children Run Away, Why (Review of a Book by
Charles B. Davenport), 169
Children, To Study Exceptional, 220
Children, What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class?’’, 248
Citrous Fruits, Breeding, 431
Civilization and Climate. (Review of a Book by Ells-
worth Huntington), 131
Civilization, War, Science. (Review of a Book by
by William A. Ritter), 186
Climate, Civilization and. (Review of a Book by Ells-
worth Huntington), 131
Cockerell, T. D. A. Collarette Flowers, 428
Coconuts, Germinating. O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle,
148
Collarette Flowers. T. D. A. Cockerell, 428
Collins, G. N., and Kempton, J. H. Patrogenesis, 106
Color in Horses, Sorrel. L. P. McCann, 370
Committee on Nomenclature, Report of, 8
Congenital Origin, Pitted Ear Lobes of.
Jenks, 553
Consanguineous Marriage. The Editor, 343
Cook, O. F. Eugenics and Agriculture, 249
Cook, O. F., and Doyle, C. B. Germinating Coconuts,
148
Albert Ernest
Codperation in the Production of California Grapefruit,
524
Copp, Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher. Musical Ability, 297
Cornell University, Plant Breeding at, 65
Correction, 427
Corrie, Leslie Gordon. Pollinating Fruit Trees, 365
Corriedale Sheep. F.R. Marshall, 88
Coulter, John Merle. Evolution, Heredity and Eu-
genics. (Reviewed), 279
Council, Annual Meeting of the, 76
Cow, Unusual Fecundity in a, 236
Cowgill, H. B. Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself, 96
Crile, Review of a Book by Dr. George W. The Human
Machine, 483
Crime and Heredity, 220
Criminal Delinquency, Heredity and, 105
Criminal Offenders, Testing, 255
Criminals, On the Proportion of Born, 401
Cross and Self-fertilization, 33
Crosses, Two Pheasant. John C. Phillips, 12
Crossing Apricots and Peaches with Cherries, 305
Crying, Laughing and, 281
Curriculum, Babies in the. A. E. Hamilton, 387
D
Danforth, C. H. Is Twinning Hereditary?, 195
Darrow, Geo. M. Southern Strawberries, 531
Darwinism, A Champion of (Book Review), 394
Data on Heredity, $1,000 for, 66
Davenport, Charles B. Heredity of Albinism, 221
Davenport, Review of a Book by Charles B. Why
Children Run Away, 169
Deaths, Fewer Births and: What Do They Mean?
Walter F. Wilcox, 119
Defectives in District of Columbia, 240
Delinquency, Hereditary Nomadism and, 523
Delinquency, Heredity and Criminal, 105
Heredity and Juvenile, 178
District of Columbia, Defectives in, 240
Doyle, C. B., Cook, O. F., and. Germinating Coconuts,
148
Drama in the Science of Eugenics, The, 238 |
Dunnicliff, A. A., Jr. Fecundity and Stamina, 443
E
Ear Lobes of Congenital Origin, Pitted.
Jenks, 553
Edison, Constitutional Vigor in the Ancestry of Thomas
., 414
Editor, Robert A. Young and The. Saving the Kokio
Tree, 24
Editor, The. Concerning Prepotency, 330
Consanguineous Marriage, 343
Heredity and the Mind, 456
The Long-Lived First-Born, 395
Education, Genetics in, 236
Albert Ernest
ili
Education in St. Louis, Eugenics, 346
Effects of Inbreeding in Rats, Mental, 561 }
Egg Means, What the Size of an. D. E. Warner and
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, 128
Egypt, Pigeon-Breeding in, 50
Emigration After the War, 477
_ Emotional Control, The Inheritance of (Review of a
Bulletin by A. W. Finlayson), 346
Encouragement for Superior Parents, 157
England, Progress of Eugenics in, 554
English Suggestions for Eugenics, Some, 288
Epilepsy, A Study of Rural (Book Review), 419
Estabrook, Review of a Book by Arthur H. The Jukes
in 1915, 469
Eugenic Movement, The Practical, 189
Eugenic Studies, Prizes for, 240
Eugenic Survey of Nassau County, N. Y., 237
Eugenics and Agriculture. O.F. Cook, 249
Eugenics and Military Preparedness, 319
Eugenics, An Outline of (Review of a Book by Michael
F. Guyer), 105
Eugenics, Course of Lectures on, 161
Eugenics Education in St. Louis, 346
Eugenics, Evolution, Heredity and. John
Coulter (Reviewed), 279
Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples (A Review), 296
Eugenics, German Suggestions for Constructive, 262
Eugenics, Increased Activities in German, 446
Eugenics in England, Progress of, 554
Eugenics in Hungary. G. von Hoffman, 105
Eugenics, Let’s Positivize Our Negative. A. E. Hamil-
ton, 309
Eugenics, New Publication on, 28
Eugenics on the Farm, 47
Eugenics, Prosperity and, 569
Eugenics Research in Bohemia, 157
Eugenics, Some English Suggestions for, 288
Eugenics, The Drama in the Service of, 238
Eugenics, War, Immigration. Report of the Com-
mittee on Immigration, 243
Europe, What They Say About. Inbreeding in. Inter-
view with Chr. Wriedt, 204
Evolution and Man. Maynard M. Metcalf, 356
Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics. John Merle Coulter
(Reviewed), 279
Ewing's Study of an Aphis, 527
Experiment in Sunfiower Breeding, An, 462
Experimental Inbreeding, 70
Eyes and Bad Hearts, Bad, 168
Eyes and Potato Skins, Women’s, 475
F
Family with Abnormal Hands, A, 244
Farm Crops in Iowa, Breeding. H. D. Hughes, 143
Farm, Eugenics on the, 47
Fecundity and Longevity, Exceptional. Henry M.
Jones, 562
Fecundity and Stamina. A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr., 443
Fecundity in a Cow, Unusual, 236
Fecundity, Increasing, 102
Fecundity in Hens Not a Unit Character, High, 23
_ Feebleminded Adrift, 236
Feeblemindedness and Charity, 296
Feeblemindedness, The Inheritance of, 401
Ferns, Breeding Nephrolepis. Sarkis Boshnakian, 225
Fertility in Swine, Inheritance of, 224
Fingers and Toes, Extra, 320
Finlayson, Review of a Bulletin by A. W. The Inheri-
tance of Emotional Control, 346
First-Born, The Long-Lived. The Editor, 395
Flowering Vine, A Magnificent, 372
Flowers, Collarette. T. D. A. Cockerell, 428
Food Plants of American Indians, 47
Foot Prints, Hand and, 511
Foundation to Teach Mothercraft, 478
Fowl with Horns, A, 203
France, Bounties for Babies in, 369
Fruit Trees, Pollinating. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365
Fruits, Breeding Citrous, 431
Fruits in Illinois, Studying, 38
Fruits, Pollination Studies on California, 545
Fundamental Work on Measurement of Intelligence, The
(Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th.
Simon). Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 561
G
Gallichan, Review of a Book by Walter M. The Great
Unmarried, 557
Galloway Breed of Cattle, Altering the, 65
Genetic Publications Available, Rare, 189
Genetic Survey of Kansas City, 238
Genetics at Illinois College of Agriculture, Department
of, 190
Genetics at Washington Experiment Station, 185
Genetics in Education, 236
Genetics, Modes of Research in. Raymond Pearl, 101
Genetics, New Publication on, 189
Georgeson, C. C. Hardy Grains for the North, 69
Georgia, Banns Law Proposed in, 415
German Eugenics, Increased Activities in, 446
Merle
German Horse-Breeding and the War, 462
ate Sn a to Increase the Birth Rate, Another,
' German Suggestions for Constructive Eugenics, 262
Germany, Race Hygiene in. G. von Hoffmann, 32
Germinating Coconuts. O.F.Cook and C. B. Doyle, 148
Germ-Plasm, Effects of Alcohol on, 413
Goose, Ancestry of the, 39
Grains, An Important Character in, 32
Grains for the North, Hardy. C. C. Georgeson, 69
prep Coéperation in the Production of California,
Grapes, Breeding Native, 60 .
Great Unmarried, The (Review of a Book by Walter M.
_ Gallichan), 557
Guinea-pigs and Rats, Studies of Inheritance in (Review of
_. a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright), 540
Gulick, Sidney L. An Immigration Policy, 548
Guyer, Review of a Book by Michael F. An Outline of
Eugenics, 105
H
Hair-Form, Heredity of, 412
Hamilton, A. E. Babies in the Curriculum, 387
Let’s Positivize Our Negative Eugenics, 309
What to Say About Marriage, 77
Hand and Foot Prints, 511
Hands, A Family with Abnormal, 224
Harvard and Yale Birth Rates. John C. Phillips, 565
jules, What is Happening tothe? L. M. Standish,
26
Hearts, Bad Eyes and Bad, 168
Hemp, Change of Sex in. Frederick J. Pritchard, 325
Hereditary, Is Twinning? C.H. Danforth, 195
Hereditary Nomadism and Delinquency, 523
Hereditary Nose Bleed. Willis C. Lane, 132
Heredity and Criminal Delinquency, 105
Heredity and Eugenics, Evolution. John Merle Coulter
(Reviewed), 279
Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency, 178
Heredity and Sex, 9
Heredity and the Mind. The Editor, 456
Heredity, Crime and, 220
Heredity in Pellagra, 507
Heredity of Albinism. Charles B. Davenport, 221
Heredity of Hair-Form, 412
Heredity, $1,000 for Data on, 66
Heredity, Vigorand. J. Lewis Bonhote (Reviewed), 279
Higgins, D. F. A Botanical Paradox, 306
The White-Barked Pine, 399
Higgins, J. E. Growing Melons on Trees, 208
Horns, A Fowl] with, 203
Horse-Breeding and the War, German, 462
Horses, Philippine. David B. Mackie, 373
Horses, Sorrel Color in. L. P. McCann, 370
Hover, J. M. Finding the Prepotent Sire, 173
Hughes, H. D. Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa, 143
Human Machine, The (Review of a Book by Dr. George
W. Crile), 483
Human Stature, Extremes in, 479
Hungary, Eugenics in. G. von Hoffmann, 105
Hungary, Official Register of Selected Plants in, 305 _
Huntington, Review of a Book by Ellsworth. Civiliza-
tion and Climate, 131
Hybrid Origin of the Loganberry a Myth, Is the?, 504
Hybrid Trees. W.H. Lamb (A Review), 311
Hybridization, Tobacco, 47
Hybrids, Alaskan Berry, 8 ;
Hybrids, Carman’s Wheat-Rye. C. E. Leighty, 420
Hybrids, Peacock-Guinea Fowl, 95
Hybrids, Some Sweet-Pea, 556
Hygiene in Germany, Race. G. von Hoffmann, 32 _
Hypothesis of Semi-sterility Confirmed, A. John Belling,
552
I
Igorrot X American Metis. David B. Mackie, 34 _
Illinois College of Agriculture, Department of Genetics
at, 190
Illinois, State Survey in, 405
Illinois, Studying Fruits in, 38
Immigration After the War, 134 Ps,
Immigration, Eugenics, War. Report of the Committee
on Immigration, 243
Immigration Policy, An. Sidney L. Gulick, 548 >
Immigration, Report of the Committee on. War, Immi-
gration, Eugenics, 243
Immigration, The Tide of (Review of a Book by Frank
Julian Warne), 541
Improvement of California Orange Groves, 493
Improving the Wheat of Sweden, 455
Inbreeding in Rats, Mental Effects of, 561
Inbreeding, Experimental, 70
Inbreeding in Europe, What They Say About. Inter-
view with Chr. Wriedt, 204
Indians, Food Plants of American, 47
Inebriety, Research in, 468
Infant Mortality Meeting, 342
Inheritance of Baldness. Dorothy Osborn, 347
Inheritance of Emotional Control, The (Review of a
Bulletin by A. W. Finlayson), 346
Inheritance of Feeblemindedness, 401
Inheritance of Fertility in Swine, 224
Intelligence, The Fundamental Work on Measurement
wx» of (Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and
R®@ Th.Simon). Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite, 561
Towa, Breeding Farm Crops in. H. D. Hughes, 143
Iris Breeding, 502
J
Jenks, Albert Ernest. Pitted Ear Lobes of Congenital
Origin, 553 ‘
Jenks, Albert Ernest. Spotted Asses, 165
Jones, Henry M. Exceptional Fecundity and Longev-
ity, 562
Jordan, Review of a Book by David Starr. War and
the Breed, 118
Journal of Heredity as a College Textbook, 81, 101
Journal of Heredity, Reprints from the, 118
Jukes in 1915, The (Review of a Book by Arthur H.
Estabrook), 469
Juvenile Delinquency, Heredity and, 178
K
Kansas City, Genetic Survey of, 238
Kansas, Plant Bveeding in, 81
Kempton, J. H., Collins, G. N.,and. Patrogenesis, 106
Kempton, J. H. Lobed Leaves in Maize, 508
Kirkpatrick, Wm. F., Warner, D. E., and. What the
Size of an Egg Means, 128
Kite, Translated by Elizabeth S. The Fundamental
Work on Measurement of Intelligence (Review
of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th. Simon), 561
Kokio Tree, Saving the. Robert A. Young and the
Editor, 24.
Kraus, E. J. Somatic Segregation, 3
L
Lamb, W. H. Hybrid Trees (A Review), 311
Lane, Willis C. Hereditary Nose Bleed, 132
Laughing and Crying, 281
Law, Nebraska Sterilization, 238
Law of Chance, Variability Curve Following, 280
Law Proposed in Georgia, Banns, 415
Laws to Restrict Miscegenation, 202
Leaves in Maize, Lobed. J. H. Kempton, 508
Lectures on Eugenics, Course of, 161
Left-Handedness, 287
Leighty, C. E. Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids, 420
Linebreeding. Richard H. Wood, 555
Livestock Breeding, Sex in. E. N. Wentworth, 29
Lloyd-Jones,O. Mules that Breed, 494
Loganberry a Myth, Is the Hybrid Origin of the?, 504
Longevity, Exceptional Fecundity and. Henry M.
Jones, 562
Long Life Means Many Children, 99
Long-Lived First-Born, The. The Editor, 395
M
McCann, L. P. Sorrel Color in Horses, 370
Mcllhenny, Review of a Book by Edward A. Wild
Turkeys, 138
Machine, The Human (Review of a Book by Dr. George
W. Crile), 483
Mackie, David B. Igorrot X American Metis, 34
Philippine Horses, 373
Maine, New Oat Varieties for, 382
Maize, Lobed Leaves in. J.H. Kempton, 508
Man, Evolution and. Maynard M. Metcalf, 356
Marriage, Consanguineous. The Editor, 343
Marriage, What to Say About. A. E. Hamilton, 77
Marshall, F.R. Corriedale Sheep, 88
Meeting of the A. G. A., Annual, 431, 455, 493
Meeting of the Association, Annual Business, 76
Meeting of the Council, Annual, 76
Meeting, The Association’s Annual, 570
Melons on Trees, Growing. J. E. Higgins, 208
Mendelism Up to Date (A Review), 17
Mental Effects of Inbreeding in Rats, 561
Metcalf, Maynard M. Evolution and Man, 356
Metis, Igorrot X American. David B. Mackie, 34
Military Preparedness, Eugenics and, 319
Mimicry in Butterflies (Review of a Book by R. C.
Punnett), 463
Mind, Heredity and the. The Editor, 456
Miscegenation, Laws to Restrict, 202
Modes of Research in Genetics. Raymond Pearl, 101
Mortality Meeting, Infant, 342
Mothercraft, Foundation to Teach, 478
Mothercraft. Mary L. Read, 339
Mothercraft Manual, The (Review of a Book by Mary
L. Read), 554
Mothers, Why Do Women Become?, 449
Mules that Breed. Orren Lloyd-Jones, 494
Musical Ability. Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher Copp, 297
Mutations in the Potato, 510
Mutations in Walnuts, 523
Myers, C.E. Tomatoes Above Ground, Potatoes Under-
neath, 530
N
Nassau County, N. Y., Eugenic Survey of, 237
Nassau County Survey, The, 355
Nebraska Sterilization Law, 238
Negative Eugenics, Let’s Positivize Our.
ton, 309
New Publication on Eugenics, 28
New York, Raspberry Breeding in, 383
Nomadism and Delinquency, Hereditary, 523
Nomenclature, Report of the Committee on, 8
Non-Inheritance of Acquired Characters, 254
North, Hardy Grains for the. C.C. Georgeson, 69
Nose Bleed, Hereditary. Willis C. Lane, 132
oO
Oat Varieties for Maine, New, 382
Offenders, Testing Criminal, 255
Opportunity in Bee-Breeding, A Lost. E.R. Root, 46
Orange Groves, Improvement of California, 493
Osborn, Dorothy. Inheritance of Baldness, 347
Osteopsathyrosis (A Review), 36
Le
Papaws, Where are the Best?, 291
Paradox, A Botanical. D. F. Higgins, 306
Parenthood, The Age of, 142
Parents, Encouragement for Superior, 157
Patrogenesis. G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, 106
Pea, A Yellow Sweet, 523
Peaches with Cherries, Crossing Apricots and, 305
Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids, 95
Pear Breeding, 435
Pearl, Review of a Book by Raymond. Modes of Re-
search in Genetics, 101
Pearson, Portrait of Karl, 434
Pecan, Breeding the. E. E. Risien, 87
Pellagra, Heredity in, 507
People, The Slit-Eyed. H. P. Stuckey, 147
Persian Walnut, The. J. Russell Smith, 55
Pheasant Crosses, Two. John C. Phillips, 12
Philippine Horses. David B. Mackie, 373
Phillips, John C. Two Pheasant Crosses, 12
Pigeon-Breeding in Egypt, 50
Pine, Pollination in the, 402
Pine, The White-Barked. D. F. Higgins, 399
Pitanga, The. A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe, 179
Pittier, Henry. A Change in Sex-Ratio, 406
Plant Breeder, Wanted: A, 319
Plant Breeding at Cornell University, 65
Plant Breeding in Kansas, 81
Plant Breeding, The Strawberry, A Triumpn in, 191
Plants in Hungary, Official Register of Selected, 305
Policy, An Immigration. Sidney L. Gulick, 548
Pollinating Fruit Trees. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365
Pollination in the Pine, 402
Pollination Studies on California Fruits, 545
Popenoe, Paul. See Editor
Popenoe, Wilson, Shamel, A. D., and. The Pitanga, 179
Portrait of Karl Pearson, 434
Potato, Mutations in the, 510
Potato Skins, Women’s Eyes and, 475
Potatoes Underneath, Tomatoes Above Ground.
Myers, 530
Potential Ability, To Prevent Waste of, 419
“Practical Eugenic Movement,’’ The, 189
Preparedness, Eugenics and Military, 319
Prepotency, Brigham Young: An Illustration of, 51
Prepotency, Concerning. ‘The Editor, 330
Prepotent Sire, Finding the. J. M. Hover, 173
Pritchard, Frederick J. Change of Sex in Hemp, 325
Prizes for Eugenic Studies, 240
Problems in Walnut Breeding. L. D. Batchelor, 61
Progress of Eugenics in England, 554
Proportion of ‘‘Born Criminals,’’ On the, 401
Prosperity and Eugenics, 569
Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with Children, 446
Publication on Genetics, New, 189
Publications Available, Rare Genetic, 189
Punnett, Review of a Book by R.C. Mimicry in Butter-
flies, 463
Pyronia. Dr. L. Trabut, 416
R
Rabies, Transmission of, 564
Race Hygiene in Germany. G. von Hoffmann, 32
Raspberry Breeding in New York, 383
Rats, Mental Effects of Inbreeding in, 561
Rats, Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and (Review
of a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright), 540
Read, Mary L. Mothercraft, 339
Read, Review of a Book by Mary L. The Mothercraft
Manual, 554
Records, All Breeders Should Keep.
mel, 564
Redfield Broadens and Explains His Offer of $1,000, 286
Religion and Birth Control, 450
Report of Committee on Nomenclature, 8
Reprints from the Journal of Heredity, 118
Research in Genetics, Modes of. Raymond Pearl, 101
Research in Inebriety, 468
A. E. Hamil-
C. E.
George M. Rom-
Research Work at Sing Sing, 411
Review. A Champion of Darwinism, 394
A Study of Rural Epilepsy, 419
Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples, 296
Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics. John Merle
Coulter, 279
Hybrid Trees. W.H. Lamb, 311
Mendelism Up to Date, 17
Osteopsathyrosis, 36
The Inheritance of Emotional Control. A. W.
Finlayson, 346
Vigor and Heredity. J. Lewis Bonhote, 279
Review of a Book by W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright.
Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and Rats,
540
Dr. George W. Crile. The Human Machine, 483
Charles B. Davenport. Why Children Run Away, 169
Arthur H. Estabrook. The Jukes in 1915, 469
Walter M. Gallichan. The Great Unmarried, 557
Michael F. Guyer. An Outline of Eugenics, 105
Ellsworth Huntington. Civilization and Climate, 131
David Starr Jordan. War and the Breed, 118
Edward A. MclIlhenny. Wild Turkeys, 138
Raymond Pearl. Modes of Research in Genetics, 101
R. C. Punnett. Mimicry in Butterflies, 463
Mary L. Read. The Mothercraft Manual, 554
William E. Ritter. War, Science, Civilization, 186
Frank Julian Warne. ‘The Tide of Immigration, 541
Henry Smith Williams. Luther Burbank, 556
Risien, E. E. Breeding the Pecan, 87
Rommel, George M. All Breeders Should Keep Records,
56
4
Root, E. R. A Lost Opportunity in Bee Breeding, 46
Rural Epilepsy, A Study of (Book Review), 419
=]
St. Louis, Eugenics Education in, 346
Saving the Kokio Tree. Robert A. Young and The
Editor, 24
Science, Civilization, War.
William E. Ritter), 186
Segregation, Somatic. E. J. Kraus, 3
Self-fertilization, Cross and, 33
Semi-Sterility Confirmed, A Hypothesis
Belling, 552
Sex, Heredity and, 9
Sex in Hemp, Change of.
Sex in Livestock Breeding. E. N. Wentworth, 29
Sex-Ratio, A Change in. Henry Pittier, 406
Sex, Success in Controlling, 158
Shamel, A. D: Bud Variation, 82
Shamel, A. D., and Popenoe, Wilson.
Sheep, Corriedale. F.R. Marshall, 88
“Siamese Twins’’ on Record, The Latest, 239
Simon, Review of Two Books by Alfred Binet and Th.
The Fundamental Work on Measurement of
Intelligence. Translated by Elizabeth S. Kite,
561
Sing Sing, Research Work at, 411
Sire, Finding the Prepotent. J. M. Hover, 173
Slit-Eyed People, The. H. P. Stuckey, 147
Smith, J. Russell. The Persian Walnut, 55
Somatic Segregation. E. J. Kraus, 3
Southern Strawberries. George M. Darrow, 531
“Special Class’’ Children, What Becomes of the?, 248
Spotted Asses. Albert Ernest Jenks, 165
Stamina, Fecundity and. A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr., 443
Standish, L. M. What is Happening to the Hawthorns?,
266
Stature, Extremes in Human, 479
Sterilization Law, Nebraska, 238
Strawberries, Southern. George M. Darrow, 531
Strawberry, A Triumph in Plant Breeding, The, 191
Stuckey, H. P. The Slit-Eyed People, 147
Studies on California Fruits, Pollination, 545
Study Exceptional Children, To, 220
Study of an Aphis, Ewing's, 527
Success in Controlling Sex, 158
Sugar Cane Breeding, 405 ;
Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself. H. B. Cowgill, 96
Sunflower Breeding, An Experiment in, 462
Survey in Illinois, State, 405
Survey of Kansas City, Genetic, 238 ;
Survey of Nassau County, N. Y., Eugenic, 237
Survey, The Nassau County, 355
Sweden, Improving the Wheat of, 455
Sweet-Pea, A Yellow, 523
Sweet-Pea Hybrids, Some, 556
Swine, Inheritance of Fertility in, 224
(Review of a Book by
of. John
Frederick J. Pritchard, 325
The Pitanga, 179
vi
T
Teachers with Children, Prussia Subsidizes School, 446
Tendency to Multiple Births, The, 134
Textbook, hen of Heredity as a College, 81, 101
Thousand Dollars for Data on Heredity, One, 66
Thousand Dollars, Redfield Broadens and Explains His
; Offer of One, 286
Tide of Immigration, The (Review of a Book by Frank
Julian Warne), 541
Tobacco Hybridization, 47
Tobacco That Will Burn, 442
Toes, Extra Fingers and, 320
Tomatoes Above Ground, Potatoes Underneath, 530
Trabut, Dr. L. Pyronia, 416
Transmission of Rabies, The, 564
Trees, Growing Melons on. J. E. Higgins, 208
Trees, Hybrid. W.H. Lamb (A Review), 311
Trees, Pollinating Fruit. Leslie Gordon Corrie, 365
Triplet Calves, 135
Turkeys, Wild. (Review of a Book by Edward A.
_ Mcllhenny), 138
Twinning Hereditary, Is? C. H. Danforth, 195
Twins on Record, The Latest Siamese, 239
U
Unit Character, High Fecundity in Hens Not a, 23
Unmarried, The Great (Review of a Book by Walter M.
Gallichan), 557
Vi
Variability Curve Following Law of Chance, 280
Variation, Bud. A. D. Shamel, 82
Variations, Forgotten Bud. L. B. Scott, 452
Vigor and Heredity. J. Lewis Bonhote (Reviewed), 279
Vigor in the Ancestry of Thomas A. Edison, Constitu-
tional, 414
Vine, A Magnificent Flowering, 372
Von Hoffmann, G. Eugenics in Hungary, 105
Race Hygiene in Germany, 32
Ww
Walnut Breeding, Problems in. L. D. Batchelor, 61
Walnut, The Persian. J. Russell Smith, 55
Walnuts, Mutations in, 523
War, Emigration After the, 477
War, German Horse-Breeding and the, 462
War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad, 168
War, Immigration After the, 134
War, Immigration, Eugenics. Report of. the
mittee on Immigration, 243
War, Science, Civilization (Review of a Book by William
E. Ritter), 186 ,
War, The Effect of the (Review of a Book by David
Starr Jordan), 118
War Time, Are More Boys Born in?, 478
Warne, Review of a Book by Frank Julian. The Tide
of Immigration, 541
Warner, D. E., and Kirkpatrick, Wm. F. What the
Size of an Egg Means, 128
Washington Experiment Station, Genetics at, 185
Water-Lilies, Some New, 451
Wentworth, E. N. Sex in Livestock Breeding, 29
What to Say About Marriage? A. E. Hamilton, 77
Wheat of Sweden, Improving the, 455
Wheat-Rye Hybrids, Carman's. C. E. Leighty, 420
White-Barked Pine, The. D. F. Higgins, 399
White Blackberry, Origin of the, 324
Wilcox, Walter F. Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do
They Mean?, 119
Williams, Review of a Book by Henry Smith. Luther
Burbank, 566
Women Become Mothers, Why Do?, 449
Women's Eyes and Potato Skins, 475
Wood, Richard H. Linebreeding, 555
Wriedt, Interview With Chr. What They Say About
Inbreeding in Europe, 204
Wright, Review of a Book by Castle, W. E., and Sewall.
Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-Pigs and Rats,
540
Com-
Y
Yak, Increasing in Canada, 451 £y
Yale Birth Rates, Harvard and. John C. Phillips, 565
Yawning, An Apology for, 447
Young, Brigham: An Illustration of Prepotency, 51
beh oat A., and The Editor. Saving the Kokio
Tree, 24
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 1 January, 1916
CONTENTS
Somatic Sesregation, by E. jj, Kraus: Sie he eo 0 os: 3
Alaskan erty higsrids ois. 4 Sot. ak a. Od ooh ve ee ae 8
Report of Committee on Nomenclature............................. 8
Bleredify sad ;Sex Anis were Race est, apn oe ea ee IES Py 9
Two Pheasant Crosses, by John C. Phillips.......................... 12
Mendelicm: Up. to Date; a Review 25..220 2056 os ies nw he ke 17
High Fecundity in Hens Not a Unit Character...................... 23
Saving the Kokio Tree, by Robert A. Young and the Editor......... 24
New Publication'‘en Hugenies=. 5. 5 ee ee the de 28
Sex in Livestock Breeding, by E. N. Wentworth..................... 29
Race Hygiene in Germany, by G. von Hoffmann.................... 32
An ‘mpertant Character im Grains 2 5.00 nae 2s so 32
Gross and Selftertalizafiow. Fy0 ooo os eee. A ee eee 33
Igorrot X American Metis, by David B. Mackie..................... 34
Osteopsathyrosis, a Review............. Ai Giese Dao c one CRA AL ae ae 36
Stuy Pratits ta MU IeIS. 4 ee ee oe ee AE ed, oa 38
AMGESLEY Of The Goone, 2.25 4). 037 ahs ear ee eee etc ae va ie 39
A Lost Opportunity in Bee Breeding, by E. R. Root................. 46
Food Plants ot American Indians.) yo) Oe ee 47
Navemes ani tie Wari. 2454093). 05son Han eee ee oe ele eae 47
Li caro nal a Rg ipa 7227 ate: RNa Ae ee ae ORs ARI tn Risch Made oh < SARA eB 47
ANew Type ot: Cattle for Alaskay 5229s Wid 28 hye aelet fies ee 18
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1915 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, December 29, 1915.
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INVId WIONIS V WOU SVITHVO NI NOLLVIIVA JO AONVY ACE
SOMATIC SEGREGATION
Variations in Plants May Be Divided in Two Classes, One of Which Breeds True
While the Other Does Not—Modern Work Shows Importance of Former
Class in Practical Breeding—Further Study May Aid in Under-
standing Causes of Variation in General.
E. J. Kraus
State Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Oregon
ORTICULTURAL literature
fet generally, and particularly that
which deals with ornamentals,
abounds in references to bud
variations, bud sports or node sports
according to the notion of any particular
writer. Anyone dealing with plants
in quantity is impressed by the dif-
ferences exhibited by individuals, dif-
ferences which often it would be
desirable to perpetuate, if possible. It
has been argued that, if vegetative
propagation means simply the dividing
up of an individual into many inde-
pendent parts, all of which are still the
same individual, then the extent to
which a plant which possessed particular
merit could be multiplied and dissemin-
ated, would be limited only by the
relative ease of propagation. As a
result, considerable work has _ been
attempted along the lines of selection
of better strains of many kinds and
varieties of plants. Practically the
whole idea of pedigreed nursery stock,
the selection of runners in strawberries,
and the reworking to another strain of
unprofitable trees or orchards for greater
yields or better fruit, is based on the
question of bud variation and bud
selection. While the evidence from
most of the experiments so far con-
ducted along these latter lines is
negative, it is by no means safe to
conclude that there is nothing in the
idea of improvement by such methods.
The greatest difficulty which has arisen
and led to confusion has been the
failure to recognize the difference be-
tween those unstable variations due to
purely local conditions and those which,
while they may be due to local con-
ditions to some extent at least, are a
real part of the plant organization and
persist even under widely changed
environment.
Bud or somatic variations are sub-
ject to a broad classification, much as
are seminal or seed variations. Three
classes are recognizable: modifications
(fluctuations), segregations, and muta-
tions. The first class is observed by
far the most commonly, and _ has
furnished the material for the larger
part of the experiments which have been
conducted with an attempt to deter-
mine whether superior strains could be
built up and maintained entirely by
the selection of vegetative parts. The
second class occurs in individuals of
hybrid, or supposed hybrid origin (the
term being used in its broad sense), or
in those individuals in which some
apparently new character has arisen,
but remains associated with the original
form and at times exhibits itself wholly
independently to a greater or less
extent. To illustrate: an example of
this latter sort is the manifestation of
pure white in the green and white
variegation of many plants, or the pro-
duction of self-colored flowers by cer-
tain individuals which normally bear
striped flowers. To the third class
belong sudden wide changes or depart-
ures from the normal character of a
plant, such as double flowers, purple
foliage, certain instances of the white
areas in foliage, fastigiate forms and
the like, which apparently are new to
that individual. it is difficult, clearly
to differentiate the second and third
classes, and if one believes that muta-
tions are merely a result of hybrid
1Read before the twelfth annual meeting of the American Genetic Association, at Berkeley,
Cal., August 5, 1915.
3
4 The Journal
ancestry, class three should not be
recognized. At times, even with breed-
ing records, it would be difficult to deter-
mine whether a variation should be
classed as a segregation or a true
mutation; whether, in other words, the
new or apparently new character be-
came expressed through the removal of
influences which suppressed or masked
it, or actually arose anew.
INFLUENCE OF LOCAL CONDITIONS
As stated previously, fluctuating var-
iation is by far the most common of all
forms of variability. Such variation
is greatly influenced by, and largely
may be due to, environment in its
broader sense. The production of in-
ferior or superior fruit, whether it be
size, color, or even quantity, may be
the result of purely local conditions.
A few instances of this type of varia-
tion and experiences with it are of
interest.
Hedrick, in his discussion of pedi-
greed nursery stock, has pointed out
the fact that fluctuations are not
stable and, when environmental con-
ditions are changed, characteristics
change with them; and, in citing an
example, states that “sixty Rome
trees all propagated from buds from
one branch show quite as much varia-
tion as could be found in an orchard of
Romes propagated indiscriminately and
growing under similar conditions ”’ With
nothing more than change of the name
of the plant concerned, his statement
fuily summarizes a number of similar
experiments.
An interesting example of range of
fluctuation in size of fruit is furnished
by a well-regulated Spitzenberg orchard
which came under my _ observation.
Generally the trees throughout the
orchard produced average-sized fruits.
Certain trees, however, consistently
produced small, ill-shaped, inferior ap-
ples. Various treatments were recom-
mended and tried but to no avail.
Finally it was concluded that the trees
were of an inferior strain and regrafting
to a superior sort was recommended as
the only remedy. Accordingly certain
of the small fruited trees were severely
cut back in the spring and top-worked,
of Heredity
slightly less than one-half the number of
branches being left so as not to de-
stroy completely the balance of the tree.
In the fall these remaining branches
matured the finest fruits in the entire
orchard; the companion trees which had
not been so severely handled produced
small fruit as usual. Apparently there
was nothing in the idea of an inferior
strain so far as these trees were con-
cerned.
Selection for improvement in apples
has been made on the basis of the color
of the fruits—one of the most elusive of
characters. In this regard, the follow-
ing statement, which I made some time
ago, since has been abundantly con-
firmed:
The red in Shiawassee, McIntosh and
Jonathan is composed of at least two reds,
the one light and carrying with it the
factor for striping, the other dark and
associated with the factor for solid color.
Now if these apples are grown under poor
light conditions, they are almost without
exception light red and striped, while in
full sunlight the deep red factor further
manifests itself and the fruit becomes self-
colored dark red, though on close inspec-
tion the stripes are evident beneath the
solid color. ‘This is not a case of segrega-
tion; both characters are present, the
one being simply overlaid by the other. |
If then cions are taken from branches
bearing superiorly colored fruit, due to
purely local conditions, such as lght,
air, or moisture, the trees resulting
from them when subjected to another
environment might or might not prove
superior, depending upon whether the
new conditions were favorable to the
development of the one set of colors
or another. As will be brought out
subsequently, however, certain color
changes, the result of segregation are
transmissible.
An experiment by Howard and Whit-
ten, to determine whether the tendency
toward greater yield is transmissible, is
reported as follows:
Three crops of apples have thus far
been harvested from trees, part of which
were grown from cions selected from
high-producing parents and part from
trees of low-producing parents. There
was practically as much variation in yield,
size, and color of fruit between trees ‘from
the same parent as there was between trees
of different parentage. Bud selection from
high-producing and from low-producing
A CAUSE OF FREQUENT MISTAKES
Yellow Newtown apples produced by cross-pollinating with Roxbury
Russet.
The upper fruit has two distinct russet bands, whose appear-
ance is merely a coincidence, and due to the segregation of cclor
originally possessed, not to any direct influence of the Roxbury
Russet pollen. Russet is a rather uncommon segregation character,in the
Yellow Newtown, and it would be easy to suppose that this is a case of
immediate influence of pollen were the true explanation not known.
Many such erroneous conclusions have been drawn in similar cases.
(Fig. 1.)
strawberries carried on through twelve
previous years showed absolutely no gain
in productiveness by selecting runners
from high-producing parents.
More evidence and experiments of
the same general nature might be
adduced. The one main conclusion to
be drawn from them is, that when an
attempt is made to propagate a modi-
fication it is not transmitted as such
alone, but its offspring are capable of
developing the entire group or range of
variations of which it formed a part.
Evidence and examples of segrega-
tions are abundant, and many are being
recorded. From this class of variations
real advance or regression may be
expected. Bateson calls attention to
this form of variation and offers, quite
correctly, an explanation on the basis
of a somatic segregation of parental
characters. He cites, as one example,
two Sweet-Pea vines, each of which,
normally having borne heterozygous
purple flowers, produced a lateral shoot
which bore red flowers, showing that
“the factor B has been omitted in one
of the cell divisions by which they were
produced.”’ An interesting similar in-
stance of my own observation is worth
recounting. A friend who is interested
in Sweet-Pea culture crossed two varie-
ties, a pink and a white. From the
second generation he secured one form
which he has termed an impure domi-
nant. It is white with pink edging, and
has given rise through seed to many
forms, light pinks, dark pinks, whites, a
glowing salmon and a soft salmon rose,
this latter being the only form which has
not proven variable on further testing.
Three years ago this same impure
dominant produced a node-sport, a
5
6 The Journal
beautiful glowing rose. Seeds from
this sport produced the same _ rose-
colored form, which has remained abso-
lutely fixed. It is of interest to add
that through seeds the impure dominant
has produced similar pink forms which
have not bred true.
Some three yeats ago Groth called
attention to a seeming occurrence of
‘xenia’ inthe peachtomato. This variety
normally bears fruits which have much
the appearance of very red peaches.
The plants in question bore an occa-
sional smooth fruit. Through corre-
spondence, I later learned that experi-
ments demonstrated certain fruits were
smooth even when enclosed and pro-
tected absolutely from pollination by a
smooth sort. Here again, evidently,
was a case of somatic segregation,
worthy of further testing. A few seeds,
said to be from a fruit showing an
approach to smoothness, were kindly
sent me. Seven plants have resulted
from the sowing of a part of the packet;
six of them have a few smooth fruits,
many intermediate and a few which
are rough. One plant has so far
produced fifty-four fruits, all very rough
and pubescent. It will be of interest to
determine the behavior of seedlings
from the several types of fruits.
Tufts has pointed out a somatic
segregation of characters in the Le Conte
pear and Transcendent Crab apple, a
segregation which closely approaches a
simple Mendelian ratio. He ascribes
this segregation to a hybrid origin of
the two varieties.
VARIATIONS IN BARTLETT PEAR
A color variation of the Bartlett pear
was found several years ago. It oc-
curred as a branch on a normal tree,
and differed from the normal in that
the bark was a golden yellow, striped
green and brown, and the fruit had
prominent yellow stripes from calyx to
stem. Buds from this branch have
reproduced trees of two entirely dis-
tinct types. The dark form is scarcely
to be told from the ordinary Bartlett;
the light form is a much less vigorous
grower, has golden-yellow bark tinged
with pink and grows very shrubby,
producing large numbers of short
of Heredity
laterals. Normal Bartletts of the same
age as the variegated trees bloomed
to a limited extent last year, and pro-
fusely this year. The light form pro-
duced but two fruit clusters on a total
of seven trees; the dark form had no
fruit buds at all. The light form so far
has not produced bloom from axillary
buds on one-year wood, though normal
trees have done so in abundance. This
case is mentioned since it may possibly
represent a case of perpetuation of a
change in form, productiveness and
color.
The color of fruits of apple furnishes
an interesting example of segregation.
By comparing with breeding records
the various colors expressed in the so-
called banded fruits, it was concluded
that in a number of varieties there were
present several factors for color; that
it is possible for any color to appear pure
to any extent from a small segment to
the entire fruit; and that if such segre-
gation extends to a part which may be
removed and propagated vegetatively,
the segregation may be perpetuated.
Among the varieties of apples so pro-
pagated are Red Gravenstein, which
has arisen at least twice, Red Rome,
which -arose three times in one orchard
within the last four years, and a blood-
red Spitzenberg. Many other striped
or banded forms among a wide range
of fruits might be listed. Attention
again is called to the fact, however,
that among the apples of which a study
was made, no colors truly new to the
variety have appeared in the somatic
segregations.
As stated in the beginning, if muta-
tions are regarded as the mere result of
hybrid ancestry, then any variation
which might be classed as such could
be considered only as a segregation.
Still there are instances of variations
which do seem to be unexplainable on
the basis of segregation and which
certainly are not mere fluctuations.
They are readily perpetuated by vege-
tative propagation, are decidedly dis-
tinct from the form from which they
sprang, and seem to possess characters
new to the individual.
The case of the green and white
variegation of foliage deserves particular
Kraus: Somatic Segregation 7
consideration. It is of extremely com-
mon occurrence and generally may be
observed by anyone who will spend a
short time in search for it. On the
campus at Corvallis there appeared on
one of the several hundred bushes of
Portugal laurel, cultivated as an orna-
mental, a green and white variegation
which now represents fully one-third of
the entire shrub. From the green and
white shoots several which are entirely
white have sprung, but, as yet, none
which is entirely green. The same
variegation in connection with the
normal plant from which it sprang, has
been observed in more than a score of
widely scattered species; among them
red clover, maple, dandelion (Taraxa-
cum), carnation, radish, bean, ox-eye
daisy, ash, holly and Trillium. Such
green and white variegations are readily
propagated vegetatively. Many orna-
mentals also come to mind and furnish
readily accessible material for study.
On almost any individual it is possible
to find shoots which are entirely white
and frequently those which are entirely
green. This behavior is clearly a case
of segregation. The green shoots are
readily propagated and, if left to remain
on the plant from which they sprang,
often outstrip the remainder of it in
growth. The white form is generally
vegetatively weak and usually is in-
capable of independent existence.
But to account for the original appear-
ance of the “white” character. For-
tunately we are in a position to know
that the white exists as a recessive in
some plants, as shown by Emerson in
his work on maize. Chapin found, in
the case of variegated Amaranthus, that
seed from green branches produced
green seedlings while self-fertilized seed
from white branches produced white
seedlings, which facts led to the con-
clusion that the green and white
variegated plants are the result of the
crossing of green and white gametes.
If, then, green and white gametes exist
in the case of those variegated plants
(hybrids) resulting from the cross be-
tween them, the appearance of the green
and the white shoots is a case of segre-
gation resulting from hybrid ancestry.
On the other hand, where the green and
white forms spring directly from a form
which always has been green, so far as
recorded, the appearance of the white
character probably would be considered
as amutation. The question arises: Is
there a difference between the green and
white combination which arises as a
mutation and that produced by crossing
green and white gametes: Whether
the variegated form arises in one way cr
the other they are apparently indis-
tinguishable. In either case entirely
green and entirely white shoots are
frequently produced in the same manner
and may be similarly propagated. It
is in instances of this kind that the line
of demarcation between segregations
and mutations is drawn only with
greatest uncertainty. A further study
of them may aid us also in arriving at a
more definite knowledge of the nature
of mutations themselves.
Double flowers from single flowers,
laciniated foliage, weeping and fasti-
giate forms, purple foliage, and other
less common variations are considered
as mutations. It seems that, in general,
many wide changes in the color of the
flower should be classed as a segregation
rather than a mutation, especially so if
breeding records show the same colors
among the progeny, though, even under
these circumstances, how to _ distin-
guish the two absolutely is a problem,
since it may be argued that the appear-
ance of new colors among the seminal
offspring may likewise be due to muta-
tion.
Like true segregates, mutants may
be perpetuated vegetatively, and scores
of horticultural varieties exist. The
exceptions to this rule are the pure
white forms which soon perish when
severed from the parent plant and may
be budded or grafted into other stocks
only with greatest difficulty.
SUMMARY
To sum up, then, vegetative varia-
tions are first of all of two distinct sorts
—modifications or fluctuations, which
do not remain true when propagated
and subjected to varying conditions,
and segregations or mutations which
may be propagated and expected to
remain reasonably constant under a
8 The Journal
wide range of conditions. In the past
experiments have largely dealt with
modifications, and the conclusion
reached that little or no advance could
be expected from the selection of
vegetative variations. There is cer-
tainly good evidence accumulating, as
the work of Shamel shows, that among
citrus fruits, at least, distinct advance
is being made in plant improvement
through bud selection alone. This is
no doubt a case in which true segregates
or mutants have been utilized and, if so,
they can be expected to remain con-
stant under a wide range of conditions.
There is a broad field for work on the
genetics of bud-variations, and when
their nature is better understood and
the lines of discrimination more clearly
drawn between the several classes, more
of Heredity
rapid advance in their utilization may be
expected. It seems likely that many of
the laws pertaining to the perpetuation
of fluctuations among seminally pro-
pagated pure lines will apply with equal
force to vegetative fluctuations in a
clonal variety. If so, a study of the
one may well be taken into considera-
tion in connection with a study of the
other in any attempt to arrive at the
fundamentals underlying either. And,
as suggested previously, it seems en-
tirely possible that a closer study of’
the cases of vegative segregations and
mutations, as they come to hand, will
aid materially in the advancement of
knowledge concerning the nature of
variation in general and the discovery
of the principles underlying it.
Alaskan Berry Hybrids
At the Sitka Experiment Station in Alaska a strain of hardy strawberries is in
the making, the result of crosses between the native of the Alaskan coast region
and cultivated varieties. Several thousand seedlings have been grown, all very
vigorous and most of them productive and of high quality. The native variety
of the interior of Alaska is now to be used in similar crosses.
The Cuthbert raspberry has been crossed with its relatives the native Salmon-
berry (Rubus spectabilis Pursh.) and the Thimbleberry (R. parviflorus Nutt.).
The only interesting fact so far developed is that the hybrids of the two species
first named are almost entirely sterile.
Report of Committee on Nomenclature
In order to determine whether any one of the three nouns, geneticist, genetist,
and genetician, should be adopted to designate students of genetics, the under-
signed committee on nomenclature of the American Genetic Association has got
the opinion of a dozen of the leading philologists of the country. It finds that the
form geneticist, which is most widely current, is favored by most of the philologists
as being formed in accordance with the best usage. The form genetist, which has
some currency, gets very little support from good etymological usage. The term
genetician, although a hybrid, can be supported by abundant analogy; it has
however, little or no currency at present.
Under these circumstances, the members of this committee unanimously
intend to adhere to the form geneticist for their own personal use; it will also be
used in all official communications of this association.
The committee realizes that usage cannot be arbitrarily established by fiat.
Believing, however, that uniformity in this matter is desirable, it takes this oppor-
tunity to call the attention of all who are concerned with genetics to the fact that
the term geneticist is worthy of general adoption, in the interests of uniformity and
correct etymological practice.
(Signed) Herbert J. Webber, R. Ruggles Gates, George H. Shull, W. E. Castle,
Raymond Pearl, Paul Popenoe.
HEREDITY AND SEX
Many Live-Stock Breeders Believe Disproportionate Sex-Ratios May Be Due to
Inheritance—Experimental Breeding of Dr. Helen Dean King at
Wistar Institute Indicates that Such is the Fact in Two
Strains of Rats
NDER ordinary conditions, for
every 100 female calves born
in a herd of cattle, there will be
107 male calves, the sex ratio
being approximately the same as that
of the human species.
To a breeder of dairy cattle it is
obvious that an increase in the propor-
tion of heifers produced would be
highly advantageous. On the other
hand, a large increase in the number of
bulls born might be disastrous.
Miss Jessie C. Kursheedt, of New
York, one of the members of this associa-
tion, is interested in a herd of registered
dairy cattle where about 75% of all
the calves born in recent years have
been bulls. She was led to think that
this unfortunate state of affairs might
be due to something in the heredity of
the herd sire, and accordingly investi-
gated his pedigree from that viewpoint.
It was found that he had at least two
lines of ancestry in which dispropor-
tionately large number of male calves
had been produced. His own sire was
shown in the herd book to have fathered
sixteen bulls and seven cows; while
the sire’s sire had seventeen bulls and
thirteen cows to his credit. The herd
sire’s grandsire on the maternal side
was found from the breed records to
have sired twenty-three bulls and seven-
teen heifers.
While the numbers are small, and
the herd book records not likely to be
very accurate on this point, it can at
least be said that in this pedigree a
general tendency is shown to produce
more offspring of one sex than of the
other.
Practical breeders have often sus-
pected that such a condition might
exist. Hoard’s Dairyman (June 25,
1915), contains the following letter from
Herb. E. Sharp of the State of Wash-
ington:
“T have developed a strain of Lang-
shan fowls that are producing over 90%
females, and the trait is being trans-
mitted from generation to generation.
“The earliest records we have of this
trait were of a hen that produced about
60% females. She was accidentally
bred in such a manner that the trait
gradually became stronger until in the
seventh generation we have hens pro-
ducing from 90% to 97% females.
OTHER CASES IN CATTLE
“Have found one family of dairy
cattle containing one world’s record
cow and her two sisters that have
dropped twelve male calves and only
one female. An examination of the
records of the daughters of their sire,
by other cows, shows that they too
have inherited the trait, and are pro-
ducing from 75% to 90% males.
“The males of this family, when
used as herd sires, have transmitted
this tendency along with other char-
acteristics of the family, so that a
preponderance of males is quite notice-
able among the offspring of several
herds of high quality stock.
“Certainly no man can long remain
in the dairy business with a herd of
cows whose calves are all bulls; a sire’s
value must depend entirely upon what
his daughters produce in milk, butter,
and calves; and the sire, whose daugh-
ters drop nothing but male calves, no
matter what their milk and butter
records may be, will put his owner out
of business or compel him to buy a
complete new herd of cows in a few
years.”
‘In 1912, I mated twelve hens to
one cock bird. He was very vigorous,
and as he had the entire liberty of
the yard where they were all con-
fined, we can safely presume that he
would find practically all the hens
9
10 The Journal of Heredity
when they first came into the season.
Now if there were anything at all
in the theory advanced that the time
of mating controls the sex of the off-
spring, a large proportion of these
females must have performed in a
nearly uniform manner, as all were
under practically identical conditions
or as nearly as possible to secure.
“There were not two hens that per-
formed in an identical manner, and
there was not even an approximate
uniformity in their performances. One
hen produced all males, another pro-
duced all females, and the rest, each
seemed to take her own course in
various degrees between these two
extremes; some of the hens were mated
again to the same male, and some to
other males the following year, while
some were discarded.
“All those retained in the breeding
pens the next year, regardless of the
influence of the various males, repeated
their former year’s work with some
very slight variations. The hen that
raised all females, after three years’
work, finally raised one cockerel, but he
came after she had produced sixty pullets.
“Five of her daughters were then
tested and produced seventy-five pullets
and two cockerels. In this family the
sex tendency is strong enough to be
transmitted, and in any family the
individual that is strong enough to
transmit his sex tendencies, certainly
has greater power to transmit than
the individual that cannot transmit
sex tendencies and as a sire’s value
depends on what he transmits, then
the sire that transmits sex tendencies,
especially a tendency to a predominating
number of females, is of vastly greater
value than the sire without this power
or with a tendency towards a pre-
dominating number of males.
“Some one said: ‘Your bull may be
losing $6,000 a year for you,’ but I
know a whole family of bulls that
carry world’s record blood in their
veins that are putting their owners
out of the dairy business at a rapid
rate, not even suspected by their
owners, and these bulls sold tor over
a thousand dollars each.”
The editor of Hoard’s Dairyman
properly comments on this letter, that
the amount of time through which
Mr. Sharp’s breeding experiments have
been carried is not enough to furnish
conclusive proof. A breeding experi-
ment well known to geneticists has
been carried on for six years under the
most careful conditions, however, and
has given results which lend some
color to the belief that one may get a
strain of animals that has a tendency
to produce disproportionate numbers of
one sex.
This is the inbreeding experiment of
Dr. Helen Dean King at the Wistar
Institute, Philadelphia, in which more
than 22,000 albino rats have been bred
and studied. Although Dr. King has
not yet published her results, it is
possible here to state the general trend
of the experiment.
In the rat, the normal sex ratio
happens to be the same as in man and
cattle, namely, 107 males to 100
females. Dr. King began her work by
taking from the stock animals one
healthy litter of new-born rats, two
males and two females. The descend-
ants of one pair of the rats have, after
the sixth generation, all come from
the mating of brother and sister from
litters in which males invariably pre-
dominated. This is the A or male line.
The B or female line of her experiment
came from the other pair of the original
litter and has been obtained by mating
brothers and sisters from litters con-
taining (after the sixth generation) an
excess of females. In the first six
generations no selection for sex was
made, the object being to get the stock
well-established and homogeneous.
All of the 22,000 rats used are there-
fore descendants of one or other of the
two pairs in the litter first picked out
for the foundation of the experiment,
and in the two strains there has been,
since the sixth generation, steady selec-
tion in the opposite directions, through
twenty-one generations, with strict in-
breeding of the animals selected.
By this process, the tendency to
produce a disproportionate number of
one sex appears to have been fixed in
Heredity
each line of descent. The result. is,
that instead of a normal ratio of 107 to
100 (which was established for this
particular stock at the beginning of the
experiment, by ascertaining the sex
ratio in 1,000 newborn litters), Dr.
King now gets in various generations
ratios as far apart as 150 males to 100
females, in the male producing line,
and sixty-five males to 100 females, in
the female producing line.
If such a state of affairs can be reached
under the carefully controlled condi-
tions of a laboratory, it is not a rash
assumption to suppose that 1t might
occasionally be reached unknowingly
in the herd of a practical breeder.
IN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
Whether such conditions actually
prevail in the livestock industry cannot
definitely be told except after thorough
examination of the records of that
industry. This would offer numerous
difficulties. In the meantime, with the
analogy of Dr. King’s experiments on
rats, any breeder whose herd sire is
producing mainly bull calves, and who
finds that such a tendency marks the
ancestry of the animal in question,
might well feel justified in getting a new
herd sire with a more auspicious
record.
Finally, can such a peculiar sort of
heredity as Dr. King has found, be
brought into line with what is at
present known or suspected regarding
sex-determination?
There are numerous ways in which it
can be explained, without resorting to
anything mystical. Dr. King has not
yet attempted to offer a definite explana-
and Sex 1]
tion, but suggests that it may be due to
such a simple cause as differences in
the permeability of the eggs. It will
be recalled that there are probably
two kinds of spermatozoa in the rat,
one of which is male-producing and the
other female-producing. As these are
apparently produced in equal numbers,
it is evident that, since there is seem-
ingly only one kind of ovum, the number
of young of each sex produced would of
necessity be equal, unless some outside
cause intervenes.
It is further evident that if the eggs
of a given female were, for some reason,
more easily penetrated by male-pro-
ducing than by female-producing sperms
then that female would tend to produce
an excess of male offspring. If the
condition were reversed, she would
produce an excess of females.
It requires no strain of the imagina-
tion to suppose that a race of rats
might be developed, in which there was
a hereditary tendency in the eggs to be
penetrated more easily by one kind of
spermatozoa than by the other. If so,
the sex-ratios which have resulted from
Dr. King’s breeding experiments would
be easily explained.
Whether that is the actual explana-
tion in this case, and whether some
similar explanation also applies to
the cases which seem to have been
found in cattle and fowls, one cannot
now say. But regardless of explana-
tion, the observed facts seem reasonably
certain, namely, that it is possible fora
tendency to produce disproportionate
numbers of one sex of offspring to be
hereditary in rats, and perhaps in other
animals.
1Dr, King notes that she “‘cannot in any case predict the sex ratio in an individual litter,
since not infrequently the two litters of one female will each contain an excess of males while
the litters of a sister rat, mated to the same brother, will both contain an excess of females. It
is only when we take averages for a large number of individuals that we get the results as indicated.
The average sex ratio for the entire A series is 125 males to 100 females; that for the B
series is only eighty-three males to 100 females.’’
the same direction, in each line, in every generation except one.
seventh in the B line are the exceptions.
The deviation from the usual ratio has been in
The tenth in the A line and the
TWO PHEASANT CROSSES
Reciprocal Matings Give Widely Different Results in Female and Identical Results
in Male Offspring—Females Practically Sexless—Possi-
bility of Sex-Linkage as Explanation
Joun C. Puitiips, Wenham, Mass.
N THE American Naturalist for
1913 (p. 701), the writer described
a reciprocal first cross between
Reeves’ pheasant and the common
ring-neck pheasant (P. torquatus). It
was shown that the males differed very
perceptibly in the two crosses, but of
the females nothing could be learned
because only one female was reared
from the cross of male ring-neck female
Reeves, and none at all in the other
cross.
In order to find out whether these
sterile reciprocal hybrids always differed
in the male sex, and also whether the
females would show any differences,
another cross was carried out in 1914
as a check upon the first experiment.
But in the second experiment the Prince
of Wales pheasant (P. principalis) was
used instead of the P. torquatus.
The P. principalis, a distinct species
of true pheasant, belongs to the dark-
necked, red-rumped group, and has
been used in another cross by me. (See
Jour: Exp. Zool., Vol. 18, p: 93.) -The
striking features of the male are briefly
as follows: neck-ring absent, lesser
and median wing coverts white, with
white shaft stripes on greater coverts;
rump and upper tail coverts orange red,
with a few fine black dots; tail barring
reduced to faint lines. On the other
hand, P. torquatus differs markedly in
these four points, as follows: white
neck-ring well marked; rump greenish
to greenish slate, with subterminal bars
of brilliant green; lesser and median
wing coverts mostly sandy-buff color;
tail barring very marked, especially
towards the tip, where black areas 6 to
12 millimeters wide occur. There are
other differences which need not be
mentioned here. The female of P. prin-
ctpalis is much lighter colored than the
12
torquatus female, but otherwise very
similar, and the two species produce
fertile hybrids.
REEVES PHEASANT
The Reeves pheasant, Syrmaticus
reevest, a familiar aviary species, is a
wholly different looking bird, and be-
longs to a monotypic genus. The male
is entirely unlike any of the true pheas-
ants (Phasianus) in coloring, and has a
tail 3 or 4 feet long. The upper surface
of the body is bright golden color, with
black edgings to the feathers of the
mantle, back and rump, while the breast
and flanks are barred with white, black,
and chestnut. The head is strikingly
marked with black and white. The
female Reeves pheasant is also unlike
any true pheasant, and shows some of
the male characters in her face pattern
and the colors of her mantle, breast,
and flanks.
In this cross, therefore, we have to do
with two species, not only different in
the male sex but wholly unlike in both
sexes and in all plumages, and always
producing absolutely sterile hybrids.
Tn 1914, a Reeves cock was mated
with two Prince of Wales females (Pen
J 1914), and a Prince of Wales cock was
placed with a couple of Reeves females
(Pen K 1914). It may be remarked
that both these parent stocks were
inbred and came from the same grand-
parents. Large numbers of P. princi-
palis have been reared here and no
variations noticed.
From Pen J nine birds were reared
to maturity, four males and five females,
and from Pen kK, one male and three
females. A wandering cat somewhat
curtailed the experiment.
Comparing the two pens of males and
the two pens of females, we get the fol-
DIFFERENCES IN SIZE OF HYBRID PHEASANTS
The small skeleton (a) at the left is that of a female from the cross of a Reeves male pheasant
and Prince of Wales female; while in the middle (6) is the female of the reciprocal cross,
namely, Prince of Wales male and Reeves female.
It is obvious that the latter cross pro-
duces a much larger bird, though the parentage in each case is the same except in the matter
of sex.
in that sex.
(Fig. 2.)
lowing result: Males from J and K
alike, as far as can be determined, but
females from J differ from those in K
in size and color. To explain more
fully let us take up these three points:
Size-—The five J females are uni-
tormly small. They feathered late and
were always lacking in flesh and vigor.
The skeleton is extremely light (see
fig. 2, A), and smaller in every dimen-
sion than its fellow of the opposite cross
(fig. 2, B). Their tails are short and
Reeves-like. They are also much
smaller than other Reeves or principalis
females.
THE RECIPROCAL CROSS
The three K females, on the other
hand, are large heavy birds with long
tails, male-like actions, and in two
cases well-developed spurs. The plate
shows them to be nearly as large as the
male birds and with tails fully as long.
The individual whose skeleton is figured
At the right (c) is a male from either cross, the results being practically identical
did have spurs (fig. 2, B). They are far
larger than the females of either of the
parent species.
Plumage-—The color differences are
fully as remarkable as those of size.
The J females are all alike or very
nearly so, and extremely similar to
Reeves females. The photograph of
the skins shows well the barred appear-
ance of breast and flanks, the chestnut
mantle and the greyish back and rump.
On the other hand, the K females are
extremely male-like, especially in the
markings about the head which in No.
1543 are even more sharply contrasted
than in the specimen shown in the plate
(No. 1542). They are, essentially,
washed-out, coffee-colored imitations of
their brother hybrids and were supposed
to be males until they were dissected.
They differ a little, individually, in the
intensity of their coloration, and in the
development of the male face pattern.
The most extreme, or most Reeves-like,
13
PLUMAGE DIFFERENCES IN RECIPROCAL CROSSES
In the center are males from the two crosses, which are as much alike as one would expect to
find two brothers. At the sides are the females from the same two crosses here we at
once see wide contrasts, in practically every point examined. (a) is female hybrid from
the cross of male Reeves pheasant with female Prince of Wales; (b) is male hybrid from the
same cross: (c) is male hybrid from the cross of male Prince of Wales and female Reeves,
while (d) represents the female hybrid from the cross of Prince of Wales male and Reeves
female. (Fig. 3.)
VENTRAL VIEWS OF THE HYBRIDS
The same birds photographed in fig. 3 are here shown, turned over. The males are seen to be
as much alike below as above, while the differences between the females are even more
striking in this aspect. Arrangement of birds is the same as in the preceding cut, as
follows: (a) female hybrid from cross of Reeves male and Prince of Wales female; (b) male
hybrid from the same cross; (c) male hybrid from cross of male Prince of Wales and female
Reeves; (d) female hybrid from the latter cross. (Fig. 4.)
16 The Journal of Heredity
No. 1543, has a black patch on the
throat and another on the nape, while
the auriculars are blackish and the inter-
mediate region of face and neck white
or buffy. The tails are all barred, but
not coarsely, while the narrow black
streaks on the rump show well the
pattern of the principalis male. These
birds, therefore, show very little in-
fluence of the Reeves female. Compar-
ing them with our one female specimen
from male ring-neck x female Reeves,
the corresponding cross made in 1912,
they appear entirely different. This
female (No. 448) has no trace of male
plumage. She corresponds very closely
to the J females of 1914, but she is much
larger than any of them.
FEMALES ARE SEXLESS
Sex Glands.—Perhaps the greatest
surprise of all was the failure to find
any trace of germinal tissue in any of the
females of either cross. All suspicious
tissue from the proper region was fixed
and sectioned, but the results have been
entirely negative. These sexless birds
are called females on the strength of a
small and flaccid oviduct, normally
placed and present in all cases.
Turning to the males, I find that there
is no trace of a reciprocal difference as
occurred in the Reeves x ring-neck cross
of 1912. Both crosses are darker in color
than the darkest cross of 1912 (male
ring-neck x female Reeves). This fact
may be explained by the generally
darker tone of Prince of Wales males as
compared with ring-neck males. The
tails are always barred, unlike the male
Reeves x female ring-neck cross of 1912.
The ground color of the central tail
feathers is darker than that of the 1912
cross and the backs, scapulars and rumps
are more uniform. No other differences
are apparent, the presence or absence
of neck-ring having no apparent effect
on the pattern of the hybrids.
All the males of the 1912 and of the
1914 crosses are similar in size. The re-
ciprocal difference of male plumage
described for the 1912 cross is trifling
as compared with the wide size and
pattern differences in the females of
the 1914 cross.
Summary.—In the 1914 cross, Reeves
male x Prince of Wales female (cross J)
and in the reciprocal cross Prince of
Wales male x Reeves female (cross K),
the sterile male hybrids are similar and
closely approximate the slightly dif-
ferent reciprocal hybrids of the Reeves
xX ring-neck experiment of 1912. With
the females, however, of the two first-
mentioned crosses, there are almost no
points in common. In cross J they are
shown to be small, fémale-like,*»and
very close to the Reeves female in their
coloring. In cross K they are large
and male-like, with pattern and coloring
of both the male parents. No trace
of a sex gland was found in any of
these females, but a small and thin-
walled oviduct was always ‘present.
These facts are simply given for what
they are worth. The writer does not
feel competent to enter into a discussion
of their possible significance. It is
possible that they may be explained on
the basis of sex linkage, with the as-
sumption that the eggs are dimorphic
and the sperms monomorphic for sex
and sex linked characters, but no proof
is available on account of the impossi-
bility of testing the sterile hybrids.
The most suggestive point about these
hybrids seems to the writer to be the
Reeves-like appearance and puny size
of the females when the male Reeves
was used as a parent. It would almost
seem as if gametes bearing Prince of
Wales characters had been kept apart
in producing these females. Their ex-
tremely small size led to a question as
to the size of their somatic cells.
Rough measurements of their spleen
cells made for me by D. H. Wenrich
failed to reveal any difference of this
sort between K and J females. Ob-
viously the chromosome count would
be of great interest in this case also.
The absence of ovarian tissue is another
curious feature which demands further
experiment to verify completely.
MENDELISM UP TO DATE
A REVIEW
Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel,
published in a provincial journal
the results of his now famous breed-
ing experiments with garden peas. They
lay unnoticed until 1900, when three
other breeders whose work had _ led
them to similar conclusions, almost
simultaneously turned up the work of
Mendel and gave it to the world.
Breeding along the lines marked out
by Mendel at once became the most
popular method of attack, among those
who were studying heredity. It is
largely responsible for the creation of a
new science—genetics.
During the past fifteen years, hun-
dreds of thousands of plants and ani-
mals have been bred under carefully
controlled conditions by men interested
in repeating and extending Mendel’s
conclusions. The publications on the
subject are for the most part brief,
widely scattered, and almost meaning-
less to one who is not in the current of
Mendelian research. This has _pre-
vented many persons from appreciating
the progress of that research in its
broad outlines. The present status of
it is now set forth by Professor T. H.
Morgan of Columbia University, and
three of his associates,’ under the title
of “The Mechanism of Mendelian
Heredity,’’ their account being based
principally on their own work.
Professor Morgan fears that zoologists
and botanists are tending to look on
genetics as a field apart, with which they
have no direct concern. He believes that
this is a mistaken attitude; that every
biologist needs a knowledge of genetics;
and it is to provide the members of the
profession witha succinct account of what
they need to know about this science,
he says, that he and his students have
written the present book.
One of the useful functions of the
‘é IS just half a century since the
volume should be to bring home to
readers who have a little knowledge of
genetics a realization of the fact that
the term ‘‘Mendelism” is nowadays
used to cover a number of distinct and,
in their details, often irreconcilable
views. Professor Morgan’s Mendelism
would hardly be acknowledged as such
by many who think themselves Men-
delists; and other students have ad-
vanced speculatively in certain direc-
tions even farther from the base than
he has.
PROGRESS IN MENDELISM
To put the matter very frankly, we
will have to consider that a large part
of the so-called ‘‘Mendelism” which is
current at present is in some way out
of date. This is perhaps particularly
true of the views held by the rank and
file of eugenists, who are obliged to work
with a material that is in many ways
unsuitable for genetic analysis, and
whose exposition of Mendelian heredity
rarely fails to provoke a smile of pity
from the advanced student in the sub-
ject. A considerable part of the stud-
ents of genetics are, judged by the pres-
ent book, behind the times, and working
with hypotheses that, according to
the authors, will not stand in the light
of some of the recent laboratory work. .
The cause of this state of affairs 1s un-
doubtedly due mainly to the fact that
it has been impossible for students to
get a comprehensive account of recent
developments in the science; they were
seeking for light, but none was given
them.
It is likely, then, that they will wel-
come the illumination of Dr. Morgan
and his co-authors.
Before we analyze their views, how-
ever, let us try to get clearly in mind
the fundamentals of that type of
heredity known as Mendelian.
1 The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, by T. H. Morgan, Professor of Experimental Zoology,
Columbia University; A. H. Sturtevant, Cutting Fellow, Columbia University; H. J. Muller,
Assistant in Zoology, Columbia University; C. B. Bridges, Fellow in Zoology, Columbia Univer-
sity. Pp. xiii+256, figs. 64; bibliography. New York, 1915, Henry Holt and Company.
17
18 The Journal of Heredity
Inherited differences in individuals,
it will be admitted, are due to differ-
ences in their germ plasms. It is
convenient to think of these differences
in germ plasms (that is, differences in
heredity) as being due to the presence
in the germ plasm of certain hypo-
thetical units, which are usually referred
to as factors. The factor, nowadays,
is the ultimate unit of Mendelian
research.
Each of these factors is considered
to be nearly or quite constant,—that is,
it undergoes little, if any, change from
generation to generation. It is not
“contaminated”’ by other factors with
which it may come in contact in the
cell. This is the idea which gives rise
to the phrase “purity of the germ cells.”’
The first fundamental principle of
Mendelism, then, is the existence of
relatively constant units, the Mendelian
unit-factors, as the basis for trans-
mission of all the traits that go to make
up an animal or plant.
ALLELOMORPHISM
From experimental breeding we find
reason to believe that each factor has
one or more alternatives, which may
take its place in the mechanism of
heredity, thereby changing the visible
character of the individual plant or
animal in which it occurs. To put the
matter a little differently, one germ
cell differs from another in having
alternatives present in place of some of
the factors of the latter. A given germ
cell can never have more than one of
the possible alternatives of each factor.
These alternatives of a factor are
called its allelomorphs.
Now a mature germ cell has a single
system of these factors; but when two
germ cells unite, there result from that
union two kinds of cells—namely,
immature germ cells and body cells;
and both these kinds of cells contain a
double system of factors, because of
course they have received a _ single
entire system from each parent. This
is the second of the fundamental
principles of Mendelism: that the factors
are single in the mature germ cell, but
in duplicate in the body cell (and also
in the immature germ cell).
In every cell with a double system of
factors, there are necessarily present
two representatives from each set of
allelomorphs, but these may or may
not be alike—or in technical language
the individual may be homozygous, or
heterozygous, as regards the given set
of alternative factors. Looking at it
from another angle, we see a_ single
visible character in the plant or animal,
but it is produced by a double factor in
the germ plasm.
When the immature germ cell, with
its double system of factors, matures,
it throws out half the factors, retaining
only a single system; and the allelo-
morphic factors which then segregate
into different cells are, as has been said
above, uninfluenced by their stay
together.
But the allelomorphic factors are not
the only ones which are segregated into
different germ cells, at this maturation
of the cell; for the factors which are not
alternative. are likewise distributed,
more or less independently of each
other, so that it is largely a matter of
chance whether factors which enter a
cross in the same germ cell, segregate
into the same germ cell or different ones,
in the next generation. This is the
next fundamental principle of Mendel-
ism, usually comprehended under the
term ‘‘segregation,”’ although, as has been
pointed out, it is really a double process,
the segregation of alternative factors
being a different thing from the segrega-
tion of non-alternative factors.
From this fact of segregation, it
follows that as many kinds of germ
cells can be formed by an individual,
as there are possible combinations of
factors, on taking one alternative from
each pair of allelomorphs present. In
practice, this means that the possible
number of different germ cells is almost
infinitely great, as would perhaps be
suspected by anyone who has tried to
find two living things that are just alike.
THE ESSENCE OF MENDELISM
Such is the essence of Mendelism;
and the reader is probably ready to
admit that it is not a simple matter,
even when reduced to the simplest
terms. To sum up, the principal fea-
Review: Mendelism Up to Date 19
tures at the base of the hypothetical
structure are these:
1. There exist relatively
units in the germ plasm.
2. There are two very distinct rela-
tionships which these units may show
to each other. Two (or more) unit
factors may be alternatives in the
mechanism of inheritance, indicating
that one is a variation (or loss) of the
other; or they may be independent of
each other in the mechanism of inher-
itance.
3. The mature germ cell contains a
single system of independent factors
(one representative from each set of
alternates).
The immature germ cells, and body
cells, have double systems of inde-
pendent factors (two from each set of
alternatives).
4. The double system arises simply
from the union of two single systems
(2. e., two germ cells), without union or
even contamination of the factors
involved.
In the formation of a single system
(mature germ cells) from a double
(immature germ cells), pairs of alter-
nates separate, passing into different
germ cells. Factors not alternates may
or may not separate—the distribution
is largely a matter of chance. This
chance distribution is more or less
disturbed by the phenomenon of linkage,
which will be described later in this
review.
constant
INFLUENCE OF WEISMANN
Such are the fundamental principles
of Mendelism; but on them was early
grafted a theoretical structure due
mainly to the German zoologist, August
Weismann. To understand his part in
the story, we must advert to that much-
mooted and too often misunderstood
problem furnished by the chromosomes.
These little rods of easily stained ma-
terial, which are found in every cell of
the body, were picked out by Weismann
as the probable carriers of heredity.
With remarkable acuteness, he pre-
dicted their behavior at cell-division,
the intricate nature of which is usually
the despair of every beginner in biology.
When Mendelian breeding, in the early
years of this century, showed temporary
pairing and subsequent separation of
units in the germ cell, it was soon
realized that the observed facts of
breeding fitted to a nicety the observed
facts (predicted by Weismann) of chro-
mosome-behavior; for at each cell-
division the chromosomes, too, pair
and separate again. The observed be-
havior of transmitted characters in
animals and plants followed, in so
many cases, the observed behavior of
the chromosomes, that many students
found it almost impossible to believe
that there was no connection between
the two, and Weismann’s prediction,
that the chromosomes are the carriers
of heredity, came to be looked on as a
fact, by many biologists.
But when this much of Weismann’s
system was accepted, other parts of it
went along, including a hypothetical sys-
tem of ‘‘determiners”’ in the chromo-
some, which were believed to determine
the development of characters in the
organism. Every trait of an animal or
plant, it was supposed, must be repre-
sented in the germ-plasm by its own
determiner; one trait, one determiner.
Did we find a notch in the ear running
through a pedigree? Then it must be
due to a determiner for a notch in the
ear in the germ-plasm. Did we find
mathematical ability hereditary? Then
there must be a determiner, the expres-
sion of which was mathematical ability.
For a while, this hypothesis was of
service in the development of genetics;
some students even began to forget that
it was a hypothesis, and to talk as if it
were a fact. But the exhaustive tests
of experimental breeding of plants and
animals have long caused most of the
advanced students of genetics to drop
this simple hypothesis.
In its place, we have the factorial
hypothesis, evolved by workers in Amer-
ica, England, and France at about the
same time, and of which the work of
Morgan and his associates at Columbia
University is one of the solid bases. It
is the hypothesis accepted by a majority
of the leading American geneticists at
the present day; unfortunately it 1s
scarcely apprehended by many who are
not actively working in genetics, and
20 The Journal
a few who are. Eugenists, for example,
almost to a man have failed to adopt
this hypothesis.
FACTORS ARE NUMEROUS
They tend to cling to the old Weis-
mannian idea of one determiner for each
visible ‘“‘unit character.’’ Morgan and
most of the advanced students of the
subject declare flatly that such an idea
is, in the light of recent research, abso-
lutely untenable. In place of it they
have adopted the hypothesis that each
visible character is due to the coopera-
tion of an indefinitely large number of
factors in the germ-plasm; and con-
versely, that each single one of these
factors produces an influence on an
indefinitely large number of traits.
It is of the utmost importance that
this hypothesis should be understood,
for it is the basis of a large part of the
work in genetics today. Those who
accept it must give up talking about,
e. g., Roman nose being due to a deter-
miner for Roman nose in the germ-
plasm. The modern view would say
that the ‘‘Romanness”’ of the nose 1s
due to the interaction of a very large
number of factors, each of which, in
turn, is also probably influencing an
indefinitely large number of other char-
acters in the body.
This is not a mere speculative hypoth-
esis—the authors look on it as almost a
demonstrated fact. For example, the
little pomace fly, Drosophila, which they
have been breeding in immense numbers,
has normally a red eye. At an earlier
day it would have been assumed that it
the color of the eyes to be red. But in
the course of the breeding, as many as
twenty-five distinct mutations in this
eye color have come to light. It is,
therefore, their assumption that at
least twenty-five different factors are
concerned in the production of this red
eye coler, and that when a single one of
these factors changes, a different end
result is produced, such as pink eyes, or
vermilion eyes, or white eyes, or eosin
eyes.
‘Each such color may be the product
of twenty-five factors (probably of many
more) and each set of twenty-five or
of Heredity
more differs from the normal in a differ-
ent factor. It is this one different factor
that we regard as the ‘unit factor’ for
this particular effect, but obviously it
is only one of the twenty-five unit
factors that are producing the effect.
However, since it is only this one factor
and not all twenty-five which causes
the difference between this particular
eye color and the normal, we get simple
Mendelian segregation in respect to this
difference. In this sense we may say
that a particular factor (p) is the cause
of pink, for we use cause here in the
sense in which science always uses this
expression, namely, to mean that a par-
ticular system differs from another
system only in one special factor.
EFFECT OF ONE FACTOR
“The converse relation is also true,
namely, that a single factor may affect
more than one character. For example,
the factor for rudimentary wings in
Drosophila affects not only the wings,
but the legs, the number of eggs laid,
the viability, etc. Indeed, in his defi-
nition of mutation, De Vries supposed
that a change in a unit factor involves
all parts of the body. The germ-cells
may be thought of as a mixture of many
chemical substances, some of them more
closely related to the production of a
special character, color, for example,
than are others. If any one of the sub-
stances undergoes a change, however
slight, the end product of the activity
of the germ-cell may be different. All
sorts of characters might be affected
by the change, but certain parts might
be more conspicuously changed than
are others. It is these more obvious
effects that we seize upon and call ‘unit
characters.’ It is the custom of most
writers to speak of the most affected
part as a ‘unit character,’ and to disre-
gard minor or less obvious changes in
other parts. They frequently speak of a
unit character as the result of a unit
factor, forgetting that the unit character
may be only one effect of the factor.”’
It is hardly necessary to insist on the
far-reaching practical importance of
this changed viewpoint. Nor is it neces-
sary to insist on the slight degree to
which it has so far been apprehended
Review: Mendelism Up to Date 21
by the public, for a glance over the
great body of semi-popular writings on
genetics, particularly as concerned with
man, will show that the primitive and
charmingly simple idea of. ‘‘one char-
acter, one determiner”’ still prevails.?
In addition to this fundamental re-
vision of the hypothesis by which the
observed facts of Mendelian heredity
are explained, we have some extensions
that are of great importance. The first
to be considered here is connected with
the now widely-accepted hypothesis that
the chromosomes furnish the basis for
Mendelian heredity.
With the adoption of this hypothesis,
it was obvious from the beginning, as
the authors point out, “that there was
one essential requirement of the chromo-
some view [of heredity], namely, that
all the factors carried by the same
chromosome should tend to remain to-
gether. Therefore, since the number of
heritable characters may be large in
comparison with the number of pairs
of chromosomes, we should expect ac-
tually to find not only the independent
behavior of pairs, but also cases in which
characters are linked together in groups
in their inheritance. Even in species
where a limited number of Mendelian
units are known, we should still expect
to find some of them in groups.”’
LINKAGE OF FACTORS
Bateson and Punnett, in 1906, made
the discovery which according to Mor-
gan meets this need; the phenomenon
is now called linkage. Its importance
in the theory can be understood from
the fact that in the fruit-fly (Droso-
phila), the principal material for work
at Columbia University, more than a
hundred separate factors have been
studied in heredity, and they have
been found to be linked together in
only four systems (corresponding to the
four chromosomes of the fly), one of
which contains, so far as is now known,
but two factors.
After it was found that factors were
linked together the question naturally
arose, Do they always remain linked,
or do they sometimes break away and
form new combinations? Experimental
breeding has shown that the latter is
the case. Another item is therefore
added to the outline of Mendelism:
crossing over, in which a character leaves
the group to which it is normally linked,
and unites with the alternative group.
This behavior can be plausibly explained
through the chromosome mechanism;
for at one period in their history the
chromosomes unite and then split. It
is evident that a crossing over of various
A B C D
CROSSING OVER
Diagram representing the way factors may
cross from one chromosome to another.
At the level where the black and white
rod cross at (a) they fuse and unite
separating as shown in (d). The details
of the crossover are shown in (b) and (c).
From Morgan et al. (Fig. 5.)
factors might be quite possible at this
time.
Starting with this fact of crossing over
the authors reached another conception,
which is one of the newest developments
in heredity and which seems to give us
such a precise knowledge of this phase
of inheritance that many workers con-
template it aghast, holding their breaths
and hardly daring to believe that we
can have traveled so far in the explor-
ation of a territory that was not long
ago thought pathless. This conception
which has been lately introduced by
Morgan and his associates is that of
the linear arrangement of factors.
2 It is worth noting that a large part of the attacks on Mendelism are based on this older inter-
pretation of it. When critics prove to their own satisfaction, in many pages of evidence, that the
idea of ‘‘one character, one determiner,’’ which they consider to be Mendelian, is perfectly mon-
strous, the advanced Mendelist merely smiles and agrees with them. The factorial hypothesis
is untouched by most of the shots at ‘‘ Mendelism”’ in general.
22 The Journal of Heredity
The curious and definite facts which
have led to this conception must be
dealt with in explaining heredity by any
hypothesis, but seem to fall in exactly
with the chromosome hypothesis which
is adopted by the authors. We start
with the idea that the factors are car-
ried in the chromosomes, and that from
time to time they cross over from one
to another, after the manner diagramat-
ically shown in Fig. 5. When the rela-
tive frequency of the occurrence of the
various possible crossovers was tabulated
it was found that they were made with
a certain regularity, which was hardly
compatible with the idea that the factors
were swimming around at large in the
chromosome, or that they changed places
without any provocation. It was found
almost necessary to assume that they
had definite stations, that each factor
was regularly located at a certain defi-
nite point in the chromosome.
PROOF OF LINEAR ARRANGEMENT
That assumption is exactly what the
authors have made; and, as they have
had a great number of cases of crossing
over to study, they have been able
actually to draw a map of the four
chromosomes possessed by Drosophila,
and to locate in them the various traits
which they have studied. The correct-
ness of their map can be tested in a very
ingenious way:
“The chance that such a process of
crossing over will occur between any
two given points on the chromosome
should obviously be greater, the greater
the distance between these points. If
then the Mendelian factors lie along the
chromosome, the amount of crossing
over between any two of them will
depend on their distance apart. Should
two points lie near together a crossover
will only rarely occur between them;
if they lie further apart the chance of
such a crossover taking place at some
point between them will be greater.
From this point of view the percentage
of crossing over is the expression of the
‘distance’ of the factors from each other.”’
In other words, this is a case where
we can ask, and receive, definite mathe-
matical evidence to support the idea
of linear arrangement. We need only
examine the behavior of a group of
factors that are not too far apart. If
we find that factors A and B are
crossing over four times in a hundred
opportunities, while factors B and C are
giving twelve crossovers in the same
number of chances, then we should
expect to find that the number of crosses
of A and C is either the sum or the
difference of these two numbers—. e.,
sixteen or eight—depending on whether
C hes to the one side or the other of
A and B. Having ascertained the
relative position of C, we then go on to
D, E, and all the other factors that we
find in the group, and which are fairly
close together—for if they are far apart,
the crossing over will be disturbed, for
reasons that need not be described
here. The authors say that they have
actually got the definite numerical
results expected, and these have enabled
them to draw the chromosome map
which they print as a frontispiece.
The idea of linear arrangement of the
factors, it should be added, depends at
present almost wholly on the work of
the authors, few other geneticists hav-
ing suitable material for testing it. The
authors have shown that it fits some of
the results obtained by Bateson and
his associates, which were explained by
those experimenters on a different basis.
It is not possible here to discuss any -
of the other conceptions of Mendelian
heredity, which the authors describe, but
enough has perhaps been said to make
the reader realize that the modern ideas
of Mendelian heredity, differing widely
from the earlier ideas which went under
the same name, are decidedly complex,
but exact.
Just how far are they facts, and how
far theories, the reader may well ask.
It can only be replied that beyond the
observed results of hybridization, all
is hypothesis. Many who are engaged
in the study of heredity do not even
accept-the hypothesis that the chromo-
somes are the carriers of the substances
or factors which lie at the base of heredity.
Nevertheless, Dr. Morgan is unques-
tionably correct when he remarks in
the preface that the view set forth in
the book, a few features of which have
been glanced at in this review, is the
Review: Mendelism Up to Date eatao
view held by a large number of those
who have gone most deeply into the
subject. :
“Exception,’’ he continues, “may
perhaps be taken to the emphasis we
have laid on the chromosomes as the
material basis of inheritance. Whether
we are right here, the future—probably
a very near future—will decide. But
it should not pass unnoticed that even
if the chromosome theory be denied,
there is no result dealt with in the fol-
lowing pages that may not be treated
independently of the chromosomes; for,
we have made no assumption concern-
ing heredity that cannot also be made
abstractly without the chromosomes as
bearers of the postulated hereditary
factors. Why, then, we are often asked,
do you drag in the chromosomes? Our
answer is that since the chromosomes
furnish exactly the kind of mechanism
that the Mendelian laws call for, and
since there is an ever-increasing body of
information that points clearly to the
chromosomes as the bearers of the
Mendelian factors, it would be folly
to close one’s eyes to so patent a rela-
tion. Moreover, as biologists, we are
interested in heredity not primarily as
a mathematical formulation but rather
as a problem concerning the cell, the
egg, and the sperm.”’ .
To this the reviewer can add that
the chromosome view appears to have
gained ground in America during the
past year or two, among these who are
most competent to hold an opinion on
the subject; and that despite the strong
opposition of some biologists of note, no
alternative explanation has been put
’ ‘
forward which has met with any except
a limited acceptation.
Finally, to sum up the main features
of the mechanism of Mendelian hered-
ity, as understood by the authors of the
book under discussion, and many other
geneticists, we find among our ideas the
following:
1. That the various characters which
make up the physical constitution of any
individual plant or animal are due to the
action (concurrently with the environ-
ment, of course) of what we term, for
convenience, factors, separable hypo-
thetical units in the germ-plasm, capable
of independent transmission.
2. That each visible character is due
to the cooperative action of an indefi-
nitely large number of factors (for such
a simple creature as the fly Drosophila,
there may be ten or twenty millions);
conversely, that each of these factors
affects an indefinitely large number of
characters.
3. That these factors, or their ma-
terial bases, are passed from one genera-
tion to another in certain bodies called
chromosomes, in the egg and sperm.
4. That the factors are generally
linked together in groups, each chro-
mosome having a group of its own; that
they are arranged along the chromo-
some in a linear series, but sometimes
change places with each other by
“crossing over.’’ To these propositions
there are a number of corollaries which °
cannot here be mentioned.
If the conclusions above listed stand
the test of time in anything like their
present form, genetics can well challenge
every other science to produce a greater
body of results in fifteen years.
High Fecundity in Hens Not a Unit Character
An editorial footnote attached to Slocum’s article on poultry breeding in the
November issue of the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY (p. 485) unintentionally misrepre-
sented the work of Dr. Raymond Pearl and the Maine Experiment Station, by stating
their conclusions to be based on the belief that high egg production in hens is a
unit character.
This statement was entirely incorrect.
Dr. Pearl has presented
data in several papers to show that fecundity in poultry is a character influenced
by at least three separate and distinct heritable factors.
that he thought it a unit character.
He has never stated
SAVING THE KOKIO TREE
Wild Relative of Cultivated Cottons Becomes Nearly Extinct in Hawaii, But is
Rescued For Plant Breeders—May Be of Value in Hybridiza-
tion—-Other Species Similarly Threatened
Rospert A. YOUNG
O ffice of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, Washington, D. C.,
AND THE EDITOR
HEN Captain Cook discov-
ered the Sandwich (Ha-
waiian) Islands in 1778, the
naturalist, Nelson, who was
in his party, collected specimens of a
tree cotton indigenous to the islands,
and later deposited them in the British ~
Museum. From the imperfect speci-
mens there, Seeman described! the spe-
cies as Gossypium drynartoides.
The plant was long lost to sight; many
years later three trees were found by a
colonist, but again lost; and when Hille-
brand, in 1888, described the flora of
the Hawaiian Islands, he was able to
cite? only five trees of this species. “It
is much to be feared,’’ he added, ‘‘that
this rare and interesting tree is doomed
to extinction, as it grows in regions
mostly accessible to cattle.”’
The tree mentioned was known to the
natives as kokio (pronounced ko-kee’-o) ;
its close relationship to the commercial
cotton plants is indicated by the fact
that Seeman placed it in the same genus.
Reaching a height of 12 to 25 feet, it
produces large, somewhat trumpet-
shaped, brick-red flowers, the petals of
which are 3 to 4 inches long; and later
each flower gives rise to a seed boll,
containing several seeds covered with a
short, reddish-brown hair.
In itself, it appears to have no eco-
nomic importance; but since the rise of
the science of genetics has given breeders
such a keen realization of the value of
the wild relatives of important culti-
vated plants, it was impossible that
1 Seeman in Fl, Vit., 1865, p. 22.
genus should receive this tree.
2 Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, by William Hillebrand, M.D.
24
this wild cotton should escape consider-
ation, as of possible value in hybridi-
zation with the low-growing species
commonly cultivated. But when the
attempt was made to get this tree-
cotton, it was found to be almost too
late. There was grave doubt as to
whether the tree could be saved
from absolute extinction. It is the
purpose of this paper to describe the
measures by which an exceedingly rare
plant of great interest has been saved
from perishing altogether.
BOTANISTS BECOME INTERESTED
It was in 1911 that this red cotton of
Hawaii came to the attention of the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro-
duction of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, through the receipt
of four seed bolls from the Superin-
tendent of Forestry in Honolulu. The
data in regard to the kokio, at that time
available to men of science, were
exceedingly meager, consisting, aside
from a few specimens, of very short and
incomplete botanical descriptions. As
the seed came in as a cotton, it was
referred to Frederick L. Lewton, curator
of the division of textiles of the United
States National Museum, who was
greatly interested in the cotton genus.
He at once recognized the value of the
material and upon his suggestion a
request for more was sent back to
Honolulu. Shortly afterward a few
more seeds were secured through the
activity of Joseph F. Rock, the botanist
He notes that he was undecided for some time as to what
Heidelberg, 1888, p, 51.
THE KOKIO TREE OF HAWAII
An almost extinct relative of the cultivated cotton, the seeds of which have been distributed
to the Botanic Gardens of the world, in an attempt to save it from extinction. Whether
it will cross with the cultivated cottons, and what the hybrid would be, are yet unknown.
This tree stands on an old lava bed in the Island of Hawaii, and, through the action of the
United States Secretary of Agriculture and the Governor of Hawaii, has been protected
from destruction by cattle. (Fig. 6.)
26 The Journal
who had collected the seed—who had,
in fact, actually discovered the trees
from which the seed came.
When it was realized, not only that
this wild cotton was scarce but that it
might in a few years, or even in a few
months, become extinct altogether, the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro-
duction took immediate steps to arouse
interest in preserving it. The narrow
margin of safety will be realized from
an extract of one of Mr. Rock’s letters
dated March, 1912:
“T have been on the island of Hawaii
for two months and have just visited
the section in which these most inter-
esting and beautiful trees grow. I am
sorry to say that some of the trees I
found alive on my last visit have died;
but I found another section where
there are three more trees in very good
condition. I have brought up the ques-
tion of preserving these trees, but until
now hardly anything has been done.
“The lessee of the land of Puuwaa-
waa, where some of the trees grow, has
just applied for some more land where
these last-found trees grow, and I have
suggested that it be made a condition
in the lease that these trees be fenced
off in such a way as to protect them
from any kind of animal. Each tree
will be given an area of half an acre, in
order to protect the growth of young
trees. The question now 1s to protect
the trees by law from the inhabitants,
who strip the trees of their bark, which
they use in dyeing their fish-nets; the
color of the sap is reddish and it is
waterproof.”
DANGER FROM CATTLE
Mr. Rock adds that the trees grow
on very arid land where vegetation is
scarce; cattle therefore strip the trees
of all the branches they can reach. The
fruiting season is in July or earlier.
“On Molokai,” he continues, ‘the
of Heredity
kokio has become a thing of the past,
as the last tree which I found on the
west end of the island has succumbed
to the ravages of sheep, goats, and
cattle.
‘““Many are the trees that should be
protected; for example, the newly-
described genus, Hibiscadelphus, with
two species, of each of which there is
only one tree in existence.’ Cattle are
doing great harm to the native trees,
and I venture to say that not many
years hence these interesting plants
will be a thing of the past.”
It was thereupon arranged to have
all the available kokio seed in Hawaii
gathered each year and sent to Wash-
ington, and the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture wrote the governor
of Hawaii on the subject. He promptly
took steps to protect the kokio trees,
in an effective way.
Meantime, Mr. Lewton had been
studying botanical specimens which Mr.
Rock had collected from the island of
Hawaii, and found they were different
from those earlier described from the
islands of Molokai and Oahu. Further
deciding that the kokio was too different
from the true cottons to be included in
the same genus, he established the new
genus, Kokia,* for them, retaining the
original form as K. drynarioides and
giving to the form from Hawaii the
name KX. rocki, in honor of its discoverer.
In the next year several pounds of
kokio seed were received by the Office
of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
and distributed to more than sixty
botanical institutions throughout the
world, mostly in tropical and subtropical
countries. In general, attempts to grow
the seed met with poor success, but
they were established in several different
localities. The distribution will be con-
tinued for some time, in order that this
genus may become as widely dispersed
as possible.
3 The loss to science, if any considerable part of the native flora of the Hawaiian Islands is
destroyed, may be inferred from the fact that about 80% of the species in the islands are endemic—
that is, are found in no other region.
is surpassed only by Western Australia, where it approaches 85.
species in Central America is 70, in India 60, in Ceylon less than 30.
Excluding small islands such as St. Helena, this percentage
The percentage of endemic
It is obvious that the loss
of a species from Hawaii will in four cases out of five mean its loss to the entire world.
4 Lewton, Frederick .L. Kokia.
Vol. 60, part 5, Oct. 22, 1912.
accented on the middle syllable.
A new genus of Hawaiian trees.
Like the native name on which it is founded, this generic name is
Smithsonian Mise. Coll.,
joe quotwiuseA0s Aq poddoys Mou st ynq ‘sao1} oY} Jo AULT Jo UOTJONAYJSOp 9Yyy4 0} Poy sey 2 sorjorad SIL ‘sje Ysy & suroAp Ut
posn pue seer} oy} Worf poddriys st yreq oy} nq ‘soATzeu oy} AG posn oq 0} UOT JOU ore Speos oy], {}8U9] Ul Your ue Jo siozzenb
-991Y} 0} J[eY-9uo WOT] ATTENSN ore YOM ‘spoos osey} UO Mey pod Jo ZuUIJOACO yIOYS oY} SMOYsS ‘posiejUS ATYSIY AsoA ‘yYdesSojoyd oy J
qauL OIMOM FHL AO SAAS
28 The Journal
While ona visit to the Hawaiian Islands
in the summer of 1913 to study the
taro industry, the senior author made a
trip to the North Kona region on Hawaii
where the kokio is found, and through
the courtesy of Robert Hind, owner of
the Hind Ranch at Puuwaawaa, was
enabled to visit the trees nearest the
ranch headquarters. The hearty co-
operation of Mr. Hind was an important
factor in successfully carrying out the
plan to protect, by fencing, the larger
grove of kokio trees on the leased
Government land.
GROWS ON LAVA BED
The little group visited, consisting of
four trees, is perhaps a mile from the
headquarters, which are at the base of
the old volcanic cone, Puuwaawaa, on
the slope of Mt. Hualalai. Immediately
on leaving the grounds about the house
one comes to the lava bed on which the
kokio trees grow. This bed, while
more or less covered with scrubby
growth, has as yet scarcely begun to
decompose, and is therefore exceedingly
rough and difficult to traverse, even on
horseback. The residence on the ranch
is at about 2,700 feet elevation, while
the kokio trees are a few hundred feet
lower. The annual rainfall at the
ranch averages 29 inches but is probably
much less where the kokio trees grow;
besides this, the dry air and the winds
of Heredity
which frequently follow the showers,
quickly absorb the moisture from the
rocky soil. The flora of the lava bed
is of a desert type.
The trees do not stand close together;
in some cases they are separated by
several hundred feet. They are sur-
rounded by the shrubs and weeds com-
mon to the lava field in that vicinity.
The photograph of the best of the four
trees, reproduced on another page,
shows the general habit of growth at
this place, and the surrounding vege-
tation. It fails, however, to give any
idea of the rough character of the sur-
face of the lava. Much of the shrubbery
had to be broken down before the tree
could be photographed satisfactorily.
The other trees in this group were less
regular in form and more spreading in
proportion to their height than the one
shown. Mr. Hind is standing beside
the tree.
As a result of four years of diligent
effort, the kokio may safely be con-
sidered now to have passed beyond the
danger of extinction. It is to be hoped
that equally successful efforts will be
made to save other wild relatives of
cultivated plants, not only from senti-
mental reasons but because any one of
them, even the least promising in ap-
pearance, may turn out, in the hands of
plant breeders, to be of great value to
the world’s agriculture.
New Publication on Eugenics
“Eugenical News,” a bi-monthly newspaper published by the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island,
its first volume, under date of January, 1916.
Primarily intended to disseminate news about the Record Office, it will
inches.
N. Y., has appeared in the first issue of
It covers four pages, six by nine
also include within its scope news of the progress of eugenic research in general,
of new laws and institutions which bear on eugenics, and ‘“‘facts as to differential
fecundity, facts as to the control of the death rate of different social classes and of
national immigration and emigration.”
SEX IN LIVESTOCK BREEDING
Inheritance of Many Characters is Affected by Sex, but this Phase of Heredity
Does Not Offer Great Possibilities to the Practical Breeder
at the Present Time
E. N. WENTWORTH
Professor of Animal Breeding, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.
OMATICALLY there are four
types of inheritance with refer-
ence to sex. The first category
of character is entirely inde-
pendent of sex; the second is linked to
the sex-determining factor in trans-
mission; the third differs in expression
according to sex, although the zygotic
constitution is the same; and _ the
fourth is confined to one sex, although
it may appear in a rudimentary form
in the other. The first two groups
develop independently of the secretions
of the sex glands, the second two are
conditioned in their development by the
presence and activity of the testes or
ovaries. In the first group fall the
great bulk of characters observed in
domestic animals; in the second a
number of characters observed in insects,
birds and man; in the third a few cases
in mammals with an instance or two
in insects; and in the fourth, the mass
of secondary sexual differences found
in birds and mammals. Just where the
secondary sex characters of insects
should be included is at present doubt-
ful.!
CHARACTERS INDEPENDENT OF SEX
Evidence on characters totally un-
related to sex is unquestioned, the
hundreds of experiments substantiating
Mendel’s law being cases in point.
Some of these discoveries have been of
real economic interest, as for example
the transmission of the polled character
in cattle or the inheritance of coat-color
in horses.
SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
The second group of characters has
been of particular interest to investiga-
tors, because of the parallelism afforded
between the transmission of such char-
acters and the distribution of the so-
called X-chromosome in gametogenesis
and fertilization. The practical ap-
plication of this knowledge, however,
seems at present limited to the field of
poultry, although there are certain facts
which point to an ultimate usefulness in
the breeding of dairy cattle.
THE BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK
The knowledge (Spillman, Goodale,
Pearl and Surface) that the cock has
apparently two doses of the sex-linked
characters, while the hen has but one,
has proved of value in the breeding of
Barred Plymouth Rocks to the show
standard. A certain shade of barring
is desired in this breed and it has always
been a difficult problem to get flocks that
would produce both males and females
that were standard. When standard
males were mated to standard females,
the progeny were too light and the
females were too dark. Cocks that
sired standard females always sired
light males, while cocks that sired
standard males always had to be mated
to dark females for this purpose and
moreover produced very dark daughters.
The apparent explanation of this
difficulty is that the factors which
reduce the degree of pigmentation and
produce the white bars are cumulative
in effect, and the male that is duplex for
the barring factor is lighter than a
simplex male or the female. One
needs, then, two flocks in order to
produce standard fowls. The female
producing flock will have light males
while the male producing flock will
1If the sexual glands of caterpillars are removed at a very early age, the butterflies produced by
these caterpillars nevertheless show all the expected secondary sexual characteristics.
It appears,
then, that these characteristics are wholly independent of the secretions of the reproductive
organs.
29
30 The Journal
utilize standard males and dark females.
While this is the natural explanation of
the facts, and gives the desired results,
it would be far better for breeders to
recognize that there is a true sex differ-
ence, and to make the standard for
females proportionately darker then
the standard for males.
HIGH EGG LAYING POWER
Pearl (1912) has rendered a great
service from an econcmic standpoint
through his discovery that high laying
is inherited as a sex-linked factor. By
high laying is meant the ability to
produce more than thirty eggs during
the winter laying period of the pullet
year. This is simply a standard which
by careful mathematical methods has
been shown to be very closely correlated
with high laying throughout life. It
does not mean that a hen which does
this and then stops laying is a high
layer, although such a hen is probably
potentially a high producer, her failure
being due to some extraneous cause.
By selecting the males and females on
the old idea of breeding the best to the
best (males from two-hundred-egg hens
to females laying above 150 eggs),
during a period of ten years, there was
no significant change in the mean pro-
duction of the flock. As soon as the
system of selection was based on the
knowledge that the high laying was due
to the inheritance of a_ sex-linked
factor (Pearl, 1915), the average began to
rise and in the first year, November, 1913,
to July, 1914, the flock produced more
eggs per hen than even in an artificial
year made up of the best months during
the ten years of mass selection.
POSSIBILITIES IN DAIRY CATTLE
Cole mentions the fact that dairy
cattle men have believed that the male
influences the milk flow of the daughters
more than the female does, ard quotes
one or two authors on the subject.
Definite evidence on the point is difficult
to obtain, although there have been
suggestions at various times that sex-
linkage may be involved. Ina study of
5,691 Holstein cows with their daugh-
ters, two of the writer’s former students,
Hills and Boland, discovered a corre-
of Heredity
lation of 0.29 between the maternal
records and those of the offspring.
If the cow is homozygous for the
sex factor, as seems probable, and if
the animals studied were perfectly
heterogeneous, this might indicate a
sex-linkage of certain of the production
factors, as a correlation of less than .25
would normally exist. An alternative
explanation is possible, however, as the
material studied was selected on an
advanced registry (high production)
basis, and the daughters which failed to
attain the standard were not included
among the advanced registry indivi-
duals. This would tend to raise the
correlation coefficient perhaps suffici-
ently to account for the amount noted.
SEX-LIMITED INHERITANCE
What was designated in the first
paragraph as the third type of inheri-
tance has frequently been assumed to be
a form of sex-linked inheritance. Arkell
and Davenport have devised a scheme
which bridges all of the voids between
the true sex-linked inheritance and the
characters whose expression is affected
by the sex gland, but it is doubtful
whether such an explanation is necessary
since that assumed by Professor Wood,
the discoverer of the phenomenon, is
both simple and reasonable.
Wood crossed Suffolk sheep, polled in
both sexes, with Dorset sheep, horned
in both sexes, and obtained horned
males and polled females. When such
crossbred horned rams and polled ewes
were mated, the male offspring showed
three horned individuals to one polled,
while the female offspring showed one
horned individual to three polled. Dom-
inance was reversed in the two sexes,
the horned character being dominant
in the male and the polled character
being dominant in the female.
A few years ago the writer discovered
a character in swine which showed a
similar mechanism of inheritance. On
the lower part of the scrotum of the
male, and well to the rear of the in-
guinal pair of mamme in the female,
there frequently occurs a small rudi-
mentary pair of mamme. This char-
acter has been shown to be dominant
in the male and recessive in the female,
Wentworth: Sex in Livestock Breeding 3]
as a result of observations on a large
number of animals, about 3,000, and
also as a result of a few directed crosses.
This last spring, due to the kindness
and cooperation of Professor O. E.
Reed, of the department of dairy
husbandry, Kansas State Agricultural
College, facilities were extended the
writer whereby another character was
discovered which falls within this cate-
gory. The Ayrshire herd bull, Melrose
Good Gift, is a dark mahogany and
white in color, what is popularly known
as black. The occurrence of black and
white Ayrshires was recently discussed
in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY by
Kuhlman. It is difficult to determine
whether the dark hairs are due to exces-
sive deposition of red pigment within
the hair or whether there is really a
black pigment. Microscopic examina-
tion seems to indicate the latter condi-
tion, but the statement is only tentative.
When Melrose Good Gift was mated
to red females, his male offspring were
all black and his female offspring were
all red. Nine black males and eight
red females have resulted from this
cross to date. Matings representing
the F, cross are very few, only two being
available. One black bull and one
black heifer have resulted. The black
is the most reasonable expectation in
the male, but the chances in the female
would be three reds to one black. Two
black cows are in the herd and their
progeny are as follows: one black male
and three black females by the homozy-
gous black bull (the expectation) ; two
black males, two black females, and one
red female by heterozygous black bulls
(also the expectation); and one black
male and one red female by red bulls
(the same types as in the first cross
mentioned). Other types of crosses
exist, all of which supply confirmatory
evidence for the conclusions already
drawn.
SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERS
The term sex-limited inheritance was
first used for the secondary sexual
characters, but its usage has varied so
that the writer prefers to adopt the
terminology herein presented. In-
formation on these characters is classic,
Darwin having dealt with them in an
exhaustive manner in the materials
supporting his theory of sexual selec-
tion. Sex differences are familiar to
the livestock breeder, the inhibition of
their development by unsexing being
common, and it is doubtful if there are
any practical possibilities involved in
this subject that are not already
realized by the breeder.
APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL BREEDING
The breeder’s problem relating to sex
and livestock is the practical one. It
can hardly be denied that either form
of sex-affected inheritance exists, but
the breeder requires more than. the
mere existence of a fact to make use of
it. The study of the individual char-
acter has shown that its distribution can
be controlled with little difficulty, but
no practical means is known of beating
the old method of mating the best to
the best, when the large number of
characters are concerned on _ which
pure-bred selection is based. In the
face of Pearl’s remarkable work on
poultry, it seems ultra-conservative to
make this statement, but no one has
yet shown how any of the Mendelian
knowledge can be applied to the breed-
ing of Poland-China or Hereford. The
livestock industry is so much more
intimately involved with finances than
with ultimate breed improvement that
it is not fair to ask any related biological
fact to reduce itself to monetary terms.
Some facts have been able to be so
reduced, but the majority may never be.
Yet this condition is by no means a
cause for despair, as the solution is per-
haps not distant. In the meantime the
geneticist will continue to contribute his
quota to livestock breeding, whether his
contribution be ‘‘linked”’ or ‘‘limited,”’
remembering that in the course of the
world that which is most fundamental
is ultimately the most practical.
32 The Journal of Heredity
LITERATURE CITED
Arkell, T. R., and Davenport, C. B. (1912).
“Horns in Sheep as a Typical Sex-Limited
Character.”» ‘Science, N-- $S:, Vol: 35, “pp:
375-377.
Cole, L. J. (1913). ‘‘Sex-Limited Inherit-
ance.’’ American Breeder’s Magazine, Vol.
IV, pp. 154-161.
Goodale, H. D. (1909). ‘Sex and Its
Relation to the Barring Factor in Poultry.”
Science, N. S., Vol. 29, p. 1004.
Hills, F. B., and Boland, E. N. (1912).
“Segregation of Fat Factors in Milk Produc-
tion.’’ Proc. lowa Academy of Science, Vol.
XX, pp. 195-197.
Kuhlman, A. H. (1915). “Black and
White Ayrshires.”” Journal of Heredity, Vol.
VI, pp. 314-322.
Pearl, R. (1912). ‘‘The Mode of Inherit-
ance of Fecundity in the Domestic Fowl.”
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 13, pp.
153-268.
Pearl, R. (1915). ‘‘Mendelian Inheritance
of Fecundity in Domestic Fowl, and Average
Flock Production.’’ American Naturalist, Vol.
XLIX, pp. 306-317.
Pearl, R., and Surface, F. M. (1910).
“Further Data Regarding the Sex-Limited
Inheritance of the Barred Color Pattern in
Poultry.” Science, N. S., Vol. 32, p. 870.
Spillman, W. J. (1908). ‘‘Notes on Her-
edity: Spurious Allelomorphism.’’ American
Naturalist, Vol. 42, pp.
Spillman, W. J. (1909).
Barred Plymouth Rocks.”
No. 11, pp. 7-8.
Wentworth, E. N. (1913). ‘Inheritance of
Mammae in Duroc Jersey Swine.’”” American
Naturalist, Vol. XLVII, pp. 257-278.
Wood, T. B. (1905). ‘‘Note on the In-
heritance of Horns and Face Color in Sheep.”
Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 1, pp.
364-365.
“Barring in
Poultry, Vol. 5,
Race Hygiene in Germany
The semi-official ‘‘Deutsche Zentralstelle fur Volkswohlfahrt,’’ corresponding
to the United Charities in America, held a three days’ meeting in the parliament in
Berlin from October 26 to 28, 1915, with about 1,000 delegates attending. The
conference was called ‘““Tagung fir die Erhaltung und Mehrung der deutschen
Volkskraft,’’ with the purpose to find ways and means against the evil consequences
of war and modern civilization which menace the vitality of the race. The war
kills the best, the bravest, the healthiest, eradicating once for all the finest strains
in the race; and city life with all its attendances causes a declining birth rate.
The discussion was marked by a unanimity seldom seen in such a large audience.
The dominating undertone was race hygiene. Whereas eugenics in America has
a restrictive tendency, seeking to check the propagation of the unfit, race hygiene
in Germany always was a positive conception aiming at the multiplication of the
fit. Thus the conference laid much stress upon everything which may elevate the
birth rate of the best in the nation, but thought the introduction of sterilization
of defectives or of marriage certificates untimely as yet. Simplicity in customs
and mode of life, a full understanding of individual duty towards society, a high
valuation of family life, inner colonization (‘‘back to the farm’’ movement), the
system of one-family houses, garden cities, and chiefly the assistance of large
healthy families in every way; these were the main remedies proposed, the details
of which were fully discussed but cannot be enumerated in a short review. A
standing committee representing all societies concerned is now in formation with
the view to see the propositions worked out in practice.
G. von HOFFMANN, Berlin.
An Important Character in Grains
Certain varieties of wheats, oats and barleys are characterized by fragile
articulations, so that the ripe grains easily fall from the head, thus causing a con-
siderable loss of grain before threshing. In crosses, such a defect not infrequently
manifests itself, and it would be of great advantage to the breeder to know how to
avoid it. G. von Ubisch has been investigating this character in barley and states
his conclusion in the Zeitschrift fir induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungslehre,
July, 1915, that it depends on two Mendelian factors, both of which must be present
to produce this effect. If his conclusions are sustained, they will be of great value
to breeders of cereals.
Cross and Self-Fertilization a3
Cross and Self-Fertilization
Working with cotton, the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station is testing
the effects of cross and self-fertilization, in four different degrees, comparison being
made of the results when blossoms are self-fertilized, when they are pollinated from
other blossoms on the same plant, when pollinated from another plant of the same
variety, and when pollinated from a plant of a different variety. Since Darwin’s
classic experiments, very little notable work has been done in this field, but the
claim of the harmlessness of self-fertilization, put forward largely on theoretical
grounds by various recent students, renders it necessary that the question should
be again taken up and new evidence procured. The Arkansas station hopes to be
able, by this series of experiments, to get absolute measurements of the results
produced by the various degrees of close-breeding. While the question is one of
great theoretical interest, particularly for the bearing it has on the evolution of sex,
it has also a practical importance; for if it were generally admitted that self-
fertilization is injurious, breeders would change their methods in many cases.
The question of cross- vs. self-fertilization and its effect on vigor should not be
confused with the question of hybrid vigor, for there is little doubt that most
first-generation hybrids show marked vigor—to such an extent that corn, tomatoes
and many other crops are best grown from first-generation hybrid seed. The
distinction which the Arkansas and other stations are developing, is rather along
the line suggested by A. D. Shamel’s statement, in the second annual report of the
American Breeders’ Association, that ‘‘Self-fertilized tobacco seed, the result of
the closest possible degree of inbreeding, has been conclusively demonstrated by
four seasons’ experience and experiments in extensive fields of different varieties of
tobacco to produce more vigorous plants than seed cross-fertilized within the
variety. Crosses of different strains of tobacco, however, give increased vigor of
growth, leaf and seed production.”’
It should be noted that Darwin’s own experiments did not show self-fertilization
to be detrimental in every instance. Notably in the case of the California poppy
(Eschscholtzia californica), self-fertilized seeds produced plants which surpassed
the plants from cross-fertilized seed, in three out of four cases. So it is possible that
conditions may vary with different plants, although one is naturally inclined to
suppose that a principle of such fundamental importance in the struggle for existence
ought to hold good throughout nature.
But even before this problem is finally settled, there are some lines in which
breeders can work with great possibilities of commercial profit, and the Hawaiian
experiment station has started one of these, by attempting to breed a strain of
papayas (Carica papaya) with self-fertile flowers. The papaya, one of the impor-
tant fruits of the tropics, is irregularly monoecious; obviously, if male trees could
be altogether eliminated, a considerable saving would occur in planting. Since
trees with perfect flowers are occasionally found, the station is endeavoring to
make this type supplant the ordinary monoecious type altogether. The experiment
is now in the second generation, in which more than 400 trees were raised; 96%
of them were self-fertile, the few remaining trees not being exclusively male in
character but showing a strong tendency to bear fruit. As in nature the males
make up about half of the trees, the economy of space should be large when the
new strain is perfected.
gsaae
aoosawet
aed
——
=
= =
——
*
the/ Galloway Breed of Cattle.>. 2... 02. Does eo 65
PAM cage cl OAV EROLCRENL oN Ne iy, Bee ots area's oc oh ke Fok 66
Hardy Grains for the North, by C. C. Georgeson.................... 69
Rix perbasenige el ete ee Ute... poms m aoe pate tee Palen Pee OR vk 70
Annual Business Meeting of the Association........................ 76
Annual Meeting of the Council..................................... 76
What to Say about Marriage?, by A. E. Hamilton................... a
Plant? Breeding in Kansas i736 os 0-a sn he ate we Ee ee oe 81
Journal of Heredity Used as College Textbook....................... 81
Bud wWariations by, A.D -tSbamelen tivo. 5 chic ss oe eee ee ae §2
Breeding the Pecan, by E. E. Risien................................ 87
Corriedale Sheep, by F. R. Marshall................................ 88
Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids..................0.0000.00.0.......... 95
Sugar Cane That Outgrew Itself, by H. B. Cowgill.................. 96
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, January 25, 1916.
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“LdADA NI ONICHA NOAVId
BRIGHAM YOUNG
AN EELEUST RATION: OF PREPOTENCY
child inherits equally from his two
parents; yet every observant person
realizes that this is merely a general
law, of a statistical nature, and that it
does not always hold good in individual
cases.
Sometimes one parent contributes
much more than the other, as far as
distinguishable characters are concerned.
We then say that that parent is pre-
potent.
The idea of prepotency is particularly
familiar to breeders of livestock, but
few of them can explain it clearly, and
the professional geneticist has so far
met with little better success. It re-
mains one of the most obscure things in
the study of heredity, and some of the
most plausible explanations of it are so
hypothetical that it is almost impossible
that their correctness should ever be
proved.
But of the existence of the fact, no
one can doubt. In the human species,
every one can cite instances where all
the children of a family ‘‘take’’ strongly
after their father, or their mother, as
the case may be. But never, perhaps,
was the phenomenon of prepotency
more graphically shown in man than
in the accompanying photograph of
eleven daughters of Brigham Young,
by eight different wives.
“How different their mothers were,”
writes a member of this association who
is well acquainted with the family.
“But all the daughters are distinctly
‘Youngs’ in feature, voice, appearance
and temperament. All are musical. All
areamiable. All are adaptable, genuine,
sincere, temperamental yet reasonable,
and are good mimics. All are warm-
hearted, generous, excellent cooks and
housewives, and have the reputation of
being attractive, magnetic and sympa-
thetic. None is great as their father was
great, but all are Youngs.”
lk IS an axiom of heredity that the
While many of these characteristics
might be ascribed to similarity in train-
ing, one can hardly credit education
with having influenced the shape of the
mouth and nose. These features, how-
ever, in the daughters almost without
exception, bear a very close resemblance
to the corresponding features of the
father. Certainly the strong, firm
mouth of Brigham Young is reproduced
in a most striking way. In general, it
will probably be agreed that these chil-
dren of a single father and eight different
mothers show as much resemblance to
each other as one often finds in the chil-
dren of one father and mother.
MAJOR POND’S EXPERIENCE
An amusing incident connected with
the likeness, which is so marked in
Brigham Young’s descendants, was that
told very frequently by Major James B.
Pond. He was always convinced that
he could tell a descendant of Brigham
Young, especially the girls, whenever
he saw one and as an illustration he
would tell of a certain time when he and
a friend were walking on the streets of
Seattle and he saw two young girls com-
ing towards them.
Said Major: ‘‘Those girls are Brig-
ham Young’s daughters.”
‘‘Nonsense,”’ replied his companion.
“Yes, they are,” persisted the Major.
“Will you wager with me ?”’ he added.
“Yes,” said his friend; “I will bet
you $25 that they are not.”
‘““Done,”’ cried the Major.
As they met the girls the Major lifted
his hat and said in his own courteous
way: ‘Excuse me; this is a long way
from Utah, but are you daughters of
Brigham Young?”
The girls laughed and replied: ‘‘We
are his granddaughters, through his
eldest son, Brigham; but how did you
know that?” The Major had earned
his $25. People in Utah say that the
51
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OQNNOA WVHOTUE
54 The Journal of Heredity
truth holds pretty good even to the
latest generation, especially with the
girls.
Brigham Young, who was born in
Vermont in 1801, was the second presi-
dent of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, and in the opinion
of all its members was second only to
its founder, the Prophet Joseph Smith,
as an organizer and statesman. He led
the people to Utah and governed them
for more than forty years, until his
death in 1877. In accordance with the
early doctrine of his church, he had nine-
teen wives, ten of whom were mothers
of his children. The others were widows
to whom he gave a home and protection.
If the children of these different wives
had inherited equally from their mother
and father, there would have been a con-
siderable diversity among them. Why
is it that there is so little variation
among them; why is it that the father
“stamped his impress’’ on them so uni-
formly ?
When we answer that it is evidently
a case of prepotency of the father, we
only postpone the real explanation one
step further; for prepotency is a term
that probably covers half a dozen dif-
ferent things. It often results from
consanguineous marriage, but there is
no evidence that such matings occurred
in the ancestry of Brigham Young. It
may also be promoted by assortative
mating—‘‘like with like’’—and it is
possible that marriages of that sort had
taken place in the Young family, al-
though the data extant do not suffice
to make this point plain. It may also
be due, according to present ideas, to
a mere chance presence of a-large num-
ber of dominant traits in one individual.
VALUE OF PREPOTENCY
Whatever its origin, prepotency is a
factor of great importance to the geneti-
cist, and the ability to control it and
depend on it would be of great value to
the science. This is as true of eugenics as
of any other branch of genetics; for it
is obvious that if we could establish
stocks highly prepotent in some de-
sirable character, it would be distinctly
to the advantage of the race.
The subject of prepotency, therefore,
deserves careful investigation by the
eugenicist, and for reasons stated above
it appears to the writer that no material
available offers such advantages as do
the genealogies of the Mormon families.
Aside from the fundamental advantage
of offering data about the offspring of a
single husband and several wives, it
has the further important element of
fullness and accuracy, for the Mormons
are among the most industrious and
careful of genealogists. As it is for
them a duty to work for the eternal
happiness of one’s ancestors, and as
these ancestors must be known, if inter-
cession is to be made for them, it results
that every Mormon takes a practical
interest in genealogy, and among the
women of the church particularly,
familiarity with genealogical methods is
probably more widespread than among
any other class of people in the United
States.
The research worker, therefore, finds
ready to hand among the Latter-Day
Saints a large body of material of ex-
traordinary value, which has as yet
scarcely been touched for the purposes
of biological research. It seems prob-
able that the proper use of this material
would advance research in human
heredity more rapidly than will any
other American genealogical data avail-
able to the student; and among the
important problems on which light
would be thrown is certainly the prob-
lem of prepotency, which is so strik-
ingly illustrated in the accompanying
photograph of Brigham Young and his
children.
THE PERSIAN WALNUT
A Typical Problem in Tree Breeding—Great Improvement in the Past Due to
Unconscious Selection and Chance Hybridization—Much
Greater Progress Possible in Future, Through
Intelligent Methods.
J: RussELL SmitTH
Professor of Industry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
NE of the most significant state-
ments I know in connection
with the whole matter of
agricultural extension on the pro-
duction side is the following from C. S.
Sargent, in connection with the Persian!
walnut (Jwglans regia).
“The nut of the wild tree is small, with
a thick hard shell, and small kernel, and is
scarcely edible, but centuries of cultivation
and careful selection have produced a
number of forms with variously shaped
thin shells, which are propagated by
grafting and budding.”’ (Silva, Vol. VII,
pelLs:)
To persons familiar with the big,
sweet, nutritious nuts now so common
in the world’s market, it is indeed
difficult to believe this statement as to
their original unpromising condition.
This improvement appears to have come
by chance breeding which has given a
splendid tree crop for the Mediterranean
climate where it seems to have originated,
and it has also given a most stimulating
object lesson of the means by which
we may duplicate the process in
walnuts of several species and for scores
of other trees that are not now crops at
all. The method by which the mag-
nificent Franquette or Mayette walnuts
have come out of the mean parentage
described by Sargent is probably as
follows :
Centuries ago, perhaps dozens of cen-
turies ago, people in southern Europe
and western Asia carried home the
seed of wild walnut trees from the woods
as we do now with black walnuts,
chestnuts, hickories, hazels and other
wild nuts. They planted of the best in
their gardens. This may properly be
called a selection of one in hundreds.
Of the resulting seedling most were
certainly poor trees from the horti-
cultural standpoint, but one out of a
hundred was likely to be good, perhaps
better than the parent. From what we
know of human nature wrestling with
the problem of stomach-filling, this best
tree became the parent of the next
generation of seedling walnuts in that
valley or the next valley—again a
selection of one in a hundred. We now
have the hundredth tree from the
hundredth tree. This may easily have
been repeated ten, twenty, or even fifty
Or. gore, - timiesim. Phe” “best aseedlin®
walnuts of today thus represent the
selection from among a vast number
of seedlings.
SELECTION IN BOTH SEXES
But hold—this is not all. These
seedlings have not been yielded by extra
good females fertilized by average males.
The collections of seedlings from selected
seed have often given chances for the
crossing of two selected strains. To all
intents and purposes we have had
practical walnut breeding going on—but.
1 The name ‘‘walnut’’ means merely ‘‘the foreign nut,’’ and was given by the early English
because the nut came from abroad. The name “English walnut,’’ under which the Persian
walnut passes commercially in America, is due to the fac tthat many of the nuts were transshipped.
to this country in England; but as it is an absolute misnomer, the name “Persian walnut’’ is
now generally used among growers.
55
56 The Journal
we have been gotng 1t blind. Now we can
go at it with our eyes open. If by
chance we have in unknown centuries
turned a small nut “‘with a thick hard
shell and small kernel, scarcely edible”’
into the splendid one for which we pay
25 or 30 cents per pound, what may we
do if we use our known powers of cross
breeding and hybridizing? Is it not
reasonable for us now to expect to be
able to produce as great changes in
twenty-five or fiftv years as chance has
done for us in twenty-five or fifty
centuries ¢
The Persian walnut, this golden gift
of chance breeding, is a grossly neglected
agent.
This nut is great in its economic
significance, for the future, and con-
sidering its possibilities it is equally
great in its agricultural insignificance in
the present. Its food value places it
very high among foods, because of its
high percentage of meat in comparison
to waste, and its combination of food
elements, furnishing as it does the costly
protein and the much coveted fat.
Further than this, the tree produces one
of the most valuable of woods.
In operation it shows up as a veritable
engine of food production, a single good
tree in France commonly yielding as
many pounds of human food per year as
is given by the meat produced by an
acre of pasture in England. Of the two
foods the walnut is more nutritious by
the ratio of 2to 1. Grafted trees of the
Mayette and other varieties scattered
about the fields of France have been
making these heavy yields for many
decades.
The range of the tree serves to
emphasize the unrealized possibilities.
The Persian walnut with these wonder-
ful qualities of heavy yield of rich food
and good wood is at home in a wide belt
which encircles the globe in both
hemispheres. The tree is actually found
all through the Mediterranean region of
Zurope, in Asia Minor, Central Asia,
China, and Japan, in Pacific America
and in the Eastern United States from
Georgia to Ontario. It also grows in
2See reports of, Northern Nut Growers’
Secretary, Georgetown, Conn.
of Heredity
the South Temperate zone. It has been
known from ancient times, and yet it
has been developed as a crop only in a
few areas, as in Southern France, Italy
(near Naples), California (chiefly near
Los Angeles), and the Orient. I doubt
if there is a 10-acre orchard of grafted
walnut trees under one management in
all Europe. I have been in all the
leading districts and found none so
large, merely little patches and scattered
trees.
IN EASTERN AMERICA
In the eastern United States there
have been scattered trees producing
good crops for many years. Trees of
local repute have recently been reported
from Ontario, Michigan, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland
and Georgia. Some of them are of
great size and over a century old?
Some of these trees are reported to be
practically annual bearers, yet thus far
the nut has strangely failed in becoming
the basis of a regular crop in the eastern
United States. This fact has had two
causes, chief of which is the past
dependence upon seedlings, which are
indefinitely variable, and in the eastern
United States mostly worthless, because
of unacclimated seed; and its great
susceptibility to frost, due to its early
blossoming. These causes have resulted
in the failure of numerous commercial
attempts dependent upon seedlings.
As an instance of this I will cite my
own ill-guided experience. In 1896 I
planted two acres in northern Virginia
of the best seedling Persian walnut trees
I could then secure from a New Jersey
nursery. They were 3 to 4 feet high.
The next year they were 21% feet high,
the next year they were 11% feet high.
Then they began gradually to disappear.
The last one lingered until 1912, when a
temperature of 25° F. snuffed out its
worthless and despairing life. It grew
in a magnificent, rich spot and attained
the height of 9 feet. Most of the new
growth winter-killed annually and it
never bore a nut. There were no
grafted trees to be had at that time and
Association, 1912-1913, Dr. W. ©. Deming,
Smith: The Persian Walnut 57
it was reported, even I believe by the
United States Government, and believed
everywhere, that they could not be
erafted or budded.
This benighted condition of a possible
industry is hard to believe when we stop
to think of the fact that the grafting
and budding of these trees has been
going steadily on in the vicinity of
Grenoble, France, for generations. There
lived that pioneer nut culturist,
Mayette, who propagated the variety
that bears his name. In this district
top worked trees have been for sale
almost any year since before steamships
started across the Atlantic. And yet
so far as I know this might just as well
have been in the moon for all the good
it did us until California started the
walnut industry. The grafted Mayettes
of the stock of Grenoble are now proving
hardy in Pennsylvania and Connecticut
and if the kind used in the Grenoble
district (Persian on Persian) had proved
unsatisfactory there apparently would
have been little difficulty in getting
Grenoble nurserymen to raise American
black for us and to graft it to anything we
favored. Fortunately, however, we do
not have to go into any such heroics now
to get the trees.
GRAFTING THE TREES
We now know how to graft and bud
this tree right here in the eastern
United States and put it upon the more
vigorous roots of the native black
walnut. As to the technique of this
newly-won process, there are four points
for the ordinary apple or pear grafter to
keep in mind, and the same also apply
to the grafting of the hickory genus
which offers, in almost every respect,
problems like those of the walnut
genus. These four points are: (1) Keep
the cions from drying out by waxing
entirely or by binding a paper bag over
the stock and cion; (2) Do not split the
pithy cions, avoid this by trimming
wedge grafts so that one of the cuts goes
clear across the pith; or use the slip bark
method which has all the cut on one
side; (3) Graft or bud when the tree is
in rapid growth; (4) Use well ripened,
well developed wood cut early in the
winter. Two-year-old wood seems to
be better than one-year-old wood and
California grown wood has shown itself
superior to eastern grown wood. It is
quite possible that we will shortly begin
to send cions of desirable eastern trees to
California to have budding and grafting
wood grown for eastern use.
In budding, the patch bud and wing
bud methods are the only ones that
have shown themselves worth while.
The experience of the years 1914-1915
seems to indicate that this budding may
be done early in the spring with wood
from cold storage and forced into
immediate growth by cutting off other
growth. For photographs and details
important to the experimenter sce
bulletin on the walnut by United States
Department of Agriculture and the
reports of the Northern Nut Growers
Association, W. C. Deming, Secretary
Georgetown, Connecticut. lam having
lots of fun from the two dozen nut trees
I have grafted and budded.
SELECTION OF PARENTS
The discovery of these new arts of
propagation serves instantly and acutely
to emphasize the question, What parent
trees shall be used in propagation? Only
a fraction of the eastern trees have been
examined carefully, and it is perhaps true
that none has yet been found in the
Eastern United States with fruit of the
high quality of the best European varie-
ties. In addition to the great variation
in the quality of nuts, there is great var-
iation in the adjustment of the trees to
the climate. This makes a careful sur-
vey of the existing and widely scattered
thousands of Persian walnut trees in the
United States a very promising prospect.
Here is also a problem in tree breeding,
rich with possibilities. The great vari-
ation within the species and the easy and
wide range of its hybridization with
other species would indicate that it has
great possibilities in the hands of the
plant breeder.
An interesting example of the ease of
its hybridization is furnished by a New
Jersey farmer near Camden. He has
three or four fine and very productive
Persian walnut trees. He wasso pleased
THE ORIGIN OF A VALUABLE VARIETY
This Persian walnut tree is growing on Pequea Creek in Lancaster County, Pa., and was dis-
covered some years ago by a man interested in nut- -growing in the Eastern United States
who realized that this tree was worthy of pro pagation. It is supposed to be fifty years ok i,
and bears two or three bushels of e arly- -maturing nuts in a good year. Nothing is known of
its parentage, but it is undoubtedly a seedling, which hi ippens to bear nuts of good qu: lity,
and to stand a great deal of cold weather. It was made the foundation of a new variety,
which was given the name of Nebo, and which is now being disseminated and is helping to
make the culture of the Persian walnut possible in regions where it was formerly supposed
that the climate was unsuitable. Photograph from the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
(Fig. 3.)
RRS ¥
Smith: The Persian Walnut 59
with them that he planted one hundred
more, seedlings from a nursery, fool-
ishly thinking them all much alike.
The new trees grew finely, showing the
Persian type of foliage. When they
bore, it was such a collection of long
rough nuts of evident butternut (Juglans
cinerea) paternity that the farmer dug
up all of the trees but one, which bears
a nut of apparent hybrid form and little
value.
Experiments of Dr. Robert T. Morris
and others have shown that there is
great freedom of hybridization between
the various species of walnut. Some
hybridization is possible hetween the
walnuts and hickories. So common is
the cross between the Persian and the
Black in California that it is a recog-
nized kind called Royal, distinguished
as are many hybrids for astounding
vigor of growth. This is offset by a
poor yielding power but Professor Smith,
of the University of California, reports
one (see bulletin on walnut blight, 1912)
that is a good bearer. That one tree
is exceedingly significant. It would
seem to indicate that others like it can
be produced—truitful and growing with
the fury of a weed. This is merely one
of the many breeding problems which
the walnut alone holds out to us now
that we know how to breed plants.
A MARYLAND SPECIMEN
A peculiarly promising tree as a breed-
ing parent, is one that has been found in
Maryland about eighteen miles north
of Washington, D.C. If the nut hada
little less bitter on its skin, the tree
would be an almost ideal parent. It is
reported to have borne twelve or thir-
teen consecutive crops. This is unusual
for any fruiting tree. Rumors to the
contrary, consecutive cropping of fruit
and nut trees is not common except in
the form of a heavy and a light crop
alternating. Unfortunately I cannot
give exact measurements for the ‘yield
of this Maryland tree. Its regular rec-
ord is probably due in large part to its
late habit of spring growth. Whereas
most of the Persian walnuts send out
their leaves with the earliest approaches
of spring and lose their blossoms and
often their foliage and twigs with frost,
as does the apricot, this tree remains
dormant until June, then grows with
great rapidity and matures its crop. In
Grenoble, France, I saw on the 10th of
June, 1913, when farmers were making
hay, some Persian walnut trees just
showing the first green of their buds at
the same time that cherries were ripe on
an adjacent tree. I should have passed
these trees by except that I asked my
companion, Vice Consul Murton, a
master of the local walnut situation,
why the leafless trees had died. Al-
though permitted to live, these trees
were not particularly prized by the
French walnut growers, because they
were reported to bear scanty crops, al-
though the nuts were reported of satis-
factory quality. The bringing together
of these two late strains, one of good
bearing habit and fair quality, the other
of excellent quality and both of wonder-
ful frost resisting ability would seem to
have great promise as a breeding exper-
iment.
I called these facts to the attention of
E. R. Lake, of the Pomological staff of
the United States Department of Agri-
culture, and asked him who 1n the United
States was in a position to conduct these
experiments. After a moment’s pause
he said, “I guess you will have to go to
J. W. Killen, of Felton, Delaware.”
I happen to know that Mr. Killen is a
farmer of an experimental turn of mind,
willing to work and sacrifice time and
money for the advance of agricultural
knowledge. I regard it as little short
of lamentable that so great a problem as
the breeding of a new tree crop of the
importance and promise of the Persian
walnut should, in the United States of
America, be dependent wholly upon the
unpaid and unsupported enthusiasm of
a private individual. We need at once
a thorough search for the best among the
hundreds of possible parent trees in the
East. Mr. Fagan, of Penn State College,
made such a survey of his state in the
summer of 1915 and found about 5,000
Persian walnut trees which are now
under observation. They need testing
out with regard to their behavior under
cultivation, their resistance to the Cali-
60
fornia walnut blight, and numerous ex-
periments in cross breeding and hybrid-
ization should be made to develop the
good parent trees which we now have
reason to believe can be produced by the
breeding from many of the promising
trees already known to us.
THE PROBLEM OF TREE CROPS
If chance hybridization and selection
in the past has brought the worthless
wild tree described by Sargent to the
present perfection of the commercial
Persian walnut, we certainly have great
reason to anticipate large results from
systematic hybridization if we can focus
the resources of constructive science
in that direction.
The Persian walnut is but a type in
the whole tree crop question. Its
typical aspects may be summarized as
follows:
1. As acrop producer it is almost worth-
less in its wild state.
2. Some trees usually widely scattered
are much superior to the average and
worthy of propagation.
3. Cross-bred strains from selected rare
The Journal of Heredity
(such have been produced in the gardens
of Mediterranean lands).
4. The possibilities of better varieties
by hybridization have merely been
glimpsed, not realized, and demand im-
mediate work. ;
The plant kingdom has never been
systematically searched for useful plants.
This is particularly true of trees, from
which we have held back because of the
time element; yet there is little doubt
that forty or fifty species of wild trees
are quite as promising of a good agri-
cultural crop as was the wild walnut
described by Sargent. By selection,
propagation, cross-breeding and hybrid-
ization, each of the fifty or more can
probably, like the walnut, be made into
a valuable crop producing food for men,
and what is more important, agri-
culturally, food for the beasts, if the
problem is systematically handled. This
field of endeavor also promises one of
the most potent cures for the erosion
problem. The hillside whose soil is
pinned to the bed rock by the interlacing
roots of crop yielding trees will not
trees are much superior to any wild tree erode. It will stay and pay.
Breeding Native Grapes
Valuable work on self-sterility has been done at the North Carolina Experiment
Station, principally with native grapes, but to a less extent with persimmons,
blackberries and dewberries. It is found that the latter berries are in some cases
self-sterile and in some cases self-fertile; grapes of the muscadine type (Vitis
rotundifolia), however, have proved to be self-sterile in almost every instance.
It is therefore necessary that the grower of such grapes should plant enough male
vines to furnish pollen; and it has been found that there are two distinct wild types
of male vine, the commoner one producing grapes that, when further propagated
by seed, yield dark-colored fruit, while a rarer type, when perpetuated, yields
light-colored fruit. All scuppernong grapes of the immediate generation are light
colored. By the growth of several thousand hybrid seedlings, an effort is being
made to find whether such characters as color of berry, persistance of holding
fruit and size of fruit and size of fruit clusters are transmitted, and if so, by what
laws.
In this connection it will be of interest to mention that the United States De-
partment of Agriculture is engaged in breeding a strain of muscadine grapes with
perfect flowers, starting with a single individual of this character which was found
among a lot of seedlings. The project promises to be wholly successful, and will
make the production of these grapes much more profitable. Hybridization is also
being used to produce varieties of grapes that will combine the vigor and disease-
resistance of the Vitis rotundifolia and its large berries, with the hardiness and
large clusters of the northeastern United States species (Vitis labrusca, etc.).
PROBLEMS IN WALNUT BREEDING
The Industry in California Being Transformed Through Propagation of Grafted
Trees—Walnut Blight and the Variability of the Present
Groves—the Ideal Commercial Nut'
L. D. BATCHELOR
University of California Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal.
HE walnut industry of California
is just entering a _ transition
period, from the planting of seed-
ling groves to the establishment
of plantings composed of grafted trees.
Just as other seedling fruit trees,
such as the orange, apple, peach,
almond, etc., have been eliminated, so,
too, the seedling walnut groves of
California seem doomed to be replaced:
by clonal varieties. In many ways
this industry is as much in its infancy
as the apple industry of New York was
sixty-five years ago, when varieties first
began to be propagated in a commercial
way by grafting and budding. This
readjustment in the walnut industry is
well started, and although it is likely
to be gradual in its evolution, and wisely
so, the change seems nevertheless cer-
tain. There are but a very few seedling
trees for sale at the present time by the
progressive nurseries, and in fact only
a very few such trees have been set out
in groves during the past four or five
years. This demand for a grafted tree
has been brought about largely by the
wide range of variation in walnut
seedlings, as regards their productivity,
commercial value, season of harvest and
ability to resist the walnut blight.
With this very recent propagation of
the walnut by grafting, which has
extended over only ten or twelve years,
it is reasonable to expect that the
majority of the varieties thus propagated
so early: in the development of this
industry are only partly suited to the
needs of the walnut grower. The
nuts from many of these grafted
varieties fall considerably short of the
commercial standard for high-grade
walnuts. Some of the heaviest-bearing
sorts, such as the Chase, Prolific and
El Monte, produce nuts which cannot
be sold in the very best grade of the
commercial product. On the other
hand the Placentia, which produces the
most nearly ideal commercial nut, is not
a heavy-producing variety, especially in
the northern walnut sections, and is
quite as susceptible to walnut blight as
the average seedling tree. Again, the
Eureka variety, which seems success-
fully to avoid the walnut blight during
many seasons by its lateness in coming
into bloom, is a very moderate yielding
sort in the southern sections. The
above examples are only a few of many
which might be cited to show the
shortcomings of most of the varieties of
walnuts now being propagated.
MANY VARIETIES NEEDED
The wide range of climatic and soil
conditions makes the eventual propaga-
tion of quite a large number of varieties
inevitable. While the coast regions are
bathed in fog nearly every morning
during the growing season, the inland
valleys experience an extremely dry
climate with high maximum tempera-
tures. Walnuts are being grown at the
present time on soil types varying from
the extremes of sand to heavy clay
loams. Many of the future varieties
must be especially adapted to some one
of these particular environments if they
are to withstand the test of time.
Many of the present seedling groves
are of uncertain origin and represent
greatly varying values. No doubt some
1 Read before the twelfth annual meeting of the American Genetic Association, at Berkeley,
Cal., August 5. 1915.
61
62 The Journal
of these groves are the progeny of
especially selected trees known to have
considerable merit. On the other hand,
it is very apparent that many of them
are the result of a great demand for
seedling trees when this industry was in
its infancy twenty or thirty years ago.
At that time great quantities of walnuts
were planted without due regard for
their parentage. Again, there is a wide
range of variability among the individual
trees of any grove, as variations in
type of tree, blooming season, character
of foliage, resistance to disease, pro-
ductivity and character of the nuts.
Type of Tree.—The tree types vary
from the upright sturdy individual to
the more or less spreading, weeping
types, which droop nearly to the ground
under the burden of their crop. The
upright, vigorous growing type is well
exemplified in the Eureka. On the
other hand such varieties as the Prolific
have a spreading, bushy habit, and an
almost semi-dwarfness characterizes
their growth.
Blooming Season.—It is not unusual to
find the blooming season in an ordinary
seedling grove extending over a period
of from a month to six weeks.
93
The above entries show the common
form of entry in the New Zealand flock
book. The number of ewes bred, the
origin of the sires and number of lambs
raised and sold constitute the only facts
ecorded.
Admission of a flock to the book of
record is conditional upon approval of
an examining committee who regard
merit and uniformity and may require
the disposal of some animals before ac-
cepting the flock for record in the flock
book. Most of the flocks accepted so
far have been bred along the same line
for from twenty toforty years. There is
no regulation as to the number of genera-
tion necessary for admission to record.
Continuous use of the offspring of young-
est ewes would permit securing ten gen-
erations in twenty years but it never
happens that all ewes are discarded after
producing their first lambs. The bulk of
a thirty-year-old Corriedale flock in New
Zealand probably have back of them
ten or twelve generations of descendants
of the original crosses. One or two
breeders made a special claim of having
added fixity of type by always using the
youngest rams available in order to in-
crease the number of generations of se-
lected ancestry. None of the private
records permits of tabulating pedigrees
to show dams for more than one or two
generations, consequently Corriedale his-
tory must be read in rather a general way.
The organization of Corriedale breeders
recently formed in Australia requires
that before being admitted to the flock
book, flocks must be inbred half-breds
for at least nine generations after the
Lincoln-Merino foundation cross-breds.
In case of breeding Corriedale rams up-
on half-bred ewes, six generations
suffice.
It required no experiment to secure
the desired type in establishing the
Corriedale. The problem was entirely
one of giving fixity to a type produced
by crossing. The Lincoln and such
English and Border Leicesters as were
used may be regarded as practically of
one type for consideration in this con-
nection. The English Leicester was de-
veloped solely by selection, as its
founder, Robert Bakewell, could draw
CORRIEDALES IN AUSTRALIA
Part of a newly founded flock in New South Wales.
One of the most valuable characteristics
of the Merino breed is its ‘‘herding instinct’? which prompts the animals to keep together,
and makes them manageable by shepherds.
This instinct has been retained, it is said, in
the Corriedale, and is a feature of great value to the new breed. (Fig. 13.)
upon no highly improved mutton sheep
in the last half of the eighteenth century.
In ancestry and in many commercial
characteristics the Merino is about as
dissimilar to the long wools as can be
found without going to the central
Asiatic types.
CONSTANT CULLING
The main work of the New Zealand
Corriedale breeders seems to have been
in the culling of rams and ewes. As
shown in Mr. Little’s flock, twenty ram
lambs were retained from the offspring
of 4,000 ewes. At the Moeraki estate
150 ewes were selected from the progeny
of 1,000 ewes. Such vigorous culling
surely allowed uniformity. We have
no records as to the percentage of dis-
cards from the second and subsequent
generations, but 1911 reports indicate
that culling is not light as the number of
yearling ewes is not far below half that
of the older ones. From my observa-
tions on New Zealand farms I did not
O4
conclude that Corriedale breeders now
cull heavier than owners of flocks of
other breeds. The vigorous culling in
the earlier stages need not be taken to
show particular clearness of aim on the
part of the breeders, as it is doubtful if
they then looked forward to the status of
a breed. Sheep were cheap and the best
of the half-breds were retained in a sep-
arate flock as the most logical method
of obviating the need of pure long wool
and Merino flocks to produce fresh stock
ewes. The discards were sold or used
with rams of the common breeds.
The fact that many of the opposed
characters of the Lincoln and Merino
appear to have blended and that the
blended form is now uniformly trans-
mitted does not harmonize with present
day understanding of the probability of
segregation of the factors composing a
character. With coat characters such
as length and fineness of fiber so opposite
as they are in the Lincoln and Merino,
one might expect here at least frequent
Marshall: Corriedale Sheep 95
reversions to the length or to the fine- ewes and Lincoln rams. Horns in the
ness of one of the parent stocks. long wool breeds are of exceedingly rare
Among the several hundred Corriedales occurrence. :
I saw and the scores I examined closely Body. characters are less easily fol-
not one had wool anywhere nearly as_ lowed than those of fleece. The most
short as the longest wooled Merinos, as common conformation of the Corriedale
coarse as the Lincolns, or as fine as the is practically intermediate between the
Merino. Many of the lots examined Lincoln and Merino in respect to width
were either ram or ewe hoggets that had of back and loin, depth of body and
not been culled, consequently it could development of the rump and twist. In
not have been that reversions had oc- , some flocks where fineness of wool has
curred and been discarded. These char- been emphasized, the narrower chests
acters may be determined by a number and the throat folds of the Merino are
of factors each separately heritable but seen, though none of the sheep examined
their number and irregularity of trans- after shearing could be mistaken for
mission must be beyond hope of elucida- either Lincoln or Merino by anyone
tion or practicalcontrol. Inlengthofwool familiar with these breeds.
fiber Corriedales more nearly approach The comparative newness of the Cor-
the Lincoln than the Merino, though I. riedale and the fact that it does not
cannot say that any I saw fully equalled come from Europe have called forth
in this respect Lincolns grown under considerable argument against the possi-
similar conditions. bility of the breed’s being of a fixed type.
Strangely enough the fact is overlooked
that at least one of the British breeds
The horned character still crops out now quite popular here was originated
quite frequently, one breeder having by crossing animals from two distinct
stated that 5% of his 1914 lamb crop breeds, and most of the other breeds of
were culled because of horns, which sheep at some stage of their existence
could only have come through the female have received the impress of older breeds
line as both sexes of the original cross- andhave beenrendered true to a type em-
breds were from the hornless Merino bodying characters of the outside blood.
HORNS STILL APPEAR
Peacock-Guinea Fowl Hybrids
‘
The cross between pea fowl and guinea fowl is a very ‘“‘wide’’ one that has
been made a number of times. The latest recorded success is that described by
D. Brentana in the Moderno Zootatro, No. 11, 1914. In general appearance the
hybrids most closely resemble the peacock, their form being slender, particularly
in the head and neck, although there was a noticeable absence of ali the character-
istic appendages of the head, and the great train of feathers which is the peacock’s
pride was very much reduced. The plumage exhibited striping, which is perhaps
a primitive pattern in the pea cock. It was of a dark fawn with black stripes in the
lower part of the neck, becoming paler fawn with black specks in the region of the
thorax, abdomen and flanks. As such hybids are usually absolutely sterile, it is
impossible to breed them through several generations and work out the manner of
inheritance of the various characters involved.
96
The Journal of Heredity
SUGAR CANE
THAT OUTGREW
ITSELF
An unusual abnormality in sugar cane
is shown in the accompanying photo-
graph from H. B. Cowgill, plant breeder
of the Insular Experiment Station, Rio
Piedras, Porto Rico. ‘This stalk,” he
writes, ‘‘was taken from a seedling cane
which was grown here in the year 1913.
The photoesraph shows four complete
internodes or joints of a stalk; each of
these joints has, as usual, a bud growing
from it. But in every case, it will be
observed, this bud is transversed
squarely across the middle by a great
fissure. All the stalks of this seedling
showed this abnormality on many of the
internodes. As may be seen, it is a
rupture of the outer portion of the stalk
across the center of the bud. Seedling
canes frequently show peculiarities, but
this is the first time I have known this
particular abnormality to happen. It
seems to have been caused by an un-
usual formation of the bud. In sugar
cane the point of the bud is usually free
from the stalk, but in this case it ad-
hered closely to the stalk and seemed to
have grown fast to it. The bud within
evidently developed faster than the
stalk, while its outer scales could not
do so on account of being fastened to
the latter. The pressure produced
seems to have been sufficient to rupture
the stalk. It was not possible to make
any test to determine whether this
abnormality would be inheritable.”
(Fig. 14.)
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
>»
Vol. VII, No. 3 March, 1916
CONTENTS
Kenge Uifé’ Means: Masiy Children ::.-)< 6. os. aie fede. ee 99
Modes of Research in Geneties (review of a book by Raymond Pearl) 101
Journal of Heredity as a Text-book................................ 101
crease Pecumuary e002 78.355 Ot yy i Bee ha 102
Heredity and Criminal Delinquency. .........2.5....2.......022... 105
An Autline of Eugenics (review of a book by Michael F. Guyer).... 105
Eugenics in Hungary, by G. von Hoffman.......................... 105
Patrogenesis, by G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton................. 106
The Effect of War (review of a book by David Starr Jordan)......... 118
Reprints from the Journal of Heredity............................. 118
Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do They Mean?, by Walter F.
Wi COMA ake eC es ek aye Say ak nsession 119
What the Size of an Egg Means, by D. E. Warner and Wm. F. Kirk-
IpeeUDING epee ge nae audi oe oe cS ALN, Sens So rere. Pens Bede 128
Civilization and Climate (review of a book by Ellsworth Huntington) 131
Hereditary Nose Bleed, by Willis C. Lane.......................... 132
The Tendency to Multiple Births.................................. 134
Rxinalor Shien Aber ale: NV aby Se daca eects oar vlooahe 2 be as 134.
iripletsGalvesman arrests: sotto le eee son tee ee Ce ee 135
Wild Turkeys (review of a book by Edward A. MeclIlhenny).......... 138
Ser eee Ag ANNE MAGOIOEL co) NEM Sool nob. iar ek. iY eee en gad 6 ool Pees 142
‘Breeding Farm Crops in Iowa, by H. D. Hughes..................... 143
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, February 25, 1916.
ffi i)
HE HAS 101 DESCENDANTS
Dr. Harvey C. Hullinger of Vernal, Utah, was born in Ohio in 182 1: he
1S, therefore,
only 92 years old. re father died at
10 and his mother at 44; nevertheless,
the stock from which he comes is a long-lived one, his brothers, sisters, uncles,
aunts and pratidpalents having mostly lived far beyond the usual span. The
photogr: sc shows five generations of a single family, the ages of the younger
ap smbers being: W. S. Hullinger, 68; W. S. Hullinger, Jr., 46; Harvey Hullinger,
20; none Murray Hullinger, 7 months. Photogr: iph taken Septe smber, 1915.
Dr. Hullinger married three times, and has 14 children, 22 grandchildren, 63
great-grandchildren and 2 great-great-grandchildren. Photograph from the
Geneaogical Record Office, Washington. (Frontispiece. )
LONG LIFE MEANS MANY CHILDREN
And Long Life Also Means a Good Inheritance—Study of Longevity Brings
Important Proof to the Theory of Evolution
Plymouth, N. C., Dec. 3.—W. B. Davis, 94
years old and father of 41 children, 33 of whom
are alive, got a license Wednesday to wed a
Mrs. Mason, 39 years old, who lives near here.
The ceremony was performed yesterday.
Twenty-five children and more than a hundred
grandchildren of the bridegroom attended.
Mr. Davis has 192 grandchildren and a
number of great-grandchildren. This is his
fourth venture in matrimony. He is enjoying
health, but has complained of being lonesome.
[sien ene parent—many chil-
dren: the connection seems too
obvious to be worth noting.
But it is very well worth noting.
The simple fact illustrated in the above
newspaper clipping means a great deal
not only to eugenics, but to the whole
theory of evolytion.
First let us make sure of our facts.
If we pick at random from the death
records the names of two women, one of
whom died at the age of 50 and the
other at the age of 75, will the longer-
lived be found to have left the larger
family? Both of them, you must
notice, lived past the reproductive
period, and it might be supposed that
after that period a few years more or
less could make no difference.
Nevertheless, the study of Karl
Pearson and his associates! leaves no
doubt that the longest-lived parents
have the largest number of offspring.
They were able to study family records
of some thousands of English and
American Quaker families, and reached
this conclusion:
“Fertility is correlated with _lon-
gevity even after the fecund period is
passed. If we take American mothers
there is no doubt of this increasing
fertility even up to 90 years of age.
With English mothers it is less marked,
but appears to be quite true up to 75
years. Beyond 75 there appears a
slight decrease.”
In other words, the peculiar physique,
the vitality and the toughness of consti-
tution in both men and women, which
make longevity possible, are also asso-
ciated with fecundity. Where you find
one, you are likely to find the other.
Of two women who both live beyond
50 years, the longer lived is likely to
have had, before 50, the larger number
of children.
It is not easy to understand why this
condition should be more marked for
American parents than for English
parents, for the American families dealt
with were, in the great majority of
cases, of Anglo-Saxon race. Evidently
climate, mode of life, and similar in-
fluences are bringing about a difference
in this respect, between the English and
the Anglo-American stocks.
Remembering that long life is asso-
ciated with numerous offspring, let us
now recall that long life is due primarily
to heredity. Contrary to what one
might suppose, people do not attain to
a great age because of any particular
habits of life, any particular kind of
diet or brand of beverage. They live
long because they come of a long-lived
stock, because they .have inherited the
kind of constitution that, in circum-
stances which are reasonably favorable,
will stand the strain of existence for an
unusually long time.
We are now in a position to see how
the connection between long life and
large families will assist us in under-
standing how evolution works.
In the first place, Darwin and many
others have shown that the members of
a race least fitted to their surroundings
are removed by death. For example,
of two children born in a neighborhood
where tuberculosis is abundant, the one
with an inherited resistance is pretty
1 On the Correlation between Duration of Life and the Number of Offspring. By Miss M.
Beeton, G. U. Yule and Karl Pearson.
Proc. R. S. London, 67 (1900), pp. 159-171.
99
DESCENDANTS IN FOUR GENERATIONS
Mrs. Mary Erickson of Stahl, Mo., was born in Kentucky in 1821, and is therefore 95 years old. She is
the eldest of 11 children, the rest of whom died at from 50 to 60 years of age. Her father died at
She is, therefore, well above the average longevity of her family,
the age of 56 and her mother at LWP
a fact which may be due partly to the more remote ancestors, but which she attributes to hard work,
plain food and regular habits. The photograph (from the Genealogical Record Office, Washington)
hows her with her eldest son, eldest grandson, eldest great-granddaughter and eldest great-great-
granddaughter. Fig. 1.)
Long Life Means Many Children
sure to live longer than the one who
lacks an inherited resistance.
But if each of them survived to adult
life and left an equal number of children,
it is obvious that the character of the
race would not be changed—there
would be relatively just the same
numbers of weak and strong persons
(in respect to tuberculosis-resistance) in
it in the next generation, that there
are in this.
The theory of natural selection re-
quires that the weaker of the two indi-
viduals whom we have picked out for an
illustration, must leave fewer offspring
than the strong one. The less fit must
leave fewer descendants than the more
mt. hus the race progresses a little
in each generation, in the direction of
greater fitness in this respect.
THEORY CONFORMS TO FACTS
The theory requires, we have said,
that there be this difference in fecundity.
But do facts back up the theory? We
have reached a point in the study of
evolution where we are tired of theories.
We want facts.
101
Sometimes we can get them; some-
times we can not. In this particular
case a study of long-lived people gives
us exactly the information that we
needed and expected. As we have seen,
the long-lived—who must be considered
to be in generally an unusually fit lot of
people—are found to have more off-
spring than the shorter-lived and less fit.
And since this fitness is, as we know,
hereditary, it follows that the race
Should be getting a little more fit in
this respect, with each generation,
because the amount of inherited lon-
gevity must be greater than it was in
the previous generation.
The lonesome and fatherly Mr. Davis,
cited in a newspaper story at the begin-
“ning of this article, may or may not
exist in real life. But if he does not, it
would not be difficult to find some one
else conforming to the same specifica-
tions; for long life does mean a large
family. We have been able to measure
the exact amount of association between
the two facts, and thus add another
piece of mathematically demonstrated
proof to the theory of evolution which
Darwin left us.
Modes of Research in Genetics
MopeEs oF RESEARCH IN GENETICS, by Ray-
mond Pearl, Biologist of the Maine Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. Pp. 182,
price $1.25. New York, the Macmillan
Company, 66 Fifth Avenue, 1915.
The principal and most useful part
of Dr. Pearl’s book is a discussion of the
relative merits of the two _ principal
methods used in studying heredity—
namely, the biometric and the Men-
delian. Public opinion is still confused
as to the respective spheres of these
methods, as a result of the conflict
between them which raged a few years
ago. Advanced students now generally
recognize that each of these methods
has its place, and also its limitations;
but the beginner, who frequently reads
the literature of a decade ago, is too
often confused by the recriminations
and denunciations he finds. Dr. Pearl
shows clearly just what each method
can do, the biometric method being
essentially the study of the ancestry
of an individual, while the Mendelian
method is the study of the posterity of
an individual. A perusal of this book
will do much to clear up the ideas of a
great majority of those who are ac-
tively interested in genetics. The prob-
lem of inbreeding, and the-general rela-
tion between practical breeding and
experimental genetics, are also discussed.
Journal of Heredity As Text-book
The class in heredity at the Ohio
State University is now using the
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY as its text-book,
arrangements having been made for a
special short-term membership in the
American Genetic Association, for each
of the twenty-two students taking the
course.
INCREASING FECUNDITY
Remarkable Effect of Pituitary Substance on Poultry May Have Wide
Application—Great Increase in Egg Production and Hatchability
of Eggs Obtained
ECUNDITY is one of the most
Fk important factors in the practical
application of genetics, whether
it be in eugenics or animal-
breeding.
Any method of increasing the fecund-
ity of valuable strains would be of great
worth to the eugenist and the breeder.
One such method seems to have been
found by Lewis Neilson Clark, of
Oldham Farm, Port Hope, Ontario,
Canada, a member of this association
who has been experimenting with the
ductless glands of animals, by feeding
extracts of them to chickens. By the
use of an extract of the pituitary gland,
he has increased the egg production of
hens, sometimes nearly doubling it, and
at the same time has secured an in-
creased “‘hatchability”’ of the eggs.
The pituitary gland of calves, secured
by Mr. Clark from his local butcher, is
a small rounded body attached to the
under side of the brain, and consisting
of two lobes, an anterior and a posterior.
It is generally supposed to regulate,
by its secretions, the nutrition of bone
and other connective tissue, and to
have many other far-reaching influences
on the entire body. For the experiment
here described, Mr. Clark used only the
anterior lobe of the gland, which he
ground up and mixed with sugar of milk
to form a paste. This paste was
dried at room temperature, ground to a
powder, and weighed, the loss in
weight amounting to 13.5 per cent. In
the experiments recorded below 69
milligrams of this powder, representing
20 milligrams of fresh pituitary sub-
stance (anterior lobe), were administered
to each hen per day.
RECORD OF HENS KNOWN
“The first experiment attempted,”
Mr. Clark writes,’ “dealt with thirty-
five Single Comb White Leghorn hens
hatched in April, 1913, mated, in two
pens, to two cockerels of the same
breed, hatched in May, 1914. These
two pens were housed in two colony-
houses, on free range, and had been
used as breeding-pens for this season’s
work before the dosing was commenced.
I have, therefore, records of their egg
production for several months previous,
the laying being very steady and
consistent. For the purpose of illus-
trating the results of this experiment,
it will be necessary to give only the
egg production for a period of fourteen
days prior to first dosing. It will be
noted in Table I? that the production
curve was declining, previous to dosing,
this being only natural in view of the
heavy and consistent laying of these
hens since February. Both hens and
cockerels were forcibly fed at night
time with the powder, enclosed in
gelatin capsules, the dose in each case
being 69 milligrams. The first dose
was given on the evening of May 20 and
the last dose on the evening of May 28.
A remarkable increase in production
-1The Effect of Pituitary Substance on the Egg Production of the Domestic Fowl. By Lewis
Neilson Clark.
2 The table is too long to be reprinted here.
First dose evening of May 20.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. XXII, No. 3, pp. 485-491; October, 1915.
A summary is as follows:
Last dose evening of May 28.
Average daily egg production of experimental pens May 7 to May 14, inclusive, 19.25 eggs=
55 per cent possible.
Average production May 15 to May 23, inclusive (to 3 days after first dose), 16.11 eggs=
46 per cent possible.
Average production May 24 to May 30, inclusive (from 3 days after first dose to 2 days after
last dose), 32 eggs=91.43 per cent possible.
Average production May 31 to June 6, inclusive, 21.57 eggs=61.63 per cent possible. The
pens were broken up on June 7.
102
Increasing
was noted on the fourth day after the
administration of the first dose, but
was apparently dropping back to normal
when, owing to the exigencies of the
management of a large poultry farm,
it was necessary to break up these
isolated pens. The hens were kept
under close observation for a period
of one month after the last dosing and
their general health continued excep-
tionally good, there being not one case
of sickness or death among any of the
subjects, and the general appearance
of the birds being far above the average
for this season of the year.
A CHECK ON THE RESULTS
“I felt sure that the marked increase
shown in the production of these hens,
whcse laying had been most consistent
and whose production curve was cn the
decline at the time of experiment, was
due solely to a direct stimulating effect
on the ovaries, produced by pituitary
substance, and to no other causes. A
100 per cent egg production is almost
unknown in my experience, at this
season of the year, especially with flocks
of this size (seventeen and eighteen in
a pen). The conditions for egg pro-
duction were practically ideal, but the
same conditions, and very much the
same weather, had obtained for a month
previous. In order to meet the natural
query as to whether the weather or
other conditions might not have influ-
enced the production of the experi-
mental fowl, the daily egg records of
two large laying pens were studied and
are given in Table I for comparison.’
Conditions in these two pens and in
the experimental pens were very similar.
Feeding conditions, weather, and the
nature of the soil were identical, the
only difference being in the fact that
the experimental pens were in small iso-
lated houses, on free range, whereas the
large flocks were in long continuous
Fecundity 103
laying-houses each with a_ fenced-in
run of three and one-half acres of land.
“In order to test the effect, if any,
on the hatchability of the eggs and the
viability of the chicks, 100 eggs from
the experimental fowl were collected
previous to dosing—that is, from May
14 to May 20—and were set in an incu-
bator on May 20, the eggs being from
two hours to six days old. On the fifth
day after the first dose, eggs were
again collected from the same fowl,
100 eggs being gathered from May 26
to May 28, and were set in an incubator
of the same make on May 29, the eggs
being one to three days old. The
results of these hatches are even more
remarkable than the increased egg
production, as is seen from Table II.4
Prairie State Sand Tray Incubators of
the same size were used. Conditions
of temperature were closely regulated
by thermostats. In both experiments
the temperature ranged from 102-
103.5° F., as required to give the best
conditions for hatching. The chicks
are being kept under observation to
note sex and any peculiarities of growth.
TEST ON LARGER SCALE
“Feeling it desirable to have a further
experiment to more fully prove the
effect of this substance, I determined to
dose all the hens in one of the large
laying-houses. The house so chosen
contained 655 one-year-old Single Comb
White Leghorn hens (no males), and
the dose administered to them was 45
grams of the powder per day. Owing
to the large scale on which the experi-
ment was being conducted, it was only
possible to obtain sufficient material
for four daily doses. It was unfortun-
ate that the dosing could not be con-
tinued over a longer period, but the
results obtained from these few doses
were so marked and striking as to leave
no doubt as to the stimulating effect of
3 For the corresponding periods, the laying record of a flock of 657 hens was as follows:
May 7 to May 14, inclusive, 45 per cent possible.
May 15 to May 23, inclusive, 45 per cent possible.
May 24 to May 30, inclusive, 44 per cent possible.
May 31 to June 6, inclusive, 44 per cent possible.
4 Of the 100 eggs set before dosing, 6 were infertile and 8 showed dead germs; 15 chicks died
in shell (7 pipped); 71 hatched.
Of the 100 eggs collected after dosing, 0 were infertile, 0 showed dead germs, 4 died in shell
(all pipped), 96 hatched.
104 The Journal of Heredity
the pituitary substance (anterior lobe)
on the egg production of the domestic
fowl.
“As will be noted in Table III,5 in
the preliminary period, the production
curve of these 655 hens was again, in
this case, on the decline. In order to
show that weather or other conditions
did not apparently tend to increase
production on these dates, I have again
given (in Table III) the daily egg record
of the flock of 431 hens. It will be
noted in this case that the stimulating
effect on the 655 hens lasted only about
seven or eight days after the last dosing,
but it will be seen that the total dose
administered only provided, during the
four days, the equivalent of 80 mg. of
pituitary substance per hen and there
is no assurance that the material was
equally divided among the hens. It
being impracticable to forcibly feed so
many hens, the following method was
employed in this case: 45 grams of
powder were divided into three equal
parts, each part thoroughly mixed into
a pailful of dry mash. This mash was then
moistened with sour skim milk and fed
to the hens. The same quantity of this
same moist mash had been fed to these
hens every day for months past. It
had been mixed in exactly the same way
except for the addition of the pituitary
substance, and feeding conditions and
general care were identical during the
experiment with conditions previous, as
far as it is possible to make conditions of
this kind identical. It was noted that on
the second day after dosing, these hens
required, and were given, a_ larger
allowance of grain than previously,
and the dry mash being always before
them in open feed hoppers, it is prob-
able that they consumed a greater
quantity of this material than under
normal conditions. The increased appe-
tite was undoubtedly occasioned by
the increase in production, the writer
having often noted the fact that a sud-
5 Average daily egg production of fowls:
den increase in the appetite of a flock
is usually a precursor of an increase in
egg production.
“IT am publishing this paper as a
preliminary report. Further experi-
ments will follow to determine:
“1. The post period during which the stimu-
lating effect lasts.
“2. The smallest dose producing the desired
results.
“3. The general health, growth curve, and
age at maturity of chicks from dosed parents.
“4. A comparison of the effect of pituitary
substance taken from growing mammals and
from adult mammals.
“T have other experiments under
way at the present time.
“At the time these two experiments
were completed I did not know that
work of a similar nature had been done
by Pearl and Surface. These two
observers administered the pituitary
substance hypodermically to hens whose
ovaries were in a state of complete rest
(at the moulting season). They found
no activation, but their experiments
were carried out under very different
conditions, as regards the physiological
condition of the subjects, the method
of administering the substance, ete.
It seems possible to me that the nega-
tive results they obtained as compared
with my positive results might be
explained by the fact that the pituitary
substance I used was from growing
mammals while it is probable that their
material was from adults, as it was
purchased from the Organotherapeutic
Laboratory of Armour & Company.
It is known from the work of McCord
that positive results are obtained from
the use of pineal body from growing
mammals, and negative results from
this substance taken from adults, and
the same may be the case with pituitary
gland. Experiments are in progress to
test this point.
“These experiments show that:
“1, Feeding of pituitary gland sub-
June 1-8: Experimental pen 45 per cent possible, laying-house 40 per cent.
June 9-17: Experimental pen 38 per cent, laying-house 38 per cent.
June 18-24: Experimental pen 36 per cent, laying-house 36 per cent.
June 25—July 1: Experimental pen 51.78 per cent, laying-house 35 per cent.
July 2-11: Experimental pen 39.14 per cent, laying-house 31 per cent.
The first dose was
given to the experimental pen on the afternoon of June 21 and the last dose on the afternoon of
June 24.
Ee a
oT
Increasing Fecundity
stance (anterior lobe) increased the egg
production of hens whose production
curve was on the decline: Case 1, with
35 hens in isolated pens; Case 2, with
655 hens.
105
“2. The dosage was effective on the
fourth day after the first dose and lasted
for several days after the last dose.
“3. The hatchability of eggs from
dosed parents was increased.” —
Heredity and Criminal Delinquency
Heredity is considered only a minor
cause of delinquency by William Healy,
director of the Juvenile Psychopathic
Institute of Chicago, who presents an
analysis of 823 individual cases in his
recent book ‘‘The Individual Delin-
quent.”” Mental abnormalities and pe-
culiarities appear as a main factor 455
times and as a minor factor 135 times;
but Dr. Healy apparently does not
consider such abnormalities to be the
equivalent of bad heredity. ‘‘Defects
of heredity’’ are noted in no case as a
main factor, but in 502 cases as a minor
factor. Other causes listed by Dr.
Healy, such as “abnormal physical
conditions,’ ‘‘defective home condi-
tions, including alcoholism,’’ would be
thought by many students to be largely
due to defective heredity; and to her-
edity, therefore, might well be ascribed
a much more important réle in the pro-
duction of criminal delinquents, than
Dr. Healy gives to it, if one used the
same facts but started with a different
viewpoint or different definitions.
An Outline
BEING WELL-Born, by Michael F. Guyer,
Professor of Zoology at the University of
Wisconsin. Pp. 374, price $1.00. Child-
hood and Youth Series. Indianapolis,
Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1916.
The field of heredity in man is
resurveyed by Dr. Guyer in a com-
pact volume which omits few topics of
importance. The study of the cell
and the mechanism of heredity are
given much space, and methods of
cutting off defective lines of descent
are also dealt with at length. Less
attention is given to constructive eu-
genics than one might wish, but the
of Eugenics
recommendations made are sound and
conservative.
yt the Ts 4 Ae
ee a De:
FEMALE PARENT OF THE CROSS
which is fairly common in the southeastern United
-hown in the following photograph, it produced
Photograph
Plant of Tripsacum dactyloides, a grass
States. When crossed with the grass
eeds, but did not seem to « ontribute any of its own characters to these seeds.
made at Lanham, Maryland. (Fig. 2.)
Collins and Kempton: Patrogenesis
the succeeding internodes, was closed
and solid, consequently the growth of the
plant terminated with the first leaf.
During the early stages the remaining
six plants all behaved much.as did the
first generation plant, the only observ-
able difference being their more early
branching and the fact that the branches
were nearly prostrate for several months.
Studies of Tripsacum seedlings dis-
closed no such tendency.to produce
horizontal branches from the lower
nodes. Minor differences in the devel-
opment and distribution of the hairs
appeared, but these were not consistent
even among the plants having the
same male parents.
As the plants developed the diversity
became more pronounced, although the
variations were largely in the nature of
abnormalities. With one exception the
main axes of all the plants terminated
their growth much earlier than is
customary in Durango Euchlaena, only
ten to fourteen internodes being pro-
duced. The branches from the lower
nodes of all these plants greatly exceeded
the main stalk in height and produced
many more internodes. The exception
noted was one of the plants having the
Liberian maize for male parent. This
plant produced 51 internodes, a larger
number than has been recorded in
Euchlaena, Tripsacum or maize.
The terminal inflorescence of these
six second generation plants varied
greatly, but none of the forms showed
any approach to Tripsacum. One of
the most striking abnormalities con-
sisted in the replacement of the lower
spikelets of the terminal inflorescence
by little plants? This abnormality
occurred in the plant having the
Florida Euchlaena for its male parent,
in two of the second generation plants
obtained by self-fertilization, and to a
less extent in one of the plants having
the Liberian maize for male parent.
Several of these little plants which
developed roots while still attached to
the parent were removed and potted.
They grew into plants resembling the
larger branches or suckers of the
parent plants and matured seed. Plants
3A similar abnormality has been observed in maize.
Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb., XII, Pt. 10, pp. 453-455, 1909.
Maize Plant.
109
from some of the seed thus produced
were grown during the past season
(1915) and behaved like plants from
self-pollinated seed of the second genera-
tion plants.
The diversities of the first lot of
second generation plants, together with
the occurrence of hitherto unobserved
abnormalities, led us at that time to
believe that although we could detect
to indication of Tripsacum characters,
the plants were something other than
pure Euchlaena.
Further plantings from the original
lots of seed secured from the first genera-
tion plant were made in the greenhouse
in April, 1914. As soon as the weather
permitted these were transplanted to
the open and still other plantings were
made directly in the open soil. We thus
had second generation plants maturing
in the greenhouse and others in the
early stages growing in the open at the
same time.
These later plantings, including both
those transplanted and those planted
in the open, developed none of the
abnormalities observed in the first lot
grown in the greenhouse. The straight
second generation plants appeared to be
pure Durango Euchlaena. The others
were what might have been expected
in first generation hybrids between
Durango Euchlaena and the different
types of maize used as male parents.
THIRD GENERATION
In the season of 1915 experiments
were conducted near San Diego, Cal.
The long growing season of Southern
California afforded the first opportunity
to allow plants of the hybrid to grow to
maturity undisturbed. Small plantings
were made of such second generation
seed as had been obtained and the
following plants were secured: ten plants
from self-pollinated seed of three second
generation plants of the hybrid; seven-
teen plants from self-pollinated seed of
three plants of (Tripsacum x Euchlaena)
X Liberian maize; five plants from
self-pollinated seed cf one plant of
(Tripsacum x Euchlaena) X Florida
Euchlaena. Plantings of Durango
See Collins, G. N., Apogamy in the
y¥
*
‘
NS
>
melt g >y
MALE PARENT OF THE CROSS
Plant of Euchlaena, a grass which is grown to some extent for forage in the United States, under
the name of teosinte. The variety here represented is that from Durango, Mexico; photo-
graphed at San Diego, Cal. In a cross with the grass shown in the preceding photograph,
this Euchlaena proved so prepotent that the offspring cannot be distinguished from
the male parent; while the female parent seems to have exerted no influence whatever
on the heredity. This unusual type of heredity has been given the name of patro-
genesis. (Fig. 3.)
{.
y
z
\
4
THE HYBRID RESEMBLES THE MALE PARENT
Compare this plant with the one shown in the preceding illustration, and you will see no real
difference. Yet this is a hybrid, in the first generation from the Tripsacum x Euchlaena
cross. The identity between the male parent and the offspring is so close that the female
parent seems to have done nothing but furnish nourishment for the development of the
seed. (Fig. 4.)
FLOWERS OF THE TRIPSACUM
The hairy threads in the lower part of the picture are the pistillate or female
flowers, while above are the male or staminate flowers, their dark-colored
anthers or pollen sacs hanging on very fine filaments. Photograph natural
size.. (Fig. 5.)
Collins and Kempton: Patrogenesis
Euchlaena were also made for compar-
ison. The seed was planted on March
16, and a second planting of Durango
Euchlaena was made on June 11. The
third generation plants of the cross,
with the exception of those that had
been crossed with maize, all developed
as normal Durango Euchlaena, free
from any of the abnormalities observed
in the second generation plants grown
in the greenhouse. Early in the season
the branches showed the prostrate habit
characteristic of the first and second
generation plants, but the Durango
Euchlaena plants also showed the same
habit. Curiously enough, the first
planting of Durango Euchlaena devel-
oped a series of abnormalities almost
exactly paralleling those of the second
generation hybrid plants grown in the
greenhouse. Of eighteen Durango
Euchlaena plants, twelve produced
aborted main stalks that matured with
nine to thirteen leaves. Four of the
eighteen plants produced apogamous
plants in the place of spikelets. All of
the abnormal plants produced numerous
suckers that grew normally and were
indistinguishable from the main stalks
of normal Durango Euchlaena plants.
The later planting of Durango Euch-
laena was entirely free from these
abnormalities.
Table 1 gives the average measure-
ments of plants grown at San Diego.
It can be seen that there are no striking
differences between the hybrid plants
and the Durango Euchlaena, the hybrid
113
plants being in many particulars inter-
mediate between the two plantings of
Euchlaena. Where significant differ-
ences occur they are not of a nature to
suggest Tripsacum.
Several hundred plants from open
pollinated seed of the different second
generation hybrid plants were also
grown and carefully examined for indi-
cations of Tripsacum, but no characters
or abnormalities not attributable to
Euchlaena or maize were observed.
TRIPSACUM POLLINATED BY MAIZE.
To repeat the original cross in the
late plantings has been impossible,
through a failure to bring Euchlaena
and Tripsacum into flower at the same
time. In 1914, however, maize pollen
of several varieties was available at the
time the Tripsacum plants were in
flower. Numerous attempts to fer-
tilize Tripsacum flowers with maize
pollen resulted in a small quantity of
viable seed. A number of plants from
these seeds have been grown, but
instead of resembling the male parent,
all are apparently pure Tripsacum.
These crosses were made with such
precautions against accidental pollina-
tions and have been secured in such
numbers that there can be little doubt
regarding the parentage of the plants.
Euchlaena and maize are so nearly
related and have behaved so much
alike in the perjugate generations of
our original cross with Tripsacum that
we fully expect to secure similar results
TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF Two PLANTINGS OF DURANGO EUCHLAENA WITH TRIPSACUM X
DURANGO EUCHLAENA, GROWN AT CHULA VisTA, CAL., 1915
Durango Durango Tripsacum X
Euchlaena Euchlaena Euchlaena
planted planted third
March 16 June 11 generation
Pleo ie tn CEONbMMeLerS, 9) 40134. S55 .20 4.0+ .08
Nodes above longest leaf.s.! 0.000... 2..0..0.. Ohyes 9 cals, 8. 8==r 739 10.3+ .66
INI@ig SVE ees, Ne he i 18.8+ 1.48 bse 27/6 Lis ees
Height of tallest sucker in centimeters..........300.0+10.10 195.0+2.79 199 0+ 10.90
Nomexsertedminiternodes.... acs... 2.4-. 8s ieee 629 -=— eo (ozs A =o
Diameter of stalk in centimeters............... = aT Oe teva le 2M} Seen shy
ure $e Ai .
=
“> ey — a
Re a as
=
THE MALE PARENT AND THE HYBRID: FLOWERS
of the Durango Euchlaena, while on the right are shown
They are alike
between Euchlaena and Tripsacum.
and the flowers of the hybrid shown no influence of the
(Fig. 0.)
At the left are pistillate flowers
pi ‘tillate flowers of the cro
in almost every particular,
compare with fig. 5. Photographs natural size.
parent
THE MALE PARENT AND THE HYBRID: FRUITS
Below are fruits of the Durango Euchlaena, nearly mature, and
shown natural size. The spikes are arranged as they were borne
on the branch. Above are the mature fruits of the Euchlaena x
Tripsacum hybrid, likewise arranged as they were borne on the
branch, and photcgraphed natural size. The fruits of the male
parent and hybrid cffspring are similar in every respect. (Fig 7.)
MALE FLOWERS OF THE EUCHLAENA
much like the familiar ‘‘tassels’’ of maize, to which the Euchlaena is
But they are also so much like the staminate flowers of the
Euchiaena x Tripsacum hybrid, shown in the next photograph, that no one
could tell the difference. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 8.)
They are
closely related.
MALE FLOWERS OF THE HYBRID
There is nothing in this inflorescence which resembles the flowers of the mother (Tripsacum),
shown in Fig. 5. But every detail resembles the corresponding detail of the male flowers
of the paternal parent (Euchlaena), shown in the preceding illustration (Fig. 8). This
similarity with the male parent, and exclusion of all the characteristics of the female
parent, appear in all the traits of the hybrids, and have led to the belief that we are here
dealing with a new type of inheritance, which has received the name of patrogenesis.
Photograph natural size. (Fig. 9.)
118
with Euchlaena “pollen. It “appears,
therefore, ‘that the complete. resem-
blance to the male parent, which we
secured in the first’ cross; ~wasexcep-
tional. Crosses. between Tripsacum
and Zea, at least, usually show a com-
plete resemblance to the female parent.
It seems not improbable that the maize
pollen served only to induce partheno-
genesis in the Tripsacum parent. With
the view of determining this point
material for cytological study has been
secured and is being investigated.
CONCLUSIONS
A cross between Tripsacum dacty-
loides, female, and Euchlaena mexicana,
male, has been carried through three
generations without exhibiting any indi-
cation of the characters of the female
parent. In attempting to explain this
complete absence of the characters of
the female parent two alternatives may
be considered. (1) The characters of
the female parent have been completely
masked by those of the male, or (2) the
male nucleus developed in the ovary to
the complete exclusion of the female,
_.representing in a way the counterpart
‘of parthenogenesis.
The Journal of Heredity
In the three genera-
tions of the: progeny, of ‘this hybrid» at
least 350 plants -hdve been examined.
This and the fact that a great variety of
conditions has called forth great varia-
tion and induced many abnormalities
without evoking any indication of
Tripsacum characters has caused the
first alternative to be dismissed. If
the second alternative be adopted we
are compelled to look upon the results -
of this cross as a special type of inheri-
tance not previously recognized. Hy-
brids showing a predominance of the
characters of the male parent have
been described as patroclinous, but in
this cross.and its successive progenies
no trace of the characters of the female
parent has been detected.’ No true
hybridization or conjugation between
the two nuclei appears to have taken
place. For this form of false hybridi-
zation the name patrogenesis is pro-
posed. The term patrogenesis would
also serve to place the phenomenon in
proper contrast with parthenogenesis.
This is rendered appropriate by the
occurrence of what appears to be true
parthenogenesis in Tripsacum, when
pollinated with maize.
The Effect of War
WAR AND THE BREED, by David Starr Jordan.
Pp. 265, price $1.35 net. Boston, The Beacon
Press, 25 Beacon Street, 1915.
Twenty years ago the idea that war
was an important factor in changing the
inborn nature of the human race was
a novel one recognized by few.
Jordan is largely responsible for making
this fact seem almost a truism at the
present day. In the present book he
Dr..
has explained the thesis with a great
wealth of illustration, and in a most
readable way, prefacing the main dis-
cussion with a short and popular out-
line of the various methods in which
evolution proceeds. The volume there-
fore makes an interesting elementary
treatise on eugenics, and one that from
its timeliness ought to have a wide
circle of readers.
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FEWER BIRTHS AND DEATHS: WHAT
DO THEY MEAN?
Death Rate Falling in Civilized World in Recent Years—Birth Rate Falling Still
More Rapidly—Death Rate Cannot Fall Much Farther, but Readjust-
ment of Birth Rate along Eugenic, Lines Is Necessary!
WALTER F. WILLCOXx
Professor of Economics and Statistics, Cornell University,
death rates are revealed by a
diagram showing annual death
rates for a populous area through
a long series of years. The American
districts best satisfying these two con-
ditions are Massachusetts, for which
the death rate since 1849 is known, and
the old New York City, for which the
death rates run back now through
more than a century.
The accompanying diagram shows
the death rate in each of these areas
for each year from the beginning of
registration to the present date. (See
fig. 10.)
This diagram illustrates what a larger
body of evidence would confirm, that
the perceptible and steady decline in
the death rate is a relatively recent
phenomenon. In order to test the
correctness of this inference, the average
death rate has been computed for each
decade and the ratio found between
that rate and the rate in the preceding
ten. years ‘taken as 100. The results
are as follows:
(eeaih important changes in
These figures show that the decennial
death rate in New York City rose for
the forty years following 1810-19, but
has been falling since the Civil War
and is now much lower than ever before.
In Massachusetts the rate rose until
about 1880 and has been falling since
that date, but at a slower rate than in
New York. Decennial rates for at
least two decades have been obtained
in twenty-seven European countries
and in every one the rate for 1901-10
was lower than for any previous
decade. This evidence shows that the
decrease of the rate is well-nigh universal
in Europe. A few exceptions to the
rule, however, are found in other parts
of the world; namely, Ontario, Canada,
Connecticut, Michigan, Vermont, Chile,
Jamaica, Japan and Ceylon. But in
some of these the rates at earlier
decades were incredibly low and the
apparent increase was probably due
to more complete returns of deaths in
the later years.
The diagram also suggests that the
annual fluctuations began to decrease
at about the same time that the rates
Ratio of rate to that in preceding decade
Death rate in = 100
Date New York City Massachusetts New York City Massachusetts
1804-09 26.3 Se 4 ier:
1810-19 24.7 43 94.2 Sates
1820-29 2568 et: 104.2 Wine
1830-39 29.8 Ph 11557 oe
1840-49 30.3 fete 101.5 RPA
1850-59 35.6 18.0 Tle DEER
1860-69 Sil UI 19.4 89.0 107.8
1870-79 PA AS 1977 Sie2 101.6
1880-89 26.8 19.6 97.1 99.6
1890-99 5 19.1 86.0 97.1
1900-09 19.0 16.0 82.3 84.0
Sie! 15:5 80.6 96.7
1910-13
1Paper read by request before Section VIII, Public Health and Medical Science, Second
Pan-American Scientific Congress, W ashington. BD: Cs
119
THE DEATH RATE IS GRADUALLY FALLING
The solid line in this chart represents the death rate in New York City for more than a cen-
tury, and shows that in spite of annual fluctuations the number of deaths per thousand
of the population has been decreasing ever since the middle of the last century. For
the last quarter of a century or more there is an almost uninterrupted decline, coincident
with the increased attention paid to sanitation and public health.
The dotted line shows
the death rate for Massachusetts, which also decreased during the last quarter of a cen-
tury.
It is obvious that this decline in death rates can not proceed very much longer.
Modern hygiene may postpone the death of a man, but it can not keep him alive forever.
(Fig. 10.)
began to fall. To judge whether this
is a general or only a local change,
conditions in the twenty-three countries
of Europe? for which the rates as far
back as 1870 are known have been
examined. The average annual varia-
tion has been determined. Naturally
the successive years between which the
greatest variation occurred were the
years of transition from peace to war or
vice versa. Thus, the greatest changes
occurred between 1871 and 1872 and
between 1870 and 1871. The war of
1876 exerted a less noteworthy influence.
On the whole, the annual fluctuations
have decreased but the change is less
obvious and uninterrupted than students
of individual cities or countries might
expect.
Both the steady decrease in the death
rate and the slow reduction in the annual
fluctuations mark and measure man’s
progressive emancipation from physical
ills of disease or famine, which are closely
dependent upon climate and_ season,
and, we might have thought, before
August, 1914, from the political ills of
war and revolution.
In New York State between 1894 and
1909 there was a marked decrease in
mortality during July and August as
compared with the average for the
entire year. I believe no similar studies
have been made for other States. In
default of other evidence we may con-
clude that one factor in the diminishing
death rate has been an increased control
of deaths in summer. If this should
prove to be a general fact, it would
probably be connected with the success
of efforts to reduce infant mortality.
The hot months are especially dangerous
to infants, while the cold months are
especially dangerous to the aged.
Age influences the death rate more
powerfully than any other physiological
factor. Most people know that the
death rate is lowest at the age of puberty
and very much higher at the beginning
and end of life. But the amount of
2 For this purpose the three divisions of Great Britain and Ireland and the eight divisions of
the German Empire have been distinguished.
120
Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths
difference is not commonly realized. In
New York State boy babies under 1 year
of age suffer from a death rate sixty-five
times that of boys of 10 to 14. The
death rate of nonagenarians rises to
159 times that of the youth.
It would be a natural expectation of
one who is told that the death rate is
rapidly falling that the gains had been
distributed somewhat evenly up and
down the scale of years. But this antic-
ipation is not borne out by the facts.
Even in a hurried survey like this two
points, the possible increase of infant
mortality and the possible increase of
mortality among the aged, call for
mention.
DEATH AMONG INFANTS
High medical authority in England
alleged nearly ten years ago that
infant mortality is stationary or in-
creasing and this conclusion won some
acceptance in the United States. For-
tunately the figures proved to be
susceptible of another explanation. But
into that question there is now no need
to go, since even in England and on the
face of the figures infant mortality has
decreased since 1900. Indeed among
the nineteen countries of Europe for
which statistics are at hand there is not
one in which infant mortality has shown
no decrease since the beginning of the
twentieth century. In the United
States the registration of births is still
very defective and there are no large
population groups for which we know
the true infant mortality, that is, the
number of children dying in the first
year of life to each thousand living
births. Our best substitute for this
figure is the ratio between the deaths
under 1 year of age and the living
children under 1. In the registration
States of 1900, comprising 26.3% of the
country’s population, this ratio fell
from 162.4 in 1900 to 141.7 in 1910,
indicating that infant mortality fell
about one eighth in the decade.
When we turn to the other end of
life, the indications of our American
figures are less gratifying. In the
registration States of 1900 the death
12%
rate decreased between 1900 and 1910
for every age period below 55 and
increased at nearly every age period
above 55. On this point our experience
is apparently at variance with that of
Europe. The latter indicates that be-
fore 1900 the fall in the death rate
extended to all ages below 55 and was
especially great at ages between 5 and
35, but that for ages above 55 it was
slight or absent. The English life
tables recently published and speaking
for a more recent period show that at
every age above 5 years the mortality
in 1901-10 was less than that in 1891—
1900 and that the mortality in 1910-12
was less than that in 1901-10.4
DEATH AMONG THE AGED
The apparent increase of mortality
at high ages in our registration States,
in opposition to the general trend in
other countries, invites and should
obtain more careful and thorough analy-
sis than it has thus far received or than
I have been able to give it for this paper.
Although it appears in both sexes, it
does not show itself among women until
the age of 60 is reached, while among
men over 45 the death rate in 1910
exceeded that in 1900. It appears also
among the three classes of native white,
foreign born white and colored, earliest
among the colored with whom the
increase appears in each sex at every
age above 30, latest among the foreign
born whites with whom the increase does
not appear in either sex until the age of
60 and then for females appears only
for the ten year age period 60-69. It
appears in a prevailingly agricultural
State like Vermont at an earlier age
and more definitely than it does in a
prevailingly industrial State like Massa-
chusetts or Rhode Island. In a recent
reference to this change, based mainly
upon the figures for Massachusetts and
New Jersey between 1880 and 1910,
three possible causes were mentioned,
‘the amalgamation of the various races
that constitute our population,” “lack
of adaptation to our rapidly developing
civilization”? and ‘‘some unknown bio-
logic influence,” and a preference for the
3 March, Statistique intern. du Mouvement de la Population, Vol. I, p. 450.
4Reg Gen., Supplement to 75th Ann. Rep., Pt. I, Life Tables, p. 20.
122
second was indicated. Thus far no
evidence has been produced, I believe,
showing that the increase is greatest
where amalgamation of races is probably
affecting the largest proportion of the
population or where the lack of adapta-
tion to a developing civilization is
greatest.
An influence upon mortality which the
United States is in a more favorable
position to investigate is that of race.
Under this term I do not include those
residents in the United States who or
whose progenitors were born in a certain
country or spoke a certain language,
like the Scandinavians or the French
Canadians. At some future time we
may be able to investigate the death rate
of groups like those, although the present
position and sluggish development of
American vital statistics make one fear
that the facts may become inaccessible
before the country is ready to study
them. I refer here to the two great
races of white and colored, which
include between them more than 99%
of our population. The registration
States of 1900 contained in that year
19,544,821 whites and 388,198 Negroes
and many more in 1910, groups large
enough and coming from States widely
enough scattered to make the changes
in their death rates between 1900 and
1910 somewhat representative of the
changes in the whole country.
DEATH AMONG NEGROES
The death rate of whites in these
States fell from 17.0 in 1900 to 15.5 in
1910, a decrease of 1.5 per thousand, or
8.8% of the initial rate. Meantime the
death rate of Negroes in the same States
fell from 25.6 in 1°00 to 25.0 in 1910, a
decrease of 0.6 per thousand, or 2.4%.
These figures show that the fall in the
death rate during the decade was more
than twice as great among whites as
among Negroes. Stating the same
change in another way, the death rate
among Negroes in these States exceeded
that among whites by 51% in 1900 and
61% in 1910.
But to compare the two races in this
way and stop without noting whether
5 Fisher and Fisk, How to Live, p. 282.
azine Supplement, December 19, 1915.
See
The Journal of Heredity
significant differences exist between the
age and sex composition of the two
groups might easily lead us into error.
‘hus among the whites 50.5%, but
among the Negroes only 48.3% were
male. As the female death rate is
lower than the male the true difference
between the death rate of the races
would probably be greater than the
foregoing figures indicate. Even more
important is the fact that of the whites
21.5%, but of the Negroes only 16.1%
are either children under 5 or aged
(55+) and have the high death rate
characteristic of infancy and old age.
Probably the best way to measure the
effect of these differences in sex and age
composition is to compute standardized
death rates for each race. When the
death rates of each race for a given sex
and age are applied to the population
of the same sex and age in a standard
million distributed as in the registration
States of 1900, the standardized death
rate in 1910 is found to be 15.5 for
whites and 27.5 instead of 25.0 for
Negroes, showing that the corrected
death rate of Negroes exceeds that of
whites by 12.0 per 1,000, or 78%,
instead of 9.5 per 1,000, the difference of
the crude rates. The corresponding
standardized death rates in 1900 were
16.9 for whites instead of 17.0 and 29.0
for Negroes instead of 25.6, showing a
fall during the decade of 1.4 per 1,000
for whites and 1.5 per 1,000 for Negroes.
But in 1900 the standardized Negro
death rate exceeded that of the whites
by 72% as compared with 78% im
1910. The standardized death rate
among female Negroes exceeds that
among female whites by 61% in 1900
and by 72% in 1910, while the difference
among males was 69% in 1600 and 84%
in 1910, showing that the difference
between the males of the two races is
greater and increasing more rapidly
than among the females. The death
rate of each race is falling, but the gap
separating the two races has seemingly
grown wider. Before the Civil War,
according to what evidence we have, the
death rate of Negroes exceeded that of
whites by 29.8% of the lower rate, and
also Lewinski-Corwin in New York Times, Mag-
Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths
in 1890 the difference was 56.5%.
These earlier rates are not strictly
comparable with each other or with
those for 1900 and 1910, partly because
they speak for different areas, neither
of which agrees with the registration
States of 1°00, and partly because in
them no attempt has been made to
allow for differences in the age and sex
composition of the two races or for
changes in these respects. The general
conclusions, however, that the death
rate of each race has fallen by approxi-
mately the same amount and that the
ratio by which the Negro rate exceeds
the white has been rising, seem to be
supported by evidence enough to make
them deserve acceptance.
MARRIAGE AND LONG LIFE
Still another influence upon mortality
which has been recently investigated is
that of marital condition. European
figures indicated long ago that the
mortality of husbands is much less than
that of bachelors or widowers of the
same age and the conclusion is now
corroborated by figures for New York
State. No doubt this difference is
largely due to the selective process by
which the men who marry are, on the
average, at the time of marriage more
healthy and vigorous than men of the
same age who do not marry. Evidence
that direct benefits to health accrue
from married life is found in the death
rate of widowers, which is much higher
than that of husbands; in the death
rate of Catholic celibate clergy, which is
higher than that of Protestant clergy,
most of whom are married; and in the
death rate of all males during the years
at which marriage is most common.
The normal and usual course of mor-
tality in each sex is for a slow but steady
increase to begin just after the minimum
is reached in the early teens, and to
continue with accelerating rapidity to
the end of life. To this course there is
no significant exception among women,
but among men in several countries
the increase is checked or even turned
into a slight decrease for a longer or
shorter period between the ages of
20 and 35 when marriage is most
common. The probable explanation is
123
that the normal increase of mortality
during these years is nearly or quite
neutralized by the steady transfer of
many men from the less healthy bachelor
state to the more healthy married state.
The explanation finds some support in
the fact that during these years the
death rate of bachelors and of husbands
treated separately rises steadily with
age. On the whole, the evidence justi-
fies the inference that marriage exerts a
directly beneficial influence on men’s
health and prospects of longevity. For
wives the facts are less favorable. In
New York the death rate of wives
between 20 and 29 is greater than that
of single women at the same age period.
The difference is slight and part of it
no doubt is due to the fact that wives
20 to 29 years of age are, on the average,
more than two years older than spinsters
belonging to the same age group. But
as less than half the difference can be
thus explained, it seems clear that in
New York, as in most other areas in
which the facts have been determined,
during the early years of married life
wives have a higher death rate than
spinsters and probably that the differ-
ence is largely due to the dangers attend-
ing childbirth, especially among those
bearing a first child.
THE BIRTH RATES
There are no American birth rates
which extend over a long series of years
and may be trusted as accurate. In
default of evidence from this country I
have used in the diagram the birth rates
for England and Wales since 1838 and
for Berlin since the beginning of the
last century. (See Fig. 11.)
The diagram shows that the birth
rate was probably at its maximum about
1875 and has decreased almost steadily
since that date, that the decrease in
England has been about one-third and
in Berlin about one-half of the maximum
amount, that the variations both from
year to year and through longer periods
were greater in the city than in the entire
state, that the decrease since 1876 has
been almost uninterrupted, that there
was a marked depression in both areas
in 1890, and that Berlin had a much
more notable depression in 1871. If in
THE FALLING BIRTH RATE IN BERLIN AND ENGLAND
Formerly the fluctuations in the annual birth rate seemed to depend on natural conditions,
but for the last generation there has been a steady fall which is generally ascribed to ©
artificial conditions.
that married people are gradually learning how to avoid having children.
Although its causes are many, the principal one is believed to be
Up toa certain
point, this decline in the birth rate was a natural result of the decline in the death rate.
Otherwise population would probably have increased faster than wealth. But if it goes
any farther, the results to the race may be serious.
the earlier diagram we had used the
death rates for Berlin, high points on
that curve would have been revealed
in 1871 and 1890 when the birth rates
were low.
As a rule influences which tend to
increase deaths tend also to decrease
births, and influences which tend to
decrease deaths tend to increase births.
This appears even in the rhythm of
rach day, Italian figures apparently
showing that deaths are most frequent
and births least frequent in the after-
noon. There is also a yearly as well as
a daily rhythm traceable in the figures
but in this case the reciprocal relation-
ship is between conception as mirrored
in the births nine months later and
deaths. There is some evidence that
during the late spring and early summer
and again during the late fall the death
rate is low and the conception rate high.
There is some evidence, likewise, that
during the late winter and the late
summer the death rate is high and
the conception rate low. This recip-
rocal relationship between births or
conceptions and deaths appears also in
the case of any great social calamity.
124
(Fig. 11.)
As a war or a pestilence raises the death
rate, so likewise it depresses the birth
rate, and in estimating the social effect
of either it is of the first importance to
consider not only the deaths it has
caused but also the births it has pre-
vented. For example, in Massachusetts
between 1860 and 1864 the death rate
rose from 18.7 to 22.8, an increase of
4.1 per 1,000, and the birth rate fell
from 29.3 to 24.2, a decrease of 5.1 per
1,000. In Sweden continuous and trust-
worthy records of births and deaths
have been maintained without a break
since 1749, a longer period than in any
other country. The year 1773 was
marked by the heaviest death rate of
this century and _ two-thirds and
during that year the birth rate was also
lower than in any year before or since.
The most universal and fatal epidemic
which has afflicted civilized countries
of recent years was probably the first
of the recent visitations of influenza,
which spread over Europe and America
in the winter of 1889-90 and caused in
New York State about 5,000 deaths.
Wherever the births were reported and
published by months one finds, nine
Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths
months after the influenza epidemic
was at its height, a marked shortage of
births. There were at least 200,000
fewer births in Europe in 1890 than the
average annual number for the preceding
five year period.
THE CHANGE OF TENDENCIES
Now the most marked change in the
birth rate during the last half century,
a change revealed by a comparison
between the two diagrams, has been the
gradual decline and almost complete
disappearance of this reciprocal rela-
tionship between births and deaths
and the appearance in its place of a
tendency for births and deaths to change
in the same way rather than in opposite
ways. Before proceeding to consider
the causes, let me set forth the facts a
little more fully.
1. The birth rate and death rate now
remain approximately the same in any
given country during any few years.
The sharp annual variations which
characterized these rates and which are
still traceable in the statistics of un-
developed countries are disappearing.
2. The tendency of both death rates
and birth rates is to undergo large and
important modifications in longer peri-
ods of time. The sharp up or down
movements in both curves connected
with such causes as war, pestilence or
famine on the one hand, or bountiful
harvests and cheap food on the other,
are being succeeded by a steady pro-
gressive downward movement in the
death rate and the birth rate.
Regarding the birth rate in the United
States we know practically nothing.
But in default of this information I
have found an available substitute by
comparing the number of children under
five years of age at the date of each
census with the number of women
16-44 years of age at the same census.
The results are given in the following
table, in which the figures before 1850
are estimated from such data regarding
sex and age as the earlier censuses afford.
During the sixty years 1850-1910 the
proportion of children to 1,000 women
of child-bearing age decreased in the
125
Children under 5 years of
age to women 16-445 years
Date of age
1800 976
1810 976
1820 928
1830 877
1840 835
1850 699
1860 714
1870 649
1880. - s 635
1890 554
1900 541
1910 508
United States by 191, or an average of
thirty-two in each decade. There are
only about seven-tenths as large a
proportion of children in the United
States now as there were in 1850. If
we assume that the change will continue
in the direction in which it has been
moving ever since 1860 and at this
average rate of thirty-two in a decade,
the number of children under 5 in the
country to each 1,000 women 16-44
will be as follows:
1920 476
1930 444
1940 412
1950 380
2000 220
2050 60
2060 28
2070 0
The figures indicate that, if changes
like those which have been in. progress
in the United States since 1850 were to
continue unchecked for a century and a
half there would be no children left.
Let me not be understood as predicting
a continuance of the movement for any
long period in the future. But often
the best method of bringing home to
ourselves the vast sweep and significance
of the changes revealed by statistics is
to project them into the future and see
whither they lead. No doubt social
movements do not occur along straight
lines. On the contrary sharp inflections
in the curves of social change are
frequent. But it is one of the main
duties of statistics to point out the trend
of the stream along which society is
moving and thus perhaps to arouse a
desire for a change.
This tendency to a decline in the
6In order to reduce estimates to a minimum in the earlier decades ages 16-44 were chosen
instead of 15-49, the more usual limits.
126
birth rate is in nowise confined to the
United States. On the contrary the
movement in most European countries
has been in the same direction. In
twenty-four European countries, all,
except Ireland, Portugal and Bulgaria,
’ for which the records are at hand, the
birth rate 1901-10 was lower than in
the preceding decade and in nearly all
of them it was lower than in any earlier
decade.
In considering the causes of this great
change, let me refer first to the position
of Herbert Spencer. He has argued
that the various organs of the body
compete with each other for nourishment
and growth, that the surplus not re-
quired by the individual is all that can
be devoted to the continuance of the
race, that no other system makes de-
mands upon the body as heavy as those
of the nervous system, that civilization
and education are steadily increasing
this drain and decreasing the surplus.
He finds, therefore, a natural and
inevitable connection of a physiological
kind between an advancing civilization
and a decreasing birth rate. Some
students of American statistics have
sought to find support for this position
in our fragmentary and elusive material.
I cannot go farther with the question
this morning than to express my
judgment that these efforts have not
been successful and that there is no
conclusive evidence, statistical or other-
wise, in support of Spencer’s contention.
While admitting the heavy and increas-
ing demands upon the nervous system
made by modern conditions, I would
point out that the decreased death rate
and the decrease of sickness by which
it is probably attended mean an
increase of human vitality and so of the
surplus to be drawn upon. Whether
the increased expenditure on the nervous
system equals or exceeds this increased
surplus no one has even tried to prove.
Until that is done I believe the Spencer-
ian theory must be deemed only a
theory.
THE ‘‘RACIAL POISONS”’
Nor can we admit, as others have
argued, that the decreased birth rate in
civilized countries is due either to the
The Journal of Heredity
growing abuse of alcohol or to the spread
of venereal disease. Such arguments
have come mainly from special students
of these social evils and such students
often lose the sense of proportion and
find a relief from every social ill in the
one reform on which their eyes are
riveted.
Walker explained the decrease in the
American birth rate by the menace to
the American standard of life from the
influx of swarms of immigrants accus-
tomed to cheap food and clothing and
bad housing and to the effect otf this
menace upon the birth rate primarily
of the native stock and ultimately of
the entire population. This explana-
tion is improbable, because the decrease
as we have seen began as early as 1810,
when immigration was an un.mportant
influence, and has been matched in
Australia, where it must be due to other
causes than that assigned by Walker,
since Australia has had no great influx
of immigrants.
Turning from these inadequate expla-
nations, the true reason for the fall in
the birth rate is that in modern times,
mainly within the last half century,
births and the birth rate have come
under the control of human will and
choice in a sense and to a degree never
before true. Our leading American
authority, Dr. John Shaw Billings, put
it as follows: ‘‘The most important
factor in the change is the deliberate
and voluntary avoidance or prevention
of child-bearing on the part of a steadily
increasing number of married people
who prefer to have but few children.”
Before this change began the birth of a
child was, to be sure, the result of normal
physiological processes, but in the vast
majority of cases the birth itself did not
indicate a deliberate preference for that
result on the part of both or either of
the parents. There is not a single one
among the experts who denies that this
is the great underlying cause of the
modern decline in the birth rate of all
civilized countries.
FEWER BIRTHS NECESSARY
In considering this change may I
first suggest that some such change
was an almost necessary consequence
Willcox: Fewer Births and Deaths
of the great decline in the death rate?
That is, if the death rate in Europe had
declined as rapidly as it has and the
birth rate had not declined, the popula-
tion of that continent would now be
increasing even faster than the wealth
or the food supply. The standard of
living would be sinking and we would
probably soon relapse into our former ill
state. .It is the decline in the birth
rate, and that only, which has enabled
mankind to grip and hold fast the
advantages promised by the decline in
the death rate.
But there is a very important differ-
ence between the two changes. It is
probably to the interest of society in the
long run that each individual should be
given a chance to live out his life to old
age, and social effort directed to that
end is beneficial both to the individual
and to society. Thus far the interests
of the two coincide. For this reason
the two have cooperated and are cooper-
ating effectively to reduce the death
rate. But in the matter of the birth
rate there is a lack of adjustment be-
tween the interests of society and those
of the individual. Society is deeply
concerned that enough children should
be born to secure its own permanence
and a reasonable increase and that those
children should have the highest promise
of service. The individual is deeply
concerned not to compromise his own
future by assuming responsibility for
wife or family without the prospect of
being able to maintain them in accord-
ance with his standard of living. The
individual may often see for himself or
herself, therefore, a balance of advantage
in abstinence from or postponement of
marriage, in a childless marriage or a
small family, while society from its
point of view might conceive it to be
most important that a given endowment
of much social worth should be per-
petuated.
If there were time it would be easy to
show that a low and diminishing birth
rate is especially characteristic of many
strains of population, like college gradu-
ates of both sexes and the native
American stock of the New England
States, strains perhaps better endowed
than the average population with heredi-
127
tary qualities the perpetuation of which
is socially desirable.
SIGNIFICANCE OF EUGENICS
While persons engaged in grappling
with public health problems should
interest themselves in the various
changes I have briefly outlined, the main
question which my figures raise is this,
How shall the desirable natural increase
of the population be secured and at the
same time the quality of the population
be maintained or improved by securing
at least a normal or average and, if
possible, a more than normal birth rate
and natural increase in the strains of
population which are of the best stock
and therefore likely to transmit qualities
of greatest social worth?
In this difficult field a few general
principles may be stated dogmatically,
which I would be glad to explain and
defend, if there were time.
1. The death rate cannot be expected
to fall much below where it now stands
in healthy districts.
2. There is no such natural limit to a
fall in the birth rate.
3. The spread in the volitional control
of the birth rate is a change against
which, even if we believe it undesirable,
it is hopeless to struggle.
4. Legal regulations of marriage in
the effort to diminish the number of
births of diseased or otherwise undesir-
able children seem likely, unless accom-
panied by segregation, to do more harm
than good.
5. The social service rendered by par-
ents who have hereditary qualities of
great value and make heavy sacrifices
in other directions in order to rear
families of normal size or larger is
likely in future to be much better
appreciated and requited.
6. Persons interested in maintaining
the numbers and improving the quality
of the population should aim not merely
or mainly at a continued reduction of
the general death rate but also at the
gradual education of public opinion
towards a readjustment of the birth
rate in various classes which will enable
society to gain from its best strains
more than it can do under present
conditions.
WHAT THE SIZE OF AN EGG MEANS
Current Belief that Small and Large Eggs Are Produced at the Beginning or End
of a Hen’s Laying Period is Found to Be Wrong—Usually Appear
When Hen is Laying Most Heavily and Steadily
D. E. WARNER AND Ws. F. KIRKPATRICK
Department of Poultry Husbandry, State Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn.
and other observers that the very
small and very large eggs which
hens occasionally lay are the first
or last eggs of the hen’s laying period.
Lewis! states that “‘the extremely small
eggs laid by hens during their laying
period are common at the beginning
or end of the hens’ laying period.”
The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY? in a review
of some recent work on Xenia in Fowls
shows a photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industy, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, and states that ‘eggs
of any individual hen tend to become
a litte smaller as she approaches the
end of her laying period and the last
one, it is generally believed, is likely
to be a dwarf.”’
That this idea is wrong the writers
have been able to demonstrate by a
study of the abnormal eggs laid by the
hens in the third and fourth egg laying
contests held at the Connecticut Agri-
cultural College, Storrs, Conn., for the
year ending October 30, 1914, and up
to June 1, 1915.
The number of eggs laid by the 1,820
hens during the 20 months’ period was
199,137 of which 103 were small (less
than .09 of a pound) and 89 were large
(over .179 of a pound). The small
and large eggs had been credited to
the hens that laid them and the weights
of the individual eggs also had been
taken. The 103 small eggs were laid
by only 85 hens, showing that only a
small percentage of the hens laid a
small egg during their first year of
|: IS believed by some poultrymen
1 Productive Poultry Husbandry, page 306.
laying. Four hens out of the 85 laid
two small eggs at different periods of
their productivity. One hen, No. 900,
laid fourteen small eggs at different
periods and did not have a single normal
egg to her credit when she was removed
from the pen. This is an exceptional
case and further studies are under way
in order to determine the cause.
NO REST PERIOD
The first attack on the mass of
figures was intended to determine
whether a hen usually rested after lay-
ing a small egg. It was found that only
two eggs out of a total of 103 indicate a
resting period*® after the production of
a small egg. In every other case the
small egg was found in an almost
uninterrupted series of normal eggs.
This seems to prove conclusively that
small eggs may be laid at any time
during a hen’s laying period and that
most small eggs are laid while hens
are at the height of production. Out
of the 103 small eggs, 42 show no resting
period whatever; in 34 cases the hen
rested on the following day, in 13 there
was a resting period of 2 days, in 4
cases there was a pause of 3 days,
8 cases show an average period of 6144
days, and only 2 cases, as noted above,
showed a real resting period. But none
of these interruptions of the laying is
great enough to be considered a real
testing period; none of them is greater
than is often found with any normal
hen during the period of her greatest
® JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. 6, No. 5, May, 1915.
3 Bulletin No. 82, Connecticut Agricultural College.
rests after becoming broody is about 19.2 days.’
128
“The average length of time that a hen
A SMALL EGG APPEARS UNEXPECTEDLY
Eggs laid by one hen on six consecutive days are shown in this photograph.
one exception, of average size.
They are, with
The abnormally small egg appears in this series without
the slightest warning. The hen has not had any resting period before laying it, nor does
she take a resting period afterward. The study of many cases of this sort shows that
small eggs are not “‘pullets’ eggs,’’ or the last eggs laid by hens, as is often supposed, but
that they usually appear at a time of greatest egg yield, and are probably due to some
mechanical interruption in the hen’s egg-forming organs.
egg yield, the last two cases excepted,
of course.
Having investigated the records of the
hens after they laid small eggs, it seemed
well to inquire what they were doing
before. Seven records seem to indicate
that some small eggs were laid after a
hen had had a resting period of from
14 to 25 days. Most of the records
show, however, that the small eggs are
laid without any previous resting period
cf the hen.
The figures also showed that as a
rule hens do not lay extremely small
eggs at the beginning of their laying
periods, but that such eggs are laid at
a time when the hen is laying most
heavily.
It seems clear, therefore, that the
small egg is not due to the fact that
it is a hen’s first attempt, or to the fact
that it is the end of her laying period,
and represents exhausted power. A
fairer assumption as to the cause of
these small eggs would be that they
are due to some mechanical interfer-
ence with the hen’s normal functions—
that they are laid whenever a particle
of blood, foreign element, or an un-
developed yolk is drawn into the
passage where the shells are formed,
and that contractions of the oviduct
(Fig. 12.)
then cause an egg to be laid completely
formed, but without having undergone
normal development.
STUDY OF LARGE EGGS
After consideration of the small eggs,
the records of production of large eggs
were then examined. Eighty-nine were
found to have a total weight of 18.35
pounds or an average weight of .206
of a pound.
Of these eighty-nine large eggs, nearly
99 per cent were laid at the time of
heavy production, and in most cases
the hen did not rest after laying such
an egg, but continued her uninterrupted
yield of normal eggs.
“The cause of hens laying double-
yolked eggs is due no doubt to the
simultaneous or almost simultaneous
liberation of two yolks and_ their
incorporation in a single set of egg
membranes,’* or ‘‘by the successive
discharge of separate follicles at times
varying from simultaneous to the normal
period and by the subsequent union of
the eggs in the duct due to a difference
in the rate of passage of the successive
eggs.”
It further appeared that in most cases
the hen did not rest before laying a
large egg any more than she did after
4 Lillie’s ‘‘ Development of the Chick,” page 26.
5 Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 3, No. 5, February, 1915.
129
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NINYVA LDOOHLIM HWINOD SOOU WOUV'I
‘
What the Size of an Egg Means
such a performance. Forty-five of the
large eggs were laid without any previ-
ous resting period, thirty-one were laid
with a resting period of one day before,
and ten were laid with a resting period
of two days.
131
It seems obvious, therefore, that
neither small nor large eggs are neces-
sarily laid either at the beginning or end
of a hen’s laying period, but that they
are most often laid during the time of
heavy egg production.
-
TABLE I.—Weight in Grams of Smail Eggs and Weight of Eggs Immediately Preceding and
Following.
No. days. 1 2 3 a 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1911-1912
Hen No. 263 54.4 45.4 49.9 13.6 49.9 54.4 49.9 49.9
1912-1913
Hen No. 126 68.0 68.0 63.5 18.1 68.0 63.5 3-01 OSs
1913-1914
Hen No. 629 49.9 49.9 49.9 13.6 49.9 54.4 54.4 54.4
1914-1915
Hen No. 806 48.2 48.6 47.5 47.5 27.4 48.0 48.4 48.6 48.2
TABLE I].—Weight in Grams of Large Eggs and Weight of Eggs Immediately Preceding and
Following.
No. days. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1911-1912
Hen No. 219 58.8 58.9 58.9 86.2 544 54.4 544 544 49.9
1912-1913
Hen No. 144 58.9 58.0 90.7 63.5 58.9 58.9 58.9 58.9
1914-1915
Hen No. 862 58.9 58.9 58.9 90.7 544 58.9 63.5 58.9 63.5
1914-1915
Hen No. 321 70.1 50.4 91.9 564 56.9 56.9 HOAb Sal
Civilization and Climate
CIVILIZATION AND CLIMATE, by Ellsworth jn the past the same type seems to
Huntington. Pp. xii + 333, price $2.50 net. pave prevailed wherever a great civili-
Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
By experimental tests and an appeal
to history, Professor Huntington sup-
ports the thesis that a particular kind
of climate is necessary to the develop-
ment of a high civilization and that
man is, therefore, more dependent on
his environment than he is wont to
suppose. The conditions which seem
essential to the writer are a fairly high
average temperature with moderately
large daily fluctuations. This peculiar
type of climate prevails today wherever
civilization is high, the author thinks;
zation arose. Therefcre such a climate
seems to be a necessary condition of
great and permanent progress, although
by no means the only, or the most im-
portant condition—much less a cause.
In supporting this thesis, the author is
led to an extended discussion of the
importance of race, in which he shows
admirable poise. The book is unusual,
as the presentation of a novel and val-
uable hypothesis, in a most interesting
manner, and with an amount of well-
balanced judgment which writers of
books like this seldom show.
HEREDITARY NOSE BLEED
Tendency Runs Through Three Generations of a Family—Manifests Itself at
Adolescence and Disappears after a Few Years—Possibly
Connected with Sex!
Wiis C. LANE
University of Maine, Orono, Maine
people who had nose bleed nearly
every day, and from no apparent
external cause such as injury or
exertion. Last spring a third case of
this peculiar nose bleeding was found.
It so happened that all three of these
people were related; and I was told of
other cases among their relatives. An
inquiry was made and, with the aid of a
relative, thirteen cases of this peculiarity
were found, all of which are represented
on the accompanying chart. Most of
the members of this greater family (of
which all names will be absolutely
withheld) live in neighborhoods where
I am acquainted; I know personally
most of the individuals represented on
the chart and all of those possessing
the character in question.
Those individuals who possess the
trait have frequent, copious and regular
nose bleedings, not apparently arising
from such causes as injuries, excitement,
exertion, or like factors. These bleed-
ings first manifest themselves, in either
sex, at the period of adolescence, and
continue until the individual is 18 or 20
years of age. In a few cases the bleed-
ing occurs daily, in other individuals
about three times a week. The loss of
blood does not seem in any way to
incapacitate the subject, save to stop
work or play for a moment or two while
the blood is flowing.
With but one exception all the indi-
viduals who showed this peculiarity
were healthy, vigorous, well nourished
and developed rapidly after puberty.
Indeed, it appeared that those individ-
uals who bled from the nose the most
y Peet years ago I knew two young
valuable suggestions.
132
frequently and who lost the most blood
showed the greatest activity and de-
veloped most rapidly.
Invariably in case the regular nose
bleeding did not occur the subject
would have headache and a general
bodily and mental depression which
would be relieved by nose bleeding. In
other words, there was a general blood
congestion with its accompanying symp-
toms, which symptoms disappeared
after the blood pressure was reduced.
In fact, nose bleeding was sometimes
purposely induced to obtain relief when
the regular bleeding did not occur.
Individual No. 2 in the second
generation exhibited the peculiarity
most strongly. His nose would bleed
profusely every day. This was espe-
cially marked in his sixteenth year,
and yet at this time there was a remark-
able body growth. He worked very
hard, seeming never to tire, and was
never sick. The nose bleeding dimin-
ished the next year and ceased entirely
in his eighteenth year.
Individuals Nos. 1 and 5 on the chart
are characterized by typical vicarious
menstruation in addition to the peculiar
nose bleeding. The latter occurred
quite regularly about three times a
week and ceased at about the eighteenth
year.
Individual No. 4 in the third genera-
tion also showed this peculiar vicarious
function at times.
Individual No. 3 had nose bleed more
or less frequently up to her death which
resulted from an uncontrollable nose
bleed at the age of 45. None of the
other cases exhibited anything unusual
' Dr. Raymond Pearl, to whom thanks are hereby given, has criticized this paper and made
N- NORMAL
a »
8- NOSEBLEED
Bone
es" Fe
h,
; |
)
N)
HOW NOSE BLEED IS INHERITED
Nothing is known about the first generation here charted, but from then on it appears regularly
in some of the members of each generation.
except the regular nose bleeding that
ceased at the age of 18 to 20.
Considering that this peculiarity first
manifests itself at puberty, 1t perhaps
bears a very close relation to the
developing sex organs. It may be that
the internal secretions of the gonads are
being poured into the system and
stimulating blood formation faster than
the body can take care of it, and the
excess blood leaves the body by breaking
through the mucous membrane of the
nose. The superabundance of blood
would help to account for the rapid
development and increased activity at
this period. As the internal secretions
and the body came to be adjusted to
each other, we may suppose that the
phenomenon diminished and_ finally
disappeared (with the one exception).
Davenport? gives a few cases of dis-
eases of the blood and with evidence
that the tendencies are inherited. The
peculiarity herein described is probably
very similar or the same as one Daven-
port gives under the caption ‘Nose
bleed (Epistaxis).”’
This trait differs from hemophilia in
that it occurs in both sexes, only for a
few years, and then disappears; and to
2 Davenport, C. B.
“Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” p. 153.
(Fig. 14.)
all appearances the blood coagulate
normally.
Some people who suffer from catarrh
have frequent but irregularly occurring
nose bleed. This is usually due to the
erosion of the mucous membrane and
generally is induced by slight injuries,
and is in no way correlated with sex
development.
One frequently encounters people who
have a hypersensitive nose, so that very
slight injuries result in bleeding. This
trait usually is apparent long before
puberty; if proper precautions are taken
bleeding does not occur; and _ the
absence of bleeding is not followed by
depression. In fact these cases are
apt to be weakened by bleeding. Such
bleeding seems to result from high pres-
sure of blood on very thin and delicate
membranes. It is altogether possible
that individual No. 3 on the chart was
of this type.
The accompanying chart well shows
the distribution of the trait in question.
The blank spaces in the first and second
generations are those from whom no
data have so far been obtained regarding
the trait. The blank spaces in the
third generation represent individuals
New York, 1911.
133
134 The Journal
who have not yet passed childhood.
There are a number of children already
in the fourth generation and it will be
interesting to watch their development
and those of the third generation to see
whether new cases of nose bleed appear.
The maladjustment between blood
formation and the body requirements
of Heredity
may be inherited. At present all that
can be said, from the data we have, is
that it occurs in three generations of
one family. Further search may reveal
its appearance in more of the first
generation or of their descendants, and
time may prove its development in the
fourth generation.
The Tendency to
One of the most extraordinary cases
of human fecundity is that recalled by
R. Berger in the Zentralblatt fur
Gynakologie (1914, 10) on the authority
of the “‘Gessellschafter von 1834.” The
case is that of a man whose first wife
had quadruplets four times, triplets
three times and twins ten times; and
whose second wife had triplets once
and twins ten times. The man was,
therefore, the father of sixty-eight
children. Dr. Berger assumes, as
both wives of the man were thus fecund,
that the tendency to multiple births
Immigration
European emigration to the United
States is likely to increase after the war,
according to Professor Robert De C.
Ward of Harvard University, who
writes in the Eugenics Review (London,
January, 1916).. At the same time, the
physical and mental quality of the
immigrants is likely to show a decrease
over the standard which has prevailed
in the past. A _ serious situation is
therefore confronting eugenists. As
measures which will aid in preventing
the deterioration of the national stock,
Dr. Ward suggests a heavier fine for
steamship companies which attempt
Multiple Births
was due to the father rather than the
mother; but the idea seems hardly
tenable, for the production of several
children at once is naturally due to the
production of several ova at once, and
it is hardly conceivable that the father
has any influence in the production of
ova. Yet as a recent study of the
inheritance of twinning in sheep has
likewise seemed to indicate a slight
influence on the part of the sire, in the
production of twins, the whole question
deserves a careful examination.
after the War
to bring mentally defective aliens to the
United States, more thorough examina-
tion of immigrants at port of entry,
extension from three to five years of
the time in which an immigrant may be
deported if he becomes insane, and an
extension of the list of classes of immi-
grants who are excluded altogether.
But more effective than any single
measure, Dr. Ward thinks, would be a
measure which would restrict immigra-
tion in general. He favors some such
provision as the reading test embodied
in the Immigration Bill which was
vetoed last year by President Wilson.
PRIVEE CAILVES
Some Families of Cattle Produce Many of Them, Others None—Heredity Involved
But Its Working Not Simple—Attempt to Breed a Strain of Livestock
That Will Produce an Unusual Number of Young Seems Practicable
only one offspring at a birth could be
made, without loss of any desirable
qualities, to produce two or three, it
would be a distinctly practical applica-
tion of genetics. One of the necessary
preliminaries to such a step is a careful
study of cases where twins or triplets
are born.
It is not very uncommon for a cow
to produce twin calves, but triplets are
decidedly rare. One set of them! is
shown in the accompanying photo-
graph (Fig. 15) from their owner, N. P.
Sorensen, of Bellingham, Wash.
This particular case is somewhat
puzzling because it seems to be isolated.
So far as is known, the mother of these
triplets had never produced more than
one calf at a time, previous to this;
and the sire is not known to have
produced any other triplets or twins.
Furthermore, the strain to which they
belong appears to be no more prolific of
twins or triplets, than is any other strain
of Holstein-Friesians.
The three calves have grown nor-
mally, and the two bulls promise to be
valuable breeders. The heifer, however,
does not give any indication of sexual
maturity, and it is probable that she is
what stock men call a “free martin,”
|: animals which normally produce
an infertile female born as a twin toa
male (or two males, in this case).
Although no other plural birth has
been recorded for this family, it is usual
to find, where such a case is investigated,
that several plural births have occurred.
Raymond Pearl, for example, in tracing
the history of the triplet calves shown in
Fig. 16, found? that their dam had the
following record:
Three offspring, one at a time; then
two pairs of twins in succession; next
triplets; then a single calf and finally
the pair of triplets represented in the
photograph.
It would appear that, as the cow grew
older, the tendency to multiple births
increased.
Information in regard to the ancestry
was not available in this case, but E. N.
Wentworth has reported? an instance of
twins in three generations, on a farm
near Cocheco, N. H.
MODE OF HEREDITY
Data for investigating the heredity of
this tendency in livestock are naturally
scanty, but in man they are more
abundant. The fact that a tendency
to bear twins is due to inheritance, is
pretty generally accepted, but no one
has yet been able to say how this
1 The mother of these calves is Eldred Clothilde’s Josephine 2d, a purebred Holstein-Friesian
cow (registry No. 23525) belonging to the famous De Kol strain from which most of the fine
Holsteins in the United States are derived. Her sire was De Dikkert 3d’s De Kol Paul, 23525,
and her dam Eldred Clothilde’s Josephine, 50837.
In February, 1910, the cow illustrated was purchased by N. P. Sorensen, of Bellingham,
Wash., and since then has produced the following calves:
Caroline Josephine, born May 10, 1910; female 160284.
Adriana Josephine, born April 16, 1911; female 163034.
Sir Johanna Aaggie of Mt. Springs, born April 24, 1913; male 139860.
Joe de Kol, born May 9, 1914, male 154992.
Joe de Kol 2d, born May 9, 1914; male 154993.
Josephine 3d, born May 9, 1914; female, not registered.
The last three calves named are the triplets shown in Fig. 15.
The mother was born October
28, 1904. The sire of the triplets is Sir Johanna Aaggie Fayne 10th (No. 81867).
2 Bull. 204, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, September, 1912.
3 Breeder’s Gazette, Vol. LXII, p. 133, July 24, 1912.
THREE CALVES AT A TIME
After bearing a single calf three times in succession, the Holstein-Friesian cow here shown
suddenly bore triplets.
to what extent heredity is responsible for this multiple birth.
known that heredity is one of the causes of such births.
As little is known of her ancestry, it has been impossible to find
From other studies, it is
If a thorough investigation of
many cases like this were made, ways might be found for getting a strain that would
regularly produce at least two calves at a time, instead of one.
tendency is inherited, for the results are
irregular. W. Weinberg, whose study
dealt with large numbers of cases,
decided‘ that in man the tendency to-
ward multiple births is inherited in
Mendelian fashion, apparently behaving
as a recessive; but the results did not
altogether bear out this simple state-
ment, and he concluded that although
heredity was at the bottom of it, external
factors also played an important part.
No single external factor was as im-
portant as heredity, he thought, but
the sum total of external factors was
probably more important than heredity.
(Fig. 15.)
Weinberg’s methods of investigation,
being statistical, were hardly sufficient
to decide this point, and all that can
be said at present is that heredity is at
least an important factor in the produc-
tion of plural births.
Few attempts to increase the fecun-
dity of a strain by selecting the animals
which produce an unusual number of
young, are on record. To a certain
degree, of course, such selection is
always going on, half unconsciously, for
animals which are poor breeders are
discarded, while those which are good
breeders are valued highly and bred
4 Archiv fur Rassen- und Gesellschafts-Biologie, Band 6, pp. 339, 470, 609, 1909.
136
THEIR MOTHER HAD FOURTEEN CALVES AT EIGHT BIRTHS
She is a grade Guernsey, while the sire was a grade Hereford. The male calf (in the
center) resembled his mother in color and markings, while the other two (infertile
females or “free martins”) inherited the color and markings of their father,
including the white face which is so characteristic of the Hereford breed.
Photo-
graph reproduced by courtesy of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
(Fig. 16.)
regularly. But deliberate attempts, ex-
tending over a series of generations,
have rarely been made.
EXPERIMENT OF DR. BELL
One of the most notable experiments
is that of Alexander Graham Bell, who
for a quarter of a century bred his sheep
steadily with a view to getting the
ewes to produce more young at a birth.
His method of procedure® was to select
for breeding each year the ewes which
had extra nipples, above the single pair
regularly present. There appears to be
an association between extra nipples and
extra fecundity. When Dr. Bell dis-
posed of his flock, a short time ago, he
had built it up to a point where none of
the ewes had less than four nipples and
many of them six, and where twins were
produced in a large majority of the
births.
Having kept a careful record of his
flock, Dr. Bell was able to find some of
the external conditions that seem to be
involved in the production of twins in
sheep. Among them are maturity of
the mothers, mating in October, and a
rapid increase of weight at the time of
mating with subsequent loss of weight.
The last-named factor was controllable,
and he had some success in increasing
the number of twins born, by feeding
up the sheep just before mating, and
letting them lose weight afterward.
So far as is known to the writer, no
such attempt at breeding for fecundity
has ever been made with cattle. It
would be a tedious and expensive under-
taking, but if the character is really
inheritable, one ought to be able to
breed it into other animals, after- it
had once been “‘fixed”’ in a given strain.
It would therefore appear that the
attempt to produce a family of cows
that would yield a large proportion of
twins and triplets, might be a practicable
and profitable proceeding.
5 See THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 47-57; February, 1914.
137
WILD TURKEYS
Domesticated by American Aborigines—-Hybridity of Present Stocks—Habits
of Birds in the Woods—
Changes Produced Under Domestication
Review of a Book by Epwarp A. McILHENNYy, Avery Island, La.
key has inevitably attracted con-
stant attention since the days of
the first explorers of America. The
literature to which it has given rise is
considerable, but it is doubtful whether
any writers give a more accurate close-
range view of the fowl than do those of
the book here reviewed.!
As to the first appearance of the bird
on this continent, authorities differ.
Marsh described a species under the
name of Meleagris altus from the Post-
pliocene deposits of New Jersey, which
is now held to be the same as Cope’s
M. superba from the Pleistocene of the
same state. The material on which this
species was based consisted of a few
damaged leg-bones, which Dr. Shufeldt,
who reviews the subject in the present
book, thinks may not have belonged
to a turkey at all. The same may be
said of another of Marsh’s prehistoric
species, M. antiquus, described from a
wing-bone found in Colorado; and to
still another species, M. celer Marsh,
re-created from a few doubtful bone
fragments which, it is admitted, may
not all have belonged to the same
individual.
In short, a careful re-examination of
the case shows no well-authenticated
turkeys in the geologic record of
America. Doubtless they existed, but
we have not the material to prove it;
and, as Dr. Shufeldt says, “It is often
a positive detriment to science, in my
ARGE and handsome, the wild tur-
‘The Wild Turkey and Its Hunting. By Edward A. Mcllhenny.
graphs. Pp. 245, price $2.50 net.
New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1915.
opinion, to create new species of fossil
birds upon the distal ends of long bones,
and surely no assistance whatever to
those who honestly endeavor to gain
some idea of the avian species that
really existed during prehistoric times.”
When we come to the historic period,
however, we at once find the turkey in
practically all the wooded country of
North and Central America. The first
description seems to have been given
by Oviedo in the thirty-sixth chapter
of his ‘““Summary of the Natural His-
tory of the Indies,” which appeared
about the year 1527. ‘‘He speaks of
it as a kind of Peacock found in New
Spain, of which a number had been
transported to the islands of the Spanish
Main and domesticated in the houses of
the Christian inhabitants.”’
IMPROVED IN MEXICO
The Spaniards found them thoroughly
domesticated in Mexico, the tame breed
having been brought to a size twice that
of the wild birds, and the Aztec emperor
Montezuma is said to have raised
thousands of them to feed the animals
of his zoological garden. From Mexico
or Yucatan they were introduced to
Europe, having reached England, appar-
ently, as early as the year 1524, and
quickly becoming very plentiful there.
From England and Spain they spread
over the rest of the continent.
As the Mexican turkey differs in
many respects? from those of the United
Illustrated from photo-
The book was
written by Mr. Mcllhenny largely from notes left by Charles L. Jordan; two chapters are con-
tributed by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, of Washington, D. C.
* The systematic position ‘of the various turkeys has been much disputed. At present the
North American forms are all credited to one species,
Meleagris gallopavo, the type of which is
furnished by the Mexican bird, while four subspecies are distinguished in the United States.
In Greek and Latin the name Meleagris designated the Guinea-fowl, and the early writers on the
turkey appear to have thought they were dealing with a variety of that bird. The name Turkey
was formerly thought to be related in some way to the Turks, but is now believed to be either an
American Indian name or to be derived from the call of the bird itself.
138
WILD TURKEYS COMPETING FOR A MATE
These two males have been attracted by a photographer, who is hidden in the brush and
imitating, with a caller, the love note of the turkey hen.
The males stalk up and down,
in such a case, and go through an elaborate performance for the purpose of impressing
the hen.
States, the result has been that the
domesticated turkeys of Europe differ
somewhat from those of the United
States. During the last century the
various forms have been crossed and
intercrossed in the United States, so
that the domestic flocks of bronze
turkeys mostly contain recent infusions
of wild-turkey blood, while the wild
flocks have a great deal of domestic
blood. On this point we read:
“In countries thickly settled, as in
the one where I now write, there is a
great variety of wild turkeys scattered
about in the woods of the small creeks
and hills. Many hybrid wild turkeys
are killed here every year. The cause
of this is: every old gobbler that dares
to open its mouth in the spring is
within hearing of farmers, Negroes,
and others, and is a marked bird. It
is given no rest until it is killed; hence
there are few or no wild turkeys to take
The one at the left is just beginning the ‘“‘strut,’’ which is described in the text.
Photograph from ‘‘The Wild Turkey and Its Hunting.”
(Fig. 17.)
care of the hens, which then visit the
domestic gobbler about the farmyards.
Hence this crossing with the wild one
is responsible for a great variety of
plumages.
“T once saw a flock of hybrids while
hunting squirrels in Pelahatchie swamp,
Mississippi, as I sat at the root of a tree
eating lunch, about 1 o’clock, with gun
across my lap, as I never wish to be
caught out of reach of my gun. Sud-
denly I heard a noise in the leaves, and
on looking in that direction I saw a
considerable flock of turkeys coming
directly toward me in a lively man-
ner, eagerly searching for food. The
moment these birds came in sight I
saw they had white tips to their tails,
but they had the form and action of
the wild turkey, and it at once occurred
to me that they were a lot of mixed
breeds, half wild, half tame, with the
freedom of the former. I noticed also
139
140 The Journal
among them one that was nearly white
and one old gobbler that was a pure
wild turkey; but it was too far off to
shoot him. Dropping the lunch and
grasping the gun was the work of but
a second; then the birds came round
the end of a log and began scratching
under a beech tree for nuts. Seeing
two gobblers put their heads together
at about 40 yards from me, I fired,
killing both. The flock flew and ran
in all directions. One hen _ passed
within 20 paces of me and I killed it
with the second barrel. A closer exam-
ination of the dead birds convinced
me that there had been a cross between
the wild and the tame turkey. The
skin on their necks and heads was as
yellow as an orange, or more of a buck-
skin, buff color, while the caruncles on
the neck were tinged with vermilion,
giving them a most peculiar appear-
ance; all three of those slain had this
peculiar marking, and there was not a
shadow of the blue or purple of the
wild turkey about their heads, while
all other points, save the white tipped
tail feathers, indicated the wild blood.”
INCREASE IN BRAIN POWER
It appears that there are numerous
small anatomical differences between
the typical wild and typical tame tur-
key, one of them being a difference in
the size of the brain cavity. ‘‘Men-
tally the average wild turkey is stronger
than the average domesticated one,
and I believe it will be found that in
all these long years the above influences
lof domesticity] have affected the size
of the brain-mass of the latter species
in the way above indicated, and per-
haps it may be possible some day to
appreciate this difference. Perhaps,
too, there may have been also a slight
tendency on the part of the brain of
the wild turkey to increase in size
owing to the demands made upon its
functions due to the influence of man’s
nearer approach and the necessity of
greater mental activity in consequence.”’
Data are still lacking to determine
precisely the extent to which the wild
turkey changes in a few generations of
domestication. J. D. Caton, who has
of Heredity
bred many wild turkeys in captivity,
writes on this point:
““My experiments establish first that
the turkey may be domesticated, and
that each suceeding generation bred
in domestication loses something of the
wild disposition of its ancestors. Sec-
ond, that the wild turkey bred in domes-
tication changes its form and the color
of its plumage and its legs, each suc-
ceeding generation degenerating more
and more from these brilliant colors
which are so constant in the wild turkey
of the forest, so that it is simply a
question of time—and indeed a very
short time—when they will lose all their
native wildness and become clothed in
all the varied colors of the common
domestic turkey; in fact, be like our
domestic turkey—yes, be our domestic
turkey.”
The loss of this plumage must be a
bitter pill for the male to swallow, if we
are to accept the picture of him which
is vividly painted for us. He is a regu-
lar Turk, we are informed, polygamous
in the extreme and desirous above all
of a well-filled harem. ‘He cares not
a bit for the rearing or training of his
family; in fact, it has been alleged that
he follows his mates to their nests and
destroys and eats the eggs. This I do
not believe, nor will I accuse him of
such conduct. He is a vain bird and
craves admiration, and acts as if he
were a royal prince and a genuine dude,
and he will have admiration though it
costs him his life. He is a gay Lothario
and will covet and steal his neighbors’
wives and daughters; and if his neigh-
bors protest, will fight to the finish.
He is artful, cunning, sly, at the same
time a stupendous fool. One day no art
can persuade him to approach you, no
matter how persuasively or persistently
you call; the next day he will boldly
walk up to the gun at the first call and
be shot. He has no sentiment beyond
a dudish and pompous admiration for
himself, and he covets every hen he
sees. He will stand for hours in a small,
sunny place, striving to attract the
attention of the hens by strutting,
gobbling, blowing, and whining, until
he nearly starves to death. I believe
he would almost rather be dead than
Mellhenny: Wild Turkeys
to have a cloudy day, when he is
deprived of seeing the sun shining on
his glossy plumage; and if it rains, he
is the most disconsolate creature on
the face of the earth.”’
SEXUAL SELECTION
Thanks to the activity of hunters,
males are much fewer than females;
consequently the polygamous nature of
the bird is favored. Beyond this, how-
ever, it appears that there is a consider-
able amount of sexual selection, many
gobblers having large harems_ while
others remain unmated. At mating
time the males often fight each other,
but the writer contradicts Audubon’s
statement that the weaker are then
killed by the stronger. ‘“‘I have seen
many encounters as he describes, but
have never in all my life seen one gob-
bler killed by another, or even crippled,
although I have seen two or three birds
fight together for hours at a time.
Nor have I ever found a gobbler dead
in the woods as the result of such an
encounter, or even in a worried condi-
tion. I have killed many old gobblers
and found their necks and heads cov-
ered with blood, with spur punctures
all over their breasts; but this never
stopped them from gobbling, nor are
these wounds deep, as the spur, which
is an inch and a quarter long in the
oldest of them, can only penetrate the
skin of the body after passing through
the heavy mail of the thick, tough
feathers.”’
Although such an idea is regarded
with disfavor by many biologists at
the present time, the writer’s account
indicates that he considers sexual selec-
tion to be dependent principally on the
selective choice of the hens, whom the
males endeavor to attract by the well-
known “gobble,’”’ and a variety of other
evolutions which are thus described:
“In the early morning, during the
spring, a gobbler will fly from his roost
to the ground, strutting and gobbling,
whether a hen is in sight or not; this is
done to attract the hens, and it is then
you will hear the puffs to which Audu-
bon refers. This sound is produced
by the gobbler in expelling the air from
its lungs, at the beginning of the strut,
141
the sounds and motions of which have
never been satisfactorily described.
While going through the strut the gob-
bler produces a number of notes and
motions that are of interest; first, the
wings are drooped until the first six
or eight feathers at the end of the wings
touch the ground; at the same time the
tail is spread until like an open fan and
erected at right angles to the body; the
neck is drawn down and back until the
head rests against the shoulder feathers,
and the body feathers are all thrown
forward until they stand at about right
angles to their normal place. At the
same time the body is inflated with air,
which, with the drooping wings, spread
tail, and ruffled feathers, gives the bird
the appearance of a big ball. Having
blown himself up to the full capacity
of his skin, the gobbler suddenly re-
leases the air, making a puff exactly
as if a person, having inflated the
cheeks to their full capacity, suddenly
opens the mouth. As the puff is given,
the bird steps quickly forward four or
five paces, dragging the ends of the stiff
wing feathers along the ground, mak-
ing a rasping sound; he throws forward
his chest, and, gradually contracting
the muscles, forces the air from his
body with a low, rumbling boom, the
feathers resuming their normal posi-
tion as the air is expelled. Three dis-
tinct sounds are produced: Puff, cluck,
b-o-o-r-r-r-m-1.. At the termination of
the gobbling season the primaries of
the wings, which are used to produce
the cluck, are badly worn by the con-
tinued dragging on the ground.”’
PRESERVING THE TURKEY
A performance of this sort is naturally
conspicuous and since the days of Audu-
bon it has been prophesied that the wild
turkey would soon become extinct, due
to the activity of hunters who follow
his call from considerable distances
(it is said the gobble can be heard for
two miles in favorable atmospheric
conditions). There is no game, how-
ever, we are told, that holds its own so
well as the wild turkey. In the south-
ern states the bird is still to be found in
reasonable abundance, and, says the
writer, “if these states will protect them
142 The Journal of Heredity
by the right sort of laws, I am of the
opinion that the birds will increase
rapidly, despite the encroachment of
civilization and the war waged upon
them by sportsmen. It is not the legiti-
mate methods of destruction that deci-
mate the turkey ranks, as is the case
with the quail and grouse, but it is the
nefarious tricks the laws in many states
permit, namely, trapping and baiting.
The latter is by far the most destruc-
tive, and is practiced by those who
kill turkeys for the market, and fre-
quently by those who want to slaugh-
ter these birds solely for count. No
creature, however prolific, can stand
such treatmentlong. The quail, though
shot in great numbers by both sports-
men and market hunters, and annually
destroyed legitimately by the thousands,
stand it better than the wild turkey,
although the latter produces and raises
almost as many young at a time as the
quail.
“There are two reasons for this: One
is, the quail are not baited and shot on
the ground; the other reason is that
every bobwhite in the spring can, and
does, use his call, thus bringing to him a
mate; but the turkey, if he dares to
gobble, no matter if he is the only
turkey in a radius of 40 miles, has every
one who hears him and can procure a
gun, after him, and they pursue him
relentlessly until he is killed. Among
the turkeys the hens raised are greatly
in excess of the gobblers. This fact
seems to have been provided for by
nature in making the male turkey
polygamous; but as the male turkey is,
during the spring, a very noisy bird,
continually gobbling and strutting to
attract his harem, and as he is much
larger and more conspicuous than the
hens, it is only natural that he is in more
danger of being killed. Suppose the
proportion of gobblers in the beginning
of spring is three to fifteen hens in a
certain stretch of woods. As soon as
the mating season begins, these gobblers
will make their whereabouts known by
their noise; result—the gunners are
after them at once, and the chances are
ten to one they will all be killed. The
hens will then have no mate, and no
young will be produced; whereas, if
but one gobbler were left, each of our
supposed fifteen hens would raise an
average of ten young each, and we
would also have 150 new turkeys in the
fall to yield sport and food. It has
always been my practice to leave at
least one old gobbler in each locality
to assist the hens in reproduction. If
every hunter would do this the problem
of maintaining the turkey supply would
be greatly solved.”
The Age of Parenthood
There is a widespread idea that people
formerly married very early in life,
and now marry very late. Census
figures have demonstrated that as far as
concerns the United States, during the
past half century, young people are
marrying today at an earlier average
age than formerly. Genealogical data
compiled by Charles Nutt of Worcester,
Mass., indicate that five or six genera-
tions ago marriage took place at about
the same time as nowadays. In the
Colonial period, he finds that the aver-
age age of parents at the time their
children were born is about 31 years.
This is an indirect way of getting at
the facts, but it tallies with the investi-
gation of C. L. Redfield, who found that
the average age of fathers was 32 and of
mothers 29, in a large number of New
ingland families. As families were
larger formerly than now, it is evident
that parallels between the ages of
parents then and now must be drawn
with care, if based on such averages as
those here given.
i a ie
Ate ur
BREEDING FARM CROPS IN IOWA
H. D. HucuHes, Ames, Iowa
HE Farm Crops Section of the
Iowa Experiment Station has
under way breeding projects with
oats, winter wheat, barley, corn,
timothy, and red clover.
1. Oat Breeding. (In cooperation with
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture.)
The present projects in oat breeding
were begun in 1906. The work consists
primarily, first, of isolating and test-
ing pure lines from commercial varieties,
and second, breeding pure lines from
crosses.
Several hundred pure lines have been
isolated annually from the various com-
mercial varieties which have given
greatest promise in our variety test
plats. These pure lines have been tested
in head and nursery rows for growth,
vigor, and productivity. Those which
appeared most promising have been in-
creased and tested under field conditions.
In all, something over 8,000 pure lines
have been isolated and tested during
the years 1906 to 1914. One hundred
and twenty-five pedigreed varieties are
now included in our variety tests. Two
of the most promising have been dis-
tributed to farmers in sufficient lots to
plant one acre of each, the pedigreed
oats being compared under field condi-
tions with the best commercial varieties
which the farmers have been able to
secure. In 1913 the pedigreed oat,
“Towa 103,” outyielded commercial
varieties approximately five bushels per
acre. In 1914 the pedigreed varieties,
S105" and. “°105,"° each outyielded. the
commercial varieties more than four
and one-half bushels per acre.
Prior to 1908, J. D. Norton, of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, made a large
number of crosses. The product of
these crosses was transferred to the
Iowa Experiment Station in 1909.
Several thousand selections have been
made and tested in the nursery. The
most promising of those that have
proved to be pure lines have been in-
creased and are beirig tested in the
variety test plats and comparisons made
with commercial varieties and other
pure lines.
2. Winter Wheat Breeding.
This project started from a foundation
stock of eleven different varieties in
1906. From these, several hundred pure
lines have been selected and tested out
annually in head and nursery rows.
During the past four years at least 500
heads have been secured annually from
fields away from the station. During
the years 1906 to 1914 approximately
8,000 pure lines have been tested out
and either multiplied or discarded.
Some 150 pedigreed strains are under
comparison in twentieth-acre plats and
others are being compared in tenth-acre
plats. Seed sufficient to plant one acre
of the two most promising and_ best
growing varieties, “Iowa Nos. 404 and
327,” have been distributed to each of
a number of farmers in various por-
tions of the State, these to be compared
with a plat of similar size planted under
the same conditions, using the best
commercial seed which they could get.
In 1913 these pedigreed varieties out-
yielded the commercial sorts an average
of one and one-half bushels per acre.
3. Barley Breeding.
This project was begun in 1911, the
object being to produce strains or varie-
ties of barley suitable for brewing pur-
poses and which could be successfully
grown on the drift soils of lowa. After
comparing various varieties in variety
test plats for several years, pure lines
were isolated from the most promising,
these being tested out in head and
nursery rows.
4. Breeding Silver
Northern Iowa.
This work was begun in the spring of
1910 when 300 of the best ears of Silver
King corn which could be secured were
planted in ear to row trials. During
143
King Corn for
144
the five years 1910 to 1914 over 1,000
ears have been tested out in this way.
Approximately 10 per cent. of the mother
ears showing the best performance have
gone into the crossing plats, the best of
these crosses going into multiplication
and into field trials. Some fifty-seven
crosses have been tested out at the
breeding stations and the progeny of
about ten of these crosses has been
distributed to several hundred farmers
in the northern part of the State for
comparison with their own corn. In
1913 the improved Silver King out-
yielded all varieties with which it was
compared, an average of approximately
five bushels per acre.
5. Reid’s Yellow Dent Breeding Work.
A definite project looking to the im-
provement of the ordinary Reid’s Yellow
Dent was begun at Ames about 1905.
From 1905 to 1914 over 2,000 selected
ears of Reid’s Yellow Dent corn have
been tested out in ear to row plats. The
ears showing the best field performance
are carried over each year to go into the
crossing plat.
One very desirable strain known as
“Towa 203”’ has been developed, which,
in test trials, has an average of about
twelve bushels per acre over ordinary
Reid’s from which it came. Enough
corn to plant one acre was supplied last
year to each of several hundred farmers
in central Iowa for comparison with
their own corn.
6. Breeding Red Dent Corn.
The purpose of this investigation is to
determine the prepotency of the color
character in Reid’s Yellow Dent corn.
This investigation was begun in 1913,
so that it has been under way for only
two seasons. During each of these
seasons the per cent of red and yellow
ears produced by different shades of
red mother ears as well as by yellow
ears with red parentage has been noted.
In 1914 some 20,000 hills were included
in the test.
7. Correlation Studies with Corn.
The object of this investigation is to
determine the relation between the ear
characteristics of seed ears and yield,
also the relation between the stalk
characteristics of the plant producing the
The Journal of Heredity
seedearand the yielding power of the ear.
The characteristics of the various seed
ears which have been planted in ear to
row test plats have been noted in a
study of the relation between the char-
acter of the ear and yield. So far the
work has consisted simply in securing
the data. We propose to compile this
data in the near future. This part of
the work was begun in 1907.
The study of stalk characteristics as
related to yield was begun in 1910 when
full and detailed notes were made on
the characteristics of some 500 stalks
grown under different climatic condi-
tions. The ear produced by each stalk
was saved and planted ina separate plat
the second year, when the yield was
determined. From 400 to 500 indi-
vidual plants and an equal number of
plats have been used in this work each
year. While but little of this data has
been compiled, we believe that some
rather striking correlations between the
character of the stalk and the yielding
power of the ear will be found.
8. Timothy Breeding.
This project was begun in 1910 when
some 3,000 plants were put out in the
nursery. From approximately 300
strains compared in row trials some
twenty have been advanced to multi-
plication plats where they are under
further comparison. A few of the best
of these will be placed in isolated multi-
plication plats the coming fall.
9. Clover Breeding. (In cooperation
with Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture.)
This project was begun in 1910 when
a large number of selections were made
from specimens secured in the vicinity
of Ames, Iowa. In 1912 we secured
from the Bureau of Plant Industry of the
United States Department of Agricul-
ture various lots of seed coming from
all parts of the world. These were
planted in nursery plats where indi-
vidual plants were seeded and the best
individuals isolated for continued breed-
ing and multiplication. Some fifty-five
of the best individuals have been multi-
plied and are being compared for vigor,
leafiness, seed production, and resist-
ance to winter killing and disease.
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 4 - April, 1916
CONTENTS
The Slit-Eyed People, by H. P. Stuckey...................0........ M7
Germinating Coconuts, by O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle............. 148
Eugenics Research in Bohemia.................0..0.0.00.0006 0000000 ee 157
Encouragement for Superior Parents.............................. 157
Success in Controlling Sex..... Bs eh lads ar eee mice We Sie 158
Course of Lectures on Eugenics..................................... 164
Spotted Asses, by Albert Ernest Jenks........................... ~. 165
Bad tyes and Bad Hearts... o23 si 268 oe RS A ae ee 168
War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad............................. 168
Why Children Run Away (Review of a book by Charles B. Davenport) 169
Finding the Prepotent Sire, by J. M. Hover........................ 173
Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency ............................... 178
Sale.of Canadian: Cattalosin. 35.055 652,05 02 yn Gah ew ett 178
The Pitanga, by A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe................ 179
Genetics at Washington Experiment Station....................... 185
War, Science Civilization (Review of a book by William E. Ritter).. 186
The ‘‘Practical Eugenic Movement”’............................... 189
New Publication on Genetics..............0..000 00.0 ccc eee eens 189
Rare Genetics Publications Available.............................. 189
Department of Genetics at ILlinois College of Agriculture.......... 199
The Strawberry, a Triumph of Plant Breeding..................... 191
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, March 27 1916.
(‘aoa1d
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SNOLLVHANAD HIOA HONOYVHLL NOY SGITALRA GALORLLSNOD ASTALL
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ies Sey - PEOPLE.
Constricted Eyelids Found in Four Generations of a Georgia Family—vVision is
Normal—Defect is Not Sex-Linked and Might be a Mendelian Recessive
He P. Stuckey
>
Horticulturist, Georgia Experiment Station
HILE in the mountains of
\ \ / northeastern Georgia last sum-
mer, I met a family which is
interesting from the stand-
point of the geneticist, because of the
well-marked inheritance of a peculiar
type of eye. One of the men of. the
family and three of his children are
shown in the photograph opposite.
I saw a number of members of the
family and made inquiries about
others. The pioneer of the family in
this section was the great-grandfather
of the children whom I photographed,
and I have the authority of residents of
the locality for saying that he showed
this restricted eyelid. Nothing is
known about his past, so he must stand
as the first individual in our family
history.
Nothing being known of his wife, it
must be assumed that she was normal.
They had a son, whom I saw, and who
is the grandfather of the children illus-
trated in the frontispiece. This man,
now elderly, has the constricted eye-
lids well marked.
He married a woman with ordinary
eyes, and they became the parents of
nine children, six of whom had the
slit-eyes, while three had eyes that were
entirely normal. Among the children
with the affected eyes are both boys and
girls, so it is obvious that the defect
cannot be inherited in a_ sex-linked
fashion, as is color-blindness and one
form of night-blindress.
These nine children form the third
generation of the family history. One
of them, the man shown in the frontis-
piece, married a normal woman, and
they have four children, three boys
(shown in the frontispiece) with con-
stricted eyelids, and one girl who is
quite normal.
The knowledge available therefore
amounts to this—that the defect appears
in some of the members of four genera-
tions, and that it is not limited to either
sex. The history might give rise to a
suspicion that the trait is a simple
Mendelian recessive, but of course the
fact could not be established with the
data from only one family, and that a
small one.
The defect is limited wholly to the
lids. The eyesight is perfect, and the
affected members of the family are able
to earn their living in competition with
normal individuals. Due to the con-
striction of the lids, however, the per-
sons with this trait have difficulty in
getting clear vision unless they throw
their heads back or turn them to one
side, as the children are doing in the
picture.
Not being a medical man, I cannot
tell the exact nature of this affection—
it may be a failure of the nictitating
membrane to be absorbed, in which
case current theories of heredity would
suggest either the absence of the factor
for normal development, or the presence
of an inhibitor for normal development.
But such speculations are of little value
when the data are so slender, and I do
not offer any hypothesis as to the genetic
nature of the case; I merely offer the
facts and the photographs, which speak
for themselves.
147
GERMINATING COCONUTS
Huge Seeds Have Remarkable Adaptations for Growing in Dry Climate—Cavity
in Nut Serves Like a Stomach or Wet Nurse for the Young Plant—The
Coconut not Naturally a Sea-shore Palm and Not Dispersed by Sea
O. F. Cook anp C. B. DoyLe
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
OCONUTS are seeds. They are
(3 the largest of all seeds, except the
so-called double coconuts of the
Seychelles Islands, in the Indian
Ocean, which are the seeds of a huge fan
palm (Lodoicea sechellarum). The dou-
ble coconuts are five or six times the
size of true coconuts, weighing 30 to 40
poundseach. No other seed approaches
the size of a large coconut, and few
seeds, if any, afford such interesting
specializations to assist in the germina-
tion and growth of the young plant.
These special characters or adaptations
are of the utmost interest as affording
the best illustrations of the influence of
selection upon the progress of evolution.
The germinating coconut has been
studied in detail by several authors from
the structural and chemical standpoints,
but the remarkable internal growth of
the embryo has not been adequately
described and illustrated. Several va-
rieties of coconuts sent from Panama
were received in a germinating condi-
tion, so that it was possible to get pho-
tographs of the stages of germination
as well as of the varietal differences.
THEORY OF DISTRIBUTION BY SEA
Appreciation of the specialized char-
acters of the coconut has been hindered
by the theory of maritime distribution.
The coconut has been described very
often in books of travel and natural
history, and even in formal scientific
works, as a plant that has been widely
distributed in nature through the agency
of ocean currents. It has always been
considered a native of tropical sea-
coasts, specially equipped for floating
to other coasts and islands. It is true
that the coconut is provided with a
148
tough fibrous husk from one to two
inches thick, which enables it to remain
afloat for a long time. It is also pro-
vided with a coating of wax on the
surface of the husk, as though to render
the nut impervious to water. It is not
surprising, therefore, that writers who
approach the subject from the stand-
point of structure alone should continue
to rely on this apparently unimpeach-
able proof of the habits of the plant in
nature.
There is no direct evidence, however,
to support this theory, for the same type
of husk is found in the seeds of many
other related species of palms which do
not grow on sea-coasts, and are not
distributed by water. That the husk
of the coconut is thicker than that of
the other related species, merely con-
forms with its larger size and the greater
danger of breakage when falling to the
ground. The waxy coating of the husk
is not a unique character, for it is found
in nearly the whole group of palms, the
small fruits of many inland species
being more waxy than the coconut.
NEAR RELATIVES ARE AMERICAN
All of the palms that are closely
related to the coconut are natives of
America, most of them being found in
Brazil. It is true that the coconut
palm is most abundant and attains its
greatest economic importance in the
islands of the Pacific, but there is noth-
ing to show that the habits of the palm
would enable it to exist permanently, or
in a truly wild state, in a littoral or
oceanic environment. Although this
idea of the coconut as a native of the
Pacific islands appears in most of the
text-books and general works of refer-
(CL ‘SItq) (‘peonpey) ‘oprs s}t uo Burcq] optyM yYystr ayy UO yeYy ‘uoTsod 4y8udn ue ut
poyeurties pry 1J9] UO JNU oY} yeYy MoYs synoids oy, ‘sodvys yuaJOYIp YIM sayjorrea sory} Suryuosordos ‘eureueg wor, synUOD09 Surnoidg —
MSOH SLI NI GHSOTIONA LOANODOD FHL
150 The Journal
ence, it is entirely contrary to the opin-
ion of writers who have been familiar
with the actual conditions and behavior
of the palm in the Pacific. Such wri-
ters agree that there are no wild palms,
that the presence of coconuts is every-
where the work of man, and that the
palms do not survive for any great
period the withdrawal of human assist-
ance.!
ADAPTATIONS FOR GERMINATION
The unique habit of the coconut of
preserving a store of water in the interior
cavity of the seed, the very large amount
of food material stored in the “‘meat”’
of the nut, and the very thick, tough,
fibrous husk are the most specialized
features. Assuming that these pecu-
liarities were necessary to assist in
germination, it is reasonable to believe
that the coconut palm must have
developed in a relatively dry climate,
where the young plants had to grow to
large size before they could reach sup-
‘plies of moisture in the soil.
Such extensive provisions for the
storage of food and water would seem
to be unnecessary in a maritime plant
able to draw moisture from sandy
beaches flooded twice a day by the
tides. The distance to permanent
moisture on a sandy beach is very
short; in fact the sand is never really
dry at all except at the surface. For
a plant able to thrive on a salt solu-
tion, a covering of an inch or two of
sand would be sufficient protection
against drying out. The great size
of the nuts would be a disadvantage
for a seashore palm as keeping the
seeds from being buried in the sand.
The palms that live on the seashore,
such as our southern palmettoes, all
have small seeds.
It is only when we think of the coco-
nut as growing in an interior region with
an alkaline soil and subject to pro-
longed drought, that we can appreciate
the significance of the large seed, or
think of the large store of food and
moisture, and the very thick husk as
characters that give the palm special
1 Cook, O. F.
U. S. National Herbarium, 7:257—293, 1901.
The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm.
History of the Coconut Palm in America.
of Heredity
adaptation to the natural condition of
environment. Many of the palms re-
lated to the coconut are forest species,
or at least able to develop in partial
shade. The coconut, on the contrary,
is extremely intolerant of shade, and
must have had its development in a
region where other vegetation was
absent or relatively sparse and open.
MOISTURE IN THE HUSK
The coconut is certainly well equip-
ped to protect the embryo or the
young seedling from the danger of dry-
ing. In addition to the moisture car-
ried in the meat of the nut and in the
central cavity, a still larger supply can
be carried in the fibrous husk, and this
may even be replenished from rains or
other surface water after the young
plant has begun to grow, and the husk
opened and partly decayed. In addi-
tion to thus acting as a sponge, the
husk serves the young plant in another
way, as a medium for starting the
growth of the roots before they enter
the soil.
The whole process of germination
may be completed inside the husk.
And not the germination alone, but
the subsequent growth of the young
plant, may go on for months without
any external contacts, the leaves often
attaining considerable size before the
roots have extended beyond the fibers
of the husk.
A SELF-POTTED PLANT
In the Philippine Islands where
thousands of these palms are cultivated,
it is often the custom to tie the nuts in
pairs and hang them over a pole, fence,
or around posts. Under these condi-
tions the nuts will obviously receive no
water from the soil, and it is apparent
that they require no further attention,
for in a few months the young plant has
pushed its way through the husk and
can be placed in its permanent location
in the field.
The coconut seedling, with its ample
provision for food and moisture and its
fibrous husk for the accommodation
Contributions from the
Con-
tribution from the U. S. National Herbarium, 14:271-342, 1910.
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LONOOOD FHL 40 WHO LOOMIS TWNYUENI
WHERE THE TREE GETS ITS START
This ungerminated coconut has been cut open lengthwise tc show the embryo, which lies in
a small cavity in the meat, at the stem énd of the nut.
When germination begins the
embryo grows at both ends: outward to form the young plant and inward to fill the central
cavity and digest the milk and endosperm, thereby supplying nourishment for the growth
of the plant.
of its roots, may be described as a self-
potted plant. So well adapted for this
purpose is the coconut fiber that it
is in general use by gardeners in Europe
and America as a medium for the
germination of delicate seeds, or as an
ingredient of fine potting soil.
GROWTH OF THE EMBRYO
The use of the husk is still better
appreciated when we take into account
the remarkable processes that go on
inside the shell of the germinating
coconut. In spite of the huge size of
the other parts of the seed, the embryo
or young plant that exists before germi-
nation begins is hardly larger than the
proverbial grain of mustard-seed. It is
cylindrical in form and hes in a small
cavity in the endosperm just under-
neath the largest of the three “eyes”
of the shell. There is no direct connec-
tion between the embryo and the
stored food material, or between the
embryo and the ‘“‘milk”’ in the central
cavity. (See Fig. 3.) In order to
152
Photograph magnified about 2% times.
3 (Fig. 3.)
utilize these food supplies, the embryo
has to take them over by slow processes
of digestion and absorption.
When germination begins the embryo
elongates and becomes enlarged at both
ends. From the outer end arise the
plumule and the roots, while the internal
growth results in the formation of a
large bulbous mass of spongy tissue,
pure white in color, with many grooves
and narrow ridges running lengthwise
on the surface.
All through this spongy mass, techni-
cally the cotyledon, are ramifications of
vascular strands, which converge and
become fibrous and woody at the narrow
“neck”? which connects the absorbing
tissue with the stem. (See Fig. 6.)
That the surface of some of these
cotyledons is distinctly rougher and
more irregular than others can be seen
in Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 2 the wrinkles
are narrow, parallel ridges, while Fig. 5
shows the wrinkles broader and distinctly
irregular. Differences in the general
shape of these organs are also apparent,
THE YOUNG COCONUT’S *“*“WET NURSE”
Sprouted coconut with husk removed, showing a moderately advanced stage of germina-
tion. The cotyledon has swelled and its surface is covered with narrow, regular
wrinkles. This surface takes up the ‘‘milk’”’ of the nut and supplies it to the
young plant above; and also digests the soft layer of ‘‘meat’’ or endosperm.
Natural size. (Fig. 4.)
154 The Journal of Heredity
and may afford means of distinguishing
some of the varieties.
The function of this cotyledon is to
absorb the endosperm and carry the
food material over to nourish the grow-
ing parts of the young seedling. In
order to be absorbed, the food materials
stored in the endosperm have to be
digested, and the digestion is accom-
plished by ferments secreted by the
cotyledon, as in the familiar change of
starch into sugar in the malting of
barley and other grains, preceding the
formation of alcohol.
THE COCONUT’S STOMACH
The digestion of the endosperm is
evidently more rapid at the places
where it is in contact with the coty-
ledon. The softening of the surface
elsewhere (see Fig. 5) may mean that
the milk of the germinating nut be-
comes charged with a digestive ferment
secreted by the cotyledon. Hence it
may be considered that the fluid-filled
cavity of the germinating nut, in addi-
tion to its storage function, serves like
a stomach, to provide for a more rapid
digestion and absorption of the stored
food materials than would be possible
by the direct action of the cotyledon.
It is easy to understand that such a
system might be very useful to the
young plant in enabling it to make more
rapid growth in short periods of favor-
able conditions. If this view is correct,
we may think of the milk as being
recharged with food materials from the
endosperm, to replace those that are
absorbed by the cotyledon.
That sugar is present in the cotyledon
is evident from the sweet taste of the
latter, and the very delicate texture
suggesting sponge cake is altogether
different from the hard oily ‘‘meat”’ of
the nut. These enlarged cotyledons of
the germinating nuts are considered
luxuries and food for invalids by the
natives of the Polynesian Islands and
other parts of the tropics. In the
native markets of towns along the
west coast of Mexico the dried coty-
ledons are sold under the name of
‘““manzanas de coco”’ or coconut apples.
(See Fig. 6b.)
OTHER INTERNAL CHANGES
More detailed studies of what takes
place inside the germinating coconut
have shown interesting changes in the
composition of the food materials.
Thus Walker,? in his experiments with
a selected series of nuts* in the Philip-
pines, found that the total quantity of
milk shows a marked diminution from
374 grams in an unsprouted nut to
nothing when the sprouts had attained
a height of 93 centimeters. A decided
loss in the sugar content of the milk
took place at the same time, falling
from 2.3 per cent in the milk from the
unsprouted nuts to 0.3 per cent in the
ones which had sprouts 38 centimeters
long.
A decided loss in the total weight of
the meat was also evident, as it dropped
from 457 grams in the unsprouted nut
to 148 grams in the nut with a sprout
93 centimeters long. The loss seemed
to be due to a direct absorption by the
cotyledon, the process taking place only
in that portion of the meat located near
the latter, but increasing rapidly as the
cotyledon grows larger and comes in
contact with the entire surface of the
endosperm. This would be the case,
necessarily, if the nuts failed to main-
tain a supply of liquid in the cavity.
The loss in the total weight of oil was
fairly proportional to the loss in the
total weight of meat. During the early
stages of germination there appeared to
be a concentration of oil near the coty-
ledon, with a corresponding loss in that
portion of the meat farthest away.
The percentage of sugar decreased from
4.1 per cent in the unsprouted nut to
1.2 per cent in the nut with the longest
sprout (93 centimeters.) The loss ap-
peared to be due to the absorption of sugar
by the foot, as in all cases less sugar was
found in that portion of the nut in direct
contact with the cotyledon than in the
parts farthest away from the cotyledon.
2 Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, June, 1908. :
‘ Four pairs of coconuts of different ages but approximately of the same size were selected
for this work by Dr. Walker.
all to nuts with a sprout 93 centimeters long.
The range in the age was from nuts which had not sprouted at
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THE SPROUT AND ITS FOOD SUPPLY
A. Coconut seedling removed from shell showing narrow ‘‘neck’’ between the cotyledon ana
the sprout through which the nourishment is carried. Natural size.
B. Dried coconut cotyledons called ‘‘coconut apples,’’ (manzanas de coco) sold in the native
markets along the west coast of Mexico. Natural size.
C. Dried coconut sprout, with the cotyledon removed showing the fibers that arise in the
cotyledcn and pass through the neck into the base of the young plant. These fibers serve
no doubt to convey nourishment to the sprout, as well as to support the cotyledon at_the
point of attachment. Enlarged about 2% diameters. (Fig. 6.)
Cook and Doyle: Germinating Coconuts
The total weight of the cotyledon
increased from 19 grams in the un-
sprouted nut to 228 grams in the nut
with the longest sprout.
The cotyledon weighed 19 grams in
a nut that still had no sprout, increasing
to 288 grams in the nut with the
longest sprout. With the growth of
the cotyledon there was a decline in
the percentage of sugar, although not in
the total quantity, but more sugar was
found at the stage when the foot com-
pletely filled the nut. It would be
expected, however, that the amount of
sugar present at any particular time
would depend upon temperature, sun-
light, moisture, or other conditions that
would control the rate of growth of the
young plant, or influence the process of
digestion of the endosperm. With rapid
erowth the sugar would be used, while
checking of growth would enable new
supplies of sugar to be accumulated.
Tae
SUMMARY
The unique habit of the coconut of
preserving a supply of water in the
interior cavity of the seed, the very
large amount of stored material or meat,
and the very thick, tougH, fibrous husk
are features that afford an extremely
interesting example of specialization to
assist in the germination and growth of
the young plant.
The cotyledons of the germinating
nuts show considerable variation in
shape, and also in the markings on the
surface. Some of them ‘have rather
shallow, parallel ridges, while others are
deeply and irregularly furrowed.
The formation of a soft, watery,
superficial layer on the endosperm after
germination begins indicates the pres-
ence of an active fat-splitting principle
in the milk, which partly digests the
meat and transforms it into such a
condition that it can be readily absorbed
by the growing cotyledon.
Eugenics Research in Bohemia
An institution for research 1n eugenics
was founded in Prag, Bohemia, on
aly t2, -1913)— by. Drs. icarl Herfort
and Arthur Brozek, who propose to
make studies of the family history of
school and hospital children in that city.
Announcing their work in Eos (X, 3,
161-173, July, 1914) they report the
preliminary study of fifty-six cases of
feeble-mindedness, none of which was
congenital. In almost all cases, how-
ever, the family stock was neuropathic.
They conclude that from the marriage
of two individuals, each of whom is
neuropathic but neither of whom is
feebleminded, one or more of the
children is likely to be feebleminded.
Discussing the Mendelian heredity of
feeble-mindedness, they conclude it is
not a unit character but that it is due to
multiple factors. The neuropathic con-
stitution, they conclude, is a complex
made up of a large number of inherited
dispositions; and as the different parts
of this complex are inherited separately,
there is naturally wide variation ob-
served in the character of neuropathic
individuals.
Encouragement for
Discussing the methods of construc-
tive eugenics, leading to an increase in
the number of highly gifted individuals
in the race, Dr. von Gruber (in Archiv
far Frauenkunde und Eugenetik, II, 1,
109) favors grants for education of
children and pensions for parents. To
give money to parents for the education
of superior children would, he thinks,
make such children regarded as an
asset, and inferior children as a lia-
Superior Parents
bility; not only would this lead parents
to have large families, if they came of
superior stock, but it would lead young
people to regard the pedigrees of their
prospective life-partners with more care,
if they realized that intelligent choice
in marriage was of distinct economic
importance. The attention of citizens
would thus come to be directed to the
fact that superior children are of real
value to the state and to their parents.
SUCCESS IN CON TROLEING SEX
Male-producing and Female-producing Eggs Regularly Distinct in Pigeons—
Whitman-Riddle Experiments Result in Making Each Kind of Egg
Produce Opposite Sex, Under Some Conditions—New View
of Nature of Sex—Application to Human Society
E TALK a good deal about the
possibilities of sex-control—
we who are interested in breed-
ing. We would be much pleased
if we could secure an excess of one sex,
instead of the half-and-half which we
usually get. If we could mate fowls in
such a way as to produce nothing but
males, or nothing but females, we would
think we had reached the farthest goal
conceivable—in that direction.
But an approximation to such a re-
sult has been obtained. Under excep-
tional circumstances, it is true—but
given those circumstances, it is being
done continually.
Professor C. O. Whitman, one of the
greatest among the investigators and
teachers of biology, who died in 1910,
learned the basis upon which such
matings may be made. After his death
his work was continued by Dr. Oscar
Riddle, who is getting the same results
at the Carnegie Institution’s laboratory
for the study of experimental evolution,
in Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island.
Dr. Riddle, moreover, undertook, and is
still engaged in, a special study of many
aspects of these matings, in an attempt
to decide whether a real, or only an
apparent, sex control is involved. His
answer has already been given—a
reversal of sex has been effected. The
results of these investigations are not
yet published, but from the addresses,
abstracts and short papers of Dr.
Riddle, beginning in 1911, a fairly
comprehensive survey of results may
now be obtained.
To understand their results, let us
first see what happens when we make
a very wide cross in pigeons and doves,
the material of their experiments. Or-
dinarily breeders mate members of the
same species. Sometimes we can mate
158
members of different species. Occa-
sionally we can mate individuals of the
next higher division, a genus; but we
consider that a very wide cross. It is
not often that we can go into the divi-
sion above this, and mate members of
two different families. But it can be
done with pigeons.
Now when birds (not hybrids) of two
different families are mated, the off-
spring produced are all males. In the
whole history of the study there have
been but two exceptions, and one at
least of the females then produced was
not perfect; the sexual development
was rudimentary.
Here, then, we have a certain kind
of sex-control, for we find that we can
produce all males from a cross of two
different families. So wide a cross as
that hardly ever takes place in artificial
breeding, and probably much less often
or never in nature. But it suggests to
us that if we are to get an insight into
sex-determination, we must depart from
the normal conditions as far as possible.
GENERIC CROSSES MADE
Dr. Riddle has found it most conven-
ient, in view of Whitman’s earlier re-
sults, to work with crosses of two
different genera. From such a mating,
the eggs produced in spring and early
summer hatch into all or nearly all
males. But if such a pair of birds are
made to “overwork at reproduction,”
t. e. if they are not allowed to incubate
their own eggs, and are made to lay eggs
very rapidly, a pair each week or so, it
will be found that as the season grows
later, the eggs laid become progres-
sively ‘‘weaker,’’ until those near the
end of the laying period will hatch with
difficulty or not at all. From those
eggs that do hatch from the birds which
Success in Controlling Sex
become more and more exhausted, the
proportion of females produced from
their eggs becomes higher. Younger
birds not previously “‘overworked”’ are
not easily exhausted in this manner; but
previously “overworked” old birds,
under continued ‘‘overwork,’’ will cease
the production of male offspring ear-
lier in the spring or summer than did
these same birds during previous years;
and from then on to the end of the egg-
laying period, their eggs will hatch out
all or nearly all females.
Now everyone knows that this is not
what usually happens among. birds.
There are two unusual situations or
elements involved in obtaining these
results: first, a wide cross; and second,
an enforced increase of ‘reproductive
overwork.” In ordinary matings of
pigeons and of other fowls, the two sexes
will hatch out in about equal numbers
at any time of year. What is the mean-
ing of this production, first of all males,
later of all females, with the “over-
worked” pigeon in crosses of two dif-
ferent genera?
There are several conceivable ex-
planations. First, it may be true sex-
reversal—eggs which were destined to
produce one sex may have been forced
to produce the opposite sex. If that
be the real explanation, we are going to
get an insight into the nature of sex and
the methods of controlling it. But it is
also conceivable that nothing so sensa-
tional has happened. Perhaps male-
producing and female-producing germs
were formed in the usual manner, but
for some reason only one kind was fer-
tilized. Or perhaps one kind of germ
died in the ovary, so that all the off-
spring had to be of the sex represented
by the other kind of germ, which sur-
vived. Or perhaps there is a mechan-
ical internal change in the female-pro-
ducing germs which turned them into
male-producing germs.
In this last paragraph is summed up
the whole of the problem which faced
Dr. Whitman and Dr. Riddle. To the
biologists, it is a much bigger problem
than it may appear to be on its face, for
they know that ordinarily two kinds of
germs are produced, one of which will
give rise to males and the other to
159
females, and it puts a very heavy strain
on many accepted theories, to believe
that one of these kinds could be made,
by pressure upon the germ during its
growth period, to produce contrary
results to what the normal mechanism
does. A change in the internal struc-
ture of the cell involving chromosomal
change, or elimination, could perhaps,
on current views, be accepted without
great difficulty; but if Dr. Riddle
demonstrates that he has changed the
sex-value of the cell without a corre-
sponding change or elimination of the
chromosome numbers, he will find, as
he is certainly well aware, that biolo-
gists here require very rigid proofs.
TEN LINES OF EVIDENCE
Ten different lines of evidence, or
correlations with the breeding results,
have been developed from the work of
Dr. Whitman and Dr. Riddle, and they
all seem to point the same way. To
Dr. Riddle, only one conclusion is
possible from them—namniely, that sex
has actually been reversed, that male
offspring have been hatched from fe-
male-producing germs, and vice versa.
The first correlation established re-
sults from a study of the size of the ova,
that is, the yolks freed from shell and
albumen or “white.” The yolks of
late summer and autumn, those which
produce all or mostly females, are dis-
tinctly larger than those of the early
season, which produce males. The
change in size is gradual, and consider-
able.
The pigeon regularly lays a clutch,
two eggs, at an interval of a day or two
apart. It was learned that the first
egg of the clutch, in this experimental
breeding of pure, non-hybrid females
was rather regularly—there are excep-
tions—smaller than the second. Whit-
man had already shown that in the wild
species with which he worked males
predominate in hatches from the first
eggs of clutches, and females from the
second. So the conclusion was possi-
ble that males usually come from
smaller eggs, both for season, and for
egg of clutch; females from larger eggs,
the larger of the season and the larger of
the clutch.
160 The Journal
Still a third situation was found to
give evidence that the smaller yolks
are male-producing and the larger yolks
female-producing. It has already been
mentioned that females which are “ over-
worked”’ tend, when older, to begin the
production of females earlier and ear-
lier in the season. Now a comparison
of the size of yolks derived from younger
and older birds has shown that those of
younger (but mature) birds are smaller
than those of older birds. This fact has
been fully demonstrated.
We have noted three kinds of evi-
dence that smaller yolks produce males,
larger yolks females. There is still a
fourth piece of proof. It is known that
the very first egg of life, and the first egg
produced after a long period of rest,
more frequently produce a female than
do the first eggs of succeeding pairs or
clutches. Study of the actual sizes of
such yolks has shown that there is a
reversal in size of these first eggs, cor-
responding to the reversal in sex, so
that here too the female sex is associated
with the larger yolk. Yolk size was
accurately determined in about 10,000
cases, and the association of smaller
yolk with male producing germs, and
larger yolk with female producing germs
is well established. The conclusion is
drawn that here two kinds of ova are
produced, and the kinds may be identi-
fied by size differences.
Next, let us recall that in the pigeon
(probably in all birds) two kinds of eggs
are produced, but only one kind of
sperm. There is breeding evidence, in
addition to the evidence accumulated
by Dr. Riddle, which would seem to
establish this fact. The determination
of sex therefore resides necessarily in
the egg, and the sperm can be ruled out
of this discussion.
THE
We get back to the heart of the prob-
lem again. If there are two kinds of
eggs—one which produces males, and
the other which produces females—how
is it that early in the season practically
only males are produced, and later in
the season only females? Is there only
HEART OF THE PROBLEM
of Heredity
one kind of egg produced at each period?
And is the kind reversed in the two
periods?
Quite impossible, Dr. Riddle answers.
‘“We can easily demonstrate, by weigh-
ing or otherwise measuring them, that
both kinds of eggs are produced through-
out. What actually happens is that the
‘generic cross’ which produces all, or
nearly all, males in the spring and all,
or nearly all, females in the autumn, is
utilizing in the spring a number of
female-producing ova for the produc-
tion of males, and in the later season is
utilizing for the production of females
ova one-half of which had initial inclina-
tion for the production of females.”
That this is true, is shown not only by
weighing the eggs, but by a number of
other lines of evidence to be cited later;
and also “‘by the fact that if the same
female which threw all males in the
spring had been mated with another
bird of her own kind, and made to lay
eggs at a similar rate, then both males
and females would certainly have ap-
peared at all seasons.” It is only
because we are studying a cross of
birds, each from a distinct genus, and
applying the pressure of “overwork,”
that we are upsetting the normal con-
ditions enough to see what is going on
beneath the surface.
We have now excluded two possible
explanations of the observed sex-con-
trol in pigeons. We have shown that
it cannot be due to selective fertilization
by the sperm—for there is only one kind
of sperm. We have shown that it can
not be due to selective elimination of
ova in the ovary—for it is known that
the two kinds of ova—male-producing
and female-producing—are being laid
all the time.
The next possible objection to the
supposition that we are dealing with a
real case of sex-control, would be a
technical one, alleging that everything
which happens might be explained as
differential maturation. To this Dr.
Riddle answers:
The maturation would have to be definitely
differential in (1) the elimination of an X
chromosome during the spring from one-half
‘In a paper read before the American Society of Naturalists, Columbus, Ohio, December
30, 1915.
Success in Controlling Sex
the ova, and the retention of this same X in
the eggs of identical chromosomal constitution
in the autumn. (2) The elimination of a Y
chromosome from the other half of the eggs
laid during the autumn, and the retention of
of all these same Y’s in the homologous eggs
laid in the spring. Alternative assumptions to
(1) and (2) would be that the X’s of eggs laid
in the spring became Y-like in the presence of
the sperm from a wide cross, and only then
become so; and that the Y’s of autumn eggs
become gradually, in the presence of any kind
of sperm, more X-like in quality. (3) That
all other chromosomes than the sex-chromo-
somes must display no such thing as a seasonal
preference for ‘‘staying’”’ or ‘‘going,’’ since
every observable character of the hybrids
betrays an inheritance from both parents. If
any one can accept such an incredible hypo-
thesis of chromosome behavior, he must also
face this fact: these sex-controlled experiments
. produce several grades of females. Some are quite
nearly males, although they lay eggs. Is it too
hazardous to suggest that in one and the same
egg the Y could hardly have ‘‘gone out’”’ to
allow the egg to develop into a female, and
yet have ‘‘stayed in’’ to deliver the relative
masculinity which we easily detect and measure
in this same female? If sex is directly the
creature of a sex chromosome, the sex situation
found in some of my female doves requires that
the male-producing chromosome be eliminated
from, and retained in, the same egg. In the
face of these facts, it is wholly absurd to
postulate a differential maturation as a basis
for the observed phenomena of these sex-
series. A true reversal of sex has been effected,
and the possibilities of its being apparent
rather than real have been excluded.
Another line of evidence concerns
“developmental energy”’ of the spring-
to-autumn series of eggs of the doves.
It has already been mentioned that
under the conditions of these experi-
ments the last few eggs of the season
are weak, or fail altogether to hatch.
These eggs are, however, the largest of
the entire season. It will be seen that
those germs that store most materials
are developmentally the weakest germs.
When we measure the length of life
of the birds hatched, we find that the
smaller eggs of the season, and probably
too the smaller eggs of the clutch, give
rise to the longest-lived birds. These
smaller eggs furnish therefore this addi-
tional evidence of greater developmental
energy than is possessed by the larger
eggs.
Several hundred chemical analyses—
each of a single yolk—have shown that
the size increase of the eggs is accom-
plished by actual increase of the various
161
solids of the egg; and that the increase
from spring to autumn is gradual; there
is nowhere any sudden break or varia-
tion. In connection with the analyses
it was found that the smaller, spring
eggs (male-producers) contain more
water than do the larger, fall eggs
(female-producers), and a similar rela-
tion seems to hold between the smaller
and larger eggs of the clutches, as
between the larger and smaller of the
season. That is to say, the higher
water content accompanies the male-
producing germ, but the experimental
procedures during the season carry all
the yolks gradually to a lower level, and
then all produce females.
These various facts are taken by Dr.
Riddle to mean that the male-produc-
ing egg has a higher metabolism than
the female-producing egg. If so, any-
thing which increased the metabolism
of an egg, which gave it greater vigor,
would tend to make it produce a male.
Now it is well known that crossing
increases the vigor of offspring. Cross-
breeding is used by every stock breeder
to produce vigorous animals, and even
the farmer sows by preference, cross-
bred maize, because it yields more
sturdy plants; so if we suppose that the
amount of vigor is in proportion to the
width of the cross, we will understand
a possible explanation of the fact cited
at the beginning of this paper, that when
two distinct families of pigeons are
crossed a higher metabolism is at once
established and the offspring are all
males.
Another line of available evidence
relates to the variation in weight of the
birds themselves at different seasons.
It is found that at the season when the
female lays the largest eggs, she herself,
and also her consort, are smaliest in
size.
It has further been found that the
females hatched from smaller eggs are
more masculine in their behavior than
females from larger eggs of the same
clutch, and that females hatched early
in the season are more masculine than
their full sisters hatched late in the
season.
The conclusion reached from weigh-
ing yolks, and from yolk-analyses, is
162 The Journal
confirmed by burning yolks in the
“‘bomb calorimeter,’ and measuring
the amount of heat liberated in burning
the stored materials. This very accu-
rate method of investigation gives results
which confirm the results of breeding,
showing that eggs which produce males
differ quantitatively from eggs which
produce females. The results show too
that the storage capacity of the eggs
increases gradually during the progress
of the season. This storage is highest
at the time ‘developmental energy”’ is
lowest, and both these coincide with the
female-producing period.
POST-MORTEM STUDIES
The tenth and last kind of evidence
brought from these studies is gained by
post-mortem examination of the repro-
ductive glands. Many species of birds,
it will be remembered, have normally only
one ovary, the right ovary regularly
failing to develop, or degenerating
rapidly after beginning to develop.
This is true of pigeons and doves. But
it is found that females hatched under
conditions which accentuate the female-
ness—for example, late in the season
following crowded egg-laying—fre-
quently have the right ovary developed.
From this Dr. Riddle concludes that
“the same pressure which carries the
eggs of spring from male-producing to
female-producing levels, also carries the
earlier female-producing level to an-
other yet more feminine.”
In short, Dr. Riddle thinks, from the
many kinds of evidence here outlined,
that the nature of sex lies in the nature
of differences between levels of metabol-
ism, that the two levels are normally
associated with different amounts of
chromatin, or different chromosome
numbers. But he considers these differ-
ential amounts or aggregates of chro-
matin as merely a means of insuring two
diverse metabolic levels, and thus the
two sexes; and he asserts that ‘if a new
metabolic level is forced upon the germ,
as in our experiments, the sex of the
resulting offspring must coincide with
the sex that can develop from this level,
and this quite regardless of whether the
of Heredity
level was established through a differ-
ential chromatin relation or value, or by
other means.” . . . “Males arise from
germs at higher levels, females from the
lower.”
If it is merely a matter of level, and
not a matter, as many have supposed,
of some mechanical difference in struc-
ture, it is obvious that one might sanely
hope to reverse sex. All that would be
needed would be to exert sufficient pres-
sure of an appropriate sort. Normally
the two different kinds of eggs remain at
different levels; one regularly produces
males, the other females. To exert the
heavy pressure necessary, Dr. Whitman,
and later Dr. Riddle, made wide crosses. _
The pressure thus exerted (speaking
metaphorically, of course), is sufficient,
while both birds are producing their
“strongest germs,’ to force female-
producing eggs to a male-producing
level. But when the cross is not of
more than generic value, and the birds
are made to yield weaker and weaker
germs through reproductive overwork,
the earlier male-producing level is
followed in the weaker germs by a
lower female-producing level.
A SKEPTICAL AGE
Every year a number of individuals
claim to have controlled or reversed sex.
Consequently, the biological world has
become decidedly skeptical on the
subject. ‘‘The insufficiently controlled
experiment, the novice and the quack
are the trinity of evils that has begotten
this widespread skepticism,’ says Dr.
Riddle.
At least one good effect it has had—
any experiment which professes to show
a control of sex is submitted to an
extraordinarily stringent examination.
Very few of the experiments stand this
test, but there are a few, made by
biologists of repute, which seem to have
withstood criticism successfully, though
in all, or in nearly all of these, it has
been impossible to disprove one or
another of the possibilities urged by
the ‘‘chromosomists.’’ Most of these
publications have appeared since Dr.
Riddle’s first short statement? in 1911
2 Paper read December, 1911, before the American Society of Zoologists at Princeton; ab-
stract in Science, N.S., Vol. 35, pp. 462-463, March 22, 1912.
Success in Controlling Sex
of the results with pigeons. These and
two or three earlier experimental inves-
tigations have been cited in a more
recent publication by Dr. Riddle as
having a common basis of agreement
with his results, and with his theory of
the causation of sex.
The German biologist Richard Hert-
wig and his pupils have succeeded in
producing an excess of males from frog’s
eggs, by allowing these eggs to become
“overripe”’ (take up water) before they
were fertilized. Dr. Helen Dean King
at the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia,
has done just the opposite. By drying
toads’ eggs before they were fertilized
she secured as high as 90% females.
The results agree with those of Dr.
Riddle, when it is remembered that he
found male-producing pigeon eggs con-
tained more water than did the female-
producing eggs. Hertwig increased the
water content of frogs’ eggs, and pro-
duced males; while females were pro-
duced when Miss King decreased the
water content of toads’ eggs.
Sex appears to have been controlled
by Whitney in one of the lowest worms,
and by Woltereck with a small crust-
acean. Finally, there are some obser-
vations on cattle, and Dr. Alexander
Graham Bell’s work*® with sheep, which
Dr. Riddle interprets in the light of his
own work.
The most notable thing about the
studies that have been made on the
doves and pigeons, and the thing that
distinguishes these studies from prac-
tically all others that lead in this direc-
tion, is to be found in the systematic
attempt to decide, in this most favor-
able material, whether the sex-control is
real or apparent. We have already
indicated the results of the inquiry.
SOCIAL APPLICATIONS
The many theories about sex-control
in man are usually based on observa-
tions in other animals, but as some of
the essential facts in man are not known,
all attempts at sex-determination at
163
present are futile. But if Dr. Riddle’s
work withstands the searching examina-
tion which it is sure to receive as soon
as it is published in full, and if it is
agreed that sex is a plastic thing which
can be changed by sufficient pressure
(again speaking figuratively), then it
would appear that sex-control in man
is not so impossible as it has sometimes
been thought to be in recent years.
Apart from this very obvious appli-
cation of a knowledge of sex-control in
human society, the new idea of the
nature of sex opens up some interesting
possibilities to the eugenist. If the
Whitman-Riddle observations on
pigeons should be found substantially
to hold good for man, we would be in
the way of understanding the existence
of so many masculine women and
effeminate men in the world—the men
and women who make up that “‘inter-
mediate sex’’ of which much has been
heard lately.
Sex-conservation, perhaps, will be
one of the future planks in the eugenics
platform. As Dr. Riddle once pointed
out, there are in this country probably
more masculine women than feeble-
minded individuals, and more effem-
inate men than criminals. From a
biological point of view, they are usually
regarded as undesirable. “At present
we look upon the appearance of the
inadequately sexed individual as in-
evitable; just as a generation ago we
looked upon the presence of the feeble-
minded as inevitable. But once we
realize that sex—its kind and quantity—
can be controlled, we are brought face
to face with many new possibilities, and
some new responsibilities, in this direc-
tion. %*
If the amount of sex possessed by a
man or woman is partly dependent on
the influences which surround the indi-
vidual—on the environment, in short—
perhaps we are making a mistake by
throwing men and women into environ-
ments which are constantly becoming
3 See the JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 47-57, February, 1914. Some of the
other cases are described by T. H. Morgan in his book on Heredity and Sex (New York, 1913).
4 This and the succeeding quotations are from Dr. Riddle’s paper on “The Determination _
of Sex and Its Experimental Control;” in Bull. of the American Academy of Medicine, Vol. XV,
No. 5, October, 1914. Some of the material was also published in the Journal of the Nat. Inst.
Soc. Sci., Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 39-42; December, 1915.
164
more similar, and into activities which
are growing ever more parallel.
The idea of the biological equality
of the two sexes has, in Dr. Riddle’s
view, been taken altogether too much
for granted in modern civilization.
“However definitely an equality may
exist from social, political or ethical
points of view, it is doubtful whether
this can be truthfully asserted from any
biological standpoint.” Man and
woman differ in every cell of the body.
The differences are numerous, and the
whole problem complicated. Those
who think they have solved it by lay-
ing down a “fundamental equality”’
of the two sexes may conceivably be
considerably disturbed by biological
progress in the future.
There is one other outlook which
Dr. Riddle thinks his work opens up
to the eugenist.
NEW HOPE FOR EUGENICS.
“You well know,” he says, ‘that
eugenics in our day lays chief stress
upon heredity—upon the transmission,
intact and unchanged—from parent to
offspring of weakness or of strength, of
fitness or unfitness, of the manifold
characteristics of the organism. And
the chief remedy suggested rests upon
an elimination of the bearers of weak or
unfit germs from the citizenship per-
The Journal
of Heredity
mitted to leave offspring. And it is of
course wholly right that the emphasis
now be placed on heredity since it is
the ready practical instrument—the
one that can be used, and indeed one
that the race may never cease to use.
“But is there not a lot of fatalistic
philosophy in the conception that man-
kind’s exaltation and power require
that mankind eliminate from all share
in posterity the base and the weak?
Shall man—a maker of environments—
when confronted with the problems of
his own improvement permanently and
sadly turn to the crude and original
methods of nature herself?
‘At least to those biologists and men
of medicine who believe that life-
processes are controllable—developmen-
tal processes along with the rest—that
conception and that remedy will not
seem final. To those of us who realize
that one characteristic, namely sex, has
already been controlled, indicating that
in nature all are controllable if our
industry will but put light where our
ignorance now enthrones mystery; to
some of us, the production of strength
from weakness, of more fit from the
less fit, and better from the best, will
seem more in keeping with the present
general aim of our science, which is to
secure control over all life-processes.”’
Course of Lectures on Eugenics
The Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion of Washington, D. C., is presenting
a public course of free lectures on
eugenics under the direction of Paul
Popenoe, of the American Genetic Asso-
ciation. The speakers are as follows:
March 14, Paul Popenoe, ‘Prenatal
Influences;’’ March 21, Prof. Roswell H.
Johnson, of the University of Pitts-
burgh, ‘‘What Feminism May Do;”
March 28, Alexander Johnson, Field
Secretary, Committee on Provision for
the Feebleminded (Philadelphia), ‘“Bad
Breeding in Washington;” April 4,
Paul Popenoe, ‘‘Laws of Heredity in
Man;” April 11, A. E. Hamilton, New
York, ‘‘What One Baby Did for Race
Betterment ;”’ April 18, A. E. Hamilton,
“The Gist of Eugenics;” April 25, Dr.
Alexander Graham Bell will close the
course with an address containing the
unpublished results of some of his
recent research in heredity. col-
ored muzzle and belly areas.
March 14, 1914, I passed by train
through Charleston, Arizona, where
there were three large brown burros
feeding near the station. One of them
had a blaze-face, and its right fore foot
was also white to well above the ankle.
The next day near Marfa, Texas, I saw
two other white-faced brown burros.
After that I felt that there was nothing
new under the sun—even in the mark-
ings of burros.
IN MEDITERRANEAN LANDS
April and May, 1914, were spent in
north Africa in Algeria and Tunisia, and
in Sicily. In those countries I saw
literally thousands of asses or donkeys.
There were the usual ones of light fawn
color, the browns, the blacks, the ash-
grays, and a few which were white!, but
1 Lydekker speaks of the Damascus breed of asses as frequently exhibiting white animals.
—The Horse and Its Relatives, p. 222.
165
A “BLAZE” FACE BURRO IN ARIZONA
Spotted horses, dogs, cows are common enough, but did you ever see a spotted ass?
perhaps the rarest of the spotted domesticated animals, except man himself.
Tis
One of
the reasons for this may be that the ass has not been subjected to such severe selection in
breeding as have most domesticated animals, and spotting or partial albinism seems to
develop under stringent selection, while it is extremely rare in animals living under wild
conditions.
I neither saw spotted ones nor spoke
with men who had noted them. Near
the close of May we were in Naples.
One day a beautiful, spotted donkey,
spirited and high-stepping like a hack-
ney, dashed past me around the corner
of Piazza del Plebiscito. He was prob-
ably fourteen hands high, and dragged
a gentleman’s stylish two-wheeled cart
with unusual speed and action. He was
white, except for dark (brown) ears, a
nearly continuous dark dorsal line, and
dark spots on the shoulder from four to
six inches across. For ten days I kept
my eyes open in Naples for that dashing
donkey, but I never saw him again.
Later, however, I saw three others of
the same appearance, though these
166
Photograph by Albert Ernest Jenks.
(Fig. 7.)
latter animals were somewhat smaller,
and plodded along the roads as donkeys
are supposed to travel. One was at
Sorrento across the Bay from Naples.
He is shown in Fig.-8. One of the other
two was on the road from Amalfi to
Cava, and the other was in the outskirts
of Cava. All four of the spotted don-
keys noted in or near Naples were,
apparently from their markings, of the
same breed. All were white with dark
ears, dark dorsal stripe, and a few other
dark areas arranged bi-laterally with
noticeable symmetry. I was told by
the owner of the spotted donkey photo-
graphed in Sorrento that his father had
obtained it near Naples, probably a
short distance to the north, and that in
SPOTTED DONKEY AT SORRENTO, ITALY
The leopard has spots and, according to tradition, does not change them; the ass, on the con-
trary, has not spots and appears very reluctant to acquire them. But here is an Italian
specimen which is mostly spot, the original dark color being reduced to a few patches.
His facial expression lends some support to a theory that has been advanced—that albinism
is due to a lack of vigor.
that vicinity there were others of the
same appearance.
It has seemed worth while to call
attention to these two types of asses,
the ‘‘blaze’”’ face, and the white with
bi-lateral dark areas, because it ap-
pears that asses spot much less fre-
quently than other domestic animals,
with the exception of the elephant and
the camel.
SPOTTING AND DOMESTICATION
So far as I am able to learn there are
few exceptions to the rule that the
members of wild species are typically
or specifically marked. There appears
to be no exception to the rule that in
domestication all have yielded indi-
viduals which are spotted with white.
To what is this due? Is the seemingly
more frequent spotting of domestic
animals (including human) due to an
upsetting of the normal process of
Photograph by Albert Ernest Jenks.
(Fig. 8.)
pigment metabolism in the conditions
of domestication? Is the seemingly
more frequent spotting of domestic
animals due to the protection in domes-
tication which saves the spotted indi-
viduals from the destructive selective
forces which prey upon the animals of
a natural (or “wild’’) environment?
No matter which one of these conditions
is the cause of the frequent spotting of
domestic animals, and granting that
both may have contributed, selection in
breeding or forced interbreeding, or
both, have probably greatly aided pro-
duction of spotted domestic animals.
Selection by man has saved the
spotted animals (even perfecting breeds
with well-fixed spotted pattern), while
clothing has saved the spotted man by
making selection against spotted indi-
viduals more largely impossible. My col-
league, Dr. C. E. Johnson, Department
of Animal Biology, University of Min-
167
168 The Journal
nesota, calls my attention to the fact
that the ass, camel, and elephant have
been the subjects of selective breeding
to a relatively low degree as compared
with most of the other domestic ani-
mals. The number of ‘breeds’? among
them is very small. This fact lays
strong emphasis on selective breeding
as the important factor in the spotting
.? Short bibliography of piebald humans:
of Heredity
of domestic animals. However, we
have the cases of spotted humans which
are certainly not due to selective breed-
ing. In the case of the human I am
obliged to believe that domestication
with its frequent large demands on
nervous energy plays an important
part in the production of the albinotic
spottings of the skin.?
1. Hutchinson, Sir Jonathan, ‘‘On Paleogenetic Face-pattern in Acroteric Piebalds,” pp.
1479-1481 of The British Medical Journal, vol. I, June 18, 1910.
. Simpson, Q. I. (with W. E. Castle), ‘‘A Family of Spotted Negroes,”’ pp. 50-56 of A meri-
can Naturalist, January, 1913.
Albinism in Man, Atlas, Part 2, (London, 1913.)
2
3. Pearson, Karl, (with E. Nettleship, C. H. Usher, and B. C. Lamb), A Monograph on
+
. Stannus, Dr. Hugh, ‘Anomalies of Pigmentation Among Natives of Nyasaland;
A Contribution to the Study of Albinism,” pp. 333-365 of Biometrika, October, 1913.
5. Jenks, Albert Ernest, ‘‘A Piebald Family of White Americans,” pp. 221-237 of American
= Anthropologist (N.S.), vol. XVI, No. 2, April-June, 1914.
6. Cockayne, E. A., M.D., ‘‘A Piebald Family,” pp. 197-200 of Biometrika, November, 1914.
Bad Eyes and Bad Hearts
As the latest theory of heredity
assumes that every inherited factor in
the germ-plasm affects not one but
many parts of the body, interest in
searching for these parallel effects,
these “correlated variations,’ is in-
creased. J. Strebel finds an association —
between certain hereditary forms of
eye-defect (ektopia, myopia) and a
weak heart, and reports the discovery
in the Archiv ftir Rassen- und Gesell-
schafts-Biologie (X, 4). Evidence is
not sufficient to show how close the
relation between the two facts is, or
whether indeed it is really a matter of
heredity, rather than of chance associa-
tion. It should be easy to collect
further cases to determine whether these
hereditary defects of the eye are regularly
accompanied by defects of the heart.
War Hurts Scientific Breeding Abroad
Intelligent live-stock breeding is going
by the board in France and Germany,
and production ‘regardless of con-
sequences” is being insisted upon,
according to the Agricultural Gazette of
Canada (p. 206, March, 1916). The
exportation of cows is said to have been
prohibited and orders given that all
cows must be bred, no matter whether
in accordance with a scientific plan of
herd- and breed-improvement. ‘‘This
means,’ says the Gazette, “that the
education of a century will be partly
undone abroad, and a breed of worse
than grades—mongrels— is likely to be
created that will have to be regener-
ated.”’ Probably the result will be that
Europe will have a much smaller amount
of purebred stock for export after the
war, than before, and American breeders
will therefore be thrown more upon
their own resources.
.
WHY CHILDREN RUN AWAY
Nomadism a Racial Trait, Inherited in Connection with Sex—Evidenee from the
Lower Animals and from Children—A Study of the
Inheritance of Temperament
Review of a book by CHARLES B. DAVENPORT
Director, Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington),
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
HEN a child runs away, the
\ \ / mother usually ascribes its
truancy to mere ‘“naughti-
ness,’’ or bad companions,
or maybe original sin.
But the child’s motive, according to
Dr. Charles B. Davenport,' is the same
as that which makes its parents visit
Europe, or its Uncle John start off on a
fishing trip. The causes ascribed for
these various actions are usually quite
different from the real cause, which is
the primitive racial instinct to wander—
an instinct so deep-seated that it is
found in lower animals as well as in man.
We all have it, presumably; but some
of us have it so hedged around by
conventionalities, and the habits of
civilized society, that we never really
feel the call of the wild, or the blind
impulse to start off somewhere—no
matter where. Others are so impelled
by this instinct that only lock and key
can keep them in one place.
“It is a familiar observation,’’ Dr.
Davenport begins, ‘‘that persons differ
greatly in their capacity for remaining
quiet and satisfied for. a long period in
one place. One occasionally meets a
woman who, though living within 30
miles of a metropolis, has, in the 80
years of her life, been there only once.
At the other extreme are the tramps
and gypsies who travel constantly or
with only slight intermissions, and
many of whom have repeatedly visited
all quarters of the globe.’ On the
other hand, there are those who do not
travel constantly but who, leading a
settled life, occasionally are impelled to
jump over the traces, to run away,
sometimes in a trance or dazed condition.
In short, the impulse to break camp
and “‘hit the trail”’ is a very widespread
one. Dr. Davenport describes all its
forms by one name—nomadism, and
drives the point home by quoting James
Russell Lowell: ‘“‘The American is
nomadic in religion, in ideas, in morals,
and leaves his faith and opinions with
as much indifference as the house in
which he lives.”
Most of us Americans will probably
be disposed to plead guilty to nomadism,
of the literal kind, at least. Our ances-
tors must have had a certain amount of
it, or we would not be here. Americans
probably represent a selection of the
more nomadic individuals of Europe,
and it is no shock to learn that we are
all at heart nomadic. A tendency to
wander is indeed characteristic of pri-
mitive man and most animals. It is
one of the traits, Dr. Davenport says,
which sharply sets us off from most
plants—although the botanist might
tell a different story.
But look at our poor relations, the
anthropoid apes—they seldom sleep
twice in the same place. Or take the
birds—the migratory habits of some
species are notable. Others, on the
contrary, are permanent residents of a
place, seldom traveling more than a
few miles, particularly if they are
ground birds on a small island.
This difference in the migratory
habits of birds suggests to Dr. Daven-
1 The Feebly Inhibited: Nomadism, or the wandering impulse, with special reference to
heredity; Inheritance of temperament.
by the Carnegie Institution, 1915.
Pp. 158, price $1.50. Washington, D. C. Published
169
170 The Journal
port that nomadism is not a matter of
social influences or of reading travel
advertisements. ‘‘Whether a_ species
tends to travel far or tends to stay near
its home depends upon its constitu-
tional factors—its instincts. The dif-
ferences between men in respect to
these points are as truly specific as the
differences between swallows and grouse,
and are as truly due to differences in
inherited instincts.”
But, it will be objected, the strength
of the wandering instinct in a man
varies. Once I wanted to join the
Navy in order to “see the world;” then
I stayed twenty years on the same job,
quite contented. This alleged instinct of
nomadism therefore cannot be really
a constitutional trait, or it would not
be subject to such fluctuations.
On the contrary, Dr. Davenport
answers, we find that even the birds do
not migrate all the time—only twice a
year. We would expect the instinct to
show itself only periodically. And we
have other good evidence that there
really is an inherited trait of nomadism.
We have already mentioned that the
great apes have this instinct; and the
basal instincts of these animals are the
same as those of man. Then consider
the primitive peoples and their migra-
tory habits. If we look around the
world we are driven to conclude that a
wandering tendency—an absence of
fixed abode—is widespread over the
globe. “Indeed, it might be said that
fixity of abode is a relatively recent
acquisition, as yet only found in cer-
tain peoples in which the sedentary
habit is highly developed; and that,
consequently, it is not to be wondered
at if even in a non-nomadic people like
most of the Chinese, the French, or the
Swiss, the racial trait of nomadism
should persist in certain families, or
after having been eliminated, have
crept in again.”
The extraordinarily common tendency
to run away which children show, as
every mother knows to her sorrow, is
another bit of evidence proving that
nomadism is really an inborn trait.
The early life of the child, it is assumed,
repeats the early life of the race; there-
of Heredity
fore it is no surprise to us that children,
“true to their function of revealing the
past, sometimes almost as soon as they
have acquired the upright habit of
locomotion, as if intoxicated by ‘out-
of-doors,’ start off and, by some inner
impulse, go on and on with no idea of
where or why, tempted by an open gate
or by the instinct to follow a man or a
vehicle, or as a just-hatched chick fol-
lows any moving thing.’””
ADOLESCENT RUNAWAYS
There is one more place where we
must look for evidence. At the ado-
lescent period the instincts are more
highly developed than at any other
time of life. If there is any wide-
spread instinct of nomadism, it ought to
show itself then. So it does. Kline,
who collected 501 cases of runaways,
found the greatest number of them
occurred at the age of 15 years, and
plenty more at 13 or 14.
From such evidence, Dr. Davenport
feels justified in concluding that nomad-
ism is a racial trait, a matter of heredity.
In modern America, which has lured to
itself the restless and those in whom love
of ancestral home is weak, we naturally
expect to find many families showing
the romadic trait; and he has collected
the histories of 100 of these families,
embracing 616 individuals, on which he
bases the present study.
A glance over the array of cases shows
immediately that most of the nomads
are - males. That is exactly what the
reader would expect, no doubt. Not
only is it easier for a man than a woman
to ride the brake-beams, not only is it
easier fora man than a woman to roam
through a life of vagrancy and avoid
arrest, not only is man’s courage of the
kind which faces more readily the dan-
gers and inconveniences of such a life;
but, one would say, the nature of the
male sex is such, and the nature of the
female sex is such, that we would expect
a life of nomadism to be more congenial
to a man than a woman. Man is the
active, restless, energetic, aggressive
animal; woman is the contrary. We
express the same idea in very superior
language, nowadays, by saying that
“2 Quoted by Davenport from G, Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 376; New York, 1904.
aaa neil
Why Children Run Away
woman is relatively more anabolic and
man katabolic. Whatever words one
uses, the facts are indisputable; his-
torically woman’s place is in the home
(we use the words without any political
implication) and man’s réle is that of
the hunter and fighter.
Under such conditions it is no sur-
prise to us to find that there are more
male than female nomads in Dr. Daven-
port’s tables. If nomadism is really
an instinct, we are quite prepared to
find it associated with sex—a sex-
limited trait. Nomadism might be
considered as much a sex-limited trait
as is a mustache.
But Dr. Davenport does not adopt
this obvious explanation, apparently*
because there are a good many women
nomads. Disregarding the fact that
even women have some hair on the face,
and some women have a great deal, he
thinks that nomadism cannot be a sex-
limited trait, since we find so many
women displaying it.
Now there are, it will be recalled,
two ways in which an inherited char-
acter can be associated with sex.
First, it may be sex-limited; that is, it
may be due to the secretions of the male
sex-glands. Second, it may be sex-
linked, that means according to current
theories, that the factor for this trait
“just happened”’ to get in the same
chromosome with the factor which
determines sex. So sex and a sex-
linked character have to go together,
but they are not due to the same cause,
nor is one the cause of the other; their
association is merely a coincidence.
Evidently, nomadism is associated in
some way with sex. As Dr. Davenport
has ruled out the first and most obvious
explanation—that it is sex-limited, he
has only one other possibility? to ex-
171
plain the greater number of affected
males. It must be a sex-linked trait,
like color-blindness.
TEST OF THE HYPOTBESIS
Fortunately, it is easy to test the
correctness of this hypothesis. With-
out going at length into the theory of
sex-linkage, we may say that it demands
at least one simple result in the present
case: if Davenport’s explanation is
right, then matings where the father is
nomadic and the mother neither no-
madic nor of a nomadic family, must
result in no nomadic offspring whatever.
The boys cannot be nomads because
they cannot inherit a sex-linked trait
from their father, but only from their
mother. As neither the mother, nor
her family, in this case had it, she cannot
transmit it to them. The girls cannot
be nomadic in either case. In families
where the father is a nomad and the
mother stays at home supporting the
children by taking in washing, or some-
thing of the sort, the children must all
have a perfectly domestic disposition,
according to Davenport’s hypothesis;
they will not run the streets at nights, or
steal rides on freight cars, or go to sea,
or take to the road, or do anything else
that nomads do and well-ordered chil-
dren do not.
We turn to Davenport’s table 5,
which lists the matings of this critical
kind. It lists thirty-two boys and
eighteen girls. Instead of no nomad
boys and no nomad girls, of this num-
ber, we find sixteen nomad boys and
five nomad girls.
The hypothesis does not hold good,
and although Dr. Davenport makes an
attempt to explain the discrepancy in
several legitimate ways, the difference
seems to the reviewer to be too big to
3 Against the hypothesis that nomadism is essentially a male characteristic is, he says, “the
fact that nomadism is by no means confined to the male sex; in certain matings, daughters as
well as sons are nomadic.
function of a particular type of mating.”’
that in which both parents are nomadic.
alike, should be nomadic.
families.
The distribution of the nomadic trait among the offspring is, then, a
The critical mating to test this hypothesis would be
All the children from such a mating, girls and boys
But Davenport’s table of matings of this type contains only four
No sound conclusion can be drawn from such a small number; but even there, it is
worth noting that he gets one non-nomadic child, where his hypothesis requires that there should
be none whatever.
4 That is, only one other possibility in heredity. Of course, it may be said that the difference
is one of training, girls being kept at home with mother while boys are turned out to roam the
streets with ‘the gang.”
Probably this is a real factor in bringing about a larger number of
nomadic men than women, but Dr. Davenport does not discuss it.
172
be overlooked, particularly as similar
difficulties are found in the tables of
some of the other types of matings.
That nomadism is hereditary, Dr.
Davenport’s study goes far to prove.
That it is hereditary as a sex-linked
character, the study does not prove.
Moreover, many of the facts cited by
Dr. Davenport—for example, that the
nomadic instinct fails late in life, just
as the sexual instinct does—indicate
that it is really a sex-limited rather than
a sex-linked character; that its associa-
tion with sex is not wholly a matter of
accident, as he assumes that it is.
If there is anyone who has not an-
swered to his own satisfaction the
question Why Girls Leave Home, we
can at least give him a clue. It is
because they inherit some of the
qualities properly belonging to their
more unstable, restless and nomadic
brothers.
INHERITANCE OF TEMPERAMENT
Following his study of nomadism,
Dr. Davenport undertakes an analysis
of the distribution in families of tem-
perament or its expression in mood.
This is a problem of great fundamental
importance, and it is a pleasure to note
that eugenists are showing a tendency
nowadays to attack such problems,
instead of concentrating all their atten-
tion on degenerate conditions or trivial
traits of no concern to the race.
We all recognize a certain average of
normal temperament, says the writer,
and we also recognize that this may
change to an increased activity and
elated emotional tone, on the one hand,
or to a decreased activity and lower
emotional tone on the other. He em-
braces all moods in these two divisions:
the ‘hyperkinetic state”’ is that marked
by one or all of the following elements:
destructiveness, exaltation, homicidal
acts and. threats, irritability, psycho-
motor excitement, and violence. The
“hypokinetic state” is on the whole
the opposite of this, marked by anx-
iousness, worry, fear, slow movement,
and so on. Finally, there is often an
alternation of these two states.
The existence of these two contrasted
moods, and the fact that an individual
The Journal
of Heredity
often passes from the one to the other,
will be recognized by every one. But
an examination of family histories shows
that in some families there is a prevail-
ing tendency for the one condition, in
other families for the other. Dr. Dav-
enport undertakes the task of bringing
under one general scheme the inheri-
tance of these various types of mood,
and evolves the following hypothesis:
There is in the germplasm a factor, &,
which induces the more or less periodic
occurrence of an excited condition (or an
exceptionally strong reactibility to exciting
presentations) and its absence, e, which
results in an absence of extreme excitabi-
lity. There are also the factor, C, which
makes for normal cheerfulness of mood,
and its absence, c, which permits a more
or less periodic depression. Moreover,
these factors behave as though in different
chromosomes, so that they are inherited
independently of each other and may
occur in any combination.
This hypothesis is tested on eighty-
nine families, embracing 629 progeny,
many discrepancies are ascribed to
“imperfect dominance,’ and in con-
clusion Dr. Davenport says “it is
morally certain”’ that the hypothesis is
correct.
Even though the confession of a
doubt be tantamount to a confession
of immorality, the reviewer cannot
accept the conclusion with as much
confidence as Dr. Davenport does. It
seems to him that the whole analysis of
moods is open to attack from the
psychologists, and that the formula
used to explain the heredity would
explain almost anything. In other
words, the reviewer cannot help feeling
that Dr. Davenport has made the case
much simpler than it really is.
He presents data on the inheritance
of temperament in twins and the inher-
itance of the suicidal impulse. Even
though it may eventually be found
that his analysis of the inheritance of
mood is not exhaustive, he must be
given credit for having attacked an
interesting, complicated, and important
problem, and for having shown that in
our daily behavior, where the power of
heredity would perhaps be little sus-
pected, our reactions are largely due
to the hereditary nature of our tem-
peraments.
FINDING THE PREPOTENT SIRE
Only Cne in a Thousand, in the Guernsey Breed of Cattle, Is Likely to Bring
Marked Improvement to the Breed—Advanced Register the Only
Way of Discovering Him
J. M. Hover
Professor of Agriculture, Bethany College, Bethany, W. Va.
HE superiority of one parent or
breed in determining the charac-
teristics of its offspring is termed
prepotency. The fact that
marked prepotency occurs in only a
few animals in every breed makes it
an important consideration in animal
breeding. Indeed, nearly all of the
so-called families in the various breeds,
and in fact some of the breeds, owe
their origin to amale or female ancestor
which was strongly prepotent in fea-
tures recognizable and useful to man.
While prepotency is generally thought
of in connection with some useful char-
acter, it is not necessarily an advan-
tageous thing. It is conceivable that
an animal could be prepotent in a way
diametrically opposite to the end sought
by the breeder. In such a case the
sooner the breeder recognizes and elimi-
nates such an animal from his herd the
more quickly will the desired results be
obtained. In using the term here,
however, we shall have in mind only
prepotency in the production of but-
terfat.
Inasmuch as the dairy industry must
rest upon an economic foundation, and
since heavy production of milk and
butterfat is the basic factor in profit-
able dairying, it is just as important,
and perhaps more important, that the
sires of “‘boarders’”’ be eliminated in
cattle breeding as it is to eliminate the
“boarders”’ themselves. This can best
be accomplished by the development
of methods for the recognition of the
prepotent animals and strains in pro-
duction in the various breeds and the
general use of these, both in grading
and in building up purebred herds.
The following study of the Guernsey
breed was made with the idea of dis-
covering, if possible, those animals and
strains which have had, and are likely
in the future to wield, the largest in-
fluence on the breed so far as higher
production is concerned.
Prepotent animals are usually dis-
covered through the performance of
their offspring, sometimes long after
they themselves have died or perhaps
been slaughtered in the prime of their
breeding career. Probably discovery
of prepotent animals will constitute an
essential feature of breeding in the
future, but the advanced register, if
utilized properly, will eliminate in a
large measure much of the chance
attendant upon breeding and impres-
sive sires may be selected with a cer-
tainty heretofore impossible. There are,
without a doubt, in the untested stock
of the country many great producing
sires and dams, but the progressive
breeder will scarcely take the risk of
selecting sires from these, especially
when they are not related closely to a
tested strain of proven merit.
INDIVIDUAL PREPOTENCY
There are doubtless many ways in
which the data of the advanced register
might be used to discover those animals
which have been most powerful in
influencing the high production of the
breed. The common method is to
regard the number of advanced registry
offspring as the test. This is open to
the following criticisms: (1) Some of
the greatest animals may be used in
1The data for this paper were secured from the Herd Register and Guernsey Breeders’
Journals of the American Guernsey Cattle Club.
173
174 The Journal
small herds and therefore have rela-
tively few get, whereas an inferior
animal may be used in a large herd and
have relatively many get. (2) The
advanced registry standard is so low
that with judicious feeding and care
almost any animal can make the
advanced registry requirements. In-
deed, at the present time the average
requirement for the advanced register
is practically 125 pounds below the
average performance of the cows in
the advanced register. This relation
of different classes as compared with
requirements is indicated in the fol-
lowing table:
of Heredity
anything like conclusive results. Most
of the older sires would be entirely
excluded from such a list. When the
advanced register is older, this method
of study would be more feasible than
at present.
At the present time what seems the
best method is to set a higher hypo-
thetical standard of excellence for the
offspring and judge the great sires by
this. There is no practical reason for
applying a similar test to the dams
because these will be discovered through
the achievements of their male ances-
tors or male descent. Indeed, if a
prepotent dam does not have a pre-
AVERAGE PRODUCTION COMPARED WITH ADVANCED REGISTRY
REQUIREMENTS
Class Age Average Fat Record Average A. R. Requirements
A 5 up 490.4 360.000
B 414-5 480.3 350.875
Cc 4-414 457.4 332.625
D 344 439.9 314.375
E 3-3 411.8 295.125
F 244-3 400.1 276.875
G 2-24 Shins 259.625
Average 436.74 rt Wy Seay if!
It appears from the table that the
number of advanced registry cows
which a certain sire has may therefore
more properly be considered an indi-
cation of opportunity, prolificacy, or
business expediency, than a test of
prepotency in production, since a breeder
in the habit of testing would place more
daughters of his herd sires in the ad-
vanced register than one who did not,
and a prolific bull in a large herd which
is being regularly tested, may have an
exceptionally large number of daughters
in the advanced register without really
being a sire of great producers. It is
probably true, however, that when one
daughter of a sire makes an unusually
large record, his other daughters at-
tract attention and are therefore tested,
and in such cases the number of ad-
vanced register daughters might bear
some relation to his merit.
Another method of studying pre-
potency in any breed, which would
seem to be very promising, would be
to compare the daughters of various
sires with their dams, and note the
extent of increase. Here, however
we find the data far too limited to give
potent son or perhaps grandson, her
influence on the breed as a whole be-
comes practically negligible, however
superior an animal she herself may be.
This is due, of course, to the relatively
large number of progeny of the male as
compared with the female.
In setting a higher standard we choose
to select 600 pounds of butterfat pro-
duced by a mature cow as the basis for
a discriminatory study. We select 600
pounds as a standard because it may be
safely assumed that any cow making
such a record possesses individual ex-
cellence as a producer; for it is exceed-
ingly doubtful whether such a record
could be made from an ordinary cow
through any artifice of feeding and.
milking. Using the same scale of
increase (which appears to be sub-
stantially correct) as is now used in
the advanced register, the 600 pounds
standard for the different ages would
be as indicated in the table on page 175.
From that table it may easily be
seen that 490.5 pounds of butterfat for
a 2-year-old cow is considered a 600-
pound record, since such a cow could
in all probability make such a record
ee
Hover: Finding the Prepotent Sire
byS
ADVANCE REGISTRY REQUIREMENTS AND 600 POUNDS STANDARD
Class Regular Requirement 600 pounds Standard
A 360.00 600.00
B 341 .75—360.00 581.75—600.00
iC 323 .50—341.75 563 .50—581.75 >
D 305 .25—323.50 545 .25—563.50
E 285 .00—305.25 527 .00—545.25
F 268 .75—285.00 508 .75—527 .00
G 250.50—268.75 490 .50—508.75
upon re-entry when mature. In com-
puting ‘“‘the mature cow equivalent”’
for any cow it will be found simplest
to subtract the individual entrance
requirement for the cow in question,
and add this to the actual record made.
Thus, a certain cow at 2 years of age
made 606 pounds of butterfat. The
entrance requirement at this age is
250.5 pounds of butterfat. Now, ac-
cording to above formula, we have
(360— 250.5) + 606 = 715.5 pounds, or
the theoretical production of this cow
at 5 years and above.
If a certain sire happens to produce
a single daughter with a 600-pound
record, we do not have in this alone
adequate proof of his breeding capacity.
This may be due to the dam, or, per-
haps, a fortuitous variation. If, how-
ever, he produces three or more such
daughters, the suggestion of individual
prepotency becomes very strong. With
this thought in mind we have, in the
table at the botton of this page, listed
all sires which have produced three or
more daughters with records the equiva-
lent of 600 pounds.
From the table it will readily be seen
that we have up to December, 1915, only
thirty-twag sires which have produced
three or more “ equivalent of 600 pounds”’
daughters. There may be many
others which were capable of such a
ALL SIRES HAVING AT LEAST THREE ‘EQUIVALENT OF 600 POUNDS”
DAUGHTERS
Reg. Birth No.of A. R. No. of ‘600 Ib.”
No. Date Daughters Daughters
Nmap whsinesoh thaeeNia ss — =: See oe a ae. 9001 1903 17 14
Tran ae Wit yoROSes Kein or, tac a stole a cereiora ce 8336 1901 24 12
mime ne OCI. Poke cis ary ole wiaed etm o's 1836 §©1905 23 11
inapre Via shen Sisequel’ 2\: At. .cqeperss oe 11462 1900 64 9
imp: Gov. of the Chene.:. 21... 0....2. 10563. 1904 21 9
napsswonds Marre): fo sk oe piece oe 14359 1903 24 7
ap Galascye Soe queliy ct. Basck Matus 16904 =1904 38 6
[Rea Gl OMe ete iat tee sae meee de ee aN 8917 = 1903 11 5
Stranford’s Glenwood of Pinehurst...... 13609 1906 12 4
edarce iavgicinons eevee ep the aca ttencd: 11893 1907 5 4
Dolly Dimple’s May King of L......... 12997 1907 5 4
Charmante:s Rose Kunow: 2.4) 2.92 cf8 11746 1906 8 ft
ei ou ia Shem ree eave. erackaierar eed eae 11084 1906 7 4
liewel'selndependences ann.on e020 ee 10324 1905 9 4
HethrowBascyes ee mera. CE ES 11366 1906 8 4
riplet Cham pron were io rank 13067 = =1907 12 4
edvardeBbayee cement cas 11074 1905 10 4
Imp. Golden Secret of Lilyvale......... 10028 1904 10 4
Justinee’s Sequel of the Preel.......... DAO. OP ter 17 +
[Bavantomney rem tee cra ie ee 11611 1905 5 3
inipsCoras"Gov.e of Chilmarke ay y.5 oe 8971 1903 28 3
Glenwood’s Main Stay 16th............ 9384 1903 9 3
Glenwood’s Reputation................ 7687 =1901 15 3
Glenwoods's!sirantord).s.4r ssc a+ oo 9386 1903 15 3
iB LU TSL9n 11215 | RP a Ren RD SNR Tae AAR ere 4781 1896 11 3
SL EE See See et aa Lee OO Ae ce 63 1904 27 a
limprebtoldenvlN i. 2. ether Siren sickens 12179 1906 5 3
Fernwood of Homestead............... 7448 1901 9 3
Gniyd etic. ee atta. Pee Es, 3966 1894 5 3
pent ets XeeISIO’ 64.6 Wo \onn oie sae 7992 1902 28 3
Glenwood Boy of Haddon............. 4605 1895 36 3
itipabucAoneueTOE bs. , soi vc as os. hoe2o” L905 13 3
176
record but do not have it because (1)
some were used in small or grade herds
and had little opportunity; (2) some
are still too young to have many of
their offspring tested; (3) some were
too old at the time the advanced reg-
istry system was inaugurated; (4) many
breeders do not test, hence records of
daughters are unknown; (5) some breed-
ers secure better and some _ poorer
records as a result of different methods
of feeding, etc. However, it seems
certain that, regardless of the fact that
a few worthy sires might perchance be
excluded for the above and other rea-
sons, we do have here 32 proven sires
whose offspring have increased and
may be depended upon in the future
to increase the average production of
the breed.
Up to December, 1915, there was a
total of 254 sires who had produced one
or more “equivalent of 600-pound”’
daughters. In other words, 32 sires,
or only 12.6% of the total number of
sires of 600 pound daughters, have
three or more such daughters. This
indicates that sires of great producing
cows are relatively few in number.
There were up to December, 1915,
417 cows having records the equivalent
of 600 pounds. The 32 sires listed
above, produced 156 of these 417 cows.
Therefore, we note that 12.6% of the
sires of ‘600-pound”’ cows produced
37.4% of those cows.
Restating these facts in tabular form,
we have the following data:
222 sires produced 261 “equivalent
of 600-pound”’ daughters, or 1.17 each.
32 sires produced 156 ‘equivalent
of 600-pound”’ daughters, or 4.87 each.
Thus, the 32 sires above, were more
than four times as prepotent as the
remaining 222 sires of ‘600-pound”’
cows.
When we observe that these 32 sires
are only .092% of the male animals
registered in the American Guernsey
Herd Books and 2.20% of the 1,454
sires of advanced register cows, the
tremendous importance of the few
strong sires, from the standpoint of
improving the production of the breed,
becomes quite apparent. Indeed, it
can be safely assumed from the above
The Journal of Heredity
facts that less than one out of every
thousand of the registered male animals
will have a marked tendency to lift
the production of the breed above the
600 pound level.
STRAIN OR FAMILY PREPOTENCY
What has been said above refers more
particularly to individual prepotency
or the tendency of a sire to get produc-
ing daughters. It is clear that a knowl-
edge of the prepotent strains can only
be gained by a study of the ancestry
and descent of our great producing
animals. When we study the pedigrees
of the thirty-two sires in the above list,
a noteworthy fact presents itself,
namely, that they may nearly all be
placed in a few groups according as
they trace directly to some notable
ancestor.
These groups are as follows:
GROUP A
Related to May Rose II 8648 E. G. H. B.
Charmante’s Rose King.
Golden Noble II.
Imp. King of the May.
Imp. May Rose King.
Imp. Golden Secret of Lilyvale.
Jethro Bass.
Dolly Dimple’s May King of Langwater.
Lavaton.
Beda’s May King.
GROUP B
Related to Masher R. G. A. S. 705 P. 5.
Imp. Masher’s Sequel.
Justinee’s Sequel of the Preel.
Imp. Galaxy’s Sequel.
Triple Champion
King Masher.
Charmante’s Rose King.
Imp. Cora’s Governor of Chilmark.
GROUP C
Related to Governor of the Chene R. G. A. S.
1297 BS:
Imp. Governor I of the Chene.
Imp. Holden IV.
Imp. Cora’s Governor of Chilmark.
King Masher.
Imp. The Conqueror II.
GROUP D
Related to Imp. Glenwood Girl 1693
Glenwood Main Stay 16th.
Glenwood Stranford.
Glenwood Reputation.
Glenwood Boy of Haddon.
Stranford’s Glenwood of Pinehurst.
Hover: Finding the Prepotent Sire
GROUP E
Related to Sheet Anchor 2934
Ledyard Bay.
Charmante’s Rose King.
Triple Champion.
Glenwood’s Reputation.
Glenwood’s Main Stay 16th.
Beda’s May King.
GROUP F
Related to Imp. Sir Champion 58
Guydette.
Rinaldo.
Buckthorn.
GROUP G
Related to Imp. Fernwood Lily 1468
Starlight’s Excelsior.
Fernwood of Homestead.
GROUP H
Miscellaneous
Imp. Lord Mar.
Jewell’s Independence.
Masher 63.
It is readily apparent that in the
larger groups above we have the most
important representatives of what may
properly be regarded as.the Guernsey
families. Thus we have the “May
Roses,” the ‘‘ Mashers,”’ the “Governor
of the Chenes,”’ the ‘‘Glenwoods,”’ and
the “‘Sheet Anchors.”’ Groups F and
G, while perhaps not commonly recog-
nized as families, if we judge from the
animals listed and others that may soon
have three ‘600-pound”’ daughters, may
properly be so regarded. The miscel-
laneous sires might be regarded as
representing potential families requiring
only the intelligent and consecutive
effort of breeders to establish them.
Breeders must depend upon intelligent
selection for whatever breed improve-
ment is to take place in the future.
Intelligent selection presupposes on the
part of the breeder: (1) An appreciation
of individuality as related to performance
and other desirable characters; (2)
a knowledge of ancestry in relation to
breeding capacity for performance, pro-
lificacy, constitutional vigor, etc. It
follows, therefore, that a knowledge of
the prepotent strains in the various
breeds, whether it be for performance,
- prolificacy, constitutional vigor or other
characters, becomes an invaluable aid
in selection.
There are three systems of breeding
iw
represented in the ancestry of the above
listed sires, viz., outcrossing, inbreeding,
and line breeding. From these pedi-
grees it would be difficult to adduce
sufficient evidence to prove the super-
iority of any one system. *Group F
offers a good illustration of a strain
probably made prepotent by close
breeding, 7. e., line and inbreeding.
The dam of Guydette was an inbred
cow. Rinaldo is the son of Guydette
from a closely related dam. The May
Roses have also been in and line bred
to avery considerable extent. Theo-
retically close breeding by rendering
character more pure, ought to give a
more prepotent strain, and this theory
seems to hold true in practice for a
number of notable sires. However, it
must be observed that some of the best
sires in the breed are outcrosses between
several of the leading families as in-
stanced in the case of Charmante’s
Rose King.
The Guernsey, in common with all
pure bred cattle, is prepotent over the
ordinary stock of the country. This is
an important asset to the progressive
farmer because he can, by the utiliza-
tion of good purebred sires, render his
herd in a few years nearly, if not in fact,
the producing equivalent of a purebred
herd. The writer has observed a large
number of calves by Guernsey sires,
born to very ordinary cows of mixed
breeding and in nearly every case the
offspring showed very definitely the
outstanding Guernsey characters.
The greatest value of the advanced
register comes through its revelation
of great producing cows and sires of the
breed, and, through them, of the pro-
ducing strains. It thus aids in the only
way man probably has for permanently
improving the breed, 7.e., by selection
in breeding. There are, however, some
weaknesses in the system. In the first
place, the best cows are repeatedly
retested for still higher records. Since
the test period is twelve months, the
period between consecutive calving is
prolonged to such an extent as materially
to decrease the offspring of the best
cows. Furthermore, the rich feeding
to which such cows are subjected
probably interferes with the reproduc-
178
tive function with the same result.
These are weaknesses which might be
overcome to a large extent (1) by
making the test period the same as the
gestation period, (2) by establishing a
herd ideal in breeding rather than an
individual cow ideal, 7.e., by breeding
for a ‘‘500-pound or 600-pound equiva-
lent’? herd rather than a 1200-pound
cow. By stating records of young
cows in terms of mature cow equivalents,
a uniform herd standard can be estab-
lished without the necessity for so much
retesting which probably often obscures
the real value of a cow as a breeding
The Journal of Heredity
animal by involving the element of
training in production.
CONCLUSIONS
By way of summarization it may be
said:
(1) Marked prepotency is limited to
a comparatively few animals;
(2) Strongly prepotent sires usually
belong to prepotent families or strains;
(3) Prepotency is probably enhanced
by inbreeding;
(4) Prepotency may become a valu-
able aid to intelligent selection in
breeding for greater production.
Heredity and Juvenile Delinquency
The view of Dr. William Healy,
director of the Juvenile Psychopathic
Institute of Chicago, that heredity is
only a minor factor in juvenile delin-
quency, is not shared by Dr. W. J.
Hickson of the psychopathic laboratory
of the municipal court in Chicago. Ina
recent interview, Dr. Hickson said:
‘After all these opportunities of learning
and checking up, and the efforts of men
of science to spread the informaticn, we
still see many people who would solve
the delinquent boy problem by trying
to ‘change the leopard’s spots’ by envir-
onmental means.
“Tf the boy is normal, environment
has little or no influence on him.
“Thanks to the laws of heredity,
some of our greatest men have attained
eminence despite the slums in which
they were born and raised.
“The normal boy will take care of
himself in any environment. That
playgrounds, social centers and the like
are good for him, no one will deny.
That they are essential is not true,
because normality means adaptability.
“These social agencies do not reach
the defective, and cannot.”
Dr. Hickson concludes that most
juvenile delinquency is due to mental
defect, the greatest cause of which is
heredity. A campaign for ‘negative
eugenics’’ would therefore be desirable.
Sale of Canadian Cattalos
The Canadian government has pur-
chased twenty cattalos (hybrids be-
tween the American bison and domestic
cow) from the estate of the late Mossom
M. Boyd, of Bobcaygeon, Ontario,
whose breeding experiment was de-
scribed in the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY
for May, 1915. Sixteen cows and four
bulls made up the herd purchased,
which was sent to Scott, Sask. The
Boyd estate retained thirteen, three of
which have been killed. The remain-
ing ten will be bred in a continuation of
the experiment, which aims to transfer
to the domestic (Polled Angus) cattle
the valuable hump and fur of the
buffalo. The government herd will be
bred along similar lines.
THE PITANGA
A Valuable Fruit of Brazil Which Deserves to be More Widely Cultivated—
Successful in Florida and California— .
Methods of Propagation
A. D. SHAMEL
Physiologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and
WILson POPENOE
Agricultural Explorer, U. S. Department of Agriculture
“that the pitanga dropped from
the hands of Nature, while she
was at play one day, and became
at once a charm to the eye and a delight
to the palate. Each fruit is a glowing
ruby, suspended by a delicate stem
amidst the cool, green leaves of the
pitanga tree, a challenge alike to the
covetous eyes of children and of birds;
nor can the decrepit old man, bowed
down with the weight of years, escape
its attractions, for he seats himself
beneath its shade to meditate upon the
Eternity which is approaching. Surely,
Brazil does not have to envy Europe
her cherry trees, bending in May under
the weight of their ruby fruits; our
pitangas surpass them both in beauty
and in taste.”
These lines from one of the ablest of
living Brazilian naturalists testify to
the esteem in which the pitanga is held
throughout those parts of Brazil in
which it is found, and indicate some-
thing of the beauty of this fruit—rare
as yet in most other tropical and sub-
tropical countries, but’ worthy of ex-
tensive cultivation.
During our visit to Brazil in 1913-14,
made primarily for the purpose of
studying the Navel orange in its native
home, Bahia, we were particularly
impressed with the value of two native
fruits which were found abundantly in
the coastal cities. One of these, the
jaboticaba, was described in the July,
1914, issue of the JouRNAL OF HER-
EDITy. The other, which is the sub-
ject of this article, is better known
outside of Brazil than the jaboticaba,
le IS said,’’ writes Padre Tavares,
but its cultivation is by no means so
extensive as we believe its value war-
rants.
Following a stay in Rio de Janeiro,
our expedition, consisting of P. H.
Dorsett and the writers, moved to
Bahia for the purpose of making a
detailed study of the Bahian Navel
orange, the parent variety of the
Washington Navel. The results of
this study have been described by the
senior author in the JOURNAL OF
Herepity for July, 1915. Of the many
interesting plants found in connection
with the culture of the Navel orange
at Bahia, few were so conspicuous and
none so interesting as the pitanga,
Eugenia uniflora L., of the Myrtle
family. Many of the roadways in
Cabulla and other Navel orange dis-
tricts of Bahia were found to be bor-
dered on either side with beautiful and
well kept hedges of this plant, as were
the driveways or walks leading to the
residences of many orange growers,
which are usually set back some dis-
tance from the road. Frequently pit-
anga trees are grouped near the houses,
furnishing an abundant supply of fruit
for home use. The general cultivation
of this plant among the orange groves
of Bahia, both as an ornamental and
for fruit production, suggested its possi-
ble use for similar purposes in the
orange growing districts and warmer
portions of the United States.
DESCRIPTION
The pitanga, as usually seen, is a broad,
compact shrub, but occasionally it forms a
slender trunk and becomes a small tree up to
30 or 35 feet high. Its foliage is deep green
179
A TROPICAL RIVAL OF THE CHERRY
Cherries fail to grow well in the tropics, but Brazil has a fruit which might largely
take their place. This is the pitanga, a member of the Myrtle family, whose
beautiful red berries possess an aromatic pungency almost unknown in the fruits
of cooler climates. Photograph of fruit grown at Miami, Fla., natural size.
(Fig. 9.)
Shamel and Popenoe: The Pitanga
and glossy, the new growth of a rich wine-
color. The flowers, which are about half an
inch broad, have four white petals, with a
tuft of stamens in the center, and are delight-
fully fragrant. They are produced singly on
slender stems about an inch long, and are
followed by bright crimson fruits, of the shape
of a small tomato, deeply ribbed, about an
inch in diameter, with a thin skin and melting,
juicy flesh of aromatic, spicy flavor, com-
parable to none of the temperate fruits but
somewhat resembling other members of the
Myrtaceae. The single large seed, about the
size of a cherry stone, lies in the center of the
fruit and is easily removed.
Technically, the species may be described as
follows:
An arborescent shrub or small tree, com-
monly branching close to the ground, broad,
compact, sometimes developing a trunk 1
to 2 m. in height, with an erect, rather broad
crown. In Brazil it often attains a height of
6 or 8 m.; in Florida it does not usually exceed
4 or 5 m. Branchlets thin and somewhat
wiry, glabrous. Barklhght brown, very smooth.
Leaves subsessile, opposite, entire, reddish
when young, emitting a pungent odor when
crushed, the blades ovate, shortly acuminate at
the apex, rounded to subcordate at the base,
3-5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, glabrous, finely
pellucid-punctate, deep green above, paler
beneath, midrib slightly impressed above,
midrib and the rather few transverse veins
slightly raised below, the transverse veins
uniting toward the margin; petiole not over 3
mm. long, slender, grooved above.
Flowers white, fragrant, solitary upon
slender glabrous peduncles 1144-2'% cm. long
in the axils of the leaves. Calyx tube cylin-
drical, the lobes pale green, oblong, concave,
rounded at the tips, 4 mm. in length, ciliate,
reflexed. Petals 4, oblong-obovate, concave,
8 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, ciliate. Stamens
numerous, erect in a large cluster, the fila-
ments 4-6 mm. long, white, filiform, the anthers
oval, pale yellow. Style slightly longer than
the stamens, filiform, the stigma simple. Ovary
quadrilocular.
Fruit a berry, one or sometimes two-seeded,
depressed-globose, 2-3 cm. in diameter,
prominently eight-ribbed longitudinally, deep
crimson, shining, crowned by the persistent
green calyx lobes, the disk small, sunken.
Epicarp thin, membranous; mesocarp soft,
juicy, crimson, of pungent, subacid flavor.
Seeds spherical when 1, hemispherical when 2,
commonly under 1 cm. in diameter; seed coat
membranous.
While generally known as Eugenia uniflora
L., it has one or two synonyms which are occa-
sionally seen. Chief among these is E.
Micheli Lam., a name which was used in this
country until a few years ago and is still
commonly applied by some foreign writers.
Nurserymen in Florida and California have
181
sent out numbers of plants under this name.
Stenocalyx Michelit Berg was used by Barbosa
Rodrigues, one of the best known Brazilian
botanists, and following him other Brazilian
writers have used it. Myrtus brasiliana L.
is an obsolete name occasionally seen in old
works, while Plinia rubra L."and Plinia
pedunculata L. are also listed in the synonymy
of the species. Piso and Marcgrav called it
Ibipitanga.
DISTRIBUTION
The pitanga is indigenous in Brazil,
extending over a wide area. Tavares!
states that it is found in the states of
Rio de Janeiro, Parana, Santa Catha-
rina, and Rio Grande do Sul, where it
grows along the banks of water courses
and rivers, and in the edges of the
forest. It is common in cultivation
throughout many other sections of the
country. It is interesting to note that
Thomas Green,? im 1823; listed: the
pitanga as a ‘“‘native of Goa in the East
Indies.”” Goa is a small Portuguese
colony on the western coast of the
Indian peninsula, and during the early
days of Portuguese colonization there
was an interchange of economic plants
between this colony and the Portu-
guese possessions in America, resulting
in the cashew (Anacardium occidentale
L.), the guava (Psidium guajava L.),
and other American plants becoming
thoroughly established in India, while
the mango, the carambola (Averrhoa
carambola L.), the jak (Artocarpus
integrifolia L.), and other oriental fruits
were transferred to Brazil. Quite prob-
bably the pitanga was carried to Goa
along with other Brazilian plants, and
Green took it to be indigenous. Many
of the citrous fruits which were estab-
lished in Brazil by the Portuguese may
also have come from Goa by way of
Portugal.
The name pitanga, by which this
fruit seems universally to be known in
Brazil, is undoubtedly of Tupi origin.
The Tupi Indians inhabited a large
part of Brazil at the time of the dis-
covery, and the names which they gave
to many indigenous plants have per-
sisted to the present day, though their
meanings have in many cases become
obscure. Martius*® states that pitanga
1 Tavares, Prof. J. S., ‘‘As Fruteiras do Brazil,’ in Broteria, Vol. X, fasc. V, Braga, 1912.
2 “Universal Herbal,’ Vol. I, London.
3 Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens, Vol. II, Leipsig,
1867.
182
is derived from the Tupi verb piter, to
drink, and anga, odor or scent; one may
assume, therefore, that the name was
given in reference to the character-
istically aromatic juice of the fruit.
In other countries the culture of the
pitanga is generally very limited. No
references to its culture at Goa have
been found in recent literature, but we
may presume that it is still grown in
that region. It is cultivated in northern
India at the botanic garden of Sahar-
anpur, and is offered in the catalog of
this institution under the name of
‘Brazil Cherry,” but the statement is
made that it does not fruit abundantly
in that climate. It is grown in Ceylon,
where, according to Macmillan, it is
called Goraka-Jambo. Tavares states
that it is cultivated in China, but we
can find no other authority for this.
It seems quite probable that it may
have been introduced in the Portuguese
colony of Macao, near Canton, where
the climate would probably be very
favorable to its growth. It is said by
Wilder, who calls it the “French
Cherry,” to be a common garden plant
in Hawaii. In French it is generally
called cerise de Cayenne, or Cayenne-
cherry; Dr. Trabut* states that it
would rapidly become popular in Al-
geria if it produced more abundantly,
having been found to be quite hardy
along the coast. Emile Sauvaigo,’® an-
other French writer, states that it is
the commonest tropical fruit cultivated
in the vicinity of Algiers; he gives it the
common name of cerise carrée as well
as that applied by Trabut. In Cuba it
is occasionally seen in gardens, and is
called cereza de Cayena. Inthe United
States its culture is limited to Florida
and California, but it is grown very
successfully in both these regions. In
1887 P. W. Reasoner® wrote, ‘‘ The tree
is quite frequently met with in Orange
County and middle Florida, and is
gaining in favor as a fruitbearing plant.”
At the present time it is common in
gardens along the East coast, especially
The Journal of Heredity
in the vicinity of Miami, where the
fruit has recently commenced to appear
in the market, and on the West coast
from Fort Myers northward. After
the plants have attained the requisite
age they fruit abundantly, often pro-
ducing two crops a year.
In California the pitanga has never
become so common as in Florida. It
is, in fact, rare in California gardens,
and undoubtedly worthy of much more
extensive cultivation. Dr. Franceschi’
reported that it was growing in Monte-
cito in 1895. In recent years quite a
few plants have been disseminated by
nurserymen in California. In the United
States the name Surinam-cherry is much
more common than pitanga, and is, in
fact, the one generally used.
HABITS OF GROWTH
At Bahia, Brazil, the pitanga was
found much more commonly as a hedge
plant than in any other form, but such
plants produce much less fruit than
those allowed to develop naturally.
The largest trees seen in Bahia, at the
Roga Coronel in the suburb of Roma,
were about 15 feet high, with trunks
six inches in diameter. At Agua Com-
prida, near Bahia, on the ranch of Col.
Joao de Teive e Argollo, we found a
magnificent specimen nearly 35 feet
high, with a trunk 15 inches in diameter.
These trees, in December, which is one
of the spring months in Bahia, were
loaded with their bright red fruits.
Considerable variation was noted on
different trees, in regard to quantity,
shape, size and color of fruit. Dr.
V. A. Argollo Ferrao, to whom we are
indebted for invaluable assistance dur-
ing our stay in Bahia, stated that he
had frequently observed this varia-
bility of individual trees, and suggested
the possibility of improving the pitanga
by careful selection of seeds. Bud
selection would not be practicable at
present, since seed propagation is the
only method generally employed in
Brazil. By planting seeds from trees
4In Revue Horticole de l’Algerie, XII, p. 161, 1908.
5 Les Cultures sur le Littoral de la Mediterranee, p. 207, Paris, 1913.
6 Report on the Condition of Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruits in the United States in 1887,
p. 25, Washington, 1891.
7 Santa Barbara Exotic Flora, p. 33.
Santa Barbara, Cal., 1895.
=
ey ie -
Fe ph Pi >i a re
+p abs a at KS
? Re & ef’ A:
a
PITANGA HEDGES ALONG THE ROADWAY
This scene near Bahia, Brazil, shows one of the best uses of the pitanga—to form a hedge.
But it is not limited to this use, for it makes a shapely tree, and bears even more heavily,
when planted alone.
its strikingly beautiful berries indoors.
In northern climates, it might be used as a pot plant, and produce
It is remarkable for the great speed with which
it develops its fruit, which in the tropics is sometimes ripe within three weeks from the
appearance of flowers. (Fig. 10.)
which bear abundantly, and whose
fruits are of good size and quality,
marked improvement could probably be
secured. This has recently been illus-
trated in California with the feijoa
(Feijoa sellowiana Berg), a plant be-
longing to the same family; seeds from
selected fruits have produced much
better results than those taken without
regard to parentage.
Two varieties have been offered by
Reasoner Brothers of Florida; one the
ordinary crimson-fruited pitanga, and
the other ‘“black-fruited,’’ being con-
siderably darker in color than the
common type. Tavares mentions two
183
184 The Journal
varieties which occur in Brazil, but
states that they appear equally good
to him. There ‘are so many varia-
tions among seedlings that it would
undoubtedly be an easy matter to
distinguish a number of horticultural
varieties; it would be less easy, however,
to insure their coming true from seed.
When some readily applicable means
of vegetative propagation has been
found, more attention can profitably
be given to this subject. Fortunately,
there appears to be less variation among
seedlings than occurs among many tree
fruits which have been subjected to long
cultivation, the pitanga being com-
parable in this respect to its near
relative the strawberry guava (Psidium
cattleranum Sabine.)
THE FRUIT AND ITS USES
Bahian pitangas were found usually
to be slightly less than an inch in
diameter, flattened, deeply ribbed, and
commonly containing one seed with a
thin, gray seed-coat which becomes
papery when dry and is easily removed.
The size of the seed varies greatly in
fruits from the same tree and is not
always the same in proportion to the
size of the fruit. Several large fruits
were found which had comparatively
small seeds and a large amount of soft,
juicy, spicy pulp.
Miss Thompson’, who has recently
made an analysis of pitanga fruits in
Hawaii, finds that they contain a total
of 9.30% solids, of which 1.93% are
insoluble. The percentage of acids is
1.44, of protein 1.019, and the total
percentage of sugars 6.06. Fat is
present in about .6%.
The uses of the fruit are numerous.
As a fresh fruit, when fully ripe, they
are delicious, though sometimes the
novice finds their strongly aromatic,
almost pungent flavor peculiar and even
disagreeable. The jelly which is made
from them possesses a character all its
own, and vies with guava jelly in popu-
larity among Bahians. It impressed us
as being a product of unusual merit.
Pitanga sherbet is an especial favorite
in Bahia, and is regularly served in all
8‘The Composition of Hawaiian Fruits and Nuts,
Exp. Sta., 1914.
of Heredity
the cafés. It is of a beautiful deep
salmon color, and delicious in flavor.
A liquer is sometimes prepared from
the fruit, and also syrups and wines
which are considered by the Brazilians
to have medicinal value, being stom-
achic and facilitating digestion.
Aside from the fruit itself, the foliage
is extensively utilized by the Bahians,
being highly esteemed for decorative
purposes. In the notes made by one
of the writers on Christmas Day, 1913,
the following paragraph appears:
“The people use pitanga branches to
decorate carts, animals, street cars, and
houses. The leaves are scattered over
the floors of the living rooms in the houses,
and when crushed under foot give off a
delightful, refreshing, pungent aroma.”
The use of this plant for decorative
purposes at Christmas time is probably
more extensive in Bahia than is the use
of holly in the eastern United States;
it seemed to be, in fact, the most popu-
lar decorative plant of the region.
During the holiday season bunches of
pitanga branches were offered for sale
by vendors on almost every street.
In the United States, the fruit is
usually eaten while fresh or is made into
jelly. Pitanga sherbet should be tried
by all who can obtain the fruits, how-
ever, and other uses will doubtless
present themselves as the fruit becomes
better known in this country.
THE CROP
A remarkable thing about the pitanga
is the short time which elapses between
the appearance of the flowers and the
ripening of the fruits. Tavares assures
us that the fruits are ripe within three
weeks from the time of flowering, and
in Florida, where the climate is not so
tropical, they ripen within five or six
weeks. In Brazil the plants bloom in
September and ripen a small crop in
October, flowering again for the main
crop about December or January. In
Florida the main crop is produced in
March, with a few late fruits extending
the season until May or June, and
sometimes a second crop late in sum-
mer. In California the season is ee
tember or October.
”
in the Report of the Hawaii Agrl.
Shamel and Popenoe: The Pitanga
The plants are said by Bahians to
fruit regularly, one grower estimating
the number of fruits produced by an
individual bush at 5,000, or sometimes
more. In Florida they appear to fruit
very regularly and abundantly, after
they have attained sufficient age. Ap-
parently it requires several years for
the plants to come into full bearing, as
they are of rather slow growth. It has
frequently been reported in California
that the plants do not fruit well.
Probably this is due in many cases to
lack of sufficient age, since old plants at
both Santa Barbara and Orange have
borne good crops. During the first
four or five years little fruit seems to be
produced.
PROPAGATION AND CULTURE
Thomas Green gave the following
directions for germinating the seeds:
“Set the stones fresh from their
places of natural growth in small pots
filled with light earth, plunge them into
a hot-bed, observing to keep the earth
moist, but not wet. In about six
weeks the plants will appear; when
about 4 inches high, separate them
very carefully, plant each in a small
pot, plunge them into a hot-bed again,
and carefully shade them until they
have taken root. Treat them in the
185
same way as other tender plants from
the same countries, keeping them
plunged in the tan-bed, and water-
ing them sparingly in winter.”’
These directions have been followed
by one of the writers at Riverside, Cal.,
and have given very satisfactory results.
The seeds usually germinate well, if
planted while fresh; at Reasoner
Brothers’ nurseries, Oneco, Fla., they
are allowed to remain on the ground
under the tree until they germinate,
when the young plants are’ taken up
and potted. It can thus be seen that
there is no difficulty in starting the
seeds, and they transplant readily.
Tavares states that the plant prefers
a light, sandy soil. It grows well in
south Florida on shallow, calcareous
soils, and almost equally well in Cali-
fornia on sandy loam. Unless trained,
the plants usually assume a_ bushy,
compact form, and branch close to the
ground. They require no unusual care
and seem to be fairly drought resistant,
though coming from a moist region.
The amount of frost which they will
stand when young is not great, but they
have passed successfully through tem-
peratures of 27° or 28° above zero F.,
and when they have attained three or
fours years’ growth they should stand
even lower temperatures without any
injury whatever.
Genetics at Washington Experiment Station
the rstudies or anheritance at the
Washington State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station have been conducted
with wheat, oats, barley and rye. The
investigations with wheat include the
qualitative characters and smut resist-
ance. The inheritance of such specific
characters as beards, head length and
grain color, and the general characters
of drought resistance, milling quality
and stiffness of straw are among those
which are being investigated. Many
of the specific characters have been
found to behave in a manner that can be
definitely predicted when certain varie-
ties are crossed. The inheritance of
some of the more general characters
remains to be determined.
The difference in the resistance of
different varieties of wheat to smut has
been determined. Various crosses are
being made for the purpose of producing
more valuable varieties with a less ten-
dency to smut.
The studies with oats include the
inheritance of panicle type, glume color,
hullessness, etc. Similar studies are
being made with barley. In the work
with rye attempts are being made to
obtain a variety without beards. Three
generations or four crop seasons are
necessary to determine the inheritance
of specific characters of unknown value.
WAR, SCIENCE, CIVILIZATION
Biologist Protests Against the Kind of Biology Preached by Militarists—Defective
Politics Resting on Defective Understanding of Nature Makes War
Now Possible—Changes in Public Sentiment That Will
Make War Unlikely—What the United
States Could Do
Review of a book by WitiiAM E. RITTER
Director of the Scripps Institution for Biological Research of the University of
California, La Jolla, Cal.
HE idea of settling by arbitration
the question as to whether a
hungry man may take a loaf of
which he has the full strength
to possess himself is chimerical and
quixotic.
So says a recent German writer,
attempting to justify wars of expansion.
Taking this statement as a starting
point, Professor William E. Ritter, of
the University of California, has under-
taken! to show what modern biology
would say about war of that type.
In the first place, he strongly objects
to the tendency of militaristic writers
to justify wars among men on the mere
ground of a struggle for survival among
the lower animals. Admitting the truth
of the statement made in the first
paragraph of this review, he remarks
that it does not cover the whole case.
“Such situations constitute what
militarists of the Homer Lea and von
Bernhardi type regard as the biological
necessity for war. As a biologist, I
would insist that the argument which
would make war everlastingly necessary
on such grounds implies a limitation to
the conception of ‘biological’ that is
utterly inadmissible by biology itself.
Biology never stops and never can stop
in its dealings with any animal by
regarding it just as an animal in an
unrestrained sense. It always deals
with some particular kind or spectes of
animal. The fish must be treated as a
fish, and the bird as a bird. . Neither
can be disposed of by merely attending
1 War, Science and Civilization, by William E. Ritter.
French & Co., 1915.
186
to such general attributes as need for
food and propagation, common to both,
and to all animals.
‘In exactly the same way is it im-
possible for biology to consider man as
just an animal. If it touches him at
all it must touch him as the human
animal. Confusion of thought in this
matter, not only among laymen but
among many biologists, is amazing,
and has led to the most bizarre specula-
tions about man, some of these being
truly direful in their effects on human
outlook and conduct.”’
If biology, then, is to be drawn into
the discussion of war, it must insist that
man be considered as distinctly a
human animal, endowed with reason,
and foresight, and inventive talent, and
humane sentiments.
Given these endowments, man de-
humanizes himself if he does not use
them to forestall situations that would
make hunger press so severely on him
as to lead him to war. This is a ques-
tion of the proper distribution of the
earth’s resources.
THE HEART OF THE PROBLEM
“This brings us to the kernel of this
discussion, and, as it seems to the
writer, to the supreme question our
nation will have to grapple with if it
would accomplish anything significant
toward world peace. That question is,
Can we present any practical plan
whereby nations foremost in the march
of civilization shall be assured such
Pp. 125; price, $1 net. Boston, Sherman
Ritter: War, Science, Civilization
portions of the primal resources of
nature as are necessary to enable them
to maintain the places they have won,
without having to resort to war to
secure them?”’
“Stating the matter still more
pointedly, is an international arrange-
ment possible whereby a nation might
under certain circumstances give over
to other nations portions of its territory
or other economic advantages peace-
fully, deliberately, and without im-
mediate and definite compensation?
The suggestion even in the form of a
question will probably seem too absurd
to merit a moment’s thought by
practical men. My own categorical
answer to the question is, no, as long as
politics, national and international, rest
on a philosophy of nature and human
nature so defective as that on which
they now do rest; but yes, if political
practice could be based on a philosophy
that should conform to the actual facts
of nature and human nature.”
Politics can never be scientific, Dr.
Ritter thinks, because it is devoted to
the meeting of exigencies, the dealing
with matters of expediency, which are
quite alien to the spirit of science.
But if politics can not be a science in a
strict sense, yet it cannot measure up to
the real needs of modern civilization,
unless it rests on a foundation a large
part of which is science.
An essential part of this foundation
would be the recognition of those
general principles of nature and human
nature upon which man, the human
animal, would base his efforts to ward
off in effective fashion crises of national
want, and thereby avoid being placed
in the position of the hungry man who
takes by force the loaf of bread.
WAR DEFEATS OWN END
From this point of view, it is of first
importance to recognize that war de-
feats its ownend. It is anomalous that
a system of distributing the necessities
of men’s existence among the political
divisions of the earth, should be in
vogue whereby in order that men may
get that which they must have, they
are obliged to destroy a large portion
187
of that for which they are striving.
Those who defend war as a means of
gaining territory or other economic
advantage, and refer to the biological
struggle for existence as a justification,
forget the nature of the Sub-human
struggle. That results in the destruc-
tion or defeat of some of the combatants
merely; while the struggle among human
beings, especially those living under
civilization, results in destroying not
only some of the combatants, but much
of the goods over which they fight.
From this standpoint, so-called civilized
warfare is far less scientific than the
pillaging warfare among savages, which
aims chiefly at capturing and carrying
off the goods for which it is waged.
Further, when politics invokes the
support of biology to justify war, it
must recognize that “‘Nature’s resources
are actually limited for partly civilized
man, but potentially unlimited for fully
civilized man.” So far as nature and
science are concerned, there is ample
reason to believe that civilization might
ensure its own progress indefinitely,
even though “pressure of population
upon means of subsistence’”’ be accepted
as an inevitable concomitant of that
progress. But an essential condition of
continued progress would be the utiliza-
tion of all the resources of nature to the
fullest extent.
In the way of doing this stands the
stupendous obstacle of existing political
ideas and practices relative to the
ownership of its primal resources. “It
seems unescapable that if science is to
be enabled to do its best for civilization,
some way will have to be found to
overcome this difficulty. Nothing could
be further from scientific than the way
Africa and the Pacific islands are being
allotted among the civilized nations.
Perhaps there is little hope of early
reaching a rational basis in this matter.
Surely there would be none were it not
for the fact that civilized men are
ruled so largely by general theories held
in the blindest way; but that these
theories may undergo profound change
when personal interests are seen to be
at stake; and that, on the whole, right
theories appeal more to normal men
than wrong ones.”
188 The Journal
All of the combatants in the present
world war believe that they are fighting
for the cause of civilization; but they
do not define what they mean by civil-
ization, and it is doubtful whether they
really know. To the author, Civiliza-
tion “is the one-word designation of
the grade of evolution for one organic
species, Homo sapiens, in respect to
those attributes which set it off most
sharply from all other species. It 7s
evolution, though only a part of it,
albeit an overwhelmingly important
Part.”
Now civilization in this sense, the
author goes on to show, is incompatible
with great empire. ‘More disastrously
fallacious reasoning was never carried
on than that according to which a
nation’s status in civilization is de-
pendent upon its territorial and econo-
mic extent. : . . The reasoning that
would justify strife for unlimited pos-
sessions just for the sake of having
them, would be paralleled by reasoning
that because the individual cannot live
without food, therefore he should try to
eat all the food in sight.”
The nation which wishes to achieve
a high degree of civilization, then, can-
not spend its energy squabbling over
boundary lines, but must devote itself
to developing civilizing processes. It
must recognize that science furnishes
the groundwork for a great rational
faith in man’s capacity for indefinite
progress. It must recognize that the
phenomena of cooperation, coordina-
tion or, as the author prefers to say,
integration, are just as much a part of
evolution as are the phenomena of
differentiation, which we usually have
in mind when we think of evolution.
The militarists who are seeking shelter
behind biology commonly ignore this,
and speak of a “right of conquest” as
something sacred, because it has existed
in the past.
“Such arguing is intolerable to a
consistent evolutionist. In the use
made of the doctrine by political leaders,
diplomatists, and militarists, the utmost
contradictoriness and confusion prevail.
On the one hand they borrow from biol-
ogy and use with the greatest assurance
such vague phrases as ‘struggle for
of Heredity
existence’ and ‘survival of the fittest,’
while on the other hand they seem quite
oblivious to the essential idea of for-
ward movement and growing interde-
pendence among men, the very essence
of progress in civilization.”
“From the standpoint of biological
evolution, progress in civilization may
be characterized as the differentiation
and intensification of love and intellect,
and of the intellectualizing of love and
the affectionizing of intellect.’
A CHANGE IN POLITICS
Now the author inquires, if such a
view of human nature were generally
adcpted, as being based on scientific
grounds, and if man should at the same
time get “the mighty faith that there is
practically no limit to nature’s capacity
for yielding to man all those things
which, from sources outside himself,
he truly needs,’ what would be the
psychological result? What would be
the effect on the attitude and conduct
of men toward one another and toward
nature?
On the negative side, it would banish
the dread of the “tragedy of popula-
tion,’ which has been present ever
since Malthus created it.
On the positive side, it would imbue
productive effort with a religious zeal.
The tasks of conserving, developing,
distributing, and wisely using the forces
of nature, would be viewed in a truer
light. Men would really gain a religious
feeling, which would direct them in
subjugating nature, rather than in
subjugating men and nations.
“Tt remains to ask what our nation
might do at this time to forward this
greatend. Manifestly we cannot escape
playing some part in the grim world-
drama now being staged. The answer
may be short and sharp. Two sorts
of things may be done; indeed, must be
done, if the part we play is to be positive
and honorable. One sort will pertain
to the nation itself; the other to its
relations with other nations.”
The first thing to do is to “subject
ourselves to a self-examination the like
of which we have hitherto known little
about.”’ It will result in the increase
and improvement of our education,
Ritter: War, Science, Civilization
culture, and the pursuit of art and
science.
The second is to put into practice the
principles which underlie civilization,
by showing other governments that
we are willing to help them get what
they need for their own greatest
development. As a hypothetical case,
Dr. Ritter suggests that we might turn
over to Japan some of our non-contigu-
ous possessions, in order that her
congested population may have room
to breathe.
“The possibility of conditions in
which the policy of England would be
189
to help Russia to better seaports, if
Russia truly needs them; of France to
help Germany to more and better room
in Africa for colonization, if Germany’s
needs in that direction are clear; and of
Germany to help Japan, the United
States, and Great Britain to free the
whole Pacific from need of extensive
armaments, might be counted on to fill
millions of persons the world over . :
with an enthusiasm that would be
irresistible and permanent because sus-
tained by reason as well as by emotion.
“This is idealism, but it is scientific
idealism.”
The ‘‘Practical Eugenic Movement”’
The “Practical Eugenic Movement,”’
an organization directed by T. W. Shan-
non, of Delaware, Ohio, has more than
7,250 members, according to a recent
letter from Professor Shannon. It pub-
lishes a monthly magazine called Prac-
tical Eugenics, which is said to have
more than 4,000 circulation. The move-
ment and organ are devoted largely to
euthenics, emphasizing such factors as
sex hygiene, temperance, care of the
baby, personal hygiene and a war on
tobacco, and a widespread propaganda
is carried on through lectures.
New Publication on Genetics
The first issue of Genetics, a bi-
monthly periodical record of investiga-
tions bearing on heredity and variation,
appeared at the end of February. It
contains as frontispiece a hitherto un-
published portrait of Gregor Mendel,
and the following papers: ‘‘Non-disjunc-
tion as proof of the chromosome theory
of heredity,” by Calvin B. Bridges;
“The numerical results of diverse
systems of breeding,” by H. S. Jennings;
and “Hereditary anchylosis of the
proximal phalangeal joints (sympha-
langism),’’ by Harvey Cushing. Genetics
is edited by a board, of which Prof.
George H. Shull, of Princeton is the
chief, and is published by the Princeton
University Press. It is announced that
it starts with about 270 subscribers, who
pay $6.00 each per year.
Rare Publications on Genetics Available
Through early members, the American
Genetic Association has come into pos-
session of several complete sets of the
Proceedings and magazine of the Ameri-
can Breeders’ Association, and the
volumes of the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
previous to the present year. These
entire sets of the Association’s publica-
tions are offered for sale as wholes, and
the secretary will be glad to correspond
with any one interested in securing a
collection of these publications.
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THE STRAWBERRY, A TRIUMPH OF
PLANT BREEDING
systematic plant breeding accom-
plished in horticulture during recent
???
|: one asks, ‘‘What has deliberate,
years?’ no general answer can be
given. In some fruits scientific plant
breeding is still almost unknown. The
varieties of cherry, for example, which
are grown in the United States are
practically all of unknown origin; they
appear by accident and some one
recognizes their merit and propagates
them. In other fruits much more has
been done by scientific breeding, but
probably with no single fruit has more
been accomplished than with the straw-
berry.
Of the 200,000 acres or thereabouts
which are planted to strawberries in the
United States, it is probable that 90%
are planted to varieties which have
been produced during the last quarter
of a century, as the result, not of
chance, but of intelligent manipulation
by breeders.
Strawberries have been grown in this
country ever since it was first settled,
but the original strains bore fruit only
in the early summer. One of the
greatest advances in the industry was
the introduction of the fall-bearing
or ever-bearing varieties, the first of
which was Pan-American, produced by
Samuel Cooper, of Delevan, N. Y., in
1898. This was a sport from the variety
Bismarck, which bore only in the early
summer.
Mr. Cooper produced a number of
seedlings by self-fertilization from this
sport, and then crossed them with each
other and back on the parent. In this
way a number of other more desirable
varicties were obtained.
Crossing Pan-American with Dunlap
(Senator Dunlap), a widespread and
famous variety, Harluw Reckhill, of
Conrad, Iowa, produced in 1908 the
variety Progressive, which has proved
one of the most popular in the northern
States. The number of plants of Pro-
gressive in existence at the present
time cannot be much short of 700,000,000
or 800,000,000—a pretty good record
for eight years.
Dunlap itself, which has long been
the most widely grown northern variety,
originated with Rev. J. R. Reasoner,
of Urbana, IIll., in 1890, but was not
introduced to the trade until 1900.
It was the result of definite breeding.
The variety Klondike, which makes
up probably nine-tenths of the area
planted in the southern States, was
produced as long ago as 1895 by Robert
Cloud, of Louisiana, as a result of a
carefully planned cross.
Why, it may be asked, has intelligent
plant breeding been so much more
widespread with the strawberry than
with any other fruit? The ease with
which results are got appears to be the
principal reason. Crosses are easily
made, seedlings are easily grown, and
they multiply so rapidly by runners
that a large stock can be obtained in a
very short time. Thus a commercial
breeder, if he can produce something
really good and keep it under his
control for a few years, is able to offer
for sale a large enough stock to bring
generous financial returns. This seems
to be the principal reason why the
strawberry grower can get varieties
produced with a view to meeting his
definite needs, while the grower of
many another fruit is forced to content
himself with varieties that appeared
by accident, and may be far from ideal.
Encouraging Race Suicide
“Some day,” says the March Eugeni-
cal News, ‘“‘it may be regarded as
a crime against society to publish
such an advertisement as the following
which has been running in the Survey :
‘Wanted — Married couples without
children, between the ages of 30 and
45, to take charge of cottages’ at a
school for boys.’’ But not 1f they pre-
fer caretakers of inferior quality.
191
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Civilization and Climate By ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON
‘‘An interesting book on the relations between climate and humin energy.
The book is fascinating, and well worked out—the better, perhaps, for keeping to its subject,
and avoiding cther considerations which must enter into an index of civilization.” —The
Athenaeum.
Price $2.50 net, postpaid.
Problems of Genetics By WILLIAM BATESON
“One of the most stimulating and suggestive books for students of Evolution and Heredity
which has appeared since the rediscovery of Mendel’s law.’’—Science.
Listed in the New York Times Book Review among the ‘(One Hundred Best Books of the
Year.”’ E
[Price $4.00 net, postpaid.
The Physiology of the
Amino Acids By FRANK P. UNDERHILL
“Every physician who wishes to keep abreast with this important development in physi-
ology should take advantage of the opportunity offered by Underhill to obtain the necessary
information in so concise, inexpensive and readable a treatise.”—Journal of Amzrican Medical
Association.
Price $1.35 net, postpaid.
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
mm mr tr 1 I 1 I fH He
Ee Ee ee ee ee me Sileeas 54
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An Introduction to Heredity and Eugenics
BEING WELL-BORN
By MICHAEL F. GUYER
Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin;
President of the American Microscopical Society
An up-to-date, comprehensive, and conservative study, embodying the
latest results of scientific investigation in clear and understandable English.
It is strong on the theoretical side but. emphasizes especially, and illustrates
fully, the practical application of the theories. Although just issued it is
being used as a text-book in many American colleges and universities.
Prescott F. Hall, Secretary Immigration Restriction League, Boston:
Condensed and clear statement of the latest results of scientific research in heredity.
David Starr Jordan, Chancellor Leland Stanford Jr. University:
A remarkably full and accurate statement of what we really know of the science
of eugenics and its application to human life.
C. H. Parker, Zoological Laboratory, Harvard University:
Decidedly the best of American texts on eugenics.
With analytical table of contents, glossary, references for further
reading and study, and a complete index. 12mo. Cloth $1.00 net.
The publishers will send a copy of BEING WELL-BORN on approval to any reader of this magazine
i ee ee - .
The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Publishers, Merrill Union Cire!e, Indianapolis, Ind’
mt
i i 0 em ee Be Be Fe Fe Ee Fe ee
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 5 May, 1916
CONTENTS
Is Twinning Hereditary?, by C. H. Danforth....................... 195
Laws to Restrict Miscegemation............. 0.02. e eee eect ee eees 202
AGB OW willeELOrin sy Wen tet. esi eee aon sana? drags Ra ce oe, aide 203
What They Say about Inbreeding in Europe, An Interview with
Write Gao re tee ey oe kore coke tic strc eae tc Secreta, bd are eae 204
Growing Melons on Trees, by J. E. Higgins........................ 208
Crimecrandshleredtbyrer Ace alec ooo ese hese en Oe en eee 220
To Study Exceptional Children........................ regis TANS 220
Heredity of Albinism, by Charles B. Davenport.................... 221
A Family with Abnormal Hands........................0... 000404. 224
Inheritance of Fertility in Swine...............0.0.. 0.0.0.2... 0000 ae 224
Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns, by Sarkis Boshnakian................. 225
CGenetiesimiE ducation 6/255 bes dia ceod so nd yas VR Pe a ee ee 236
Unirsudl Pecunaiby, tn sa. Gow, foi. x voles) chs Rv eee es 236
Heebleminded AGribies. 515 -'toeoe 5 ob adlsteae apcuet’s tea ocd Ritu invs Cte Wheel 236
Eugenic Survey of Nassau County, N. Y.....................00e0e 237
Genetic Survey of Kansas City...............0.0. 00.0000. c ce eee eee 238
Nebraska‘ Sterilization Mawis.. cs. 5o a .% coke sss view ulin ptaaniote cease Mew 238
The Drama in the Service of Eugenics............................. 238
The Latest “‘Siamese Twins”? on Record.......................... 239
Prizesifor Kugenic Studies: .. 2.550.055 s:.6 .0ces unl ae Joh eb aw bun on 240
Defectives in District of Columbia..............................04.. 240
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, Anril 26, 1916.
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GHONO LY STUDD AV WIOA
IS TWINNING HEREDITARY?
Problem Much More Complicated Than It Appears at First Sight—Two Kinds of
Twins—Possible Influence of the Father—The Frequency of Multiple Births
C. H. DANFORTH
Department of Anatomy, Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Mo.
P \HE layman is often impatient with
the indefinite character of much
of our eugenic information. It
is not easy for him to understand
the difficulties that attend an investiga-
tion into the heredity of what may seem
to be a single clear cut characteristic.
For this reason it may be of interest to
point out a few of the obstacles met in
such a study. The question of a possi-
ble hereditary tendency for twin produc-
tion may be selected for this purpose.
The problems encountered are not
identical with those that would be met
in the investigation of the heredity of
some other characteristic but they are
in a measure similar and will serve to
furnish a typical example.
The occasional occurrence of twins
among the offspring of man and other
animals that usually produce only one
offspring at a time, has always been a
matter of interest to both the popular
and the scientific mind. This interest
is due not so much to the fact that these
mammals may sometimes produce two
or more young at a birth as to the
extreme similarity that frequently exists
between the young thus produced.
The causes that result in twin produc-
tion, however, are not fully understood,
and still less is known of the rdle
heredity plays in this connection.
If one attempts to learn more about
the heredity of twinning he is forced to
consider a number of subsidiary ques-
tions which are in themselves of consid-
erable interest. It is the main purpose
of this paper to call attention to the
bearing of some of these secondary
considerations in relation to the question
of an hereditary tendency toward twin
production. Incidentally a few frag-
mentary data from family histories
are also presented, but the writer is
still collecting this material! and has
little hope that it will be in shape for
final publication for some time.
THE ORIGIN OF TWINS
One of the first questions to be
raised at the beginning of an investiga-
tion into the existence or non-existence
of any hereditary tenaency is: What is
the exact nature of the characteristic
in which this tendency is to be sought?
It might seem that nothing could present
less difficulty in this connection than
twinning. But such is far from being
the case.
In the first place, it may be recalled,
embryologists hold that twins arise in
two very different ways. In one case,
two separate egg cells, from the same
ovary or from opposite ovaries, are
fertilized each by a separate sperm cell.
The resulting embryos develop inde-
pendently like the different members of
an ordinary litter. They need have no
greater resemblance to each other than
brothers and sisters born at different
times, and the chance that they will be
of like sex is the same as for any two
consecutive children in the same family.
Such twins are variously designated as
fraternal, heterologous, biovular. ‘There
seems to be ample evidence that many
pairs are of this sort.
In the case of the other class of twins,
it is claimed that both members of the
pair are derived from a single egg that
has been fertilized by a single sperm.
At some time subsequent to fertilization
two centers of growth appear in the
1 The writer of this paper will welcome family histories in which several pairs of twins occur,
or other data bearing on the question of hereditary twinning.
195
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Danforth: Is Twinning Hereditary ?
embryonic cell-mass and from each of
these centers a_ distinct individual
develops. Such twins, known as zden-
tical, homologous, or uniovular, are always
of the same sex and, moreover, often
show the most striking similarity.2, The
evidence in favor of the existence of
this type of twins is drawn from many
sources and seems quite conclusive.*
It will be apparent from the foregoing
that there are at least two fundamentally
different classes of twins which must be
taken into account in a study of hered-
ity. Biovular twins, since they owe
their existence to the simultaneous
ovulation of two ova instead of one,
must be explained entirely by reference
to some attribute of the mother and
could not possibly be due to any char-
acteristic of the father. Uniovular
twins, on the other hand, might con-
ceivably be due to factors supplied by
either the father or the mother or, like
a recessive character, to some inherent
peculiarity. in the germ cells of both
parents. In one case the characteristic
is manifested in the parental generation
(mother), in the other it appears in the
filial generation (twins themselves).
This is an obvious and important dis-
tinction. Indeed it might be argued
that the occurrence of uniovular and
biovular twins represents two entirely
distinct and unrelated phenomena. Yet
this point is frequently neglected in
studying twins from a statistical or
hereditary standpoint.
Simon Newcomb’s memoir? “‘A statis-
tical Inquiry into the Probability of
Causes of the Production of Sex in
Human Offspring,’’ may be mentioned
as one illustration of such an oversight.
In this article it is shown from very
extensive data that twins are of the
same sex much more frequently than can
be explained by reference to the laws of
‘chance. Even so careful a student as
Professor Newcomb, proceeding from
197
this fact and completely ignoring the
possibility of the existence of these two
types of twins, tried to prove that the
sex of twins, and therefore all embryos,
is determined subsequent to*fertilization.
If, however, the current views as out-
lines above are correct it follows that,
while the data presented by Newcomb
are exactly what would be expected,
his arguments from them are practically
pointless.
THE TWO KINDS OF TWINS
Since embryologists insist that stu-
dents of heredity recognize the existence
of these two classes of twins, the next
question that arises is as to how they
may be distinguished. It is commonly
assumed that twins of opposite sex are
necessarily biovular, while those of
similar sex may belong in either class.
It therefore becomes a question of
passing judgment on the degree of
resemblance between the members of
each pair where the sex is the same.
This is no easy matter. On the one
hand biovular twins may sometimes
closely resemble each other as is shown
by the fact that two brothers or sisters
born several years apart are frequently
very similar. That uniovular twins,
on the other hand, may be very different
is strikingly indicated by those cases in
which one of the individuals has suffered
from some handicap before birth, or is
reduced to a mere parasite attached to
its more vigorous partner. Identity is
rarely attained.
The relation of the foetal membranes
in which the twins develop has been
proposed as a criterion, and it is probably
true that any pair of twins which at
birth are found to be surrounded by a
single set of membranes have come from
a single ovum. But it does not neces-
sarily follow that those surrounded by
separate sets of membranes are biov-
ular. That they frequently are not
2 The extent of this similarity, which may reach even to the finger prints, has been studied by
Professor Wilder and others: see H. H. Wilder in the American Journal of Anatomy, vol. i.
3 The following observations may be mentioned: (a) in some lower forms it is possible
experimentally to cause two embryos to develop from one egg; (b) in the case of the North Amer-
ican Armadillo, it is definitely established that four young regularly develop from each egg; (c)
embryos showing all grades of division from a slight bifurcation to complete separation of individ-
uals are actually found.
4 Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication No. 33. .
5 This is the present view of Sobotta and others, but such data as are referred to in the text
seem to throw some doubt upon it.
PLURAL BIRTHS ARE NOT AN UNMIXED BLESSING
“The stork is one bird that does not go South with the millionaires in winter, but remains up
North conscientiously on the job,”’ says Charles Hopper, of 1620 Race Street, Cincinnati,
Ohio. Thus Hopper, in announcing the birth of triplets, announces at the same time a
cheerful outlook on life. His three latest daughters, who were just a week old when the
photograph was taken, are here shown in the arms of their grandmother, Mrs. Elizabeth
Koch. ‘The Hopper home is no strange place to the stork, who has made seven previous
visits. This is the first time he has ever been so generous in any one call, however, all of
the other children having been born singly. Photograph from Paul Thompson. (Fig. 2.)
Danforth: Is Twinning Hereditary ?
so is suggested by the following rea-
soning.
It is found,® for example, that of
37,621 pairs of twins born in Germany
and France, there were 13,315 cases in
which one twin was a boy, the other a
girl. Now an interpretation that may
be put on such data is this: These
13,315 cases represent half of the
biovular twins—since such twins have
equal chances of being of the same or of
opposite sex. This means that of the
whole number roughly 26,630 cases
represent biovular twins and the re-
maining 10,991 cases represent uniovular
twins, from which it appears that 29+
% of all twin cases are uniovular.’
The textbooks of obstetrics published
in Germany and France, basing their
statement on the relations of foetal
membranes, generally give the number
of uniovular twins as about 15%.
Here is a discrepancy that seems to
have been generally overlooked, but
it is very probable that the difference
between 15% and 29% represents the
number of cases in which uniovular
twins develop in separate sets of foetal
membranes.
POSSIBILITY OF OTHER KINDS
There is another point that cannot
well be overlooked in this connection.
Prof. Thorndike*® found that when the
degree of similarity between the two
members of different pairs of twins is
measured and plotted for a large number
of cases the resulting curve is smooth
and not two-humped as might have been
expected. The mode falls at a point
higher than that for comparisons be-
tween ordinary brothers and sisters, but
considerably below the point represent-
ing identity. If twins fall only into
the two classes usually postulated it is
difficult to see how such a result could
be obtained. Similar study of other,
and if possible, more extensive material
is greatly needed.
It may ultimately be possible to show
that Thorndike’s smooth curve repre-
6 Simon Newcomb, op. cit.
199
sents the leveling effect of like environ-
ment reacting on biovular twins and of
somatic variation affecting uniovular
twins, but it may also be that the two
types mentioned do not represent all the
classes of twins, for it must be admitted
that theoretically there are other possi-
bilities. One such possibility is sug-
gested by the work of Boveri’ and others
on the eggs of bees and sea-urchins.
It was found by these investigators
that the entrance of the sperm to the
egg occasionally stimulates a precocious
division of the latter so that the sperm
nucleus is able to unite with only one
half of the original egg nucleus, leaving
the other half to develop (in these lower
forms) parthenogenetically. If such a
condition were to arise in man, the
second half of the egg nucleus might, so
far as is known, be fertilized by one of
the innumerable superfluous sperm cells,
in which case we would perhaps get a
pair of twins derived from one egg
and two sperms. Such three-germ twins
might even be of opposite sex, yet they
should be more similar than ordinary
brothers and sisters. The at present
puzzling distribution of twins in certain
families could be explained very well on
this assumption, but such a postulate
lacks proof, and one must proceed cau-
tiously in introducing new hypotheses.
FREQUENCY OF TWINS
For the student of heredity it is
always desirable to know the “normal
incidence”’ of the character under inves-
tigation. Knowing this it is possible to
calculate, on the assumption that the
characteristic appears fortuitously, the
probability that it will be found once,
twice or oftener in groups of a given size.
With this information at hand one may
then determine whether the character-
istic regularly appears in certain families
enough oftener than the laws of chance
would explain to warrant regarding it as
hereditary.
The approximate incidence of twin
births as a whole is easily obtained.
7 Miss Margaret V. Cobb has recently applied the same reasoning to American data with
similar results.
Science, N.S., Vol. XLI, No. 1057, pp. 501, 502.
April 2, 1915.
8 Archives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, No. 1, 1905.
9 This work is scattered through numerous journals dealing with experimental embryology, etc.
TWINS FROM TWO DISTINCT EGG CELLS
As they are of different sexes, it is probable that they are not from the same egg cell; and the
difference in their appearance, at first sight, is considerable.
that the hair is the only visible feature in which they differ widely.
(Fig. 3.)
The Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C.
For example, it is stated” that in
Prussia one birth in eighty-nine results
in twins; in Naples, one in 158; in
Russia, one in thirty-two, etc. In
certain provinces of China twins are
said to be almost unknown. Of the
75,030 births recorded in St. Louis
10 Textbooks of obstetrics, etc.
births, the Russian on 6,000,000,
200
But closer examination shows
Photograph from
during the five years from February,
1910, to February, 1915, 828 are re-
ported as twins or triplets. This indi-
cates that the incidence of multiple
births here is about one to 90.6. Of
course these figures tell nothing of the
relative frequency of the different classes
The Prussian statistics are said to be based on 13,000,000
FROM ONE OR TWO EGG CELLS?
The most obvious difference between these twins is that one drinks faster than the other. In
features the resemblance is close.
Yet no one can say from mere inspection whether they
represent the twinning that is due to the fertilization of two egg cells, or the twinning that
is due to a single egg cel! splitting in halves; and as the two kinds of twinning are very
likely inherited in a different manner, the study of the problem is made difficult.
graph from the Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C.
of twins, a decided handicap for the
student of heredity.
THE HEREDITARY TENDENCY
The kind of evidence that one gets
as to the heredity of twinning may be
indicated by reference to a group of
fifty St. Louis families. The investi-
gator had no knowledge of any of these
families until in each case, the birth of
twins was reported to the bureau of
vital statistics. On looking into the
family histories, it was learned that
these fifty new-born pairs of twins had
171 older brothers and sisters born
singly and twenty (ten pairs) who were
twins. The frequency of twins among
the brothers and sisters of twins then
is about 1:18. In the mothers’ fra-
ternities there had been 318 single births
and ten pairs of twins (1:32), and in the
fathers’, 219 single and eight pairs of
1 There is indication that this is also the case with Shropshire sheep.
Photo-
(Fig. 4.)
twins (1:37). Comparing these figures
with the ‘normal incidence’’ for
St. Louis (1:90.6) one is justified,
especially since essentially similar figures
are obtained from more extensive data,
in concluding that twin production is
frequently a family peculiarity.
Analyzing the individual families,
evidence is found that what seems to be
biovular twinning is hereditary in the
direct female line. The tendency to
uniovular twinning likewise seems to be
transmitted through the female and,
since the incidence of twins is higher
than normal in the fraternities of the
fathers of twins,!! it is probable that
it may also be transmitted through the
male. Whether there is any relation
at all between the two types is an open
question.
While some of these families furnish
beautiful charts indicative of an hered-
See Rietz and Roberts,
Journal of Agricultural Research, September, 1915.
201
202
itary tendency for twinning, others are
frequently met with in which, while
there may be a record of many indi-
divuals in several generations, only one
pair of twins appears. In these in-
stances the twins sometimes seem to
be biovular, sometimes uniovular. Such
family histories may indicate that while
twinning is in some way hereditary in
most instances, it may nevertheless at
times appear sporadically. The most
probable inference to be drawn from
this fact would seem to be that the
ability to produce twins is_ possibly
common to all strains and that the fre-
quency of twin births in different lines
is merely relative. It is not likely, on
the one hand, that strains will be found
in which twins never occur nor, on the
other hand, in which there is nothing
but twins. But that such causes as
may tend toward twin production” are
more constant or react more effectually
in some lines than in others seems
evident. That one of the factors com-
monly involved in the case of both
uniovular and biovular twinning is he-
reditary seems to be well established,
although it cannot as yet be stated
12 There is not space to discuss these causes in detail.
A slight transient hyper-acidity of the uterine
important influencing factor (biovular twins).
The Journal
of Heredity
whether or not the method of trans-
mission is Mendelian.
SOLUTION NOT IMPOSSIBLE
In the foregoing discussion an attempt
is made to give the “‘setting’’ of a con-
crete problem in the study of human
heredity for which purpose the question
of twinning is selected. The obstacles
that are met in attempting to solve this
problem are found to be of such a nature
as to prevent a quick arrival at final
conclusions, but they are not such as
to discourage the hope that a definite
solution of the problem may be ob-
tained. Before such a _ solution is
reached, however, a number of inci-
dental, and perhaps unforeseen, ques-
tions must be disposed of. These
questions often call for excursions into
somewhat remote fields of investigation,
but this fact instead of detracting from
the interest of the study or the urgency
for its prosecution, adds materially to
both. It is only through the careful
evaluation and correlation of all these
contributary data that entirely satis-
factory conclusions can be hoped for.
Many obstetricians consider age an
fluids has been suggested as a factor favoring the production of uniovular twins.
Laws to Restrict Miscegenation
Twenty-eight states have laws or
constitutional provisions forbidding the
intermarriage of negroes and white
persons, while twenty States have no
laws on the subject, according to Albert
Ernest Jenks, who reviews the legislation
in the American Journal of Sociology
(March, 1916). In ten States, bills
introduced in the legislatures and aimed
at forbidding negro and white marriages
were defeated in 1913, largely through
the activity of the National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People.
This association announces that it
does not favor intermarriage, but objects
to such legislation on the ground that it
is ineffective and discriminatory, that
it leads to the degradation of negro
women, and ‘for the physical reason
that to prohibit such intermarriage
would be publicly to acknowledge that
black blood is a physical taint, some-
thing no self-respecting colored man
and woman can be asked to admit.”
Prof. Jenks points out that in the States
which have laws, these laws differ
widely in the interpretation placed on
the word ‘‘negro.”’ “If effectual legal
barriers against negro-white amalgama-
tion are desirable,’ he concludes, “‘they
should perfectly agree as to the legal
and racial status of the so-called
‘negro,’ and miscegenation of every
form and every instance between negro
and white persons must be made a
felony in every American State.”’
A FOWL WITH HORNS
Here is a Wyandotte cock with well-developed horns on each side of the head. They are
similar in character to the spurs which regularly grow on males of the domestic fowl, and are
attached to the skin only, having no connection with the skull. The horns are about 1 inch
in circumference at the base; the straighter one is 2 inches long and the curved one 3 inches long.
The bird was raised by Dominic Lynch of 1934 Ruan Street, Philadelphia, Pa., and killed
last Thanksgiving. The head came into the possession of Charles H. McLaughlin, 1500 North
Alden Street, Philadelphia, who brought it to the office of the JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, and
furnished the data about it. He had it mounted by David N. McCadden, of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
From the point of view of development, these horns are merely medified feathers, which
in turn are, like the cock’s spurs, merely modified scales of the skin. It is difficult to
explain why these spurs should have appeared on the bird’s head, but there seems to be no reason
why they should not do so. On the other hand, it is conceivable that such horns might be
produced artificially by grafting spur tissue on the fowl’s head when it was young. Mr.
McLaughlin asserts that these horns are wholly a natural growth. The taxidermist who
mounted the head writes that they appeared to be a natural growth, consisting merely of modi-
fied feathers. Such a growth is to be considered merely a freak, and probably would not be
inherited. (Fig. 5.)
WHAT THEY SAY ABOUT
INBREEDING IN EUROPE
last few years to be recognized in
Europe as one of the most valuable
instruments of the live stock breeder.
So says Chr. Wriedt, who has spent the
winter in the United States as a repre-
sentative of the Norwegian department
of agriculture, studying the position of
breeding and genetics here.
Mr. Wriedt notes that, apart from the
professional geneticists and a few great
breeders, those concerned with live
stock in the United States still display
a good deal of suspicion and misunder-
standing of the use of inbreeding and
linebreeding. European breeders, too,
used to be skeptical. Their attitude
was influenced largely by the authority
of the German scientist, Settegast, who
dominated the field of live stock breed-
ing half a century ago, and who de-
nounced consanguineous breeding in
every form.
“The first impartial investigation,”
says Mr. Wriedt, “was started by
Count Georg Lehndorff, who was in
charge of the governmental horse-
breeding operations in Prussia for a
generation, and exercised a great influ-
ence for good on the art of breeding.
Through studies of the pedigrees and
progeny of thoroughbred horses, he
came to the conclusion that moderate
inbreeding! was largely responsible for
the best records; and his publications,
beginning about 1880, mark the com-
mencement of the new school of breeding
in Germany.
“But the turning point, in Germany,
is the publication in 1909 of A. de
Chapeaurouge’s great book on inbreed-
ing, in which he analysed the pedigrees of
English thoroughbreds, Anglo-Norman
[stew year has come during the
1JIn other words, what we call line-breeding.
trotters in France, and the best private
studs of East Prussia. He was in many
ways a pupil of the Australian, Bruce
Low. The greatest defect of de
Chapeaurouge is that he was born too
soon to be a good geneticist—he is quite
out of sympathy with the Mendelian
movement.
“His work was based wholly on prac-
tical breeding; on the analysis of actual
pedigrees. It really led to the founda-
tion of a whole school of breeding on the
continent, and to the foundation of the
German Genetic Association,’ a power-
ful organization which has worked inces-
santly to promote intelligent breeding.
PEDIGREE-STUDY EMPHASIZED
“The guiding spirits of this association
are two able men, Dr. Felix Hoesch, the
president, a breeder of Belgian horses
and swine, and Dr. Georg Wilsdorf,
the secretary, who is in charge of live-
stock breeding in the province of
Brandenburg. These men combine to
an unusual degree the viewpoints of the
practical breeder and the geneticist,
and under their leadership the German
Genetic Association has published a
series of valuable yearbooks, fifteen
monographs on various breeds, and a
score of bulletins on topics in scientific
breeding, particularly as related to the
study of pedigrees. Pedigree-study is,
in fact, the keynote of the association’s
activity, and the interest which the
breeders take in it may be judged from
the fact that Wilsdorf’s ‘Pocket Pedigree
Book’ for the black and white cattle, a
breed corresponding to the Holstein-
Friesians, is now in its fourth edition.”
“And what do they learn from all
this pedigree study?”
Much of the so-called inbreeding in Europe
is not of a close character, and in the United States would never be called inbreeding, but merely
line-breeding.
to have 3,400 members.
204
The difference, of course, is merely one of degree.
2 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Zachtungskunde.
Its headquarters are in Berlin, and it is said
Inbreeding
“In general,”’ Mr. Wriedt said, ‘“They
learn this: that in every breed the
valuable strains or families are found
to contain the names of a very few
ancestors, repeated a great many times.
In short, that the valuable part of any
breed is due to a small number of ani-
mals, usually sires; these sires, which
we would call prepotent, have been
used as much as _ possible, through
inbreeding and linebreeding.
“The secret of the great successes in
live stock breeding, then appears to be
merely that the valuable ‘blood lines’
were picked out and conserved through
inbreeding.”
“And this inbreeding does not lead
to disaster?”
“Not at all, if the animals are good;
Take for example the famous Kladrub
breed of horses in Bohemia. It is
probably the purest breed in the world—
one of the few breeds of horses that has
any right to call itself pure.
THE KLADRUB BREED
“Its foundation was a Spanish breed
of heavy carriage horses which had been
closely bred and kept pure for many
hundreds of years, when it was taken
to Austria in the sixteenth century for
the use of the court. The chief char-
acteristics of the breed are the Roman
nose, arched neck, heavy crest, great
height (17 or 18 hands) and extravagant
gait. The breed is a very small one,
rarely consisting of more than a hundred
individuals, but they are regarded in
Austria as the finest parade horses in
the world, and may be used only by the
royal family and by the Archbishop of
Olmttz in Moravia. They are ordi-
narily seen only on great occasions,
when the emperor drives in state behind
six or eight of them, all grays or all
blacks—the only two colors found in the
breed. As they are all for ‘show’ their
trotting speed is only a few miles an
hour—this gives them a chance to
exhibit their fancy action.
“New blood is very seldom intro-
duced into this breed, and because of
the small number of animals existing,
inbreeding must have been quite close
for several centuries. In recent years
no stronger inbreeding than cousin
in Europe 205
matings has been practiced; yet the
Kladrub horses probably represent in
their history more inbreeding than any
living breed. Are they degene rate?
Not a bit. The only unusual result is
that it has become very difficult to tell
when the mares are in heat. But there
has been no diminution in fertility, nor
any increase in the number of weak or
defective animals. They are very slow
to mature, seldom reaching full size
before the sixth year; on the other hand,
they remain vigorous to a_ very
advanced age.
“This long-continued example of in-
breeding shows that if the stock is good
at the start, inbreeding will fix the type.
It is a pity that these animals are not
available for experimental purposes, for
according to theory they ought to be
extraordinarily prepotent. It would be
of great value to find out whether this
is actually the case when they are mated
with other breeds.
“The Percherons offer a great ex-
ample of inbreeding and prepotency,”’
Mr. Wriedt continued. ‘‘Most of the
good animals today trace back in
several lines to the two stallions Brillant
755 and Brillant 756.
A GREAT PREPOTENT SIRE
“But the most conspicuous example
of prepotency which has ever come under
my own observation is that of the Jut-
land stallion, Aldrup Munkedal, born
in Denmark in 1893. He is sire of
practically all the sires of that very
valuable and by no means inconsiderable
breed called the Jutland breed.”
““And you believe, I suppose, that
inbreeding increases prepotency?”’
“Certainly. Prepotency is simply
the condition of being purebred—
homozygous—for a large number of
dominant characters.
“Tf we understand that prepotency
depends on having received the same
dominant characters from both lines of
descent, we realize that the surest way
to produce prepotent animals is by in-
breeding, where they are certain to get
some, at least, of the same characters
from both parents. Occasionally one
may get an equally prepotent animal
as the result of a cross, but then it is
THE PUREST BREED OF HORSES
One of the few breeds of live stock that can properly be called pure is the Kladrub breed of
horses, produced in Bohemia for the use of the Austrian court on state occasions.
They
have been carefully selected and inbred for centuries, and are now considered by the Aus-
trians to be the finest ‘“‘show’’ horse in the world. Only two colors occur, black and light
gray. Inbreeding for dozens of generations has done no damage to this breed, despite
the widespread popular belief that long-continued inbreeding is certain to be injurious.
The carriage of Kaiser Franz Josef is shown, at the recent Eucharistic Congress in Vienna,
photographed by Underwood and Underwood.
merely a matter of chance. There is an
excellent illustration of this in Hungary,
with which you may not be familiar.
“The Nonius breed is one of the most
important of Hungarian breeds of
general purpose horses. It is founded
wholly on one stallion, Nonius, who
was produced in France more than a
century ago by mating an English
halfbred to a Norman mare. In 1815
the Austrians carried him away as one
of the prizes of war; he proved to be
extraordinarily prepotent, in spite of
his mixed ancestry, and is responsible
206
(Fig. 6.)
for the existence of the valuable breed
which bears his name today.”
“And the Europeans are really im-
proving their stock rapidly, by picking
out the good blood lines and inbreed-
ing?’ I inquired.
“Undoubtedly. In Germany, Aus-
tria, Holland and the Scandinavian
countries, the movement has made great
progress. It had done less in France
and Great Britain. In general, I sup-
pose this school of breeding is the
strongest, where the publications of the
German Genetic Association are best
Inbreeding
known. The president of that associa-
tion, Hoesch, has made a wonderful
success in building up the German
country swine through moderate in-
breeding, based on three prepotent
boars.”’
“Not only is it important to know
the good blood lines, but equally to
know the bad blood lines. Sometimes a
very injurious line of descent is dic-
covered, quite unexpectedly, owing its
origin to an animal who perhaps was a
first-class performer but not a good
breeder. We have one notorious case
in a government-owned stallion in
Norway, who appears to have been
prepotent, but in bad, not good,
characters. Every time we find his
name in a pedigree, we expect to find
unsatisfactory results.”
EUROPEANS KNOW THEIR BREEDS
“Do you think that European breed-
ers know their breeds better than
Americans do?”
“T fear there can be no doubt about
the answer to that question. So far
as Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia
are concerned, the bulk of the breeders
are certainly better acquainted with the
blood-lines of their breeds, than are the
bulk of American breeders. This de-
velopment has been rapid—it is largely
since the time of de Chapeaurouge, or
say the last seven years; for de Chapeau-
rouge worked seventeen years on pedi-
grees before he published his great
book on inbreeding.”
“And your advice to Americans
would be if
“That they study their pedigrees
more diligently. The progress they
have made—astonishing progress, in
many lines—has been due to the isola-
tion of good blood lines and the perpetu-
ation of them,’ but this has been mostly
unconscious. They will go more rap-
idly and surely if they make certain
just what are their best strains, and
then use those strains to the limit.
They will understand and enjoy their
in Europe 207
work more if they will study genetics,
although I do not pretend that a
knowledge of genetics will work any
revolution in breeding practice at
present.” 3
“Can’t we proceed still more rapidly
if we import the best animals of
Europe?”
“Oh, that is all a mistake!’’ Mr.
Wriedt exclaimed vigorously. ‘‘You’ve
done enough importing in most breeds.
It was a real blessing to America that
foot-and-mouth disease stopped the
importation of Holstein-Friesian cattle
from. Holland. You must remember
that there is only one animal in a
thousand that really builds up the
breed. Now you undoubtedly have
many such animals at the present
time. The thing to do is to find them
and use them, build on them. Then
you have a permanent foundation;
while 1f you continue importing animals
from Europe, even though they be
individually fine specimens, they may
not be just what you need to establish
strong blood lines in your breeds.”
“But surely we couldn’t give up
importing draft horses.”
“Quite true. America’s greatest lack,
in live stock, seems to me to be a good
American breed of heavy horses. But
you can easily produce such a breed, if
the value of it is more highly regarded.
That, and the full utilization of the
excellent light horses of Virginia, appear
to me to be the two most promising
lines of horse breeding in the United
States at the present time.
‘Finally, let me repeat the lesson
which European experience offers to
American breeders. Study the pedi-
grees of your breeds, hunt up the
‘blood lines’ that are producing the
greatest number of good performers,
and perpetuate, multiply, intensify these
blood lines by moderate inbreeding or,
if necessary, by the strongest forms of
inbreeding. If this is combined with
stringent selection of only the best
animals, the breeder cannot fail.’’
3 A good example of this is furnished by the rapid improvement of Holstein-Friesian cattle.
First, the breeders have found out which are the really valuable animals—the “seven day test”
is a great help to that end; second, they are able easily to trace the relationships of these animals,
thanks to the convenient Blue Book.
GROWING MELONS ON TREES
The Papaya an Important Tropical Fruit Which Offers Great Opportunities to
Breeders—Remarkable Irregularities in Sex—Changing Male
Trees into Females!
J.B Hiceins
Horticulturist, Hawait Agricultural Experiment Station, Honolulu, T. H.
HE papaya, or melon tree, is one
of the most important tropical
fruits and because of its delicious
quality and great yield is des-
tined, I believe, to be one of the valu-
able crops in the world’s horticulture
in the future.
Its future inportance will depend
largely on the work of plant breeders,
to whom it offers some unusually
interesting features which I propose to
consider in this paper.
To those unfamiliar with the tropics,
it may be said that this tree grows from
a small seed to a height of 10 or 15 feet
in a single year, takes on a load of fruit
equal to that of a 10-year-old apple tree,
and begins to ripen it about twelve
months from planting. The large and
beautiful yellow fruits, weighing on an
average from three to six pounds, are
much appreciated in the parts of the
tropics where attention has been given
to their cultivation, and are eaten by
all classes of people. As fruit they
fit into the same place in the dietary as
the muskmelon, but to one who would
inquire what they taste like the only
reply is—they taste like the papaya.
The species has been known by many
common names in Mexico, Central
America and the West Indies, all of
which countries have been mentioned
by different writers as its probable
home. In English-speaking countries
it has frequently been called the papaw,
but this term should be dropped since
its application to the North American
papaw, a wholly unrelated species
(Asimina triloba), is well established.
The papaya will continue to bear for
many years, but its period of profitable
production is only two or three years,
after which it is cut down to give place
to young and vigorous stock. The
growth is so rapid and the tissue so
soft that a single stroke with a cane
knife will sever the entire trunk, al-
though it may be more than a foot in
diameter. It might be supposed that
so soft a structure could not support
the several hundred pounds of fruit
which not infrequently are borne, but
since it is all carried close to the trunk
and the strain is practically vertical,
the breaking of a papaya tree is rare,
although the large, picturesque, palm-
like leaves expose a large surface to the
wind.
PECULIARITIES OF SEX
From a plant breeder’s point of view,
the most remarkable thing about the
papaya is its sex. Speaking broadly,
one would say that the male and female
flowers are borne on different trees.
This is an unsatisfactory situation, for
male trees are of no value to the grower,
except in the limited number necessary
for pollination. Yet when the papaya
is grown from seed, as has usually been
done in the past, most of the resulting
plants are males, and the grower’s
profit is thereby much decreased.
There are two ways of avoiding this
difficulty. One which is already being
used is to propagate the trees not by
seeds but by grafting. Then one will
propagate only female fruit-bearing
trees, with just a few males. This
method is very useful in prolonging the
existence of valuable seedlings, but it is
1In the present paper the author has quoted freely from The Papaya in Hawaii,” by J. E.
Higgins and Valentine S. Holt.
208
Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 32, 1914.
HE LIKES PAPAYAS
Most people do, even at the first trial. The papaya has a medicinal value, but it is a medicine
that is decidedly pleasant to take. Belief in the great future of the papaya as a food crop,
however, is based not so much on its medicinal value as on its food value and its heavy
yield. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe, Miami, Fla. (Fig. 7.) :
210
somewhat expensive for a tree whose
period of profitable production is so
biied.?
The other way is to breed a race of
papayas which will carry both male and
female flowers on the same tree, or
which will bear perfect flowers which
furnish the pollen needed for the ovaries
on the same tree. A race of this sort
could be propagated from seed, and
there would be no loss to the grower
through the production of non-fruiting
males, as at present. Every tree would
be fruitful, just as is the case with the
apple, pear, and most fruits.
The production of a hermaphrodite
race like this is made possible by the
fact that such trees exist in nature.
The male flowers are not invariably
confined to one tree and the female to
another, but a dozen or more types of
tree can be recognized; and these types
form a precious material for the plant
breeder. They have been described at
some length in Bulletin No. 32 of the
Hawaii Experiment Station;“but 1 shall
mention the more important here.
TYPES OF TREE
Form 1. The first form to be considered is
the ordinary female or pistillate tree of the
dioecious stock. The female tree produces
flowers exclusively pistillate, with no indica-
tion of even the remnants of stamens (Fig. 8).
The ovaries and the resulting fruits are of
various shapes, inclining to the obovoid, with
a diameter somewhat shorter than the major
axis, and the surface smooth or only slightly
ribbed. The fruits are usually borne singly
on very short peduncles in the axils of the
leaves.
Form 2. The male tree (Fig. 12), the counter-
part of that just referred to, produces only
staminate flowers which, however, possess
rudimentary or abortive pistils (Fig. 11), and
hang in great profusion in cymose panicles on
peduncles 2 to 5 feet in length. The flowers,
unlike those of the female tree, have a long
corolla tube in the throat of which are 10
stamens arranged in two series, the one having
slightly longer filaments than the other. At
the base of the tube may be found a small
rudimentary pistil, quite devoid of any stigma.
The Journal
of Heredity
Since all the flowers are of this type the tree
abounds in pollen, but produces no fruit.
In foliage and habit, other than as described,
it resembles the female, and is indistinguishable
until flowers appear.
Form 3. Correae of Solms-Laubach.* This
form is a departure from the last and is illus-
trated in Fig. 11. It is identical with the tree
just referred to except that a few of its flowers
have pistils capable of fecundation. The rays
of the stigmas may be perfectly formed or one
or more may be aborted, giving rise to an
unsymmetrical or gibbous fruit in which the
corresponding portions of the placenta have
failed to develop. The ovaries of the well-
formed hermaphrodite flowers incline more to
the elongated and cylindrical form than those
of the pistillate tree and result in correspond-
ingly different fruits. The corolla. tube is
elongated as in the staminate flowers and the
stamens are similarly located in the throat of
the corolla, being brought into proximity with
the stigmas. These bisexual flowers are larger
than the staminate but in other respects are
similar, except as has just been indicated.
The number of such flowers varies from few
to many, there being at times as many
forming fruits on the long pendulous peduncles
as are to be found on some pistillate
trees, notwithstanding the fact that many have
fallen. Often as the fruit develops the peduncle
is not strong enough to sustain the weight and
breaks off, such long fruit-stems inviting
disaster from the winds.
Form 4. Elongata, a hermaphrodite papaya
(Fig. 9). This tree produces two types of
flowers. One of these types is hermaphrodite
and is in every way similar to a well-formed
bisexual flower on the Correae form (form 3),
except that it usually is larger and its pistil
is more elongated. The other type of
flower is staminate and is identical in appear-
ance with the staminate flowers already de-
scribed. Because of the presence of these two
types of flowers, this form has been referred to
in the earlier publications of this station as the
monoecious papaya.?
As experiments have proceeded, however, it
has been discovered that the pollen from such
staminate flowers, except in the case of one
tree, has failed to fecundate any pistils up to
the present time, and it has been applied to
every type of pistil found in the station collec-
tion. Since these flowers apparently do not
function it seems incorrect at present to apply
to this form of the papaya the term monoecious.
They may rather be termed either pseudo-
monoecious or hermaphrodite.
Form 5. Sterile hermaphrodite.
Form 6. Forbesi of Solms-Laubach. Briefly
2It has recently been observed at Miami, Fla., that the papaya degenerates rapidly when
propagated by grafting.
Grafted plants of the third and fourth generations from the original
seedling of the Simmonds variety develop to a height of 3 or 4 feet only, produce a few small
fruits, and are always yellowish and sickly in appearance. ]
The papaya would appear to be a promising subject for
grafting may have to be abandoned.
experiments on degeneration in asexually reproduced plants. . ‘Oo i
houses and should prove a most interesting plant for physiological experiments.—The Editor.
?Die Heimath und der Ursprung des cultivirten Melonenbaumes, Carica papaya.
Ztg., 47 (1889), Nos. 44-49.
4 Hawaii Sta. Rpts., 1910, 1911, and 1912.
On this account, propagation by
It can easily be grown in green-
Bot.
PAPAYA TREE WELL LOADED WITH FRUIT
Such crops as this, quickly obtained, make it seem probable that the papaya will have an
important part in the horticulture of the future. The tree here shown represents the
pistillate type, all of the flowers of which are female or fruit-producing. Inserted at the
lower right hand corner is one of these flowers. (Fig. 8.)
212
stated, the most striking characters of this
plant are as follows: On the long, pendulous
peduncles, characteristic of the male tree, this
plant produces its three types of flowers,
staminate, pistillate, and hermaphrodite. The
staminate are identical with those of the
ordinary male tree and the pistillate with those
of the female tree, but the hermaphrodite
differ from those described above (form 3).
These have a very much shortened corolla tube
as in the case of the pistillate flower, the lobes
being divided almost to the base of the ovary.
On the edge of this short tube, quite near the
base of the ovary, are attached only five
stamens, and these are supplied with long
filaments, which rest in furrows between the
lobes of the ovary. These lobes are united at
the base, but often separable at the upper ends.
The resulting fruit is deeply furrowed.
Form 7. Pentandria. This form produces
hermaphrodite flowers of the same type as
those just described (form 6). They have the
corolla tube reduced to almost negligible
length and the five stamens inserted on long
filaments on this tube, near the base of the
ovary. The ovary is deeply furrowed, with
the stamens lying in the grooves between
the lobes, thus giving rise to a deeply furrowed
fruit. There are also staminate flowers of the
ordinary type, and these are borne with the
hermaphrodite.in short clusters as in the case
of form 4,
CHANGE OF SEX
It is a fact worthy of note that some
of these forms are not constant. One
may assume the réle of another. Per-
haps the most primary change of sex
which takes place is to be observed in
the appearance of hermaphrodite flow-
ers on trees that have previously pro-
duced only staminate inflorescence.
That is, form 2 may pass into form 3 or
form 6. Not only is it known that such
changes take place, but the conditions
which may bring them about have been
under observation. This ‘‘fruiting of
the male papaya’”’ takes place most
freely in cool climates outside the
tropics or at high altitudes. In Hawaii
it may be seen that these trees fruit
more abundantly on the mountains
than near the sea level. In torrid
climates the fruiting of the ‘‘male’’ is
rare. It is to be remembered in this
connection that all the staminate flow-
ers of the male trees possess an unde-
veloped or an abortive pistil. The only
change in the cases mentioned consists
in the development of this pistil, result-
ing in a hermaphrodite flower.
It is a matter of record that complete
change of sex occasionally occurs when
The Journal
of Heredity
the top is cut off from a purely stam-
inate tree. Such treatment may result
in the new tree top producing pistillate
flowers exclusively, or the tree may
become a hermaphrodite of the Elongata
form. A tree of changed sex characters
is shown in Fig. 13. It was formerly
staminate and, being without fruit and
useless to the owner, it was cut back to
a stump and was used to suspend a back
yard clothes line. Without any other
known change in conditions it took on
the fruit-bearing characters shown in
the illustration and produced pistillate
flowers exclusively on all of its branches.
It is to be noted, however, that such
changes take place with no certainty or
regularity. At the Hawaii Experiment
Station, the cutting back of a c-nsider-
able number of staminate trees on some
occasions has produced no difference in
sex, while at other times a small per-
centage of pistillate and of hermaphro-
dite fruit-bearing trees have resulted.
It is worthy of note that no record has
been found by the writer in the litera-
ture of the papaya which would indicate
that the pistillate or female tree has ever
changed its sex.
ORIGIN OF THE HERMAPHRODITE
Because the hermaphrodite form is
of great importance from the stand-
point of the breeder, as will be shown a
little later, it may be interesting to
inquire into its probable origin. It is
apparent that the form Correae is only
a slight departure from the ordinary
male or staminate tree. Now com-
paring Correae with the hermaphrodite
Elongata, it will be observed that the
hermaphrodite flowers on both trees
are the same and produce fruit of the
same elongated form, but the trees
differ only in three minor particulars:
(a) In Elongata the flower clusters are
greatly shortened; (b) It produces
larger fruits usually; and (c) Its stam-
inate flowers do not produce fertile
pollen. It would appear that Elongata
has been derived from the ordinary male
or staminate tree, through Correae, by
an increase in the number of hermaphro-
dite flowers and the shortening of the
clusters and of the fruit stems.
Very little effort has been made to
A HERMAPHRODITE TREE
The Elongata type of papaya, here shown, produces two kinds of flowers. One is a male,
staminate, or pollen-bearing flower, which, however, ordinarily bears no good pollen; the
other type of flower is a bisexual one, the flowers not only producing fruit, but pollen as well.
Trees of this type offer great promise for producing a strain that will combine the two sexes
on the same plant, and not make it necessary, as at present, to have a number of male
trees which, although they produce pollen, yield no fruit and therefore are counted by the
grower as drones. (Fig. 9.)
AN UNDESIRABLE TYPE
This is the elongata, a more productive specimen of which was shown in the preceding illus-
tration (Fig. 9.)
fore gave no fruit.
In the present case, a majority of the flowers have been male, and there-
The goal of the breeder will be to weed out such trees as this and keep
only those which bear a minimum number of male flowers and a maximum number of
hermaphrodite flowers.
from the elongata tree, showing both stamens and pistil.
improve the papaya by systematic
breeding. There has been some selec-
tion on the part of growers who natu-
rally plant the seeds from particularly
pleasing fruits. Because other forms
have been little known and observed,
the most of such selection has been
with the dioecious papaya, and here
there is an inherent difficulty even in
the way of the scientific breeder. Seed
from a pistillate tree will necessarily be
a cross of two individuals. The charac-
ters of the female plant may be known,
but those of the male plant are utterly
unknown. The parent stock from which
both came may be known, but since
there is wide variation in the fruit of
214
Inserted in the lower left-hand corner is a hermaphrodite flower
(Fig. 10.)
two pistillate trees from the same stock
it is reasonable to suppose that there
will be the same wide variation in the
male or staminate trees. The variation
between the pistillate trees can easily
be determined because their fruits are
in evidence and can be tested; but the
characters which are inherent in the
male or staminate tree, and which will
be transmitted by it to its progeny, can
be determined only through the long
process of actual hand pollination, the
sowing of the seed thus produced, and
the testing of the fruit. Even then
what portion of its excellent or indif-
ferent qualities may have been inherited
from its male parent cannot be known.
MODIFIED FORM OF THE MALE TREE
The Correae type, shown at the left, is essential a male tree which has a few flowers capable of
bearing fruit.
The long stems on which the fruits hang are a typical feature.
At the right
are shown staminate (male) flowers, one of which has been cut open to show its structure.
(Fig. 11.)
Furthermore, the difficulty is increased
by the fact that papaya trees usually
degenerate after a few years. At least
pistillate trees usually fail to produce
good fruit after a few years of growth,
although they may continue to produce
indifferent fruit for many years. There-
fore, even if the inherent characters of
the male or staminate tree could be
determined with reasonable accuracy,
before any such determination could be
made the tree would have become too
old to be in a reliable state of virility if
it degenerates as rapidly as the pistillate
tree.
Propagation by grafting will aid in
overcoming this difficulty, but it appears
reasonable to suppose that the process of
producing a stable variety of good
quality by the use of this dioecious type
would be extremely long and tedious.
The hope, therefore, must lie in the use
of a hermaphrodite type. Here it is
possible to select an individual of known
qualities. This may be used as the sole
parent stock or may be combined with
another parent of known qualities.
What mixtures there may be in the
individual at the start may not be
known; but through repeated selections
and the elimination of undesirable
characters, it should be possible to
produce a reasonably pure strain, pro-
vided, of course, that the stock is kept
pure by constantly avoiding cross-
pollinations with plants of different
characters, a process which is necessary
in all plants reproduced by seed and
whose flowers are subject to accidental
cross-pollination.
A further practical difficulty in the
use of the dioecious type, from the
standpoint of the papaya grower, as
well as the breeder, is the fact that a
very large proportion of the trees from
any given lot of seed are likely to be
215
216 The Journal
staminate, or malés, and therefore use-
less, only a few trees being necessary
to pollinate all the pistillate trees. It
is impossible so far to distinguish the
staminate from the pistillate trees in
the early stages of their development.
Therefore, in any papaya orchard
planted with the dioecious type, a very
large percentage of the trees must be
cut out after they have grown almost
to maturity, resulting in unevenness and
irregularity in the orchard and much
loss of time and space. For this reason,
together with the difficulties of breed-
ing, the dioecious type probably will be
largely eliminated.
BREEDING HERMAPHRODITE FORMS
Turning to the hermaphrodite forms
with more hope of results, we find that
a number of experiments are being con-
ducted. Here it is possible to deal with
a single individual mother plant. One
of the first facts to be determined is the
extent to which the offspring of such a
parent may be expected to be fruit-
bearing trees. It was known from
earlier observation, without any def-
inite experiment, that a large number
of the seeds from a fruit of a herma-
phrodite flower produce fruit-bearing
trees, either pistillate or, like the
parent, hermaphrodite.
A tree was found in a Honolulu
orchard producing fruit of excellent
flavor. The fruit from which the seed
was taken was of the long cylindrical
form, but it cannot be stated that all
the fruits on the tree were of that shape.
Its flowers were apparently staminate
and hermaphrodite, and so far as ob-
served, of the Elongata form, but it is
probable that the apparently staminate
flowers were non-functioning. The
flowers had not been hand-pollinated,
and it is therefore impossible to state
whether they were self-fertilized or
otherwise. The seeds were planted
May 2, 1910, and later thirty-five of
the young plants were set in the orchard.
Of these, thirty-four were hermaphro-
dite and one was a staminate tree. The
hermaphrodite flowers on most of the
trees were of two types, some of the
Elongata form and others resembling
Pentandria, with corresponding differ-
of Heredity
ence in the fruits. The best one of the
trees from the standpoint of uniformity
of cylindrical shape in fruit was also of
very good flavor and a reasonably good
producer; it was selected for further
breeding. Two of its flowers were hand-
pollinated each with its own pollen and
carefully protected. The seeds collected
from these two fruits were planted, and
it was found that 94% of the result-
ing trees were fruit-bearing, being either
pi tillate or some form of hermaphrodite.
This is an encouraging result, so far
as the elimination of the males is con-
cerned. It is probable that by the
continued use of hermaphrodites of the
Elongata form as a source of pollen
as well as for the pistil-bearing parent,
male forms may be largely eliminated.
CROSSING THE DIFFERENT FORMS
It has been found possible to cross
quite freely most of the different forms
of the papaya, as would be expected
from the fact that they all are merely
slight modifications of the same species.
Among the experiments now in progress
is one to determine the sex resultants
arising from the crossing of a pistillate
of dioecious origin with pollen from a
hermaphrodite. If, as is expected, the
progeny will be chiefly pistillate and
hermaphrodite, then desired characters
that may be found in any dioecious
stocks may be combined with herma-
phrodite stock.
Like other tropical fruits, the papaya
still offers an almost virgin field to the
plant breeder. But enough has been
done to make it certain, I think, that
a strain can be established which, com-
bining the two sexes on the same tree,
will produce from seed a desirable fruit,
without the production of a great many
useless male trees.
The successful achievement of this
task, and the dissemination of the
resulting strain, will give a tremendous
impetus to the culture of the papaya,
But there is still another possible field
of work—namely, crossing with other
species.
It is probable that there has been
considerable hybridizing of Carica by
natural means, and breeders have not
wholly neglected the genus. I will not
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7
CHANGED FROM A MALE TO A FEMALE
This tree started life as a male in the back yard of Dr. John T. Gulick, the geneticist, in Hono-
lulu, As it produced no fruit, it was cut down to a stump and
by supporting a clothes line. Losing its head apparently brought a change of
allowed to earn its keep
f heart, for it
proceeded to send forth new branches which were not male, but female, and bore good
fruit, as the photograph shows. Such reversal of sex by heavy pruning 1s not rare in the
papaya, but the change does not always take place when desired.
(Fig. 13.)
Higgins: Growing Melons on Trees
attempt to enumerate the various
species which have been crossed, since
they have so far led to no commercial
result. But it still seems possible that
hybridization of the papaya with some
more hardy species will produce a fruit
which can be grown outside the tropics.
Carica cundinamarcensis is one of the
hardiest species. It stands considerable
cold weather and bearsanacid fruit which
is pleasant to the taste when properly
cooked. If this could be combined
with the papaya, a hardy form might
be produced which would mature
a good fruit in the southern United
States, for example; while the true
papaya can with difficulty be made to
mature good fruit even in southern
California, although it flourishes in
southern Florida.
IDEALS IN BREEDING THE PAPAYA
There seems to be no good reason to
doubt that it will be possible to breed
a papaya combining at least many of
the most desirable characters and to
hold the variety reasonably stable by
the same means as are employed in
maintaining seed varieties of vegetables
and garden flowers. This presupposes
segregation or hand pollination in either
case, the latter being the method which
most breeders will be compelled to follow
because of the proximity of other varie-
ties over which they have no control.
The simplicity of hand pollination in
the papaya and the large number of
seeds resulting from one operation
render it a very practical means even
for commercial seed production.
It may be well to outline here some
of the ideals which the breeder should
have in mind in his search for Mende-
lian characters which may be combined.
1. Vigor of tree—It is important with
the papaya, as with other species, to use
vigorous individuals as parent stocks.
2. Early and low fruiting habits—
There is a wide variation in the plants
in this respect, some producing no fruit
on the first five or six feet of the stem,
while others bear fruit which almost
touches the soil. It is believed that this
219
character may be transmissble, and
the advantage of early and low-bearing
trees is obvious.
3. Freedom from the branching
habit—Trees that produce s«le branches
freely require considerable pruning to
prevent the numerous new shoots from
taking the nourishment which should
go to the fruit.
4. Productivity but not excessive
bearing—Trees that have long bare
spaces on their stems and those whose
fruits are so numerous as to crowd each
other should be avoided in favor of such
as have the fruits well spaced with just
sufficient room to mature normally.
5. Hermaphroditism—tThe reasons for
preferring hermaphrodite stock have
already been pointed out. It is essen-
tial to a profitable industry that the
number of “‘drone’’ male trees be kept
very small.
6. Suitable size in fruit—The size that
will be most desirable will depend upon
the purpose to which the variety is to
be put. For home use or for the fresh
fruit market the extremely large varie-
ties are not popular, and the breeder of
table varieties will not, therefore, at-
tempt to originate such forms. On the
other hand there is a place for these, if
the fruit is to be grown as feed for poul-
try or other live stock. For papain
production, other things being equal,
the large fruit would be best.
7. Yield in papain*—Where the pro-
duction of papain is made an industry
there can be little doubt that the aver-
age yield of this drug could be very
greatly increased by judicious breeding.
8. Uniformity of shape—The breeder
must seek to establish varieties which
will have reasonable uniformity of shape
as well as symmetry and smoothness.
It is not necessary that all varieties be
alike, but there must be uniformity in
pack. In breeding from hermaphrodite
trees there will be a large number of pis-
tillate trees in the offspring. Although
the long form is not necessarily confined
to the hermaphrodite tree, nevertheless
pistillate trees do not usually yield fruit
of this shape. For this reason the
5 The juice of the fruit and sap of the papaya tree contain an active principle called papain,
the effect of which is similar to that of pepsin.
It is used medicinally, and also to clarify beer.
Its digestive property is so great that raw meat placed in diluted juice will disappear
altogether.—The Editor.
220
breeder may think it best to work for
two forms of fruit—the long, tending
to cylindrical, for the hermaphrodite,
and the obovoid for the pistillate. The
fruits of such an orchard would be
packed as two varieties.
9. Uniformity in ripening—This is an
important consideration. Some papayas
ripen and decay at the outer end or the
point while the inner half near the stem
is too green to be eaten. The ideal
papaya in ripening shows its first yellow-
ing along the ribs about midway of the
fruit and ripens uniformly toward each
end.
10. Coloring before softening—Some
fruits ripen with very little color, while
others acquire a beautiful golden yellow
when still hard, and may be kept for
several days. The latter are so much
more attractive on the table and in the
market that they should be sought after
in breeding.
11. Color of flesh—Those of pale
whitish flesh must give place to the
fruits of yellow, pink, or red color
Crime and
The National Committee on Prisons
has organized a committee on eugenics
to consider the constitutional basis of
criminalistic behavior. The inquiries
The Journal of Heredity
within. Recently some have been
grown at this station with a quite
decidedly reddish hue.
12. Easily separable placenta—If the
placenta adheres tightly to the inner
portions of the fruit and is more or less
buried in the flesh, it is difficult to
remove the seeds without marring the
appearance of the fruit. On the other
hand, it is a distinct advantage if the
placenta and seeds can be readily
removed without scraping the flesh.
13. Flavor—This is without doubt
the most important factor to be con-
sidered. Experience has shown that
specific flavors can be transmitted, and
this affords the breeder an opportunity
to originate and establish varieties of
high quality. These flavors cannot
well be described, but are easily recog-
nized and appreciated.
14. Keeping qualities—The ideal pa-
paya should be a good keeper, and this
character has been found often enough
in the fruit of individual trees to lend
much encouragement to the breeder.
Heredity
into family history are to be made by a
field worker trained by the Eugenics
Record Office. At present, opinions of
experts on the subject differ widely.
To Study Exceptional Children
In connection with Stanford Univer-
sity, in California, there has recently
been established a research fellowship
for the psychological and pedagogical
study of backward and mentally defec-
tive children. The endowment is known
as the C. Annette Buckel Foundation.
The first fellow under the foundation
was J. Harold Williams, who devoted
himself chiefly to the study of the in-
telligence of delinquent boys, largely at
the Whittier (Cal.) State School. A
second bulletin has been issued by
Lewis H. Terman, outlining the aims
and purposes of the foundation, from
which it appears that five lines of re-
search are proposed: (1) Backward and
feebleminded children; (2) delinquent
or potentially delinquent children; (3)
nervous, morbid, or psychopathic chil-
dren; (4) children of superior ability;
(5) normal children. The prospective
plans for the development of the work
call for an enlargement of the present
foundation to include two or three addi-
tional fellowships with an annual value
of $1,000 each; two office or laboratory
assistants; one or two field workers
to collect data on the heredity of
exceptional children, and a_ research
professorship. More remotely there is
contemplated the establishment of a
hospital, school or home for the first-
hand study of exceptional children, and
for the practical training of special
teachers of such.—Eugenical News.
HEREDITY OF ALBINISM
ROBERT ROY (FIG, 14)
That albinism in rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, etc., is inherited as a recess ve
trait is the experience of all breeders.
law is a priori probable but it is obviously difficult to secure cases for what is
the best test of recessiveness, viz., the exclusively albinic progeny of two
albinic parents.
Some years ago Mrs. Davenport and I recorded
That albinism in man follows the same
. (American Naturalist, December,
1910) three pedigrees giving the progeny of the matings of two albinos.
221
MRS. ROBERT ROY (Fig. 15)
whom I have always found trustworthy. These families were recorded
as the Luc. family, two children, both albinos—of albinic parents; the
Pri. family, one albinic child of two albinic parents; and the R. family,
an albino child of two albinic parents. The surname of this last family
which we did not then feel at liberty to divulge, but which we are now per-
mitted to publish, is Roy. Robert Roy (Fig. 14), of New York, now about
fifty-five years of age, was one of a fraternity of ten, all but himself pig-
mented—one with jet black hair. Their father had very dark brown hair
and their mother sandy hair. Robert Roy married, about 1880, a Miss
They were all based on the statement of Robert Roy, of New York City,
»))
THEIR SON, K. C. ROY (Fig. 16)
Annie L. W. (Fig. 15), with whom he was associated in shows. Three other
of her fraternity were albinos and eight were pigmented. Their only child,
born, like his mother, in Pennsy lvania, was King Charles Roy (Fig. 16).
The resemblance of the son to his mother is mar rked in the lower parts of
the face; to his father in the upper part of the face. I may add that the
albinism is practically complete in father and son; there is no nystagmus
but rather marked photophobia, especially in the son.
C. B. DAVENPORT
Director, Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Institution of Washington)
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
bo
bo
ios)
A FAMILY WITH ABNORMAL HANDS
The possessor of these hands recently arrived at Ellis Island, N. Y.,
by Asst. Surg. Howard A. Knox of the United States Public Health Service.
where he was examined
Inquiry
showed that his father was normal; the paternal grandmother had webbed fingers on
both hands, but the fingers involved could not be learned; a paternal male cousin had
deformities ‘exactly like those shown here, except for the rudimentary digit growing from
the first finger of the left hand in this case; a sister of this cousin was described as an imbecile.
The case well illustrates how a stock of rather low mentality is often characterized by
physical defects, which are evidently due to heredity though not identical in each genera-
tion.
Photograph from the United States Public Health Service.
(Fig. 17.)
Inheritance of Fertility in Swine
Study of 3,546 litters of pigs is re-
ported by Edward N. Wentworth and
C. E. Aubel in the Journal of Agricul-
tural Research (March 20, 1916). Previ-
ous studies had indicated that fecundity
is to some extent an inherited character,
although the degree of resemblance
between parent and off-spring in this
respect is not large. Cross-breeding
has given some reason to suspect that a
number of distinct, inheritable factors
influence fecundity; it is also certain,
224
of course, that fecundity is influenced
by numerous factors which have nothing
to do with heredity. The analysis of
data showed some evidence of the
presence of three distinct hereditary
factors, but further research will be
required before any result can be an-
nounced with confidence. The study
is obviously an important one, in view
of the great value of high fecundity in
domesticated animals.
BREEDING NEPHROLEPIS FERNS
‘‘Fver-Sporting” Types and the Methods of Propagating and Disseminating
Them—New Forms May Be Obtained from Spores of Nephrolepis
Ferns—Suggestions for Practical Growers
SARKIS BOSHNAKIAN
College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
(of which the popular Boston
fern is the best-known repre-
sentative) can be divided in two
groups, on the basis of their genetic
behavior; first, those which show varia-
tion only when propagated sexually, by
spores; and second, those which produce
new varieties asexually.
The first group includes more than
ninety species and varieties, all of which
are either found growing wild in semi-
tropical regions or have been produced
from spores by breeders. Of these may
be mentioned the widespread com-
mercial varieties Nephrolepis exaltata,
cordata compacta, plumosa, davallioides,
canaliculata, and so on.
The second, and more interesting,
group is limited to the Boston fern,
botanically known as Nephrolepis exal-
tata bostoniensis, and all its sports, of
which we have many.
In a state of nature, ferns are often
hybrid. The sexual organs are located
in such a position as almost wholly to
prevent self-fertilization. The spores,
found in large numbers as_ kidney-
shaped, brown, fruiting bodies on the
under side of the leaflets, produce occa-
sionally new forms when sown. So far
as results show, the ferns of the first
group breed true when propagated
asexually, and in England a large num-
ber of new varieties, such as concinia,
and May: have been produced in this
way from seedlings.
The ferns of the second group, that is
those derived from the asexual varia-
tions of the Boston fern, may also be
propagated from spores, despite the
general belief that the spores are sterile.
SERNS of the genus Nephrolepis
I have raised a number of seedlings
from the spores of the Boston fern and of
some of its sports; those with finely
divided leaves produce no fruiting
bodies, but the others with uncrested
leaflets yield spores in abundance.
GERMINATION IS SLOW
It is considerably harder to grow the
ferns of the second group than those of
the first, or of eother *genera- > ihe
ferns of the first group with the excep-
tion of a few, such as N. davallioides,
N. d. furcans, and perhaps some others,
germinate promptly at the end of a
certain number of days. N. exaltata,
for instance, takes twenty-six days to
germinate, and N. plumosa twenty-four;
all the spores germinate at almost the
same time. Such is not the case,
however, with the Boston ferns. Out
of thousands of spores, only a few may
germinate at the end of a month or
more; the rest keep appearing, a few
at a time, for many months afterward.
They are very sensitive to the amount
of moisture which surrounds them; and
since nowhere, so far as I know, are
directions given for germinating the
spores of these plants, it may be useful
for me to discuss the subject before
proceeding to treat of the more usual,
asexual method of propagation.
In an experiment to determine the
best medium in which to sow Boston
fern spores, different materials, such
as loam, sawdust, paper pulp, filter
paper, asbestos, cinders, cotton and
leaf mold were used. The comparative
efficiency of different containers was
also tested. The results showed that
the best medium was well-decayed oak-
225
4409
THE ORIGINAL BOSTON FERN
This fern, familiar to every plant-lover, has been particularly useful to breeders because it is
constantly producing new forms—it is an
“ever-sporting’”’ variety. From this parent
type sixty-five new varieties have been introduced to the trade, some of which
have proved valuable and been retained, while others which were not of superior value in
any one respect have disappeared.
Probably the possibilities of the Boston fern are by
no means exhausted, and it therefore offers an attractive material for amateurs as well as
commercial breeders, since it can be propagated indoors, with little space, and thereJare
no great difficulties to be overcome or expenses to be incurred.
leaf moid. The advantage of this lay
in its moisture absorbing and retaining
property. The surface of leaf mold
being uneven, the spores sown will fall
on the projecting tips of the small
pieces of leaf mold where the moisture
hardly rises by capillarity but the spore
is surrounded with a saturated moist
atmosphere; they may also fall down in
between the leaf particles where they
come in contact with a microscopic
film of moisture. All the intermediate
conditions exist also, so that no matter
what the moisture requirement of the
226
(Fig. 18.)
spores, some of them will fall in a
position where conditions are favorable.
As to containers, a clean pot not less
than 6 inches in diameter seems to be
the best suited for commercial work,
For research work, where the exclusion
of any foreign spore is necessary, the
use of large preparation dishes with a
depth of at least 34-inch gives the best
results.
The preparation of the medium in
which to sow the spores differs also
from that suggested for other ferns.
The bottom of a clean pot of two-thirds
THE FERN’S REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
The crescent-shaped masses found on the backs of many fern leaves are sori or aggregations of
spore-cases.
From a commercial viewpoint their presence is a drawback rather than
an advantage—they are unsightly and not needed since in cultivation the fern is ordinarily
propagated by runners rather than by spores.
depth is filled to about 11% inches in
depth with clean broken crocks and
large pieces of cinders. Over this,
finely screened leaf mold is placed and
is packed down somewhat firmly. The
surface of the leaf mold should be about
34-inch below the upper edge of the pot.
The leaf mold should never be sterilized.
Sterilization of the leaf mold is not
desirable because with the cooking or
baking of the leaves during the process
of sterilization toxic substances are
produced. This process also kills all
living organisms, so that when spores
of fungi or molds fall on the surface of
this sterilized medium, they are abso-
lutely free from competition, and they
grow rapidly over the surface of the
pot, either destroying the fern spore or
giving off poisonous products which
prevent the spore from germinating.
Since Nephrolepis ferns are not found
(Fig. 19.)
wild in North America, leaf mold which
the grower procures from the woods
may be considered absolutely free from
such spores. The pots are to be filled
with this compost, and boiling water
then poured over the contents, to kill
grass seeds, worms and insects which
may be present. Most of the seeds
present will be destroyed after 20
minutes, and the surface of the leaf
mold in the pot will then be almost
sterile. As soonas it cools down, a little
finely screened fresh leaf moldis scattered
over it. The soil in the pot is thus inoc-
culated with ordinary soil bacteria which
grow very rapidly and spread over the
surface; spores of fungi falling on a
soil thus quickly populated with soil-
bacteria will make a very small growth
or none at all, but the germination of
the fern spores is not interfered with
in any way.
227
A GROUP OF SPORANGIA (SPORE-CASES)
Each of these capsules (here magnified about 100 times) contains a large number of ovoid spores,
the reproductive cells, three of which can be seen in the upper left-hand corner.
Although
this method of reproduction is called sexual, the spores themselves have no sex—or rather,
they are a combination of the two sexes in one.
When they become ripe they are shed
upon the ground, where they germinate and give rise to little sexual plants, called prothallt,
shown in the next illustration.
After the spores have been sown on
the surface of this medium, the pot is
covered with a piece of glass and
then set in a saucer filled with water,
in a partly shaded propagating frame.
The saucers are placed on clean cinders
over which lime has beenscattered. This
keeps away insects, worms and molds.
At the end of four weeks or more the
spores begin to germinate and form the
so-called prothalli—heart-shaped, leaf-
like plants which attain a diameter of
a quarter of an inch, when fertile.
From each of these develops a new fern.
When the first leaves appear the
prothalli should be removed in small
clumps or singly with.a pair of forceps
and planted half an inch apart in
flats or pans containing leaf mold to
228
(Fig. 20.)
which a little finely sifted soil has been
added. Later they are transferred into
214-inch pots.
The seedlings obtained in this manner
are, as they grow, carefully watched for
the appearance of new types, which
are isolated and studied.
Most of our commercial varieties
are sports of N. exaltata bostoniensts.
This variety probably originated
near Boston some thirty years ago.
The first recorded sport of commercial
importance occurred during the early
part of 1898 and since then there have
been produced over sixty-five commer-
cial varieties of which about fifty are of
American origin.
In order to produce new types it is
necessary to raise a large number of
Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns
different varieties. This can be profit-
ably practiced by persons who are
engaged in growing ferns for com-
mercial purposes, because they have
under their observation a large number
of plants which they are already grow-
ing for the market. The plants during
their development are closely examined
and those which show a tendency to
differ in foliage or in habits of growth
are isolated and grown directly in
benches.
The somatic variations, such as are
found among ferns, may occur in a
portion of a frond, or on the stem or
fous Stack; sor «6m the rimmners. “The
only variations which are of any value
to the breeder are those which can be
isolated. Not all variations can be
utilized.
WILL NOT GROW FROM CUTTINGS
There is no way of isolating a varia-
tion which occurs on a portion of a
frond, for unlike some ferns and certain
dicotyledonous plants, a portion of the
leaf cannot be induced to strike roots
to form an independent plant when
brought directly in contact with soil.
When the stem is above the level of
the soil and an entire frond happens to
differ from other fronds which arise
from the same stem, the probabilities
are that the variation or the somatic
mutation, as it is sometimes called, has
taken place on the stem. It is neces-
sary to plant them deep enough to
-cover the base of the leaf which one
wishes to isolate. Most of the old
leaves are removed in order to allow
the development of new fronds. If the
variation has occurred in the stem it is
likely that the new fronds arising from
the base of the sporting leaf will re-
semble one another. On account of the
depth at which the plant is set the base
of these fronds including a portion of
the crown will tend to strike roots.
It must be remembered that this is
not a sure method of separating a
sported plant. In order to obtain the
expected result there are three condi-
tions which must be satisfied. In the
first place the sported portion must
extend over a considerable area around
FERN PROTHALLUS
This peculiar little plant (here magnified
more than fifty times) grows from the
fern spore and lies flat over the ground.
It contains the male sexual cells (an-
theridia) at the region marked ae , while
there is a female reproductive cell or
archegonium at the point marked ®.
When ripe, the antherzoids make their
way towards the egg cell with which
one of them unites. This fecunda-
tion starts the growth of a fan-shaped
leaf-like structure, the base of which
strikes roots and becomes an indepen-
dent plant, whereupon the prothallus
dies and decays. This indirect method
of reproduction in the ferns is remark-
able, ferns not giving rise directly to
ferns, but rather to prothalli. (Fig. 21.)
the base of the rachis of the leaf (called
the stipe); in the second place, from this
region new fronds should develop which
will be like the sported frond observed;
and thirdly, this region must root in
such a manner that it will develop into
an independent plant which it will be
possible to isolate from the mother
plant.
For a sport of the second type, that
is, when the variation takes place on a
portion of the crown, the time it takes
to satisfy these three conditions may
vary from several months to a year or
more, in sorne cases a negative result
IT REALLY IS AN “EVER-SPORTING” VARIETY
This: Boston fern shows variations in size and shape of leaflets in every part of the plant.
It is a curiosity to the geneticist, but almost worthless from the standpoint of the practical
breeder, because these small variations will probably not “breed true.’’ Frequently,
however, a whole plant varies from its parent in some striking way; and such sports
as that are perpetuated and form valuable new varieties. (Fig. 22.)
Boshnakian: Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns
being a possibility. For this reason
unless the variation is absolutely new
it is not profitable to keep the plants
very long and rely upon the law of
chance.
SPORTS ON RUNNERS
The sports which are commercially
utilized and which are easiest to isolate
are those which appear on some portion
of the runner where new rooted fronds
are produced. When such a new type
is discovered the entire plant with its
runners is lifted from the bench, care
being taken not to disturb the soil
around the root system, and trans-
planted to a separate bench where the
plant can be closely and frequently
examined. The leaves of the mother
plant near the sported fronds are cut
back, for in this way more light is
allowed to reach the new fronds and
development of new buds is thus en-
couraged. It is a good plan not to
sever the new fronds from the parent
plant until the former has made about
five leaves, for until that time the small
fronds are nursed by the mother plant.
At this stage the original plant may be
removed by cutting the runner which
connects the two plants. In order to
produce more fronds and allow the
rooting of runners a little soil is sifted
over the plant to bury the crown.
Some growers object to this method
claiming that such a practice tends to
produce decay at the base of the leaves,
but after having practiced this method
many times, and in some instances
even after burying the crowns about an
inch below the surface of the soil, I
have never observed decay to take
place; but on the contrary, in an
experiment with N. wiridissima to see
the effect of deep planting I found more
leaves on plants whose crowns were set
one-half inch below the surface of the
soil, than on plants which were not
planted deep.
While the plant is developing in size
the commercially desirable and un-
desirable characters as well should be
studied, for it will be a waste of time
and of valuable space to multiply a
plant which is commercially worthless.
The following are the characters
pad
which are to be considered in determin-
ing the merit of a new fern:
The plant must be either an tmprove-
ment over another form or be a class by
itself. As we have already a®’good many
types the chances are that the new
sport will resemble some other variety;
and unless it is an improvement over
those already existing, the demand for
it will be very slight. The improve-
ment may not necessarily be in all
characters, but no matter how few these
improvements, they should be pro-
nounced and striking enough to make
the variety better than any already on
the market. When N. Piersoni was
being introduced in 1903 it reeeived
many prizes and was in great demand
for some six years. It is now out of
the market because other varieties
with similar type of fronds, such as
Whitmani and elegantissima with their
“compacta” and “improved”’ forms,
show such marked improvements in
their habits of growth. But varieties like
superbissima and its derivatives viri-
dissima and muscosa being unlike other
ferns cannot be compared with other
forms; therefore, being a class by them-
selves, they have created a market of
their own.
Those ferns are most profitable which
can be raised to a marketable size in the
shortest period of time. This period
varies with the rapidity of growth of the
plant. There are three growth char-
acters which are desirable: in the first
place the fronds should develop rapidly;
in the second place numerous buds
should arise in the central area of the
plant to give it a dense form; and
finally it should send out runners
freely. The last character is especially
important from the view point of the
wholesale florist, as the latter is con-
cerned mainly over the rapid propaga-
tion of the plant. Beauty and attrac-
tiveness alone without rapidity of
growth do not make a new variety a
commercial possibility. There are a
few nephrolepis ferns which receive
prizes wherever exhibited, but due to
the fact that they are slow growers
their sale is limited to private collec-
tions. On the other hand, ferns like
bostoniensis and Scotti which originated
ve
~
A:
ft
SOME DESCENDANTS OF THE ORIGINAL BOSTON
These leaves of modern commercial varieties show how widely some of the sports differ from
their parent.
c, N. muscosa; d, N. verona, e, N. magnifica; f, N. superbissima.
Their trade names are as follows: a, Nephrolepts viridissima; b, N. Millsu;
While these forms are
relatively stable, they are all likely in turn to give rise to valuable new sports, from time
to time. (Fig. 23.)
respectively aboutthirty and fifteen years
ago, by virtue of their rapid propagat-
ing habit are still favorites. They are
leading commercial varieties in spite of
the presence of numerous competing
sorts of recent introduction.
UNIFORMITY IS NECESSARY
Not less important is the uniformity
of the size and shape of the smaller
leaves known as pinnae. The plant
should not show a tendency to “revert”’
or show any variation in any part of the
leaves. Such a plant should not be
allowed to appear on the market, for
besides being a failure, it may some-
times affect the reputation of the firm
which introduces it. In most cases it
is possible to produce a pure-breeding
strain by subsequent propagations by
divisions. Some ten years ago, when
few varieties existed, a number of them,
such as Piersoni and Fosteri, in spite
232
of their constant reverting habit were
able to remain on the market for a
number of years. But now that we
have so many varieties, competition is
very keen, and unless the plant proves
to be a uniform breeder its introduction
should not be allowed. From what has
been said above, one should not be led
to conclude that all commercial varie-
ties will breed absolutely true. All of
the sports of bostoniensis occasionally
revert back to the original type in
different degrees, and so far as I know
this cannot be avoided entirely. For
this reason the trade makes allowances
for rare reversions. But plants which
revert frequently find no place on the
market.
Symmetry of the plant is another
desirable character. Lack of symmetry
is to some extent due to defective
methods of potting, exposure to light,
and careless overhead watering, yet in
THE APPEARANCE OF NEW VARIETIES
At the right (b) is Nephrolepis magnifica, a dwarf asexual descendant of the original Boston
fern. a is a sport from this dwarf, and differs widely from its parent, particularly
in showing greater vigor.
many cases the natural habit of growth
of the variety is responsible for these
defects. A variety with a rank growth
of fronds is most likely to produce an
unbalanced plant. Dense and bushy
plants are least liable to lack symmetry.
Multi-pinnate, that is, finely divided
ferns, such as Smithii, and Goodii, unless
they be large specimens, grow unsym-
metrically. In these and similar varie-
ties the defect is due to the weakness
of the rachis of the leaves. The rachis
can hold the frond upright so long as
the latter is small; but when the fronds
develop to full size they become heavy
and hang down, spoiling the symmetry
of the plant. A tri- or multi-pinnate
fern with a heavier rachis that can
support the weight of the developed
It has one undesirable characteristic—namely, that its roots
sport, and therefore it cannot be depended on to breed true.
frond sporting back to the mother (b) type.
from the original Boston, but with the drawback that it is inconstant.
sion of this form d, a constant variety of value might be obtained.
At c is shown a little
d is another root sport, not very different
By further divi-
(Fig. 24.)
frond will create a ready market. A
sport of Smithi recently introduced
under the name of N. verona seems to
possess this desirable character and its
outlook is promising.
Sort or masses of spores on the under-
side of the leaves are objectionable,
because they form undesirable brown
spots of considerable size; and further-
more when these ripen, the spores fall
on the surface of the leaves below giving
them a rusty appearance. Ferns with
finely divided leaves, and young plants
plants with undivided leaves, are free
from spores, but the latter in most
cases begin to produce spores when they
get old.
On account of lack of air circulation
at the base of the plant, in some forms
233
7
Be ng
' .” Aa ;
. 24 .
eS
A DELICATELY GRACEFUL VARIETY
The descendants of the Boston fern differ widely (as was shown in Fig. 23) in the extent to
which their leaflets are divided. The form here shown, Nephrolepis Smithii, is the most
finely divided of all the commercial varieties, and therefore possesses an appearance of
lightness and airiness which has made it a great favorite. (Fig. 25.)
Boshnakian: Breeding Nephrolepis Ferns
compactness of foliage causes decay of
the center of the plant. Thisis especially
evident in those varieties whose leaflets
are very thickly set on the rachis.
Such forms, if possible, should have an
open center.
When the originator is convinced
that his plant conforms with the
desirable characters just discussed he
should begin to increase its numbers.
This is best done by planting the fern
in a bench and allowing plenty of space
around it for the runners to radiate in
all directions. These runners, like those
of the strawberry plants, root at
intervals and give rise to new small
plants which can be easily severed after
they have made five or more leaves.
These little plants are first potted in
small pots; in late spring or early
summer these are again planted in
benches where they are allowed to
develop and produce runners. The
new plants arising from these are
severed in the same manner as before,
and the practice is repeated until the
desired number of plants for introduc-
tion are obtained.
INTRODUCING A NEW VARIETY
The success that the new variety will
have on the market will depend entirely
upon the proper methods of introduc-
tion. There are many instances where
a certain variety has been sold on a
very large scale although there has been
a similar variety already on the market;
but because of lack of proper methods
of introduction the latter has had little
more than a local sale.
Since this paper has been prepared
primarily for the practical breeder, it
will not be out of place to give in con-
clusion brief suggestions of the best
procedures which should be followed in
the introduction of new varieties of
ferns.
The number of the plants which the
originator should have on hand before
introducing depends entirely upon the
degree of his ability to dispose of the
plants and upon the excellence of the
variety itself. For a good variety,
from 5,000 to 30,000 plants and even
more will be necessary. Depending
upon the ease with which the runners
250
root it takes from three to four years
to obtain them. The first customers
are usually the wholesale growers
of ferns who buy the plants in,order to
produce larger ones after growing them
for some time. They offer them to the
market while the supply is still limited.
The originator must naturally have
enough on hand to supply these growers
and to keep on supplying ferns while the
latter are developing their stock of
plants. The minimum time required
for growers to put their stock on the
market is probably six months. During
this period the introducer may have a
monopoly on the stock, and being free
from competition can hold his price high.
If, due to the lack of necessary green-
house space, the grower cannot multiply
his plant to the desired number, he will
find it profitable to communicate with
one or more large wholesale growers who
will agree to raise part of the stock and
return a certain percentage of the
profit from the sales. There are, of
course, many other agreements which
can be made. Inthe case of N.
Amerpohlii, for instance, part of the
stock was shipped from Janesville,
Wis., where it originated, to two
wholesale growers in Philadelphia. When
the stock had been increased, it was
offered for sale simultaneously by these
three firms.
It will usually be found profitable to
disseminate a new variety of fern in
spring. When some of the greenhouses,
especially carnation houses, are vacant
during late spring and summer months,
the benches can be profitably utilized
for the growing of ferns. It is not
necessary to change the soil for these
plants. Violet houses are also excellent
for ferns in summer. The runners
root before the benches are needed for
the regular crop. These rooted runners
may be potted in 2144-inch pots. By
the following spring they develop good
sized plants. Another advantage of
spring dissemination is the opportunity
of exhibiting specimen plants at the
fall flower shows.
As wholesale buyers are very critical
about a new plant which has notjyet
stood the test of time, no effort should
236
be spared in showing all its merits. It
is advisable not to begin to advertise
until three or four months before the
time set for dissemination, or a few
weeks before some important flower
show, so that those interested may
eagerly look for the new plant at the
The Journal of Heredity
exhibitions. If it is advertised too
early people are apt to forget about it
by the time it is to be introduced.
Skillful and attractive methods used
in advertisements and displays will
almost entirely determine the reception
and success of a newly introduced fern.
Genetics in Education
One hundred colleges or universities
in the United States are giving courses
specifically in either eugenics or genetics
during the present school year, according
to a census made by the Eugenical News.
This list does not include the agricultural
colleges, which present much of the same
material in their courses on breeding.
Unusual Fecundity in a Cow
A remarkable case of fecundity in a
half-blood Hereford is reported by E. C.
Wetherbee, Jr., of Marshalltown, Iowa,
a member of this Association. The cow,
which belongs to William Harkemeyer
of Benton County, was herself a twin,
born in June, 1909. In December, 1911,
she dropped two calves; December, 1912,
one calf; January, 1914, two calves,
and December, 1915, three calves.
Feebleminded Adrift
There are about 15,000 feeble-minded
in Massachusetts, of whom 3,000 are
now receiving State care, according to
the League for Preventive Work (Bos-
ton) which has just published a booklet
with the title ‘““Feebleminded Adrift.”
Of the 12,000 for whom no State pro-
vision is made, many are protected in
good homes. Another group are sex-
ually passive, industrially competent,
and capable of adjusting themselves to
community standards. For neither
class, it is declared, is State segregation
necessary or desirable. Approximately
2,000, however, can always be found in
other public institutions. Those com-
mitted to insane hospitals are usually
held in permanent custody; the others
drift in and out of almshouses, prisons
and reformatories. These 2,000, there-
fore, a constantly shifting group, repre-
sent many thousand unprotected feeble-
minded in the community, for whom
custodial care is essential.
The development of State schools for
the segregation of the feebleminded,
it is pointed out, meets the require-
ments of economy, justice and efficiency.
Their per capita cost for maintenance is
less than that of other institutions.
They furnish a simple environment
which is adapted to the needs of defec-
tives and which enables them to live
happily on their own plane. They
offer specialized industrial training which
renders many of the inmates wholly or
partly self-supporting within the institu-
tion, transforming them from demoral-
izing and destructive forces into pro-
ductive members of the State. They
furnish protection both to Society and to
the feebleminded for whom community
life means danger and _ exploitation.
And finally, by permanent segregation,
they prevent the procreation of a new
generation of defectives, thus cutting
off at the source one of the greatest of
social ills and striking at the root of
the physical and moral degeneracy,
pauperism and misery, alcoholism and
crime, with which feeblemindedness is
inevitably linked.
The Massachusetts State Legislature
of 1915 appropriated $50,000 for the
purchase of 880 acres of farm land near
Belchertown, in the western part of the
State, and it is hoped that the present
legislature will appropriate $150,000
annually for five years, for the construc-
tion of buildings to house 1,000 inmates.
EUGENIC SURVEY OF NASSAU
COUNTY, NEW YORK ;
feller Foundation has made pos-
sible the immediate beginning of
a eugenic survey of Nassau
County (Long Island), N. Y. It will
particularly attempt to find the amount
of mental deficiency existing.
During recent years, the burden of
caring for defectives has in many States
become almost crushing. New York is
now spending more for the insane alone
than for any other purpose except educa-
tion, the amount being about one-fifth
of the State’s total revenue. Massa-
chusetts is spending one-third of her
entire income on the support of those
who require state care. In many other
States the problem is rapidly reaching
similar proportions.
The growing recognition that many—
perhaps the greater part—of these de-
fectives are the product of defective
heredity, has brought a realization that
the stream can, without much difficulty,
be greatly diminished at its source.
The first requisite is to know the
facts in regard to the distribution of
defect in an unselected population.
Hitherto, studies have been made largely
in institutions, and there has been no
comprehensive study of an ordinary
population. Nassau County, with a
population of about 100,000 in a rather
small area, divided between farms and
towns, seems to offer a good opportunity
for ascertaining the conditions in a com-
munity that is probably fairly typical
of a great many in America, and some
of its residents have been public-spirited
enough to undertake the work of making
as accurate as possible an estimate of
the number and kinds of mental de-
fectives at large, in order that the State
may better be in a position to consider
what the situation demands. It is
well known that the number of defec-
tives now receiving State care is only
a part of the number which ought to
RB: A GIFT of $10,000, the Rocke-
receive such care; but no one knows
what proportion. The Nassau County
survey will help to answer this question
for the State of New York, and to,a
less extent for other eastern States.
MENTAL TESTS TO BE USED
The first step will be to select for
special examination all those children
and adults who are known to the educa-
tional, poor-law, police or health authori-
ties as having failed to hold a normal
place in the community either by reason
of unteachableness, or moral deficiency,
or imperfect social adaptation. This
will mean the examination of backward,
atypical or unruly children in schools,
children and adults in almhouses and
other institutions, inmates of prisons
and others known to the police, children
and adults in receipt of outdoor relief,
persons known to the medical profession
or others as being possibly defective.
The examination of these people will
consist of an inquiry into the family,
social, and personal history, and a series
of mental tests.
But the collection of data regarding
these abnormal persons would possess
little value, unless at the same time data
were secured about the normal indi-
vidual living in the same environment.
The survey will, therefore, undertake
to secure information about every one
in certain selected districts. The infor-
mation about those who are apparently
normal will not be so full as about those
who are apparently defective; but there
will be an endeavor to get a certain
minimum amount of information about
each one, which would establish his
normal mentality and would make
possible eventually the construction of
normal statistical social standards for
the county, pertaining to the facts of
heredity, progress at school, and amount
of education, occupations and earnings,
237
238
social position, civil condition, fertility,
and physical health.
The labor, therefore, will consist of
the examination of selected persons in
all parts of the county and all persons
in selected parts of the county. It is
estimated that this will take at least
four months, and that several months
more will be required for working up
the data. The State of New York has
furnished the services of Dr. A. J.
Rosanoft, of King’s Park Hospital, to
direct the survey; with him will be one
or more medical examiners furnished by
the United States Public Health Service,
eight field workers to investigate the
Genetic Survey
“The Southwest School of Hygiene
of Kansas City, Mo., under the director-
ship of Dr. Belle S. Mooney, is organiz-
ing a Eugenic Survey of the city with
the cooperation of the Board of Educa-
tion,’ says the February Eugenical
News. ‘‘The plan is to secure the
family history of all the school children
The Journal of Heredity
family histories of the individuals ex-
amined, and several clerical assistants.
Headquarters will be at Mineola, the
county-seat.
General direction of the survey will be
in the hands of a committee, consisting
of Dr. Charles B. Davenport, chairman;
Samuel P. Duggan, Elizabeth E. Farrell,
Homer Folks, Dr. August Hoch, Dr.
A. J. Rosanoff, and Dr. Thomas W.
Salmon. The survey was initiated and
will be partly financed by the Nassau
County Association, a citizens’ organi-
zation which has hitherto taken an
active interest in the problems of
eugenics and cacogenics in its district.
of Kansas City
and not simply the history of the back-
ward children. This is an important
step in the right direction. No class
of society can be rightly studied apart
from its fellows. Our studies of human
heredity have thus far been too one-
sided.” This will make a valuable check
on the Nassau survey.
Nebraska Sterilization Law
Sterilization of feebleminded and in-
sane is provided by a law passed by the
1915 session of the Nebraska legislature.
It provides that all inmates of state in-
stitutions for the feebleminded and
insane, the penitentiary, reformatory,
industrial home and schools, and other
state institutions, who are subject to
parole or discharge, shall be examined
by a board of five physicians, who shall
inquire into the “innate traits, the
mental and physical conditions, the
personal records, and the family traits
and histories.” If they find that chil-
dren of the individual would probably
inherit a tendency to feeblemindedness,
insanity, or degeneracy, he shall not
be given his liberty unless he is sterilized
by such an operation as the board of
physicians may indicate. The consent
of his family and of himself, if possible,
must first be obtained.
The Drama in the Service of Eugenics
The ‘“‘eugenic plays’’ hitherto pre-
sented have been, in general, presenta-
tions of negative eugenics and sex-
hygiene, and have generally merited
the description of unpleasant plays.
The Eugenics Section of the Pitts-
burgh Academy of Science and Art be-
lieved that a pleasant play dealing with
positive eugenics would be a valuable
piece of propaganda. Through its dra-
matic committee it discovered the value
of George Middleton's ‘‘The Unborn,”
and this was recently presented in the
Northside Carnegie Lecture Hall. The
impression it made was so evident that
it is to be repeated on May 2 in another
part of the city, and possibly in some
other Pennsylvania cities. The per-
formance was made possible by the
cooperation of the Little Theater Com-
pany, an amateur organization of Pitts-
burgh. The play, which lasts only
twenty minutes and deals with volun-
tary childlessness, was followed by a
spirited discussion.
THE LATEST “SIAMESE TWINS” ON RECORD
Suzanne and Madeleine Durand, born in Paris on November 28, 1913, were, joined face to face
by a band of hard flesh about a foot in circumference, near the bottom of the breast bone.
The two abdominal cavities were in communication through this hollow link, and the
small intestines of one girl could be drawn through the link into the other girl by the
mere act of breathing, provided one let out her breath while the other drew in hers. The
vital organs of the two were complete and separate, however. The twins were separated
by Dr. Gustave Le Filliatre on March 4, 1914, and at last reports were growing healthily.
The photograph shows them with their nurse, before they had been cut apart. This is
said to be the ninth operation of the kind on record. Such twins as these give support
to the idea that so-called “‘identical’’ twins are the product of a single egg. Photograph
from Paul Thompson. (Fig. 3.)
LH
DYNAMIC EVOLUTION
By CASPER L. REDFIELD
Price $1.50
DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in
animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is
identical with the energy known in mechanics, and
is governed by the same laws.
$1,000
Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA-
TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that
those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY-
NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms
of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL
OF HEREDITY for February, 1916.
GP; PUTNAM Ss; 3SONS
NEW YORK and LONDON
Prizes for Eugenic Studies
A committee on promotion of the
ideal of racial well-being created by the
National Council of Education an-
nounces that a fund of $1,000 for each
of four years has been offered by an
anonymous donor. A prize of $100 is
open to graduate classes of two-year
normal courses in each of four sections
of the country. Similarly a prize of
$150 to members of graduating classes
of colleges and universities in the same
sections who have had two years of
work in education or home economics.
The prize is awarded to the class that
makes the best cooperative study on the
topic, ““The supreme object of education
should be to make the next generation
better than living generations.”’ The
first prizes will be awarded to the class
of 1917. Notice of intention to compete
should be sent before May 1, 1916, to
Dr. H.C. Putnam, Rhode Island Avenue,
Providence, R. I., of whom further de-
tails can be obtained.— Eugenical News,
Defectives in District of Columbia
There are few states which have made
less provision for mental defectives than
has the Federal Government, and at the
present time practically all the feeble-
minded, some hundreds in number, in
the District of Columbia are allowed at.
large without any restraint or oversight.
Representative Tinkham of Massa-
chusetts has introduced a bill (H. R.
13666) into Congress providing for an
240
institution for the feeble-minded in the
District of Columbia, appropriating
$500,000 for it and outlining a method
of commitment. The measure is receiv-
ing the active support of the Commit-
tee on Provision for the Feeble-minded
(Philadelphia), and deserves the assist-
ance of every one who is interested in
proper care for the defective classes in
the nation.
—
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 6 June, 1916
CONTENTS
War, Immigration, Eugenics (Report of the Committee on Immi-
URL MORTEM E Se re nay SEY co NCAR a eee oe Ae eige f 243
What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class’? Children?................... 248
Eugenics and Agriculture, by O. F. Cook........................... 249
The Non-Inheritance of Acquired Characters...................... 254
festing ‘Crmuinal Offenders: 2.57. .06.0% «8: ne hs Pb seen a LL 255
German Suggestions for Constructive Eugenies.................... 262
Seu Wee able. ©4558 UN ee Se RITE en inh OY eet 263
What is Happening to the Hawthorns?, by L. M. Standish.......... 266
Vigor and Heredity, by J. Lewis Bonhote (reviewed)................ 279
Evolution, Heredity and Eugenics, by John Merle Coulter (reviewed) 279
Variability Curve Following Law of Chance........................ 280
Dia nee ue MURINE Lb! ogee ea te ake hy omnia ae TE 281
Redfield Broadens and Explains His Offer of $1,000................. 286
| WW eo Pore PS EES Na da as he AO Ie ed ie A heal ear Sande? 1) te 287
Some English Suggestions for Eugenics...................... 288
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, May 25, 1916.
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WAR, IMMIGRATION, EUGENICS
Third Report of the Committee on Immigration, American Genetic Association
ALEXANDER E. Cance, Amherst, Mass.
IrRvING Fisher, New Haven, Conn.
Prescotr F. Hatt, Boston, Mass., Chairman
Ropert DeC. Warp, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary
the American Genetic Association
herewith submits its third report.
There is one vacancy in the
membership of the committee, Prof.
James A. Field having resigned.
A crisis has been reached in our
immigration policy. The war has, for
the moment, very largely reduced the
flow of aliens to our shores. For the
first time in many decades we have
breathing space. On the other hand,
the effects of the war upon the peoples
from which our future immigration will
come are likely to be far-reaching. This
fact will, after the war is over, bring us
face to face with many new and difficult
problems which need careful considera-
tion at the present time. We must
think clearly, decide wisely and act
quickly. We need new immigration
legislation. We need it at once.
There are two aspects of immigration
after the war which concern us at this
moment. One is the probable future
volume of immigration. The other
is its probable mental and physical
character.
The demoralization of industry; the
breaking-up of homes; the greatly
ig | NHE Committee on Immigration of
increased burdens of taxation; the desire.
to fly from the horrors of future wars;
the widespread misery and hopelessness;
the return to the United States of aliens
who went home to fight and who will
bring back with them many of their
countrymen who have never been here—
these and other causes will operate to
bring us an increase in immigration
which seems likely to surpass anything
that we have ever known. Already
plans are being made by foreign com-
panies for the establishment of new
steamship lines to bring emigrants
from Europe and Asia to the United
States as soon as the war is over.
Prof. J. W. Jenks has pointed out that
recent wars have usually resulted in a
large and almost immediate increase in
emigration from the European countries
which were at war.
WHY MANY WILL NOT COME
On the other hand, there will be
tendencies which may operate to cut
down emigration from certain European
countries. An enormous amount of
constructive work will have to be done
in the general rehabilitation of what the
war will have damaged or destroyed.
Immense numbers of skilled and also
of unskilled workmen will be needed for
these enterprises. Owing to the thin-
ning of the ranks of the most efficient
laborers, by death or by injury, during
the war, wages of some classes of work-
men may rise, but whether the impover-
ished nations of Europe will be able to
compete in any general way with our
American wages, and thus keep their
people at home, yet remains to be seen.
Again, it is not unlikely that some of the
European governments will take steps
to discourage, to check, perhaps even
for a time to prohibit emigration. The
work of reconstruction will go on most
actively and most effectively in the
countries of northern and _ western
Europe, where the state and industry
are well organized, and where the plans
for reorganization will be carefully
prepared. It is, therefore, from these
same countries, from which we have in
the past received our all-round “‘best’’
immigrants, that we are likely to see
the greatest falling off in immigration.
On the other hand, in the countries of
southern and eastern Europe and of
243
244 The Journal
western Asia, immigration from which
has been on the whole more of a problem,
because of the differences in race,
political institutions, education and
social habits, there will not be the same
organized reconstructive work. From
these countries, therefore, so largely
in the more primitive condition of
agriculture, the forces tending to pro-
mote emigration will be operative to a
greater degree than before. Thus the
great preponderance of southern and
eastern Europeans, already the most
striking feature in our recent immigra-
tion, is likely to be still further increased
after the war is over. Balancing the
reasons for a possible decrease in our
immigration after the war against
those which will bring about an increase,
the weight of probability is strongly on
the side of a marked increase.
INCREASE OF DISEASE
No one who has at heart the future of
the American race can fail to view with
concern the probable effects of the war
upon the physical and mental condition
of our immigrants. The introduction
of pestilential war diseases, such as
cholera, typhus, typhoid fever and the
like, is not greatly to be feared, although
some of our medical men are already
viewing this problem with much con-
cern. On the other hand, the more
subtle and much less easily detected
venereal diseases, which are always
rampant in great armies in war time,
and the mental breakdowns, of which
there are so many thousands of cases
among the soldiers at the front, present
another aspect of the health problem
which is far more serious.
The final report of Lord Sydenham’s
Royal Commission on Social Diseases
(cable summary, March 2, 1916) dwells
particularly upon the effect of the war
upon the prevalence of venereal disease,
and looks for a far more serious condition
of this problem after the war is over.
Great numbers of soldiers, although
not actually afflicted with any specific
disease, will eventually come to the
United States, maimed, crippled,
wounded, enfeebled by illness or expos-
ure, or mentally unstable. The fittest,
of Heredity
mentally and physically; those who in
the past have had the initiative and the
courage to emigrate, will be dead, at
the prime of life, or will be needed at
home to carry on the work of rebuilding
and reorganization. These are the men
whom Europe will do its utmost to keep
at home. The least fit are most likely
to emigrate. Many of those who,
because of mental or physical disability,
will find themselves least able to earn a
living abroad, will be the very ones most
likely to be “‘assisted”’ by relatives and
friends in this country to ‘“‘come to
America.”” Against the emigration of
such persons the European governments
will not set up any barriers. There are
good grounds, therefore, for expecting,
with reasonable certainty, that our
immigration in the next few decades
after the war will be of a lower physical
and mental standard than it has been in
the past.
WAR AND THE BREED
The question as to the probable
effects of the war in the more distant
future, upon the unborn generations, is
obviously a_ difficult one. Opinions
vary greatly in regard to it. As a
rather extreme representative of one
side, one may turn to Dr. David Starr
Jordan’s latest book, whose title clearly
indicates the message which its author
seeks to bring, ‘““War and the Breed: -
the Relation of War to the Downfall of
Nations” (1915). War, as Dr. Jordan
strikingly puts it, “impoverishes the
breed.”” The strongest and best men
are the ones who are killed or injured,
and who leave few or no children. The
weaklings live, marry and continue the
race. The result is an inevitable im-
poverishment of the stock. Dr. Jordan
notes the reduction in the required
height of French soldiers as the result
of the Napoleonic wars and the killing
off and wounding of the taller men.
The French and German babies of
1870-71, who came to be mustered as
soldiers twenty years later, were found
to be an inferior lot of men. And, more
recently, as noted by Dr. Jordan in
Science (New York), a similar condition
has occurred in Japan. The Japanese
War, Immigration, Eugenics
children born at the time of the war
between China and Japan, twenty
years ago, became conscripts in 1915.
According to the Asahi of Tokyo, as
translated in the Japan Chronicle, the
number of conscripts in Tokyo decreased
over 16%. For Japan as a whole there
was an increase of conscripts in 1915,
but the rate of increase was only 30 to
50% of the normal. Furthermore, a
lowering in the quality of the new
soldiers is distinctly observable. The
Asahi says that “most of those who
underwent conscript examinations this
year were born during the war and
therefore are sons of those too old or too
weak to go to the front, and so it is no
surprising thing if the conscripts of
1915 are of exceptionally delicate con-
stitution.’’ This “impoverishment of
the breed,” in Dr. Jordan’s opinion, is
an inevitable resuit of war. The longer
the conflict continues, the more serious
will be the effects upon future gen-
erations. The weakling fathers—too
young, too old, or too feeble to fight—
and the improperly nourished, over-
worked and harassed mothers of Europe
are handing on to their children who
are now being born an inheritance of
physical and mental unfitness which
will mark not only this generation but
future generations, through the long
vista of the time to come. An increase
in the number of defective children, now
and hereafter, is a condition which
Europe must face, and which, because
it will affect the character of our immi-
grants, vitally concerns the United
States. Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the Smith-
sonian Institution, contributes to Dr.
Jordan’s book an opinion as to the
probable effects of heavy artillery firing
on the nervous systems of soldiers in the
war. He believes that subjection to the
constant roar of the firing will “result in
a more or less defective mental or nerv-
ous state in the progeny of such
individuals.”
SOME COUNTERBALANCES
Dr. Jordan’s view may be thought
rather extreme. The problem is a
highly complex one. There are not
lacking those who take a different posi-
tion. It is pointed out that wars have
245
been so constant, not only in Europe
but over most of the world, that if
wars do result in racial deterioration,
national degeneracy should have fol-
lowed them. Again, it is urged that
by no means all of the physically and
mentally fit who go to war are killed,
or are so impaired in body or mind as
to be undesirable fathers for future
generations of offspring. The number
and the quality of the men who will
survive the war is at present an unknown
and indeterminable element in the
problem. Prof. Roswell H. Johnson, of
the University of Pittsburgh, has
recently warned us! against sweeping
and unqualified statements that war
is either good or bad in its effects on
the human race. Some wars are mainly
good, others mainly bad. A conscripted
army is likely to be physically, and
probably also in other respects, superior
to the bulk of the population. The
conditions of poverty, improper sanita-
tion, and inadequate medical treatment
in the homes tend toward a deterioration
of the race. Many factors must thus
be taken into account. In summing
up his argument, Prof. Johnson says:
“In the present war it would seem
that the high quality of both sides
compared with the rest of the world is
so predominant a dysgenic factor that,
together with the other dysgenic fea-
tures, the eugenic results are over-
balanced. The human species there-
fore, on account of this, is at present
declining in inherent quality faster than
in any previous length of time.”
In connection with this particular
subject, it is highly significant that
Germany, which is universally recog-
nized as preeminently the military power
of the world, and whose scientific study
of military problems is so thoroughly
organized, should already be giving
serious attention to the racial effects of
the war. On October 26-28, 1915,
there was held in Berlin, a Tagung fur
die Erhaltung und Mehrung der deutschen
Volkskraft—surely a highly significant
designation. Over 1,000 delegates
attended, and the proceedings were
marked by an extraordinary unanimity
of sentiment. It was recognized that
‘war kills the best, the bravest, the
1 JOURNAL OF HerepitTy, Vol. VI, No. 12, December, 1915.
246 The Journal
healthiest, eradicating once for all the
finest strains of the race.’”’ There was
serious discussion with a view to bring-
ing about an increased multiplication of
the fit by various means, chiefly the
assistance of large families of healthy
stock.
From the foregoing considerations it
appears that the effect of the Great War
upon the United States will, unless all
signs fail, be profound and far-reaching.
For it will affect the mental, physical
and even moral characteristics of mil-
lions of our future immigrants and of
their descendants.
PROPOSED LEGISLATION
There is a bill which passed the
House of Representatives on March
30, 1916, by a vote of 308 to 87 (H. R.
10384), which, all things considered, is
the most comprehensive immigration
bill ever introduced into Congress. It
is the result of years of careful study of
our present law and of its workings.
Its provisions, as the commissioner-
general of immigration says in his last
annual report (June 30, 1915), ‘contain
the result of experience and investiga-
tion—of the experience of administrative
officers, extending over nearly a quarter
of a century, in the enforcement of
various statutes regulating immigration,
and of the investigations “conducted
variously but in particular by the
Immigration Commission, created under
the act of 1907, the report of which,
comprising forty-two volumes, was sub-
mitted to Congress in December, 1910.”
The provisions of this bill “have been
drawn with great care and thought-
fulness, . . . by them the law is made
certain in its definitions and clear in its
terms throughout—+mprovements badly
needed in the existing statute.”’ The
bill aims to protect the United States
against the incoming of mentally and
physically, and of otherwise unfit and
undesirable aliens. It also embodies
several provisions which would insure
more humane treatment to the aliens
themselves, and would, to a large extent,
do away with the hardships involved in
the deportation of aliens who are ex-
cluded at our ports, by preventing their
original embarkation.
of Heredity
The bill is largely a codification of our
existing immigration laws, but embodies
several important new eugenic provi-
sions. Attention is here called to the
more important changes which its
enactment would make in our present
laws with reference to the exclusion of
the mentally and physically unfit. In
regard to the better detection, exclusion
and deportation of this group there is
no essential difference of opinion among
those who have the future of our race
at heart. The unanimity of feeling in
this matter is encouraging; but, in view
of our past experience with mentally
and physically defective aliens who have
been admitted to this country, it is not
surprising.
MORE STRINGENT MEASURES
To the excluded classes the bill adds
persons of constitutional psychopathic
inferiority and persons with chronic
alcohoism. That many persons not
properly to be certified as insane but
who would, in many cases, become
insane soon after arrival, could be kept
out under the former provision, has long
been the opinion of the physicians, the
alienists and the immigration officials
who have made a special study of this
subject, and who have for years strongly
urged the inclusion of this new provision
in our immigration law. Chronic alco-
holics, who are surely undesirable mem-
bers of our community, are often
discovered by our examining surgeons,
but as the law does not now state
specifically that they shall be excluded
they must in most cases be allowed to
land. The new bill excludes vagrants,
and persons afflicied with tuberculosis in
any form. It also aims to prevent the
embarkation of aliens afflicted with
idiocy, insanity, imbecility, feeblemind-
edness, epilepsy, constitutional psycho-
pathic inferiority, chronic alcoholism,
tuberculosis in any form, or a loathsome
or dangerous contagious disease, by
imposing upon steamship companies
who bring such aliens a fine of $200 plus
the amount paid by the excluded alien
from his initial point of departure,
provided the Secretary of Labor is
satisfied that the defects could have been
detected by a competent medical exami-
—-.- ~~
War, Immigration, Eugenics
nation before embarkation. This is an
excellent and humane provision. It
would go far toward making these
companies more careful in the sale of
passage tickets, and would save many
unfortunate aliens the disappointment
and hardship of being deported after
arrival at our ports. The present fine
is $100, has been shown to be too small
to be really effective, and does not cover
as many cases as are above enumerated.
A new fine of $25, plus the alien’s
transportation expenses, is established
in cases of certain other less serious
mental defects, and of physical defects
which may affect an alien’s ability to
earn his living.
BETTER EXAMINATION
The new bill provides for a very
much more thorough medical examina-
tion of arriving aliens, especially with
reference to the detection of mental
disease; gives the medical inspectors
the exclusive services of interpreters,
and suitable facilities for the detention
and examination of the aliens. This
amendment has been strongly urged
by the united action of the most im-
portant scientific bodies in the United
States which deal with the prevention
and treatment of mental disease; by
state medical associations, and by indi-
vidual physicians all over the country.
That our medical inspection has been
hopelessly inadequate has long been
known to the experts. We have not
had enough medical inspectors, and
those on duty have not had adequate
facilities for their work. Thus it has
come about that in spite of our law
prohibiting the admission of insane and
mentally defective aliens, our institu-
tions have been filling up with just
these people. As Dr. T. W. Salmon, of
the National Committee for Mental
Hygiene, has well said:
“There is no reason for the acceptance
of a single insane or mentally undesirable
alien except inability to determine his
condition.”’
It is a very significant fact that, with
the decrease in immigration since the
war, particularly at New York, a more
rigid medical inspection has become
possible. This “intensive examination”’
247
has resulted in a marked increase in the
numbers of aliens certified as having
physical or mental defects. It has also
resulted in increasing the percentage of
the total arrivals who were debarred or
returned within three years after landing
from 2.6% in 1914 to 6.1% in 1915.
“Certainly,” says the commissioner-
general, “‘there could be no better or
more convincing argument .. . for in-
creasing the medical force sufficiently
to insure that no alien shall be admitted
to the country until he has been sub-
jected to a medical inspection really
calculated to disclose his mental or
physical deficiencies.”’ With this state-
ment all public-spirited citizens will
surely agree.
The new bill extends from three to
five years the period during which aliens
may be deported who at the time of
entry belonged to one or more of the
excluded classes; who have become
public charges from causes existing prior
to landing; and of some other groups.
This extension of the deportation period
has been urged, year in and year out, by
heads of institutions who have had to do
with dependent, defective and delin-
quent aliens; by organized charitable
societies, and perhaps most strongly
by the former commissioner of immigra-
tion at the port of New York, Hon.
Wm. Williams, whose thorough, sane
and illuminating study of the whole
immigration problem has contributed
greatly to our understanding of the
subject. It is the conviction of all the
unprejudiced experts who have studied
this problem that a five-year deportation
period would relieve our penal and char-
itable institutions of an enormous
financial burden, reaching into the
millions of dollars, and would rid our
communities of large numbers of defec-
tives who otherwise would remain here,
many of them a burden upon State or
city, and many of them starting long lines
of defective and delinquent children.
SAFEGUARDS FOR THE ALIEN
The new bill strengthens the provi-
sions of existing lawregarding the ‘‘White
Slave” traffic; makes the inspection of
steerage quarters more _ thorough;
compels steamship companies, when
248
deporting aliens, to give such aliens as
good quarters as those for which they
paid on the voyage to this country;
makes possible the expulsion from the
country of alien anarchists and crim-
inals, even when they have become such
after entry; and in many other ways
provides for the welfare of the alien as
well as for the welfare of the United
States.
All these new provisions regarding
the. more effective exclusion and the
deportation of mentally and physically
unfit aliens have been carefully drawn,
as above stated, after consultation with
experts who have seriously studied these
particular aspects of our immigration
problem. They were all suggested and
strongly urged upon Congress years
before the war broke out. Their enact-
ment into law should have been effected
long ago, under the usual conditions of
normal immigration. But every argu-
ment in favor of this legislation has
gained weight, incalculably, in view of
the probable effects of the war upon the
character of our future immigrants.
As the commissioner-general says in his
last annual report, the adoption of these
The Journal of Heredity
amendments now ‘‘becomes an impera-
tive necessity.” It is for the best
interests of our future race; it is for the
best interests, in the long run, of human-
ity at large, to prevent, as far as may be
possible, the coming to this country of
the mental and physical derelicts of the
war. It is unfair and ungenerous to
future generations of Americans to
saddle upon them the tremendous
burden of supporting, not only the
present generation of these people, but
the long lines of their descendants. It
is not doing our share in the promotion
of race betterment if we, who have the
matter in our own hands today, do not
act at once, before it is too late.
The Committee on Immigration of the
American Genetic Association heartily
endorses the provisions of the pending
bill which are directed towards the more
effective detection, exclusion and depor-
tation of mentally and physically unfit
immigrants, and urges upon the officers
and members of the American Genetic
Association to make every possible
effort to secure favorable action by
the Senate upon this bill.
What Becomes of the ‘‘Special Class’? Children?
Eugenicists have often pointed out
that the costly “special classes’ in
public schools, for the education of
pupils who are distinctly backward, are
founded largely on ignorance; that
many of the pupils in them are feeble-
minded and can never be brought up
to the level of the normal child, or given
effective education of the usual kind.
It is therefore interesting to note the
results of an investigation made by the
school department of Detroit, Mich., of
the records of 100 pupils from the
“special classes’? who had left school at
16 years of age, and who had in no case
been out longer than five years. Of the
100 cases, 61 were boys and 39 girls.
Their present status, summarized, is as
follows:
Girls Boys
Number of children born......... 3 0
IMarriediics.. 6, eee ee onen eee Gj 0
pexually-immoralis. oerans sees 14 0
WOK s Oh ce Sn etait icin aera 16 39
Gared foriat,- Nome. 743 wees eee 15 11
Inkanistipitions as oe ec cieie oe ee 1 5
Have been arrested.........+...- 4 13
1D [ MAKES ee tired
fia be fee ag eB ap pee SS voice
a og a yd friend
71. The happiest and---------- contented man
is theone™ ss 22 lives a busy and
SONGS poe
AD. ‘The sbest sadvices 9. eae = usually
crag gene Penns obtained: 5.02224 sae
one’s parents.
Sy te a hs Spe thingssare 225-1 28 satisfying
{O--any ordinary: 25-2 2 than con-
genial friends.
BE: ees hee S ai rules (Ones 2 ois See Se associa-
Hons sero Sos friends.
It does not follow that a person is
abnormal, simply because he fails on
this or any other single test. It is
highly essential that all tests be 7nter-
preted, and, naturally, such evaluation
should be made only by persons having
a wide experience in these matters.
The ‘‘Opposites”’ test is one which is
being widely recognized as very useful.
The patient is given a list of words such
as
good outside quick
tall big loud
white light happy
false like rich
sick glad thin
empty war friend
He must write down as rapidly as
possible the words which mean _ the
exact opposite of ‘each of these. A
normal person can write them almost
as rapidly as his hand can move the
pencil; but a feebleminded individual,
even though he has spent a number of
years in school, becomes bewildered at
such a task.
In examining the higher levels of
intelligence the manner in which the
individual reacts to complicated direc-
tions is frequently suggestive. An ex-
ample of such a set of instructions is
given in Fig. 3.
The useful “form boards,’’ described
by Dr. Howard A. Knox in the JouRNAL
oF Herepity for March, 1914, together
with those of Healy, etc., are much
of Heredity
employed; they require the person
examined to fit blocks into their proper
places in a frame. Some people insist
on putting round pegs into square
holes, and that in itself is significant.
The Healy pictorial completion test
shown in Fig. 2 is a test for apperceptive
ability. Writing with the aid of a
mirror, as illustrated in Fig. 4, gives an
idea of the subject’s ability to learn,
and of his motor-control. Memory,
concentration, and other easily tested
abilities are also observed, and the
examiners are finally able to give an
accurate judgment of whether the
subject is mentally capable of holding
his own in competition in the world, or
whether he is so constituted that he
requires special care.
INVESTIGATION OF HEREDITY
The family history is one of the most
interesting and essential features of the
study which this laboratory makes of
its patients. The special investigators,
who have made a careful study of this
part of the work, visit the home of the
patient, the schools he attended, his
favorite resorts, etc., and not only
gather data concerning his behavior,
habits, peculiarities, etc., but also make
special inquiries concerning the mental
and physical peculiarities of the patient’s
brothers and sisters, parents, grand-
parents, aunts, uncles, etc. The report
of these investigators is usually of
assistance and sometimes a decisive
factor in making a diagnosis of the
patient’s condition. It is already ap-
parent that heredity is an important
element to be considered in a study of
cases of the criminal type.
“Crime,’”’ says Dr. Bisch, ‘should
never be considered apart from men-
tality. Hitherto the police department
has presented facts regarding evidence
of guilt when the prisoner was brought
before the presiding judge. Now, in
addition, the department also furnishes
certain facts regarding the mental
responsibility of the offender. This
step is a logical one and is another
proof of the practical value which
psychology possesses. If a man is
feebleminded at his fifth conviction,
he was just as feebleminded at his first
WRITING WITH A MIRROR IS HARDER THAN IT LOOKS
The boy examined is given a card with a pattern traced on it, and is asked to follow this pattern
with his pencil, guiding himself solely by the reflection of the pattern in a mirror. A
shield just above his hand prevents him from seeing the movements of his pencil, except
by the aid of the mirror.
Almost anyone finds this difficult at the first trial, but after
half a dozen attempts the normal person can follow the diagram correctly, while the feeble-
minded person is almost as much puzzled on the tenth trial as on the first.
The test
therefore aids in showing how much capacity a person has for learning, and how quickly
the mind adjusts itself to a new problem,
conviction; it will pay the community,
therefore, to examine, segregate and
properly treat prisoners before arraign-
ing them, instead of waiting until they
reach the court or penitentiary. The
psychopathic laboratory is a huge sieve,
its aim being the selective classification
and disposition of the criminal popula-
tion. It is not a sentimental under-
taking—it is scientific, wise and
humane.”’
The reader will probably agree with
this verdict. Why, then, one naturally
(Fig. 4.)
asks, is the criminal offender not handled
in this manner everywhere?
Largely, it must be supposed, because
of the Tack of public knowledge sufficient
to educate public sentiment. Chicago
has two psychopathic laboratories for
juvenile offenders, and here and there
sporadic work is being done; but New
York is absolutely the only place in the
United States where adult offenders
are examined systematically in the light
of their mentality and their family
history before being brought to trial.
261
262
Although only a short time in exist-
ence the psychopathic laboratory has
already demonstrated beyond question
that what is urgently needed is an
institution for feebleminded criminals.
These individuals never will be normal
and it is folly to sentence, release,
rearrest, and sentence them all over
German Suggestions for
Germany continues to take an active
interest in proposals for making good
the eugenic loss caused by the war.
An article by Dr. von Behr-Pinnow in
the Archiv fir Rassen- und Gesellschafts-
Biologie (XI, 3) is thus summarized in
the last issue of the Eugenics Review:
There are two means of increasing the
population. One is by combating the
causes which lead to a fall in the birth
rate; the other is by keeping the death
rate low. The people, beginning with
school children, must be enlightened
with regard to the importance of large
families. The housing laws ought to
be modified, hygienic homes secured for
all, and every attempt by houseowners
to discriminate in favor of childless
couples as employes or tenants checked.
Recognition ought to be given to large
families by the government and ex-
pressed in a scale of wages (including
supplementary payments) for all persons
employed by the state, proportioned to
the size of their families. The same
thing should be enforced if possible
(there are legal obstacles in the way) in
the case of persons privately employed.
Children must be discouraged from
leaving their parents’ home before they
are of age and spending their wages on
themselves alone, instead of giving a
share (20%, the author suggests) to
their parents; for this leads only to a
decrease in the size of families. Working
people can frequently be heard to say
nowadays that it does not pay to have
children, for in old age one gets nothing
The Journal of Heredity
again as is the procedure nowadays.
The criminal insane and the feeble-
minded of ordinary types are fairly
well cared for in some States, but the
feeble-minded of criminal tendencies are
a special class and should receive special
segregation and training suited to the
grade of mentality they possess.
Constructive Eugenics
from them. The imperial insurance
laws should likewise be altered in favor
of married people and large families;
and engaged and newly married couples
must be protected (by the withholding
of their names and addresses) from the
flood of advertisements of contraceptives
and the like which is now poured out
on them. There ought also to be more
stringent penalties for such advertise-
ments, and physicians alone should be
permitted to give public instruction in
regard to the limitation of offspring.
Infantile mortality can be decreased by
providing free nurses, midwives and
medical attendance to all insured
women, by the payment of full insurance
money for sickness during the last six
weeks of pregnancy, and by granting
premiums equal to one-half the sick
pay for twelve weeks after confinement
in winter or twenty-four weeks in
summer, to all insured mothers who
nurse their own children. New pro-
visions in regard to the insurance of
motherhood are also wanted, and better
facilities, provided by the local govern-
ment boards, for the care of infants and
smallchildren. Private societies formed
for the same end and for the care of
orphans must also be encouraged and
assisted by the state. Funds can be
raised in part by an extra tax on the
unmarried and childless couples, in
part by confiscation by the Government
of the estates of people who die intestate
and have no heirs within the third
degree of succession.
“BULLDOG” CATTLE
Niata Breed, Described by Darwin, Becoming Exceedingly Scarce—Presumed
Mutation Accounts for Extraordinary Jaw and Face—Inheritance
of Peculiarities Is Blended
HE peculiar jaw characteristic of
a bull-dog is a mutation which is
not confined to the dog alone, but
appears from time to time in
other animals. It has been reported in
foxes, and Charles Darwin found a whole
race of cattle in South America which
Showed this peculiarity. Writing of
his trip through the province (now the
department) of la Colonia in Uruguay,
he said:!
“On two occasions I met with in this
province some oxen of a very curious
breed called fiata or niata. They
appear externally to hold nearly the
same relation to other cattle which bull
or pug dogs do to other dogs. Their
forehead is very short and broad, with
the nasal end turned up, and the upper
lip much drawn back; their lower jaws
project beyond the upper, and have a
corresponding upward curve; hence
their teeth are always exposed. Their
nostrils are seated very high up and are
very open; their eyes project outwards.
When walking they carry their heads
low, on a short neck; and their hinder
legs are rather longer compared with
the front legs than is usual. Their
bare teeth, their short heads, and their
upturned nostrils give them the most
ludicrous self-confident air of defiance
imaginable.
“Since my return, I have procured a
skeleton head through the kindness of
my friend Capt. Sullivan, R. N., which
is now desposited in the College of
Surgeons. Don F. Muniz, of Luxan,
has kindly collected for me all the
information he can respecting this
breed. From his account it seems that
about eighty or ninety years ago they
were rare and kept as curiosities at
Buenos Aires. The breed is universally
believed to have originated among the
Indians southward of the Plata, and
that it was with them the commonest
kind. Even to this day, those reared
in the provinces near the Plata show
their less civilized origin, in being
fiercer than common cattle, and in the
cow easily deserting her first calf, if
visited too often or molested. It is a
singular fact that an almost similar
structure to the abnormal one of the
niata breed, characterizes, as I am
informed by Dr. Falconer, that great
extinct ruminant of India, the Siva-
therium. The breed-is very true; anda
miata bull and cow invariably produce
niata calves. A niata bull with a
common cow, or the reverse cross,
produces offspring having an _ inter-
mediate character, but with the niata
characters strongly displayed; according
to Senor Muniz, there is the clearest
evidence, contrary to the common belief
of agriculturists in analogous cases,
that the niata cow when crossed with a
common bull transmits her peculiarities
more strongly than the niata bull when
crossed with a common cow. When the
pasture is tolerably long, the niata cattle
feed with the tongue and palate as well
as common cattle, but during the great
droughts, when so many animals perish,
the niata breed is under a great dis-
advantage, and would be exterminated
if not attended to; for the common
cattle, like horses, are able just to keep
alive by browsing with their lips on
twigs of trees and reeds; this the niatas
cannot so well do, as their lips do not
join, and hence they are found to perish
before the common cattle. This strikes.
me as a good illustration of how little
we are able to judge from the ordinary
habits of life, on what circumstances,
occurring only at long intervals, the
1 Darwin, Charles, ‘‘Voyage of the Beagle,” p. 158 ff. New York, 1909.
263
SUPPOSED REPRESENTATIVE OF THE BULL-DOG CATTLE
This cow is believed to be a hybrid, although judging from descriptions it cannot be a full-
blood, fata, the race in Uruguay which was first brought to the attention of science by
Charles Darwin.
upper lip, to such an extent that in many specimens the two lips do not meet.
it arose asa mutation. (Fig. 5.)
rarity or extinction of a species may be
determined.”
Knowledge of the fata breed has
been little increased since Darwin’s
time and, so far as the writer is aware,
no photographs of it have been pub-
lished. The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
therefore undertook, nearly three years
ago, to find what had become of this
curious bovine race, and to secure
illustrations of it. A fruitless corre-
spondence was conducted with numer-
ous South Americans, but finally a
member of this association, B. Lorenzo
Hill, of Montevideo, interested himself
in the case, and for the past year has
prosecuted a diligent search for informa-
tion about the breed. The principal
newspapers of Uruguay cooperated by
printing the American Genetic Associa-
tion’s appeal, at the instance of Mr. Hill,
and another member of the association,
264
It is characterized, among other peculiarities, by a short neck and
Apparently
Don Hugo A. Surraco Cantera, Inspec-
tor Nacional de Ganaderia y Agricultura,
exerted himself actively in the quest.
He was finally able to secure the accom-
panying photographs from a rancher in
the district of Chubut. They were at
once published in several of the most
widely circulated newspapers of Monte-
video, accompanied by another appeal
from the Uruguayan Department of
Agriculture, in which ranchers were
asked to assist the American Genetic
Association in getting more detailed
information. But in view of the evident
rarity of Nata cattle at the present day,
it seems advisable to publish these
photographs in the JOURNAL OF HERED-
Iry without further delay.
A comparison of the accompanying
photographs, with Darwin’s description,
makes it seem probable that the animals
pictured are not full-blood fatas, but a
REMNANT OF A NEARLY EXTINCT BREED
Because of their unusual jaws, Darwin says, the fiata cattle could not pasture successfully when
food was scarce, and therefore were crowded out by other types.
The breed is supposed
to have arisen among the Indians, but the production of high-grade Herefords and other
improved breeds in Uruguay nowadays makes such an animal as the fiata no longer profit-
able, and it appears to have become almost extinct.
first cross between the filata and a
common cow, for the peculiarities of the
head are certainly much less than
Darwin’s description would lead one to
expect:
The difficulty which has been en-
countered in finding any trace of these
cattle at the present time indicates that
the race has become practically extinct.
Judging from the appearance of the
cows, it could never have been very
valuable, and the introduction of the
best European breeds, particularly the
Hereford, into Uruguay in recent years
has raised the standard of live stock so
much that, presumably, it is no longer
profitable to keep fiata cattle. Add to
this the possibility that the physical
peculiarities of the breed have con-
tributed to their disappearance, as
Darwin describes, and it will readily
(Fig. 6.)
be understood that their numbers might
' diminish greatly in the course of half
a century.
Live-stock breeding has now reached
such a high point in Uruguay that it is
not probable that any one hereafter
will care to breed such cattle as these for
commercial purposes. In order to pre-
vent the entire disappearance of an
interesting variation, it would be worth
while for some zoological garden to
secure specimens of the fiata. Full-
blood specimens, if they can be secured,
would be of much value to geneticists,
and ought to be fully as interesting to
the public as the common stock-in-
trade which every zoological garden in
the world keeps on hand, with pathetic
fidelity to traditions, and which every
frequenter of such institutions has seen
at frequent intervals throughout his life.
265
WHAT IS HAPPENING
TO THE HAWTHORNS?
Half a Century Ago Only Ten Species Were Recognized in North America, Now
There Are More Than 700—Several Lines of Evidence Indicate That
Many of the New Forms Are Not New Species but Natural Hybrids
L. M. STanpDIsH
Botanical Laboratories of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
HOSE interested in the origin of
species cannot afford to overlook
Crataegus, the hawthorn genus,
on account of the extraordinary
multiplication of species in that genus
during the last fifty years. Gray’s
Manual of Botany in 1867 records ten
species and four varieties; in 1869 his
classification is the same, while Focke in
Engler and Prantl’s ‘Die nattrlichen
Pflanzenfamilien” gives only thirty or
forty species for the whole North Tem-
perate zone. Since 1900, however, the
increase in the number of species of the
genus has been enormously rapid. In
1901 Britton’s Manual for the northern
states west to the hundredth meridian
records thirty-one species; in 1903
Small’s Flora of the southeastern United
States of America gives 185; in 1905
Sargent’s Trees of North America, 132;
while Gray’s New Manual, published
in 1908, describes sixty-five species and
fifty varieties. In 1910 those who had
discovered the new forms were N. L.
Britton, eight species and two varieties;
W. W. Eggleston, ten species and three
varieties; C. D. Beadle, 144 species;
W. W. Ashe, 165 species, and C. S.
Sargent, 524 species and six varieties.
This unusual state of affairs was
noticed by H. K. Brown (1).! In 1910
in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Club (page 152), he published an ac-
count of his investigation of the subject
in an article entitled ‘The Genus
Crataegus and Some Theories of the
Origin of Species.”” He had written to
the leading authorities: C. S. Sargent
of the Arnold Arboretum; C. D. Beadle,
Director of the Biltmore Herbarium;
W. W. Eggleston of the New York
Botanical Gardens; Ezra Brainerd of
Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.,
and Mr. Dunbar of the Park Depart-
ment, Rochester, N. Y., and asked them
a series of questions hoping to get their
opinion as to the cause of the extraor-
dinary multiplication of species in the
last fifty years.
The question that headed his list
was: ‘Why did not the systematic
botanists discover the large number of
species of Crataegus years ago?’ The
answers that he received were varied in
the extreme. Sargent thought that
their search was not sufficiently thor-
ough; Ashe that they only used dry
material; Beadle that their work was
largely herbarium work; and Brainerd
that they held in those days broader
conceptions of what constituted a
species.
The next question on Brown’s list
was: ‘Do you consider that the species
now being described are elementary
species?” The general consensus of
opinion was that most of them were new
species while some of them were mere
fluctuations, and some were forms that
have already been described and have
escaped notice on account of the large
numbers of new species in the genus.
SAID TO BREED TRUE
For his next question Brown asked:
“Do these species breed true?’’ Sargent
had planted over 3,000 numbers of
seeds, and so far had found no evidence
that they did not; the others agreed
! The numbers in parentheses refer to the list of authors cited at the end of this paper.
266
PERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN
View of pollen sack of Crataegus coccinea, a hawthorn whose pollen shows no signs of sterility,
practically every grain being perfect.
that they did, although Brainerd had
had no personal experience in raising
them from the seed.
As to the question, ‘‘ Will the different
species hybridize?”’ Sargent had seen
no evidence of it; Ashe thought that
many did, and that ‘doubtless some
of those called species are hybrids.’’(1).
He did not think, however, that these
hybrid forms were any more numerous
in this genus than among the nearly
related species of oaks. Beadle and
Eggleston thought that they probably
did, and Brainerd, although he had
never hybridized any himself, knew of
many cases that appeared to be natural
hybrids—“‘local species, each quite inter-
mediate between the supposed parents
with which it is associated’”’ (1). Dun-
(Fig. 7.)
bar had seen no evidence of hybridizing,
but thought it very possible.
The last question as to whether the
new species had arisen as mutations
brought out extremely varied opinions.
Sargent did not answer the question;
Beadle thought that they had; Eggles-
ton that some were hybrids and some
were mutants; Ashe that probably
some were mutants—‘‘some of the
forms in the Molles group in Missouri
and Illinois would seem to be mutations
leading to the inference that some of the
species in this group may have origi-
nated in this manner. The variations
in the Pruinosae in the Appalachians,
and the localized valley species also
indicate mutation origin” (1). Brainerd
thought that there might be mutants,
but it would be very hard to prove, and
267
A MIXTURE OF GOOD AND BAD POLLEN
Section of a pollen sack which may represent any one of a very large number of forms of Cra-
taegus.
Part of the grains are perfectly formed, the rest are shriveled or empty.
This
is the usual condition of pollen in hybrid plants, and is one indication that many of the
North American hawthorns are hybrids.
Dunbar believed in the Darwinian view
of gradual change in evolution.
In the midst of so much conflicting
opinion there seems to be one point
on which all the authorities agree, and
that is the extreme variability of the
genus. Sargent alone during the last
twenty years has numbered his new
forms up into the thousands, and the
process of multiplication appears to be
still going on.
Unusual variability in plants is gener-
ally considered good evidence of hybrid-
ism, and it is more than probable that
the hawthorns of the United States
share with the European species in
particular, and with the other Rosaceae
in general, a marked disposition to
hybridize. Luther Burbank has, as it
were, specialized in producing variations
by means of crossing; and his work,
done on such a wholesale scale, 1s
268
(Fig. 8.)
based on the principle that hybridism
breaks up the continuity of inherited
characteristics and results in the appear-
ance of variations.
EVIDENCE FROM STERILITY
For further and more exact evidence
we can turn to the morphological
peculiarities of hybrids. Partial or
complete sterility is and has long been
recognized as an important basis of
distinction between crosses and genetic-
ally pure species. To be sure, when the
parent forms show a considerable degree
of compatibility, the fertility of the
offspring may be practically normal or
even entirely so. Then again sterility
may be largely eliminated by selection;
but it is not present except when
crossing is possible, it does not occur in
monotypic species, and it is absent in
genera that are isolated either
geo-
TOTAL LACK OF GOOD POLLEN
Longitudinal section of pollen sack of a hawthorn numbered 317 by Professor Sargent.
Every grain in sight is shriveled or empty; there is not one which is capable}of
germination.
graphically or phenologically (2). The
sum of the evidence seems to point
just one way—when absent the plant
may or may not be of hybrid origin; but
when pollen sterility is present, we have
a clear indication of mixed ancestry.
Thus, morphologically we have a
simple means of determining the purity
of a species—often otherwise a difficult
matter in the diagnosis of constant or
relatively constant hybrids. And these
constant hybrids are by no means as
infrequent as we have grown to believe.
Burbank’s ‘“‘Phenomenal,”’ a cross be-
tween Rubus fruticosus and Rubus
idaeus,” 1s aS constant as the purest
species (3). The hybrid alfalfa (Medi-
cago media), a combination of the
common purple alfalfa and the yellow
Such a condition is frequently found in hybrid plants.
(Fig. 9.)
Medicago falcata, is one of the oldest
known hybrid races (3). It has been
constant from the beginning as was
proved when the cross was repeated by
Urban. In the genus Anemone, Janc-
zewski obtained the same results. He
found that some characters would split,
but that others would remain constant;
and that when only such were present,
hybrid races with new combinations of
characters resulted which were as con-
stant as the best species of the same
genus (3). As far as I know no mor-
phological study has been made of the
pollen of these crosses, but they were
quite fertile enough to reproduce them-
selves without any appreciable diminu-
tion in number. If found in the wild
state, they would have been described
2 This is practically the same as the loganberry, a hybrid which is now being widely grown
on the Pacific Coast, and which appeared as a natural hybrid between a blackberry and red rasp-
berry. Evidence as to whether the loganberry breeds true from seed is conflicting; certainly it
does not always do so.
269
A BAD LOT OF POLLEN GRAINS
The hawthorn numbered ‘417 S. L.,”’
was good for anything.
as species on a par with their parents.
Such is particularly the case of the
cross between Anemone magellanica and
the common Anemone sylvestris.
As I have already mentioned, hybrids
may have all degrees of pollen sterility
from no appreciable amount to complete
abortion of the grains. The hybrid
Aegilops speltiformis is a very interesting
constant race which is sufficiently fertile
to propagate itself (3). It was formerly
believed by Fabre and others to be a
transition from some wild species of
grass to the ordinary wheat—not a cross
but a transition. Godron was success-
ful in producing it artificially, however,
and found it to remain constant. He
discovered that although the hybrid
between Aegilops ovata—a small weed-
and the common wheat is of itself
sterile and produces no good pollen,
when this in turn was fertilized by the
pollen of the common wheat, it gave
rise to a secondary hybrid which is no
other than Aegilops speltiformis.
270
Those shown here are all shriveled and imperfect.
seems not to have produced a single grain of pollen that
(Fig. 10.)
Linaria italica—a hybrid toad-flax
between Linaria genistifolia and Linaria
vulgaris which has been repeated by
De Vries in his own garden (3), is so
sterile that it has to be cross-pollinated
before it will give its normal yield of
seed.
STERILITY AMONG THE
Among the Crataegi I found on
microscopic examination that Crataegus
praeclara—a species grown at the Arnold
Arboretum, and not yet described as
far as I know—is an example of complete
abortion. It was found to contain no
normal pollen grains. The anthers,
which to all external appearance were
robust and healthy, were found to be
nearly devoid of contents. The anther
sack or cavity was almost entirely filled
up by the inner wall of cells which had
apparently grown out into the sack
instead of being absorbed as the pollen
grains developed. As a matter of
fact, the pollen grains did not develop
HAW THORNS
WHERE TWO GROUPS OF HAWTHORNS OVERLAP
Area perpendicularly shaded indicates range of Coccineae, while area horizontally shaded indi-
cates range of Intricatae.
normally at all, but appeared to be
collapsed and quite lacking in contents.
After embedding the C. praeclara flowers
in celloidin, and after staining the
sections cut with hematoxylin and
safranin, examination of the pollen
grains showed them as _ irregularly
elongated, brownish colored bodies—
greatly in contrast to the triangular,
opaque, and thoroughly stained normal
grains that one would expect to find in a
pure species. In cases of this nature,
the plant must be cross-fertilized before
it can propagate its kind.
Upon looking over 171 different forms
of Crataegus, I found all degrees of
pollen sterility. Thirty-five I classed as
pure although many of them showed
some grains of abortive pollen; sixty I
classed as having from 10 to 50%;
forty-one from 50 to 75%; and thirty-
five from 75 to 100%.
As a result of an examination of the
171 specimens of Crataegus, I found the
extraordinary state of affairs that
roughly not quite one-fifth had normally
developed pollen; while seventy-six (or
(Fig. 11.)
within nine of one-half the total number)
had between 50 and 75% sterile pollen.
It is only fair to add that these species
were largely among forms of such
comparatively recent appearance that
a considerable proportion of them have
not yet been described. Out of the
most sterile group (from 75 to 100%)
twenty of ‘the thirty-five species in the
group could not be found in either
Gray’s New Manual or Sargent’s Man- .
ual of the Shrubs and Trees of North
America; thirty-five of the forty-one
species in the next group (50 to 75%)
and twenty-nine out of the group with
normal pollen, had not been described
in either of these manuals.
The Intricatae form one of the most
interesting groups of the genus Cratae-
gus: first because all the species of
this class were once included in the
Coccineae, before they were raised by
Sargent to their present status; and
second because an examination of the
pollen of as many species as I could
acquire among the two groups showed
such contrasting results.
cpl
PERFECT POLLEN GRAINS, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED
The pollen grain is a single cell, enclosed in two transparent envelopes and consisting of a
nucleus surrounded by nutritive material.
The latter supplies nourishment for the growth
of the pollen tube, down which the nucleus slips to unite with the ovule and thus start the
growth of a new plant.
Gray ascribes to the Coccineae nine
species and one variety of enough
importance to constitute a paragraph.
I was able to investigate the pollen of
four forms: three of them _ species,
namely, C. anomala, C. Pringlet and
C. pedicellata; and the one variety, C.
coccinoides var. dilatata. I also exam-
ined two more—one of which was to be
found in Sargent and not in Gray, and
one of which may not yet be described.
These two were C. delecta and C.
flabellata. I found that the pollen of
all these forms was practically normal,
never showing more than 10% abortive
grains. I was unable to procure any of
the local species: of this group, but
these, as can readily be seen on studying
the following chart, are so situated
geographically that they might easily
be of hybrid origin.
272
The pollen here shown is that of C. coccinea.
(Fig. 12.)
Gray: Coccineae of Northeast Coast of U.S. A.
Montreal and Central Maine
1. C. holmesiana, south to Rhode Island and
Pennsylvania, west to Michigan. In moun-
tains to North Carolina *(var. vi/lipes, south
of Pennsylvania in mountains).
2. *C. anomala, North Adams, Mass., and
Albany, N. ¥.
3. C. cocc. var. dilatata, south to Rhode
Island, west to Missouri.
Northwest New England
1. C. Pringlei, south to Pennsylvania, west
to northern Illinois.
* (var. exclusa, Vermont and northeastern
New York.)
* (var. lobulata, Vermont and northeastern
New York.)
2. C. polita, south to Delaware, west to
Southern Michigan.
Middle Belt
1. C. pedicellata, South Connecticut, south to
Pennsylvania and Delaware, west to southern
Ontario and northern Illinois.
2. C. coccinoides, southwest Indiana to
eastern Kansas, southwest Indiana to eastern
Kansas.
POLLEN GRAINS OF C. COCCINEA
Two complete grains of pollen are heré shown, enormously magnified. The dark patches in
their centers are the nuclei, which are supposed to be the carriers of most, if not all, of the
heredity; surrounding the nuclei is nutritive material.
It will be noticed that the outer
envelope of the grain is marked by thin spots, through which a pollen tube can easily break
and grow down into the ovary of the plant to be fertilized.
Missouri
1. * C. Kellogit, St. Louis, Mo.
2. * C. lanuginosa, Webb City, southwestern
Missouri.
3. * C. pyroformis, southeastern Missouri.
Sargent: Middle Belt (Forms Not Listed in
Gray)
1. * C. Eamesii, Connecticut, rich, moist soil.
2. * C. Neo-Londonensis, Connecticut, bor-
ders of woods.
3. * C. Hill, northeastern Illinois, open
woods, river banks, rich, moist soil.
4. * C. assurgens, northeastern Illinois, open
woods, river banks, rich, moist soil.
5. * C. acclivts, northeastern Illinois, banks
of rivers at Rochester and Niagara.
6. * C. delecta, northeastern Illinois, open
pastures and wood borders.
7. * C. sertata, northeastern Illinois, open
woods, rich, moist soil.
Note: Forms marked (*) are of purely local
distribution.
The forms of the group as a whole
are seen to be either of extremely wide
range of distribution or they are ex-
tremely local; and these local forms
never occur in an area not already
covered by two or more of their more
cosmopolitan cousins. These facts I
consider significant. It is also of inter-
est to note that all the new species
recorded in Sargent but not in Gray
and belonging to this group are confined
to purely local distribution—two in
(Fig. 13.)
Connecticut, and five in northeastern
Illinois. I venture to guess that if the
pollen of these forms were to be investi-
gated, it would show a high percentage
of sterility.
Examination of the pollen conditions
of the Intricatae, on the other hand,
proved them to be surprisingly sterile.
Gray ascribes to the group six species
and one variety. Of these seven forms
I have investigated five:
C. Boyntont.
C. foetida.
‘C. coccinea L.
C. apposita.
C. apposita, var. Bissell.
Sargent describes three more forms
not mentioned in Gray, and of these I
was able to ascertain the pollen condi-
tions of two:
C. Buckleyt.
Thus of the ten different forms that
make up the Intricatae, I have looked
into the spore conditions of seven and in
no case have I found a flower that is
not strikingly sterile. I was able to
examine the pollen of one of the two
extremely local species of the group—
C. venusta, which is confined to the open
oak and hickory woods on the dry
273
C. venusta.
FEW GOOD, MANY WORTHLESS
Crataegus No. 367 S. L., showing a few perfect (dark) pollen grains and many shriveled (light),
imperfect grains.
origin.
these is a hybrid and not a real species.
slopes of Red Mountain in the southern
part of Birmingham, Ala.—and I found
it to be about 75% abortive. It is of
interest to note among the Intricatae as
well as among the Coccineae that the
extremely local species only occur in
localities already covered by other mem-
bers of the group, and the same char-
acteristic of overlapping in the range of
distribution is evident.
Distribution Chart of the Intricatae: Gray
1. C. coccinea L., eastern Massachusetts to
southwestern Vermont, southeastern New
York, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, rocky
woods.
2. C. apposita,
western Vermont to
rocky woods.
3. C. apposita, var. Bisselli, Massachusetts
and southwestern Vermont to New York,
Virginia, woods.
4. C. Boyntoni, Tennessee, Virginia, North
Carolina, mountain woods.
274
and south-
York, Virginia,
Massachusetts
New
Such a condition is regularly found in a great many plants of hybrid
The assumption is therefore worth testing, that the hawthorn which produces
(Fig. 14.)
5. C. biltmoreana, Virginia, North Carolina,
mountain regions.
6.7 'G_ esionen
Albany, N. Y.
Intricatae: Sargent (Forms Not Listed in Gray)
Central Massachusetts to
7. C. Buckleyi, Tennsessee, Virginia, moun-
tain slopes.
8. C. Sargenti, northern Georgia, southern
Tennessee, Alabama, woody bluffs.
9.* C. venusta, Red Mountains, Birmingham,
Ala., woody slopes.
By means of the accompanying map
(Fig. 11), I have tried to diagram the
distribution of the Coccineae and of the
Intricatae. The areas attributed to
each group are bounded by the extreme
limits of the various species in the
group; while the local species I have
indicated by crosses.
Although the map cannot bring out
the overlapping of different species
within the separate groups, it does show
THE POLLEN OF CRATAEGUS HARBISONI
Perfect and imperfect grains seem to be present in about equal numbers.
Although C. Har-
bisoni has been described as a good species, the condition of the pollen reminds one of such
cases as the Velvet Bean artificial hybrids, where exactly one-half of the pollen was worth-
less.
of hawthorn are not species at all, but natural hybrids.
the overlapping in distribution areas
of the two large groups. Massachu-
setts, southern Vermont, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania
and Delaware are states common to
both the Coccineae and the Intricatae,
as are also the mountainous regions
south through Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee and northern Georgia and
Alabama.
It seems to me highly probable that
the Intricatae—this group of compara-
tively new species which are also so
closely allied to the Coccineae that the
older systematic botanists included them
under this last heading—may have an
even closer -relationship with them.
Pollen sterility is a generally accepted
characteristic of hybrids, and the Intri-
catae as a whole appear to share this
trait with them. If crosses could be
worked out with different species of the
Coccineae for one or both of the parents,
There is reason to suspect that ‘‘C. Harbisoni” and many other supposed species
(Fig. 15.)
it would not surprise me if most of the
Intricatae could be artificially produced.
This, however, would be a long and
tedious experiment owing to the years
of maturation necessary before the
hawthorns can bear seed. Neverthe-
less, from whatever stock the Intricatae
may have sprung it seems to me very
significant and a fact worthy of further
study that the group as a whole is
marked by such an extreme degree of
sterility—a degree which is unusual
even for the genus Crataegus.
The fact that C. venusta occurs only
in the open oak and hickory woods on
the dry slopes of Red Mountains near
Birmingham, Ala., made the form of
sufficient interest for me to look up the
other forms of Crataegus which were
native to the state. I found that in
Alabama alone there were described in
Small’s second edition of his Manual of
the Southern States, sixty-four species
275
THE POLLEN OF CRATAEGUS HARBISONI
The pollen illustrated in Fig. 9 is here shown still more highly magnified.
It will be seen that
the empty grains fold up very neatly, their envelopes being provided with creases for that
(Fig. 16.)
purposes.
of which forty-two were strictly local
in their distribution. Red Mountain
being in northern central Alabama, I
found that in this area, even when I
limited the count to those forms which
grew in upland woods, there were still
thirty different species; and of these
thirty, twenty-two were extremely local.
Here again in the case of C. venusta,
we seem to find ideal conditions for
natural hybridization combined with a
high degree of spore sterility.
In answer to Mr. Brown’s question
in regard to mutation in this genus,
Ashe cites the Pruinosae and Molles
groups as showing some indication of
its presence. Since the Molles have
only one of their species native to
Massachusetts, I have made no study
of them; but I was able to secure a
number of the Pruinosae, and as to
pollen sterility they seem to exemplify
the conditions of the genus as a whole.
In Gray’s Manual (1908) to the
276
Pruinosae are ascribed six species and
eight varieties of which all but C.
pruinosa var. dissona and C. pruinosa
var. philadelphica are considered close
enough to species to constitute a
separate paragraph. Varieties which
are placed in this category are thought
“so distinct and peculiar that they are
not unlikely to establish the claim”
and be considered species. In fact this
prediction has largely come true; as of
these eight varieties, Sargent describes
seven as species and only one—var.
dissona—as a true variety. The results
of the investigation of the Pruinosae was
as follows:
% of
Sargent Gray abortion
C. cognata var. latisepala 1S
C. pruinosa C. pruinosa 60
C. robbinsiana_ var. beckwithia 50
C. deltoides C. deltoides 50
C. fusca var. philadelphica 40
C. conjuncta var. conjuncta practically
pure
Forma dissona Forma dissona practically
pure
CAN THIS BE A GOOD SPECIES?
Pollen grains of Crataegus cognata, highly magnified. A few of them are seen to be perfect,
while an equal number are quite incapable of germination.
If such a condition were
found in the pollen of a single species, it might not attract great attention, but when
hundreds of species, in the genus Crataegus, are found to have this kind of pollen, the
botanist naturally inquires what has happened.
Among the Pruinosee then, we find
conditions much the same as in the
rest of the genus—a relatively small
proportion of the species showing normal
pollen and more than half showing
pollen markedly abortive. In view of
the fact that unusual sterility and an
unusual amount of variation are char-
acteristic of hybrid races, the question
of mutation among the Crataegi seems
to resolve itself into a matter of hybrid-
ization; and in fact, this is the conclu-
sion which Mr. Brown reaches even
without this important morphological
evidence.
In 1908 (1) he crossed the English
hawthorn—C. monogyna—with the na-
tive C. Brainerdi: in 1909, he and
William Moore made cross pollinations
between the majority of the native
appearances
(Fig. 17.)
species with the result that in all cases
the fruit set and matured, to all external
entirely normal. The
theory which he reached as a result of
his investigation was that the enormous
increase in the species of the genus is
due to extensive hybridization since
the dense forests have been cleared
(2). The irregularity in the number of
stamens and pistils, the variation in
shape of leaves and color of anthers
(from white to dark purple), the occur-
rence of plants with characteristics of
two different species which grow in the
near neighborhood, and the occurrence
of numerous local species—one of which
is peculiar to almost all of the states
east of the Mississippi—all these facts
in his opinion point to extensive hybrid-
ization. No sufficient tests have been
277
278
made, however, to prove beyond a
doubt whether or not hybrids of
Crataegus are stable—circumstantial
evidence seems to indicate that they are,
but no such extensive experiments in
breeding as would be necessary have
been attempted on account of the
difficulties due to the slow maturation
of the plant.
STUDY OF THE ROSE FAMILY
Since Mr. Brown’s article in the
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
wast published, nevertheless, work
carried on in the Harvard laboratories
under Prof. E. C. Jeffrey by C. S. Hoar
on the raspberries, and by Miss R. D.
Cole on the roses, and also my own
examination of the hawthorns, have
revealed among the Rosaceae a large
number of hidden or crypthybrids which
are constant in their character and which
are recognized by systematic botanists
as good species, but which may be
distinguished from normal species by
the sterility of their reproductive cells.
These crypthybrids, while they are
extremely important from the evolu-
tionary standpoint on account of their
enormous variability and the consequent
multiplication of species, must never-
theless not be given credit for the origin
of species. Although in answer to Mr.
Brown’s questions Ashe, Beadle and
Eggleston appeared to favor the idea
that at least some of the new species of
Crataegus might be mutants, investiga-
tion of the morphological character-
istics of the genus backs up Brainerd in
his emphasis of the extraordinary tend-
ency towards hybridization among the
Rosaceae. I quote what he had to say
on the subject (1).
“In Europe the few species [of
Crataegus] cross in many ways (Focke’s
Pflanzen-mischlinge p. 146). I know
of many cases which appear to be
natural hybrids or local species each
quite intermediate between the two
supposed parents with which it is
associated. The Rosaceae are of all
others the most disposed to hybridize.
I should expect the same in Crataegus
as in Rosa, Rubus, Geum, Amelanchier
and Malus. The condition in Crataegus
is much like Rubus, Rosa and Viola.
The Journal of Heredity
The multiplication of even stable forms
that may result (in the working out of
Mendel’s laws) from one pair of parents
is astonishing.”’
To summarize the evidence set forth
in this paper, we find among the
Crataegi an extraordinary amount of
comparatively recent multiplication of
forms; we find also, large numbers of
local species combined with unusual
sterility. Out of the 171 specimens
examined only thirty-five could be
considered uncontaminated with regard
to pollen conditions, while seventy-six
showed from 50 to 100% of abortive
grains. Sterility partial or complete of
the reproductive cells has long been
recognized as a characteristic of hybrid-
ism; and forms which are ordinarily
accepted as species frequently reveal
past genetical contamination by pollen
infertility. Among the Rosaceae, a
family showing an unusually strong
tendency to hybridize, examination of
the pollen conditions discloses a great
number of these hidden hybrids.
The Intricatae on account of their
unique position seemed worthy of study
in this connection. In the first place
they are a relatively new group so
closely allied to the Coccineae that they
are included in the group as far as they
were known to the older systematists.
They show a smaller range of distribu-
tion both collectively and individually
than do the Coccineae; they only occur
in localities where there is a possibility
of crossing; and they have a degree of
sterility unusual even for the genus
Crataegus. This seems a_ suspicious
combination of facts. Investigation of
the other groups in so far as I could get
material, parallels the condition found
in these two groups—that among the
more widely distributed species the
pollen is apt to be good, while in those of
more local range the pollen is largely
abortive. This evidence is exemplified
by C. venusta—a form extremely local
in its range and growing under circum-
stances ideal for cross fertilization—
which proved to be 75% sterile.
The study of this genus has brought
out evidence of both systematic and
morphological character to indicate the
What is Happening
wide-spread occurrence of hybridism;
and in conclusion I think we must face
the fact that among the Crataegi at
least extreme variability is linked with
to the Hawthorns ? 279
extensive hybridization and the con-
sequent multiplication of species, rather
than with mutation and the problem of
the saltatory origin of species.*
’ The material for this study was collected at the Arnold Arboretum, and I wish to express
my thanks to Prof. C. S. Sargent for this courtesy.
I am also indebted to Prof. E. C. Jeffrey,
in whose laboratory this study was made, for the use of his apparatus as well as for his advice
and criticism.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Brown, H. K.: “The Genus Crataegus and Some Theories of the Origin of Species.”
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 1910.
2. Jeffrey, E. C.: “Some Fundamental Morphological Objections to the Mutation Theory
of De Vries.’””’ American Naturalist, 1915.
3. De Vries, Hugo: “Species and Varieties, Their Origin by Mutation.”’
Also:
4. Bartlett, H. H.: “The Experimental Study of Genetic Relationship.”’
of Botany, March, 1915.
(Lecture IX.)
American Journal
5. Henry, A.: Lecture before Royal Dublin Society. March 6, 1914.
6. Jeffrey, E. C.: “Spore Conditions in Hybrids and the Mutation Hypothesis of De Vries.”’
Botanical Gazette, October, 1914.
7. Jeffrey, E. C.: “The Mutation Myth.”
Science, 1915.
The Relation of Vigor to Heredity
VIGOR AND HEREDITY, by J. Lewis Bonhote.
London, Adlard & Son and West Newman, 1915.
Geneticists have been so carried away
with the idea that characters are
unchangeable that some of them have
given little study to the modifying
effects of outside influences on the ex-
pression of inherited traits. Mr. Bon-
hote thinks they have made a funda-
mental mistake, and asserts that not
only is the expression of a Mendelian
character—its dominance or lack of
dominance, for example—largely de-
pendent on vigor, but that new varia-
tions arise from that cause. Further-
more, he believes vigor to be inherited,
Pp. 264, illus., price 10s. 6d. net.
and has carried on breeding experiments
to demonstrate it. His method of
measuring an animal’s vigor by its
color is not the most accurate con-
ceivable, but he draws some _ highly
interesting generalizations from his ex-
periments and from extended observa-
tions on species in the wild. His
controlled evidence is limited in extent
and great weight cannot be placed on
it, but the book is at least highly
suggestive and ought to lead to a
broader view of heredity than is now
held by many experimental biologists.
An Elementary Text-Book on Evolution
EVOLUTION, HEREDITY AND EUGENICS, by John Merle Coulter, professor of Botany
in the University of Chicago.
Coulter, publisher, Bloomington, IIl., 1916.
“The thinking of today that is most
significant is thinking in terms of
evolution. Intelligent interpretation of
life depends upon it,” says Professor
Coulter)" Yet ib 4s a. fact. that the
‘average citizen’ has but the vaguest
ideas of what evolution is.’ He has
therefore undertaken to give definite
Pp. 133, illus., price 50 cents.
School Science Series No. 5, John
ideas in a little book adapted for use
by high school and college classes in
elementary biology. The great extent
of ground to be covered necessarily
involves a summary and dogmatic
method of treatment. The four pages
allotted to eugenics are particularly
inadequate.
VARIABILITY CURVE FOLLOWING LAW OF CHANCE
Photograph of beans rolling down an inclined plane and accumulating in c« ympart-
ments at the base which are closed in front by glass. The exposure was
long enough to cause the moving beans to appear as caterpillar-like objects
hopping along the board. If we assume that the irregularity of shape of
the beans is such that each may make jumps either toward the right or
toward the left in rolling down the board, the laws of chance lead us to
expect that in very few cases will these jumps be all in the same direction
as indicated by the few beans collected in the compartments at the extreme
right and left. Rather the beans will tend to jump in both right and left
directions, the most probable condition being that in which the beans make
an equal number of jumps to the right and to the left as shown by the large
number accumulated in the central compartment. If the board be tilted
to one side, the curve of beans would be altered by this one-sided influence.
In like fashion a series of factors—either of environment or of heredity—if
acting equally in both favorable and unfavorable directions, will cause a
collection of ears of corn to assume a similar variability curve when classified
according to their relative size. Such curves are used by biometricians in
classifying and studying variations in plants and animals. Photograph
by A. F. Blakeslee, Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold
Spring Harbor, L. I. (Fig. 18.)
280
LAUGHING AND CRYING
What Is Their Use?—Probably Safety Valve for the Body When It Is Affected by
Emotions—Their Evolutionary Origin
HY do you laugh when a man
\ \ / slips on a banana-peel?
Great philosophers have pon-
dered on the problem. Spencer
and Bergson have tried to explain it.
The latest discussion, and one of
interest and lucidity, is that of Dr.
George W. Crile.1 He starts with the
assumption that the habit of laughing
must be of some use to the race, and
then he undertakes to show what this
use is.
As a preliminary, we must understand
just what we mean, physiologically, by
laughter. It is ‘‘an involuntary rhyth-
mic contraction of certain respiratory
muscles, usually accompanied by certain
vocal sounds. It is a motor act of
the respiratory apparatus primarily, al-
though if intense it may involve not
only the extraordinary muscles of res-
piration, but most of the muscles of the
body. There are many degrees of laugh-
ter, from the mere brightening of the
eyes, a fleeting smile, tittering and
gigeling, to hysteric and convulsive
laughter. Under certain circumstances,
laughter may be so intense and so long-
continued that it leads to considerable
exhaustion.”
“What causes laughter? Good news,
high spirits, tickling, hearing and seeing
others laugh; droll ‘stories; flashes of
wit; passages of humor; averted injury;
threatened breach of the conventions;
and numerous other causes might be
added. It is obvious that laughter
may be produced by diverse influences,
many of which are so unlike each other
that it would seem at first sight improb-
able that a single general principle
underlies all.”
If we are to find a general principle,
we must proceed from some elementary
1 Crile, George W., “‘The Origin and Nature of the Emotions.”’
Go;, 1915:
facts: Mane Dr, .Crile”. telilss is. 1s
“essentially a motor being.’’ He is
organized for action. The sight of a
mad dog, let us say, tends to produce
action in the beholder; the body auto-
matically gets ready to run or to fight.
These various responses of the body to
this situation probably occur before the
man himself has realized the situation,
and the emotion of fear which is aroused
in him results, it is supposed, from the
activities of the body in preparing for
retreat or defense.
Not only are the brain-cells stimulated
by the sight of the mad dog, but the
ductless glands at once set to work to
pour into the circulation their energizing
secretions, thus putting the body in a
position to meet the unusual demands
made on it. In other words, an
emotion (say, fear) 1s accompanied, or
perhaps the result of, the preparation
of the body for unusual action. If the
action takes place, the fuel which has
been released, the sources of energy
which have been made available,” are
used up, and the body returns to its
normal condition.
NECESSITY FOR ACTION
But suppose that no action follows the
emotion—what happens? The blood is
full of ‘‘emergency rations,” which are
not needed and which therefore have
to be eliminated as waste products,
thus putting atax onthe system. That
is why emotion unaccompanied by
muscular action, is more injurious to
the body than is muscular action alone.
Suppose, then, that one were so
impelled to anger that he got in fighting
mood, and wanted to hit somebody.
He might pursue three courses:
1. He might perform no physical act,
Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders
2“Eninephrin, thyroid and hypophyseal secretions are thrown into the blood streams, while
that most available fuel, glycogen, is also mobilized in the blood.”
281
MAN
pleased, or when tickled.
IS NOT THE ONLY PRIMATE WHO LAUGHS
Darwin long ago pointed out that the great apes shared with man the habit of laughing when
The photograph above, from Underwood and Underwood,
shows Mike, the clever chimpanzee in the London zoo; Dr. Crile considers that he is
laughing although, according to Darwin, the chimpanzee does not ordinarily put so much
heart in it, but contents himself with grins and chuckles.
but merely give expression to the emo-
tion of anger. This would, for the
reasons pointed out above, be distinctly
injurious to him.
2. He might hand his coat to the
nearest innocent bystander, roll up his
sleeves, and “let go’’ with the result,
if the other man were not too big, that
he would completely satisfy his anger
and return to normal.
3. He might immediately turn and
run around the block, or engage in some
other violent exercise. This would
consume all the motor-producing ele-
ments mobilized by the body and, again,
would leave him normal.
It is not proposed, from these state-
ments, to insist on the moral that you
should fight every time you get hot
129
(Fig. 19.)
under the collar, but merely to point
out that when a strong emotion is not
followed by some physical action, the
body suffers.
Now laughter consists of physical
action, of muscular exertion. It serves,
Dr. Crile says, “precisely such clarifying
purposes as would be served by the
gymnastic exercises of an angry man.
As it seems to me, the muscular action
of laughter clears the system of the
energizing substances which have been
mobilized in various parts of the body
for the performance of other actions.
“If this be true, the first question
that presents itself is, “Why “Is the
respiratory system utilized for such a
clarifying purpose? Why do we not
laugh with our hands and feet as well?’ ”’
Laughing and Crying
The answer seems to him obvious.
Were laughter expressed by the hands
the monkey, who shares with man
the privilege of a hearty laugh, would
fall from the tree. Were it expressed
with the feet, a man would either fall
down or be temporarily “crippled.”
The muscles of the face and chest seem
to be the most available ones at liberty
to perform this action, since they do not
incapacitate the subject for any other
action that may be useful to him. It
may be supposed, then, that in the
course of evolution, natural selection
has picked out these muscles and fixed
on them the duty of relieving a man of
the effects of his emotions, by the
exercise which we call laughing.
“Let us test this hypothesis by some
practical examples. The first is an
incident that accidentally occurred in
our laboratory during experiments on
fear which were performed as follows:
A keen, snappy, fox-terrier was com-
pletely muzzled by winding a broad
strip of adhesive plaster around his jaw
so as to include all but the nostrils.
When this aggressive little terrier and
a rabbit found themselves in close
quarters each animal became completely
governed by instinct; the rabbit
crouched in fear, while the terrier,
with all the ancestral assurance of
seizing his prey, rushed upon the rabbit,
his muzzle always glancing off and his
attack ending in awkward failure.
“This experiment was repeated many
times and each time provoked the seri-
ous-minded scientific visitors who wit-
nessed it to laughter. Why? Because
the spectacle of a savage little terrier
rushing upon an innocent rabbit as if
to mangle it integrated the body of: the
onlooker with a strong desire to exert
muscular action to prevent the cruelty.
This integration caused a conversion
of the potential energy in the brain-cells
into kinetic energy, and there resulted
a discharge into the blood-stream of
activating internal secretions for the
purpose of producing muscular action.
Instantly and unexpectedly the danger
passed and the preparation for muscular
action intended for use in the protection
of the rabbit was not needed. This
3 Spencer, Herbert, ‘‘The Physiology of Laughter.”
(New York, 1872), p. 203.
283
fuel was consumed by the neutral
muscular action of laughter, which thus
afforded relief. _
“A common example of the same na-
ture is that encountered on the street
when a pedestrian slips on a banana
peel and, just as he is about to tumble,
recovers his equilibrium. The onlookers
secure relief from the integration to
run to his rescue by laughing. On the
other hand, should the same pedestrian
fall and fracture his skull the motor
integration of the onlookers would be
consumed by rendering physical assist-
ance—mence. there — would” be, sie
laughter.”
THE EFFECT OF A JOKE
Dr. Crile attempts to apply this view
to laughter produced by a joke. Jokes,
he says, consist of two parts; in the
first, the reader’s emotion is stirred by
the presentation of some _ situation
which seems to call for action, and in the
second he is suddenly shown that he
has been hoaxed, that it is a false
alarm. This element of incongruity has
long been recognized as the basis of
much humor, and in Se far as. it as,
Dr. Crile’s explanation will in many
cases cover the resulting laughter.
Other cases may be explained as asso-
ciation of ideas. Obviously, however,
there must be ramifications of the
subject, and some of them were ingeni-
ously explained by Herbert Spencer,
whose discussion of laughter is in many
ways like that of Dr. Crile, although
the latter has the advantage of much
work in physiology which has been
done since Spencer’s time. The phil-
osopher offers? this case:
“You are sitting in a theater, absorbed
in the progress of an interesting drama.
Some climax has been reached which
has aroused your sympathies—say, a
reconciliation between the hero and
heroine, after long and painful mis-
understanding. The feelings excited by
this scene are not of a kind from which
you seek relief; but are, on the contrary,
a grateful relief from the painful feelings
with which you have witnessed the
previous estrangement. Moreover, the
sentiments these fictitious personages
In “‘Tllustrations of Universal Progress’”
TEARS ARE OF GREAT VALUE TO THE RACE
They may not always be appreciated by the individual, or the individual's parents, but his-
torically, according to Dr, Crile, they act as a safety valve for the body, just as laughter
does. When a strong emotion is felt, the blood is filled with substances intended to be
used in muscular action. If no action follows, the blood is overloaded, and this surplus
fuel would have to be eliminated as waste matter, at considerable expense to the system.
But either laughing or crving will take the place, to some extent, of more violent physical
action, and use up the ‘‘emergency ration’’ which otherwise, to speak figuratively, would
cause indigestion, Photograph from the Nursery Studio, Washington, D. C. (Fig. 20.)
Laughing and Crying
have for the moment inspired you with,
are not such as would lead you to
rejoice in any indignity offered them;
but rather, such as would make you
resent the indignity. And now, while
you are contemplating the reconciliation
with a pleasurable sympathy, there
appears from behind the scenes a tame
kid, which, having stared round at the
audience, walks up to the lovers and
sniffs at them. You cannot help joining
in the roar which greets this contretemps.
Inexplicable as is this irresistible burst
on the hypothesis of a pleasure in
escaping from mental restraint; or on
the hypothesis of -a pleasure from
relative increase in_ self-importance,
when witnessing the humiliation of
others; it is readily explicable if we
consider what, in such a case, must
become of the feeling that existed at the
moment the incongruity arose. ?
American Genetic Association Offers $100 for Information about Them—A
Native Fruit That Has Been Long Neglected But
Contains Much Promise
of the United States, the least
known is probably the papaw,!
which grows in the forests from
the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic, west
to Oklahoma and as far north as New
York and Michigan. As an ornamental
tree or shrub, it is occasionally grown
even beyond these limits.
Belonging to the family of Annonaceze
or custard-apples, the papaw has a good
deal in common with those delicious
fruits. Its creamy pulp is of exquisite
texture in the mouth, while its distinc-
tive flavor and its aroma, often too
pungent, give it a decided individuality.
The shiny black seeds occupy more
space than is desirable, in most speci-
mens.
The poor shipping quality of the fruit
doubtless accounts largely for the fact
that it is so little known outside of the
immediate localities where it grows wild.
It is not considered eatable until it is
dead ripe and has begun to turn blackish
in color; it sometimes hangs on the tree
until Christmas, although it will have
reached maturity in the latter half of
September, when the flesh is usually
yellow, occasionally white. Good indi-
vidual fruits, according to Little,?
usually weigh about half a pound
apiece, but sometimes they attain a
pound in weight.
Not only is it too soft to ship, under
most circumstances, but it does not keep
well after it is picked. Sometimes it
can be held for a number of days, if
picked a little firm, but ordinarily it
must be eaten from the tree.
The drawbacks of the fruit, then, are
largely of acommercial character. They
are drawbacks which can probably be
(). ALL the important native fruits
1 Asimina triloba Dunal.
removed by intelligent breeding. With
this idea a number of individuals have
undertaken during the last few years to
improve the papaw; but there is still
plenty of room for work, and the Ameri-
can Genetic Association therefore feels
the desirability of calling attention to
the papaw, and pointing out the attrac-
tiveness of the problem it offers.
BEST SEEDLINGS WANTED
Among the wild trees along the creeks
and in the underbrush of the river
bottoms, there must be many a seedling
which combines superior quality with a
tougher skin and greater firmness than
usual. Probably farmers have picked
out some of these trees and transplanted
them to the orchard. The American
Genetic Association wants to locate these
superior trees, in order that they may be
made available for rapid propagation;,
and a member has given $100 as a
stimulus to the search for the superior
specimens.
Two rewards are offered from this
fund. Fifty dollars will be paid for the
largest individual tree, and $50 for the
tree, regardless of size, which bears the
best fruit. The offer will terminate on
January 1, 1917, thus including the
coming crop-season in which members
(or others interested) can keep an eye
open for superior specimens.
The award for the largest tree will be
made on the basis of photographs. The
conditions to be observed are as follows:
Photographs must be on glossy paper, not
smaller than 4x5 or 34x 5% inches, and
must be of sufficient excellence to allow repro-
duction in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY or else-
where. Photographs in which the tree is so
small that its details cannot be made out, can-
not be considered. The measurement of. the
So little is the papaw known that its very name has been stolen
from it and applied, through a confusion in sound, to the tropical papaya or tree-melon (Carica
papaya) which was described by J. E. Higgins in the JouRNAL or HEReEpITy for May, 1916 (vol.
vii, pp. 208-220).
The genuine papaw is no more related to this tropical papaya than it is to the
apple or strawberry, and the application of the name papaw to the papaya should be stopped.
2 A Treatise on the Papaw, by James A. Little, Cartersburg, Ind. Pp. 18, price 25 cents.
This is the only thing published on the subject aside from an occasional magazine article.
291
EAS
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re } oe 4
THE PAPAW TREE IS HIGHLY ORNAMENTAL
It is worth growing around any home, merely for its beauty. Those who know the tree only
as it grows in dense thickets can hardly realize what an attractive form it develops when
standing by itself and given some care. Its glossy leaves, not unlike those of a magnolia
in appearance, attract the eye; even without the added charm of its flowers and fruit,
it would be worth a much more conspicuous place in American horticulture than it now
holds. The tree can be grown without much difficulty from seed, and is easily grafted.
(Fig. 1.)
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294 | The Journal of Heredity
tree must be given in detail. In making it
the only method which may be followed is to
take the circumference of the trunk at two
feet from the ground. It is desirable that the
full height of the tree and spread of branches,
as well as the girth, should be stated; if they
cannot be measured exactly, they should be
estimated. Photographs should, when pos-
sible, contain some object, such as a human
figure, which will aid in giving a realization
of the size of the tree; but such figure should
be beside, not in front of the tree. It is nec-
essary that the photograph should include the
whole tree. If there are other trees growing
beside it and cutting off part of it these other
trees should be included in the picture. Con-
testants may send photographs of as many
different trees as they like.
With each photograph, a statement should
be submitted telling all that is known about
the tree, with reference to its age, the size of
crop it bears, the quality of the fruit; the
character of the soil and surrounding vegeta-
tion. It is particularly necessary that photog-
raphers should state whether there are many
other papaw trees in the neighborhood—
within a radius, say, of five miles. If the tree
is on private land, and likely to be destroyed,
the fact should be mentioned. It will be
helpful if photographers can tell to what extent
the tree is subject to attacks by disease or
insects. In short, the council desires to gain
as much information as possible about the
papaw trees of the United States; but it im-
poses as few hard-and-fast restrictions as
possible, because of the varying conditions
under which photographs may have to be
taken, or under which they have been taken
at some time in the past.
The tree should be shown with full summer
foliage.
All photographs submitted will become
the property of the American Genetic Asso-
ciation, to be kept as a scientific record or
used in any way taat the council may think
desirable.
In the award for excellence of fruit,
it will not be necessary to submit a
photograph of the tree, since many of
the best papaws grow in dense thickets
where it would be impossible to make a
picture. It will be necessary, however,
to give a description of the tree from
which the fruit is taken, telling approx-
imately how large it is, exactly where
located, and whether or not it can be
transplanted, or twigs obtained for
grafting. The amount of fruit it bears
should also be stated. The contestant
must send by parcel post to the office
of the American Genetic Association,
511 Eleventh Street N. W., Washington,
D. C., at least six fruits, all from the
same tree, and all ripe enough to be
eaten. The award will be made on the
basis of the excellence of flavor, small
number and size of seeds, but more
particularly on the condition in which
the fruits reach this office, taking into
consideration the number of days they
have been in transit; for the great need
of the market is for a fruit that will keep
and ship well, and if these qualities are
once obtained, selection of the best for
propagation can be depended on gradu-
ally to improve the quality.
The same tree may, of course, be en-
tered for both awards—for size of tree
and for quality of fruit.
CULTIVATED TREES ELIGIBLE
If anyone is cultivating the papaw
and has produced a variety that he
considers of superior excellence, it will
be entirely permissible for him to enter
this in competition. The award is not
limited to wild trees; although the
number of trees in cultivation is
believed to be so small that it is probable
some of the many wild trees will be
found superior to anything known in
orchards.
It is the hope of this association that
the superior trees found will be propa-
gated by grafting, and a large quantity
of them secured within a few years.
The papaw can be grown from seed,
but only with difficulty from suckers,
while transplanting is recognized to
offer much trouble. One correspondent
describes the general experience when
he says, “I have been growing papaws
for seventy-five years, not willingly but
because I could not help it. It is
claimed there is no way to kill a papaw
except to transplant it and try to
make it grow.”
Grafting in the spring has been found
to offer no great obstacles, however,
and is the best means of propagation,
from the plant-breeder’s point of view.
Budding has not given good results, but
this may be due to wrong technique.
So far as is recorded, the papaw has
not been grafted on any stock except
its own, and there appears to be no
necessity for any other stock.
One of the promising fields for plant-
breeding, in connection with the papaw,
appears to be in hybridizing it with its
close relatives, the tropical annonas,
the genus which includes the bullock’s-
heart, sweet-sop, sour-sop, and the
Where Are the Best Papaws?
incomparable custard-apple or cheri-
moya. ‘These fruits are larger and finer
than the papaw, but too tender to
grow in the United States except in
southern California and southern
Florida. There would appear to be a
good chance that they could be crossed
with the papaw, and a fruit produced
THE PAPAW
Cross section of a fruit, natural size,
photographed by W. E. Rum-
sey, of the West Virginia Experi-
ment Station. The flesh is ordin-
arily yellow but sometimes white,
and custard-like in consistency,
with a peculiar pungent aroma.
(Fig. 3.)
which would be hardy in a large part
of the United States, while superior in
quality to the papaw itself. So far
as is recorded, this cross has never been
made.
PROPAGATION FROM SEED
It may be helpful to give the advice
of the late James A. Little on the
295
propagation of the papaw. To grow
seedlings, he writes, ‘“‘“My plan, which
has been entirely successful, is to make
a hill like a watermelon hill and*plant
about five seeds two or three inches
deep in the fall. In part for protection
but mainly for shading the plants
when they come up I place a barrel
with both heads out over the hill and
let it remain for a year or two. After
that the barrel may be removed and
then the plants will bear the sun. It
must not be expected that the plants
will come up until the harvest or later.
The plants will not get more than 2 or 3
inches high the first year, but the
root will be proportionately much
larger than the top. The second year
the plants will grow 6 or 8 inches high
and after that they will greatly increase
in growth from year to year. It will
take them six or eight years to come into
bearing.”
More recent experiments than those
of Mr. Little indicate that if planted as
soon as taken from the fruits the seeds
lie dormant in the soil for one year and
germinate the second spring. There
appears to be little difficulty in trans-
planting the young seedlings from the
seed bed to the nursery row and getting
plants 12 to 18 inches tall in two years,
providing they are grown in rich garden
earth. Transplanting has to be done
in the spring before any growth starts.
Finally, as the season of ripening is
coming on, it will be of interest to
quote Mr. Little on the value of the
fruit.
“The principal use of the papaw,’’ he
writes, ‘is to eat from the hand but
- there are other uses that it can be put to.
It makes splendid custard pie. There
is no finer dessert than papaw eaten
with cream and sugar. It is used to
make beer the same as the persimmon
by putting the fruit in a jar, mashing it,
and putting water on it and letting it
stand until fermented. It also answers
to make pudding just the same as per-
simmon pudding is made. It is also
said that brandy equal to peach brandy
is made of papaws. Marmalade which
is equal to that of pears or peaches may
be made of papaw. The custard may
be spread on a board and dried like
296 The Journal of Heredity
pumpkin leather. Papaws may be kept
in their natural state till midwinter or
longer by laying them downinoats. At
this present date, January 27, Mr.
Thompson has them down in oats that
are just as good as when taken from the
tree.’’ On this last point, another cor-
respondent writes that he has found no
better place to store them than in the
dry leaves at the base of the tree.
Eugenics for Arabic-Speaking Peoples
Hall al-’ Uqdah bi-Mulakhkhas al-IfAdah fi Intaj al-Awlad hasab al-Iradah (The Untying of the
Knot in a Comprehensive Resumé on the Production of Children according to Will), by A. J.
Arbeely, M.D. Pp. 193, price, $2.50. Published by the author, 1723 U Street N.W., Washington,
DC.
The title of this book, implying that
it is devoted to sex-control, fails ade-
quately to describe its nature, for the
theory of sex-control (based on nutrition
and the influence of the parental mind)
occupies only a third of the book,
although it is said to be based on 1,000
cases. In the first two-thirds of the
book the author, a Syrian physician
with forty years of experience, gives a
general treatise on eugenics, marriage
and parenthood. It is written in a
wholesome tone, with abundant detail,
and gives an amount of information
about heredity and race betterment
which has not hitherto been available
in the Arabic language, although the
ancient Arabs had some sound empirical
ideas on the subject. Muhammad is
reported to have commanded, ‘Select
your wives with a view to offspring,”
and again to have said, “Avoid the
rank plant which grows on a dung-hill.”
When asked to explain this he replied,
“T had in mind the woman who is
beautiful but whose ancestry is bad.”
Marriage and parenthood were held in
the highest esteem, but the veneration
of them was sometimes carried to an
extreme, as is reflected in another say-
ing credited to the prophet, “A fecund
black wife is preferable to a sterile
white one.” Dr. Arbeely does not
attempt to discuss this phase of the
subject, which offers an attractive
field of research for some Orientalist.
It should be added that the literary
style of the author is admirable, as
those who know his lexicographic and
journalistic work would expect.
Feeblemindedness and Charity
More than half of the men who, in
New York, apply to the Joint Applica-
tion Bureau for Aid or patronize the
Municipal Lodging House are morons,
according to the estimate of Charles B.
Barnes, Director Bureau of Employment
of the State of New York. If careful
examination should prove his estimate
to be correct, he says, “it would mean
an entire change in the attitude of the
courts, charitable organizations, and the
public generally toward them. We
would no longer seek to ‘rehabilitate’
them. The long and weary path of
attempting to make them self-support-
ing would be abandoned. ‘The attempt
to ‘reform’ them, in the sense in which
it is now used, or the obtaining from
them of promises to reform, would not
be made. Other disposition would have
to be made of them. We would com-
mence to treat our mentally defective as
well and with as much consideration as
we now treat our physically defective,
and no more stigma would be attached
to the one than to the other.” For
treating the feebleminded among the
applicants for charity, he declares that
the farm colony with forcible detention
is the only practical plan; by this means
most of them could be made self-sup-
porting, while at the present time most
of them are annually costing society
far more than they earn. On economic
as well as humanitarian grounds, there-
fore, a revision of methods of distrib-
uting charity, which would eliminate
the feebleminded, appears to be justified.
MUSICAL ABILITY
Bases of it Inherited by Nearly Everyone—Difference in Ability Due More to
Training Than to Heredity—Means for Bringing Latent
Ability Into Expression
Mrs. EVELYN FLETCHER Copp, Prookline, Mass.
T IS generally supposed that musi-
cians are born, not made. Amodern
student of heredity, for example,
writes of musical ability:
“This quality is one that develops
so early in the most marked cases that
its innateness cannot be questioned.
A Bach, matured at 22; a Beethoven,
publishing his compositions at 13 anda
Mendelssohn at 15;a Mozart, composing
at 5 years, are the product of a peculiar
protoplasm of whose tenacious qualities
we get some notion when we learn
that the Bach family comprised twenty
eminent musicians and two-score others
less eminent.”
Following out this line of attack, let
us look a little further for evidence that
musical ability is innate. Of the Bach
family I shall not speak, for its history
is well-known: it presents an amount of
musical genius unrivaled in history.
But if we examine the ancestry of other
great musicians, including some of those
mentioned by the writer just quoted, we
find little to indicate that their preem-
inent musical ability was due to any
extraordinary combination of heredity.
Among such cases is Haydn. His
father was a wheelwright, his mother
had been a cook and, although both
were fond of music, neither could be
reckoned a musician as we diagnose the
term. Schubert is another example;
and the immortal Robert Schumann
had. no ancestors who were even
slightly addicted to music. Even the
musicians who can point to a
musical parent or grandparent have,
in many striking instances, seemingly
failed to transmit to their offspring
even a trace of their stupendous ability.
Another interesting point which strikes
even the casual observer of the musicians
of the past is that musical heredity
seems to be anti-suffrage. When hered-
ity might seem to have caused musical
ability in the sons, the daughters seem
usually not to have been extraordinarily
benefited; and in this connection it is
also of interest to note that, while
many women have excelled as vocal or
instrumental performers, the originality
necessary to musical composition has
been conspicuously lacking and there
are no women who come even within
hailing distance of Beethoven, Mozart,
Handel and a dozen other men we might
name.
A COMMON INHERITANCE
Now, I do not propose to argue from :
these facts that musical ability is not a
toatter of Jhetedity.. lf thimk iis. 7a
matter of heredity, but that almost
everyone possesses the heredity. Twenty
years of teaching give me reason to
believe that, although great genius will
doubtless continue to be sporadic and
unaccountable, real musical ability is
much more common than has been
supposed. Genius, like murder, will
out. It cannot be suppressed by en-
vironmental obstacles, but talent, often
overlooked, may be discovered and
brought to great perfection. It seems,
indeed, that music, like poetry, may be
a primal talent; that, as all children are
born poets, they may also be born
musicians and also, very similarly, that
as 999% of humanity lose all poetic
faculty during the years of early child-
hood because of the artificial conditions
of modern child life, so the very large
majority of children lose their native
musical ability through lack of training
of the ear and mind during their most
susceptible period. Education should
come to the help of heredity to reclaim
and develop man’s natural gift.
We are all born with ears and they
are formed for hearing as the eye is
for seeing; they are, moreover, capable
of hearing far more and better than they
297
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Copp: Musical Ability
are accustomed to doing. We carry
them around with us everywhere, but
we really pay very little attention to
them. We let our children speak in a
slip-shod, indistinct way and we listen
carelessly. We leave good talking and
singing to the professional musicians
and orators, which is just as unreason-
able as to leave: good seeing to the
professional artist and poet. We are
only just beginning to learn what the
normal ear is capable of, for instance
in the matter of Positive Pitch, that is,
ability to recognize and name musical
tones. The lay public has been accus-
tomed to consider Positive Pitch as a
gift wrapped in the exclusive tissue of
genius and doled out to the ultra
musical only. One who can enter a
room where a musician is singing or
playing and say, “He is singing high C,
or baritone B,” has hitherto been looked
upon as a prodigy. This is by no
means necessarily true. By proper
training this power may be acquired,
speaking very conservatively, by 80%
of normal children. Children who have
been thought to be entirely lacking in
musical ability, some of them appar-
ently tone deaf, after a few months of
training are able to sing “‘Center C”’ on
demand and to recognize it when it is
played or sung and they soon become
equally familiar with the other musical
tones.
HUNDREDS OF CASES STUDIED
I base this statement on the experi-
ence of having taught some hundreds
of children; the corroborative experi-
ence of the teachers I have trained
would add hundreds more cases. Cer-
tainly I do not say that every one ‘can
acquire, by training, this once mysteri-
ous gift of Positive Pitch, but I know
that most people can do so, if they
begin at an early age.
This surely indicates that musical
talent is much more widespread than
has been thought and that the cases we
have quoted of the appearance of won-
derful ability in the children of seemingly
non-musical parents, may be merely
instances of the inheritance of latent
characters.
299
Some children will, of course, not
acquire Positive Pitch as quickly as
others. There are children who dq not
so easily learn to write English from
dictation as others; but do we therefore
allow them to give up and say that they
cannot be taught? By the time he is
ten or twelve any normal child can
learn to write correctly from dictation
five hundred words or more. Now,
taking every white and black key on
the piano there are only eighty-cight.
Given a fair chance and a mind unmes-
merized by the idea that reading music
and Positive Pitch are difficult and
require special gift, a child may as
easily see mentally the sign for any
sound as he sees the words that he
hears you dictate to him in English.
That the results of music study have
hitherto been so meagre is due to
parental indifference and the faultiness
of the methods of teaching music.
Teachers have insisted that the child
should not be allowed to play the piano
by ear, claiming that this will ruin his
musical ear and make reading by sight
impossible! Fancy a mother fearing
that if her child speaks English first
by ear, he will never learn to read it!
As music is primarily an art making its
first and greatest appeal through the
ear, it is unreasonable to suppress the
interest and initiative which naturally
appear first through the ear and then,
later on, by laborious ear training
lessons to try to get back the interest
and power which we have ignored during
the most formative period of the child’s
life.
MUSIC EASILY ACQUIRED
The acquirement of musical education
is or should be comparatively easy, not
only because of the smallness of the
musical vocabulary (consisting as we
have said of only eighty-eight tones),
but also because of the universality of
its notation. The present system of
musical notation, though perhaps not
perfect, has this great advantage, that
it is the same all over the civilized
world, so that when one learns it in
America, the musical thoughts of
France, Spain, Germany, Italy or Rus-
sia are equally accessible. A child
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A LESSON IN MODULATION
As against the view of extreme eugenicists, that musical ability is an inherited trait, which you
either do or do not get from your parents, many psychologists claim that music is a universal,
natural method of self-expression, and that every normal individual possesses the ability to
develop it just as he possesses the ability to develop the power of expressing himself in
English, or whatever his mother tongue may be. The numerous individuals who are
considered or consider themselves ‘‘absolutely unmusical”’ are held to be the results of lack
of education, or wrong methods of education, in this form of expression. Mrs. Fletcher-
Copp has found that children, if allowed to develop their ability in a natural way, can soon
reach achievements that many adults of long training cannot surpass. This photograph
shows one of her means of teaching children modulation. By this simple piece of ap-
paratus, on which different chords can be represented by movable pegs, no less than fifteen
different simple ways of modulating can be easily taught to any child. With such a
stock of experience, he will know more than the average teacher. Of 700 music teachers.
Mrs. Fletcher-Copp says she found only three who could modulate easily and happily,
and they did not pretend to understand what they were doing. (Fig. 6.)
learns to read. English easily and well
during the first six years of his school
life (thac is from the age of six to twelve) ;
he might just as easily learn during the
same time to read fearlessly and well
the universal language of Music.
If you were to visit a public school
and express surprise that the wash-
woman’s daughter reads as well as the
child of your own cultured neighbor,
you would be told that “thanks to the
System,”’ the advantages of birth are
being wonderfully counterbalanced;
that, though the effects of a few gen-
erations of culture may tell in other
ways, no one is dependent upon his
301
302
forefathers for ability to read, spell or
write. Scientific teaching makes these
things possible to all mankind.
Exactly as normal is the ability to
learn to read and think music.
The first conclusion, then, which I
venture to lay before students of
heredity, is that they have, with the
material at present available, no proper
ground for drawing conclusions as to
the distribution of musical talent in
the population; because there is a great
deal which is merely latent, having
been denied the possibility of expres-
sion. The inheritance of a trait and
the expression of a trait are two different
things. No student of heredity would
consciously ignore the distinction, but
in the study of the inheritance of musi-
cal ability they have unconsciously
ignored it, and therefore their results
do not correspond with the reality.
Time and again, as I have said, I have
taken children from families where there
was apparently no musical ability, and
where the child himself was supposed
to be utterly deficient in music. The
student of heredity, I fear, would
‘unhesitatingly have set down such a
child as non-musical because of failure
to inherit the prerequisites. Yet this
child, after being educated in a natural
manner, has acquired Positive Pitch,
has learned to compose, to express his
own feelings musically, and to analyze
compositions which would baffle many
teachers.
Thus, although a child may come from
a supposedly unmusical family, it by
no means follows that the child cannot
develop musical ability of a high order.
On the other hand, what of the cases
1 This view has been developed of late years by a number of psychologists.
The Journal of Heredity
where the child of two musical parents
fails to show talent?
I have in mind one striking case of
this sort which I met years ago.
The father was a pianist of international
renown, the mother a gifted musician.
They hoped, of course, that their child,
with its double inheritance, would sur-
pass either one of them: they confidently
expected such a result. The child
was set to studying music at an early
age, but made no progress whatever;
he was declared to be dull, uninterested,
hopeless.
I was naturally curious to find the
reason for this state of affairs: and they
were not hard to find. Almost the
first inquiry I made disclosed the fact
that the child showed a dislike for
tedious hours of practicing, and was
therefore frequently shut up in a dark
closet for an hour or two at a time, to
instil in him a greater love for his lessons,
and a spirit more obedient to the wishes
of his parents. Small wonder that he
lost interest in music; and without
interest, without an eagerness to learn,
little can be’ done. But where the
interest and will exist, it is an unusually
defective child that cannot acquire a
considerable amount of musical ability;
and the same to a less extent holds good
of adults.!_ Perhaps it may be of inter-
est if I explain in a little detail the views
on this point to which twenty years of
teaching have brought me.
If the motive for studying music be
made clear and the method of teaching
be sound, we may count confidently on
the results. Browning says, “It is
better Youth should strive, tHrough
acts uncouth, towards making, than
In the Archiv fur
die gesamte Psychologie, XXXIV, 12, pp. 235-253 (Leipzig, 1915), Siegfried Bernfeld of Vienna
cites two university students whom he studied, each of whom was supposed to be utterly
unmusical, until the exertion of the will, as he says, led to the development of considerable
enjoyment of music. He concludes: ‘‘The individual's reaction to music is by no means wholly
decided by the nature and quantity of his psychophysical tendencies. It is influenced to a certain
degree by the will to be or not to be musical . . . Even when accurate tests have shown that a
person possesses all the elements of musical ability, it cannot be foretold with certainty whether
he can acquire musical appreciation, for it is possible that an inhibition with retroactive force
against music may exist in him, a will to be unmusical, or at least to seem so to himself and
others." Cf. also Sterne, die differentielle Psychologie (1911), p. 265. For the opposite view,
that heredity is the primary factor, consult Hans Rupp, Ueber die Priifung musikalischen Fahig-
keiten; Ztschft. f. die angewandte Psychol., IX, Nos. 1 and 2; also C. B. Davenport, Heredity in
Relation to Eugenics (New York, 1911), p. 48. The psychological literature on music is large;
for an interesting account of how musical ability is measured see Carl Emil Seashore, Psychology
in Daily Life (New York, 1913), pp. 196 ff.—The Editor.
Copp: Musical Ability
303
COMPOSITION OF A 13-YEAR-OLD BOY
Acting on the principle that music is as natural a form of self-expression as are words, Mrs.
Fletcher-Copp tries to get children to express their feelings in this way. The above com-
position represents the thought of a 13-year old boy after studying a picture called ‘‘The
Last Outpost,”’ in which an Indian who has been driven from the ancestral hunting-ground
of his tribe contemplates the waters of the Pacific with the thought that if he is again
forced by the white man to move, it can only be into the ocean.
repose on aught found made.” We
have made the mistake in music teaching
in the past of putting the finished prod-
uct of another’s mind before our children
and forcing them to copy it. Behind
this mistake is the wrong motive.
The main idea was to force the child to
copy, parrot-like, at the earliest possible
moment, the thoughts of some one else.
Music was looked upon merely as a
means of adornment, as something to
be plastered on the outside to add to the
attractiveness of the child. The motive
is altogether wrong. Not slavery to
someone else’s ideas but freedom to
express one’s own ideas should be the
aim. Watch a tiny child seated on his
mother’s knee. She has been playing
and he has been told to keep his little
paddies on her wrists, but presently
he pushes her hands aside and substi-
tutes for the beautiful composition his
own incoherent pattings and poundings
of the keys, striving “through sounds
uncouth”’ to express himself; but, alas!
he is stopped. It is as though a two-
year-old should toddle to his mother
(Fig. 7.)
and stammer with his crooked little
tongue, “See, mama, ve sun is playing
hide and go seek wif me,” and the
mother should say, “You must not talk
that way, my child. You should say,
as Homer writes, ‘Lo! Dawn the rosy-
fingered, opes wide the gates of Day.’”’
What would be the effect of this classical
method of teaching English upon one’s
joy and proficiency in acquiring the
mother tongue?
METHODS OF EDUCATION
The motive, then, for learning musical
notation must be for the purpose of
freeing the child by giving him the
means of expressing his own ideas on
paper as well as giving him pleasure in
reading easily and joyfully the thoughts
of others. The means used for the
attainment of these ends are most
important. They must cultivate as
many of the child’s senses as possible.
If he can feel the symbols as well as
see them; if he may see them in a big,
tangible form; then through this touch
contact and through this ready sight, it
304 The Journal
occurs to him to place the symbols thus
and so and then to find out on the
piano what the symbols so placed by
himself will express when sounded.
We, therefore, give the child notes of
heroic size to play with and a loose-noted
key board to take to pieces and become
familiar with by putting together again.
We have further invented games which
call into play qualities of mind the lack
of which has wrecked many a musician
in the past; games which cultivate the
ability to think calmly, coherently and
quickly before others, games which
require rapidity of thought and action
and which develop unselfishness, gener-
osity and balance, mental, emotional
and technical. It was not music which
made for the lack of these qualities as
has often been insinuated; it was a lack
of the most valuable traits of a true
musician, missed by acquiring a certain
musical veneer without real, scientific,
educational growth.
In the past to be a musician was
almost a synonym for being character-
ized by nervousness, lack of balance,
general peculiarity and uselessness in
practical life; but, to repeat, these
deficiencies were not because of music
but rather proved a lack of musical
development in its entirety.
If we will consider music as a lan-
guage, not so much of the intellect, as
of that finer, higher, more spiritual part
of us, a language which this soul of ours
needs; and if we will then consider all
the sensible things we do to acquire
other languages and try these same
things for the attainment of the musical
language, we may make some interesting
discoveries. When a 5-year-old child
speaks English it is because he has
thought it and has his own thoughts to
express. First in music, then, a child
should be led to think his own music,
to speak his own music before he is
taught to copy. He cannot become an
independent thinker by first being
wholely and solely a copyist. Impro-
vising and modulation in music are
equivalent in English to power to express
the sense contained in a prose paragraph
or in a verse. It is like taking six
adjectives, three nouns, two verbs, and
three prepositions and making a sentence
of Heredity
out of them. These rudimentary exer-
cises in English lead to more or less
freedom in the art of expression of
ideas if we have any to express later on.
We do not say at the outset that there
is no earthly use in having the child
participate in such and such exercises
because he will never be an author; the
being an author is submerged in the
practical usefulness of self-expression.
Precisely the same attitude should be
taken in regard to music if it is to be
allowed to do the good and be the good
to us that it may be. When we take
an idea from a poem or an essay and
express it in our own words, we are
improvising in English. Are we never
to do this in music? Can we get
nothing except the literal thought word
for word as we read it?
THE VALUE OF MUSIC
The value of learning music is not in
the number of pieces one may play, but
in the musical thoughts one can think.
Real music is self-expression and, far
from making the child self-centered, it
should make him most sympathetic of
the efforts of others. A child who has
made his own Reverie or dream has the
keenest appreciation of a “real com-
poser.’”’ We know that to trim a hat
does not cause one to be unappreciative,
but the reverse, of a well-trimmed hat.
So it is with cake-making, dress-making,
story-making, poem- and music-making.
We do not complain because so few of
the boys and girls, who during their
school days wrote essays on ““The Dog,”
“Our Country’s Flag” or “A Visit to
Grandmother,” fail to become authors
or authoresses. We are satisfied if they
are able to express themselves well in
spoken or written language as required
by the demands of every-day life. But
there are times when every human being
feels the need of a language beyond the
power of words. Plato said, ‘‘Music is
to the mind what air is to the body.”
Now air is a necessity but we moderns
have not believed music to be a neces-
sity. We have considered it merely an
accomplishment. How much more it
might be! Just the other day a boy of
13 brought to me the little composition
which is reproduced in Fig. 7. He had
Copp: Musical Ability
seen the picture weeks before of a lonely
Indian standing against the sunset sky,
gazing in calm desperation into the
ocean at his feet. This would be the
next move if he were ordered further
west. The picture was called “The Last
Outpost” and it stirred up feelings
in the boy’s heart which presently
got out on paper (much the safest,
healthiest place for them) in the form
of this little composition. This is only
one example of oh, so many natural
outbursts of feeling in music.
Every human being feels at some time
or other the need of music, but this
music which he needs is not the artificial
substitute which has usurped the place
of the real thing. Music can be to each
only what he is capable of hearing, feel-
ing and understanding. Therefore
when one sits at the piano and plays a
Beethoven Sonata which one cannot
think, cannot analyze, cannot mentally
hear—plays exactly in the manner of
the Herr Professor—one is exemplifying
the parrot in music and this is an
unsatisfactory accepting of the unreal
for the real, which gets us nowhere.
305
Man is not the sum total of his words
but of his thoughts and it behooves us
to stop copying words, words, woxds in
music and to begin to think and to
express ourselves.
When we really believe what we say,
that “nothing is too good for the
American child,’ we shall give him
eight years’ training in the public school
in self-expression in music and the
results will prove beyond cavil the
source and cause and meaning of music.
They will also, I am sure, leave no
ground for the belief now entertained by
some geneticists, that musical ability
is a rare “unit character’’ due, as has
been alleged, to some “‘defect in the
protoplasm”’ which only a few families
possess; they will show on a large scale
what my own experience has already
made clear to me, that musical ability is
part of the universal inheritance of man,
just as the ability to talk is, and that
the differences between individuals in
respect to it are due much more to
training than to differences in the
heredity.
Official Register of Selected Plants in Hungary
The Hungarian Minister of Agricul-
ture has accepted the scheme proposed
by Emile Grabner in his report presented
in 1913 to the Royal Institute of Plant
Breeding ot Magyarovar and has issued
an order regarding an official register of
selected plants in Hungary. On the
basis of this regulation, the State recog-
nition and official registration of selected
Hungarian plants came into force, on
September 1, 1915. The Royal Insti-
tute of Plant Breeding is responsible for
the keeping of the official register. The
effect of this provision will be to give an
additional impetus to plant breeding
which of latter years has already made
such rapid strides in Hungary. On the
one hand it will protect Hungarian
growers from the adulteration of seeds
and the false description of inferior
seeds, and on the other hand, it will
afford a safe guarantee to the purchasers
of the strict selection of the species the
seed of which they wish to acquire.
At the same time, the Minister of
Agriculture has authorized the said
Institute to present, as soon as possible,
detailed schemes regarding the develop-
ment, on a large scale, of the intensive
selection of Hungarian plants. The
‘Minister considers it desirable that the
work of selection should not be left
merely to a few enthusiasts but should
be taken up in a methodical manner by
all practical agriculturists, with the close
collaboration of the said Institute.—
Bulletin of International Institute of
Agriculture, Rome.
Crossing Apricots and Peaches with Cherries
The wild Compass cherry has been
crossed with the apricot and the peach,
at the Minnesota state fruit-breeding
farm. A number of seedlings have been
secured but have not yet fruited. The
cherry was used as the mother parent,
and the hybrids resemble the pollen-
bearing parent strongly in every in-
stance, according to Supt. Charles
Haralson.
A BOTANICAL PARADOX
D. F. Hiccins, Pekin, China
( of is supposed to be the home
of many strange things, among
which those of the vegetable
kingdom are not the least. There
are giant persimmons, to four inches in
diameter, and better to eat than
Americans can imagine, for all the
‘“‘nucker”’ is gone before they are ripe;
and there are full-grown pine trees not
over two feet high. Lilliputian lemon
trees grow in one’s parlor and bear
fruit ready to be picked for the fish
when it is served in the dining-room
The Chinese farmer is a pastmaster, in
an empirical way, of the arts of bud-
ding and grafting. The ‘English”’
walnut is indigenous to China.
One day I made a visit to the Great
Bell Temple, a few miles northwest of
the city of Peking, and there I found a
botanical wonder which outdid all that
I have ever seen or heard about. In
grafting, it is generally thought that
the species must not be far removed
from each other; but here I found a
specific gap of a botanical phylum, and
an evolutionary gap of geologic periods
of time, covered, I was assured, not by
human means, but by nature’s accidents.
In the court of this temple is a pine
tree (Pinus sinensis) from the side of
the trunk of which, at about 8 feet
above the ground, is growing a healthy
elm tree (Ulmus pumila) about 1 foot
in diameter. The junction is shown in
detail in the accompanying photograph.
Around the junction there is no sign of
any break in the bark of the pine tree.
Here is a problem for plant chemists.
Can the food solutions of the gym-
nosperms be utilized by an angiosperm?
and I would ask the students of genetics:
Can the “sport’’ form of variation, so
often credited with the origin of new
species, extend to such a violent dis-
ruption of nature’s continuity as this?
Or, did one elm seed, of the millions
which have doubtless lodged in the
crevices of pine tree bark, so sprout
and take root that, through inherited
or environmental advantages, it was
able to assimilate the nutritive sub-
stances of the pine? Or has Chinese
arboriculture surpassed itself, and per-
formed this union which almost staggers
reason?
This is truly a very wonderful thing,
but this is not al]. In the crotch of the
pine, some 18 feet above the ground is
still another deciduous angiosperm grow-
ing from the same pine tree! This tree
is a paper-mulberry (broussonetia pa-
pyrifera.) At the time of these obser-
vations, in the spring of 1915, it was
about 2 inches in diameter, and growing
lustily. The fruits, somewhat like syca-
more balls, were about half grown.
It would be interesting to know if
definitely recorded instances of such
growths as these are to be found else-
where. (Note—Unless there is definite
evidence to the contrary, it would be
much easier to believe that the pine tree
is partly hollow, and that the elm and
paper-mulberry have sent their roots
down into earth and decaying matter
in the hollow trunk.—The Editor.)
The A. G. A. and the A. A. A. S.
The American Genetic Association,
being affiliated with the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, is entitled to have two repre-
sentatives on the council of the latter
organization. Prof. Albert F. Blakeslee
of the Carnegie Institution, Cold Spring
Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., and Prof.
306
Zdward N. Wentworth of the Kansas
State Agricultural College have been
appointed to act in this capacity. The
next meeting of the American Genetic
Association will be held in New York
City, December 26-30, in connection
with the meeting of the A. A. A. 5S.
Hy
sil |
THE STRANGE GUESTS OF A PINE TREE
In the court of the Great Bell Temple, a few miles from Pekin, stands this Chinese pine from
which are growing two deciduous trees which are about as little related to the pine as any
trees could be. One, to which the man is pointing, is an elm; the other not plainly visible
in this photograph, but to be seen more clearly in Fig. 9, is a paper-mulberry. The Chinese
are pastmasters in horticulture, but it is impossible to believe that they could graft such
diverse species as these. The botanist might have abundant faith to believe that the lion
and lamb will lie down together, but, unless he had seen it, he would probably be unable
to believe the story which this picture tells. Photograph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 8.)
laa “ ; \j
; ANN Wh ie’
aA Ae
AN INCOMPATIBLE HOUSEHOLD
Near view of an elm growing from the trunk of a pine. In the crotch of the pine, above the elm,
may be seen the small b'ack trunk of still another tree—a paper-mulberry, the foliage of
v-hich occupies much of the upper right-hand part of the photograph. The elm and paper-
mulberry are so different from the pine that it is hardly believable that they could live on
its sap, but it may be that the trunk of the pine is partly holiow and contains earth and
decaying matter which furnish nourishment for the strangers lodging on it. Photograph
by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 9.)
EE a POSLIVIZE OUR
NEGATIVE EUGENICS
A. E. Hamitton, New York, N.Y.
port of the people for programs of
segregating and colonizing our hered-
itary defectives in a really large way,
we will have to present a program that
is alive with the spirit of ““something to
do.”’ Merely caging people who are a
nuisance doesn’t arouse much genuine
human interest, or at best this interest
is academic. But tell a man that you
can take a lot of human damaged goods
and make it into a useful constructive
factor in our national life, and he will
sit up and listen.
Charles Bernstein, Sancrarendent of
the Rome State Custodial Asylum, at
Rome, New York, has given negative
eugenics a golden text that shines.
He turned twenty-five of his higher
grade inmate boys into Boy Scouts (all
I: WE are going to get the moral sup-
of them passed the tenderfoot require-
ments), uniformed them and sent them
up into the Adirondacks for a month
of summer camping last October. He
asked Governor Whitman if these boys
couldn’t be used in reforesting work.
They had plenty of time, they loved to
work out-of-doors, they were well super-
intended by George Kuehn, a nature-
loving Scout Master who could get that
gang of state wards to do anything
within reach of their possibilities, and
do it happily and well. Governor Whit-
man was willing, but some small-minded
political parasites found a_ technical
objection to State employment of such
labor and threw sand in the bearings of
theenterprise. But Bernstein persisted.
The boys were sent up to camp, and
incidentally a carload of seedling spruce
THIS BARE HILL WILL BECOME A FOREST
And the change will be due to a bunch of boys who now represent only waste human material,
in most places. The feebleminded are not able to compete on equal terms with the normal,
in the struggle of the world’s work, but they are abundantly able to do many kinds of work,
and do it well, if they have proper direction.
They might be made an asset of the State,
instead of the liability they are at present, if more people had a sympathetic understanding
of their possibilities. (Fig. 10.)
309
DO THESE
Popular ignorance tends to confuse the feebleminded with the insane and imagine that they
should be caged in the interests of public safety.
individuals who are, mentally, merely good-natured, irresponsible children.
BOYS LOOK DANGEROUS?
Asa fact, most of them are strong, healthy
They require
careful supervision, but giv en that they may live not only happy but productive lives.
The campaign for “negativ e eugenics”’
should be devoted to putting the defectives not only
where they can do no harm but even more to putting them where they can do good. The
conservation team here shown is made up from boys at the Rome State Custodial Asylum,
N. Y. (Fig. 11.)
was left on a siding of the railroad
nearby. The door of this car was open,
and boys will be boys. Two by two
they carried off the young trees, and
planted them over a space of some one
hundred and fifty acres. They did the
work admirably, so well indeed that the
State Commissioner of Conservation
commended it warmly, and said it
ranked as high as any work done by
regular paid labor. Just one hundred
and fifty thousand trees were set out, all
in a spirit of fun and play. The keep of
these boys as state wards, plus the cost
of transportation, amounted to $400.
The net value to the State of the work
they did was $1,000 and in twenty years
time there will be a broad green monu-
ment to the boys’ memory.
There are hundreds of thousands
acres of national land that need re-
310
foresting and conservation work. There
are several hundred thousand unfortu-
nate young men and boys who cannot
compete favorably with their fellows in
the world who could do this work if they
were rightly directed. Camp colonies
in summer, transportation southward in
cold weather for work down there, insti-
tutional housing in winter where neces-
sary—all these things are coming, and
they will come all the more quickly as
people are told such stories as this, and
stories such as Alexander Johnson, of
Vineland, can tell by the ream of the
possibilities that lie in subnormal ner-
vous systems.
Eugenics will make progress just about
in proportion as it eliminates its em-
phasis on pathology and concentrates on
the positive aspects of human possi-
bility.
HYBRID TREES
Many Natural Hybrids, as Well as Sports, to Be Found—Artificial Hybridization
Leads to Production of Trees Valuable for Their Great Vigor—
What Has Been Done and What May Be Done
A Review By W. H. Lams
United States Forest Service, Washington, D. C.
orchard trees is now a _ well-
established art, but breeding
timber trees has hardly been
undertaken. The importance of such
work is being recognized, however, and
Prof. Augustine Henry has made a
notable contribution in his study of
natural and artificial hybrids.' His
recent paper on the black poplars? offers
some excellent examples of the occur-
rence of natural hybrids and the value
of artificial ones.
The cultivated species of Populus
which have been found desirable for
commercial plantings, he points out, are
without exception of “unnatural” origin,
in that they are either sports or hybrids,
and not ordinary species.
“A sport is usually a solitary phenom-
enon, arising either as a sporadic peculiar
seedling from a seed, or developing out
of a bud ona tree as a single branch with
some peculiarity of twig or leaf. A
sport may be looked upon as a freak,
not forming the starting-point of a new
species, but speedily becoming extinct if
left to nature. Sports, when of interest
on account of the curiosity or the
beauty of their appearance, are propa-
gated usually by grafts,
layers; being only in rare cases per-
petuated by seed. Some sports are
due to arrested development. The tree,
in the course of its life, often passes
through stages, like those of an insect.
The seedling of many species differs
from the adult tree as a larva from a
butterfly. The infant ash has simple
BR eeiert short-lived plants and
cuttings, or
leaves. The sport known as the simple-
leaf ash is simply a seedling ash, which
has never progressed to maturity and
may be called a persistent larval form.
The Irish yew was found in 1767 as a
seedling on the mountain behind
Florence Court in Fermanagh, and is
characterised by all the branches being
directed vertically upwards and all the
leaves spreading radially around the
twig. This is apparently also the
seedling stage preserved. All the
myriads of Irish ‘yews, now scattered
throughout the world, are cuttings either
from the original tree at Florence Court
or from trees that were derived from
those cuttings.
THE LOMBARDY POPLAR
“This upright, so-called fastigiate
form may occur as a sport in any
species, the best known being the
Lombardy poplar, which originated on
the banks of the Po about 1700 and
subsequently spread over the world.
The Lombardy poplar and Irish yew
are striking examples of the immense
number of individual trees of a sport
that may exist, this abundance being
entirely due to human agency. Left
to nature, these two remarkable forms
would never have multiplied, and would
have ceased to exist, once the original
trees had succumbed to old age or
injury. The fastigiate sport is of rare
occurrence in most genera, usually only
a single original tree being recorded.
Amongst, however, the cypress and
juniper families, fastigiate seedlings are
1 Henry, Augustine, ‘The Artificial Production of Vigorous Trees, ’’ Jour. of Dept. of Agric. and
Tech. Instr. for Ireland, XV, 1, 1915.
Xe 2 AprlsdO0s.
2 Henrv, Augustine,
“The Black Poplars.’
Reviewed by W. H. Lamb in Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters,
Trans. Royal Scot. Arboricult. Soc., pp. 14-27,
January, 1916; also in Gard. Chron. (London), LVI, pp. 1, 46, 66, July, 1914.
311
A NATURAL HICKORY HYBRID
This tree, which is believed to be a cross between the pecan (Hicoria pecan) and the shellbark
hickory (H. laciniosa) is standing in a rich river bottcm 12 miles from Mt. Vernon, Ind.
Like most first-generation hybrids, it is a vigorous and rapid grower, but perhaps for this
very reason its leaves and branches are tender and succulent—at any rate it seems to
attract all the insect pests in the neighborhood. ‘This is not always the case with hybrid
trees, however, for many of them are superior to their parents. The immense size of the
nuts which this hybrid bears can be judged from one which the man at the right of the
picture holds in his hand; in Fig. 15 a single one of them is shown natural size. Photograph
from the United States Department of Agriculture. (Fig. 12.)
Lamb: Hybrid Trees
common; and the upright habit appears
to come true from seed. The Mediter-
ranean cypress has been known in this
peculiar narrow form for centuries, but
always cultivated. In the wild state,
as in the mountains of Cyprus, the tree
is widespreading in habit. The common
juniper, however, is often fastigiate in
the wild forests of Scandinavia. This
exemplifies the difficulty of strict defini-
tion in nature, as the fastigiate habit,
which is a rare sport in most trees,
becomes in the junipers and cypresses
almost a normal form, capable of being
perpetuated by seed.”
If sports among forest trees are more
common than has been generally sup-
posed, the same is true of hybrids.
Prof. Henry mentions the hollies of
Great Britain, which include numerous
hybrids and sports, as well as good
species. American naturalists are famil-
iar with the hawthorns, whose hybridity
has lately been demonstrated by Prof.
E. C. Jeffrey of Harvard and his pupils.®
The extraordinary state of affairs in
the hawthorn genus (Crataegus) may
best be realized if we recall that more
than 700 alleged species of Crataegus
have been described, whereas, of all
other trees in the United States put
together, there are only some 600 species.
HYBRID OAKS
The willows are known to hybridize
widely, and the various species of oaks
readily cross with any of their near
relatives that happen to be growing
near. Prof. Henry cites an interesting
oak hybrid in England:
“The results of the experimental
sowings of the seeds of numerous elms
which I made in 1909, together with an
investigation into the history of the
Lucombe oak, given in a paper read by
me at the Linnean Society on the
seventh of April, 1910, threw new light
on many hybrid trees in cultivation,
which had not previously been recog-
nized as such, in spite of the fact that
no one could find these trees anywhere
in the wild state. The statement often
made that a particular tree was a
‘variety of garden origin’ was no
3Standish, L.M. What is Happening to the Hawthorns?
6, pp. 266-279, June, 1916.
Sih
explanation. The Lucombe oak was
observed in the Exeter Nursery in 1765
as a seedling, which differed from its
parent, a Turkey oak (Quercus cerris),
in being much more fast in growth and
in retaining its leaves during winter till
March. Lucombe propagated this seed-
ling by grafting, and believed it to be
simply a sport of the Turkey oak.
In 1792 it bore acorns from which
numerous seedlings were raised, no two
of which were alike, while some strongly
resembled in bark and leaves the Cork
oak (Q. suber). Lucombe’s son then
correctly surmised that it was a hybrid—
the flower on the Turkey oak, from
which the acorn producing it was
formed, having been fertilized by the
pollen of an adjoining large Cork oak.
“This case illustrates several well-
known laws in regard to hybrids:
“1. The first cross is usually of excep-
tional vigor, more vigorous than either
parent.
“2. When the first-cross reproduces
itself by seed, the second generation
consists of classes of individuals, which
differ from one another and from their
parent. The first-cross never comes
true from seed, but produces a mixed
and varied offspring.
“3. None of the individuals of the
second generation equal in vigor the
first-cross. This was also clearly estab-
lished in the case of the Lucombe oak.
“Other common trees, of which no
history is recorded, doubtless originated
in the same way as the Lucombe oak,
namely, as chance seedlings (the result
of accidental crossing by wind or an
insect), which observant nurserymen or
-gardeners found desirable to propagate
on account of their vigor. The intro-
duction in quantity into Europe during
the seventeenth century of North Amer-
ican trees, which grew alongside similar
but distinct European species in parks
and gardens, was the occasion of con-
siderable hybridization. Trees like the
black Italian poplar and the London
plane, which have nowhere been seen
wild, are intermediate in botanical
characters between an American and a
JOURNAL OF HeErepiIrTy, VII,
314
European species in each case, and are
undoubtedly first-crosses. These two
trees have been traced back to 1700,
about which date the American parents
had been long enough in Europe to
bear flowers.”
THE POPLAR HYBRIDS
The black poplars, it will be remem-
bered, are represented by only two
species, one native to Europe and the
other to North America, and both
having well-marked geographical varie-
ties. The European species, Populus
nigra, is distinguished from the Amer-
ican tree, Populus deltotdea, by the
absence of cilia (tiny projecting hairs)
on the margins of the leaves, and by the
absence of glands on the base of the
leaf-blades in front. These character-
istics are present on the leaves of the
American black poplar. The author
designates the glabrous form of the
European black poplar as Populus nigra
var. typica, and the pubescent form as
Populus nigra var. betulifolia. The
glabrous black poplars of North America
are given as Populus deltoidea var.
monolifera, growing from Ontario to
Pennsylvania, and Populus deltoidea
var. occidentalis, growing in the region
directly east of the Rocky Mountains,
from Saskatchewan and Alberta to
New Mexico and western Texas. The
pubescent American black poplar is
Populus deltoidea var. muissourtensis,
which grows in the south and south-
eastern parts of the United States,
ascending the Mississippi basin to
Missouri. This variety, the author
believes, may be taken as the type of
Populus deltoidea, being most likely to
be the form represented by the original
description of Marshall.
THE CAROLINA POPLAR
But the chief importance of Prof.
Henry’s contribution lies in his extensive
study of the cultivated black poplars,
which has resulted in the valuable dis-
covery that they are almost invariably
of hybrid origin. Most interesting to
American foresters is the discovery
made concerning the Carolina poplar
which has been so extensively cultivated
here. A great many of our writers
The Journal of Heredity
have felt that this name, ‘Carolina
poplar,’’ was one invented by nursery-
men to overcome the unpopularity of
the cottonwood. Some have even
believed that the Populus nigra of the
trade was nothing but our Populus
deltoidea grown in France and Belgium
and returned to America under the false
designation. Muchrelief, therefore, will
be experienced by reputable dealers, and
by their patrons as well, at having
Prof. Henry’s determination of the true
nature of the cultivated black poplars,
and especially the Carolina poplar.
Originally the author felt that this
tree was merely a form of our Populus
deltoidea, which had undergone mutation
in its floral parts after cultivation in
Europe. But now it is determined that
the tree is a hybrid between the true
black poplar of Europe (Populus nigra)
and the southern form of our native
black poplar (Populus deltotdea var.
Missouriensts).
In addition to the Carolina poplar, a
number of hybrids are illustrated and
described by Prof. Henry which have
been derived from the typical black
poplar of Europe and the northern form
of our black poplar (Populus deltoidea
var. monolifera). These are: P. serotina
Hartig, P. regenerata Schneider, P.
Eugenet Simon-Louis, P. marilandica
Bosc., and P. Henryana Dode. Further,
two forms are described as having arisen
from the hybridization of the European
black poplar with hybrid forms. These
are P. robusta Schneider and P. Lloydiit
Henry.
WHY NOT A HYBRID SYCAMORE?
Viewing this work in the light of the
previous researches of Prof. Henry on
the artificial production of vigorous
trees, it will be observed that the
author has first demonstrated the prac-
tical importance of propagating first
generation hybrids. He has then ascer-
tained that the poplars already recog-
nized as especially desirable for cultiva-
tion are of hybrid origin. The two
papers, therefore, present most forcibly
the great importance of initiating inten-
sive work on the artificial production of
vigorous trees, and suggest that special
attention be directed toward the hybrid-
A CLUSTER OF PECAN NUTS
The pecan is a species of hickory and its nuts, here shown natural size, are enclosed in pods
or husks.
It is becoming an important crop in the southern states, due to the isolation
and propagation of superior varieties instead of dependence on mixed seedlings, as in the
past.
ization of species of many genera. Our
sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, for ex-
ample, is one of the most rapid growing
of our hardwood trees. But it is
afflicted with a fungus disease which
causes the leaves to fall almost imme-
diately after they have appeared in the
spring. The restored foliage does not
appear to suffer, however, and the tree
Photograph from the United States Department of Agriculture.
(Fig. 13.)
does not appear to be greatly retarded
in its annual growth, for notwithstand-
ing this infirmity, the tree holds first
place in size among North American
hardwoods. But the tree is being
replaced by the European sycamore or
plane (Platanus orientalis) in street and
landscape plantings, as the exotic species
appears to be immune to this disease.
4 Lamb, W. H., in JouRNAL oF HEreEpity, VI, 9, pp. 424-428, September, 1915.
316 The Journal
The possibility of producing a vigorous
hybrid between these trees is immedi-
ately suggested. In fact one may
already exist. The London plane, Pla-
tanus acertfolia, has never been found
growing wild and exhibits character-
istics intermediate between the Amer-
ican and the European planes. But
without doubt, it would be highly
profitable to experiment with hybrids
of known parentage.
A large field for profitable research
is thus opened up by the possibility of
artificially producing trees having excep-
tional vigor. The oaks, chestnuts, lin-
dens, and many other important genera
offer a fertile field for experimentation.
And at the present time the importance
of such work can scarcely be over-
estimated.
How little has been done is made
strikingly clear by Prof. Henry’s his-
torical review. He ascribes to Klotzsch
the credit for the first hybridization,
with the production of pine, oak, alder
and elm hybrids at Berlin in 1845.
The results were good, but the work
attracted little attention.
VIGOROUS WALNUT HYBRIDS
The frequent production of hybrid
walnuts in California led Luther Bur-
bank to take up this genus, and he
called attention to the valuable qualities
of the first-generation hybrids, which
grow so rapidly that experienced for-
esters will scarcely credit the figures.
Trees of the so-called Paradox walnut
(Juglans regia, the Persian or “English”
x J. californica) at Santa Rosa measure
80 feet in height and 6 feet in girth
after fifteen years of growth. The
hybrid known as Royal (J. californica x
J. nigra, the black walnut of the
eastern United States), appears to be an
even more rapid grower, one specimen
being credited with a height of 100 feet
and a girth of 9 feet after only sixteen
years of growth. Another magnificent
walnut hybrid is that on the James
River, Virginia, which was described
by Peter Bisset recently.’
As to the quality of the wood of these
hybrid trees—a point of prime impor-
of Heredity
tance to foresters—Prof. Henry remarks:
“Tt is a popular belief that fast-grown
timber is necessarily soft and com-
paratively worthless. This is a fact in
most conifers; but in one class of broad-
leaf trees, the wood of which is char-
acterized by large pores in the inner part
of the annual ring, the contrary is true,
as the faster the timber of these trees
is grown the stronger and denser it
becomes. This class includes oak, ash,
chestnut, hickory, and walnut, the
species in fact that par excellence
produce the most valuable timber.
‘All the more reason, then, for efforts
to produce fast-growing crosses in the
case of these precious trees. To quote
from the conclusion of my paper of
1910:.‘In countries like our own the
only hope of salvation for forestry is in
growing timber rapidly; and we have
been helped in that by the introduction
of fast-growing conifers like the larch,
the Corsican pine, and the Douglas fir.
But it is essential to grow the more
valuable classes of non-coniferous tim-
ber.’ The difficulty of growing the
ordinary species of oak, ash, and walnut
is the long period required for their
maturity, which renders hopeless, except
on the best soils, all chance of an ade-
quate financial return. Without vigo- ©
rous first-crosses, the most valuable
classes of timbers can only be grown in
limited quantity.”
THE CAUSE OF VIGOR
Although many geneticists have
speculated on the problem, no one has
yet been able to offer a satisfactory
explanation of the extraordinary vigor
displayed by hybrids. Some of the
Mendelian hypotheses put forward are
plausible, but have so far remained
unproven. The observed vigor, as Prof.
Henry points out, “is distributed over
the whole plant, and is as conspicuous
in the roots as in the stem and leaves.
What we actually observe is not only
an acceleration of, but also an increase
of cell-division in all parts of the plant.
The cells divide very quickly, continue
to divide, and thus build up a taller
stem, a more extensive root-system, etc.
5 Bisset, Peter, “The James River Walnut.’’ JouRNAL oF HereEpity, V, 3, pp. 98-102,
March, 1914.
NUTS OF THE SHELLBARK HICKORY
This is one of the commoner hickories of the central United States; its nuts, here shown
natural size but without their husks, differ greatly from those of the pecan.
of a cross between the two species is shown in Fig. 15, the following illustration.
Apparently this alteration in the nature
of the division of the cells is not asso-
ciated with any visible change in their
structure. Miss Marshall, who exam-
ined for me many sections of the growing
points of hybrid poplars and their
parent species, could find, as the result
of three months’ observations, no tang1-
ble differences in the size of the cells or
nuclei, in the number of the chromo-
somes, etc.
“Tt is possible that the stimulus which
causes growth (7. e., cell-division) to
commence and to continue is some
soluble chemical compound or enzyme.
The enzyme in the hybrid may be more
complex and more effective than the
enzymes in the species. Whether the
injection of soluble matter obtained
from a hybrid into the growing points
of one of the parent species would
stimulate the latter to increased cell-
division, might be worth trying, if the
experiment could be carried out.
“Whether the amount of vigor in
hybrids is directly associated with the
degree of relationship between the
individuals which are crossed is a
disputable point, but one of practical
The result
(Fig. 14.)
interest in the selection of parents for
crossing experiments. One of my most
vigorous hybrids (Populus generosa) is
derived from two parents so little
related that they are placed in two
distinct sections of the genus. A cross
between two races of the common alder
shows considerable vigor, though the
parents are so closely allied that they
can only be distinguished by the most
trivial characters.” But whatever the
explanation of this vigor may be, no one
who has worked with hybrids is likely
to question its existence; and that fact
is sufficient to make breeding justifiable.
PROPAGATION
“An important question is the propa-
gation of these vigorous crosses, once
they are created. The first-cross does
not come true from seed, and it would
be a great drawback if we were obliged
to wait till the newly made trees bore
flowers and fruit. The first-cross, in
short, can only be multiplied by vegeta-
tive reproduction. This is easy when
the trees are readily propagated by
cuttings, as in the case of poplars and
317
318
willows, or by layers, like the Hunting-
don and Belgian elms. We may resort
to grafting low on stocks, which should
be perhaps seedlings of one or other
parent. This method will serve when
cuttings and layers are not available.
It is evident, that, when a valuable
hybrid has been produced, it can be
propagated and be put on the market,
if necessary, without delay.”
A few suggestions on the technique of
cross-pollinating trees may be useful
to those who want to try the artificial
production of vigorous trees. Both
HYBRID NUT
Cross between pecan and
shellbark hickory, borne
by the tree shown in
Fig. 12. The nut is
natural size, and en-
closed in its husk, one
side of which has been
removed. It is of
small value, commer-
cially. Photograph
from the United States
Department of Agri-
culture. (Fig. 15.)
male and female flowers should be
protected with bags, in order to prevent
the possibility of a mix-up in heredity
through the presence of foreign pollen.
The male flowers should be bagged <
week before they shed their sola,
while the female flowers may be pro-
tected for a fortnight before the stigmas
The Journal of Heredity
are receptive and a week after the cross-
pollination has been made. If the tree
with which one is working has perfect
flowers and is to be used as the seed-
bearing parent, the pollen-bearing organs
must of course be removed at an early
stage, with a needle-pointed forceps.
This operation is a delicate one, par-
ticularly if it must be carried out at the
top of a lofty tree, swaying in the wind.
Sometimes it may not be necessary, if
the flowers are protected by nature
from self-pollination. In the case of
the ash and elm, for example, the
stigmas are receptive some days before
the anthers shed their pollen. Under
these circumstances, the pollen from
another species may be applied to the
stigma, and no attention paid to the
anthers.
HANDLING TREE POLLEN
“Pollen spoils by keeping, but it often
must be kept for some time till the
stigma of the female parent is receptive.
It is often obtained from distant coun-
tries where trees of the desired species,
flowering early, can be found. It is best
kept in a small glass tube either corked
or plugged with cotton wool. Pollen
is usually collected by cutting off the
flowering twigs and placing them on
white paper in a dry place for one or
two days.
“Pollen is applied with a camel’s hair
brush, and a minute quantity is suffi-
cient for each stigma. The stigmas are
to be pollinated when receptive, indi-
cated by the presence on them of
sugary solution or by their change to a
brighter hue. Pollen grains may not
be able to germinate on the stigma of
another species, and yet be capable of
fertilizing it, if germination could be
induced. The transference of a drop
of the substance secreted by the stigma
of the pollen-bearing species to the
stigma of the other parent might induce
germination. The best time for pollina-
tion is in the warm part of the day,
between 11 a. m. and 3 p. m. in early
spring. Cold, wet days should be
avoided.”
It is not a very long time, in the
history of the world, since the English
gardener Fairchild produced the first
Lamb: Hybrid Trees
artificial hybrid plant on record, in 1715,
by fertilizing the stigma of a carnation
with the pollen of a Sweet William.
Since then, the process of artificial
cross-pollination has transformed com-
mercial horticulture and agriculture.
There is good reason to believe that it
will find an equally widespread applica-
tion in forestry, and it is probable that
Europe will undertake the work rather
than the United States. The American
continent still contains a large supply
of virgin forest. Many years ago,
however, the European forests passed
the virgin stage and became the objects
of thorough silvicultural management.
They became an agricultural crop.
Even in normal times the planted timber
is recognized as entirely inadequate for
the domestic requirements, but the
present war has placed a responsibility
upon the European forester greater than
can possibly be appreciated. Timber
reconnaissance, after the close of the
war, will reveal an awful destruction of
319
forest growth... Never before in the
history of the world has military
activity been so destructive. The great
battle wave, extending from Ostertd to
Belfort, and from Riga to Persia, flows
to and fro, while artillery of unprece-
dented caliber, great jets of liquid fire,
and clouds of deadly gases, reduce the
forests to desolation. The strategic
value of the forests, so often mentioned
in official dispatches, but too plainlv
indicates approaching necessity for in-
tensive reforestation projects, a work
which will be so imperative as to render
studies on accelerated reforestation of
the greatest economic importance. The
investigator, therefore, who can produce
trees which will exceed the natural
species in vigor, will be rendering the
most valuable public service. If he
can accelerate the reforestation of the
battlefields of Belgium and France, he
will be rendering a priceless contribution
to the national welfare.
Wanted: A
There is a possibility of an opening in
teaching plant breeding in the Division
of Agriculture at the lowa State College.
The candidate should have had some
practical experience along plant industry
Plant Breeder
lines, preferably in horticulture. Fur-
ther information may be had by ad-
dressing Professor S. A. Beach, head of
the Department of Horticulture and
Forestry, Ames, Iowa.
Eugenics and Military Preparedness
The relations of war to national
eugenics have often been pointed out;
the eugenic aspects of military pre-
paredness are less often considered.
Starting with the axiom that prepara-
tion for war should bear in mind the
necessity of safeguarding national eu-
genics as far as possible, we arrive at .
the following conclusions:
1. A military establishment should
be composed of men of as advanced an
age as is compatible with military
efficiency.
2. It should not be made up of cel1-
bates. Short enlistments might be val-
uable in favoring marriage.
3. Universal conscription would ap-
pear to be better than voluntary ser-
vice, since the latter is highly selective.
4. Officer’s families should be given
an additional allowance in pay for each
child. This would aid in increasing
the birth-rate, which appears to be very
low among army and navy officers.
5. Means should be worked out to
establish men, at the end of enlistment
or the end of hostilities, as rapidly as
possible economically, so that they
may not be forced by economic pressure
to refrain from marriage or parenthood.
6. ‘Preparedness,’ in the ordinary
sense of the word, is highly desirable in
order that the loss of men may be
minimum, especially during early days
of war when, if unready, a nation would
probably lose heavily.
These appear to be some of the con-
siderations, which should be regarded in
advance of war, if the necessity for
defense is to be made as little of a
handicap, eugenically, to a nation as
possible.
EXTRA FINGERS AND TOES
P | ‘HE occasional appearance of one
or more fingers or toes in excess
of the normal number is tech-
nically known as polydactylism,
and offers one of the most puzzling
problems in heredity. Generally, the
mode of inheritance of abnormalities
of this sort is fairly plain and follows a
simple scheme, but polydactylism has
so far baffled all attempts to reduce it to
rules; it appears to be almost anarchical.
One of the reasons for this doubtless
is that polydactylism may be due to a
number of different causes. The
guinea-pig may be cited in this connec-
tion, for it offers abundant material
for study. It ordinarily has three toes,
but in 1905 Prof. W. E. Castle of Har-
vard University found a four-toed speci-
men which he bred and from which
he has succeded in establishing a
“four-toe” strain. It has now gone
through fifteen or twenty generations,
yet the character is not absolutely fixed.
Pure-bred four-toes, when mated with
their like, will occasionally produce
three-toed individuals (which, however,
are able to transmit the four-toe
character to their offspring), just as
pure-bred three-toed individuals when
mated together will occasionally, al-
though more rarely, produce a four-toed
individual. Prof. Castle describes the
heredity of the character as “partly
blending, partly segregating;’’ that is,
its inheritance is that of a simple
Mendelian character, but one whose
visible expression varies greatly. The
character is neither dominant nor reces-
sive, he holds, but is directly modified by
crosses. “It is quantitatively variable,”’
he writes, ‘‘so that by selection one can
establish high-grade or low-grade strains
of polydactylism, and normals of poly-
dactylous ancestry often transmit the
character. It is as good a Mendelian
character as many others, but (1) lacks
dominance, (2) is variable, and (3) is
affected by crosses; 7. e., blends to some
extent or is contaminated. Strong sup-
port for this interpretation is afforded
by a recent paper on the inheritance of
320
flowering time in peas (Hoshino, 1915)
in which it is shown that the character
studied is subject to partial blending
but is clearly Mendelian, for it is coupled
with the color factor in crosses of red
with white varieties.”’
MENDELISM IS QUESTIONABLE
A Mendelian character with all the
exceptional behavior which Dr. Castle
describes is, however, a rather difficult
character to follow, and many geneticists
prefer to say that polydactylism in
guinea-pigs is not yet demonstrated to
be a Mendelian character.
The explanation of the appearance of
this fourth toe in guinea-pigs is simple:
it represents merely a reversion to the
ancestral condition. The ancestor of
the guinea-pig, in fact, had five toes,
and it is therefore likely that a fortunate
geneticist will some day find this fifth
toe cropping out, and thereby succeed in
reestablishing a five-toed strain. Prof.
J. A. Detlefsen of the University of
Illinois actually found one such animal
in his breeding experiments, but it was
sterile and could not be used to produce
a new race.
Fowls, too, had five-toed ancestors,
and although most birds of the present
day have only four toes, a fifth toe
sometimes appears. It might naturally
be supposed that this represented the
cropping out of the ancestral character;
but Bateson and Davenport have shown
that as far as the best known breeds of
domestic fowl—the Dorkings and Hou-
dans—are concerned, the fifth toe is
not a reversion, but an abnormality
due to the splitting of one of the toes
(the hallux). How such a race might
originate is graphically shown by the
accompanying photograph (Fig. 16) of a
Racing Homer pigeon, sent in by
I. O’Neill Brenan of Brisbane, Queens-
land. Here it is clearly seen that one
of the toes has split, during develop-
ment, producing a bird with five toes.
This bird, bred to one of its own
sisters, produced one squab that had an
A PIGEON WITH FIVE TOES
Asarule, extra toes are rare in birds, but a few breeds of domestic
fowl have regularly five toes.
These breeds probably
originated in such a bird as the pigeon shown here, the hind
toe being split.
The split toe is inherited to some ex-
tent, and long continued breeding and selection would
doubtless result in the establishment of a five-toed breed of
pigeons. Photograph from I. O’Neill Brenan, Brisbane,
Queensland, Australia. (Fig. 16.)
extra toe on one foot. If sufficient has been said, very rare save for the
effort were made, probably a strain of
five-toed pigeons, corresponding to the
five-toed Dorking fowls, could be estab-
lished on this basis. It would be many
generations before all the birds had
five toes, but if the five-toed individuals
were regularly selected for breeding, it
can hardly be doubted that this selection
would eventually produce an effect.
The relative constancy of the five-toed
condition in Dorkings and Houdans, as
compared with instability in guinea-pigs
is probably due very largely to the fact
that the domestic fowls have been
stringently selected for five toes.
The five-toed condition in birds is, as
domestic fowl. Geneticists have made
numerous crosses of the five-toed breeds
_ with four-toed ones, in order to work out
the inheritance of the trait, but they
have not met with great success. Pro-
fessor Castle holds that it is a Mendelian
trait and that its irregular behavior goes
to prove that Mendelian characters are
variable; but most geneticists do not
admit that Mendelian characters are
variable in this way, and are therefore
confronted with considerable difficulty
in making the evidence conform to
Mendelian expectations. Bateson can
only suggest that polydactylism “is
perhaps due to a dominant factor which
321
LEFT HAND OF ITALIAN IMMIGRANT
The first joint of the little finger appears to have split in two at a very early stage in the develop-
ment of the hand, with the result that two little fingers have been produced. This seems
to be the way in which extra fingers and toes ordinarily appear in man. In this case the
extra fingers are complete in joints and tendons, but often they are much more rudimentary.
(Fig. 17.)
RIGHT HAND OF ITALIAN IMMIGRANT
The extra finger is almost identical with that of the left hand, shown on the opposite page.
Abnormalities of this sort are usually hereditary, although the heredity is frequently
irregular. From an X-ray photograph made by the U. S. Public Health Service at Ellis
Island, New York, and sent in by assistant surgeon Howard A. Knox. (Fig. 18.)
324
can be inhibited or suppressed as the
result of the presence of other factors.
In poultry,” he continues, “‘we know by
experiment that the presence of an extra
toe may behave as a dominant, following
the simple rule with fair regularity, but
in other families the number of domi-
nants produced is too small and trans-
mission may occur through normals des-
titute of extra toes. Such facts point
to the existence of some unknown com-
plications in those families.”
POLYDACTYLISM ,IN MAN
In man it is well known that an extra
finger or toe sometimes appears; but
as we know of no ancestor, within hun-
dreds of millions of years, who had more
than five, human polydactylism can not
be like that of the guinea-pig—the ap-
pearance of an ancestral character. It
may, therefore, most conveniently be
assumed to be due to a splitting of one
or more of the ordinary digits, which
may be so extreme in degree that the
individual possesses a “double hand”’
of 10 fingers attached to one wrist. The
most ordinary type consists of the pres-
ence of one extra finger, as is shown in
the Italian immigrant whose hands were
photographed at Ellis Island, N. Y..,
recently (figs. 17, 18). Dr. Howard A.
Knox, assistant surgeon of the U. S.
Public Health Service, who sent in these
photographs, calls attention to the in-
teresting feature of the case—that the
extra fingers function completely, each
having fully developed joints and tend-
ons. They seem to have been produced
by a division of the little fingers in two.
Dr. Knox investigated the family
history of the immigrant as far as was
possible, and found that one uncle
(probably maternal, but there is doubt
on this point) has an extra digit on the
right hand only. But its location was
the same as that in the subject here
The Journal
of Heredity
shown. The immigrant’s second son,
about 23 years of age, has one extra
digit on each hand and each foot.
Such a family history is fairly typical
of most of those which describe poly-
dactylism in man. The condition re-
appears in almost every generation, but
it is frequently not quite the same, and
appears to be distributed without regard
to any regular form of procedure.
Davenport shows this plainly, despite
his optimistic expression, when he writes,
“The peculiarity of supernumerary fin-
gers and toes is one that is inherited in
nearly typical fashion. I have worked
extensively on polydactylism in fowls
and there can be little doubt that the
character behaves the same way in man.
The extra toe is due to an additional unit
so that when one parent has the extra toe
the children will also have it. However,
it sometimes happens that the offspring
fails to produce the extra toe; but such
persons, becoming in turn parents, may
produce the polydactyl condition again.
. The eugenical conclusion is: poly-
dactyl persons will have at least one-
half of their children polydactyl. Those
quite free from the trait, though of the
polydactyl strains, will probably have
only normal children.”’
This conclusion may be a rough ap-
proximation to what usually happens,
but it cannot be held to be an exact
statement of the mode of heredity of
polydactylism. Nor is any one in a
position at present to give such an
exact statement. We can only say that
the appearance of extra fingers or toes
(they frequently go together) is inherited
to a high degree, but without any dis-
coverable regularity. Fortunately, the
trait is one that possesses no eugenic
significance, and we can therefore view
our ignorance with more complacence
than if the trait really possessed im-
portance to the race.
Origin of the White Blackberry
The white blackberry put in the
trade by Luther Burbank some years
ago 1s a good example of the production
of a marketable fruit by the recom-
bination of existing characters. The
parents are said to be Lawton’s black-
berry and an insignificant cultivated
bramble of the eastern states. The
latter has pale amber berries and is
probably an albino variety of the same
species of blackberry as _ Lawton’s.
Burbank crossed the two and selected
from the progeny (presumably in the
second generation) individuals that pos-
sessed the shape and qualities of the
Lawton and the color of the bramble.
CHANGE OF SEX IN HEMP
Mutilation Makes Female Plants of Cannabis Sativa Produce Male Flowers—
Change in Nutrition Probably Responsible for the Result
FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
sex ratios in dioecious species of
plants and animals is one of the
most debatable topics of genetics.
The experimental results thus far re-
corded are not only varied but occa-
sionally contradictory. When viewed
as a whole, however, they seem to indi-
cate that maleness and femaleness are not
always fixed characters, but frequently
appear more like responses of the devel-
oping organism to external stimult.
Of all the external factors that have
been supposed to determine sex, food
ranks first. Indeed, many biologists
now believe that the determination of
sex is in the last analysis a problem of
nutrition. It is also remarkable that
in nearly every instance in which food
affects the sex ratio, favorable nutritive
conditions tend to produce females and
unfavorable conditions males.
Nevertheless the food theory of sex de-
termination fails to account for the sex
ratio of 1:1 commonly found among
unisexual individuals.
A Mendelian theory of sex deter-
mination now popular not only explains
normal sex ratios in dioecious species
but receives considerable support from
studies of sex-linked inheritance. The
fundamental basis of this theory as
expressed by a distinguished geneticist
is that “‘sex has its beginning in gametic
differentiation and is finally determined
beyond recall in the fertilized egg by
the nature of the uniting gametes.”
The hypothesis also carries the assump-
tion that one of the sexes is heterozygous
for a sex factor and the other homozy-
gous.
Though subject to criticism, this
theory is admirably adapted to the
factorial method of analysis and appears
to explain many facts of sex inheritance.
[= possibility of altering normal
The difference of opinion regarding
the effect of external stimuli upon sex
ratios has led the writer to investigate
the following questions: (1) Can sex
ratios of dioecious plants be altered by
modifying conditions external to their
germ cells? (2) Is the alteration thus
obtained limited to individuals of one
sex? (3) How do the results harmonize
with the Mendelian conception of sex
determination?
MATERIAL
As hemp is composed almost wholly
of distinctly unisexual individuals it
was chosen as a favorable species for
the investigation of sex ratios. In
addition to its separation of the sexes,
it develops in its females a heavy and
dense growth of foliage by which they
may readily be distinguished from the
males. In fact, at the time of flowering
the plants may be recognized at a
distance as male and female.
The proportion of males to females
which normally appeared under the
field conditions where the experiments
were made was approximately 1:1.
Monoecious individuals aiso appeared
in relatively small numbers, as will be
subsequently shown, but they were
distinctly female in type and prepon-
- deratingly female in flower development.
METHODS
Disturbances of the plant’s physio-
logical equilibrium were induced by the
removal of flowers and vegetative parts
and by the injection of chemical sub-
stances into the stem.
In addition to the removal of parts
some plants were given further treat-
ment by enclosing their tops in Manila
bags to diminish the intensity of the
light falling upon the newly developing
flower buds.
325
MALE AND FEMALE HEMP PLANTS
At the left is the female or pistillate plant, at the right the staminate or male. In addition
to the difference in flowers, the two sexes differ markedly in habit of growth, as is seen.
By mutilation, each sex can be induced to take on the characters of the other; a change
which may be due to interference with the plant’s normal process of nutrition. Photo-
graph by Lyster H. Dewey. (Fig. 19.)
Pritchard: Change of Sex in Hemp
The use of chemicals was limited to
the year 1909. To facilitate their
introduction small holes were cut into
the pith cavities and afterwards closed
with paraffin.
In 1914 no leaves or branches were
detached but all flowers and flower buds
were removed from branches and stem.
The counting of the flowers—a labori-
ous process—was done by fives and tens
but this nowise interfered with the
observance of the staminate and pistil-
late character of the flowers.
EXPERIMENTS
Plants were grown for the investiga-
tions at Madison, Wis., in 1909, 1912,
1913 and 1914, but owing to a poor
stand in 1912 and the writer’s absence
in 1913 when the treatments should
have been given, the experiments for
these two years were not completed.
Hence, the results are limited to the
two years’ investigation in 1909 and
1914.
As no further opportunity has been
found to continue the work it seems
better to publish the results now ob-
tained than to wait an uncertain period
for the accumulation of further data.
In 1909, male and female hemp plants
were used in approximately equal num-
bers. As each plant had at the time of
operation already borne a large number
of exclusively staminate or exclusively
pistillate flowers, any degree of visible
327
monoeciousness could easily have been
detected.
The 263 plants treated were mutilated
by removing their flowers and flower
buds, their leaves, and varying pro-
portions of their stems; the tops of
twenty were also bagged; and the stems
of sixty others injected with 1 to 2
ounces of one or more of the following
chemical solutions: calcium nitrate
1/10%; zinc sulphate 1/10%; dextrose
5%; maltose 5%; peptone 1%; aspara-
gin 446%; potassium iodide 3%; pyridin
95° formic acid 16000: acetic acid 60”
n : Be
30° sodium hydrate 300” 100” 60°
Alteration of sex occurred under
several different treatments. Either
covering the top with a Manila bag or
injecting into the stem a solution of
dextrose, maltose, glucose, asparagin
or pyridin was accompanied by a modi-
fication of sex. In each instance, how-
ever, the removal of parts constituted
a part of the treatment. In fact the
removal of parts was the only factor
common to all the sex-developing re-
sponses. Hence it was probably the
chief cause of sex alteration.
Of the 163 plants which reproduced
flowers after treatment twenty-nine
or 17.8% developed some flowers of the
opposite sex. Four of these plants were
males, the other twenty-five females.
TABLE I.—Proportion of Monoecious to Dioecious Hemp Plants Found on Successive Dates at
Madison, Wis., in 1909
{
Number of
dioecious plants ep pesneeuies
B z oO O yaar
Date of examination Imonoecious monoecious Field
Male Female plants | plants |
MEPLEHMER 2Ore : 5. A Mee are aera k tase 49 43 8 8.0 A
SEs 21000 ef A oes ae ace ena ta 96 99 5 pa B
Pep.cembercGOknaw emcees em eee eee: 0! 174 26 6.5(13.0) | A
DIGROBEE berths Sulit... Wao eect ae 0 (= 187 13 3: 25(6.5): |B
MORAL OR te Mus hn ta eae se ca R tects sain ct Nest hapa 0 84 16 8.0(16.0)?) B
Oetober a secure cyte. se ak tot eer 0 47 3 3.0(6.0) B
*As no male plants under these conditions formed perfect flowers, the omission of male
plants in the counting records from September 30 to October 18 gives the percentage of monoeci-
ousness for only the female type.
The true percentages of monoeciousness are one-half the
values inclosed in parentheses as represented by the figures at their left.
2 Late maturing plants.
328 The Journal
It may be argued that temperature
or some other factor due to an advancing
season was the effective stimulus rather
than the removal of parts but this makes
little difference as it would still be an
external stimulus. The same statement
may be made with regard to the possible
effects of chemicals and diminished light
intensity. However, the percentage of
monoeciousness was determined on sey-
eral successive dates in two neighboring
fields designated respectively as A and
B. These results are presented in
Table I.
The percentage of monoecious. plants
in field A was much larger than in field
B. This may have been due to wider
spacing, as the plants in field A stood
farther apart than in field B and
consequently were larger and better fed;
or it may have been caused by some
inherent difference in the seed.
If we exclude the records of late
maturing plants, made on October 1, the
table shows no evidence of an increased
percentage of monoeciousness as the
season advanced.
The results for 1914 are presented in
Table II. As they show unmistakeable
evidence of sex alteration from the use
of external stimuli they are published
in detail. Both the number and char-
acter of flowers removed as well as those
that subsequently developed are in-
cluded.
As shown by the table, sex was not
altered by bagging the tops but was
very decidedly altered by the removal
of flowers. Of the fourteen male plants
that formed flowers after the operation
only three developed pistils but every
female plant produced both stamens
and pistils in abundance. In fact the
proportion of stamen-bearing flowers
formed on female plants greatly excceds
that ordinarily formed on monoecious
plants.
As a check on the experiments re-
corded in Table II, twenty-eight female
plants were tagged at the time of the
foregoing operations and carefully ex-
amined at the end ot the season for the
appearance of male sex organs but not
a single stamen had developed.
It is evident from the experiments
and their checks that changes in sex
of Heredity
were induced by the removal of flowers
and flower buds, probably through
alteration of the food supply. The
production of pollen and ovules is an
exhausting process. As soon as male
hemp plants shed their pollen they turn
yellow and die. The removal of flowers
and flower buds from the female plants
when their reserve food is at a minimum
probably makes the nutritive conditions
less favorable for the development of
the new buds and in accordance with
the food theory of sex determination,
causes an excess of male development.
The appearance of pistillate flowers upon
a few treated male plants, however, is
difficult to explain upon this basis unless
we assume that these particular flowers
received more than their share of the
food supply.
If the effect of flower removal on the
food supply has been properly inter-
preted, it is evident that the proper
method of inducing pistillate develop-
ment in male plants is through high
feeding, especially about the time of
flower formation. This should be done
through the soil in such a way as not to
interfere with the plants’ normal physio-
logical activities.
CONCLUSIONS
The foregoing experiments show that
sex of hemp is alterable by the removal
of flowers. While only a few male
plants produced pistils, they constituted
14 to 21% of the total number of males
reproducing flowers after the operation.
It is quite probable that if the proper
stimulus were used pistil formation
could be induced in all the males. The
females were very responsive to _the
stimulating effect of flower removal.
In fact in the second year’s experiments
every female operated upon produced
an abundance of stamens.
The results do not seem to support
the theory that sex is wholly a matter of
zygotic constitution—one dose or
amount of an inherited sex factor
producing one sex and two the other,
but indicate that both males and
females are potential hermaphrodites as
believed by Darwin and Strasburger.
Pritchard: Change of Sex in Hemp 329
TABLE II.—Alteration of Sex Ratios in 1914
Number of flowers appearing after operation
Number of
flowers removed?
Plant Additional Under sack On remainder of plant
number is treatment
Male Female pene Female a a Female
1 16,030 0 Top bagged 640 0 1,040 0
oe 55 9,780 Top bagged 101 432 8,420 621
at 560 5,500 Top bagged 875 97 5,085 5,910
4 0 | 7,355 | Top bagged 43, | 980 S22 ISH100
5 0 7,370 Top bagged 11 65 655 3,280
6 18,875 0 MiG yay ap reaevely Wes ee tee Oalieaue Recta sellobhe wares aealince cinewed c
are 0 9,090 Top bagged 250 320 210 1,300
12 10,280 0 Top bagged 630 0 4,860 0
i3 0 9,690 Top bagged 56 415 225 4,360
14 0 4,640. Top bagged 0 0 950 4,295
15 0 10,640 Top bagged 42 385 463 2,510
16 25,185 0 Top bagged 870 0 10,150 0
17 0 3,690 Top bagged Soe 450 505 2,840
18 20,275 0 Top bagged 575 0 4,535 0
19 0 7,450 Top bagged 120 1,265 605 5,580
2D 11,520 0 Mopy OAs ced | Pay. vcaca ae ard Oisec tare fit brates teens hee meee tee ee
23 0 11,680 Top bagged 890 780 4,750 9,340
ais 341 8,990 Top bagged 720 750 3,250 3,870
Shee 25,000 0 | Top bagged 480 0 2,590 0
38 28,370 0 Top bagged 540 0 5,140 3
39 0 7,820 Top bagged 15 420 a2 2,530
40 0 10,650 Top bagged 184 470 269 3,410
41 0 9,380 Top bagged 5 880 3 2,340
42 0 8,920 Top bagged 258 470 275 3,490
43 0 8,220 Top bagged 75 380 125 7,850
46 0 9,370 Top bagged 125 350 336 3,160
8 17,450 0 None exe ASR Ast aby aa te 840 | 0
9 0 9,625 LN fore Ste AI I, MS eR LNA Se Ra 550 | 4,575
10 8,140 0 DY GRE h ale opp aya Macoered «oes 0 461
11 0 10,211 PS heel hee Shas, SI Te te mates 375 6,735
20 0 10,360 INOS ih ierecoans aie aisle alate kegewen 2,005 2,270
21 23,845 0 INormed jotta: 2 Paceslitecoteey a arlare | etanarad cen she Wellner ne eae ee
24 8,240 pomet ee File oe 5 ln a oe eae NE i 3210 9,480
25 0 10,770 Nilo ya vets bpae Ce ey ces en a pens open ee 2 US ine moo oO
26 0 9,110 INOREr AAA N oti me an tale in Grama te oa 267 | 4,560
28} 60 5,680 OREN ca) Mitten? Dall saber ER isey 5 382 8,460
29 23,500 Wontar e aay si dntee SER sasaki ay 7,205° 3] 0
30 10,290 IWicire 4 )E'4 olf tance aalree Reaianaralae 2,280 10,220
31 17,320 0 None pb crepe eee ae cae 9,110 0
32 9,750 0 OGG Va hilNe teaey ccs lure ee 2,250 1
33 0 8,460 POTN Foy Meee a tals A Sietesas ot 215 5,280
34 0 10,530 |i (03 CO Se 8 Sei ded pee ir 850 8,410
35 0 9,760 L611 ae heen A LAr tarts, Oa 45 6,770
36 23,440 0 PROC A Lilatanrtuct a actuals tis. teens 1,060 0
44 10,440 0 EMIS Sb Bile Parezy cteveepleunc Os cle male 830 0
45 15,360 0 | (a) 2 a ae 0 ee 1,560 0
47 0 6,890 PRC, Vi Vs eR OH) aretha son dy oot a 39 370
48 0 4,140 ISHARES AIT 3. 6 2c, cab eal eek wee aa aes 400 1,120
1 Monoecious plants.
2 These were all the flowers on the plants at the time of operation.
CONCERNING PREPOTENCY
The Idea Belongs to Practical Live-Stock Breeders, Not to Geneticists—How
Prepotency May be Obtained by Breeders—How It
May Be Explained By Geneticists.
THE EpIToR
The term “prepotency”’ is one which
originated among practical breeders, not
geneticists. It is a descriptive term
which has been found useful for covering
a number of different, but related, facts.
It has the further merit, scientifically,
that it describes these facts without
implying adhesion to any hypothesis
which, in its application to these facts,
has not yet been proved.
It is as a descriptive term that live-
stock breeders habitually use the word,
and it is in this sense that I used it in
writing about Brigham Young; An Illus-
tration of Prepotency, in the February
issue of this journal.
A member of this association, who
prefers to remain anonymous, writes that
he is ‘greatly moved”’ by the article,
which ascribes the quality of prepotency
to Brigham Young; first because he
doubts whether my use of the term pre-
potency is correct and second because
he doubts whether on the evidence pre-
sented Brigham Young had the superior
influence as a parent which has been
ascribed to him. As prepotency is a
subject of general interest and of first
importance to stock breeders as well as
to students of genetics, it is worth while
to give it further consideration.
First let us decide what prepotency
means. The Century Dictionary is in
accord with the usage of the breeders
when it defines the word as meaning
“preeminent in power, influence, force
or efficiency; prevailing; predominant.”
As applied to heredity the dictionary
says it would mean of superior power or
influence in hereditary transmission, as a
quotation cited from Darwin shows. If
we turn to Darwin’s discussion of the
subject in Animals and Plants, we find
that he was unable to formulate any
general rules concerning prepotency,
superior influence seeming to inhere
(1) in some cases in one character as
330
against a contrasted one (cases we should
now describe as due to Mendelian domi-
nance), while in other cases superior
influence seemed to inhere (2) in one sex
(cases which he described as sex-limited
inheritance and which are now known
to form a special category of Mendelian
inheritance). In still other cases (3)
Darwin believed one race or species to
have superior influence in crosses with
another race or species.
DARWIN'S EXAMPLES
As examples which we should place in
category (1) Darwin mentions “purple-
blossomed”’ peas as prepotent in crosses
with ‘‘white-blossomed,” and fowls of
normal plumage as prepotent in crosses
with silkies. Fantail pigeons he regards
as lacking prepotency in crosses with
pouters and barbs, yet records the oc-
currence of a silky sub-variety of fan-
tails which invariably transmits its silky
feathers in crosses. Hence lack of pre-
potency does not inhere in fantails as
regards all their characters but only as
regards their fantail character. Other
examples belonging in our category (1)
noted by Darwin are dun color in horses,
dark spotting in sheep, hornlessness in
cattle, normal flowers of the snap-
dragon and of Linaria in crosses with
peloric flowers.
As examples which we should place in
category (2) Darwin mentions color-
blindness in man, ‘‘the hemorrhagic
diathesis’”’ (haemophilia?) and certain
plumage characters of poultry and
pigeons more often transmitted by
males than by females.
As examples of category (3) Darwin
mentions the ass as prepotent in crosses
with the horse, ‘‘the prepotency in this
instance running more strongly through
the male than through the female ass,
so that the mule resembles the ass more
strongly than does the hinny.” He
IS THIS SIRE PREPOTENT?
A West African Negro, his English wife, and their nine children.
To a white observer, the
father would appear at first sight to be prepotent, in determining the visible characters of
the offspring; but, says a member of this association, “these children resemble their mother
as well as their father.
of nose and thickness of lips.
as those of the father.”
the Negro and the Chinese are ‘“‘prepotent’’ in crosses with the white race.
Journal of Genetics, II, 2. (Fig. 20.)
further cites on the authority of Gartner
some species crosses of Nicotiana (to-
bacco), stating that N. vinceflore is
prepotent in crosses with N. paniculata,
but that in crosses with N. quadrivalvis
the latter is prepotent. Numerous and
extensive studies made in recent years
of Nicotiana hybrids show beyond ques-
tion that the prepotency (dominance)
inheres in single characters, not in the
characters of either parent as a group.
The same is in all probability true of
horse-ass hybrids, but the sterility of
all such hybrids has precluded demon-
strative breeding tests.
On the whole we find in Darwin’s ex-
amples abundant illustrations of Men-
delian unit-character inheritance, but
no clear case of anything else. Darwin
The children are of intermediate skin-color, hair form, breadth
The characters of the mother are as truly dominant
He therefore considers it ambiguous and inaccurate to say that
After Bond,
was evidently confused on the subject;
and of course he knew nothing about
Mendelism. He failed to distinguish be-
tween prepotency of one or more char-
acters in an individual and prepotency of
the individual as a whole.
. The live-stock breeders of the present
day likewise fail to make this distinction.
In general, they speak as if prepotency
were a function of the individual.
Many modern geneticists object to this
attitude, holding it to be vague and
confusing; they are unable to picture
clearly to themselves any way in which
an animal could be prepotent as a
whole, although their work with differ-
ent unit-characters leads them easily
to understand that an animal might
have a number of prepotent or, tech-
Jo
332 The Journal
nically, dominant characters, and there-
fore seem to be prepotent as an
individual.
“But,’’ writes my correspondent, ‘if
there really exist, as Darwin supposed
and as the literature of breeding based
on pre-Mendelian conceptions implies,
individuals or races having superior
power of hereditary transmission as
regards all their characters, their exist-
ence must be regarded as of the greatest
theoretical interest and practical import-
ance, and no effort should be spared to
discover them.”’
THE CASE OF BRIGHAM YOUNG
The illustration of Brigham Young
in the February issue of this journal,
seemed to my correspondent to be an
attempt to demonstrate a case of indi-
vidual prepotency. As a fact, I ex-
pressed no opinion as to whether the
prepotency was general or was confined
to certain characters; I enumerated
certain characters as indications of
prepotency and left the reader to
interpret them as he liked. Shape
of mouth and nose were mentioned as
being strikingly alike in father and
daughters, and a friend of the Young
family was quoted as saying that “‘all
the daughters are distinctly Youngs in
feature, voice, appearance and tempera-
ment. None is great as their
father was great, but all are Youngs.”’
Interpreting this as a claim of general
or individual prepotency, my corre-
spondent writes:
“Ts the case of Brigham Young evi-
dence of individual or racial prepotency ?
The evidence is incomplete. We may
admit that the daughters look like
their father. Most daughters do. They
probably also look like their mothers.
We have no means of judging whether
they look more like one parent than the
other, because the picture of the other
parent is not given for comparison.
Yet this is the very point on which we
are asked to pass judgment. The jury
calls for Exhibit B, the pictures of the
mothers, before bringing in a verdict.
‘There are in the group of daughters,
according to the legend, three pairs of
full sisters. These. three pairs are
plainly more like each other in features
of Heredity
and expression than any other pairs
which can be formed within the group.
This fact shows that the mother as well
as the father had influence in determin-
ing the features of these daughters.
Which had the greater influence, the
mother or the father, we have no means
of judging.
“The author speaks of shape of nose
and mouth as being features in which
resemblance is shown to the father.
Suppose this be granted. No two have
noses and mouths exactly alike. Per-
haps the mothers had something to do
with these differences. But even if there
were practical identity between father
and daughters in shape of nose and
mouth, we should be dealing with two
single characters only. These might be
dominant characters, but that would not
prove Brigham Young a _ dominant
parent.
“Suppose we examine a photograph,
which Bond (Journal of Genetics, 1912)
has published, of an English woman, her
West African husband, and their nine
children, for evidence of prepotency.
(See Fig. 20.) The children all have
dark skin, black curly hair, broad noses
and thick lips, in all of which features
they resemble their father. Surely, you
might say, this is a prepotent sire. But
these children resemble their mother as
well as their father. The children are
of intermediate skin-color, hair form,
breadth of nose and thickness of lips.
The characters of the mother are as
truly dominant as those of the father.
A white race calls the children black-
hybrids, but a black race might with
equal propriety call them white-hybrids.
A study of later generations would
probably show also that the several
characters observed in the children
vary independently of each other in
later generations, that they are not a
group of correlated characters at all.”
The illustration given is particularly
pertinent, because anthropologists have
often spoken of the negro (and also
the Chinese) as prepotent in racial
crosses with whites. It cannot be
denied that this is a loose use of the
term, which is not likely to be of much
value to science. I do not consider
that the illustration of the negro-white
The Editor: Concerning Prepotency
cross is wholly parallel to the illustration
of Brigham Young and his daughters;
I am still of the opinion that the daugh-
ters, despite the fact that they come
from eight different mothers, resemble
each other as much as do ordinarily
the children of a single mother; and I
am of the opinion that the father may
therefore properly be called prepotent,
as the term is ordinarily used. It
seems to me that the uniformity of
mouth, nose and ears furnishes a good
illustration. But I certainly would
not lay much weight on the illustration
as an evidence of the existence of either
character prepotency or individual pre-
potency; it is nothing more than an
illustration, although as good a one as
I have ever seen in human material.
To get any real light on the problem,
I think we must stay in the field of live-
stock breeding, where the problem arose.
MR. ROMMEL’S OPINION
To get light here we called on the
secretary of the American Genetic
Association for information as to the
attitude of intelligent modern breeders;
he was asked particularly whether in re-
gard to individual prepotency geneticists
had from their more limited experience
overlooked a principle recognized among
practical breeders. His reply is as
follows: ‘Concerning individual pre-
potency, I will say that this has been
made the subject of two of the regular
Saturday afternoon conferences of the
officers of the division. It is the con-
sensus of opinion that from the stand-
point of the geneticist there is no such
thing as individual prepotency in ani-
mals; that is to say, that no animal is
prepotent in every character. There
have been many animals that were‘ pre-
potent in certain characters, or even
in many characters. From the stand-
point of the practical breeder there is
individual prepotency in that certain
animals have been prepotent in pro-
ducing the things for which the breeder
is striving.
“The inbreeding by which a char-
acter of interest is made prepotent will
automatically make the factors affect-
ing other characters homozygous, will
give some prepotency to these characters
333
(as far as they are due to dominant
factors), and will give the individual an
appearance of individual prepotency.
“As an example may be mentioned’
the case of the Standard-bred stallion,
Peter the Great, 28955. He has 216
sons and daughters with records of 2.30
or better. This is a good example of
prepotency in the matter of speed and
included with this must be various
other characters, not measurable per-
haps, which enable these horses to go
a mile in such fast time.
“There are on record a few other
stallions which have more sons and
daughters with records of 2.30 or better,
but none of these stallions is. living
at the present time.
“As other examples may be mentioned
famous Holstein and Guernsey bulls,
famous because of the fact that they
have sired a large number of daughters
which have made records large enough
to admit them to the Advanced Register.
In order to make these records these
animals must have had the requisite
constitution, capacity, and nervous tem-
perament, without which such records
would not have been possible. The
sires were undoubtedly prepotent in
such characters but these are not
measurable.
“One of the best examples of pre-
potency in beef cattle is that of the
Shorthorn bull Avondale. This bull
has sired a large number of excellent
bulls and heifers indicating that he was
prepotent in a large number of char-
acters.
“T trust that this statement will give
you a clear idea of what is in our minds;
I think that it is the idea in the minds
of practical breeders.
“Very truly yours,
““Geo. M. RoMMEL,
“Chief, Animal Husbandry Division,
U.S. Department of Agriculture.”
Evidently, then, the idea of individual
prepotency which the breeders hold, and
by which they mean that a certain
animal has superior influence in hered-
itary transmission, covers many causes
or supposed causes. Thus in one con-
nection or when used by one person it
may mean (as it actually does in
334 The Journal
Darwin’s ‘‘Animals and Plants,” (1)
Mendelian dominance (2) sex-limited
Mendelian inheritance or (3) predomi-
nance as a group of the characters of one
parent over those of the other. In
other cases it may mean only (4) a high
degree of excellence as regards some
inherited character or the ability to
transmit the same.
BREEDERS’ EXPLANATIONS
If we go a little farther and inquire
what explanations the breeders have
offered for the various results that they
lump together under the name of indi-
vidual prepotency, we find these:
1. “Maximum efficiency of all
organs,”’ as indicated “in the expression
of the countenance and in the general
bearing, behavior and carriage,’’! or, ina
word, vigor.
2. Existence of the breed for a long
period of time ‘“‘on a favorable soil.’”
3. Length of time in which a variety
or breed has been under domestication.
“Tt is generally assumed that an old
species or variety is prepotent over a
more recent species or variety.’’
4. Mutation. ‘High prepotency does
not arise through normal variation, but
must rank as a heritable sport or aber-
rant variation.’’*
5. Accompaniment of a mutation.
“In nature, prepotency may arise spon-
taneously and abruptly along with
sports in one or more directions.’
6. As a result of natural selection,
of Heredity
through a gradual process of evolution.®
7. Inbreeding.
8. “Purity of blood.”
9. Sexual development.’
10. “The lack of affinity in certain
characters, which makes it difficult to
blend them.’’’
11. Telegony.®
12. Maternal impression.”
13. Physiological relation between
dam and offspring, which is supposed to
make the dam prepotent over the sire.!!
14. Relative maturity of parents, old
animals being thought to be prepotent
over very young ones.”
15. Degree of ripeness of germ-cells,
fully mature gametes being prepotent
over immature gametes."
16. Relative strength of ‘nervous
organization” —whatever that may
mean.
17. Degree of functional develop-
ment, either of an individual or of his
immediate ancestors.
Certainly we have here a beautiful
example of a term that means all things
to all men. Some writers regard it
clearly as a function of individual
characters, others regard it clearly as a
function of individual animals, others
do not stop to ask what it does mean;
others look on it as a highly variable
quantity, as J. Cossar Ewart, who
says :16
‘“‘An animal (male or female) may be
prepotent in some respects and not in
1 Marshall, F. R. Breeding Farm Animals, p. 90. Chicago, 1911.
2 Von Oettingen, B. Horse Breeding, p. 222.
London, 1909.
3 Ewart, J. Cossar. The Pennycuik Experiments, p. xii. London, 1899.
4 Galton, Francis. Nature (London), July 14, 1898.
5 Ewart, op. cit., p. 44.
6 Thid.
7 Cf. Dexter, William Hart. Methods Used by the American Jersey Cattle Club in Perfecting
the Breed. In A. B. A. Proc. IV (1908), p. 37: “‘ Prepotency will be shown in the general appear-
ance, which should be thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious blending of the parts
with each other. There should be evident vigor, style, alertness, and a resolute appearance with
abundant nervous energy.”
8 Shaw, Thomas. Animal Breeding, p. 105. New York, 1901.
9 Thid.
10 Or even ‘‘paternal impression’! A genealogist writes me with reference to the Brigham
Young photographs: “I fancy that I can see that the force of affection, which may exist in the
heart of either parent at the time of creation, determines where the likeness will fall. . . . The
one who loves the most copies in the offspring the features of the one loved.”
11 Mentioned by Davenport, E. In Breeders’ Gazette, vol. lx, p. 82. Chicago, 1911.
12 Ewart, J. Cossar, Address to Zoological S2ction, British Association, 1901; quoted by Reid,
G. Archdall. The Principles of Heredity, p. 69. New York, 1905.
13 [hid.
14 Cited by Davenport, E. Principles of Breeding, p. 568. Boston, 1907.
16 This is the idea developed by C. L. Redfield in Dynamic Heredity (New York, 1915) and
elsewhere.
16 The Pennycuik Experiments, p. 44.
i dn, Yee ee, De oO
The Editor: Concerning Prepotency
others (and this whether the prepotency
has been acquired through inbreeding
or as a ‘sport’), or prepotent with one
mate and not with another, or prepotent
one year and not the next; because
prepotency is of necessity subject to the
influence of variation and reversion, and
also doubtless of nutrition—more espe-
cially of the germ-plasm prior to
fertilization.”
THE COMMERCIAL ELEMENT
When a term has so many and so
varied explanations, it might seem
impossible to comprehend them all in
any one definition. But if we view the
question solely from the standpoint
of the stock-breeder, I think we will
find that these definitions really are
summed up in one idea: To -him,
prepotency is less a genetic than a
commercial question: the prepotent sire
is the one that produces a large propor-
tion of offspring of high market value
because of their possession in an
eminent degree of the valuable commer-
cial characters of the breed.”
From a genetic point of view, un-
fortunately, we can not reduce this
complexity to simplicity, as we have
done from the practical breeder’s point
of view by assuming that it is, in the last
analysis, merely a matter of dollars and
cents.
If we analyze “‘prepotency”’ from the
standpoint of the geneticist, rather than
that of the breeder, we find that it may
appear in a number of ways, and that of
two animals, one may be the more
prepotent in one respect, the other in
another. Its prepotency may be shown
by
1. Greater influence on the mean
grade of the offspring.
2. Greater uniformity in offspring.
3. Greater influence (1 or 2) on second
and later generations.
4. Influence (1, 2, or 3) in greater
variety of crosses.
335
5. Influence (1, 2, 3, or 4) in greater
number of characters.
Facing such a situation, I think ge-
neticists might well avoid the use of the
term ‘‘prepotency’’ and employ more
definite words to express more circum-
scribed ideas. But I do not think this
need deprive live-stock breeders of the
use of the term, as some geneticists
would insist. After all, the word is the
property of animal breeders, who use it
to cover a fairly definite result, although
a result that may be reached in various
ways and capable of various explana-
tions.
My position in regard to prepotency,
in short, is that it is a descriptive term
belonging to practical breeders, not to
geneticists. It is used by breeders in a
way that they understand and find use-
ful. The geneticist should not try to
interfere with this use unless he can
substitute something better; and at
present I do not think he can.
THE MENDELIAN EXPLANATION
What he offers is, in general, the idea
of dominance of Mendelian characters,
to replace the idea of dominance (pre-
potency) of an individual.” There is
room for a good deal of discussion on this
point, and I shall not take time here to
discuss it. What the breeder wants is
prepotent animals, and what he wants
the geneticist to tell him, is how he shall
proceed to get them.
I mentioned, in the note on Brigham
Young, three possible methods: (1) con-
sanguineous marriage; (2) assortative
mating; (3) chance. The _live-stock
breeder might term these (1) inbreeding,
(2) pure-breeding, (3) haphazard breed-
ing or random mating.
Of these, the first is considered by
general recognition among intelligent
students of breeding, to be the quick and
effective way of securing prepotent
animals. No student of pedigrees can
doubt that inbreeding does result in
prepotency.
17 This suggestion was made by Dr. Sewall Wright of the Bureau of Animal Industry, at the
conference mentioned by Mr. Rommel.
To Dr. Wright I also owe the five-fold division of the
subject from a genetic point of view, which is given a few paragraphs later.
18 Hover, J. M.
Finding the Prepotent Sire.
April, 1916.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, vii, No. 4, pp. 173-178,
19 See e. g., Wentworth, E. N. Prepotency. JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, vi, No. 1, pp. 17—20,
January, 1915.
336 The Journal
Starting from this observed fact, it is
very easy to frame a hypothetical expla-
nation of why inbreeding and pure-
breeding produce prepotency. Most
geneticists would probably agree on it.
The explanation which fits the facts is
this: that prepotency is due to the pres-
ence of a number of homozygous factors
for the valuable characters of the breed.?°
Ordinarily these factors will have to be
dominant, but it is not difficult to think
of cases where prepotency, within a
single herd, say, might be due to the
possession of homozygous recessive
factors.
Inbreeding will make factors homo-
zygous, if they were not so to start with.
So will pure breeding, the mating of like
with like, accompanied by selection, as
it usually is. It is therefore easy for a
Mendelist to see why a purebred animal
is ordinarily prepotent over a scrub.
Further, although the breeder is se-
lecting for only a few characters, and
rendering these homozygous by appro-
priate mating and selection, he is auto-
matically, at the same time, making
other characters homozygous. Making
a breed homozygous (1.e., prepotent) in
one dominant character will tend to
make it homozygous (1.e., prepotent)
in all dominant characters. Thus the
appearance-of “individual prepotency”’
will be increased.
of Heredity
I do not say that this is the explana-
tion of prepotency, but it is at least an
explanation which, so far as I can see,
brings the observed facts in harmony
with Mendelian results.?!
Whatever be the origin of prepotency,
from a genetic point of view, the experi-
ence of breeders leaves little doubt as to
the best course to follow, in the light of
our present knowledge, if one wishes to
secure that commercially valuable result
known as prepotency. It may be ex-
pected from the mating of the best ani-
mals, selected to the same standard
(7.e., pure-bred) or better still, related
by blood; and by selection in each gen-
eration of the animals that have the
desired character in the highest degree..-
The prepotency thus obtained is a
measurable fact. It can be explained by
a Mendelian hypothesis which makes it
a matter of homozygous, dominant
characters; but such an hypothesis is, in
respect to the valuable traits of farm
animals, still unproved and I do not
think we are in a position to say whether
or not it covers the whole ground. And
until the geneticists have supplied the
necessary proof, practical breeders will
continue to talk about prepotent indi-
viduals, when they refer to individuals
that are prepotent in a certain number of
commercially valuable characters.
20 Since we are dealing with hypotheses, I add that this condition should be accompanied by a
minimum number of necessary complementary factors and a maximum number of duplicate
factors; and, as Wentworth suggests, linkage may also be involved. ' : .
21 It is quite possible that the breeders are right in claiming that inherited vigor plays a part in
prepotency. C ( L :
some of the geneticists think impossible.
If so, this would make a very near approach to that ‘‘individual prepotency’’ which
Until proof is forthcoming, it would be well to keep an
open mind and not say that there is no such thing as individual or general prepotency, even
though many supposed cases of it are shown to be merely cases of character prepotency.
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 8 August, 1916
CONTENTS
Mothercraft, by Mary L. Read................0 06 b eee eee eee 339
Rufant Mortality Meeting: bo ic i ins Sea ea thei ts le Pe os Cans 342
Consanguineous Marriage, by the Editor.....................--..5 343
The Inheritance of Emotional Control (Review of a Bulletin by A.
W. Finlayson)......... Re tee eh re We, Oe cone vm 346
Eugenics Education in St. Louis.............-..6 0500s e eee eee eens 346
Inheritance of Baldness, by Dorothy Osborn....................... 347
Mhe Nassau County Surveyrc un... < ee jee fe cee eres eye edne eee es 355
Evolution and Man, by Maynard M. Metealf.................. ed 356
Pollinating Fruit Trees, by Leslie Gordon Corrie................... 365
Bounties for Babies in France..................... RS OR ee ee he tte: 369
Sorrel Color in Horses, by L. P. McCann..................-.5...5-: 370
A Magnificent Flowering Vine..............---2--60e se eee seee sees. 372
Philippine Horses, by David B. Mackie.........................--- 373
New Oat Varieties for Mainme......- 2. 0..6 6. ioc see ie nee eee 382.
Raspberry Breeding in New York.....-........--. 0-200 e eee eases 383
The Journal of Heredity. is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, JuLy 25, 1916.
STORY HOUR AT THE MOTHERCRAFT SCHOOL
There are two ways of training girls for motherhood: one is to put them in a class-room, with
a text-book, and lecture at them; the other is to let them actually care for children of
various ages, under careful supervision. The former method is that generally adopted
nowadays, but the latter method, the only psychologically sound one, is that championed
by the Mothercraft movement. (Frontispiece.)
MOTHERCRAFT
An Attempt to Make the Education of Girls Fit Their Requirements—Work Done,
in Private Schools—Should be a Part of the Public Schools—An
Important and Immediately Practicable Phase
of Constructive Eugenics
Mary L. Reap
Educational Director, National Association for Mothercraft Education,
New York, N.Y.
From Pennsylvania
woman writes me:
a young
“T am one of many girls whose training has
fitted them for almost any position except the
one of wife and mother. Since my marriage
almost two years ago I have struggled daily
to run the house economically and make up
the deficiency in my early education. Now
that the baby is coming I am facing a job
for which I am even less prepared than for
the other, and when I think that our baby’s
life may pay the forfeit for the mistakes I
make in this direction, I am afraid of the future.
Where can I find anything that will help me
to learn how to take care of myself now and
of the baby later? I shall be very grateful
to ycu for anything you can give me.”’
The letter is only one of very many
that I have received. What propor-
tion of the young women in the
educated and well-to-do class would
express similar sentiments, if they
were questioned’ I venture to estimate
somewhere near a majority.
The girls themselves are not to
blame for this state of affairs; but
someone is to blame.
It is one of the riddles of history why,
when the life and welfare of children
are of such vital concern to the family
and the race, society has never taken
the trouble to see to it that the women
in whose charge these precious baby
lives rested were highly trained and
fittingly prepared for their responsi-
bilities. Some people have even said
it was not “nice” for young girls to
think they would ever be mothers
(although they knew they would and
so did everyone else)—therefore it was
not proper for them to be told about
how to care for babies. Sometimes
they were instructed in other house-
wifely arts; but when it came to the
care of the child, the young mother
usually has had to gain her experience
at the expense of her own baby.
We are now beginning to see that
such a state of affairs is criminal, and
that the young girl needs education in
what I have called Mothercraft, above
everything else.
But I would emphasize at the outset
that Mothercraft should be conceived
as a much larger matter than merely
instruction as to how one should treat
a baby when it cries. It should include
as much as possible of the knowledge
essential to founding a family and
carrying it along successfully. As a
beginning, it should teach the girl a
good deal about the qualities she should
possess and that she should seek in the
man she marries.
How unromantic! you say.
Not at all. There is no essential
contradiction between romantic love
and eugenics. A young woman knows
a hundred young men, but is in love
with only one (or possibly none)
because the others do not embody the
ideal that she has fashioned. Every
young woman (and the same is true
of men) has such an ideal, perhaps only
vaguely defined but certainly felt, with
which she is in love, for which she
searches, and with which she some-
times invests an acquaintance only to
discover later her illusion. This ideal
is composed of the most alluring quali-
ties and personalities she has known or
read about.
EUGENICS AND LOVE
What normal young man would be
likely to fall in love with a girl, how-
ever pretty, even charming, who he
knew could be the mother only of
339
340 The Journal
sickly, peevish, stupid children to in-
herit his name and perpetuate his
family, or who would refuse to assume
the burden of motherhood? What
normal young woman would be at-
tracted by any “fairy prince,’ how-
ever romantic, wealthy, handsome, if
she were aware that his children would
be doomed to early death, weakness or
imbecility, and that she herself would
be made a sufferer for life?) The wide-
spread tendency of young men and
women of the present day to include
eugenic qualities in this romantic ideal
is itself sufficient evidence. Young
men and women are generally too well
balanced to marry simply from eugenic
consideration without romantic love,
although this is less reprehensible than
marriage simply for title, livelihood, for
social distinction, for personal creature
comfort without consideration for either
eugenics or romantic love.
It was with the most comprehensive
idea of what such an education might
possibly include, and the coining of a
word which I hoped might define it to
others, that I founded in New York
City, in 1911, the School of Mother-
craft. From the outset, the work was
arranged for young women of at least
high school education, and some of the
students have been graduates of col-
leges or boarding schools.
The pedagogical principles on which
I proceeded were those of my former
teachers, John Dewey and G. Stanley
Hall. Students must “learn to do by
doing.”’” Some visitors once expressed
surprise and some disappointment be-
cause they said they had come expecting
to see a school but what they found
was a home. I considered this one of
the greatest tributes they could have
given the work. The school has always
been conducted in a private residence,
with resident students and a little
group of resident children, ranging in
age from a few months to seven years.
Besides the resident students, many
day students have come for special
classes. The home conditions and spirit
are carefully maintained.
In addition to their classes and
recitations, students have several hours
each day of practical work in the house-
of Heredity
hold and with the children. They
learn their cooking by assisting in the
preparation of meals and the cooking
for the children. They learn how to do
all the phases of household work by
assisting the housekeeper, who is also
the home economics teacher. Much
attention is given to learning how to
economize time and energy in doing
the housework. The family budget is
studied and they find out how to make
the best use of a family income of
$1,200 a year, with discussions, as well,
of incomes down to $800 and up to
$3,000 a year. They go to the shops
and learn how to buy household fur-
nishings and linens, and the clothing for
little children. They learn how to
market, going with the instructor to do
the week’s provisioning. One of the
practical problems which they reach
by the midyear is buying the food for
the family, and providing a balanced
diet, in variety of appetizing food, at
$2.50 a week per person.
WORK WITH CHILDREN
But the most unique work is that
with the children. At first the students
simply live and play with the children,
as members of the household, learning
how to be with children and not do
them harm—a lesson which few adults
have ever learned. They observe the
nursery ‘‘mother”’ as she cares for the
physical needs of the children, and they
participate in the group play with the
kindergarten teacher. By degrees, as
they learn the principles of child
hygiene and psychology, they have
practical experience, still under the
supervision of instructors, in the daily
physical care of the children at each
age (including the baby), in story-
telling, nursery games and songs, kin-
dergarten handwork, nature-study.
They learn how to take the important
physical measurements of the children,
the physical inspections that a nurse or
physical education director would make,
and how to study the disposition,
mental traits and character of children.
Some of the students are preparing
for their own home-making. Others
are preparing for social work in settle-
ments, day nurseries, orphanages, as
Read: Mothercraft
superintendents, investigators or teach-
ers. These have special opportunity
for observing all phases of social work
in New York City and for acquiring
practical experience in connection with
some of the local institutions or societies.
Other students are preparing for the
vocation of mothers’ assistants or nur-
sery governesses. This 1s a new voca-
tional opening for educated young
women in this country. Many parents
now realize that a crude or immature
girl, untrained and without either ex-
perience or judgment, is not a fit person
to place in charge of a baby, or a little
child at its most impressionable period
in life. There is a large demand for
trained mothers’ assistants who are
women of personality and education,
but for lack of a training school few
women have been prepared to fill these
positions. The students preparing for
this vocation have experience as part-
time assistants, going by the day or the
week to private families until they have
had a wide range of such experience.
Before a student receives her cer-
tificate she must have demonstrated
by actual work in the school that she
can manage the household with effi-
ciency, patience and economy; do any
phase of the household work and put
system and economy into that work;
take the care of the baby or any of the
children; make a personal study of a
child and outline the program for its
personal care and mental development;
conduct the play and daily natural
discipline of ‘little children under home
conditions; she must have accumulated
a fund of child lore—rhymes and songs,
plays, handwork, and stories that have
been carefully selected for their fitness
and educational value as well as their
interest to little children.
To an outsider the curriculum of a
mothercraft school suggests a selecting
from the courses given in a number of
different professional schools—kinder-
garten, home economics, physical edu-
cation, nursing—brought together and
taught in a home, from the home point
of view.
Although there are still very few
places in the United States where a
young woman can get practical instruc-
341
tion in Mothercraft, yet parts of the
work are being taken up by various
agencies. Some of the State univer-
sities and some of the expensive and
fashionable boarding schools are devot-
ing special attention to home-making.
Most girls’ schools now offer some do-
mestic science, but in most cases it is
very brief, chiefly of a laboratory type,
concerned with household mechan-
ics, not concerned with practical or
eugenic aspects. The hundred or more
Little Mothers’ Leagues in the
New York City public schools are
doing something in infant care for
younger girls. There are a number of
hospitals over the country where
nursery maids are trained. Mother-
craft is opposed to the training of
crude nursery maids. Even the idea
of training intelligent mothers’ assis-
tants is quite secondary to that of the
training of future mothers. Such voca-
tional training of educated young women
is being done more widely in England
and Germany than in the United
States, many of the day nurseries
abroad having educational departments.
Education in Mothercraft, however,
is not a subject that should be left to
private schools; it is an essential part of
public education, and many prominent
educational authorities have recognized
this fact in principle, though school
boards and trustees with the tradi-
tional ultra-conservatism of educational
systems, are slow to put the idea into
practice.
With a view to furthering the wider
acceptance and adoption of this prin-
ciple the National Association for Moth-
ercraft Education is being. formed, with
headquarters in New York City. Its
objects specifically are:
(a) To maintain a School of Mothercraft
in or near New York City, providing for
resident and non-resident students, extension
classes, visiting instruction; having a kinder-
garten, resident nursery, public reference
library.
(b) To develop branch schools of Mother-
craft throughout the United States; and to
conduct extension classes and institutes.
(c) To encourage similar education in homes,
societies, schools and colleges.
(d) To hold conferences of its members and
others interested.
(e) To educate public opinion by circulating
literature, by meetings, by exhibits.
342 The Journal
(f) To cooperate with institutions. organiza-
tions and individuals working toward the same
general purpose.
Eugenicists have expressed hearty
sympathy with the idea of Mother-
craft education, appreciating that it is
in large part a genuinely eugenic
movement, and not a mere matter of
euthenics; that it antedates and goes
deeper than some phases of the ‘Save
the Babies’? movement, which in some
quarters even disregards the interests
of eugenics. Let us quote some of Gal-
ton’s own words:
“Man is gifted with pity and other
kindly feelings; he has also the power of
preventing many kinds of suffering. I
can conceive it to be within his power
to replace Natural Selection by other
processes that are more merciful and
not less effective. This is precisely the
aim of eugenics. Its first object is to
check the birth rate of the unfit, instead
of allowing them to come into being,
though doomed in large numbers to
perish prematurely. The second object
is the improvement of the race by
furthering the productivity of the most
fit by early marriages and healthful
rearing of their children. Natural Se-
lection rests upon excessive production
and wholesale destruction; eugenics in
bringing into the world no more indi-
viduals than can be properly cared for
and those only of the best stock.”
Galton considered as a worthy eugenic
measure the providing of a dowry for
worthy young women, who in England
in his day had limited prospects of
marriage without such accessory. In
our day and country this has no mean-
ing. It is the adolescent girl, who in
our country has almost unlimited free-
dom of choice as to whom she will
marry—or whether she will marry at
of Heredity
all— who holds the control of the future
of the family and the race. It is she
who controls the birth rate, infant
mortality, the divorce rate, monogamy,
polygamy or promiscuity, social wel-
fare. According to her ideals, her fore-
sight, her wise direction of instincts will
society progress or deteriorate at its
very foundations. Shall she be left to
meet these responsibilities with only
the guidance of impulse and naivete,
with the impression that to anticipate
them seriously is unbecoming and
abnormal? Naturally, she is not in-
terested in technical essays, charts,
diagrams, research reports, controver-
sial discussions in genetics and social
psychology and pathology. She will
rarely appreciate her responsibilities
through such channels until after her
important decisions have been made—
if ever. But there is for her a direct
avenue. She instinctively loves little
children and loves to be with them.
Mothercraft education, with its inti-
mate daily life with little children, is
teaching eugenics in a language she can
understand. From her training in the
care and education of these little tots
she eagerly comes with personal ques-
tions of eugenic import; she begins to
realize that it is natural and normal
for her to anticipate this phase of her
future and to prepare herself for it;
and she seriously develops her ideals
for her own family.
Mothercraft education is constructive
eugenics, based upon the maternal in-
stinct inherent in every girl, peda-
gogically utilizing the nurturing, play,
work and childlife interests of young
womanhood. Truly, for these young
women it is not learned theses, but a
little child that shall lead them.
Infant Mortality Meeting
The next meeting of the American
Association for the Study and Preven-
tion of Infant Mortality will be held
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, October
19-21, 1916.
The section on Eugenics will hold no
meeting. Prof. M. F. Guyer, of the
University of Wisconsin, who is now
chairman of the eugenics committee, is
arranging a meeting for 1917.
CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE
Subject Often Regarded by Unscientific Methods of Thought and Effects
Misunderstood—Consanguinity in Itself Probably Has no Genetic Impor-
tance—The Hereditary Traits Are the Things To Be Considered—
Marriage of Kin May Be Either Good or Bad in Effect
?
THE EDITOR
OW often have we been told of
H those “isolated communities
where consanguineous marriage
has led to an appalling amount of
defect and degeneracy!’ Any one of
us could name a dozen of these “‘horrible
examples” offhand. Without question-
ing the facts, one may question the
interpretation of the facts, and it seems
to me that a wrong interpretation of
such stories is partly responsible for the
widespread and almost superstitious
misunderstanding of consanguineous
marriage at the present time.
The Bahama Islands furnish one of
the stock cases, and Dr. W. C. Rucker
has just put in my hands a copy of
Dr. Clement A. Penrose’s account of
the situation there.1_ What the traveler
says has a very familiar sound:
“In some of the white colonies where
black blood has been excluded, and
where, owing to their isolated positions,
frequent intermarriage has taken place,
as for instance at Spanish Wells, and
Hopetown, much degeneracy is present,
manifested by many abnormalities of
mind and body... «: Lam strongly
of the opinion that the deplorable state
of degeneracy which we observed at
Hopetown has been in a great measure,
if not entirely, brought about by too
close intermarrying of the inhabitants,”
and so on.
To demonstrate his point, he took the
pains to compile a family tree of the
most degenerate strains at Hopetown.
There are fifty-five marriages repre-
sented, and the chart is overlaid with
twenty-three red lines, each of which is
said to represent an intermarriage.
1 Penrose, Clement A., ‘‘Sanitary Conditions in the Bahama Islands.’
of Baltimore, 1905.
This looked like a good deal of con-
Sanguineous mating, but I thought I
would test the matter a little further, so
I started with the fraternity at the
bottom of the chart—eight children,
of whom five were idiots—and traced
out their ancestry. In the second
generation it ran to another island, and
when the data gave out, at the fourth
generation, I was a little surprised to
find that there was not a single case
of consanguineous marriage involved.
I picked out another fraternity con-
sisting of two men, both idiots and
congenitally blind, and a woman who
had married and given birth to ten
normal children. In the fourth genera-
tion this pedigree, which was far from
complete, went out of the islands; as far
as the data showed there was not a
single case of consanguineous marriage.
There was one case where a name was
repeated, but the author had failed to
mark this as a case of intermarriage,
if it really was such. If we assume that
it was a first-cousin marriage, yet
almost any one of us may have one
first-cousin marriage in the preceding
four generations of his pedigree. I am
unable to share the conviction of Dr.
Penrose, that in the two pedigrees
which I investigated, we have an
example of the nefarious workings of
intermarriage.
CONGENITAL BLINDNESS
Finally, I traced out a fraternity to
which the author had called particular
attention because three of its eleven
members were born blind. The defect
was described as “optic atrophy asso-
Geographical Society
343
344
ciated with a pigmentary retinitis and
choryditis” and ‘this condition,’”’ Dr.
Penrose assured us, “is one stated by
the authorities to be due to the effects
of consanguineous marriage.”’
Fortunately, the pedigree was fairly
full and I was able to carry several lines
of it through the sixth generation.
There was, indeed, a_ considerable
amount of consanguineous marriage
involved. When I came to measure
the amount of inbreeding represented by
these blind boys, I was struck by the
fact that it is almost identical with the
amount represented by the present
Kaiser of Germany.’
The coincidence seems to me eloquent.
I am unable to see in such a history
as that of Hopetown, Bahama Islands,
any evidence that consanguineous mar-
riage necessarily results in degeneracy.
It seems to me that Dr. Penrose himself
points to a potent factor when he says
of his chart, in another connection:
“Tt will be noticed that only a few of the
descendants of Widow Malone (the first
settler at Hopetown) are indicated as
having married. By this it is not meant
that the others did not marry; many of
them did, but they moved away and
settled elsewhere, and in no way affected
the future history of the settlement of
Hopetown.”’
I have an idea that, by moving away,
they did very decidedly affect the future
history of Hopetown. Who are the
emigrants’ Inmost cases, probably the
more enterprising and intelligent, the
physically and mentally superior of
the population, who rebelled at the
limited opportunities of their little
village, and went to seek a fortune in
some broader field. The best went;
the misfits, the defectives, stayed be-
hind to propagate. Emigration in such
a case has the same effect as war; it
drains off the best stock and leaves the
weaklings to stay home and propagate
their kind. Under such conditions,
defectives are bound to multiply, re-
gardless of whether the marriages are
consanguineous.
“Tt will be seen at. a glance,” Dr.
Penrose writes, ‘‘that early in the history
2See von Gruber and Ridin, Fortpflanzung, Vererbung, Rassenhygiene, p. 169.
1911.
with results for which the
The Journal of Heredity
of the Malone family these indications
of degeneracy were absent; but they
began in the fourth generation and
rapidly increased afterward until they
culminated by the presence of five
idiots in one family. The original
stock was apparently excellent, but the
present state of the descendants is
deplorable.”’
Now three generations of emigration
from a little community which even
today has only 1,000 inhabitants, would
naturally make quite a difference in the
average quality of the population,
eugenically speaking. In almost any
population, a few defectives are con-
stantly being produced. Take out the
better individuals, and leave these
defectives to multiply, and the amount
of degeneracy in the population will
increase, regardless of whether the de-
fectives are marrying their cousins, or
unrelated persons. The family of five
idiots, cited by Penrose, is an excellent
illustration, for it is not the result of
consanguineous marriage—at least, not
in a close enough degree to have ap-
peared on the chart. It zs doubtless a
mating of like with like; and biologically
that is all that consanguineous marriage
is. Only, if two people are related by
blood, they are more likely to carry the
same hereditary traits than are two
strangers. This is by no means always
the case: if two inmates of an institu-
tion for the deaf, or the feeble-minded,
or the epileptic, marry (they are doing
it frequently, in most parts of the
United States) it is perfectly obvious
that they probably have the same in-
herited defect; while the chance that
children with one of these defects would
result from the marriages of first
cousins, in whose family the defect was
not previously known, is practically nil.
Honesty demands, therefore, that
consanguineous marriage be not credited
consan-
guineous element is in no wise respons-
ible; and the prevailing habit of picking
out a community or a strain where con-
sanguineous marriage and defects are
associated and loudly declaring the one
to be the cause of the other, is a perni-
Munchen,
The Editor: Consanguineous Marriage
cious evidence of the lack of scientific
thought that exists almost everywhere.
Most of the studies of these isolated
communities where intermarriage has
taken place, illustrate the same point.
Davenport, for example, quotes* an
anonymous correspondent from the
island of Bermuda which ‘‘shows the
usual consequence of island life.’’ He
writes: ‘‘In some of the parishes (Somer-
set and Paget chiefly) there has been
much intermarriage, not only with
cousins but with double first cousins in
severalcases. Intermarriage has chiefly
caused weakness of character leading to
drink, not lack of brains or a certain
amount of physical strength, but a very
inert and lazy disposition.” .
It is difficult to believe that anyone
who has lived in the tropies could have
written this, except as a practical joke.
Those of us who have lived in the
warmer parts of the world know by
observation if not by experience, that
a “weakness of character leading to
drink’? and “an inert and lazy dis-
position” are by no means the preroga-
tives of the mbred. And in connection
with the latter part of the indictment,
the hookworm should not be forgotten.
If we are going to credit consan-
guineous marriage with these evil re-
sults, what are we going to do when evil
results fail to follow?
What about Smith’s Island, off the
coast of Maryland, where all the in-
habitants are said to be interrelated,
and where a physician who lived in the
community for three years failed to
find among the 700 persons a single
case of idiocy, insanity, epilepsy or
congenital deafness?
What about the community of Batz,
on the coast of France, where Voisin
found five marriages of first cousins and
thirty-one of second cousins, without
a single case of mental defect, con-
genital deafness, albinism, retinitis pig-
mentosa or malformation? The popu-
lation was 3,000, all of whom were said
to be interrelated.
What about Cape Cod, whose natives
are known throughout New England
for their ability? ‘“‘At a recent visit
345
to the Congregational Sunday-School,’’
says a student, ‘“‘I noticed all officers,
many teachers, organist, ex-superin-
tendent, and pastor’s wife all Dyers.
A lady at Truro united in herself fours
quarters Dyer, father, mother and both
grandmothers Dyers.”’
EXPERIENCE OF BREEDERS
And finally, what about the experience
of livestock breeders? Not only has
strict brother and sister mating—the
closest inbreeding possible—been carried
on for twenty or twenty-five genera-
tions, experimentally, without bad re-
sults, and even with good results; but
the history of practically every breed
shows that inbreeding is largely re-
sponsible for its excellence.
Dr. Penrose adopts a common atti-
tude toward these facts. “I cannot
conclude from them that close and
continued intermarriage among human
beings is unattended with evil results,’’
he informs us, ‘‘for we can never be
certain that the same conditions are
followed in the reproduction of the
human species as are enforced in the
breeding of animals. The organiza-
tion of the human being is so complex,
and the nervous system so delicately
balanced, that it is difficult, if not
absolutely impossible, to establish a
human type, and to agree as to what
constitutes good human stock. Nothing
is more difficult than to find a perfectly
normal man or woman, and if we cannot
agree as to what constitutes a normal
type, how are we to decide as to what
constitutes an abnormality? Inasense,
a genius is as abnormal on one hand as
an idiot on the other, and it is impossible
to draw a line between a being with
normal mental capacity and one which
is slightly below the standard.’’
What does all that mean, in connec-
tion with the marriage of kin? Pre-
cisely nothing.
Consanguineous marriage will doubt-
less continue, for many years, to exist
in a fog of superstition, but the time
is past, it seems to me, when any one
can question the facts from the genetic
point of view. If we know anything
3 Davenport, Charles B., ‘“Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” pp. 184 ff. New York, 1911.
346 The Journal
about heredity, we know that con-
sanguineous marriage, being the mating
of like with like, intensifies the inherit-
ance of the offspring, which gets a
“‘double dose”’ of any trait which both
parents have in common. If the traits
are good, it will be an advantage to the
offspring to have a double dose of them;
if the traits are bad, it will be a dis-
advantage. The marriage of superior
kin should produce children better than
the parents; the marriage of inferior
kin should produce children even worse
than their parents.
In passing judgment on a proposed
match, therefore, the question to be
asked is not, ‘‘Are they related by
blood?’’, but ‘‘Are they carriers of
desirable traits?’’ That is, perhaps, a
rather cold-blooded way to put it, but
of Heredity
once in a while, at least, a marriage 1s
regarded in a cold-blooded, genetic
light, as the number of letters to me,
asking advice about consanguineous
marriage, abundantly proves.
The nature of the traits can be told
only by a study of the ancestry. Of
course, characters may be latent or re-
cessive for many generations, but this is
also the case in the population at large,
where the chance of unpleasant results
is so small that it would be foolish to
weigh it. If the same congenital defect
or undesirable trait does not appear in
the previous three generations (includ-
ing collaterals) of two cousins I know
of nothing in genetics which would
discourage them from marrying if they
want to.
The Inheritance of Emotional Control
Tue Dack FamILy, a Study in Hereditary Lack of Emotional Control.
Wendt Finlayson, Field Worker of Warren State Hospital, Warren, Pa.
Eugenics Record Office, Bulletin No. 15.
B. Davenport.
Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., May, 1916.
This study of several hundred related
individuals, covering three generations,
in the mountains of Pennsylvania,
describes another large group of socially
worthless people, the descendants of two
Irish immigrants. The stock is char-
acterized by “restlessness, quarrelsome-
ness, loquacity, abuse, pugnacity, inter-
mittent outbursts of violent temper, and
sex offense,’’ as well as laziness, mental
dullness, alcoholism, and the other usual
marks of a degenerate strain. The
preface tells us that “the present study
is of especial value since it illustrates
again the fact that the aberrant behavior
of each family group is stamped with
By Mrs. Anna
Preface by Charles
Pp. 46, price 15 cents. Cold Spring
its peculiar characteristics; because into
each a unique combination of hereditary
elements has entered.’”’ This may be
true, but the present study offers no
proof, since no systematic attempt is
made to allow for the influence of the
environment, and no adequate evidence
is offered that the various emotional
traits described are in reality due to
inheritance. But although the study
may add nothing to our knowledge of
heredity, it is useful sociologically as
picturing a kind of family stock which
is costly to the race, and unfortunately
all too numerous in some parts of the
United States.
Eugenics Education in St. Louis
The St. Louis Eugenics Educational
Society now has nearly two _ score
members, according to a letter from the
secretary, C. R. Paine. The scope of
the organization is much broader than
the term ‘“‘eugenics”’ ordinarily includes,
embracing as much environmental influ-
ence as inheritance. ‘‘We feel,’ Mr.
Paine writes, “that the present eugenic
thought is not only very academic but
quite chaotic in its ordering; not having
as yet found a clear base-line for
thinking, systemizing and methodizing.
Consequently the present thought is
very impersonal; seeking more after
negative factors than positive ones;
more after heredity than environmental-
social influences; law than education in
its broad popular sense; statistics than
life.”’
INHERITANCE
OF BALDNESS _.
Various Patterns Due to Heredity and Sometimes Present at Birth—A Sex-limited
Character—Dominant in Man—Women Not Bald Unless
They Inherit Tendency from Both Parents!
DoroTHY OSBORN
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
HERE are several distinct pat-
terns of baldness. They vary
in extent from the small spot,
not uncommon, to entire bald-
ness which is exceptional. Among the
most common patterns are complete
baldness on the top of the head, that
involving only the crown, that giving
the appearance of an extremely high
forehead, and that covering the top
and, back -of -the:, heads: The: hair
associated with baldness may be thin,
normal or heavy.
Many theories have been advanced
as to the cause of baldness. Some of
these are diseases of the scalp, ill
health, pressure of tight hatbands on
the scalp, and heredity. Recently an
article appeared in a popular magazine
declaring that baldness is entirely due
to the indiscriminate wearing of hats,
not necessarily tight. Not baldness
itself, but the shape of the head is
inherited and in wearing hats the con-
sequent pressure on the blood vessels
nourishing the scalp causes the loss of
hair. The main argument in support
of this theory was that women never
become bald.
In collecting data for this paper all
types of hair were recorded as thin,
normal or heavy. Questions were also ©
asked as to how long heavy hair was
retained, the pattern and time of
appearance of baldness if present, the
kind of hat worn, and what was used to
prevent baldness. The results show
that baldness is undoubtedly hereditary.
Two families with exceptionally heavy
hair were traced, and no baldness could
be found in either one. Ordinary tight
hats had been worn by the men, which
had not affected the persistence of the
hair. Incase the hair was exceptionally
heavy in youth more than a normal
amount was retained to an advanced
age.
NO BALDNESS HERE
A head of thick, fine hair, at the age of
33. Father of this subject is now 61
years old with abundant hair. Both
father and son wear tight hats.
There is no baldness in the family
history. (Fig. 1.)
In the first chart, III 3 had very
poor health, but until her death at
thirty-five her hair was always re-
markably heavy. Ill health had had
no noticeable effect. Her niece, IV 12,
now twenty years old, who originally
1 Contribution No. 48 from the Department of Zoology and Entomology, O.S. U. This work
~was done in a course in genetics under the direction of Prof. William M. Barrows.
347
T OMOHDMOK
H} () (H) @
: fo ww ie.
A FAMILY IN WHICH NO BALDNESS HAS APPEARED (Chart 1)
Squares represent males and circles females; solid black symbols (used in subsequent charts,
but not in this one) indicate baldness.
H=heavy hair, N=a normal amount, T=thin
hair, ? indicates uncertainty as to baldness, due to lack of information.
Particulars as
to the individuals on the above chart follow:
‘Generation I. I 1 ‘had at least a normal amount of hair, and it may have been heavy.
had heavy hair, and many members of her family had exceptionally heavy hair.
had at least a normal amount of hair, and I 4 probably heavy.
Lye
L-3
I 5 had thin hair.
Generation II. II 1, II 2, II 3,II 4,11 5,andII 6 had heavy hair, and retained same through-
out life.
II 8, II 9, and II 10 had heavy hair.
Generation III. III 1 had heavy hair.
II 7 has thin hair, is now eighty-nine, and retains her normal amount of hair.
II 11 had thin hair.
III 2 has very heavy hair. III
2 had very heavy
hair, and although in poor health for a number of years, retained it until her death at
thirty-five.
III 6 both have heavy hair.
sixty years of age.
anormalamount. IV 5 died in infancy.
IV 7 has exceptionally heavy hair.
IV 11 has very heavy hair, and IV
(Fig. 2.)
had a normal amount of hair, has lost
much through poor health. In the
other family studied, one man, now
sixty, has been in very poor health for
a number of years, but there has been
no noticeable effect on his hair, which
is very heavy and coarse.
Returning to chart 1, II 7 and I 5
both had very thin fine hair, but re-
tained it until very late in life. I 5
died at ninety-three and II 7 is now
eighty-nine. Her husband, II 6, had
heavy coarse hair and their daughter,
348
III 4 died at the age of thirteen which makes data doubtful.
III 5 and
III 7 has exceptionally heavy hair and retains same at
III 8 has about normal hair.
Generation IV. IV 1, IV 3, and IV 4 have very heavy hair. IV
III 9 had heavy hair.
2 has not much more than
IV 6 has not much more than a normal amount.
IV 8 has about the normal amount.
extremely heavy hair, very similar to his father’s. IV
IV 9 has
10 has slightly less than normal.
12 has less than a normal amount, due to illness.
III 8, has a normal amount of moder-
ately fine hair. The husband of III 8,
now sixty, has exceptionally heavy
coarse hair, common in his family.
The children of this mating show an
interesting variety of amounts and
textures of hair. IV 8 has a normal
amount of moderately fine hair; IV 9
has exceptionally heavy, coarse hair
like his father’s; IV 10 has not quite a
normal amount of moderately coarse
hair; IV 11 has very heavy, fine hair,
and IV 12 has rather thin fine hair.
TWO CASES OF PATTERN-BALDNESS
The same individuals are shown in each picture.
The man at the right (upper, in the second
picture) had heavy, coarse, curly hair until twenty years ago, when he began to lose it very
gradually. His father had the same pattern of baldness; his mother’s family had thin
hair but no baldness.
the age of 19, and his son developed the same pattern at the same age.
grandmother of the man here shown was bald.
From the two families traced definite
conclusions cannot be drawn as to the
inheritance of the amount of hair.
Number of individual hairs and tex-
tures are probably inherited separately,
the appearance of amount being de-
pendant on both.
The families which were traced in
reference to baldness show that it is
inherited as a sex-limited trait. It is
dominant in men, is inherited directly
from father or mother to son, but is
recessive in women. Apparently a du-
plex condition in women is necessary
to bring it out. This is the same condi-
tion that Thos. R. Arkell found in the
inheritance of horns in sheep.?
Partial baldness sometimes occurs in
women in case there is illness in addi-
tion to a simplex inheritance. Where
there is not the tendency to baldness
the hair is slightly affected by poor
health and sometimes falls out, but is
regained upon the recovery of good
health. Moreover, as has already been
stated, some individuals in very poor
health do not lose any hair.
2 Arkell, T. R.
“Some Data on the Inheritance of Horns in Sheep.”
The lower individual has thin, straight hair; baldness appeared at
The maternal
(Fig. 3.)
In one family, unfortunately not
charted, the father became very bald
before he was thirty. His only son
showed the exact pattern of his father’s
baldness at birth. The only hair on
the head was in a fringe above the ears
and at the back. Later hair came in
on the top of the head, presenting a
normal appearance. The boy is now
nineteen years old and is beginning to
lose hair above the forehead. This
seems to indicate that the pattern is
present at birth.
Congenital baldness must not be
confused with pattern baldness. In
the former there is no hair whatever,
eyebrows are lacking and nails are
poor or faulty. Instead of hair there
is sometimes a downy fuzz. One family
observed has shown this trait for the
three generations about which anything
is definitely known. The grandfather,
father and mother were completely
bald from birth. The seven sons and
one daughter have never had any hair.
The only grandchild, son of the oldest
boy, also shows the same peculiar trait
New Hampshire
Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. 160, May, 1912.
349
pe)
BALDNESS PASSED THROUGH WOMEN (Chart 2)
Symbols the same as in the preceding chart.
Generation I. I 1 had a normal amount of hair.
I 4 had a normal amount.
I 3 is questionable.
I 2 was very bald but at what age is unknown.
Generation II. II 1 was not bald but amount of hair is unknown. II 2, IJ 3 and II 4 were
all very bald but age of appearance is unknown.
had thin hair.
Generation III. III 1 is questionable.
II 7 is questionable.
a carrier, inheriting the trait from her mother who was also a carrier.
1 never became bald and had at least a normal amount of hair. IV 2
Generation IV. IV
now past middle age, is a carrier but has never shown the trait herself.
IV 4 and IV 5, have never shown any signs of baldness.
half brother, was also very bald.
Generation V. V
of his father’s family. In all of these
cases the nails were abnormal. /~
Charts 2, 3, 4 and 5 illustrate clearly
the general laws of the inheritance of
pattern baldness. Chart 2 is presented
to show that in case a woman inherits
the simplex condition she does not
become bald herself, but transmits bald-
ness, in the long run, to one-half of her
sons and also the possibility of trans-
mission to one-half of her daughters.
A bald man with a simplex inheritance
transmits in the same way. I 1 had
a normal amount of hair, but may
have been a carrier. I 2 was bald.
Three out of four sons of this mating,
350
1 became very bald between the ages of twenty-five and thirty.
Il 5 had anormal amount of hair. II 6
II 2 had anormal amount of hair but was undoubtedly
III 3 is questionable.
Her sisters, IV 3,
IV V5a
(Fig. 4.)
IV 6 was very bald.
II 2,11 3, and II 4, were all bald, and
the only daughter, II 5, was probably a
carrier. Her husband, II 6, was never
bald. The daughter of this couple,
III 2, inherited the trait from her
mother and transmitted it to two sons,
IV 6 and IV 7, and, at least, one
daughter, IV 2. She was married twice
but as nothing is known in reference
to the hair of either husband, and more-
over, as a son by each marriage was
bald, it was concluded that the trait
was inherited through her. IV 1 was
never bald, so could not transmit bald-
ness. IV 2 must be a carrier, trans-
mitting the trait to her son, V 1.
Osborn: Inheritance of Baldness
In chart 3 the trait is inherited for
four generations, directly from father
to son. II 5 became very bald at
forty, as did both of his sons, III 5
and III 6, and also his grandson, IV 4.
In the families charted, where the
inheritance is direct from father to
son, the pattern and age of appearance
vary slightly in succeeding generations.
In this case in chart 3 baldness covers
the entire top of the head and extends
down almost to the neck. The hair is
lost at about forty years of age. II 8
inherited baldness ‘from his father,
I 2, but accurate information could not
ber secured. IV a, a-woman, has) a
bald spot at the back of her head.
Her father, III 4, was bald and her
mother, III 3, was a carrier, inheriting
the “trait fron her father, 11 .1.. 786 118 15.01
AManrgeleloforachralaultokge\ akan chet e ehrt an weReMeny Gear 765 104 13.59
Hourshybommenivdrens: 84.0. ks eae: 705 95 13.47
Yt EheMonmrCniUnremien 2s -cseet ptnesas a eee cee 6306 82 13.01
Sixth pornyehuadken s: . ok.. 4 claw hee 542 40 7.38
Deven bornsehtldrens wee Ji he. ee 450 Se ila PY)
Bish the pOLischildrenies mtu. wee cera: 369 30 8.13
INiriahel aly] ofoyane tel abi Kelsi ale pean te oe, Dees ia tae ea 271 22 8.11
Menmunmornscoic ren] twee. es rains ens 181 20 11.04
Eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth
and fifteenth born children........... | 188 21 ala stl7/
MOTs Waa sere ae a | 5,689 / 802 14.09
the first-born, that infant mortality is
higher among the first-born, that the
health of the first-born child,. during
its early years, is below par?
INFLUENCE OF NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection appears to offer a
satisfactory explanation. At the birth
of the first child, the maternal mechan-
ism is less well adapted to its work than
is the case at subsequent births. Par-
ticularly in the case of middle-aged
women, physicians say that the strain
to which the child is subjected at birth
is greater at the first than at subsequent
parturitions. The first-born child is,
therefore, more stringently selected than
are his brothers and sisters; a greater
percentage of the first children die at
birth. Now if we make the assumption
that those who die are, on the average,
inherently weaker than those who
survive the ordeal, it follows that the
average of strength, among the first-
born adults in a population, would be
higher than among the second or later
born; not because they were as a rank
superior physically from the start, but
simply because a greater proportion of
the weaklings were eliminated at the start.
by birth-rank. See JoURNAL oF HEREDITY, Vol.
If, then, we draw a sample of long-
lived people from the population, we
would expect to find more first-born
among them because the initial in-
cidence of natural selection left the
surviving first-born more fit, on the
average, than the surviving second,
third, or fourth-born.
This hypothesis may well be supple-
mented by the fact which biometricians®
have found, that the elder children are
more variable in respect to longevity,
than are the later-born. Increased
variability naturally gives all the more
scope for the action of natural selection;
and while those who vary in the direc-
tion of physical inferiority will be elimi-
nated at birth, the survivors will repre-
sent children who vary in physical
superiority to a greater extent than do
their younger brothers and sisters. This
variation will naturally result in the
production of a considerable number of
long-lived individuals.
If the facts have been correctly inter-
preted, then the prevalence of first-born
in a collection of long-lived individuals
has a real biological foundation, and
is not a mere statistical fallacy. This
conclusion is supported by the fact,
V, p. 268. Researches cited by H. H. Hibbs, Jr.,
(Infant Mortality, p. 56, N. Y., 1916) show that in many cases the infant mortality is lowest
when the mother is under 20 and when the birth in question may fairly be supposed to be her
first, in a large proportion of cases.
These data may not be so weighty as the larger series quoted
by Pearson, but should at least be taken into account.
> Beeton, Mary and Pearson, Karl.
pp. 50-99, London, 1901.
Inheritance of the Duration of Life.
Biometrika, Vol. I,
398 The Journal
found long ago by biometricians,* that
elder children tend to live longer than
younger ones. The investigation in
question did not deal directly with the
first-born, but is obviously parallel to a
certain extent.
Dealing with a thousand or more
pairs, Miss Beeton and Pearson then
found the following average ages at
death:
Elder Younger
All adult adult adult
PSTD. acts k hee ee 57.795 59.924 55.667
BroOnner... «260s 56.568 58.560 54.575
Here an elder brother or sister was
one who might have been born one
year or twenty before the younger
brother or sister. For both sexes, it
seems that the elder lived about four
years longer than the younger.
The result appeared so interesting to
them that they secured 1,051 pairs of
brothers and 733 pairs of sisters where
the interval between births was known,
and further studied them. ‘The data,”
says Prof. Pearson, ‘‘are not quite the
same as for our pairs of adult brothers
and sisters given above, but they show
much the same advantage, 1.e., four
years to the elder. They further dem-
onstrate that longevity is correlated
with position in the family.’ This fact
is suggestive for the source of other
variations in the characters of an array
of brethren. It may be that variability
within the array is not purely random,
but correlated like variability in lon-
gevity, with birth order. Our numbers
show that on the whole the earlier-born
members of a family are the stronger,
or at any rate fitted to survive the
longer.”’
It was possible from the data to
work out interesting formulae for pre-
6 Beeton and Pearson, ubt supra.
7 The facts as given by Beeton and Pearson, p.
Mean excess in life of elder.............-.00055
TOLER CCSS 5 halo Asc Arca See ehee Co, Ca
Mean interval between births.................
Mo Fab ay tories CORAM oe” ot ATA! fp (RED
of Heredity
dicting the probable excess of life (e) of
an elder brother or sister from a knowl-
edge of the birth interval (7), both
being taken in years:
Elder brother e 7
Elder sister e 8
“Thus a brother born ten years
before another brother has probably
seven years greater duration of life; a
sister born ten years before another
sister has probably about six years
greater duration of life.” It is hardly
necessary to add that these formulae
will rarely hold good in individual
cases, but apply only when a large
population is dealt with.
While these Beeton-Pearson data may
appear to conflict in some ways with
the Genealogical Record Office data
which I have compiled, it must be
pointed out that they are not directly
comparable. The former were taken
from pedigrees kept by the Society of
Friends in England, while the latter are
isolated cases picked out of a very
heterogeneous population, on the basis
of a single fact—that an individual had
reached advanced age.
In conclusion, it has been shown that
among the long-lived people in the
United States, first-born are propor-
tionately more numerous than any
other children. It is suggested that
this may be because they are (a) more
variable in respect to longevity and (b)
subjected to a more stringent selection
at birth. Previous work showing that
earlier-born children in a family live
longer than later-born appears, as far
as it goes, to corroborate the validity of
the conclusion reached from a study of
the Genealogical Record Office data.
54, are:
Brothers Sisters
ee ktry Serer ire 4.289 yrs. 4.542 yrs.
eT eR te 22.0053 yrs. 22.1325 yrs.
RAG Ate seta ete 6.462 yrs. 6.7503 yrs.
MY oo eC 4.3530 yrs. 4.6856 yrs.
1062 + .0206 .1201 + .0246
USUAL GROWTH HABIT OF WHITE-BARKED PINE
A typical specimen in appearance, but larger than usual.
The tree stands on what was doubt-
less once a grave or the site of a small temple; remains of the grave or buildings have
long since been obliterated by farmers.
This beautiful pine has been introduced to the
United States, but appears to lose its white color if it is grown in a moist locality. Photo-
graph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 5.)
THE WHITE-BARKED PINE
D. F. Hicerins, Peking, China
N ONE of my first trips sight-seeing
around the ‘city. of Peking, when
almost. anything.new and strange
was. taken “quite as a matter of
course, I remember seeing in the enclo-
sure of “‘Coal Hill’’ some pine trees
whose snow-white bark shone out from
their green foliage. I wondered at the
time why it was that the Chinese
whitewashed their pine trees. Later,
however, in excursions into the country,
I found that my whitewashed pines
were not whitewashed, but that they
had a white bark.
I became interested in this curious
tree, and later, largely through the
inspiring acquaintance formed with
Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer
of the United States Department of
Agriculture, I took a number of photo-
graphs which may be of interest to the
readers of the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY.
The tree (Pinus Bungeana) is most
striking and noble in appearance, and
399
THE PINE IS OFTEN PLANTED NEAR A TEMPLE
‘his specimen stands in the ground of Tan Chao Ssu, a famous temple in the mountains west
of Peking. With the brilliant white bark and clear green foliage among the yellow and
green tile roofs, all against the dark green of juniper and oak-clad hills, it is a sight not
oon to be forgotten. This is the finest specimen seen among several hundreds in the
vicinity of Peking. Photograph by D. F. Higgins. (Fig. 6.)
Higgins: The White-Barked Pine
would form an attractive addition to
any park or estate. There is a feeling
of awe and mystery inspired by the
flashes of brilliant white through a
shadowed grove such as might arise if
elves were lighting fox-fire by day.
The fact that the trees are planted
principally about grave sites does not
tend to lessen this feeling.
Besides being used for ornamental
purposes around graves, they are also
to be found in many of the temple
grounds which abound on the plain
around Peking and nestle in the moun-
tains west of the city. I have seen no
trees not planted by man, but I have
heard that this tree grows wild in the
low mountains west of Paotingfu, some
401
distance southwest of Peking. The
species seems to be one nearly extinct,
and which thrives only in narrow cli-
matic limits. Its introduction into the
United States would be worth while
attempting, however. Mr. Meyer has
superintended the securing of one of
these trees which has been placed over
the grave of W. W. Rockhill, late
United States minister to China.
The Chinese name of the white-
barked pine is “pai kuo sung,’ pro-
nounced locally about Peking, “pai-
kuor-sung,” ‘‘the white fruit-pine.”
This name is due to its white bark, and
to the use of the seeds as a delicacy and
in confections.
On the Proportion
Discussing ‘‘Defect in germ-plasm as
a cause of delinquency” in an editorial
in the July issue of the Journal of
Delinquency, Thomas H. Haines, direc-
tor of the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile
Research, concludes that 25% is about
the limit of feeblemindedness that can
be found in any unselected delinquent
population—for example, the inmates
of a penitentiary or reform school.
Feebleminded is here used to mean that
“they are so poorly endowed with in-
telligence that they are unable to
manage themselves and their affairs
with prudence.” Better tests are
of ‘‘Born Criminals’’
needed, Dr. Haines says, to get at
the mentality of the rest of the de-
linquents. ‘‘That there is mental ab-
normality of some sort underlying
the moral perversion, in a large per-
centage of not insane and not feeble-
minded delinquents, we are free to
grant. » But -there: is) much, ‘ab-
normal mentality that is not due to
defect in germ-plasm.” This, Dr.
Haines thinks, is the result of bad
education, and can be corrected in
many cases by proper treatment. For
the hereditarily defective mind, little
can be done.
The Inheritance of Feeblemindedness
In the May and July issues of the
Journal of Delinquency, Arthur S. Otis,
of Stanford University compares the
conflicting views on the manner in
which feeblemindedness is inherited.
There can be no doubt but that heredity
is to a large extent accountable for
different degrees in brightness;- the
question is whether or not these different
degrees of brightness can be said to be
inherited as Mendelian unit characters.
After reviewing the conflicting views,
Otis concludes that no good case has
yet been made out by the Mendelists,
and that while Mendelian heredity of
degrees of intelligence is easily conceiv-
able, it cannot be proved until we have
more knowledge of the development of
the mind, and better means of measuring
our quantities.
1 The office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, United States Department of Agriculture,
has sent out seedlings of this pine (Inventory No. 41954) secured by Mr. Meyer, and these are
now growing at various places in the United States.
Dr. C. S. Sargent is growing in the Arnold Arboretum, Boston.
A large specimen introduced earlier by
It does not show the white-
barked character, and it is quite possible that this will only appear on specimens grown in a dry
climate. The Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction will be glad to correspond with
anyone who wishes to grow this pine in the United States.—THE EDITOR.
POLLINATION IN THE PINE
LANTS which depend on the wind have presented an impenetrable ex-
for fertilization must necessarily terior. At the base of each scale
have pollen adapted to travel by are two _ ovules, not enclosed in
air. Ifa plant regularly depends
on bees or other insects to carry its
pollen, the pollen-grains are likely to
be sticky and fairly large. If, how-
ever, the pollen must be transported by
the wind, then the grains must neces-
sarily be as light as possible and some-
times, as in the pine, they are furnished
with wings or air sacs to buoy them up.
So equipped, pollen grains can travel
almost incredible distances. Engel-
mann, a careful and trustworthy ob-
server, reports:
“The property of the pine pollen to
float for a long time in the air, and to
be carried by storms to very distant
localities, is well known. I have found
in streets of St. Louis after a rainstorm
from the south, in March when no
pines north of Louisiana were in bloom,
pine pollen which must have come from
the forests of Pinus australis on Red
River, a distance of about 614° of
latitude or 400 miles in a direct line.”’
The male and female flowers of
the pine are quite distinct, as will be
seen from Fig. 8, but are borne on
the same tree. The male cones appear
in the eastern United States late in
the fall, lie dormant through the winter
and ripen their pollen in the spring, the
pollen being ready for dispersal in May
or June. In March or April the female
cones can be distinguished; they develop
rapidly until they are mature at the
same time as the male cones.
At about the time that the staminate
flowers are launching their clouds of
glistening pollen on the wind, the axis
of the female cone elongates, thus
forcing open the scales, which hereto-
fore have been pressed together and
1In Trans. St. Louis Academy, Vol. IV, p. 159,
402
FECUNDATION OF THE OVULE
The ovule or egg-cell of the pine (P. austri-
acus) is here photographed, immensely
enlarged, about one year after it was
pollinated. The pollen grain has lain
dormant within it for that length of
time, but is now beginning the actual
fertilization. In the center of the egg
can be seen the large maternal nucleus
at the top of which the functional male
nucleus has made a deep depression—a
feature characteristic of the pines.
Very shortly it will enter the egg-
nucleus at this point and the two
nuclei will unite, bringing together the
hereditary material which each carries
and thus starting the development of a
new tree. At the upper end of the ovule
a large vacuole is seen as a clear spot,
to the left of which is the second
male nucleus, which takes no part in
fecundation. Photo-micrograph from
David M. Mottier, Bloomington, Ind.
(Fig. 7.)
FLOWERS OF THE PINE
At the base of the spike is a cluster of male cones, which have already opened and begun to
shed their pollen. Grains of the pollen can be seen sticking to most of the pine-needles
in the photograph. Above is a single female cone branching from the slender twig. The
pollen of the pine is carried by the wind, insects playing no part in the pollination of this
tree. Photograph, much enlarged, by David Fairchild. (Fig. 8.)
GRAINS OF PINE POLLEN
They show little tendency to stick together, whereas the pollen of plants
that depend on insect visitors is often exceedingly sticky, so that it
will adhere to the legs and bodies of insects. The pollen of the pine is
much smaller than that of most plants; it is here shown as seen by
reflected light. Photo-micrograph by David Fairchild. (Fig. 9.)
THREE-CELLED POLLEN GRAIN
The pollen of pines is adapted to travel with the wind
by the possession of wing-cells or balloons. The
grain consists of three cells, one of which is fully
developed and contains the nucleus, while two at
the sides are hollow and contain nothing but air.
They buoy up the nuclear cell and enable it to
travel almost incredible distances—as far as 400
miles in extreme cases. Drawn by W. H. Lamb,
of the U.S. Forest Service. (Fig. 10.)
Pollination
an ovary as is the case with most
flowering plants, but lying quite ex-
posed, as with all the gymnosperms or
““naked-seed”’ plants. Pollen drifts into
the openings between the scales and
slips down to the base, where some of
the grains fall on the ovules. There is
an opening to each ovule, and the
opening is surrounded by a collar of
cells which form a tube to receive
the pollen. When the pollen grain
is once inside this tube leading to the
ovule, the opening closes up so that it
cannot get out. Shortly afterwards,
the scales of the cone are said to close
up once more, thus protecting the ovule
during the course of its further develop-
ment.”
With many flowers, fertilization—
that is, the union of the sperm-cell and
egg-cell—takes place almost imme-
diately after, pollen has reached the
ovule. But in the pine there is an
extraordinary delay, often covering a
period of thirteen months. The pollen-
. grain does indeed begin to germinate
immediately after it has entered the
ovule. But when it has gone through
a few divisions, and put forth a pollen
in the Pine 405
tube, it rests for a year. Not until late
in the following spring, in most species,
does it actually reach the egg-cell.
When fertilization does take place,
it is more thorough than in many:
species. Not only do the nuclei of the
two cells unite, but the cytoplasm of
the two cells fuses, whereas in many
cases the cytoplasm—that is, all the
material surrounding the nucleus—of
the male cell is rejected.
To obtain a good photograph of the
process of fertilization is a very rare
thing, but Prof. David Mottier, of
Indiana University has sent the re-
markable one reproduced in Fig. 7.
Here the two nuclei can be seen, just
about to unite. Most, if not all, of the
heredity of the species seems to be
carried in the nucleus of the cell; con-
sequently it is the union of cell-nuclei
that constitutes the essential fact in
zygosis or fertilization. By this act the
inherited characters of the male and
female parent are brought together, to
lie side by side in the individual which
results from the growth of the fertilized
cell, and to be shuffled up, recombined
and segregated in its posterity.
Breeding Sugar Cane
Four generations of seedling cane are
being grown at the Porto Rico experi-
ment station, Rio Piedras, P. R., and
several new varieties of value have
already been developed. It has been
found almost impossible successfully
to pollinate cane by hand, because of
the smallness of the cane flower, the
height at which the inflorescence is
produced, and its brittleness. Success
has been had, however, by planting two
varieties in parallel rows, a_pollen-
sterile variety on the leeward side of one
pollen-fertile. The wind does the rest.
State Survey in Illinois
The Illinois Committee for Mental
Hygiene is contemplating a state-wide
survey of the amount and ramifications
of mental defect. The work would be
centralized in Chicago. This action
is in line with that taken recently by a
number of communities, and must
eventually be followed by the whole
nation, as the realization becomes
more widespread that a large part of
the crime and misery is due to inherited
mental defect, and that most of it can
be wiped out, within a generation,
without excessive labor or expense.
2 For a careful technical account see Ferguson, Margaret C. Contributions to the Knowledge
of the Life History of Pinus, etc.
Washington, 1904.
A CHANGE IN SEX-RATIO
Overwhelming Preponderance of Male Births Among Certain Tribes of Costa
Rican Indians—Females in Great Majority Among Adults—Tribes
Rapidly Disappearing
HENRY PITTIER
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.
Zeitschrift fir Ethnologie a short
note on the Tirub, or on what is left
of that once powerful tribe, dominat-
ing the plains and mountains bordering
on the present boundary line of Costa
Rica and Panama. ‘The abode of these
remnants is now restricted to the upper
reaches of the Tararia or Changuinola
River, included in the territory of the
latter republic.
In the above mentioned contribution,
there were given some statistical data
showing the rapid decrease of the
Tirub and the unusual numerical dis-
proportion of the sexes, the great
majority of children being males.
I visited these natives in 1898 and the
statistical information reproduced about
five years later from my diary was given
as a résumé of the complete census made
during my expedition, the originals of
which had been mislaid.
Not very long ago, these detailed sheets
of my census were found. They cover
not only the whole Tirub tribe, but also
the larger part of the Bribri of the Costa
Rican Talamanca. In view of the
numerous researches and publications
referring to sex determination and con-
trol, these data appear so interesting
that I now undertake to prepare them
for publication. I do this also in
justice to the readers of my former
article and because such information
may throw some light on the process of
disintegration of a race.
The above cited paper dealt with a
|: 1903, I published in the Serlin
portion only of the Tirub, and showed
a proportion of thirty-six females to
100 boysamong the children. It further
stated that since the first known census,
in 1700, when the tribe numbered about
2,300, there has been among them a
steady and rapid decrease in the natality
until in 1898, there were left fifty-seven
individuals, among whom were fourteen
boys and five girls under marriageable
age. The real figures at that time as
shown below should have been given
as eighty-nine individuals with thirty-
one boys and eleven girls, and a slight
predominance of the males among the
adults. Among the children, however,
the given sex ratio remains the same
with the new totais.
It was shown further that the same
process of rapid extinction, indicated
not only by a lesser natality but also
by a great exaggeration of the sex
ratio, existed in another Costa Rican
tribe, the Guatusos, living at the head-
waters of the Rio Frio. In 1896,
Bishop Thiel found it to consist of
only 203 individuals, seventy of whom
were females, the ratio being fifty-two
of these to each 100 males.
In the same expedition during which
the Tirub information was gathered,
I made also, as stated above, an exten-
sive survey of the inhabitants of the
valleys and mountains of Uren in the
Costa Rican Talamanca. These people
belong to the Bribri tribe, another part
of which inhabits the district of Arari,
which I did not visit at the time. There
1 Similar disproportionate sex-ratios are said to have been found among the Indians of Guate-
mala and Nicaragua, and parts of South America, but in no case has the state of affairs been
described by such an accurate census as Mr. Pittier was able to make. E. Westermarck cites
the travelers’ accounts in his ‘‘History of Human Marriage,’ Chapter XXI. Among other
primitive peoples, it would appear that the proportion of girls born is sometimes equally excessive.
In civilized countries there appears an extraordinarily steady ratio of something like 105 boys to
100 girls born.—The Editor.
406
Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio 407
is also a small settlement of the same The results of both the Tirub and
Indians in the Cabagra Valley, on the Bribri censuses are now given in full,
southern watershed of the cordillera. as follows:
I. Census of the Tirub Tribe.
Adults. Children. Totals. |
: | _ Grand
Name of locality. | eee
| Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. |
Brasike istehouse....... 1 1 3 0 4 1 5
Brusik 2d house....... 1 1 2 0 3 1 4
Brasil; $d house: 5... ily En] 3 2 0 3 3 6
iusteiniwn hes ote De 4 5 0 | 7 4 11
Heri Glee ce any teh 1 3 3 0 | 4 3 7
SCRE GI Kam Ae th cu Reena hl 5 5 5 0 10 5 15
JsNieaMicl OVORS a eae eee eg 3 5 3 3 6 8 14
PES Gee prea. it 2 3 y, | 4 4 8
Winter ease crane heey. 1 4 2 3 3 i 10
Temisik (Songs6)...... Dae 1 3 3 5 4 9
EouseselO se 18 29 31 11 49 40 89
II. Census of Part of the Bribri Tribe.
(a) Bribri Mountains, Talamanca.
Adults. Children. Totals.
Name of locality. | 3 : ere
Males. | Females. Males. |Females.| Males. | Females.
SEU ELECS ae eae Re pane 5 5 6 3 lal 8 19
Sitltuzeeerer ete ee 2 2 2 0 4 2 6
Wika etas se vektie a0. 28 2 2 0 2 2 4. 6
IDGESADETR ss fa ee 4-8 3 3 3 2 6 5 11
NUR Zt ey es ee vag meets 4 3 4 3 8 6 14
15.2 6 (=). a, eee eee 3 7 1 1 4 og 12
Ee 7s tie croc sae iia 3 4 2 2 es 6 11
NO) Himinttiers eteieeeies eee 2 2 2 1 4 3 if
1B Yo] Of a ee eNO ee aaa 2 S he 3 4 8 12
Asjeikenaten ee seas es ee ae 3 6 3 1 6 7 13
OKA KItSAl ys seve oe 2 4 0 9 2 13 15
DGGZ vee re ds 2 3 1 2 3 5 8
SUIS aaa er ests 4 3 0 0 4 3 7
PS STEORI a ou aie ein 4 4 0 1 4 5 9
(i tAg: - Sei aera eee ae 5) 2, 3 0 6 2 8
Dutsibetev@)r . at.-5 5 3 2 1 8 4 12
ID Aa OR apse, re 2 i a 2 4 9 1S:
Wintisicath ae stan eh ceat tk 1 3° 2 1 3 4 7
ANGI cia Ja tee WArirona ain aE amt tte 4 6 3 1 il 7 14
BAS Dietel a eters neces | 3 4 2 1 5 5 10
eSTini katie tes eis ecto ee 3 4 3 2 6 6 12
Vos maa] 0755 2 Wie Me se ae 2 5) 0” 0 2 3 5
novela hs a) Meee easy Mu 3 0 1 2 4 6
Rigi 43. 3 ee 2 4 2 3 4 i) 11
Moro kdipess reds ee 2 4 2 3 4 7 11
MGI che ae, no bine. thes 44 3 0 3 2 6 8
INGO os. Soar et eens 7 5 2 1 9 6 15
408
' Name of locality.
Burtibeta
Améokitsa ist house........
Amokitsa 2d house
OWS y talon lh ene ee. eee ween:
PR Ate a mcsitehe ole ene ee
Surébeta |
Dek6é-t
Surtik
eleanor eee
SI GUIS Mote lces Gls pss eee aes
PII T TIC ee orbs Agen coe ees Sie
Karkadzeua
Bilcatg: Ss teste ties teh ee
Adults.
| Males. | Females.
Tsimukurki
PRODOOLIDCS. oc 0 yes oe lens
Sauskurki
Sausbeta
MN Se Soin 2S c Saco pase es ne
Datsi-kurki
Sklikote
Dicdéte. 1st house:...-....<-;
Decéte 2a *house: .: 05. 423
Dicétevo@ HOUSE..2.50..- 2
Dicéte 4th house...........
Dicéte 5th house
Dicéte 6th house...........|
Bekurkttrcss stare cc tn eee ee
NeaGAIKITSaet. bc orc die ee aes
NSO DLT « 51 eee
Skartbkitsa
Dutsdkurki
Sata ec rele ahe eh er
AGL AIBED 655.000 «vie Phe crm tt
Korblifiak
PIACIONGON.. Bierce’ seinen
Tsurikurbri 1st house.......|
Tsurikurbri 2d house
Murusikdio
Ogdi
Mountain Bribri
Plain Bribri
CeuC ROE 6 Se OeKe'* ©
(b) Inner plain of Talamanca.
The Journal of Heredity
Children.
Males. Females.
|
3 3 1 0
2 6 1 0
3 oa ee 0
3 a es 0
2 Ces 0
3 5 0 3
4 5 1 0
5 Cea ee 1
2 ae ier 0
1 3 0 1
3 3 2 Tega
2 4 | 5 Oe |
2 Bt oly PSO 1
4 ee ean 3
3 ee 3
4 2 2 1
2 3 1 1
1 1 2 1
2 2 0 3
130 166 74 58
BROAN KR WHE WWNHNHNHE NUN KORN RPWOR RPO UR
PAIN OLN HE WUEWWRENARP NN SWWRENPRAR RE
WNW RK BNE WNHNUORUNOWNNOUWRNNOND WwW
WN OR COOCWOOWON FPR OR ROR rPODWOSKFF
ee ee 61 32
130 166 | 74 58
59 76 | (Ol 32
189 242. | 135 90
Totals.
Males.
NWWWDUUNMAUNRE NO DAUW UE UW
=
WOW BP WWROA KP SR WON ENHWHADN WNHH ANUS
204
120
324
|
|
Females.
CD He G2 U1 OW HE ED 1 OW WR DW
—
WOW COUN BPW EWAR KON N WHEE ERR RCN
108
224
108
Grand
totals.
— dDOO * i _
CONOUEATEOAMWNNTOKPAMNUMAGOWDWNA OD
—
Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio
409
Males and females to each 1,000 of population,
Tirub
Brbrig ko Ski eae
Males. Females.
eee 202 326
Children 348 124
|General 550 450
{Adults 288 369
;Children 206 137
|General 494 506
Tribe or part of tribe.
Females to each 100 males.
Males to each 100 females.
Adults.
PET UL ree ee athe Sea eanete ieee 161
Bribri (Mountain)................. 128
Bribrit (Plain) pe no pci) fess 129
Bribri (General). .55.0.2.45.85 6 3 4- | 128
Children. Adults. Children.
36 62 262
78 78 128
52 78 191
67 78 150
The known history of the Tirub shows
that during the seventeenth century,
they constituted a powerful nation,
which extended its sway over all the
neighboring tribes. They made frequent
raids on these, plundering, killing the
men, carrying away women and children.
The fact that at that time and as long
as they were able to maintain their
supremacy, they were essentially exoga-
mous, and also polygamous, should
perhaps not be overlooked when study-
ing the probable causes of their decad-
ence. The existence at one time of
both conditions is proved not only by»
repeated documentary mention of the
abduction of females of all ages, but
also by tradition and actual occurrence.
The Térraba Indians still speak of a
time when each man was allowed
several wives, and also of the punish-
ment inflicted by the friars when the
monogamic rule imposed by them was
infringed. On the other hand, during
my residence in Térraba, one of the
former Tirub colonies in the Diquis
Valley, I became acquainted with several
natives who had taken their wives from
among the Bribri and Cabécara of the
northernslope. Asked about the reason
why they had gone so far to find their
matrimonial mates, one of these men
tried to explain that such wives were
more ‘‘recatadas,”’ 7.e., modest or shy,
than those of his own surroundings,
but others referred to the fact that such
was the practice among their forebears
and that this was encouraged by the
missionaries.
Notwithstanding all the evidences of
the practice of exogamy before the
advent of the Spaniards, I must not
omit to mention that there are also
vague indications of the tribe having
been at one time organized in two clans
between which marriages took place
exclusively, as will be explained in
connection with the Bribri.
The decadence of the Tirub started
with their subjection by the Spaniards
at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. The persuasion of the mis-
sionaries and the fear of a bloody re-
pression put an end to the inroads on
their neighbors and to the practice of
exogamy. A considerable part of the
tribe was led away to the several colonies
founded by the friars in other parts of
the country and no small number were
driven to the Spanish settlements to
become the slaves of their conquerors.
Worse still, smallpox, pulmonary and
catarrhal infections, almost always fatal
among them, and other imported dis-
eases took a heavy toll among the once
strong and warlike nation.
Heretofore, they had roamed freely
over mountains and vales, spending the
dry season fishing and hunting in the
extensive plains along the coast and
retiring with the accumulated pro-
visions for the rainy winters in the
sheltered fastnesses of their hinterland.
In the plains were also their extensive
plantations, built up for each family by
the common work of the community
with the accompaniment of eating and
drinking revelries, as is still the custom
410
among the Talamanca Indians. Their
crops consisted mainly of cassava and
plantains, to which squashes and red
peppers were probably added. Maize
was hardly cultivated and beans were
certainly unknown, since up to the
present day they are found but seldom
among the aborigines of the Atlantic
coast of Costa Rica.
DRIVEN FROM THEIR HOMES
While this simple diet remained
plentiful, the nation continued to thrive,
until strangers began to invade the
more accessible parts of their territory.
Year after year these came in growing
numbers, settling themselves in the
fields of the hapless natives, who were
thus robbed of their subsistence and
frightened back into the narrow valley
of the Tararia. The climax of the
spoliation came about the time of my
visit, when speculators grabbed what
was left of the rich lands of the plains
in prevision of future operations by a
large banana concern.
These changes took place gradually,
and gradually too, the living conditions
of the natives became more impaired
The narrow talweg of the valley, swept
year after year by the torrential freshets
of the larger streams, could not be
tilled profitably, and the slopes are
everywhere too steep for permanent
cultivation. So the crops were forcibly
reduced to a scanty minimum. The
fish which abound in the lower course of
the river, become scarce in the upper
reaches and, at the time of my visit,
the forest game had practically dis-
appeared. All this necessarily resulted
in a slow starvation of the Tirub, with
the corresponding lowering of the
vitality of the race. The resistance to
diseases and other adverse conditions
became less, the rate of mortality in-
creased and with a diminished number
of births came also the disturbance of
the ratio of sexes as vividly shown in the
above tables.
Among the Bribri, the process of
attrition has been about the same,
though perhaps a little slower. These
were among the people subjected to
the dire oppression of the Tirub during
the period preceding the arrival of the
The Journal of Heredity
Spaniards. At that time also they were
more or less obliged to seek the seclusion
of their mountains, their enemies extend-
ing over most of the beautiful inner
plain of Talamanca. Besides they paid
tribute, according to tradition, to the
Misquito Indians, who at that time
dominated the coast from Gracias a
Dios in the North to beyond the Chiriqui
Lagoon, as is indicated still by numerous
localnames. A tradition gathered from
the old men in Bribri has it that each
year, the flotilla of the warring Misquitos
would appear at a certain time at
Cahuita Point, and a slave runner was
dispatched to the Bribri bearing the
insignia of command, a cane made of
the cacique wood. This put the whole
tribe on the way to the coast,
every man and woman loaded with
propitiatory presents. After the Span-
ish occupation, this dependency came
to an end, though very much against
the will of the Misquitos, who tried by
every means to maintain it, and even
penetrated once far into the Talamanca
Valley with their dugouts after they
had succeeded in crossing the dangerous
bar at the mouth of the Tarire. On
this occasion, however, they were not
satisfied with provisions and cotton
clothes, the usual tribute levied on the
Bribri, but a number of women and
children were carried away into cap-
tivity.
After the last appearance of the
Misquitos and the retreat of the Tirub
into their own valley of the Tararia,
the Bribri enjoyed a relative quiet
and attained some prosperity under the
easy rule of the friars. Not that they
submitted altogether meekly, for there
were times of open revolt, when mis-
sionaries and colonists were pitilessly
massacred and the churches and in-
cipient towns destroyed. These out-
bursts were of course followed by bloody
reprisals, but on the whole the tribe
maintained itself in a relatively pros-
perous condition even to the last days
of the past century.
MARRIAGE BETWEEN CLANS
With relation to marriage, their
customs were very ditterent from those
of the Tirub. While polygamy was the
Pittier: A Change in Sex-Ratio
rule, the wives were taken from inside
the tribe, according to a system which
we might call semi-exogamic. The
whole tribe was divided from the oldest
times into two clans, each one of which
was considered by the other as its
conptiaty. «lune: men of, one. clan.
could marry only in the opposite clan,
to which the children would also be-
long, the head of the family being not
the husband, but the eldest brother of
the mother. This custom was still
rigidly enforced at the time of my
exploration of Talamanca (1891-1898),
when I succeeded in obtaining the
complete list of the families forming each
clan of the Bribri.
Owing to this arrangement, the inner
life of the tribe was not perhaps so
deeply disturbed by the advent of
Spaniards as was the case among the
Tirub, and this is one of the explana-
tions of the reason why the decadence
of the Bribri has proceeded more
slowly, as shown by the above tables.
One of the first facts which draws the
attention when studying these is the
reversal of the ratio of sexes when we
pass from the adult to the child genera-
tion. Among the former the number of
females is far above the normal in all
cases, while among the children the
male element is overwhelmingly pre-
ponderant. It would seem, therefore,
that the change has been a very sudden
one, and this puts more difficulties in
the way of a satisfactory explanation.
That the adverse circumstances under
which these natives live have been
rapidly on the increase during the last
years is an evident fact. The question
is whether it would be sufficient argu--
ment to explain both the decrease in
411
natality and the great disturbance of
the sex ratio.
It has been suggested that certain
native tribes limit the number of females
by killing part of the baby girls at their
birth. This, however, would not explain
the present case and furthermore it
certainly does not apply with regard to
the Bribri Indians, among whom I
lived for nearly three years and into
whose more intimate life I pried almost
at will. Not being an admissible ex-
planation for the Bribri, this. could not
be used as to the Tirub, whose case is
more or less identical.
On the other hand it is generally
admitted that there is an automatic
correlation between the birth rate and
sex ratio on one side and the general
vital conditions of the race on the other.
The only apparent exception to that
law is the presence of artificial condi-
tions as produced by abuse of wealth
and excessive physical refinement, as
are known to exist in great cities and
which lead so surely to race suicide.
Under normal conditions, a_ strong,
healthy stock tends to increase and with
a higher rate of birth there is also a
surplus in the number of females.
Under adverse conditions, the facts
become reversed. For instance, in a
nation depleted of men and resources by
war, natality is less and the proportion
of males considerably larger. While
statistical proof of these facts is in-
adequate, there is some evidence to
support them, and they formed the
base of the explanation given in my
former paper.
Whatever this explanation, it is evi-
dent that factors have been in operation
among these Indians that have resulted
in a definite and pronounced alteration
of the sex ratio.
Research Work at Sing Sing
At the annual meeting of the National
Committee on Prisons it was announced
that a fund of $20,000 a year for five
years has been guaranteed to provide
medical and scientific treatment for
the prisoners at Sing Sing. The Com-
mittee on Eugenics has begun opera-
tions in cooperation with the Police
Department of New York City to
arrive at the constitutional or hereditary
factors in anti-social behavior with the
aid of carefully compiled family his-
tories.—Eugenical News (Cold Spring
Harbor, Long Island, July, 1916.)
HEREDITY OF HAIR-FORM
TRAIGHT hair is the primitive history, and resulted in the various
form found in the human race, forms known as curly, kinky (or frizzy)
but in some sections, particu- and wooly. The difference is in the
larly those inhabiting the tropics, form of the individual hair: straight
a modification appeared very early in hairs are round in cross-section, while
AMERICAN NEGRO x FILIPINO HALFBLOODS. = (Fig. I.)
Heredity of Hair-Form
the curved ones are seen, in cross-
section, to be flattened, being some-
times only half as thick as broad.
Going farther back, we find that
the difference in appearance is due to
a difference in the shape of the follicles
from which the hairs grow: straight
hair develops in a plain, cylindrical
follicle, while the follicle which pro-
duces the flattened types of hair is
curved and inclined in relation to the
skin. Apparently this change is one,
the possibility of which is often present
in human germ-plasm, for it breaks out
occasionally when there is no heredi-
tary history back of it, so far as can be
discovered, for a number of generations.
It was noticed very early in the
Mendelian study of heredity that these
types were inherited distinctly and
segregated. Davenport pointed out!
that the curved condition seemed to
behave as a dominant and the straight
condition as a recessive, although his
figures show that this does not hold
strictly true, so that it is probable we
413
are here dealing with a number of
different heritable factors, instead of a
single one—unless we suppose that it is
a single factor which is subject to much
variation.
The accompanying photographs from
David B. Mackie, of Manila, show two
sisters at Pangasinan, Philippine Is-
lands. They are the offspring of a
Philippine woman who had the straight
hair characteristic of the Malays, and
an American negro with wooly hair.
This father, however, in Mr. Mackie’s
opinion, had some white blood, and
therefore may be considered heterozy-
gous for hair-form. Were this not the
case, we should expect to find all his
children with curling hair. The fact
that one of the sisters has distinctly
curling hair and the other distinctly
straight hair is in itself fair evidence
that the father was not a pure-blood
negro. The photograph graphically
illustrates the fact that hair-form is not
a blending, but a segregating, character
in heredity.
Effects of Alcohol on Germ-Plasm
That alcohol acts on the germ-plasm
in such a way as to cause defects in
offspring, has long been believed, but
those who have investigated the evi-
dence know that very little of it is valid.
Dr. Raymond Pearl of the University
of Maine is carrying on experiments
with fowls to test the effect of alcohol,
and finds no evidence that it has the
effects attributed to it. A preliminary
account of his experiments is given in
tue Proc) Am: Philos. Soc:, - lV, ‘pp:
243-259. He treated nineteen fowls
with alcohol and raised 234 chicks from
them. “Out of twelve different char-
acters for which we have exact quantita-
tive data, the offspring of treated
parents, taken as a group, are superior
to the offspring of untreated parents
in eight characters” and inferior in two,
while in the remaining two characters
there is no distinguishable difference.
The infant mortality, among chicks of
treated parents, was decreased, the
chicks were heavier than normal when
hatched, and grew faster than the
average. No deformities were found.
Dr. Pearl thinks the effect of the treat-
ment was to eliminate the weaker
germs in the parents, so that only the
stronger germs gave rise to offspring.
He is continuing the experiment with
larger numbers of birds to get data for
several generations.
1 Davenport, C. B., ‘“‘Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” p. 34. New York, 1910.
CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR IN THE
ANCESTRY OF THOMAS A. EDISON
dinary ability to support fa-
tigue, and to work many hours
at a time with little food or
sleep, is well known, and the inventor
frequently attributes this ability to
his abstemiousness. George W. Bar-
ton, of Washington, has recalled this in
a letter to Alexander Graham Bell, in
which he quotes from an interview with
Edison, by Dr. Richard Cole Newton,
in the Ladies Home Journal several
years ago, as follows:
“Years ago a book fell into the hands
of the great-grandfather of the present
Thomas A. Edison, the famous in-
ventor. It was the story of an Italian
nobleman, Lodovico Cornaro, who at
the age of forty was told by his physi-
cians that he had but a short time to
live.
“Cornaro lived in an age—three
hundred and fifty years ago—when
eating and drinking cut a prominent
figure in the lives of Italians, and this
nobleman concluded that his broken
health was due to over-indulgence.
He resolved to change his mode of life
and demonstrate a truth or two to the
physicians.
“After some experiments in his diet
he cut down his daily ration of solid
food to twelve ounces, the equivalent
of three-quarters of an ordinary five-
cent loaf of bread. Next he deter-
mined to let fresh air into his house,
and to live himself in the fresh air as
much as possible and avoid all conten-
tion and worry. With these funda-
mental laws for healthful living he
built up for himself an ideal mode of
life. Health came back to him, and
at the age of eighty-three he made
known to the world, in print, what he
had done and how he had thrived by
his method.
“| azar A. EDISON’S extraor-
CORNARO’S LONG LIFE
“His health had now become as good
as it had been before he had injured it
414
as a young man by improper living,
and at the age of eighty-six he again
reported on his vigor, his happiness and
his freedom from all the ills of advanced
age; at ninety-one he reported again
and at ninety-five he added still further
to his wonderful book that anyone may
read today. He died at the age of
ninety-eight, having lived fifty-eight
years, in good health, beyond the date
fixed for his demise by his physicians—
and he outlived them all!
‘““So impressed was the great-grand-
father of the present Edison with the
sane and rational story of this fine old
Italian nobleman that he took the
teachings to himself and lived along
the line of Cornaro’s methods for years.
He died at the age of one hundred and
two years.
“The example of Mr. Edison’s great-
grandfather’s long and healthy life was
naturally not lost upon the son, and
he—the present inventor’s grandfather—
followed the same teachings and died
at the age of one hundred and three.
‘The example of the grandfather of
the present inventor was in turn im-
pressed upon his sons, of whom there
were seven. They all lived according
to the teachings of Cornaro, and the
example set before them by their father
and grandfather, and all seven sons
lived to be more than ninety years old!
“One of these sons was Samuel
Edison, father of the inventor. He
followed in his eating and in his daily
life the example of his father and lived
to the age of ninety-four years, passing
away without apparent illness. .He
suffered no pain, life seeming to have
come to its end in nature’s way.
“This, then, was the marvelous
record of abstemious living and conse-
quent old age handed down by great-
grandfather, grandfather, and father
and six uncles to the present Thomas
A. Edison. He determined that ‘what
was good enough for his ancestors was
good enough for him,’ and decided to
Constitutional Vigor in Ancestry of Thomas A. Edison 415
live the same life. This he has done
with the result that the great inventor
finds himself today, at the age of sixty-
five, in sound health; with the wonderful
record that he has been sick just four
times in sixty-five years; he has had
three or four headaches, and two or
three winters ago he had a slight cold,
the first in ten years. He has also had
an attack of so-called middle-ear disease,
from which he recovered in two or three
weeks. This was in 1908, since which
time he has been very well and hard at
work.
“ Naturally everyone will ask, what is
this marvelous routine that has made
possible this wonderful record? In the
first place the routine is not marvelous
at all; it is stmply common sense, which,
if followed by more of us, would obviate
nearly all our illnesses and make it
possible for us to reach the ages at-
tained by Mr. Edison’s ancestors, and
to enjoy as good health as does the great
inventor himself.”
FALLACIOUS REASONING
Unfortunately for the interviewer’s
conclusion (which appears to be Edi-
son’s own) there is abundant evidence
to prove that long life is due largely to
heredity. -The fact that an ascetic
dietary is in this case associated with
long life by no means proves that it
causes long life.
“Tf Thomas A. Edison should live
to be a nonagenarian or centenarian
as he intimates he will through this
methodical mode of a restricted diet,
would it be a fair scientific deduction
to attribute his longevity to the heredi-
tary factor, or to his ascetic dietary?”
Mr. Barton asks. To this Dr.
replied as follows:
“Both heredity and environment are
undoubtedly factors in producing lon-
gevity. My researches indicate that
the possibility of long life depends
primarily upon the possession of a good
constitution (which is an inheritable
characteristic); and secondarily upon
good habits of living (which are not
inheritable).
“The case cited by you, of Edison’s
ancestors, is obviously one in which
heredity is involved; for you have here
a man living to 102 years of age, having
a son who died at 103, and seven
grandsons who all lived to be over 90.
“It is inconceivable to me that a
system of diet could possibly be the
cause of so extraordinary a result.
It is more reasonable to suppose that a
tendency to longevity existed in the
family, and that the good habits of
life permitted it to come into expres-
sion. In this connection it is interesting
to know that a hereditary tendency to
longevity appears in many families in
spite of the prevalence of most unhy-
gienic conditions.
“The case of the Italian nobleman,
Lodovico Cornaro, who lived to be 98
after having been given up by his physi-
cians at 40, is interesting but by no
means conclusive, because nothing is
said about his ancestors. It is true
that he attributed his long life to his
system of diet; but in most of the cases
I have investigated where the excellent
habits of life were supposed to be the
cause of the longevity, I have found
that the individuals came of long-lived
stock.”’
Bell
Banns Law Proposed in Georgia
The desirability of a good banns law,
as an aid to sexual selection, has been
pointed out in this Journal. By -pre-
venting hasty and ill-considered marri-
ages, it would probably tend to better
matings from a eugenics point of view.
The following news item from the
daily press is of interest in this con-
nection:
“Atlanta, Aug. 20.—A strict measure
intended to curtail immorality and the
divorce evil by preventing hasty marri-
ages probably will be passed by the
present session of the legislature.
“The bill provides five days must
elapse from the time a marriage license
is taken out before a ceremony can be
performed; that there must be at least
two competent witnesses; that the issue
of a license must be published, and
sworn statements must be made as to
age and previous marriage.’’
PYRONIA
A Hybrid Between the Pear and Quince—Produces Abundance of Seedless
Fruit of Some Value—Many New Combinations Might be Made
Among the Relatives of the Pear
Dr. L. TRABUT
Botanist of the Government of Algeria, Algiers
ARLY in 1913, Mr. Veitch, of
kK London, sent me some cions of a
hybrid he had recently obtained
between Pyrus and Cydonia.
He called this interesting creation
Pyronia, and asked me to study it
under the more favorable climatic
conditions of our region. Since this
new plant had proved to be an attractive
ornamental shrub in the climate of
London, I thought that in Algeria the
fruits might be comestible, and Pyronia
might become one of our cultivated
orchard trees. The cions received were
therefore grafted on well-grown stocks
of a Moroccan pear recently described!
(Pyrus gharbiana Trabut), which were
growing in poor soil at the Botanic
Station.
In November of the same year the
cions had made a growth to 2 meters,
and were as large as one’s thumb at the
base. In 1914 the first fruits appeared
on variety A.
In the spring of 1915 they flowered
abundantly and set a large quantity of
fruit. The observations here described
will deal only with the variety A, to
which [ have given the name X Cydonia
Veitch var. John Seden. It may be
described as follows:
A vigorous tree resembling the quince,
the wood brown with numerous lenticels.
Leaves light green, the vernation very
peculiar; one side of the leaf blade is
inrolled, as in the pear, the other side,
in place of being inrolled symmetrically,
encircles the first so perfectly that the
vernation may be called convolute.
It is therefore intermediate between the
conduplicate vernation of Cydonia and
the involute vernation of Pyrus. Leaf-
blades elliptic, entire, villous when
young though very sparsely so on the
principal veins and the petiole, the
venation irregular; petioles one-third
to one-fourth as long as the blades.
Stipules inserted at the base of the
petiole, villous, on vigorous shoots
attaining a length equaling that of the
petioles. The leaves adjacent to the
flowers which appear in the first flower-
ing period are larger than the normal
ones, and less attenuate at both ends.
The flowers are produced in clusters of
three at the ends of the branchlets, each
group arising from a cluster of large
leaves arranged in a rosette. The
pedicel bears two bracteoles near its
base, one sometimes a third of the way
up the pedicel. Calyx, with five deltoid
lobes slightly incurved, pilose on both
surfaces but more heavily so outside,
the margins glandular-toothed. Corolla
large, 5 cm. broad, aestivation quincun-
cial, the petals suborbicular, distinctly
clawed, quite glabrous, white, tinged
with rose, especially before anthesis.
Stamens twenty, the filaments nearly
erect in the ten alternating with the
petals, curving in the others. Anthers
violet, 3 mm. long, the pollen normal
in appearance. Styles five, free, the
ovary with five locules each containing
two superposed series of three ovules.
The fruits are, abundant, developing
from nearly every flower, hence they
are grouped in threes at the ends of the
branchlets. A second period of flower-
ing occurs after the first, solitary
flowers, which also produce fruits,
appearing at the ends of the branchlets
of recent growth. In these flowers the
corolla persists, and as the receptacles
enlarge the petals take on a greenish
tint. At the beginning of autumn there
is a third period of flowering, but the
fruits produced do not ripen.
1In Bull. de la Station de Recherches Forestiéres pour l’Afrique du Nord, Alger, 1916.
416
Trabut: Pyronia
ie i oe
417
aa
FRUIT OF QUINCE X PEAR HYBRID
The fruit is seedless, is almost intermediate between the
two parents in character, and seems to promise some
commercial value.
It is proposed to call it Pyronia, a
combination of the two generic names Pyrus (pear)
and Cydonia (quince).
This is a satisfactory trade
name, but will not be accepted by the botanists who,
it is suggested, may call it X Cydonia Vettchi1.
(Fig. 12.)
graph actual size.
All of the fruits which I have been
able to examine were seedless. During
the early development of the fruit the
two rows of ovules can be seen clearly
in each locule, but later when the locules
have increased considerably in length
they are seen to be empty.
The form of the fruit is unusual and
characteristic, cylindrical, slightly longer
than broad, with a short peduncle
arising from a shallow cavity, the eye
situated in a deep basin, open, the calyx
lobes persistent. The skin is_ thick,
rough, green or yellowish-green, abun-
dantly covered with red dots like that of
a pear. The flesh is white, granular,
firm, juicy, sweet, slightly acidulous
with an agreeable quince-like perfume.
The season of ripening is October and
November.
It is not yet possible to state with
confidence what place Pyronia will take
Photo-
in horticulture. The fruits which I
have eaten were picked before they were
fully ripe; the flesh was pleasantly
flavored but firm as in a half-ripe pear.
When cooked, the fruits seemed to be
intermediate in character between a
pear and a quince.
In 1915 an attempt was made to
pollinate flowers of Pyronia with pollen
from various pears, but no fruits were
obtained. I did not attempt to polli-
nate with quince pollen, though that
might offer a better chance of success.
The validity of the genus Pyronia,
proposed by Veitch, is open to discus-
sion, because some botanists do not
admit the validity of the genus Cydonia.
The character of the ovules, six in
each locule, arranged in two series of
three, one superposed upon the other,
seems to bring Pyronia nearer to
Cydonia than to Pyrus.
LEAVES AND FLOWERS OF PYRONIA
The flowers resemble those of the quince parent slightly more than they do
those of the pear parent.
As the pear genus has been found to hybridize
without great difficulty, Dr. Trabut suggests that many new combinations
might be made in it, yielding new fruits of possible value.
A hybrid
between the apple and pear has already been secured, but its commercial
value is not yet ascertained.
This new genus created by hybridiza-
tion may, without inconvenience, be
maintained at least by horticulturists,
if not by botanists who follow a fixed
code of nomenclature. Botanists, it is
true, have already made apples into
pears, but practical. horticulturists do
418
Photograph actual size.
(Fig. 13.)
not appreciate the scientific necessity of
such a change.
In the aggregate of its characters
Cydonia Veitchit isintermediate between
Cydonia and Pyrus. It constitutes a
bigeneric hybrid. Botanically this hy-
brid appears to be sterile, but horticul-
Trabut:
turally it is decidedly fruitful, yielding
an abundance of well-formed, seedless
fruits.
This first attempt to hybridize the
quince and the pear should encourage
To Prevent Waste of
With a view to finding and conserving
especially valuable variations in the
human race, the Civic Club of Alle-
gheny County (PennsylVania), has es-
tablished a Committee on Exceptionally
Able Youths. Blanks are being sent to
the school principals of Pittsburgh, with
the following letter:
“The Committee on Exceptionally
Able Youths of the Civic Club of Alle-
gheny County is conducting psycho-
logical tests to find the most exception-
ally gifted youths in Pittsburgh and
vicinity who have dropped out of school
prematurely or will do so before they
have had the training appropriate to
their abilities. Our work is limited to
the very few individuals who have im-
pressed the teacher or principal as
having extraordinary ability, when this
ability, without assistance, is not likely
to receive proper development. Some-
times the families could afford further
Pyronia 419
plant breeders to make new attempts
to combine the quince with those
primitive species of Pyrus which have
given us splendid and highly esteemed
varieties of pears in such great numbers.
Potential Ability
schooling and would provide it if they
had tangible evidence from us of the
very high qualities of the son or daugh-
ter. In other cases, a scholarship is
necessary, and our recommendation
will suffice to secure a number of these.
“Will you, therefore, select one or
two individuals as described, who are
in the eighth grade or high school or
who have left school in the past few
years, and send us their names and
data as called for in the accompanying
blank. We will then make an appoint-
ment when these individuals and others
will be tested by a series of mental
measurements.” .
The chairman of the committee,
Professor Roswell H. Johnson of the
University of Pittsburgh, is a eugeni-
cist; the other members, Professors
We V.. Bingham, “).)B- Miner,.G..C:
Basset and F. A. C. Perrin, are psy-
chologists.
A Study of Rural Epilepsy
NINE FAMILY HISTORIES OF EPI-
LEPTICS IN ONE RURAL COUNTY.
State of New York, State Board of Charities,
Bureau of Analysis and _ Investigation.
Eugenics and Social Welfare Bulletin, No. 7.
Albany, N. Y., 1916.
The Department of State and Alien
Poor in New York is taking an unusually
intelligent view of its work, in the
publication of the series of pamphlets
above noted. One of its functions being
established by law as the investigation
of “‘the condition of the poor seeking
aid,” it is going to the bottom of the
problem. The present bulletin is de-
voted mainly to a general review of the
nature of epilepsy, in which it appears
that heredity is held directly responsible
for something like one-half of the cases.
It has been estimated that there are in
the United States perhaps as many as
175,000 epileptics—a population equal
to that of the State of Wyoming. New
York has a large colony for them (the
Craig Colony) in Livingston County,
and the families of nine inmates from
a neighboring county were traced by
Miss Florence Givens Smith, the results
being presented in this bulletin. She
has contented herself with publishing
the facts, wisely refraining from any
attempt to deduce laws of heredity.
CARMAN’S WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS
Many Supposed Hybrids in the Rural New Yorker Series Show no Trace of Rye
Characters—Only One Variety Originated from Real Wheat-Rye Hybrid—
Descendant of This is Probably Still Grown
C. E. LeIicuty
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.
the Rural New Yorker from 1876
to 1899, achieved, in addition to
editorial success, some remark-
able successes as a plant breeder. His
work in breeding potatoes is probably
the most noteworthy, although his work
with wheat and his accomplishment of
crossing wheat and rye are of no mean
proportions. About the time that he
took up his editorial work (1876 or 1877)
he turned his attention to attempts to
improve wheats, first by selection,
second by changing spring into winter
wheats, third by crossing, and last by
hybridizing wheat and rye.
In the Rural New Yorker of August
30, 1884, is shown what is probably the
first illustration (Fig. 14) ever pub-
lished of a hybrid between wheat and
rye. The cross, however, had been
effected by A. S. Wilson, of Edinburgh,
Scotland, who presented his results
April 8, 1875, in a communication to the
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, without
giving any illustration. The plants
secured by Wilson were sterile and the
hybrid therefore was not carried further
than the first generation, the matter
then being allowed to drop. Carman
apparently knew nothing of Wilson’s
experiment at the time his work was
done. The hybrid secured by Carman
furthermore produced a few seeds, with
which experimentation was continued
and from the progeny of which a variety
was produced and disseminated.
Fy the ke S. CARMAN,}! editor of
This cross between wheat and rye
was made in the season of 1883.2 A
head of Armstrong wheat, a popular
variety later known as Landreth, and
today as Martin Amber, was selected
for the mother, because it is a beardless,
hardy, prolific variety, as much so as
any of the 250 kinds tested on the
Rural grounds, unless it may be the
Diehl- Mediterranean, a bearded variety
of hybrid origin. The anthers were
extracted by the aid of a pointed stick
as soon as the head was out of the boot,
while they were perfectly green, and
the head was covered, bound with
worsted’ for several days, when pollen
of rye was applied to the stigmas from
the point of a knife. This was repeated
the next day, and the next, the head
being again covered after each operation.
Thus, before, while, and after he sup-
posed the stigmas were receptive, pollen
from rye was applied.
In this head ten more or less imperfect
kernels formed which were planted late
in September about a foot apart. Nine
of these germinated, passed through the
winter, and matured grain the next
year, some being early, some medium,
some late. There was no perceptible
difference in the appearance of the plants
during their early growth, except that
some tillered more than others, but
there were noticeable differences in the
matured heads produced by the several
plants.
From the illustrations and accom-
1 For a short account of the life of Mr. Carman and some facts concerning his several achieve-
ments in breeding, see an article by Dr. E. M. East, in THe JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol.vii5
No. 2, pp. 65-67, February, 1915.
2 The date, 1882, given in one account is evidently an error. ee
3 This is according to an account given in the same year, 1883, although in 1886, in reviewing
the work, it is stated, ‘‘the head was then bound with tissue paper,” which was temporarily
removed for pollinations.
420
Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids
WHEAT-R YE
This is the first illustration ever published
ot a wheat-rye hybrid, and represents
Carman’s own work. It appeared as
Fig. 339 in the Rural New Yorker on
August 30, 1884. (Fig. 14.)
panying descriptions it is seen that the
heads of eight of the plants produced,
excepting that plant represented by
Fig. 339 which will be considered later,
differed from each other (1) in awn
length, some having very short awns
like the mother plant, others consider-
ably longer awns, although none could
421
be considered as fully bearded; (2) in
color of chaff, some having white, others
brown chaff; (3) in size and color of
kernels produced—this, however, may
be due to difference in maturity; (4) in
straw color, some having lead-colored,
others golden-colored straw. These
eight plants were in later accounts
referred to as “‘those from the fertile
plants of the original cross” and ‘‘the
eight original plants resembling wheat
(or the female parent) more than rye,”’
while the remaining plant, Fig. 339
(reproduced herewith, Fig. 14) is
referred to as “‘the nearly sterile plant”’
or the plant which ‘most resembled
tye.
The best of the heads produced by
these plants were selected for further
growing. “The plot of about one-
twentieth of an acre’’ where these were
grown ‘‘presented the next season when
the heads appeared, as varied an appear-
ance as if kernels of all the most dissim-
ilar wheats in cultivation had been
sown.” Among forms appearing were
club-shaped and tapering heads, bearded
and beardless heads, while the straw
was yellow, dark brown or purplish.
The size of heads, number of kernels
produced, and size of kernels all were
variable.
NO TRACE OF THE RYE
After careful examination of the
available records and illustrations there
appears to the writer no evidence that
in these eight plants or in their progeny
there existed any trace of rye. It is
further apparent to one familiar with
wheat-rye hybrids and with hybrids
between different varieties of wheat
that these eight kernels, supposed to
have developed as the result of the fer-
tilization of emasculated wheat flowers
with rye pollen, must have actually
resulted from fertilizations of wheat
flowers with wheat pollen. How this
fertilization occurred in a head suppos-
edly emasculated before its pollen was
ripe is not known, but there are several
possibilities, among which is this: If,
as seems probable, worsted was used to
wrap the head after emasculation, wheat
pollen may have sifted through this
from other flowers nearby. It is well
A GRAIN OF
variety 1
‘of Martin Amber.
known that the glumes of emasculated
wheat flowers when not fertilized will
remain open for some time and if not
protected by pollen-proof covering will
often be fertilized by pollen, probably
air-borne. Again, some fault not appar-
ent may have existed in the technique.
Be that as it may, these eight plants
how no signs of being wheat-rye
hybrids, although at
them must have
different varieti
least some of
been hybrids between
of wheat.
CARMAN’S ERRONEOUS BELIEF
Although these ‘‘eight
resembling
$9?
original plants
wheat more than rye’”’ cannot
ARMSTRONG
WHEAT
with which Carman made his wheat-rye hybrids; it now goes under the name
Photograph much enlarged. (Fig. 15.
S
be admitted to be actual wheat-rye
hybrids, they were so considered by
Mr. Carman. In all his later reference
to them they are always considered to
be hybrids of wheat and rye. Of all
the wheats originated by him, the
varieties first to be introduced, in 1889,
included two descended through con-
inued selections from these ‘“‘fertile
lants,”’ these being Nos. 2 and 3.
30th of these varieties were believed to
be half rye, half wheat by parentage,
hough they had no appearance of rye
in any Introduced at the
same these two wheats
time as
Four others, known as Nos. 50, 51, 53,
res] ect.
~
A GRAIN OF
RYE
It will be readily seen that there are numerous small differences between this seed and that of
wheat, and that the influence of rye would be clearly discernible, if present, in a hybrid.
After carefully examining the descriptions of Carman’s various supposed wheat-rye
hybrids,
hybrid, the rest being nothing
and 55, originated by crossing different
varieties of wheat. These were offered
in August, 1889, by J. M. poe &
Co: aE New York City, at 25 cents for
a package containing twenty- ae grains,
or the collection of six sorts for $1.
Mr. Leighty reaches the conclusion that only one of his original nine was a real
but wheat.
Photograph much enlarged. (Fig. 16.)
In 1890 these six varieties were
distributed free to applicants by the
Rural New Yorker, and the varieties of
special interest here were named as
follows:
“No. 2 (hybrid wheat-rye) has been named
423
424 The Journal
Willits after the Assistant Secretary of
Agriculture.
“No. 3 (also a wheat-rye hybrid) has been
named Roberts after Prof. I. P. Roberts, of
Cornell University.”
Although the names applied augured
well for these wheats, they apparently
proved of little commercial value and
so far as the writer knows, are not in
existence as varieties grown anywhere
today.
Turning now to the “nearly sterile
plant,’’ or the one that ‘“‘most resembled
rye” (Fig. 14),4 of the nine described
above, it is evident from the illustration
and descriptions that it was neither
wheat nor rye, but had the modified
characters of each. The shape and
general appearance of the head, the
arrangement and number of spikelets,
and the glume characters were all such
as are commonly found in wheat-rye
hybrids. The culm resembled that of
rye, except in color, having the whitish
down near the head which never appears
in wheat. This plant bore ten heads®
which produced but nineteen kernels,
thus being nearly sterile. All of these
characters combined allow no question
of this plant being actually a hybrid
between wheat and rye.
MUCH VARIATION IN PROGENY
The grains produced by this plant
were carefully sown and fourteen or
fifteen plants resulted, which passed
safely through the winter and produced
altogether 107 heads, the single plants
having from two to thirteen heads. As
shown by an illustration which Carman
published, they are all rather long,
tapering, slender, and _half-bearded,
with more spikelets than in wheat, in
their appearance giving abundant evi-
dence of rye relationship. The char-
acteristic hairiness on the culm beneath
the head is depicted in each case,
although such hairs might theoretically
be lacking in some of the plants in this
second generation: Some of the plants
were feeble in growth and partly sterile.
Others were remarkably vigorous in
growth, with strong stems and many
heads. Some ripened with the earliest
wheats, others continued green until
of Heredity
after the latest wheats had matured.
The seeds varied in size, some being even
larger than wheat, but as a whole they
appeared to be wheat and yet had
somewhat the shape of rye.
Rejecting all inferior heads, enough
grain was saved from the best to plant
a plat of about 1/30 (or 1/20) acre,
that is, single kernels in the inter-
sections of 10-inch squares. Regarding
the crop grown Carman writes: “It is
a matter of very great surprise to us
that in this plat there is such a variety
of heads that if evidence were suddenly
placed before us that all of the varieties
of wheat in cultivation sprang from
accidental crosses between rye and
wheat, we should accept it as in har-
mony with the appearance of these
plants. The down does not appear upon
the culms of some, while others are
covered more thickly than the parent
stems. The straws of some of the plants
are three times the thickness of ordinary
wheat straws. Some of the heads are
beardless, others as much bearded as
barley. Some heads are of the shape of
Clawson, or the female parent Arm-
strong (tapering); others are club-
headed, with and without beards. Some
of the heads are compound. Our
readers must remember that this twen-
tieth of an acre of plants, so strongly
dissimilar, all originated from a single
seed, one of the ten kernels which
four years ago was the result of crossing
rye upon wheat.”’
The New York World in 1886 con-
tained this description of the plants in
this plat:
“Some of the plants were dwarf, not over
2% feet high, with culms thrice as heavy as
any ever seen in the pure wheats. Heads
7 inches long were not uncommon. Some
were bearded heavily, others were beardless,
and still others showed every intermediate
stage. Some were club-headed, with breasts or
spikelets densely crowded towards the top.
Some bore compound spikelets, that is, two
breasts growing instead of one, and the head
partially double-breasted on each side of the
rachis. Some heads were shapely, others
twisted, with long, curly awns and culms as
crooked as the heads. Some heads were larger
and contained more kernels than any wheats
we have ever seen growing in this climate.
Others were feeble, narrow heads, scarcely 2
‘The portrait is true, except that the beards are nearly twice as long asshown.”’ (43: 557.)
5A later account states ‘14 heads” and “17 grains.”
Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids
A WHEAT-RYE HYBRID
This grain is one of four produced ona
wheat head from flowers cross-polli-
nated by C. E. Leighty. Although
it is a genuine hybrid, it shows no
traces of the influence of the rye
(male) parent. The hairs at the top
have been slightly retouched to make
them more visible. Photograph much
enlarged. (Fig. 17.)
inches long. The straws were all colors, from
yellow to dark purple. They were of all
thicknesses, from the size of rye to that of a
small slate pencil. Some were densely downy,
others smooth. Some were wiry and strong,
others weak.
These plants were maturing variously, some
with rye, some with wheat, while many were
still perfectly green, with a good promise of
not ripening at all. These strange plants, all
from one seed, vary so remarkably, are so
entirely different from either wheat or rye,
that nothing short of seeing them can give the
reader a good idea of them or enable authorities
on grasses to intelligently consider the matter.’’
Long and faithful effort was expended
in the task of fixing selections from the
wheat-rye hybrids. In 1892 this state-
ment was made concerning the progress
up to this time:
“The illustration (Fig. 226) is a photo-
engraving of typical heads of what we
have alluded to as those hybrids
425
between rye and wheat which are
distinctly neither wheat nor rye; in
other words, they are new grains. For
some years we despaired of ever fixing
them. Seeds from bearded, long, narrow
heads, as shown at No. 1, were just as
likely as not to produce beardless, club
heads as shown at No. 6, and all the
intermediates as shown at Nos. 2, 3, 4,
and 5, though the heads of the same
plant varied only in size, the same as
fixed varieties vary. Again, the downy
stem wasinconstant. Seeds from plants
with stems as downy as the chaff of
velvet-chaff wheat would produce culms
without down, though we have never
known a smooth stem to produce one
with down. It will be remembered that
the stems of the rye for an inch or so
below the head are always fuzzy or
downy, and that this peculiarity in the
rye-wheat hybrids must come from the
male parent, rye. The quantity of
down, however, is variable. Some of
the stems of the hybrids are densely
downy or plush-like, while others are
just like the stiffer fuzziness of rye.
Here again the stems of a plant are all
alike. It never happens that one or
several stems of a plant are fuzzy while
the others are not.
“The heads shown in the illustration
are those of varieties which seem to be
fairly well fixed. The beard or beard-
lessness, the downy stems, and the
general shape are quite constant. They
vary chiefly in the size of heads, some
plants from the same seeds yielding
plants some of which bear heads twice
as long as others. Selections are now
being made to secure the largest heads.
The grain itself is just as distinct as
the heads. The kernels are long, of a
dark amber color, while there is so
little starch in them that they seem
almost translucent like horn. It is
reasonable to assume that such grain
would make a highly nitrogenous flour.
Of this, however, nothing is positively
known.
“The down extending 2 inches or
more below the heads is not apparent
in our illustrations.”
In 1892 there were introduced three
new varieties originated by Mr. Carman,
426 The Journal
these being Nos. 1, 4, and 52. Nos.
1 and 4 are described as follows:
No. 1.—By parentage half wheat, half rye.
Mother parent Armstrong. Heads compact,
symmetrical, pointed, bearded; brown chaff.
Three grains to a spikelet, eight spikelets to a
side. Kernels hard, reddish or dark amber.
Straw very strong and of medium height. As
early as rye. Thought to be very hardy.
No. 4.—By parentage half wheat, half rye.
Mother plant crossed progeny of Armstrong.
Heads symmetrical and absolutely beardless;
brown chaff. Three grains to a spikelet, eight
and nine spikelets to a side. Dark amber
kernels. Stems very strong. Ripens with
re,
No. 52.—Originated as a pure wheat cross.
From the data given it cannot be
ascertained whether these two varieties
were actually descended from the true
wheat-rye hybrid or whether they were
descended from the supposed hybrids
as were No. 2 (Willits) and No. 3
(Roberts).
No. 1 apparently survived longer
than any other of the varieties intro-
duced up to this time, as it was offered
to the trade by the seedsman intro-
ducing it up to and including 1898,
while in the meantime the others had
been dropped from the lists. It is
not known to the writer that any of
these varieties are now grown, although
a variety called ‘“‘No. 4” was seen
growing in New York State in 1912, the
characters of which agreed with the
meager description obtainable of the
variety.
In 1894 two further introductions of
wheat varieties were made, these being
No. 57 and No. 6. Although No. 57
was not originated as a cross with rye,
it is perhaps the best of all introductions
made by Mr. Carman, and a description
is appended.
“Peter Henderson & Co., of this city,
now offer for the first time two of our
wheats which the firm has kindly named
Rural New Yorker No. 57 anid Rural
New Yorker No. 6. The first is a
heavily bearded variety, the parentage
of which is one of our crossbred varieties
fertilized with a crossbred of Velvet
Chaff. The down (‘‘velvet’’) upon the
glumes is very light, though perhaps
heavy enough to resist the green fly,
but not dense enough to invite mildew,
which is often an objection to Velvet
of Heredity
Chaff. We have raised our hybrids
and crossbreeds only upon very small
plats. From such trials, the No. 57
appeared to be a heavy yielder, with
large, symmetrical, heavily-bearded
heads, and tall wiry culms. It is a
strong, vigorous grower, stools freely,
and has never been winter-killed.
“The Rural New Yorker No. 6 is one
of the rye-wheat hybrids, though all
appearance of rye has disappeared
except that the culms just under the
heads are now and again downy as in
rye. The downiness of the stem is
variable. We have tried by selection
for many years to fix it without any
approach to success. Of all our rye-
wheat hybrids, the downy culm is
permanent in but one, and that resem-
bles rye in several other respects. The
Hendersons have found that No. 6
‘succeeds and produces heavy crops on
poor, thin land, where pure wheat
could not be successfully or profitably
grown.’ This surely is a most valuable
characteristic. Figure 165, page 630,
shows the plant, one head, and several
kernels.”’
THE ONLY REAL HYBRID
From this description and from a
statement made elsewhere concerning
its origin, it seems that No. 6 is actually
descended from the true wheat-rye
hybrid obtained in 1883. It is note-
worthy for this fact, since it is the only
variety introduced by Mr. Carman
whose record, so far as determined by
the writer, clearly indicated such origin.
This variety is also still being grown,
at least a variety bearing this name is
now included among the wheat varieties
of several experiment stations.
In common with the breeders of his
day, Carman believed that the parents
of a hybrid were equally represented in
all self-fertilized individuals of subse-
quent generations. There might be
variation in form but not in composition.
He thought that by again fertilizing
with rye pollen any plant of his first or
later generations of wheat-rye hybrids,
all intervening generations having
been naturally self-fertilized, plants
three-quarters rye by parentage would
be secured. These plants or their
Leighty: Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids
progeny in turn being again fertilized
by rye pollen would produce plants
seven-eights rye by parentage. By
continuing this process plants fifteen-
sixteenths rye, and so on in the same
fractional series, could be secured, the
further generations thus all the time
approaching pure rye in composition.
The laws of Mendel were not then
known.
Actuat:d by the desire to produce
rye in this way, and thus, if possible,
to throw some light on the origin of
wheat and rye, Carman, with true
scientific spirit, made the crosses as
required by the theory, carefully year
after year. A head on one of the eight
“fertile plants of the original cross’’ was
emasculated and pollinated with rye
pollen in 1884. One kernel resulted,
which grew and produced twenty or
twenty-two heads on which were three
kernels. This was apparently an actual
hybrid of wheat and rye, the female
parent being wheat, as pointed out
above. It was considered to be, how-
ever, three-quarters rye. These three
kernels grew and two produced plants,
but their subsequent history cannot be
accurately followed from the accounts
given.
TRIALS COME TO AN END
A head of one of the hybrids most
resembling rye was emasculated and
pollinated with rye pollen in 1885. On
this, seventeen kernels were formed,
which resulted in fourteen plants the
next year, these being considered as
three-quarters rye. By following this
427
system with one (or possibly both—the
account is ambiguous) of these lots of
supposed three-quarter rye plants ‘“‘sev-
eral plants were produced with a sup-
posed parentage seven-eights rye,’”’ and
at least one with a supposed parentage
of fifteen-sixteenths rye. The supposed
fifteen-sixteenths rye plant was entirely
sterile, and the supposed seven-eighths
plants were nearly all sterile. In spite
of these discouragements the experi-
menter continued until finally he writes:
“This trial has come to an end through
necessity or through causes over which
we had no control, viz., absolute
barrenness of the latest progeny.”
The. beliet. as expressed that” “aay,
endeavors to originate a hybrid which
shall be more than three-quarters rye
will prove ineffectual.”” No variety of
supposed three-quarters rye parentage
was apparently ever actually introduced,
although one known as No. 11 was
placed for propagation and introduction,
but no later account of it is found.
In 1897, several years after his differ-
ent wheats had been distributed, some
one asked “‘Are there any of the Rural
hybrid wheats that you believe to be
ahead of all other kinds in hardiness and
prolificacy?’? The candid spirit of the
man is shown in the reply: ‘‘No, we
have not received any reports which
would justify us in placing any of the
Rural hybrid wheats above the popular
kinds of today. . Of the crossbred
wheats which have originated at the
Rural Grounds, the R. N. Y. No. 57
is very promising.’”’ And so the matter
stands.
Correction
Through an editorial blunder; the
paper on Pollinating Fruit Trees, in the
last issue of the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
was credited to Leslie Gordon Corrie.
The paper was written by, and should
have been credited to, Reg. W. Peters,
director of the Queensland Acclimatiza-
tion Society, Lawnton, Queensland,
Australia. Mr. Peters was formerly
associated with William Bateson at the
John Innes Horticultural Institution,
Merton, Surrey, England, and took up
the work in Australia last year. Mem-
bers should note this correction in their
copies of the August issue, in order that
they may not repeat the error in making
citations of Mr. Peters’ paper at any
time in the future.
COLLARETTE FLOWERS
T. D. A. CocKERELL, Boulder, Colo.
HE first collarette dahlia was ex-
hibited in 1900, and placed on the
market in 1901. This apparently
unique variety, called President
Viger, possessed the peculiarity of having
supplementary lobes, of variable shape,
at the base of the ray-corollas. These
lobes or processes being white or nearly
so, against the dark crimson back-
ground of the rays, were very effective,
and the variety was at once recognized
as an important addition to horticul-
ture. During the last fifteen years the
original collarette dahlia has been
crossed with numerous other varieties,
giving a long list of collarettes, of
various colors.
It might readily be supposed that the
collarette form was something abso-
lutely new when it appeared in the
dahlia less than twenty years ago.
Experience with various compositae
throws doubt on such an opinion, be-
cause we find that certain variations
crop out here and there in diverse but
more or less related genera, at different
times and places. The variations of
Dahlia, Helianthus, Ratibida, etc., run so
closely parallel that whatever occurs in
one we begin to expect in the others,
while it appears increasingly probable
that the whole group has been producing
the known series of variations at
intervals during past ages. The “‘origin”’
of a variety, as recorded, thus has to do
only with the first occasion when it
chanced to be detected on coming to
the surface, as it were, of the stream of
heredity.
The first collarette sunflower, of the
chestnut and vinous forms of Helianthus
annuus, was obtained in our cultures at
Boulder, Colo., in 1915. Quite un-
expectedly, a considerable number of
plants showed this character, but the
supplementary lobes were narrow and
1Arnica pedunculata is common at Boulder.
very variable, not nearly as showy as in
the dahlia. The essential structure was,
however, quite the same. This year we
have a piece of ground devoted to
collarettes, and by continued breeding
and selection it is probable that the
type will eventually be much improved.
The evidence seemed to indicate that
the collarette sunflower had arisen for
the first time in cultivation; but on
September 24, 1915, I found a wild plant
(H. annuus lenticularis) in Boulder,
having genuine collarette characters.
There was only one head on the plant,
the last of the season, and in this two
of the rays were tubular. There is
apparently a connection between the
variation with tubular rays and the
collarette, as is especially indicated by
Arnica pedunculata Rydberg! var. n.
tubularis, found by my wife at Boulder,
June, 1915. In this variety the ligules
are tridendate: at the end, as in the
typical form, but are variably tubular
below, with a liguliform process on each
side of the mouth of the tube. From
this condition to a collarette Arnica
would be no great step.
The latest and in some ways most
surprising collarette to be discovered
is in the long-headed cone-flower, Rati-
bida columnifera.2 This form (var. nov.
appendiculata) was found by the writer
at the base of Flagstaff Hill, Boulder,
July 8, 1916. The rays possess long
appendages, usually a pair, arising from
the throat.
Although Ratibida is so different in
many respects from Helianthus, having
a long conical receptacle, the pappus a
rudimentary crown, and the very pecu-
liar dise-bracts with a long dark crim-
son spot on each side, the variations
run parallel in the most astonishing way.
The form with wholly or partly chest-
nut red rays, parallel with the red sun-
Apparently Nelson is correct in considering
A, monocephala Rydb. to be a form of pedunculata, but wrong in referring them to A. fulgens.
“Wooton and Standley write columnifera in place of columnaris, the former name having
a year’s priority.
428
COLLARETTE SUNFLOWERS
From the original lot in cultivation at Boulder. The upper one is vinous, the lower chestnut
red. The first record, with this illustration, was made in the Gardeners’ Chronicle (London),
November 6, 1915, p. 295. (Fig. 18.)
COLLARETTE CONEFLOWERS
[The coneflower (Ratibida columnifera) is common on the Western prairies; but the speci-
mens here shown are the first ones ever brought to light which are characterized by a
collarette. The dark-rayed head in the middle is var. pulcherrima. (Fig. 19.)
Arnica peduncalala
Si
ABNORMAL RAYS IN COLLARETTE FLOWERS
1. Ray of the first collarette dahlia (President Viger) showing the additional
lobes described in the text.
2. Ray of the collarette coneflower with long, narrow, additional lobes.
3. Arnica pedunculata var. tubularis: variation in rays, showing appendages
at throat of tube. (Fig. 20.)
flower, was described by DeCandolle
under the name pulcherrima as early
as 1836. This year Miss Hazel Andrews
has found at Boulder a variety with
pale yellow rays, like the ‘‘primrose’”’
sunflower, and if this is crossed with
pulcherrima, the F, will certainly in-
clude a vinous Rafibida. Varieties of
Ratibida columnifera with twin or
double heads, with short rays, with
tubular rays, and with rays incised at
the end, all exactly parallel variations of
the Helianthus annuus group.
There is no reason for ascribing all
these parallel variations to “‘reversion”’
to some common ancestor possessing
such characters; we must rather suppose
that the genetic composition of the
whole group of genera is such that these
particular changes arise from time to
time, without reference to the environ-
ment. Whether, in any given case,
they are due to original variations of the
germinal substance, or are due to the
cropping out of characters for which
determiners have existed in the chro-
mosomes for ages, may be extremely
difficult to decide.
Annual Meeting of the A. G. A.
The next annual meeting of the
American Genetic Association will be
held in connection with the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science, in New York City in the week
following Christmas. It is anticipated
that that week will bring together one
of the largest gatherings of men of
science that has ever met in the United
States. Members who desire to present
papers at the meeting of the American
Genetic Association should notify the
secretary as far in advance as possible.
Papers which are suitable will be pub-
lished in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY;
others may be published by the authors
elsewhere. Further details will be an-
nounced as soon as possible.
Breeding Citrous Fruits
All possible combinations of citrous
fruits are being made at the Citrus
Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal.,
according to Director H. J. Webber.
Among the most important are: (1)
Combinations of the mandarin and the
tangerine with the good varieties of the
common orange to obtain large fruited
varieties with the easily removable
skin of tangerine and the quality of
common orange. (2) Cross of tangerine
and blood oranges to secure blood tan-
gerines. (3) Crosses of lemon with
blood oranges to secure blood lemons.
(4) Crosses of blood oranges with pomelo
to secure blood pomelos and the like.
431
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DYNAMIC EVOLUTION
By CASPER L. REDFIELD
Price $1.50
DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in
animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is
identical with the energy known in mechanics, and
is governed by the same laws.
$1,000
Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA-
TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that
those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY-
NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms
of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL
OF HEREDITY for February, 1916.
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK and LONDON
| ff fff | ff HH 1
eh a ye Be
I I I I lL LL LL LS
FH
The Genealogical Magazine
(Established 1890)
Published Quarterly—December, March, June, September
Three Dollars a Year
EDITORS
Eben Putnam John E. Bowman, S.T.B. S. P. Sharples, S.M.
George Andrews Moriarty, A.M., LL.B. Charles S. Remington
their manuscript is approved, may make arrangements for its publication
as matter additional to the regular issue.
Se se adie desiring to have family lines printed in the magazine, if
Maternal or Paternal lines showing inheritance of particular traits will be
welcomed.
The contents of the magazine are of general interest—historical, genealogical,
antiquarian. Considerable space is devoted to printing records. Especial
attention is devoted to material throwing light on the origin of American
families and the migration to this country.
Specimen copy, 25 cents Address: 26 Broad Street, Boston, Mass.
ft I ff I
on
i
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 10 October, 1916
CONTENTS
Portrait of Karl Pearson (frontispiece).............................. 434
Pent PREC 8 etree LLY ge at ois 2 hhh ede, Gasol Vu EO an ee, ewe 435
DMCC EI Wen LEHR Gy, he Be Sacks Rage ME ha en Bee eed ue 442
Fecundity and Stamina, by A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr..................... 443
Prussia Subsidizes School Teachers with Children...................446
Increased Activity in German Eugenics............................. 146
AnApOlOmy LO sawing) over on Prot. _F., H. ~Pike, of “the
College of Physicians and Surgeons,
Columbia University, New York, was
asked for his opinion in regard to the
evolutionary origin of yawning, and has
sent the following remarks, with a
warning that they are partly fact and
partly hypothesis.
“Luciani in his Human Physiology,
vol. 1, p. 438, speaks of a deep inspira-
tion as a part of the general process of
yawning. He regards it as the external
expression of ennui, drowsiness, hunger,
and the like, but it does not seem to me
that the ventilation of the thorax is
the primary object of yawning. On
our present views of the nature of the
stimulus to respiration, the ventilation
of the thorax keeps pace with the chang-
ing hydrogen ion content of the blood.
An increase in the concentration of the
hydrogen ions is accompanied by an
immediate increase in the depth or
rate of the respiratory movements.
There is normally a deeper inspiration
than usual occurring every few breaths,
and it does not seem probable that there
is a sufficient accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the blood under any ordinary
conditions to require any extreme
effort such as yawning would indicate
if its main purpose were to ventilate
the lungs. A little vigorous exercise will
remove the immediate cause of yawning,
but it will also result in a greater
ventilation of the thorax and lungs
than occurred during yawning.
MUSCULAR MOVEMENTS
“Vawning, in a state of nature,
involves certain attendant movements
and sounds that are absent in the human
subject, after a course in a young
ladies’ finishing school or any similar
institution. The dog gives a sort of
whine and stretches his other muscles,
particularly those of the fore legs, as
well as those of the head and jaws. I
am more and more inclined to regard
yawning as an expression of a state of
approaching fatigue, very much analo-
gous to the other stretching movements
of muscles in general. It may be a
sort of involuntary exercise to keep one
awake until a safe place for sleeping
may be found. There is always a little
quickening of the faculties after a deep
yawn, and this is more pronounced if
there is an attendant stretching of the
muscles. One might imagine that the
impulse to sleep might begin to come
upon an animal while still out in the
open, and that, if no warning sign were
present, he might lie down in the open
and go to sleep in a place exposed to
attack from enemies. The continued
yawning may be sufficient to keep him
awake until he can reach a place of
safety. This particular kind of utility
may be lacking in civilized man, but
the whole mechanism persists un-
changed. To a certain limited extent,
yawning might be regarded as a vesti-
gal function if regarded from this point
of view alone. But I am not sure that
yawning has ceased to be useful to
civilized man. The onset of yawning
may interrupt a process which might
otherwise be carried to a harmful degree.
A student begins to yawn in the evening,
and, unless he resorts to some measures
to overcome his drowsiness, the inter-
ruption to his work is likely to become
so great that he seeks relief in sleep.
If he employ measures to drive away
his drowsiness, such as the use of strong
coffee, a walk around the block, or
other similar things, he may be able to
_ go on working, but he is pretty certain
later on to feel, more severely than ever,
the effects of fatigue, and he may suffer
great injury if he persists too long in dis-
regarding these warning signs of nature.
447
A WARNING FROM NATURE
Yawning is commonly said to be a means of ventilating the lungs, but ventilation appears
really to be a very small part of the act. It seems more likely that it is a warning
of drowsiness and need of sleep. On this hypothesis it could easily be shown to be
useful in natural selection. Suppose an animal traveling in the open is suddenly
overcome with fatigue and the need of sleep: if he went to sleep on the spot he would
be exposed to enemies and perhaps perish. The yawn warns him to look for shelter and
rest, and there seems to be a slight quickening of the faculties after yawning which
aids the animal to get to a place of safety. The act may still be of use to man in a
similar connection, warning him when he has worked long enough and needs to seek
repose. This explanation is hypothetical, as the subject has been little studied; but
yawning appears at any rate to be a very primitive function, going back far beyond
the mammals in the scale of evolution. Photograph from the Nursery Studio,
Washington, D.C. (Fig. 5.)
An Apology
“T think Luciani ts right in regarding
yawning as an expression of drowsiness,
but I believe also that too much
emphasis has been placed on the factor
of ventilation of the lungs. Asa matter
of fact, if one yawns widely, there is a
total cessation of the movements of the
thorax and diaphragm during the period
when the mouth is most widely open.
This I attribute to the stimulation of
the endings of the glossopharyngeal
nerve in the pharynx and uvula by the
stretching of these portions of the
alimentary tract at that time. It is well
known that stimulation of the glosso-
pharyngeal nerve will stop all respira-
tory movements immediately. Such
a cessation normally occurs during
swallowing. At the moment anything
touches the uvula, respiration ceases
immediately. One can feel the stretch-
ing of the pillars of the fauces and of
the pharynx and uvula, or, more
correctly, the part of the soft palate
immediately to each side of the uvula,
when the mouth is widely open in
yawning.”’
Not only is yawning a very primi-
tive adaption (if, indeed, it be an adapta-
tion) but it appears to go back to a
remote stage of evolution, perhaps far
below the age of mammals. On this
point Dr. Pike remarks:
“In thinking over the matter super-
ficially it appears that the primitive
respiratory neuro-muscular mechanism
is the part particularly concerned. In
for Yawning 449
fishes, the respiratory system involves
the musculature of the mouth and
possibly of the pharynx, and the,
nerves concerned are the fifth, seventh,
ninth, tenth and twelfth cranial. The
diaphragm and the phrenic nerve have
not yet made their appearance, and
the intercostal nerves and muscles are
not concerned in the respiratory move-
ments. That is what I mean by the
primitive neuro-muscular respiratory
mechanism. The muscles of the face
and pharynx are involved in yawning,
and the fifth, ninth, tenth and twelfth
cranial nerves are also involved. I
do not know where in the animal scale
yawning first appears, but I should
imagine that we might expect it in all
the mammals, and possibly in some of
the poikilothermal forms. It seems to
be present in birds. In some respects,
it approaches the type of respiration
that is seen in cases of approaching
death. In such circumstances, we
have again the participation of the
primitive neuro-muscular respiratory
mechanism. The mouth is opened
widely, often with a quivering or un-
steady movement, and the thorax does
not participate to the same extent as
in normal respiration. The movements
of the thorax may persist, altered in
rhythm, to be sure, but nevertheless
present, during yawning. I think that
this is further evidence of the fact that
yawning is related to the primitive
mechanism.”
Why Do Women Become Mothers?
“The facts, shorn of sentiment,”
says Mrs. Leta S. Hollingworth in the
July Am. Journ. Sociology, ‘are: (1) The
bearing and rearing of children is neces-
sary for tribal or national existence and
agerandizement. (2) The bearing and
rearing of children is painful, dangerous
to life, and involves long years of
exacting labor and self-sacrifice. (3)
There is no verifiable evidence to show
that a maternal instinct exists in women
of such all-consuming strength and fervor
as to impel them voluntarily to seek
the pain, danger and exacting labor
involved in a high birth-rate.’’ The
pressure of insidious forces set at work
by certain “radiant centers of social
control’’ has made women bear children
in the past, she thinks, but she con-
siders that her sisters are now on the
eve of being emancipated, and that
henceforth they will bear few children,
unless they get “‘adequate compensa-
tion, either in money or in fame.”
RELIGION AND BIRTH CONTROL
NTAGONISM of the Roman Cath-
olic church toward the “birth
control” movement is well known.
This antagonism is based on theo-
logical grounds, but it has frequently
bee on pointed out that the result, whether
the church has the fact in mind or not,
will be to give the church a slowly
increasing preponderance in numbers,
in any community where the popula-
tion is made up in part of Catholics
and in part of Protestants.
The Church of Latter-Day Saints of
Jesus Christ, popularly known as the
Mormon church, has taken a similarly
antagonistic stand on birth control.
Theological objections are raised against
it; but in this case what may be called
the eugenic aspect, the problem of
altering the relative proportions of
different classes in a population, is
clearly seen and acknowledged.
In the July issue of the Relief Society
Magazine, an official publication issued
at Salt Lake City, five of the twelve
elders who make up the supreme council
of the organization state their views on
birth control. Elder Rudger Clawson
says that it is sinful to restrict the num-
ber of children in a family, continuing:
“Woman is so constituted that,
ordinarily, she is capable of bearing,
during the years of her greatest strength
and physical vigor, from eight to ten
children, and in exceptional cases a
larger number than that. The law of
her nature so ordered it, and God’s
command, while it did not specify the
exact number of children allotted to
woman, simply implied that she should
exercise the sacred power of procreation
to its utmost limit.”’
Elder George F. Richards writes:
“My wife has borne to me fifteen chil-
dren. Anything short of this would
have been less than her duty and
privilege.” :
The eugenic view of the subject is
most clearly seen by elder Joseph F.
Smith, Jr., who points out:
‘The first great commandment given
450
both to man and beast by the Creator
was to be fruitful and multiply and
replenish the earth; and I have not
learned that this commandment was
ever repealed. Those who attempt to
pervert the ways of the Lord, and to
prevent their offspring from coming into
the world in obedience to this great
command, are guilty of one of the most
heinous crimes in the category. There
is no promise of eternal salvation and
exaltation for such as they, for by their
acts they prove their unworthiness for
exaltation and unfitness for a kingdom
where the crowning glory is the con-
tinuation of the family union and eternal
increase which have been promiscd to
all those who obey the law of the Lord.
It is just as much murder to destroy life
before as it is after birth, although man-
made laws may not so consider it; but
there is One who does take notice and
his justice and judgment is sure.
“T feel only the greatest contempt
for those who, because of a little
worldly learning or a feeling of their
own superiority over others, advocate
and endeavor to control the so-called
‘lower classes’ from what they are
pleased to call ‘indiscriminate breeding.’
“The old Colonial stock that one or
two centuries ago laid the foundation of
our great nation, is rapidly being re-
placed by another people, due to the
practice of this erroneous doctrine of
‘small families.’ According to statistics
gathered by a leading magazine pub-
lished i in New York, a year or two ago,
the average number of children to a
family among the descendants of the
old American stock in the New Eng-
land States, was only two and a frac-
tion, while among the immigrants from
Zuropean shores who are now coming
into our land, the average family was
composed of more than six.
“Thus the old stock is surely being
replaced by the ‘lower classes’ of a
sturdier and more worthy race. Worth-
ier because they have not learned, in
these modern times, to disregard the
Religion and
great commandment given to man by
our Heavenly Father. It is indeed, a
case of the survival of the fittest, and
it is only a matter of time before those
who so strongly advocate and practice
this pernicious doctrine of ‘birth con-
trol’ and the limiting of the number of
children in the family, will have legis-
lated themselves and their kind out of
this mortal existence.”
It is proper to point. out that birth
control is not, as the public seems to
suppose, an integral part of the eugenics
propaganda. Many eugenicists advo-
cate it; many others oppose it. In
either case, it must be regarded as a
fact with which eugenics must deal.
If one section of a community limits the
number of births, and another section
does not, it is easy to calculate how
soon the latter section will supplant
the former, and there are plenty of
object lessons such as Mr. Smith cites, in
the old colonial stock of New England
A RELATIVE MATTER
The eugenicist, of. course, is more
interested in the quality than in the
quantity of the population. The quan-
tity is important only in a relative way.
In opposition to Mr. Smith and other
people without adequate knowledge of
Some New
Most of the water-liliss commonly
grown in gardens are chance hybrids.
The Missouri Botanical Garden has
started systematic breeding work with
them, on the one hand to purify some
of the strains and on the other hand
to produce more desirable hybrid com-
binations. One Nymphaea has already
been produced by four generations of
Birth Control
451
biology, the eugenicist holds that there
is a difference in the inherent quality
of various sections of the population,
and that if an inferior section multiplies
much more rapidly than a superior
section, the result will be very serious
from the standpoint of national effi-
ciency and racial progress.
Precisely such a result has taken place
in the United States during the past
half-century.
It is unquestionable that the number
of births has been much limited in the
economically most efficient sections of
the population of the United States,
and very little limited in the least
efficient sections.
It is also unquestionable that the
spread of the birth control propaganda
in the “lower classes’ is at the present
time very rapid. Whether or not one
approves of that spread, it is certain
that the birth-rate in those classes is
likely to fall, thus checking the very
serious differential nature of the present
birth-rate. .
If, at the same time, eugenics can
succeed to some extent 1n increasing the
birth rate among the socially most
valuable sections of the community,
then the present demonstrable deteriora-
tion of the American stock, as a whole,
will gradually become less menacing.
Water-Lilies
inbreeding which bears only pink
flowers, the blue having been eliminated
altogether. A hybrid of a _ might-
blooming and day-blooming species has
been secured which has the advantage
of remaining open longer than ordinary
day-flowering species. It is stated that
water-lilies are easily crossed, and many
amateurs might work with them.
Yak Increasing in Canada
In 1909 the Duke of Bedford gave
six yaks to the Canadian government.
They are now at Banff, Alberta, and
have increased to fourteen. The Cana-
dians hope to make them useful as the
fcundation of a breed of hardy cattle
for the north, just as the American
Government is planning in Alaska.
The latter experiment was described
in the JOURNAL OF HeReEpITY for
January, 1916 (Vol. VII, p. 48), where
an illustration was published.
FORGOTTEN BUD VARIATIONS
Early Orange Growers Found Many ‘‘Sports” but did not Recognize Their
Significance—Origin of New Varieties—Great Care Needed in
Propagation to Get only the Most Desirable
Variations
L. B. Scott
Assistant Pomologist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.
HE work which A. D. Shamel, of
the Office of Horticultural and
Pomological Investigations of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
has done in demonstrating the variations
existing within standard citrus varieties
has awakened practical citrus growers
at least to a realization of the great
individual tree differences in their own
plantings and also to the surprising
frequency with which bud sports occur
in standard citrus varieties.
The investigational work and obser-
vations made by members of the staff
in California, Florida, the Gulf States,
Brazil and Cuba have shown that all
citrus varieties in every section have
this tendency to break up into a number
of different strains. These strains are
found occurring as whole trees, as limb
sports and as individual fruit sports.
It is most interesting in this connection
to note that some of the old citrus
pioneers of thirty years ago observed
striking instances of bud variations,
but unfortunately were unable to cor-
relate the observations which they made
or to realize that they had within their
grasp a principle which has since been
demonstrated by Mr. Shamel to be of
vital importance to all citrus growers.
Even a casual perusal of the old files
of the Office of Horticultural and
Pomological Investigations will show
that the old horticulturists, both in
Florida and California, were attempting
to explain the variations which they
observed. As a rule, a sporting fruit
was generally explained as having been
caused by cross-fertilization. An ex-
ample of such an explanation is con-
452
tained in the following extract of a
letter from E. H. Hart, Federal Point,
Fla., February 10, 1887, addressed to
Prof. H. E. Van Deman, Pomologist of
the United States Department of Agri-
culture:
“T send you today as per enclosed
shipping receipt a box of oranges setting
forth the contrasts between their normal
condition and after having been sub-
jected to fertilization with pollen from
the Navel orange. These ought to
prove conclusively the effect of hybridiz-
ing upon the fruit as well as the seed.
You will observe not only striking
modifications in shape but also in the
flavor. The varieties most clearly re-
sembling the Navel in habit of growth
and outlines of fruit are much more
readily affected except perhaps in the
case of Citrus nobilis, which although
the very antipodes of the Navel struc-
turally as well as geographically, never-
theless mixes with it more often than
any. It is somewhat singular too that
propinquity does not always favor the
mixture as trees at a little distance are
more often affected than when both
kinds have been grafted onto one
stock.”’
The tendency of all citrus varieties to
throw Navel sports is very pronounced;
the fact that Mr. Hart observed this in
1887 is interesting although his explana-
tion of the cause was wrong.
On March 12, 1887, J. E. Cutter, a
prominent citrus grower and nursery-
man, of Riverside, Cal., sent in to the
Department at Washington a number
of samples of orange varieties. Included
in the list were two distinct lots of
A NAVEL GRAPEFRUIT
This variable fruit (photographed actual size) shows two great deviations from the original
condition of the grapefruit. In the first place, it has Icst its seeds: in the second place it
has taken on a navel, just like that of the navel orange. In the case of the grapefruit,
the navel is scarcely visible from the outside. This fruit is of no particular value com-
mercially, but serves graphically to illustrate the fact that extreme bud variations or
“sports’’ are constantly taking place in the citrus fruits, and probably in all other culti-
vated fruits.
_tion to this principle. (Fig. 6.)
Paper Rind St. Michael fruits borne on
two separate trees. One of these lots
Mr. Cutter designated as the normal
Paper Rind St. Michael and the other
as “‘Reverted Types.”’ In commenting
on the “‘ Reverted types”’ he said:
“The “Reverted Types’ of the St.
Michael are from a tree which is bearing
at the time the usual type of the same.
A comparison of these ‘Reverted Types’
with the usual and with common
oranges shows that the St. Michael,
so highly prized for its splendid
quality, juiciness and solidity . . . is
itself a sport. Specimens are occa-
It is highly necessary that horticulturists keep on the lookout for such
varia‘ions, and that they propagate from the desirable, not the undesirable ones.
orange industry of California is now bein
The
g almost made over, in some sections, by atten-
sionally found which are half ‘Paper
Rind’ and half ‘Reverted.’ ”
On April 21, 1887, in reply to a
request for further information con-
cerning the St. Michael variations he
wrote as follows:
PAPER RIND VALENCIAS
“In my former letter I used the term
‘reverted type’ [of St. Michael oranges]
to indicate an orange that has sported
back to the normal form, appearance
and quality. These ‘reverted types’
grew on the same trees and among the
usual kind of ‘paper rind’ St. Michaels.
453
STRIKING VALENCIA VARIATIONS
At the left-is shown the Standard Valencia orange, a California variety which has almost a
monopoly of the eastern markets in the summer.
Valencia, to which the name of;Paper Rind has been given.
of the last generation indicates that this particular bud sport has often occurred.
At the right is a bud sport of the
Evidence from orange growers
This
particular Valencia strain appears to be identical with the true Paper Rind St. Michael
which originated as a bud variation of the St. Michael.
(Fig. 7.)
I therefore regard them as proof that
the ‘paper rind’ St. Michael is a sport.
You will remember that the ‘reverted
types’ were of the thicker skin, deeper
color, and looser texture of common
fruit while the ‘paper rind’ is the
thinnest of skin, pale and exceedingly
compact and firm textured.”
Mr. Cutter’s observations as to the
origin of the Paper Rind St. Michael are
all the more interesting in view of the
fact that in the course of the fruit
improvement investigations which Mr.
Shamel is conducting in California, a
smooth, thin skin strain of Valencia
orange has been found which apparently
is identical with the Paper Rind St.
Michael. The finding of this strain of
Valencia, and the fact that Mr. Cutter
in 1887 observed a St. Michael tree the
fruits of which reverted back to a
larger coarser strain would seem to be
almost conclusive proof that the Paper
Rind St. Michael variety originated as
a bud sport or bud variation. How
valuable it would be if we could secure
authentic information concerning all our
fruit varieties. No doubt if we could
$54
Photograph slightly reduced.
get at the truth concerning the origin
of our fruit varieties we would find that
many varieties of supposedly “‘chance
seedling’’ origin had in reality originated
as bud variations.
Mr. Cutter sent samples of the sport-
ing fruits to a number of people in
Florida and E. H. Hart, of Federal
Point, Fla., previously referred to, ina
letter on May 21, 1887, to Prof. H. E.
Van Deman made the following com-
ment:
“Yours of the eighteenth together
with Mr. Cutter’s letter and_ the
Specimens of oranges were received
today. Fruits like these are occasion-
ally seen upon our orange trees and in
general I have attributed their pecu-
liariities to cross-fertilization but in a
strongly marked case like that tree of
Mr. Cutter’s, it must be owing either
to the influences upon the condition of
the tree of the injuries formerly re-
ceived, or it may be an instance of bud
variation. The reverting tendency may
have existed in the particular bud used
in working over the tree. I have an old
bearing tree which has always produced
Scott: Forgotten Bud Variations
these varying types of oranges very
abundantly and although I have not
given much thought to the subject, yet
the bud-variation theory seemed the
easiest way of explaining the difficulty.”
After discussing some other subjects
he gives an instance of bud variation
which has come under his own observa-
tion.
“The orange known here as Duroi is
frequently marked with ribbed segments
differing in exterior from the remainder
of the affected specimen which would
suggest the permanency of the reversion
theory in that particular variety.”
MANY VARIATIONS
Other instances of bud variations
were mentioned by Mr. Hart in a letter
of May 9, 1888, to Prof. Van Deman:
“TI would remark here that. the
normal shape of Hart’s Late is oblong—
often to a marked degree—but growing
as they do all about among other kinds,
the shape is modified by admixtures. I
notice the same in the case of Early
Oblong, which are often so changed in
form as to be hardly recognizable.”
A very careful student and a recog-
nized authority on pomological matters
in Florida at this time was the Rev.
Lyman Phelps, of Sanford, Fla. Ina
letter from him under date of May 6,
1887, to Prof. Van Deman he makes the
455
following observations concerning bud
variations:
“I send you three. oranges this
morning by mail, two flat ones—they”
are a sport of some kind from an Italian
orange, not from seed but from bud.
I have perhaps a hundred trees budded
from a tree imported by Gen. H. S.
Sanford and this particular tree has
borne this shaped orange continually.
It is more solid than any of the fruit on
the other trees and most of the speci-
mens show umbilical marks.”’
John Carville Stovin, of Winter
Park, Fla., in a letter written May 20,
1887, to Prof. Van Deman, states:
“The best Italian orange grown at
Belair and imported by Mr. Sanford has
sported into a Navel in one tree on my
place.”’
These few instances have been chosen
from many which might be given for
the reason that the observations were
made by men prominently identified
with the fruit industry of their day.
These observations simply add _ their
support to the rapidly accumulating
mass of evidence, going to show that
variations have existed within standard
fruit varieties in greater numbers than
anyone has dreamed were possible, and
also that great care has to be used in
selecting budwood in order that the
chance of propagating undesirable vari-
ations may be eliminated.
Improving the Wheat of Sweden
The introduction of several new
varieties of wheat is reported by
H. Nilsson-Ehle in the Sveriges Utsades-
forenings Tidskrift, summarized in the
International Review of Agriculture. The
latest productions of the Sval6of station
are named Pansar and Fylgia; their
yields are respectively 140 and 135 if
the native Swedish wheat is taken at.
100. The work of the Sval6f station,
which offers one of the most conspicuous
successes in both the theory and prac-
tice of plant-breeding, was described
by its director in the JOURNAL OF
Herepity for July, 1914 (Vol. V, No.
7).
Annual Meeting of the A.G. A.
The annual meeting of the American
Genetic Association will be held in
New York City, December 26-31, in
connection with the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.
Members who wish to contribute papers
to the program should communicate
with the secretary as soon as possible.
HEREDITY AND THE MIND
Many Kinds of Logical Evidence that Mental Traits Are Inherited in the Same
Way and to the Same Extent as Physical Characters—Educators Must
Deal with This Fact, and not Be Misled by Dogmas of
Speculative Psychology
THE EDITOR
some psychologists and educators,
to attack the inheritance of mental
traits. Of course, it is granted that
some sort of a groundwork must be
transmitted, but we are asked by the
extremists to believe that this is little
more than a clean slate on which the
environment, particularly during the
early years of life, writes its autograph.
‘“What is often called heredity,’’ we
are told,! “‘is merely the expression of
the subconscious ego, whose origin can
often be traced back to early childhood,
to the time when the acts of their
parents and their example left their
impress in the unconscious.”
“Tdiosyncrasies of action, peculiari-
ties, sympathies, likes and dislikes,
prejudices, preformed judgments, ag-
gressiveness, passivity, marked artistic
ability and tendencies, temperament,
these and many more traits,’’ we are
informed,” ‘‘have been explained on the
basis of acquired complexes. And as
far as the evidence and explanations are
concerned, they both seem quite valid.”
“Every child,’’ we are assured,* “at
the outset of his life is a little impulsive
being, pushed indifferently toward good
or evil according to the influences which
surround him.”’
Such criticisms are a useful stimulus,
but they must be given no more weight
than they deserve.
If it were true that heredity can deal
only with the physical, and not with
the mental, then eugenics would have
|: IS the fashion nowadays, among
! Waldstein, L.
Grenzfr. des Nerven u. Seelenlehre, Band 9 (1908), Heft 62, p. 8.
Journav or Herepity, Vol. VII (1915), p. 450.
* Kohs, S. C. New Light on Eugenics.
%’ Bruce, H. Addington, in The Century Magazine.
little excuse for existence; for its primary
object is to increase the amount of
ability in the race, and it depends for
success on the belief that differences in
ability are due to differences in heredity.
But is it true? Has genetics no valid
evidence that mental traits are inherited ?
PROGRESS IN ANALYSIS IS SLOW
It must be admitted that the analysis
of the inheritance of mental traits is
proceeding slowly. This is not the
fault of the geneticist, but rather of
the psychologist, who has not yet been
able to furnish the geneticist with the
description of definite traits of such a
character as to make possible the ex-
haustive analysis of their individual
inheritance. That department of psy-
chology is only now being formed.
We might even admit that no in-
herited ‘“‘unit character” in the mind
has yet been isolated; but it would be
a great mistake to assume from this
admission that proof of the inheritance
of mental qualities, in general, is
lacking.
The psychologists and educators who
think so appear either to be swayed by
the necessity of supporting dogmatic or
metaphysical views of the mind, or else
they think that resemblance between
parent and offspring is the only evi-
dence of inheritance that we can offer.
The father dislikes cheese; the son dis-
likes cheese. ‘“‘Aha, you think that is
the inheritance of a dislike for cheese,”’
cries the psychologist, “but we will
Das unterbewusste Ich und sein Verhaltnis zu Gesundheit und Erziehung.
Quoted by Kohs, infra.
The phrase is borrowed from Pascal, a
fact which gives an idea of Bruce’s psychological orientation.
456
The Editor: Heredity and the Mind
teach you better.’ An interesting ex-
ample of this sort of teaching is furnished
by Dr. Boris Sidis, lately professor of psy-
chology at Harvard, whose feelings are
outraged because geneticists have repre-
sented that some forms of insanity are
hereditary. He declaims for several
pages‘ in this fashion.
“The so-called scientific method of the
eugenists is radically faulty, in spite of the
rich display of colored plates, stained
tables, glittering biological speculations,
brilliant mathematical formulae and com-
plicated statistical calculations. The eu-
genists pile Ossa on Pelion of facts by the
simple method of enumeration which
Bacon and the thinkers coming after him
have long ago condemned as puerile and
futile. From the savage’s belief in sympa-
thetic, imitative magic with its consequent
superstitions, omens, and taboos down to
the articles of faith and dogmas of the
eugenists we find the same faulty, primi-
tive thought, guided by the puerile,
imbecile method of simple enumeration,
and controlled by the wisdom of the
logical post hoc, ergo propter hoc.”
Now if resemblance between parent
and offspring were, as Sidis supposes,
the only evidence of inheritance of
mental traits which the geneticist can
produce, his case would indeed be weak.
And it is perfectly true that “‘evidence”’
of this kind has sometimes been ad-
vanced by geneticists who should have
known better.
But this is not the real evidence which
genetics offers. The evidence is of
numerous kinds, and several lines might
be destroyed without impairing the
validity of the remainder. It is impos-
sible to review the whole body of
evidence here, but some of the various
kinds may be indicated, and samples
given. The reader will then be able
to form his own opinion as to whether
4Sidis, Boris, M.A., Ph.D., M.D. Neurosis and Eugenics.
Vol. XXI, No. 10, pp. 587-594, New York, October, 1915.
457
the geneticists’ proofs or the mere
assurances of a few psychologists like
Sidis are the more weighty.
1. The analogy from breeding experi-
ments. Tame rats, for instance, exhibit
about as much life as a bag of meal;
their offspring can be handled without
a bit of trouble. The wild rat, on the
other hand, is always ready to fight
at the drop of the hat.
Prof. W. E. Castle, of Harvard Uni-
versity, writes:> “We have repeatedly
mated tame female rats with wild
males, the mothers being removed to
isolated cages before the birth of the
young. These young which had never
seen or been near their father were very
wild in disposition in every case. The
observations of Yerkes on such rats
raised by us indicates that their wildness
was not quite as extreme as that of the
pure wild rat but closely approached
tha
Who can suggest any plausible expla-
nation of their conduct, save that they
inherited a certain temperament from
their sire? Yet the inheritance of
temperament is one of the things which
the psychologists most ‘view with
alarm.”’ If itis proved in other animals,
can we accept the psychologists’ declara-
tion that it is wholly impossible in man?
EVIDENCE FROM SEGREGATION
2. The segregation of mental traits.
When an insane, or epileptic, or feeble-
minded person mates with a normal
individual, in whose family no taint is
found, the offspring (generally speaking)
will all be mentally sound, even though
one parent is affected. On the other
hand, if two people from tainted
stocks marry, although neither one may
Medical Review of Reviews,
Dr. Sidis’ article may be good medicine
for the patients of the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute, Portsmouth, N. H., but it is not good
science. How little he knows of elementary biology is revealed by an allusion (p. 591) to ‘‘some
miraculous germ-plasm (chromatin) with wonderful dominant ‘units’ (chromosomes).’’ A college
freshman in biology would be ashamed to think that chromosomes and hereditary unit characters
are the same thing. A distinguished psychologist who does not know the difference, and who
writes of ‘dominant chromosomes,” is hardly a competent critic of the facts of heredity.
5 Dr. Sewall Wright called my attention to this critical evidence, and Dr. Castle furnished the
details, in a letter dated August 4, 1916. He adds, ‘‘I am not satisfied that a clear statement can
be made at the present time as to the inheritance in later generations. But my impression is,
from handling large numbers of second generation rats, that there is little evidence of segregation
and I am inclined to think that the inheritance is blending. As to the principal question which
you raise whether temperament is inherited or not there is no doubt. The only question arises
as to the precise manner of its inheritance.”
458 The Journal
be personally defective, part of their
offspring will be affected.
This production of sound children
from an unsound parent, in the first
case, and unsound children from two
apparently sound parents in the second
case, 1s exactly the opposite of what
we should expect if the child gets his
unsoundness merely by imitation or
“contagion.” The difference cannot
reasonably b> explained by any differ-
ence in enviro.ment or external stimuli.
Heredity ofiers a satisfactory explana-
tion, for some forms of feeblemindedness
and epilepsy, and some of the diseases
known as insanity behave as recessives
and segregate in just the way mentioned.
We can show abundant analogies in the
inheritance of other traits in man,
lower animals, and plants, that behave
in exactly the same manner.
So far as I am aware, no psychologist
has yet come forward to ‘“‘demonstrate’’
that feeblemindedness is due to a sub-
conscious complex formed in childhood,
instead of to heredity, but some of
them appear to be moving in that
direction. No one would allege that
all mental defect is due to inheritance;
perhaps only a small part is, although
all data now available indicate that the
part isa majority. But there are many
cases in which the heredity factor can
hardly be denied without stultification;
and if mental defects are inherited,
then it is worth while investigating
whether mental excellences may not be.
EVIDENCE FROM TWINS
-3. The persistence of like qualities
regardless of difference in environment.
Any parent with open eyes must see
this in his own children—must see that
they retained the inherited traits even
when living under entirely different
surroundings. But the histories of
twins furnish the most graphic evidence.
Galton, who collected detailed histories
of thirty-five pairs of twins who were
closely alike at birth, and examined
their history in after years, writes,®
‘In some cases the resemblance of body
and mind had continued unaltered up
® Galton, Francis.
7 Woods, Frederick Adams.
8 Op. cit., pp. 170-171.
Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 167.
Heredity in Royalty.
of Heredity
to old age, notwithstanding very dif-
ferent conditions of life,’’ in other cases
where some dissimilarity developed, it
could be traced to the influence of an
illness. Making due allowance for the
influence of illness, yet “‘instances do
exist of an apparently thorough simi-
larity of nature, in which such differ-
ence of external circumstances as may
be consistent with the ordinary condi-
tions of the same social rank and country
do not create dissimilarity. Positive
evidence, such as this, cannot be out-
weighed by any amount of negative
evidence.”
Dr. Frederick Adams Woods has
brought forward’ a piece of more exact
evidence under this head. We know
by many quantitative studies that, in
physical heredity, the influence of the
paternal grandparents and the influence
of the maternal grandparents is equal;
on the average one will contribute no
more to the grandchildren than the
other. If mental qualities are due
rather to early surroundings than to
actual inheritance, this equality of
grandparental influence is incredible in
the royal families where Woods got his
material; for the grandchild has been
brought up at the court of the paternal
grandfather, where he ought to have
got all his “‘acquirements,”’ and has per-
haps never even seen his maternal
grandparents, who therefore could not
be expected to impress their mental
peculiarities on him by “contagion.”
When Woods actually measured the
extent of resemblance to the two sets
of grandparents, for mental and moral
qualities, he found it to be the same in
each case: as is inevitable if they are
inherited, but as is incomprehensible if
heredity is not responsible for one’s
mental makeup.
ENVIRONMENT IS POWERLESS
4. Persistence of unlike qualities re-
gardless of sameness in the environment.
This is the converse of the preceding
proposition, but even more convincing.
Here again, I quote Galton,* with a
London, 1907.
New York, 1906.
The Editor: Heredity and the Mind
preliminary remark about the nature
of twins.
There appear to be two ways in which
twins are ordinarily produced. They
may be the result of the simultaneous
fertilization of two egg-cells, in which
case they are no different from ordinary
brothers, or sisters, except that they
happen to be born simultaneously. On
the other hand, they may be produced
by a division of a single egg-cell, at an
early stage in development; in such
cases they are always of the same sex,
and very closely alike, as one would
expect from the fact that they are really
halves of the same individual.
In the former quotation from Galton,
we dealt with the second class, the so-
called identical twins, who are very
much alike at birth for the good reason
that they have identical heredity. We
found that this heredity was not modi-
fied, either in the body or in the mind,
by ordinary differences of training and
environment. A few of Galton’s his-
tories of ordinary, non-identical twins,
follow:
One parent says: “They have had
exactly the same nurture from their birth
up to the present time; they are both
perfectly healthy and strong, yet they are
otherwise as dissimilar as two boys could
be, physically, mentally, and in their
emotional nature.”’
Another writes: “I can answer most
decidedly that the twins have been
perfectly dissimilar in character, habits
and likeness from the moment of. their
birth to the present time, although they
were nursed by the same woman, went to
school together, and were never separated
until the age of 15.”
“Very dissimilar in body and mind,”’ is
the description of another parent. ‘‘The
one is quiet, retiring, and slow but sure;
good tempered, but disposed to be sulky
when provoked—the other is quick,
vivacious, forward, acquiring easily and
forgetting soon; quick-tempered and chol-
eric but easily forgetting and forgiving.
They have been educated together and
never separated.”’
Again, ‘“The two sisters are very differ-
ent in ability and disposition. The one is
retiring, but firm and determined; she has
no taste for music or drawing. The other
459
is of an active, excitable temperament:
she displays an unusual amount of quick-
ness and talent, and is passionately fond
of music and drawing. From infancy,
they have rarely been separated even at
school, and as children visiting their
friends, they always were together.”’
If, in the face of such examples, the
psychologist can maintain that differ-
ences in mental make-up are due to
different influences during childhood,
and not to differences in heredity, he
certainly has a colossal faith in his
theories. We are not obliged to depend,
under this head, for mere descriptions,
but can supply accurate measurements
to. ‘demonstrate our pointy site waue
environment creates the mental nature,
then ordinary brothers, not more than
four or five years apart in age, ought to
be about as closely similar to each
other as identical twins are to each
other; for the family influences in each
case are practically the same. Thorn-
dike, by careful mental tests, showed?
that this is not true. The ordinary
brothers come from different egg-cells,
and, as we know from studies on lower
animals, they do not get exactly the
same inheritance from their parents;
they show, therefore, considerable differ-
ences in their psychic natures. Real
identical twins are two halves of the
same egg-cell, they halve the same
heredity, and their natures are therefore
much more nearly identical.
Again, if the mind is molded during
the ‘“‘plastic years of childhood,” chil-
dren ought to become more alike, the
longer they are together. Twins who
were unlike at birth ought to resemble
each other more closely at 14 than they
did at 9, since they have been for
five additional years subjected to this
supposedly potent but very mystical
“molding force.” Here again Thorn-
dike’s exact measurements explode the
fallacy. They are actually, measurably,
less alike at the older age; their inborn
natures are developing along predestined
lines, with little regard to the identity
9 Thorndike, E. L. Measurements of Twins. Arch. of Philos., Psych., and Sci. Methods,
No. 1, New York, 1905; summarized in his Educational Psychology, Vol. III, pp. 247—251,New
York, 1914. Measured on a scale where 1=identity, he found that twins showed a resemblance
to each other of about .75, while ordinary brothers of about the same age resembled each other to
the extent of about .50 only. The resemblance was approximately the same in both physical and
mental traits.
460
of their surroundings. Heredity ac-
counts easily for these facts, but they
cannot be squared with the idea that
mental differences are the products
solely of early training.
THE EFFECT OF TRAINING
5. Differential rates of increase in
qualities subject to much training. If
the mind is formed by training, then
brothers ought to be more alike in
qualities which have been subject to
much training, than they are in qualities
which have been subject to little or no
training. Thorndike’s measurements on
this point show the reverse to be true.
The likeness of various traits is deter-
mined by heredity, and they may be
most unlike in traits which have been
subjected to a large and equal amount
of training. Twins were found to be
less alike in their ability at addition and
multiplication, in which the schools
had been training them for some years,
than they were in their ability to mark
off the A’s on a printed sheet, or to
write the opposites to a list of words—
feats which they had probably never
before tried to do.
This same proposition may be put on
a broader basis.'° ‘In so far as the
differences in achievement found
amongst a group of men are due to the
differences in the quantity and quality
of training which they had had in the
function in question, the provision of
equal amounts of the same sort of
training for all individuals in the group
should act to reduce the differences.”
“If the addition of equal amounts of
practice does not reduce the differences
found amongst men, those differences
cannot well be explained to any large
extent by supposing them to have been
due to corresponding differences in
amount of previous practice. If, that
is, inequalities in achievement are not
reduced by equalizing practice, they
cannot well have been caused by in-
equalities in previous practice. If diff-
erences in opportunity cause the differ-
ences men display, making opportunity
more nearly equal for all by adding
The Journal of Heredity
equal amounts to it in each case should
make the differences less.
‘The facts found are rather startling.
Equalizing practice seems to increase
differences. The superior man seems
to have got his present superiority by
his own nature rather than by superior
advantages of the past, since, during a
period of equal advantages for all, he
increases his lead.” This point has
been tested by such simple devices as
mental multiplication, addition, marking
A’s on a printed sheet of capitals and
the like; all the contestants made some
gain in efficiency, but those who were
superior at the start were propor-
tionately farther ahead than ever at the
end. This is what the geneticist would
expect, but fits very ill with the
popular psychology which denies that
any child is mentally limited by nature.
MEASURING RESEMBLANCE
6. Direct measurement of the amount
of resemblance of mental traits in
brothers and sisters shows that it is
on the average equal to that of physical
traits. It is manifestly impossible to
assume that early training, or parental
behavior, or anything of the sort, can
have influenced very markedly the
child’s eye color, or the length of his
forearm, or the ratio of the length of
his head to its breadth. If we measure
the amount of resemblance between
two brothers in such traits, we may say
very confidently that our measurement
represents the influence of heredity;
that the child inherits his eye color and
other physical traits of that kind from
his parents. The resemblance, meas-
ured on a scale from 0 to 1, has been
found to be about 0.5.
Pearson measured the resemblance
between brothers and sisters in mental
traits—for example temper, conscien-
tiousness, introspection, vivacity—and
found it on the average to have just
the same intensity—that is, about 0.5.
Further measurements of this sort with
other traits are needed; but if future
investigations confirm Pearson’s finding
that the resemblance between brothers
'°The quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Thorndike’s Educational
Psychology, pp. 304-305, Vol. III.
The Editor: Heredity and the Mind
and sisters for mental traits is the same
as it is for physical traits, then we can-
not help being struck by the remarkable
coincidence.
Or is it a coincidence? We have the
measurement of a large number of
traits; and as Pearson points out, any
mathematician who calculates the
chances that it 1s a mere coincidence,
will find the odds so heavily against
him that it is hardly conceivable that
it is a mere coincidence. Prof. Pearson
was obliged to conclude that it shows
mental traits are inherited in the same
way, and to the same degree as physical
traits. This line of reasoning has not
proved wholly acceptable to many
psychologists; but none has yet been
able to offer any other sensible explana-
tion of the supposed coincidence. Prof.
Pearson writes:!!
“It has been suggested that this
resemblance in the psychological char-
acters is compounded of two factors,
inheritance on the one hand and training
and environment on the other. If so,
you must admit that inheritance and
environment make up the resemblance
in the physical characters. Now these
two sorts of resemblance being of the
same intensity, either the environmental
influence is the same in both.-cases or it
is not. If it is the same, we are forced
to the conclusion that it is insensible,
for it cannot influence eye-color. If it
is not the same, than it would be a most
marvellous thing that with varying
degrees of inheritance, some mysterious
force always modifies the extent of
home influence, until the resemblance
of brothers and sisters is brought sensi-
bly up to the same intensity! Occam’s
razor!” will enable us at once to cut off
such a theory. We are forced, I think
literally forced, to the general conclusion
that the physical and psychical charac-
ters in man are inherited within broad
lines in the same manner, and with the
same intensity. The average home
environment, the average parental in-
fluence is in itself part of the heritage of
the stock and not an extraneous and
4 Biometrika, Vol. III, p. 156.
461
additional factor emphasizing the re-
semblance between children from the
same home.”’
A paragraph from Schuster! may”
appropriately be added. ‘After con-
sidering the published evidence a word
must be said of facts which most people
may collect for themselves. They are
difficult to record, but are perhaps more
convincing than any quantity of sta-
tistics. If one knows well several mem-
bers of a family, one is bound to see in
them likenesses with regard to mental
traits, both large and small, which may
sometimes be accounted for by example
on the one hand or unconscious imita-
tion on the other, but are often quite
inexplicable on any other theory than
heredity. It is difficult to understand
how the inheritance of mental capacity
can be denied by those whose eyes are
open and whose minds are open too.”
Broadly speaking, it is of course true
that man inherits nothing more than
the capacity of making mental acquire-
ments. But this general capacity is
made up of many separate capacities,
all of these capacities are variable, and
the variations are inherited. Such is
the unmistakable verdict of the evi-
dence.
It follows, then, that the only sure
way to increase the amount of mental
ability in the race is by encouraging
parents who have ability to produce
offspring, and by discouraging parents
who lack ability from producing off-
spring. In this way ‘the level-- of
ability—at least, potential ability—
will inevitably rise with each generation.
It follows, too, that attempts made by
educators to create ability by education,
where the inherited capacity does not
exist, are doomed to failure. On the
other hand, a scientific system of edu-
cation which would ascertain what
innate capacities the child has, and
develop them as far as was desirable
would probably produce a surprisingly
effective result.
Our conclusions as to the inheritance
of all sorts of mental capacity are not
2 “William of Occam’s Razor”’ is the canon of logic which declares that it is foolish to seek
for several causes of an effect, if a single cause is adequate to account for it.
13 Schuster, Edgar.
Eugenics, pp. 159-160. London, 1913.
462 The Journal
based on the mere presence of the same
trait in parent and child. They are
based on many different kinds of proof
of the most critical sort, which is often
ignored but has never been contro-
verted by the unscientific school of
educators and the speculative school of
psychologists.
The evidence is good as far as it goes;
and one may freely admit that it does
not go far enough. That it goes no
farther is not the fault of the geneticist,
but of the psychologist. While a small
body of able men is now steadily build-
ing up a Psychology of Individual
Differences, some of the most brilliant
members of the profession are preferring
to deal with affirmations and verbal
concepts rather than with facts. If a
luxuriant new hypothesis seems to make
of Heredity
it necessary, this type of psychologist
appears to feel no hesitation about cover-
ing inheritance with a cloud of dust and
then asserting that the concealed object
never existed. It is not surprising that
some educators have been misled by
this sort of procedure.
The geneticist objects to any con-
tinuation of it. The mass of exact
and critical quantitative evidence for
the inheritance of mental traits is still
intact. Though we cannot yet isolate
particular functions of the brain and
show the precise mechanism by which
they are inherited, we have nevertheless
ample evidence to show that they are
inherited—that, in general, the basic
differences of the mind are as much due
to ancestry as are differences of the
body.
German Horse-Breeding and the War
The German Genetic Association has
published a large volume investigating
the war’s effect on horse-breeding.
A review of the industry prior to the
war is given, then the effect of mobiliza-
tion is described. Details are given
of the part played by various breeds
in the field and how well they have met
expectations. The evil effects of war
on the industry are analyzed and
means suggested of overcoming them
and keeping horse-breeding up to a
high level: it is suggested, for example,
that the best breeding stock should not
be exposed to danger, and, on the other
hand, that all stock which shows itself
particularly valuable during the actual
experience of war should be noted, and
used as much as possible for breeding
subsequently. The practical but. all-
inclusive nature of the book forms a
good testimonial to the usefulness of
the Deutsche Gesellschaft ftir Ztich-
tungskunde which could prepare and
publish it in the middle of the war, as
it has done.
An Experiment in
Sunflower seeds form an important
source of oil in Russia and Th. Sazy-
perow has therefore undertaken to
breed a strain which will be resistant
to rust and other plant diseases. He
crossed Helianthus annuus with H.
argophyllus and describes the first two
hybrid generations in the Bulletin of
Applied Botany, Petrograd, May, 1916.
Rust resistance is reported to be a
Mendelian recessive, inherited separ-
Sunflower Breeding
ately from certain forms of leaf which
were thought to be important in pre-
venting the development of rust. It
will be recalled that Biffen found rust
resistance in wheat was also an inherited
character. The discovery that disease
resistance in plants is an aspect of
Mendelian heredity, opens up a wide
field for practical and theoretical ad-
vances in genetics. Mr. Sazyperow is
continuing his researches.
MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES
Close Resemblances between Species May Be Protective, but Their Origin Is
Difficult to Explain through Natural Selection
A REVIEW
HE theory of mimicry in butter-
flies is one of the most attractive
of the fascinating speculations
which the early Darwinians put
forward. It has long been part of the
stock in trade of the text-book writer;
but for a long time, too, there have been
protests against the theory.
R. C. Punnett, Professor of Genetics
in Cambridge University, has now
collected the evidence in a beautiful
book, lucidly written and illustrated
with colored plates.1. The work is a
good example of the way in which many
lines of biological investigation may be
brought to a focus to throw light on a
problem in evolution.
“Mimicry,’’ Prof. Punnett says, “is a
special branch of the study of adapta-
tion. The term has sometimes been
used loosely to include cases where an
animal, most frequently an insect, bears
a strong and often most remarkable
resemblance to some feature of its
inanimate surroundings. Many butter-
flies with wings closed are wonderfully
like dead leaves; certain spiders when
at rest on a leaf look exactly like bird-
droppings; ‘looper’ caterpillars simulate
small twigs; the names of the ‘stick-’
and ‘leaf-’ insects are in themselves an
indication of their appearance. Such
cases as these, in which the creature
exhibits a resemblance to some part of
its natural surroundings, should be
classified as cases of ‘protective resem-
blance’ in contradistinction to mimicry
proper. Striking examples of protec-
tive resemblance are abundant, and
although we possess little critical knowl-
edge of the acuity of perception in birds
and other insect feeders it is plausible to
regard such resemblances as being of
definite advantage in the struggle for
existence. However, it is with mimicry
and not with protective resemblance
in general that we are here directly
concerned, and the nature of the phe-
nomenon may perhaps best be made
clear by a brief account of the facts
which led to the statement of the
theory.
ORIGIN OF THE THEORY
“In the middle of the last century
the distinguished naturalist, H. W.
Bates, was engaged in making collec-
tions in parts of the Amazonregion. He
paid much attention to butterflies, in
which group he discovered a remarkably
interesting phenomenon. Among the
species which he took were a large
number belonging to the group Itho-
miinae, small butterflies of peculiar
appearance with long slender bodies and
narrow wings bearing 1n most cases a
conspicuous pattern. When Bates came
to examine his catch more closely he
discovered that among the many Itho-
miines were a few specimens very like
them in general shape, color and
markings, but differing in certain ana-
tomical features by which the Pierinae,
or ‘whites,’ are separated from other
groups. Most Pierines are very differ-
ent from Ithomiines. It is the group
to which our common cabbage butterfly
belongs and the ground color is generally
white. The shape of the body and also
of the wing is in general quite distinct
from what it is in the Ithomiines.
Nevertheless in these particular districts
certain of the species of Pierines had
departed widely from what is usually
1 Mimicry in Butterflies, by Reginald Crundall Punnett, F.R.S., Fellow of Gonville and
Caius College, Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics in the University of Cambridge.
University Press, Cambridge (Eng.), 1915.
price 15 shillings.
Pp. 188,
463
464 The Journal
regarded as their ancestral pattern and
had come to resemble very closely the
far more abundant Ithomiines among
whom they habitually flew. To use
Bates’ term they ‘mimicked’ the Itho-
miines, and he set to work to devise an
explanation of how this could have come
about. The “Origin of Species’’ had
just appeared and it was natural that
Bates should seek to interpret this
peculiar phenomenon on the lines there
laid down. How was it that these
Pierines had come to depart so widely
from the general form of the great bulk
of their relations, and to mimic so
closely in appearance species belonging
to an entirely different group, while at
the same time conserving the more
deep-seated anatomical features of their
own family?
USEFULNESS OF CHANGE
“If the change was to be regarded
as having come about through the
agency of natural selection it must
clearly be of advantage to the mimicking
forms; otherwise natural selection could
not come into operation. What advant-
age then have the Ithomiines over the
majority of butterflies in those parts?
They are small insects, rather flimsy in
build, with comparatively weak powers
of flight, and yet so conspicuously
colored that they can hardly be mis-
taken for anything else In spite of
all this they are little subject to the
attacks of such enemies as birds, and
Bates attributed this to the fact that
the juices of their bodies are unpalat-
able. According to him their striking
and conspicuous pattern is of the nature
of a warning coloration, advertising
their disagreeable properties to possible
enemies. A bird which had once at-
tempted to eat one would find it little
to its taste. It would thenceforward
associate the conspicuous pattern with
a disagreeable flavor and in future leave
such butterflies severely alone. The
more conspicuous the pattern the more
readily would it be noticed by the
enemy, and so it would be of advantage
to the Ithomiine to possess as striking a
pattern as possible. Those butterflies
showing a tendency to a more con-
spicuous pattern would be more im-
of Heredity
mune to the attacks of birds and so
would have a better chance of leaving
progeny than those with a less con-
spicuous pattern. In this way varia-
tions in the direction of greater con-
spicuousness would be accumulated
gradually by natural selection, and so
would be built up in the Ithomiine the
striking warning coloration by which
it advertises its disagreeable properties.
Such is the first step in the making of
a mimicry case—the building up through
natural selection of a conspicuous pat-
tern in an unpalatable species by means
of which it is enabled to advertise its
disagreeable properties effectively and
thereby secure immunity from the at-
tacks of enemies which are able to ap-
preciate such advertisement. Such pat-
terns and colors are said to be of a
‘warning’ nature. The existence of an
unpalatable model in considerable num-
bers is the first step in the production
of a mimetic resemblance through the
agency of natural selection.
BEGINNING OF CHANGE
‘“We come back now to our Pierines
which must be assumed to show the
general characters and coloration of the
family of whites to which they belong.
Theoretically they are not specially
protected by nauseous properties from
enemies and hence their conspicuous
white coloration renders them especially
liable to attack. If, however, they could
exchange their normal dress for one
resembling that of the Ithomiines it is
clear that they would have a chance of
being mistaken for the latter and con-
sequently of being left alone. More-
over, in certain cases these Pierines have
managed to discard their normal dress
and assume that of the Ithomiines.
On theoretical grounds this must clearly
be of advantage to them, and being so
might conceivably have risen through
the action of natural selection. This
indeed is what is supposed to have taken
place on the theory of mimicry. Those
Pierines which exhibited a variation of
color in the direction of the Ithomiine
‘model’ excited distrust in the minds
of would-be devourers, who had learned
from experience to associate that par-
ticular type of coloration with a dis-
A COMMON AMERICAN CASE OF MIMICRY
These two butterflies are familiar to everyone who has observed insects in the United
States, and are generally regarded as offering an example of mimicry.
coloring, a rich brown and black, is even more similar than their pattern.
Their
Below
is the Monarch butterfly (Danais archippus) which is supposed to be unpalatable
and shunned by birds after they have had one taste; above is the Viceroy
(Limenitis archippus) belonging to a totally different family which is supposed
to be edible.
By mimicking the appearance of its larger and distasteful neighbor,
it is supposed that the Viceroy secures protection from attacks by birds.
Photographs natural size. (Fig. 8.)
agreeable taste. Such Pierines would
therefore have a rather better chance of
surviving and of leaving offspring.
Some of the offspring would exhibit
the variation in a more marked degree
and these again would in consequence
have a yet better chance of surviving.
Natural selection would encourage those
varying in the direction of the Ithom1-
ine model at the expense of the rest and
by its continuous operation there would
be built up those beautiful cases of
resemblance which have excited the
admiration of naturalists.”’
465
466
Following Bates’ work in South
America, Alfred Russell Wallace de-
veloped the theory for the butterflies
of the Indo-Malayan region, and Tri-
men for those of Africa. In each in-
stance abundant cases of supposed
minicry were found.
MULLER’S CONTRIBUTION
oe
We may now turn to one of the
most ingenious developments of the
theory of mimicry. Not long after
Bates’ original memoir appeared at-
tention was directed to a group of cases
which could not be explained on the
simple hypothesis there put forward.
Many striking cases of resemblance had
been adduced in which both species
obviously belonged to the presumably
unpalatable groups. Instances of the
sort had been recorded by Bates him-
self and are perhaps most plentiful in
South America between species belong-
ing respectively to the Ithomiinae
and Heliconinae. On the theory of
mimicry all the members of both of
these groups must be regarded as
specially protected owing to their con-
spicuous coloration and distasteful prop-
erties. What advantage, then, can an
Ithomiine be supposed to gain by
mimicking a Heliconine, or vice versa?
Why should a species exchange its own
bright and conspicuous warning pattern
for one which is neither brighter nor
more conspicuous? To Fritz Miller,
the well-known correspondent of Dar-
win, belongs the credit of having sug-
gested a way out of the difficulty.
“Miuller’s explanation turns upon
the education of birds. Every year
there hatch into the world fresh genera-
tions of young birds, and each genera-
tion has to learn afresh from experience
what is pleasant to eat and what is
not. They will try all things and hold
fast to that which is good. They will
learn to associate the gay colors of
the Heliconine and the Ithomiine with
an evil taste” and they will thenceforth
avoid butterflies which advertise them-
selves by means of these particular
color combinations. But in a locality
by the supporters of the mimicry theory.
the supposition.”
The Journal of Heredity
where there are many models, each with
a different pattern and color complex,
each will have to be tested separately
before the unpalatableness of each is
realized. If, for example, a thousand
young birds started their education on
a population of butterflies in which there
were five disagreeable species, each
with a distinct warning pattern, it is
clear that 1,000 of each would devote
their lives to the education of these
birds, or 5,000 butterflies in all. But if
these five species, instead of showing
five distinct warning patterns, all dis-
played the same one, it is evident that
the education of the birds would be
accomplished at the price of but 1,000
butterfly existences instead of five.
Even if one of the five species were far
more abundant than the others, it
would yet be to its advantage that the
other four should exhibit the same warn-
ing pattern. Even though the losses
were distributed pro rata the more
abundant species would profit to some
extent. For the less abundant species
the gain would, of course, be relatively
greater. Theoretically, therefore, all
of the five species would profit if in
place of five distinct warning patterns
they exhibited but a single one in com-
mon. And since it is profitable to all
concerned, what more natural than that
it should be brought about by natural
selection?”
TWO TYPES OF MIMICRY
There are thus two generally accepted
types of mimicry—the Batesian, where
one species adopts the coloration of
another, and the Miullerian, where a
number of species adopt a common
pattern. As to the facts, there is no
room for dispute, but there is much
room for dispute about the explanation
of the facts.
Wallace pointed out that there are
five necessary conditions which must
and do exist in any case of mimicry:
1. That the imitative species occur
in the same area and occupy the very
same station as the imitated.
2“In attributing this quality to the butterflies in question I am merely stating what is held
I know of scarcely any evidence either for or against
Mimicry in Butterflies
2. That the imitators are always the
more defenseless.
3. That the imitators are always less
numerous in individuals.
4. That the imitators differ from the
bulk of their allies.
5. That the imitation, however mi-
nute, is external and visible only, never
extending to internal characters or to
such as do not effect the external
appearance.
It is true, Prof. Punnett says, that
these conditions often hold good, but
there are few if any cases where they
all hold good. When the problem 1s
further examined, still more difficulties
are found. For instance, the butterfly
is frequently captured by birds on the
wing; but though two species may
resemble each other closely in colora-
tion their manner of flight is sometimes
so different that it is hard to believe a
bird would not see the difference
between them.
Breeding experiments offer a further
objection, Prof. Punnett thinks, to the
idea that the mimetic pattern has been
built up by natural selection from a
long series of small changes. For the
patterns are found to be inherited as
Mendelian units and therefore, he
thinks, must have appeared by one
large step instead of a number of small
steps: otherwise we should recover
some of the intermediate steps by
cross-breeding. It is not certain, how-
ever, that this argument deserves as
much weight as Punnett ascribes to it.
DO BIRDS DISCRIMINATE?!
Distinctly more convincing is the
experimental evidence on the prefer-
ences of birds. For when they are given
a chance to select between a mimic and
a model, they sometimes choose the
supposedly unpalatable one and reject
the one which resembles it, but is, by
hypothesis, comestible. If enough evi-
dence of this sort could be accumulated,
it would obviously strike at the very
foundations of the mimicry hypothesis.
“It is safe to say,’’ Punnett thinks,
‘“‘that a number of species of birds have
been known to attack butterflies—that
a few out of the number feed upon
butterflies systematically—that some
467
of the most persistent bird enemies
devour the presumably protected forms
as freely as the unprotected—but that
in a few instances there is some reason
for supposing that the bird discrimi-
nates. Beyond this it is unsafe to go at
present.”
Monkeys eat butterflies readily, and
appear to be more discriminating than
birds. It is not impossible that they
are really responsible for the establish-
ment of some species of mimicry; for
Punnett shows by mathematical cal-
culations that even a small percentage
handicap of one species is sufficient to
alter its relative numbers greatly in a
comparatively small number of genera-
tions. In 1850, for instance, the pep-
pered moth Amphidasys betularia was
common in England; at present it has
been practically supplanted by a darker
form, A. doubledayaria. The cause of
this change is obscure; it is suggested
that the darker form may be hardier.
The réle of natural selection in mim1-
cry is still further limited by a considera-
tion of what must happen in the early
stages. Ifa white butterfly is to assume
the protective coloration of a dark
form, it appears that a small spot of
dark color (which, according to the
selectionists, would be the start of the
change) would give no real protection.
Prof. Punnett declares, ‘‘ Till the mimic
can be mistaken for the model, natural
selection plays no part. . . . The part
now often attributed to natural selec-
tion is to put a polish on the resemblance
and to keep it up to the mark by weed-
ing out those which do not reach the
required standard.”
From these facts, and others which
have not been mentioned in this review,
the author holds ‘‘that there are dif-
ficulties in the way of accepting the
mimicry theory as an explanation of the
remarkable resemblances which are often
found between butterflies belonging to
distinct groups. Of these difficulties
two stand out beyond the rest, viz.,
the difficulty of finding the agent that
shall exercise the appropriate powers
of discrimination, and the difficulty of
fitting in the theoretical process in-
volving the incessant accumulation of
minute variations with what is at
468 The Journal
present known of the facts of heredity.”
“Looked at critically in the light of
what we now know about heredity and
variation, the mimicry hypothesis is
an unsatisfactory explanation of the
way in which these remarkable resem-
blances between different species of
butterflies have been brought about.”
PUNNETT’S EXPLANATION
Punnett’s own explanation tends to
bring mimicry into the field of mutation
and Mendelian heredity. He suggests
that the number of different inherited
factors for pattern and color, in butter-
flies, is quite limited, so that the same
assortment may not infrequently be
brought together even though the
group whose members exhibited the
resemblance might, owing to structural
differences, be placed in different
families. In support of this he cites
the analogy of the rodents, where the
number of different hereditary factors
for coat color is small, and the same
colors may be found in the rabbit, the
mouse and the guinea-pig.
“On this view the various color
patterns found among butterflies de-
pend primarily upon definite hereditary
factors the number of which is by no
means enormous. Many of these fac-
tors are common to several or many
different groups, and a similar aggre-
gate of color factors, whether in an
Ithomiine, a Pierid, or a_ Papilio,
results in a similar color scheme.”
When a case of mimicry is thus estab-
lished, practically by accident, natural
selection may perhaps preserve it; but
natural selection in this view can re-
ceive no credit for creating the mimicry,
as the older naturalists thought. This
explanation is of course largely hypo-
thetical, and Punnett does not pretend
that the evidence is sufficient to prove it.
of Heredity
One can hardly deny, however, that
he has made out a strong case against
the omnipotent adequacy of natural
selection to explain mimicry in butter-
flies. And the book is significant as an
expression of the widespread modern
objection to the allmacht, the all-
sufficiency of natural selection as a factor
in evolution, which marked the pre-
ceding generation and which still char-
acterizes many popular writers and
even a large number of biologists who
are working in other fields and not in
touch with the developments of genetics.
It was once thought that, if an adap-
tation appeared to be useful to the
individual, natural selection could be
invoked to account for its origin.
Most geneticists now want to be shown.
It is clear to them that natural selec-
tion might preserve a case of mimicry,
but it is not clear to them that it could
build up a case of mimicry, starting
with merely trivial variations.
Natural selection as a factor in evolu-
tion is probably more firmly established
today than ever before. But its place
is also more sharply defined than ever
before, and it is no longer universally
admitted to be responsible for creating
adaptations. Many biologists reached
this standpoint years ago, and the
attacks being made on one strong-
hold after another of the extreme
selectionists have been successful. The
attack on the natural selection ex-
planation of mimicry in_ butterflies
is only one of a long series which
has resulted in giving a much clearer
understanding of what natural selec-
tion can do and what it cannot do.
For this reason, as well as for its own
interest, Prof. Punnett’s book deserves
wide consideration.
Research in Inebriety
A research foundation has been organ-
ized at Hartford, Conn., under the direc-
torship of Dr. T. D. Crothers, the object
of which is to make a scientific study of
alcoholism and inebriety. The founda-
tion is to be endowed and will become
a permanent institution. Appeals are
to be made to physicians all over the
country to furnish records and histories
of cases in order that they may be classi-
fied and studied for the purpose of
determining the laws that govern in-
ebriety outside of the direct effects of
alcohol. The institution will serve a
practical end as well as becoming a center
for research.—Engenical News.
THE JUKES IN 1915
Huge and Notorious Clan Brought to Light by Dugdale Is Now in Its Ninth
Generation—Members Have Moved to Good Environments but in
Many Cases No Improvement in Their Character Is Visible—In
Other Cases, by Eugenic Marriages, They Have Taken
Places in Respectable Society
A REvIEw!
York merchant? who was interested
in prison reform, made a tour of the
counties to study jail conditions.
In one mountain county he found six
blood relatives in prison for various
offenses, and undertook a study of their
heredity. The result was the publica-
tion, in 1877, of his study of the story?
of their clan, to which he gave the
fictitious name of “Juke.’’ Ever since
then, it has been regarded as the
example par excellence of bad breeding.
Its origin was commonplace enough.
“Into an isolated region, now within
2 hours’ railroad journey of the nation’s
metropolis, there drifted nearly a cen-
tury and a half ago'a number of persons
whose constitutions did not fit them for
participation in a highly organized
society. This region was the frontier
of that day and those who went there
had many of the characteristics of our
western frontiersmen of a century later.
Some of them were hunters, some were
extreme nomads (tramps), and like
practically all extreme nomads were
addicted to drink; some were miners
and found at this place opportunity to
make a living at an occupation that
requires no capital and which may be
readily abandoned or resumed; some
were neurasthenic, found muscular ac-
tivity and persistence in work irksome,
and craved stimulants to lighten the
labor of even minimum activities;
some were feebleminded, and had found
1The Jukes in 1915.
s 1874, Richard L. Dugdale, a New
By Arthur H. Estabrook of the Eugenics Record Office.
that Nature makes fewer demands on
intelligence than does organized society;
and still more were feebly inhibited and
had either already so violently offended
the mores, as to flee the ‘revenge’ of
society, or had found that there was
less tendency to repression of their
intermittent, instinctive outbreaks
where the arm of organized society was
not yet long enough to reach. For all
of such socially inadequate this retired,
well-wooded and well-watered valley.
afforded a haven of refuge at a day
when the system of state ‘institutions’
had been little developed.
“That there should be such strains
in a colony that had been founded only
three or four generations before is not
strange when we recall that the emigra-
tion of criminals and ne’er-do-wells,
among others, to this new country was
assisted, in order to relieve the congested
centers of Europe, of some of those
whose presence was incompatible with
the development of high civic ideals.
It is the descendants of such people,
among others, that came to the region
which the Juke family made notorious.
THE EARLY JUKES
“Here are some of the migrants or
their immediate progeny: Max, the
hunter and fisher, the jolly, alcoholic,
ne’er-do-well; Lem, the stealer of sheep;
Lawrence, the licentious, free with his
‘gun.’ Here, too, were found Margaret
and Delia, the wantons, and Bell, who
Pp. 85.
Published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, September, 1916.
2 Dugdale was born in Paris, of English parents, in 1841.
In 1851 the family came to New
York City. Dugdale acquired a competence in commercial life and then devoted himself to
philanthropy. He died in 1883.
3 The Jukes:
A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity. By R. L. Dugdale.
New York and London, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1877.
The book has gone through four editions.
469
470 The Journal
had three children by various negroes.
So some negro and, doubtless, some
Indian blood became in time dis-
seminated through the whole population
of the valley.
“The progeny of such stock showed
the expected reactions to their primi-
tive environment. Some proved them-
selves feebleminded, grew up inedu-
cable, slovenly, and inefficient, ending
their lives in the poorhouse. Some
became vagrants, wandering hither and
thither and sometimes disappearing
from view altogether. Great numbers
craved drink and regarded it as the
greatest good and were unable to
control in any degree their use of it
as long as they had money or could be
trusted for it. Great numbers saw no
need of regulating and, indeed, many
were unable to regulate their reactions
to sex impulses; so that they lived lives
of grossest promiscuity in sex relations.
Some showed an ugly and quarrelsome
disposition. Others, like Ann Eliza,
became delusional and homicidal. In-
deed, assault and battery, murder, and
rape are rather common, especially
among the illegitimate children of Ada.
‘“Not only was much of the original
stock bad, but improvement which
might otherwise have occurred was
prevented by constant inbreeding. The
nervous weaknesses, the mental in-
sufficiencies were thus brought together
from both sides and mentally and
morally defective offspring were ren-
dered more certain. Some outbreeding
there was and where it was with better
stock, the progeny had better intelli-
gence and emotional control and lines
were founded that were able to hold a
good position in organized society.
“Such were the Jukes a generation or
two ago, when Dugdale studied them.’’*
In 1911 his original manuscript was
found, giving the real names and
localities of the members of the clan,
and with this as a clue the Eugenics
Record Office wisely started to bring
the study up to date, through the
agency of Arthur H. Estabrook, who
had already made a somewhat similar
of Heredity
study of the ‘“‘Nam”’ family, another
great group of cacogenics.
FAMILY NOW SCATTERED
The Jukes in Dugdale’s time had
lived largely on the industry of cement
mining in their county; shortly after-
ward this was abandoned, with the
introduction of Portland cement, and
eventually almost the entire clan had to
emigrate. Estabrook found it scattered
over fourteen States, and personally
visited every member whom he was
able to trace. Dugdale had described
709 individuals; Estabrook brought the
number to 2,820, of whom 2,094 are of
Juke blood; the others represent people ©
who have married into that family.
In their original habitat the Jukes
naturally had a bad environment—
which they themselves had created.
They likewise had a “bad name”’ and
were of such evil repute that they were
handicapped in business and _ social
relations. When they left the valley,
they went to places where their name
was unknown and carried no stigma,
where they had a fresh start and no
handicaps. The Eugenics Record Office
sought to determine what influence
forty years of these varied environ-
ments had had on the old stock. Did
they become useful citizens when they
had a fair chance and a square deal,
or did they make a new but equally
bad environment wherever they went?
Estabrook’s book consists mainly of
a detailed description of these people,
including those found by Dugdale
as well as those now living. It is
accompanied by extensive genealogical
charts. Dr. Davenport summarizes
their record as follows:
‘First, on the whole, the later de-
scendants of the Jukes, in Connecticut,
in New Jersey, even in Minnesota,
still show the same feeblemindedness,
indolence, licentiousness and dishonesty,
even when not handicapped by the
associations of their bad family name
and despite the fact of being surrounded
by better social conditions. This is
because, wherever they go, they tend
4The preceding paragraphs are from a preface which C. B. Davenport contributed to the
work_under review.
A HOME OF THE JUKES
This two-room log cabin is occupied at the present time by a member of the
Juke family.
Some members of the great clan are useful members of
society, but entirely too many of them, living in such places as this,
are a burden whom society would be much better off without.
It is
not sufficient to move them into a better environment, for investigation
shows that to a large extent they create their own environment—a
bad one—wherever they go.
(Fig. 9.)
to marry persons like themselves. On
the other hand, the dispersion has led
some of these descendants to marry
into better stocks and this is improving
the quality of the germ-plasm. To be
sure, this better germ-plasm into which
the Jukes marry will sometimes become
contaminated with the determiners for
mental weakness and lack of control;
but children who show such defects are
more apt to be placed under restraint
in their matings when they belong to
families of fair social standing than when
they arise in cacogenic communities.
It is probable that, in the long run, the
cheapest way to improve a bad germ-
plasm is to scatter it. I do not, how-
ever, recommend this course as superior
to segregation; but only as a cheap and
somewhat hazardous substitute. Inthe
case of the Jukes there are so many
dominant traits of feeble inhibition that
scattering them is like scattering fire-
brands—each tends to start a fire in a
new place. One may doubt the wisdom
of the operation of ‘Children’s Aid
Photograph from Arthur H. Estabrook.
Societies’ which send much bad germ-
plasm to good farming communities
throughout our Middle West. It will
probably have, on the whole, the same
sad effects that the transportation of
convicts from London to Virginia and
later to Australia have had on parts
of those countries.
GOOD HEREDITY ESSENTIAL
““The most important conclusion that
may be drawn from Dr. Estabrook’s
prolonged study of the Jukes forty
years later is that not merely institu-
tional care, nor better community
enviroment, will cause good social
reactions in persons who are feeble-
minded and feebly inhibited, although,
on the other hand, better stimuli will
secure better reactions from weak stock
than will poor stimuli. There is, in-
deed, no conflict betwéen environment
and heredity; each is a factor in all
behavior. Environment affords the
stimulus; heredity determines largely
the nature of the reacting substance;
471
472 The Journal
the reaction, or behavior, is the resultant
or product of the two. The great
mistake that social agencies have made
in the past is that they have over-
looked the constitutional or hereditary
factor of the reaction. The chief value
of a detailed study of this sort lies in
this: that it demonstrates again the
importance of the factor of heredity.”
A more detailed examination gives
little encouragement to those social
optimists who think that Nature cures
such plagues as the Jukes by bringing
them gradually to extinction. With
the increase of charity, of baby-saving
devices, and misguided philanthropy,
bad breeding tends rather to increase.
The average fecundity of the Juke
women is stated to be 3.526 children or,
if those who have no children are
excluded, 4.025 per female. From 20 to
30% of the births have been illegitimate.
Of the 2,094 Jukes enumerated,
1,258 are now living in this country.
“Although many are old, the great
majority are now in the prime of life
and reproducing continually. The
younger? generation is still in school.
“The Jukes of today are to be found in
all classes of society. The good citizen,
prosperous and rearing a family with
good moral and mental stamina, has
earned his place in the community.
Then there is the more numerous class,
composed of steady, hard-working per-
sons who toil from day to day at semi-
skilled or unskilled labor and make
no deep impression on the community,
but rear their children as well as their
limited outlook on the world will allow,
endeavoring at least to raise them to
the parental social level. Again, there
is the scum of society represented
among the Jukes. These are inefficient
and indolent, unwilling or unable to
take advantage of any opportunity
which offers itself or is offered to them.
These form the real social problem of the
Jukes today.
SOME USEFUL JUKES
“An attempt has been made to classify
the living Jukes into these three classes.
5 This evidently refers to the eighth generation,
two individuals.
of Heredity
There are 748 Jukes over the age of 15
considered in this connection. There
are, roughly speaking, seventy-six in
the first class, the socially adequate;
255 individuals are doing fairly well;
323 are typical Jukes of the kind
described by Dugdale, and ninety-four
were unclassified, due to lack of suffi-
cient information. The writer realizes
that these figures mean little except
to give a comparative idea of the
general proportion of the three classes.
As time goes on many of the younger
ones classed as ‘doing poorly’ may,
through added responsibility and as
the result of experience, enter the
second or even the first class. Those
who remain, not profiting by experience,
are the mentally deficient, for whom
nothing can be done except to give
continual oversight or custodial care.”
Consanguineous marriage in the group
is studied with care and the inference
drawn “that cousin marriage in the
lines where there is mental defect tends
to reproduce that defect and intensify
it; but when there is mental and moral
strength in certain characters on both
sides there may, in certain matings,
arise offspring who are superior to
either parent.” The inheritance of
eroticism and pauperism are similarly
studied, but the results are hardly con-
clusive, in view of the difficulty of
defining such traits and of separating
out the environmental influences. Crim-
inality is believed to be largely feeble-
mindedness.
It was not to be expected that this
study would throw much light on the
heredity of specific traits, for it was
not undertaken with that view, but
with a view to determine the effect of
a changed environment. Estabrook
divides his treatment of the latter
subject into “involuntary removals”
and ‘‘voluntary removals.” In describ-
ing the latter, he seems to overlook the
fact that those who migrate voluntarily
are likely to be superior to the average,
or they would not have sufficient enter-
prise to migrate. A fairer test of
environmental influence is involuntary
The ninth generation so far includes only
The: Jukes in 1915
removal, under which head he lists 118
individuals who, before the age of 21,
were placed in some institution (ex-
cluding jail and prison). Even here,
however, it may be doubted whether
the environment of a poorhouse is a
particularly elevating one, most of all
when the individual is grown up before
being taken there. The number of
children of known parentage who were
placed in a really good environment
while very young is not great enough
to warrant any conclusions. Dr. Esta-
brook’s conclusions should be taken
with reserves:
“The institution, then, does not
permanently improve the condition of
some. These react afterwards in society
as their sibs do who have not been in
institutions. These have not inherited
and so do not possess the potential
traits which others can work upon and
train. On the other hand, as has been
stated above, many are helped and
improved by institutional care and
training. These individuals have a
better inheritance and set of traits to
develop and their better response to
the new environment is due to the
possession of those traits which can be
molded and shaped by proper contact
with others, so that in society they
become good citizens.”
The inferences are reasonable, but
not adequately proved by the present
evidence.
PUNISHMENT A FAILURE
Another 118 Jukes have been in
penal institutions, and as the investi-
gator remarks, “‘penal servitude as a
cure for crime in the Juke family seems
to have been a failure, as a feeble-
minded person cannot be made normal
through any sort of punishment.”
Under the head of ‘‘eugenic matings”
we are told that ‘‘a rough classifica-
tion of the 399 fertile marriages among
the Jukes gives 176 eugenic matings
and 223 cacogenic matings. In the
opinion of the writer, who has studied
the people and their offspring, 55% of
the matings are detrimental to the
forward progress of the Juke family,
while 45% may be considered eugenic
or beneficial The standard of a
473
eugenic mating has been put low, as
it is desired to give everyone the benefit
of the effect of environment. Had these
cacogenic matings been forbidden or if
offspring had been prevented by sterili-
zation, it is safe to say that in the next
generation less than 5% of the whole
offspring would have shown undesirable
traits. As it is now, with unrestricted
reproduction, over half the offspring
either is mentally defective or has
anti-social traits.”’ It is to be supposed
that Dr. Estabrook made these state-
ments after careful study, but to the
superficial study of the reviewer they
seem too sanguine, in view of the large
number of anti-social traits that are
recessive. The so-called eugenic mat-
ings may be of immediate benefit to the
Juke family, but it is to be feared that
in the long run many of them will be
highly detrimental to the nation at
large.
Finally, as to the bill which the law-
abiding citizens of the State must pay:
Dugdale estimated a loss to society
by the Juke family from 1800 to 1875 of
$1,250,000, not including the drink
bill. In the ensuing forty years Esta-
brook thinks the bill has grown to
$2,093,685. ‘If the drink bill is added,
this total becomes $2,516,685. It is
estimated that $648,000 of pension
money has been paid to the Jukes.
Much, if not most, of this has been
spent for whisky and the rest has
furnished support which in most cases
would otherwise have been furnished
by pauper relief.”
To counterbalance this, there are
the earnings of the few Jukes who have
been really productive. Three indi-
viduals are particularly mentioned,
whose total earnings are believed to be
$160,000; others have been self-support-
ing but little more. On the whole,
there is very little offset to the bill.
In a more eugenic age, such a clan as
the Jukes will be looked on by Society
as an unnecessary luxury.
Finally, Estabrook’s general sum-
mary will be given in full, although the
reviewer thinks some of the statements
need qualification:
“The primary aim of this work is to
present the facts of the lives of the
474
Jukes. For the past 130 years they
have increased from five sisters to a
family which numbers 2,094 people,
of whom 1,258 were living in 1915.
One-half of the Jukes were and are
feebleminded, mentally incapable of
responding normally to the expecta-
tions of society, brought up under
faulty environmental conditions which
they consider normal, satisfied with the
fulfilment of natural passions and de-
sires, and with no ambition or ideals in
life. The other half, perhaps normal
-mentally and emotionally, has become
socially adequate or inadequate, de-
pending on the chance of the individual
reaching or failing to reach an environ-
ment which would mold and stimulate
his inherited social traits.
“There have been cited just previous
to this certain cases of good citizens
among the Jukes. In these men and
women the bad traits which have held
down their brothers and sisters have
become lost and they are the fountain
heads of new families of socially good
strain. Heredity, whether good or bad,
has its complemental factor in environ-
ment. The two determine the _ be-
havior of the individual. The social
reformer and the student of eugenics
must see that, no matter what the degree
of perfection to which we raise the stand-
ard of the environment, the response of
the individual will still depend on its
constitution and the constitution must
be adequate before we can attain the
perfect individual, socially and
eugenically.
“This study demonstrates the fol-
lowing:
“1. Cousin-matings in defective germ-
plasms are undesirable, since they
produce defective offspring irrespective
of the parents’ somatic make-up.
“2. There is an hereditary factor in
licentiousness, but there are those
among the Jukes who are capable of
meeting the requirements of the mores
in sex matters if only great social
pressure is brought to bear on them.
‘3. Pauperism is an indication of
weakness, physical or mental.
The Journal of Heredity
“4, All of the Juke criminals were
feebleminded, and the eradication of
crime in defective stocks depends upon
the elimination of mental deficiency.
“5. Removal of Jukes from their
original habitat to new regions is
beneficial to the stock 7tself, as better
social pressure is brought to bear on
them and there is a chance of mating
into better families.
“6. One in four of the Jukes is
improved socially by care in Children’s
Institutions.
“7. Penal institutions have little
beneficial influence upon persons of
defective mentality.
THE REMEDY
“The natural question which arises
in the reader’s mind is, ‘What can be
done to prevent the breeding of these
defectives?’ Two practical solutions of
this problem are apparent. One of
these is the permanent custodial care of
the feebleminded men and all feeble-
minded women of childbearing age.
The other is the sterilization of those
whose germ-plasm contains the defects
which society wishes to eliminate.
“The first is practicable, since there
are now many custodial institutions
for the feebleminded and epileptic and
in some of these the patients are partly
self-supporting. These institutions
should be increased in number and
capacity to receive all the defectives
now at large and who must be cared for
if the program of segregation is to be
fully carried out. Out of approximately
600 living feebleminded and epileptic
Jukes, there are now only three in
custodial care. It is estimated that at
the end of fifty years the defective
germ-plasm would be practically elimin-
ated by the segregation of all of the 600.
“Sterilization of those carrying epi-
lepsy, feeblemindedness, etc., is entirely
practicable. Public sentiment, how-
ever, does not favor such a practice.
Contrary to public belief, sterilization
would interfere with the real liberty of
the individual less than custodial care.”’
6 Dr. Estabrook and Dr. Davenport have both emphasized the extreme sexual license of the
Jukes, and their infection with venereal disease.
Life-long segregation for both men and women is the only remedy
sterilization unthinkable.
These facts seem to the reviewer to make
which will adequately safeguard both society and the individual Jukes.
WOMEN'S EYES AND POTATO SKINS
HEN a photograph of the
Keys quadruplets was pub-
lished in the May issue of
this Journal, a number of
members commented on the eye color
of the girls. It had been suggested that
the four children probably represented
the ‘identical’? type of plural births;
that is, the case where a single fertilized
egg-cell splits up, at the beginning of
development, and a complete individual
is produced by each separate half, or
quarter as the case may be. Ordinary
twins are produced by the fertilization
of two separate egg-cells, and they are
therefore not expected to be any more
alike than ordinary brothers and sisters.
But identical twins or quadruplets, being
in reality only one individual divided
up, are expected to show the astound-
ingly close similarity which is occa-
sionally found in life as well as in
literature.
\ ELERLREEEI
PEEN YL | rey vig iki way
LRICRLAMLELULGe
‘ ket PELLET
+, gl yi EEREEES LOLRLLi Lp
FELLELP ELE
ee i
ROBERTA Mona
If the Keys quadruplets are of this
identical type, it was asked, how can
it be that three of them have brown
eyes, while the eyes of the fourth are
very clearly blue? The difference is
easily seen in Fig. 10, and is confirmed
by a letter from the father, who writes
that three have brown hair and eyes,
while Leota is a ‘“‘a perfect blonde.’”
Now we have no proof that these
quadruplets are ‘identical,’ in the
genetic sense. The fact that they are
all of one sex, and show a considerable
resemblance, causes one to think that
they may be. The fact that Leota has
blue eyes is not necessarily evidence
that they are not merely four quarters
of one original egg. Prof. R. Ruggles
Gates of the University of California
has pointed out, in a letter to this
Journal, that the discrepancy might be
explained in the way that E. M. East
LLELELELEEL EEE
UNO CLE ND Wit ve
SEE EEL ELD i
PELE LEELEL YY
Apa
MARY LEOTA
THE KEYS QUADRUPLETS ON THEIR FIRST BIRTHDAY
Leota has the distinction of blue eyes; while the three others have brown. It is suggested that,
like her sisters, she may have inherited the brown pigment, but that she lost it at some time
while the eyes were developing. Such a loss of an inherited factor is often seen in plants.
Photograph copyrighted by F. M. Keys.
(Fig. 10.)
475
THE QUADRUPLETS AND THEIR MOTHER
Mrs. Keys is 35 years old and weighs about 150 pounds.
She has borne four children previously.
The quadruplets, until they were nine months old, had no other food than mother’s milk.
This photograph, showing themat the age of one year (arranged in the same order as in
Fig. 10) is copyrighted by F. M. Keys.
has explained the occurrence of pota-
toes with white skins. !
The tuber of the wild potato has a
purple skin, but in cultivation nowa-
days we find two types, one with a purple
skin and the other with a white skin.
The latter corresponds to albino forms
of other plants; it is ight colored merely
because the agent that normally pro-
duces pigment is not present.
East found, as a result of inquiries
and of his own breeding experiments,
that colored skin and white skin formed
a contrasted pair of Mendelian char-
acters. Color was dominant, and the
white skin could appear only if color
was lacking. If a colored potato and
a white potato were crossed, the off-
spring were all colored; on the other
hand when a white-skinned variety was
propagated asexually, by its tubers, it
(Fig. 11.)
remained white generation after genera-
tion.
But when a purple-skinned variety
was propagated by tubers, it did not
invariably remain purple, generation
after generation. All of a sudden, the
purple might disappear, and one or
more plants would be turned up with
white-skinned tubers.
Propagation being asexual, this loss
of color could not be due to hybridiza-
tion. It is the kind of a change which
goes under the name of bud-variation,
and East decided that it represented the
dropping out of the character “color”
at some time when the vegetative cells
of the potato were dividing, during its
period of growth.
Study of similar bud variations in
other plants convinced him that the
same thing was. occurring there.
ie Be ee bh) |)
1 Annual report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909-10, pp. 134-140.
176
Women’s Eyes and Potato Skins
Seventy-five per cent of the cases, he
thought, could be explained by the
hypothesis? that ‘‘There has been sim-
ply the loss of a dominant character and
hence the appearance of a related re-
cessive Character.’” -_
This hypothesis has been accepted by
most geneticists as a good explanation
of the sudden change of potato skins
from purple to white. And as Dr.
Gates has pointed out, it can also
explain the sudden change of a girl’s
eyes from brown to blue; for brown
and blue, in the human eye, appear to
be related to each other in the same
way that purple and white are in
potato skins; the darker color is domin-
ant and the lighter one recessive.’
Now a field of potato plants, propa-
gated by tubers (“‘eyes’’) really repre-
sents just so many parts of a single
individual. Similarly we may assume
that these gquadruplets represent just
477
so many parts of a single individual.
It is not asserted that this is the case,
for we have no real proof. We make
the assumption for the sake of illustra-
tion. If the assumption is correct, then
the blue in Leota’s eyes appeared be-
cause the brown dropped out, just as in
one potato the white may appear be-
cause (the “purple drops .outt.lhe
parallel is a homely one, but it strik-
ingly illustrates the fact that heredity
in man follows the same laws as heredity
in the lower animals, and in plants. It
is introduced here merely to point out
that individuals are not necessarily
all alike, even if they have identical
heredity, as identical twins have and
as potatoes or other plants propagated
asexually have. There is always the
possibility of ‘“‘somatic segregation,”
which produces white-skinned potatoes
and might be responsible for Leota’s
azure orbs.
Emigration after the War
Eugenicists have called attention to
the problems which may be presented
by immigration from Europe after the
war, but an editorial in the New York
Times suggests another problem which
has not been foreseen. Steamship pas-
senger agents are quoted as saying that
there will be a great exodus from the
United States when peace is declared,
many aliens going home to help rebuild
their native countries. It is estimated
that a million may go back, and that
half of these will stay back. As evi-
dence of the truth of this view, they
point to reservations already made for
passage, by citizens of warring nations.
Those who are patriotic enough to go
home and take part in a period of recon-
struction are likely to be a superior lot
of people, and froma eugenic viewpoint
the United States can ill afford per-
manently to lose half a million such
residents, particularly if their places
* Plant World, XI (1908), pp. 77-83.
are filled by undesirable immigrants
who may have been unsettled by army
life until they are unwilling to go back
to their old occupations.
The ZJimes concludes: ‘Those who
look for a great many immigrants say
that some will come to avoid heavy
taxes, some because they are unwilling
to return to European mines and mills
from the armies in which they have
served, and others—a host of widows
and orphans—to be helped by relatives
and friends here. But it is admitted
that several European nations will
probably prohibit emigration, and that
Great Britain plans to find land for her
disbanded soldiers in Australia, New
Zealand, and South Africa. Predictions
that a great number will come to this
country are based upon arguments and
reasoning that may be sound, but in the
deposits of passage money the steam-
ship agents have solid facts.”
’ The father of the quadruplets writes that his wife has blue eyes, as have all her “folks.”
She is, then, homozygous for blue, and the brown must have come through her husband. He
states that he and his eleven brothers and sisters all have dark eyes, that they “take after my
mother.”
eyes as most of his family have.”
“My mother’s people all have dark hair and eyes,” he continues; ‘‘my father has blue
The ancestry of the quadruplets is therefore full of blue eyes,
and it is certain not only that there is blue in Leota’s eyes, as is easily seen, but that there is also
blue in the eyes of her three sisters, although it cannot be seen because it is overlaid with the dom-
inant brown.
ARE MORE BOYS BORN IN WAR TIME?
war will leave a great dearth of
males in Europe, but it is some-
times alleged that Nature provides
a compensated sex-ratio in births during
and after such periods. Readers of
ik IS acknowledged that the present
Westermarck’s ‘History of Human
Marriage’’ will remember that, in
Chapter XXI, he quotes many supposed
authorities to show that more boys
than usual are born as a result of a
ereat war or other period of hardship.
The facts, if substantiated, would be
of importance to eugenics, but Wester-
marck’s handling of statistics is highly
uncritical, and few outside of the pro-
fession are able safely to weigh ques-
tions of vital statistics. It is therefore
of interest to have the opinion on this
point of Prof. Walter F. Willcox, of
Cornell University, one of the foremost
American statisticians. Writing to the
Syracuse Post-Standard, he said:
“It is common opinion among statis-
ticians that the excess of males in the
total births increases during or shortly
after a destructive war. American birth
statistics are meager and unsatisfactory
and consequently we have little Ameri-
can evidence for or against the opinion.
The only bit I know of is derived from
Massachusetts, where the excess of
male births during the five-year period
of the Civil War was slightly greater
than in any earlier or later period since
1850, as the following figures show:
Male birtlis to
Period 1,000 femal»
1851-55... 1,068
VO5O-O0 ne hint acaet 1,063
EBGIHGS ik cel ateeer ee 1,077
NSO6 710: ..:.6.019 2 gases 1,065
1871-75.. 1,068
1976-805). ob. wr tee 1,065
1881-85 6 ies 1,062
1886-90. 5... 2. fee. ® 1,058
OO. cage Be wale 1,055
TEYG-OD welsh os ce 1,057
LOOT OS aia a ae wine 1,062
L90G=1G). Fon AO ee 1,056
IQIE-—-1S 5 es ea ce 1,061
“Among European writers, von Oet-
tingen wrote in 1882: ‘The more the
female population in any country ex-
ceeds the male as a result of any dis-
turbing influence, the larger the pro-
portion of males in the children born;’
and von Mayr, a better authority, wrote
in 1897: ‘After wars apparently a
larger proportion of male children are
born.’ Finally, in Prinzing’s Medical
Statistics, published in 1906, is the state-
ment that ‘after wars the excess of male
children is said to increase. Ditsing
speaks of this as a well-known fact
which has never been doubted and von
Fircks shows it from the figures for
Germany after the wars of 1866 and
1871.’ But Prinzing adds that the
increase did not appear in France after
the war of 1871.
“The statistical evidence is too slight
to demonstrate the existence of such
an increase in the proportion of male
children born after a war, but does
make it possible, if not probable.”
Foundation to Teach Mothercraft
Nearly a million dollars is left in the
will of Mrs. Lizzie Merrill Palmer,
widow of former U. S. Senator Thomas
W. Palmer, to found a school where
girls may be taught motherhood, ac-
cording to the daily press. The will
provides that girls unable or unwilling
to pay the cost of their board at the
school shall be educated free of charge.
478
‘“T hold profoundly,” says the will, “the
conviction that the welfare of any com-
munity is divinely and hence insepa-
rably dependent upon the qualities of its
motherhood and the spirit and character
of its homes.” It is specified that the
school be established in Detroit or the
township of Greenfield, asuburb. Girls of
ten years and upward will be admitted.
EXTREMES OF HUMAN STATURE
A giant and two dwarfs from a circus. Stature is made up of so many different items that
it has been very difficult to analyze its inheritance. Mendelian writers are accustomed
to say that cases of dwarfism in which all parts of the body are reduced proportionately
(as in the two above) are a recessive to normal stature, but there are probably many dif-
ferent factors involved. Hereditary differences in some of the ductless glands of the body
are thought to be, in part at least, responsible for great extremes of stature. Photograph
from René Bache. (Fig. 12.).
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DYNAMIC EVOLUTION
By CASPER L. REDFIELD
Price $1.50
DYNAMIC EVOLUTION shows that the energy in
animals, known as intelligence and physical strength, is
identical with the energy known in mechanics, and
is governed by the same laws.
$1,000
Have been deposited with the AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIA-
TION to be paid out at their discretion if it can be shown that
those laws are ever violated in the reproductive process. DY-
NAMIC EVOLUTION is authority for the meaning of the terms
of the offer, the details of which were published in the JOURNAL
OF HEREDITY for February, 1916.
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK and LONDON
i
1 i i a he ee
HE TH
SE EE LL
The Genealogical Magazine
(Established 1890)
Published Quarterly—December, March, June, September
Three Dollars a Year
EDITORS
Eben Putnam John E. Bowman, S.T.B. S. P. Sharples, S.M.
George Andrews Moriarty, A.M., LL.B. Charles S. Remington
UBSCRIBERS desiring to have family lines printed in the magazine, if
their manuscript is approved, may make arrangements for its publication
as matter additional to the regular issue.
Maternal or Paternal lines showing inheritance of particular traits will be
welcomed.
The contents of the magazine are of general interest—historical, genealogical,
antiquarian. Considerable space is devoted to printing records. Especial
attention is devoted to material throwing light on the origin of American
families and the migration to this country.
Specimen copy, 25 cents Address: 26 Broad Street, Boston, Mass.
mm ee ee ee
SEE | | | A
i |
The
Journal of Heredity
(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)
Vol. VII, No. 11 November, 1916
CONTENTS
The Human Machine (Review of a book by Dr. George W. Crile)... .483
Annuals Viceturoror, Cae vA Gio Ate tc srs aac oy oe Rays soe ee Se eka She 493
Improvement of California Orange Groves.......................... 493
Mules That Breed, by Orren Lloyd-Jones. = =. 4. i ies eee ees 494
EKG GEST CCEME TRA Po ep eee), ct RE Re We eee Aes ne ta oe
Is the Hybrid Origin of the Loganberry a Myth?.................... 504
Heredity bh ellasmar 255 2 sen hs ase een tee cts oka, Bis 1 Oe epee aru Oe
Lobed Leaves in Maize, by J. H. Kempton...................... i a DUS
Mutations in) the Potato:):.. 952). 2 325 sie Geek a Oo eee ak 5 NO
iamdt ard OO GE MIMES: 30 os a. oheisks Ae ek eA ee ee dll
Wirntaiions rin ayyalmuts® (fies 73 tape Sa ht ees cds ee oe cba Aan 523
Hereditary Nomadism and Delinguency............................ 923
ABVEllOWs SWEeEEH=E eae fo eI so Seeds ee ss Stn et PL et EE ome 523
Coéperation in the Production of California Grapefruit............. 924
Another German Proposal to Increase the Birth Rate...............527
PMS SLAG Yi Olean AIMS ee nye tee Deter ae le a oe ee 527
The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic
Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit
of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents
a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional
postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.
Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1916 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles
permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
Date of issue of this number, OCTOBER 27, 1916.
+
A HOUSE-FLY ESCAPING FROM VENUS’ FLY TRAP
The plant will catch and devour any sizable insect that comes along; but small ones, even though
the leaves have closed upon them, are allowed to escape as not being worth eating, just as a
fisherman throws the small fish back in the stream because it would be more trouble to clean
and cook them than they are worth. The above photograph, posed and highly enlarged,
hows a house-fly emerging from the interior of the leaf, by crawling between the spikes.
(Frontispiece.
THE HUMAN MACHINE
A Mechanistic View of Life Which Conceives Man as Being Merely a Venus’
Fly-Trap Many Times Multiplied—The Kinetic System for the
Transformation of Energy—Origin and Function of the Emotions
A REVIEW
NE school of biologists has long
() looked upon all life from a
“mechanistic” point of view,
holding that there is nothing
mystical about a living being, but that
if our knowledge were sufficient we
could resolve its whole life into reac-
tions; we could interpret everything in
terms of physics and chemistry, with
no unexplainable residue, no “‘soul’’ or
“vital principle’’ left over.
Dr. George W. Crile, Professor of
Surgery in Western Reserve University
(Cleveland, Ohio) has applied this
hypothesis to his study of man and has
brought the researches of many years
together in a substantial volume! under
the title of ““‘Man—An Adaptive Mech-
anism.”’ Taking his stand with ortho-
dox Darwinians—one might even say,
with primitive Darwinians—Dr. Crile
believes that everything in the human
body can be interpreted as an adapta-
tion, the result of the long process of
evolution and the constant struggle for
survival.
“The fact is,” he informs us, “that
the present form of man is the result of
an inconceivably long and _ tedious
process of addition and subtraction, of
grafting character upon character in
somewhat the same haphazard fashion
as in certain mountains in South
America stones are thrown by the
wayfarer upon a lone Indian grave.
Some land securely and augment the
mound, while others fall at random and
roll away, the desired result being
achieved, however, a memorial to the
one who lies beneath the pile. If the
result of man’s haphazard assemblage of
organs is to some extent adequate to
the needs of his present environment, it
is because during the age-long processes
of evolution all the fatally awkward com-
binations have been eliminated by a
struggle so keen that the slightest varia-
tion in the length of a leaf, the strength
of a limb or the color of an egg, has
given the victory to a rival species.”
A good many geneticists would ques-
tion the truth of this statement; but
the value of Dr. Crile’s book does not
lie in his contributions to genetics. He
does not attempt to show in any instance
how a certain adaptation has arisen—
indeed he seems not to realize that there
is any difficulty about this; but in ex-
plaining the usefulness of some struc-
ture, once it has arisen, he makes out a
very plausible case.
“The test of utility,’ he tells us,
“may be applied to internal processes
as well as to external manifestations
in custom and social forms of man’s
peculiar mode of adaptation by nervous
reactions. On this basis man’s claim
to a superior place among animals
depends less upon different reactions
than upon a greater number of reactions
as compared with the reactions of
‘lower animals.’ Ability to respond
adaptively to more elements in the
environment gives a larger dominion,
that is all.”
THE NATURE OF ‘‘MIND”’
“Mind,” the word we use to express
the reactions of man’s nervous mechan-
ism, “‘is no phenomenon apart and dis-
tinct from other functions of the
nervous system. Indeed, mind, as we
i
1Man—An Adaptive Mechanism. By George W. Crile, F.A.C.S. Edited by Annette
Austin, A.B. Pp. 387, price $2.50. New York, The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Avenue, 1916.
The photographs of Venus’ Fly-Trap, illustrating this review, were-made for the JOURNAL OF
HEREDITY by John Howard Payne from a specimen furnished by Frederick V. Coville of the
Bureau of Plant Industry.
483
VENUS’ FLY-TRAP
This, the most interesting of the insectivorous plants, grows only in a small area on the coast
of North Carolina.
Although it draws most of its nourishment from the ground and the
sun, like other plants, yet it is not entirely healthy and vigorous unless it has animal food.
Several of the leaves on this plant are closed, having caught insects which they are now in
the process of digesting.
The process of digestion usually requires two or three weeks, after
which the leaves open to reject the remains, but usually are never again active.
Some-
times, however, the same leaf has been made to digest several insects in succession.
(Fig. 1.)
find it in the ‘lower walks’ of life, is not
confined to animals. Many plants ex-
hibit in response to external stimuli
protective reflexes which are analogous
to the nervous reflexes of man. Notable
among these are the drooping leaves of
the sensitive plant when it is lightly
touched, and the movements by which
the Drosera and Venus’ Fly-Trap cap-
ture and digest their prey when they
are excited by the touch of an insect.”
‘In other words, the complex organ-
ism differs from the simple only in
the number of its reacting units and
their attunement. It would seem, there-
fore, that the manifold reactions of man
differ only in number and complexity,
but not in principle, from the simple
adaptive reactions of Venus’ Fly-Trap.”
This plant ‘‘possesses one of the most
remarkable adaptive mechanisms in
nature.”’ It ‘evinces just as much
484
power of perception and discrimination
as is shown by the amoeba; indeed,
almost as much as is shown by many
highly differentiated organisms, such
as the frog, for example. The fly-trap
catches flies, eats and digests them and
ejects the refuse. The frog does the
same, responding to the adequate stim-
ulus of the sight of a fly just as the fly-
trap responds to its touch. Both the
frog and the fly-trap catch insects by
comparable motor mechanisms. Each
depends on an adequate stimulus for
the excitation of the mechanism as a
result of which stored energy is set free
to be manifested in the fly-catching
reflex. Each then digests and assimil-
ates the caught insect and when hungry
catches another insect.
“If the reactions of the human
organism be reduced to their simplest
terms, probably none will be found more
The Human Machine
intricate than this food-catching reac-
tion of Venus’ Fly-Trap and the frog.
The principal difference between these
three living mechanisms is rather a
difference in the range of activation by
environment, resulting in the frog and
in man in a larger number of reactions
which in turn involve more complex
effector mechanisms than are possessed
by the fly-trap. Each reaction of man
doubtless has more component parts
than each reaction of Venus’ Fly-Trap,
just as a large house contains more
bricks than a small house.2 The most
complex machine ever invented by man
looks like a grotesque monster to the
savage; yet its complex movements are
compounded of the two simple move-
ments of translation and rotation.”
THE WORKING OF THE MACHINE
If we similarly try to analyze the
reaction of the fly-trap, we find three
distinct stages:
1. The application of an adequate
stimulus from without, 7. e., the touch
of a fly.
2. Conduction of this stimulus from
the tip of the sensitive filament to the
motor mechanism of the plant.
3. The chemical and motor end effect,
involving all the acts and organs used
in closing the lobes and the killing and
digestion of the insect.
“In the three separate stages of
adequate stimulus, conduction and end
effect which compose the reaction of
Venus’ Fly-Trap, we find all the essen-
tial factors which enter into the life
activities of man. Under adequate stim-
ulus, for instance, are included the
485
activating stimuli produced by heat
and cold, dust, débris, microdérganisms,
food, air, water, light, poisons, blows—
and by certain physical and chemical
changes within and without the body,
to which man through ‘evolution’ has
become adapted through the creation of
an adaptive response. Conduction is
supplied by the central and autonomic
nervous systems, that is, by the organs
of touch, taste, sight, smell, hearing,
pain, and by the chemical receptors
for the initiation of certain reactions of
chemical control. End effects are found
in all the vital processes of motion and
emotion, muscular activity, chemical
change, psychic states, growth, nutri-
tion, reproduction, thought, invention,
social forms, government, war, religion,
business, in short, in all the activities
by which man’s life is distinguished
from the immobility of the rock.”’
Such is the attitude toward life of
the mechanistic school. It is, of course,
open to criticism, but this is not the
place to criticize it. Let us rather
examine the details.
“As we have seen, the presence of the
adequate stimulus is the first requisite
for reaction. As the lobes of the fly-
catching plant close only upon the
arrival of the insect stimulus, so every
conceivable act, thought, or function, of
the human body, requires an adequate
stimulus for its manifestation, that.
manifestation depending absolutely
upon the previous experience of the
organism or of its species with that
stimulus. That is, the response to any
stimulus depends wholly upon the
biologic necessity which led to its
oe 1h) aa :
POV ax
? It is well known that Venus’ Fly-Trap, the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), and other plants
possessing the power of motion can be chloroformed, when their movements are stopped just as in
animals.
On this point Dr. Crile contributes the following note giving a ‘“‘comparison of anesthesia
in plants possessing a motor mechanism and in animals:;”’
“In peripheral nerves after exposure for varying periods of time to vapors of the various fat
solvent anesthetics, e. g., chloroform, ether and ethy] alcohol, there is an increase in the amount of
potassium in the medullary sheaths as shown microchemically by the potassium reagent of
Macallum. A similar increased amount can be demonstrated as the result of mechanical or
chemicalinjury. In those plants possessing a motor mechanism, e. g., Mimosa pudica and Dionaea
muscipula, after exposure to the same fat solvent anesthetics there is a marked increase in the
demonstrable potassium compounds. This increase occurs in the guard cells, in the chlorophyll
granules, in certain modified conducting elements, but to the greatest extent in those areas of the
plant which are most active in producing motion and which upon stimulation show a considerable
turgor. Lipoid substances as demonstrated by osmic acid and scarlet red have the same dis-
tribution as the potassium compounds. In plants asin animals the lipoid substances which contain
potassium, e. g., lecithin and cholestrin, after the application of these anesthetics become so
altered in their physical constitution that the contained potassium compounds can enter into the
chemical combination with the reagent applied.”
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dVUL-ATH AHL AO SAAVAT
The Human Machine
evolution. The response to a sharp
blow by pain and retreat from the
offending point; the response to an
insect-like tickle by the desire to
scratch; the response to a soft, caressing
contact by pleasure and approach, are
all specific to the species and the self-
protective necessities as a result of
which they were evolved in the or-
ganism. Similarly, the more obscure
and delicate responses of thought and
sentiment, of ‘study,’ ‘invention,’ ‘am-
bition,’ ‘industry,’ ‘joy,’ ‘sadness,’
aemorse, are, call dependent. upon:
specific stimuli in the environment and
are specific to one or another of the
biologic purposes of self-preservation,
nutrition or procreation.”’
THE USE OF TICKLISHNESS
Some of these reactions to stimuli
may have been of use once but are of
little value under the conditions of
modern civilization; “for just as the
organism is slow in evolving adaptations
to newly developed factors in the en-
vironment, it is slow in discarding
adaptations to an older environment,
even such as may be a hindrance to life
under present conditions. Such a relic
of prehistoric peril is the tickle reflex.
It is more strange than appears at first
glance that the tickle reflex can be
excited only in certain parts of the
body, by but two types of tactile
impression, and that it is invariably
accompanied by a self-protective reac-
tion. One type of the tickle reflex is
elicited by a light running motion on
the surface of the skin, which produces
a sensation like that produced by a
crawling insect, with an irresistible
desire to scratch or rub the affected
part. A sharpimpact causes pain, but
if the adequate stimulus of contact
which simulates the crawling of an
insect be applied again and again in
the same spot, it will cause each time
the same tickling sensation. This re-
flex was undoubtedly developed at a
time when insects were a great menace
to life, and when only those individuals
who evolved an effective defense were
able to prevail. It may even supply
an explanation of man’s loss of hair in
the upward march, since the presence
487
of hair would provide ambush for the
insect enemy, and its loss, together with
the evolution of the tickle sensation,
would greatly facilitate defense.”’
“A second type of tickle reflex is
elicited by heavy penetrating pressure
in the region of the ribs, the loins, the
base of the neck and the soles of the
feet—the pressure simulating the pene-
trating contact of a tooth-shaped body.
The reaction in this case is a violent dis-
charge of energy in the form of laughter
with cries for mercy and frantic muscu-
lar efforts to be free if the stimulus be
continued. If one were tied hand and
foot and were vigorously tickled for an
hour, he would probably be as com-
pletely exhausted as if he had run a
marathon race or sustained a crushing
injury; indeed, victims of torture in the
Middle Ages were often killed by pro-
longed tickling.
“The fact that these ticklish areas
are found in those parts of the body
which are still and must always have
been the points most frequently at-
tacked by savage beasts leaves little
doubt that this reaction developed at
a time when man’s progenitors, like
the carnivora of today, fought their
enemies face to face with tooth and
claw, and that this mechanism was
acquired as a means of protection
against valiant foes.”
THREE KINDS OF REACTIONS
Tears, sneezing, coughing and vomit-
ing are among the other protective
adaptations which Dr. Crile describes as
being based on contact stimuli. There
are other adaptations which are based
on chemical stimuli. And finally, there
is a third class of reactions, much greater
in extent, which is based on the stimula-
tion of what he calls “distance ceptors.”
He explains:
“Adaptation to environment in some
species of animals, such as the oyster,
is secured mainly by reactions to stimu-
lation of the contact and chemical
ceptors only; but in most animals there
has been evolved a third method of
adaptation to environment by which
they are directed toward beneficial
objects in their distant environment and
away from those that are harmful, thus
488 The Journal
securing a quicker and surer adjustment
than would be possible through contact
and chemical ceptors only.’’ In the
third class of stimuli the animal as a
whole responds, whereas responses to
the contact and chemical stimuli usually
involve only a part of the organism.
This does not, however, change the
essentially mechanical character of the
occurrence. ‘‘The flight of the giant
water buffalo at the sight of a lion, or
the charge of the lion at the sight of its
prey, is as automatic a reaction as is the
withdrawal of the limb of a rabbit from
the sharp prick of a thorn.’ The
emotions offer good illustrations of this
third class of stimuli. Fear, for exam-
ple, is said by Dr. Crile to be intended to
prepare the body to seek preservation
by flight. ‘Striking evidence of the
truth of this assumption is afforded by
the fact that fear is experienced only
by animals which depend for self-
defense and species-preservation upon a
swift locomotor reaction. The skunk,
for example, whose chief means of
protection is its odor; the porcupine,
defended by its quills; the snake which
repels its enemies by its venom; the
turtle which is securely encased in its
shell; the lion and the elephant secure
in their superior strength—exhibit little
fear, if any. On the other hand, the
rabbit, the bird, the deer, the horse, the
antelope, the monkey, and man—species
which have ever had to struggle for
their existence against stronger or
swifter enemies—these are the animals
which preeminently exhibit fear and
an irrepressible desire to flee from
danger.”
The mechanism of fear is further
discussed, and its effects are declared
to depend largely on increased activity
of the thyroid gland, the adrenals, the
liver, and other glands, the secretions
of which are either increased or dimin-
ished. “In the light of this evidence
many phenomena of fear and of other
emotions may be explained. It is
known, for instance, that men and
animals under the stimulus of strong
emotion possess an extraordinary
amount of physical strength. This is
explained by the fact that fear drives
certain organs and inhibits others, so
of Heredity
that every particle of available energy
is concentrated upon the fighting mech-
anism. The advantage that this power
must have given to prehistoric man in
his struggles against superior foes in a
wild environment is apparent to anyone
who will allow his imagination to revert
to those days of supreme physical
contest. But that the tendency should
persist today, in spite of the disappear-
ance of most of the stimuli to active
physical combat, so that, at the slightest
hint of danger, man’s energies are
drained, exactly as in the days of
physical struggle, is one of the mis-
fortunes of our insufficiently adapted
state.
THE EFFECT OF FEAR
“So strong is the force of these ances-
tral acts, so firmly established the action
pattern of muscular response to fear
stimulus, that now, whether a business
catastrophe or an attacking enemy
threaten, fear is expressed in terms of
the ancestral flight to safety or fight
for life which took place in the remote
brute period of human history. In
spite of the fact that by harnessing the
forces of nature, and by social coérdina-
tion, which reduces the number of
motor reactions, man has progressed
vastly in his methods of acquiring food
and avoiding danger, his body still
responds to the threatened moral or
financial disaster, as if the old need for
physical contest r2mained. His heart
beats wildly; his respirations are quick-
ened; he trembles and turns cold; his
knees shake; beads of sweat stand upon
his brow; he is pale and his mouth is
dry; he feels faint and he may collapse.
Whether the cause of fear be moral,
social, financial or intellectual, the
result is the same.”
“As fear activates the body, so all
emotions and psychic states activate
the body and exhaust energy in propor-
tion to the degree in which they repre-
sent the physical activity attendant
upon the phylogenetic forms of self-
defense. As fear recapitulates the an-
cestral act of flight from the enemy, so
rage or anger recapitulates the act of
attack and in like manner activates
THE REMAINS OF A FEAST
None of the leaves of the plant here pictured contained flies, but several of them held the
remains of the little land crustacean commonly knownas the sow-bug. The photograph
above shows an opened leaf, much enlarged, with the chitinous skeleton of its victim,
from which all the meat has been dissolved. The acid secretion of the plant is almost
colorless and slightly mucilaginous. The most common food of the plant, when wild, is
beetles, but it will eat spiders and almost anything that comes too close to it.
Obviously, however, flies, bees, etc., more frequently escape than do insects which have
less power of flight. (Fig. 3.)
the muscles that would be used were
the physical fight made.”’
From such cases as have been cited
Dr. Crile concludes that ‘‘the adaptation
of man and kindred animals to environ-
ment is secured by a series of physical
and chemical reactions which are the
outward expressions of a transformation
of energy, by which the forces latent in
food products that have been appro-
489
490
priated and stored in the organism are
released to produce heat and motion.”’
He then undertakes to find the mechan-
ism that thus transforms energy. A
long series of experiments, which cannot
be described here, leads to the conclusion
that ‘“‘only the brain, the thyroid, the
adrenals, the liver and the muscles are
chiefly concerned in the transformation
of energy.” ‘They merit therefore the
distinction of being termed the kinetic
system.”
This brings him to his particular field
of medicine and surgery—the field
which he primarily wanted to investi-
gate, for he felt that medical science
was falling behind, because of its failure
to adopt an evolutionary outlook.
“The postulate that there is in the
body a kinetic system, consisting mainly
of certain organs, which are driven by
the stimuli of the outer and inner
environments of the body, throws light
upon many problems of the medical
clinic, as well as of human relations.
According to this postulate, the body
is a mechanism integrated and driven
by the brain in response to adequate
stimuli—contact, distance and chemical
—arising within and without the body.
The phenomena of health and disease
are manifestations of the activity of this
system. When the body mechanism is
driven at a moderate speed by an
environment to which the capacity of
the body is perfectly adjusted, the
result may be compared to that following
the driving of any other machine by a
careful and considerate master—a maxi-
mum of work done, with a minimum of
wear and tear on the parts. When fora
short period of time or continuously the
driving is at an excessive pace, there
results a sudden or a gradual break-
down, involving always the weakest
link in the mechanism.”’
The observation that the degenerative
diseases to which man is subject are not
the same, in general, as those which
attack woman, leads to an interesting
speculation on the difference in nature
of the kinetic systems of the two sexes.
“The adrenals preéminently control
the meckanism for increasing motor
efficiency during short periods of in-
creased transformation of energy. The
The Journal of Heredity
adrenals are the organs most heavily
involved in muscular work. On the
other hand, the thyroid controls the
mechanism which regulates energy
transformation during longer periods of
increased activation. It is known that
the thyroid enlarges during sustained
periods of increased activity, particu-
larly during infection, adolescence and
pregnancy. Throughout the ages of
evolution, the male has been chiefly
the motor member of the family; he has
been, not exclusively, but for the most
part, the hunter, the fighter, the searcher
for food—activities which have required
increased transformation of energy dur-
ing short periods of time, with propor-
tionally heavy demands upon the acid-
neutralizing mechanism of the body.
The female, on the other hand, has
borne the burden of procreation and of
the lighter but more constant domestic
tasks, and has been correspondingly
dependent upon the mechanism for
sustained physiologic efficiency, repre-
sented chiefly by the thyroid. This age-
long differentiation may conceivably
have led to a corresponding differentia-
tion in the physiologic expression of
emotion, with a corresponding differ-
entiation in the diseases caused by
emotion. According to a striking state-
ment made by Loeb, ‘Man and woman
are, physiologically, different species.’”’
Dr. Crile goes on to illustrate the
all-inclusiveness of the mechanistic
philosophy.
“Tf emotion, particularly fear, causes
such far-reaching metabolic disturb-
ances, why does it not produce even
more baleful consequences? Indeed,
why has not emotion wrecked the race?
Is it because there are now certain
agencies at work in society, which hold
in check this harmful tendency, as
immunity and phagocytosis protect
the organism against bacterial menace,
and as the custom of wearing clothes
and building houses is a_ protection
from the dangers of cold and wind and
hostile strangers? Has there been
evolved in man some counter-adaptation
which provides a partial protection
against self-destruction from the too-
long-retained motor adaptation which
we term ‘emotion?’
= é
THE FLY-TRAP IN BLOOM
The plant produces its white flowers in July and August; in the fall it loses it long-stemmed
leaves (such as are shown in Fig. 1), which appear in the spring, and in their place puts
forth short, broad-stemmed leaves such as are shown in the above drawing. Leaves of
this form seem to be more suitable for withstanding the winter climate, but they are much
less active in fly-catching than are the spring leaves. The plant can be cultivated in green-
houses without much difficulty, and makes a fascinating object of study. Illustration
from Crile. (Fig. 4.)
492 The Journal
“In attempting to find an answer to
these questions, we are led to contem-
plate the fact that physical benefit is
derived from those factors in life, which
solace and reassure the mind, which
‘rejuvenate the spirit,’ which dispel
worry, and which substitute faith and
tranquillity of mind for turmoil and
terror. On the principle that
fear causes the dissipation and faith the
conservation of potential energy, we can
understand the far-reaching and abiding
benefits of religion in all ages, among all
peoples, throughout the whole human
race, as far back as we have any record.
In thus placing faith, hope and
charity on the same plane with muscular °
reflexes, in their power to conserve the
life of the race, we but give them their
proper place in evolution as adaptations
which have arisen coincidently with
the need for such modifications.”
THE BRAIN-MECHANISM
We now return to the fly-trap for
another lesson.
“We know that the brain contains the
mechanism that drives the body; we
know that environment drives the brain
and that environmental forces reach
the brain through the mediation of the
sense organs. But what is the mechan-
ism within the brain by means of which
a given stimulus causes different effects
in different brains? Why will one man
run away and another attack on receipt
of identical stimuli?
“We postulate that the adaptive
reactions of the organism are executed
by mechanisms, each of which, like a
wireless station, awaits the arrival of
the specific impulse which is to awaken
it to specific response.’ In another paper
he describes the brain as an organ that
contains “innumerable patterns, each
representing a mechanism for the per-
formance of a specific act, and that the
brain cells supply the energy—electric
or otherwise—by which the complex
act is performed, that the energy
stored in the brain cells is by an un-
known mechanism released by the force
that passes over and activates the brain
pattern; through an unknown property
of these brain patterns each stimulus
causes some change in the brain pattern
of Heredity
in passing through it so that the next
stimulus passes with greater facility.
This property of facilitating a stimulus
increases with repetition that particular
mechanism’s reception of the particular
stimulus. This is the basis of educa-
tion, of training, of establishment of the
conventions, conduct, behavior, govern-
ment—in short, the total behavior of
the individual.”
After describing the similarities be-
tween the reaction of Venus’ Fly-Trap
and a human reaction, Dr. Crile says:
“In Venus’ Fly-Trap but one receptor
and one effector mechanism has been
evolved for but one adaptive reaction.
In man many receptor and effector
echanisms have been evolved for
numerous reactions in response to
numberless stimuli.
MAN A COMPLICATED PLANT
“If it were necessary for Venus’
Fly-Trap to catch its food by running,
instead of by passive attraction, the
plant would doubtless have evolved a
mechanism codrdinating the organism
for running—in other words, a brain.
The difference between Venus’ Fly-Trap
and man is the difference between the
number of mechanisms possessed by
each. A multiplication of the single
action pattern of Venus’ Fly-Trap
equals the mechanism of man.”
Thus is man reduced to a complicated
sort of fly-trap.
Without going into the genetic and
philosophical difficulties which this view
involves, it may be said that as a
working hypothesis in the field of med-
ical and surgical research, the mechan-
istic view is likely to be exceedingly
fruitful for, as Dr. Crile points out,
medicine has developed as a sort of
household necessity, without any very
broad biological foundation: “lacking
the resources of assured scientific data
or the support of codrdinated methods,
it is no wonder that it is even now ina
somewhat chaotic state.’’ Dr. Crile’s
own contributions are noteworthy, and
this review has unavoidably done him
an injustice, in passing over masses of
technical experiments which form the
most original part of the book, and
emphasizing biological principles which
The Human Machine
are in many cases not new, but merely
used by the author as stepping stones.
Dr. Crile’s own results are sufficient to
prove that the mechanistic philosophy
will lead to some interesting advances in
physiology, surgery and medicine, even
if its genetic foundations are not fully
understood. And the results obtained
by a great number of other investigators
in the same field, while perhaps not so
immediately put into practice as, for
instance, Dr. Crile’s method of pre-
venting surgical shock, are not less of
fundamental importance.
It is really astonishing that the evolu-
tionary study of physiology should have
493
been confined to such a small number of
workers, during the last half century,
and should have made so little impres-
sion on the layman, or even on the
medical profession. Such books as the
one under review, packed as it is with
interesting facts and fascinating theories,
of which only a few have been suggested
here, cannot help but be of great use in
stimulating that sort of study. And it
is on exactly that sort of study—the
study of man as a species, in relation to
other species and to his own past
history—that the social progress of the
next century will largely depend.
Annual Meeting
Two general sessions of the American
Genetic Association will be held in
New York, December 26-30, in connec-
tion with the meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science. In addition there will be a
number of meetings of each of the
sections—plant-breeding, animal-breed-
ing and eugenics. Members who desire
to present papers should notify the
of the A. G. A.
secretary as soon as possible. Papers
of suitable character will be published
in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY, par-
ticularly if they lend themselves to good
illustration. As it appears that the
program will be full, the length of
papers will be limited to twenty minutes,
unless special notice is given. Full
details of the meetings will be published
in the next issue of this journal.
Improvement of California Orange Groves
Owners of the largest orange groves
in Southern California have already
adopted the plan of keeping a record of
the performance of each individual tree,
and eliminating any trees that do not
prove to be good producers, usually by
top-working them with select buds.
So far, however, it has not been found
possible to get many of the owners of
small groves to adopt this process. The
California Fruit Growers’ Exchange is
now planning to assist the growers in
securing the record of trees in these
small groves, taking advantage of the
fact that small growers do not pick
their own fruit, but entrust the task
to the local association of the exchange,
which sends out a trained gang of men
to pick the fruit. It is now proposed
to add to each picking crew a man
whose duty will be to make a record of
the production of every tree; and this
report, furnished to the owner of the
grove, will enable him to supplant the
bad yielders with trees of a better strain,
in many cases by topworking the
drone or undesirable individual tree.
The exchange has for several years
been working on the problem of stand-
ardizing the citrus pack; a cooperative
and organized effort is now being made
to standardize the production.
MULES THAT BREED
Occasional Cases Reported, Some of Them with Good Evidence—Two Recent
Cases in America—Studies of Germ-Cells Indicate that Chance of
Mule Breeding is Very Slight
ORREN Lioyp-JONES
Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa
URING the three or four thous-
and years in which mules have
been habitually produced, there
have been many _ conflicting
statements of fact and theory in regard
to the question of possible fertility
among these animals. Numerous inci-
dents and cases are on record calcu-
lated to prove that mules occasionally
exhibit generative powers. The affirm-
ative side of the case may be opened by
the French zoologist André Sanson
(88), who uncompromisingly maintains
(Vol. III, p. 145) the occasional fer-
tility of female mules. He says “‘it
does not seem inadmissible that the
males of the same origin as the females
which show themselves so easily fertile,
would not themselves behave simi-
larly,” and again “if there are fertile
males, aS we are sure at present that
there are fertile females . ’ Sanson’s
claims are unusually broad—most
writers are more conservative.
N.S. Shailer (95) comments on the
‘singular fact that in only two or three
cases have mules become _ fecund.”’
Cossar Ewart (’93) states that mules
are generally incapable of procreation,
“though some exceptions to this rule
have occurred.’ Whitehead (08) in
discussing the mule makes the paren-
thetical remark that “‘the cross between
a female mule and a stallion is known to
have resulted in offspring.”’
Stories accompanied by statements of
eye-witnesses, of the birth of a foal
by a mule, and affidavits as to the true
hybrid nature of the mother, present
obvious difficulties to those who would
summarily set aside the whole matter of
fecund mules as a thing of myth and
anecdote. At the time of publishing
the book on Horses, Asses and Mule
494
‘
Breeding in 1895, Tegetmier was a
thorough disbeliever in all such cases,
but in 1897, speaking of fertile mules,
he mentions a case reported from Mexico
and says that ‘‘this is one of the most
detailed accounts of fertility in mules
that has come under my notice,” and
urges caution in opinionating.
PREJUDICE IS STRONG
Skinner (Youatt, 1854) examined
very carefully the first-hand evidence in
regard to the celebrated Norfolk case of
a breeding female mule and proved to
his own satisfaction its authenticity.
He also recognized the deep-seated
prejudice which people have against
giving credence to fertility among mules
for he naively remarks that “‘ Whatever
doubt may arise hereafter, there is none
now, of the truth of this case”’ (p. 432.)
In this case the owner had noticed an
abdominal enlargement in his female
mule and had adjusted the shafts and
harness to accommodate it, “but never
suspected the mother’s being in foal
because it was contrary to nature.”
On April 23, 1834, she unexpectedly
produced a colt. The mule had pre-
viously pastured with a 2-year-old
stallion. Subsequently on August 13,
1835, the same mule produced another
colt, a female. Both colts seemed nor-
mal, but died when afew months old.
Mr. Gun, an English military veter-
inarian in India, and apparently a
faithful and efficient exponent of his
profession presents (Fvzeld, September
17, 1898) in elaborate detail the events
accompanying parturition in an Indian
transport mule. This is indeed a case
hard to refute.
Two cases recently reported have
come before me and I have been able to
A HINNY WITH TWIN COLTS
The large animal here shown is said to be the offspring of a half-blood Percheron stallion and
a black Spanish jennet, and her twin foals (one of which lived only a few days) are supposed
to have been sired by a gray mammoth jack. The colts would therefore be three-fourths
ass and one-fourth horse. (Fig. 5.)
collect some evidence on the matter, in
the shape of statements and photo-
graphs.
One case first appeared in the No-
vember issue of the American Journal
of Veterinary Medicine, Chicago, and
again in American Farming for Feb-
ruary, 1916. The facts presented below
were furnished me by the owner and the
veterinarian who attended the case.
J..M. Bryant, of Quincy, Ind., about
nine years ago bred a dark chestnut
“half blood” Percheron stallion to a
black Spanish jennet. The hinny thus
produced is now 8 years old, 14% hands
high and weighs 900 pounds. Her
whole aspect is very ass-like, especially
her hind parts, but Mr. Bryant says
her head has more the appearance of
her sire—her ears being dark chestnut
color, the same as the stallion. The
tail shows a good brush or switch while
the ass has a “‘rat tail.”” She has never
brayed like a jennet. Some have
doubted her breeding until they heard
her voice, which resembles more the
neigh of a horse. Twice before the
present case this female produced foals,
but in both cases the birth was abnormal
and the colts died. Dr. L. A. Ray, the
veterinarian who attended the birth in
question, says of these earlier foals,
“They were much deformed and were
unable to swallow, and one had a double
head from the eyes down.”’
This “hinny’” was bred to a gray
mammoth jack on July 7, 1914, and on
July 11, 1915, ‘produced the pair of
twins shown in the cut (Fig. 5).
The twins were both females. One
was 25 inches high, black with white
points, and lived only 7 days. The
other was 30 inches high and gray in
color. Dr. Ray on February 17, 1916,
495
SUPPOSED CASE OF A FERTILE MULE
The female is said to be out of a standard bred mare by a mammoth jack, which would make
her a true mule.
Bred to a black Percheron stallion, she is reported to have given birth
to the colt shown, which would therefore be three-fourths horse and one-fourth ass. A
better photograph of the colt is reproduced in the succeeding illustration.
reports this colt as “‘very peculiar in
make-up and very unthrifty.”’
x
ak 2
SEEDS OF THE STRAWBERRY
Part of the surface of a large, fully ripe strawberry is here shown, highly magnified. The
shriveled pistils can still be seen projecting from under the seeds, except in a few cases
where they have been rubbed off. As the edible ‘‘berry”’ is functionally merely a structure
to carry the seeds, its size is roughly proportional to the number of seeds borne.
therefore probably never be possible to breed a seedless strawberry, or even to reduce
the number of seeds materially, for to do so would leave no reason for the existence of the
“berry’’ and it would therefore not be formed. Photograph by John Howard Paine.
(Fig. 6.)
It will
This table shows that practically all there. The Aroma and Gandy are the
varieties grown in the South originated chief exceptions and they are grown
ORIGIN OF VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES GROWN IN THE SoutTd, EXCLUSIVE OF THE STATES
OF KENTUCKY, WEsT VIRGINIA, MARYLAND AND DELAWARE.
Extent grown in the South.
Variety % of total acreage Where originated
A OmatkCeene ne a sake Eten 79 Hammond, La.
JARO AAA). « 55) 6 ceo eed Reece 8 Kans.
IMuSsionatnyaee eater tee oe 7 Norfolk, Va.
CERIO 2s) 5 ONC ore ogee ae 2 Newport, N. J.
PERCE ISTO Gee ye me ise ats 8 2 Judsonia, Ark.
Ph OMlUpSOMee vee creak tel 1 Mt. Olive, N. Car.
ELAM Wa yencaciece ects bees slightly Judsonia, Ark.
Shr lbOUlSer ema etels eek slightly Judsonia, Ark.
Mitchell eet ts wee. se slightly Judsonia, Ark.
(TESTO WIA ste miereetena cea. : slightly Norfolk, Va.
15° oy Ln te slightly Mt. Olive, N. Car.
Ornate nt tet tee tee Tees slightly Sarcoxie, Mo.
Neuman <2 ie prirsce aot: slightly No. or So. Carolina
Nick Oiimerm crac sess shghtly Dayron, Ohio.
Market oy okie ere slightly Judsonia, Ark.
Bureka tsi) ae res slightly Judsonia, Ark.
Mellie see re.) ra eats slightly Judsonia, Ark.
Champ: Clark: Sasa. seer slightly Nashville, Tenn.
Bubachi.. a. Sacer oe slightly Princeton, IU.
FR@HHAM sche, J nc os See ee ee slightly N. Car.
Manes" Wiocs 2). Me cea slightly Harriman, Tenn.
Gormeilles: 22 JSteek ek slightly Pouchatoula, La.
By whom
Re waCloud:
F. W. Cruse.
Volunteer.
Volunteer.
Louis Hubach.
Volunteer.
Louis Hubach.
Louis Hubach.
Volunteer.
Volunteer.
Volunteer.
Chas. Shull.
J. F. Beaver.
Louis Hubach.
Louis Hubach.
Louis Hubach.
Volunteer.
J. E. Bubach.
Volunteer.
540
only in the northern part. Of the lead-
ing varieties originating in the South,
the Missionary and the Thompson
were found as seedlings and brought
into cultivation. They form 8% of
the total, while the Klondike and Excel-
sior which are the result of definite
breedingwork constitute 81% of the
total. Further, certain of these varie-
ties are grown extensively elsewhere.
Thus the Klondike is a leading variety
in California, Illinois, Maryland, and
Delaware.
The strawberry stands forth as one
of the conspicuous examples of suc-
cessful breeding and it is doubtful if any
other fruit in the United States can show
as remarkable a record.* The modern
industry is, in fact, almost wholly the
creation of modern scientific breeding.
But the work is not finished. There is
still room for improvement and op-
portunity for the production of better
varieties. The breeders of the South
say, as the result of their experience,
that the ideal strawberry of the future
should possess the following qualities:
1. The plant should be as disease-resistant
as the Aroma.
2. It should make runners as freely as the
Klondike or Aroma.
3. It should be at least as productive as the
most productive variety in each section.
4. It should have a perfect flower.
5. The blossoms should be as well protected
from frost as the Missionary.
The Journal of Heredity
6. The berries should be as uniform in size
throughout the season as are the Aroma and
Chesapeake in sections to which they are
adapted.
7. The berry should be as uniform in shape as
the Chesapeake in sections to which it is best
adapted.
8. The berry should be as firm as the Klon-
dike is in the South.
a Pi The berry should be as solid as the Klon-
ike.
10. The berry should be at least as large as
the Klondike.
11. The berry should have as red a flesh as
the Klondike.
12. The fruit should be as easy to pick as the
Klondike,
There are other characteristics that
are desirable in varieties adapted to
special purposes. Growers in central
Florida must have a variety that ripens
very early and continues to ripen
through a long season as does the Mis-
sionary. Canners do not like a berry
having a cap as hard to remove as that
of the Klondike. They do, however,
desire varieties with its deep red color,
and strong acid flavor. They also
like a berry that retains its shape after
cooking. Growers in some _ sections
wish an early variety, the crop of which
will ripen quickly, and be out of the way
in order that they may turn to other
farm work needing attention. Others
wish two quick-ripening varieties, one
following the other in season.
‘Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-Pigs and Rats
STUDIES OF INHERITANCE IN
GUINEA-PIGS AND RATS, by W. E. Castle
and Sewall Wright. Pp. 192, 7 plates, price
$2.50. Washington, D. C., Carnegie Institu-
tion, 1916.
Part I of this highly technical volume
is an account by Dr. Castle of a trip to
the home of the guinea-pig in Peru.
He concludes that probably all of the
differences in coat-color which fanciers
now recognize appeared in South Amer-
ica, where guinea-pigs have been bred
for centuries as a source of meat, and
observes that “‘the guinea-pig has under-
gone in domestication more extensive
variation in color and coat characters
than has any other mammal.”’ He
brought back three new races, and
describes hybridization experiments with
them. In Part III, Dr. Castle con-
tinues his studies on selection in piebald
rats, adding to the evidence for a modi-
fication of the unit hooded character,and
describes a case of gametic coupling
in yellow rats. In Part II, Dr. Wright
makes ‘‘an intensive study of the
inheritance of color and of other coat
characters in guinea-pigs with especial
reference to graded variations,’’ in the
course of which he develops a sug-
gestive hypothesis to explain the physi-
ological basis of the inheritance of coat
color.
’Compare ‘‘The Strawberry, a Triumph of Plant Breeding,” in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY
VII, p. 191, April, 1916.
THE TIDE OF IMMIGRATION
Indirect Results on Eugenics are Quite as Important as Direct Results—
Admission of Too Much Unskilled Labor Said to be Partly Respon-
sible for Fall of Birth Rate in Old American Population
A REVIEW
r NHERE are now in the United
States some 14,000,000 foreign-
born persons, together with other
millions of the sons and daughters
of foreigners, who although born on
American soil have as yet been little
assimilated to Americanism. This great
body of Uitlanders, representing perhaps
a fifth of our population, is not a pool
to be absorbed, but the emptying in of
a continuous stream, which, until the
war, was steadily increasing in volume,
and of which the fountain-head is so
inexhaustible as to appal the imagina-
tion.
The character of this stream will
inevitably determine to a large extent
the future of the. American nation.
The direct biological results, in race
mixture, are important enough, although
not easy to define; the indirect results,
which are probably of no less importance
to eugenics, are so hard to follow that
some students of the problem do not
even realize their existence.
A few thinkers have indeed been
pointing out for many years that the
consequences of this immigration are
much more far-reaching than we suppose.
The American Genetic Association’s
committee on immigration has been
persistently urging! that the problem of
regulating immigration should be lifted
above the plane of party politics and
placed in the field of statesmanship.
The present war, which has temporarily
almost stopped immigration, gives the
nation an excellent opportunity to take
stock of its affairs and adopt a rational
policy for future guidance.
For this purpose we need all the facts
available, and Frank Julian Warne,
special expert on foreign-born popula-
tion of the thirteenth United States
census, has done a service in publishing
an account of “The Tide of Immigra-
tony”
Dr. Warne’s book? is not a master-
piece—it shows much use of the scissors
and paste-pot, and an atmosphere of
special pleading. It has neither the
brilliancy nor the biological viewpoint
of such a work as Prof. E. A. Ross’s
“The Old World in the New.” But it
will be very serviceable because it is
timely, because it brings together a
great amount of information, and be-
cause it is rich in the little details of
politics which will be uninteresting five
years hence, but which just now one
wants very much to know.
OLDER AND NEWER IMMIGRATION
Dr. Warne follows the usual course by
describing the immigration of the first
three-quarters of the nineteenth century,
most of which was from races closely
allied to the Anglo-Saxon, and which
strengthened the United States im-
mensely. Then he tells how this stream
dried up and was succeeded by a flood
of Southern Italians, Slavs, Greeks and
Russian Jews, and last of all by an
overflow from the Eastern Mediter-
ranean. A large part of the later
immigration is ‘promoted; agents of
1See “First Report of the Committee on Immigration,’ American Breeders’ Magazine,
Vol. iii, pp. 249-255, 1912; ‘Second Report of the Committee on Immigration,’ JOURNAL OF
Herepity, Vol. v, pp. 297-300, 1914; ‘‘War, Immigration, Eugenics,’ Third Report of the
Committee on Immigration, JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Vol. vii, pp. 243-248, 1916.
2 “The Tide of Immigration,” by Frank Julian Warne.
D, Appleton & Co., 1916.
Pp. 388, price $2.50 net. New York,
541
542
transportation companies and others
who stand to gain stir up the population
of a country village in Russia or
Hungary, excite the illiterate peasants
by stories of great wealth to be found
in the New World, take a mortgage on
the farm, provide the immigrant with a
ticket and start him for Ellis Island.
Or else the immigration represents a
floating supply of casual laborers, who
drift in during a period of prosperity
in America, and drift out when business
depression curtails the demand for their
muscle. ‘The fact is, and a startling
fact it 1s, too, immigration today and in
the large has become a colossal business
enterprise—a huge commercial under-
taking—the wholesaling of human labor
for gain.” “The religious and political
motives have almost wholly disappeared
in favor of the economic in modern
immigration.’ Naturally, such immi-
gration is predominantly male. On the
whole, females make up one-third of
the inflow, but among some races—
Greeks, Italians and Roumanians, for
example—only one in five is a woman.
Most of the immigrants are merely
ignorant, vigorous peasants, imbued
with a natural desire to make money.
There is, however, a considerable ele-
ment of undesirables—i on this
it is
element that eugenicists have fixed their
attention, perhaps too exclusively, in
the past. Dr. Warne charges that
many of these undesirables are informed
that the immigrant rush is greatest in
March and April, and that they there-
fore make it a point to arrive at that
time, knowing the medical inspection
will be so overtaxed that they will have
a better chance to get by. When
three or four thousand immigrants
arrive in a single day, the examiners
must pass them almost as rapidly as
the conductor on the street car punches
transfers; and it is naturally difficult
to arrive at any sound judgment, as to
the alien’s physical, mental, moral, and
economic status and the possibility of
his becoming a public charge.
The Journal of Heredity
The American Genetic Association
has long demanded an increase of the
facilities for inspection. But no in-
crease would shut out all undesirables.
Insanity, for example, appears among
the aliens to such an extent that a large
part of the inmates of State hospitals
in States on the Atlantic seaboard are
foreign-born.* Probably few of them
were actually insane when they passed
through the port of entry. Insanity,
it must be remembered, is predomi-
nantly a disease of old age, whereas the
average alien on arrival is not old.
The mental weakness appears only after
he has been here some years, perhaps
inevitably or perhaps because he finds
his environment in, say, lower Man-
hattan Island much more taxing to
the brain than the simple surroundings
of his farm overlooking the bay of
Naples.
The difficulty or impossibility of
shutting out individually all the unde-
sirable immigrants is so marked that
many students, including Dr. Warne,
have decided that the easiest and most
effective solution is to put a wholesale
restriction on immigration, such as is
contemplated by the literacy test,
which is designed not so much as a
sieve, but as a measure to cut down the
volume of arrivals. Such a restriction
would likewise, it is claimed, diminish
the social problems which the huge
volume of immigration creates.
With the general character of these
social problems we are all familiar.
Though it is true that much of America’s
social progress is due to the immigrants
of the past century, it is not less true
that the immigrants of the last genera-
tion have created some very difficult
problems with their low standards of
living and their inability to understand
American ideals and institutions.
These social difficulties, important
enough, are more obvious and _ less
insidious, probably less serious, than
the economic difficulties which are laid
toimmigration. The immigrant arrives
‘Of the total number of inmates of insane asylums of the entire U. S. of January 1, 1910,
28.8% were whites of foreign birth, and of the persons admitted to such institutions during the
year 1910, 25.5% were of this class.
Of the total population of the United States in 1910 the
foreign-born whites constituted 14.5%.—Special report on the insane, Census of 1910 (published
in 1914).
The Tide of Immigration
with a low standard of living. With
prosperity and the example of Ameri-
cans, he gradually adopts a higher
standard of living; and just at that
time his industry is swamped with a
new flood of immigrants with lower
standards, which drags down those who
would otherwise rise. Such is one view
of the case; others reply that, on the
contrary, the influx of unskilled labor
creates industries which mean more
wealth and better jobs for the earlier
arrivals, and for the old American stock.
ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
Obviously, the ultimate effects of
immigration depend largely on the
question which of these views is more
nearly correct. It is a question of
whether the Americans and older immi-
grants must directly compete for jobs
with the new arrivals, or whether the
new arrivals, although competing with
each other, really furnish jobs for the
longer-established and more skilled resi-
dents of the country. Truth is doubt-
less to be found on both sides, but
Dr. Warne leans to the first view, and
cites the Immigration Commission,
among other authorities, in his support.
Prof. H. P. Fairchild of Yale is quoted as
follows:
“It is claimed that the natives are
not displaced, but are simply forced into
higher occupations. Those who were
formerly common laborers are now in
positions of authority. While this argu-
ment holds true of individuals, its
fallacy when applied to groups is obvi-
ous. There are not nearly enough
places.of authority to receive those who
are forced out from below. The intro-
duction of 500 Slav laborers into a
community may make a demand for a
dozen or a score of Americans in higher
positions, but hardly for 500. Further-
more, in so far as this process does
actually take place, it must result in a
lowering of the native birth rate, for
it is a well-known fact that in all
modern societies, the higher the social
class, the smaller is the average family.”
Prof. Jeremiah W. Jenks, formerly a
member of the Immigration Commis-
543
sion, wrote to President Taft that ‘“The
number of unskilled workers coming in
at the present time is sufficient to check
decidedly the normal tendency toward
an improved standard of living in many
lines of industry. Figures col-
lected by the Immigration Commission,
from a sufficient number of industries in
different sections of the country to give
general conclusions, prove beyond doubt
that in a good many cases these incoming
immigrants actually drive out into other
localities and into other unskilled trades
large numbers of American workingmen
and workingmen of the earlier immigra-
tion who do not get better positions but
rather, worse ones.”
With this standpoint, Dr. Warne
concludes, “‘ We must consciously realize
that it 1s not conducive to the success
of American democracy that the native
worker should be content with a stand-
ard of living as low as that of the
[present] immigrant. This American
is more than an industrial toiler; he is a
citizen; also, he is a husband and a
father. His wants are naturally greater
in number and these he can satisfy only
through wages. He is subject to in-
escapable pressure from all those social,
religious, political, educational, and
economic forces which are back of that
constant tendency so noticeable in the
United States for the standard of living
of the people to increase. The wages
of the native worker should be released
sufficiently from the competition of the
immigrant to permit that elasticity
which keeps wages within promising dis-
tance of the standard of living. This can
be influenced in part through better gov-
ernmental regulation of the volume of
immigration.”
INCREASING THE BIRTH RATE
The conclusion is worth emphasizing
because, if well founded, it has an im-
portant bearing on eugenics... It is
pretty well recognized now that the low
birth rate among the most useful and
enlightened classes is principally eco-
nomic in origin, and that it is useless to
try to get people to have children if
they cannot afford it. Any successful
544
eugenic propaganda must, therefore, be
preceded by such economic and social
changes as will make it economically
and socially possible for young married
people to have children; and it seems
probable that a restriction of the volume
of unskilled labor arriving in this coun-
try would be one of those changes.
Dr. Warne devotes two chapters to
the argument that better distribution
of immigrants, which is sometimes pro-
posed as a panacea, would in reality
produce little result. Apparently he
would hardly go even as far as President
Roosevelt who said that “distribution
is a palliative, notacure.’’ Then, feel-
ing sure that a considerable restriction
of the inflow is desirable, he takes up
the discussion of how this is to be se-
cured.
The Immigration Commission ap-
pointed by President Roosevelt in 1907
made a report to Congress on December
5, 1910, in which it declared in favor of
restriction and suggested the following
possible methods:
1. The exclusion of those unable to
read or write in some language.
2. The reduction of the number of
each race arriving each year to a certain
percentage of the average of that race
arriving during a given period of years.
3. The exclusion of unskilled laborers
unaccompanied by wives or families.
3. The limitation of the number of
immigrants arriving annually at any
port.
5. Material increase in the amount
of money required to be in the posses-
sion of the immigrant at the port of
arrival.
6. Material increase of the head tax.
7. The levying of the head tax so as
to make a marked discrimination in
favor of men with families.
Eugenically, it is doubtful whether
(3) and (7), which would tend to admit
only families, would be a gain or a detri-
ment to the welfare of the race. (1)
and (2) have been the suggestions which
have aroused the most controversy.
All but one member of the commission
favored (1), the literacy test, as the most
feasible single method of restricting
undesirable immigration and, as readers
know, three attempts to enact it into a
The Journal of Heredity
law have been made, but have been
defeated by the vetoes of President
Cleveland, Taft and Wilson. The
measure is now pending before Con-
gress again. Dr. Warne’s enumeration
of the influences for it and against it is
enlightening and interesting.
PREVALENCE OF ILLITERACY
Records for 1914 show that “‘illit-
eracy among the total number of
arrivals of each race ranged all the way
from 64% for the Turkish to less than
1% for the English, the Scotch, the
Welsh, the Scandinavian and the Fin-
nish. The Bohemian and Moravian,
the German, and the Irish each had
less than 5% illiterate. Races other
than the Turkish, whose immigration
in 1914 was more than one-third illit-
erate, include the Dalmatians, Bos-
nians, and Herzegovinians; Russian
Ruthenians, Italians, Lithuanians, and
Roumanians.”’
To bar these illiterates, Elihu Root
said, would be an advantage because
‘the coming of great numbers of people
who are wholly illiterate and who have
to take, of course, the lowest rate of
wages, whose minds are not open to
the ordinary opportunities for bettering
their condition, does tend to break
down the American standard of wages,
and to compel American workmen,
whether they be born here or be a part
of the 9,000,000 who have come in since
the war with Spain, to compete with a
standard of wages and a standard of
living that they ought not to be re-
quired to compete with.”’
It will, Dr. Warne admits, keep out
some who ought to come in, and let in
some who ought to be kept out. It is,
he grants, a test of opportunity rather
than of character. It is not claimed to
be perfect, or to be a test of the real
character of the immigrant.
‘‘The literacy test is simply and
solely a restrictive test and is proposed
as such. In the belief of its advocates,
it will meet the situation as disclosed
by the investigation of the Immigration
Commission better than any other
means that human ingenuity can devise.
It is believed that it would exclude
more of the undesirable and a less
The Tide of Immigration
number of the desirable immigrants
than any other method of restriction.
It goes to the root of the evils, which
are largely economic.”
TEST A MERE RESTRICTION
test is not aimed
primarily at illiteracy. It is not aimed
at the immigrant as such. Under
favorable conditions the illiteracy of
the immigrant is sooner or later reme-
died. It is not directed against any
particular race or against aliens from
any particular country. It is directed
primarily against the volume of immi-
gration, and is justified in the fact that
the conspicuous character of large
numbers of immigrants is their ina-
bility to read and write. And the
literacy test is aimed at the quantity
of immigration primarily, and solely
for the purpose of bringing it within a
reasonable degree of our ability to
absorb and assimilate its elements.”
In spite of its three defeats, it seems
likely that the literacy test as a restric-
“The literacy
545
tion of immigration will again be passed
by Congress this winter, that it will
again be vetoed by President Wilson,
and that another attempt will be made
to pass it over the President’s veto.
This reopening of the question offers
an opportunity of which eugenicists
should take advantage. Whatever their
views as to the best method of restric-
tion may be, they should attempt to get
more widespread a realization of the
eugenic implications of excessive immi-
gration, not only in the bad breeding
which results from the admission of a
certain number of physical and men-
tal undesirables; but indirectly from
the economic results. If they believe
that excessive immigration of unskilled
labor is partly responsible for the condi-
tions which make it hard for a larger
part of the population to have any, or
enough, children, they should keep this
fact to the front. Every such effort
will aid to bring nearer the social and
economic readjustments which a policy
of national eugenics requires.
Pollination Studies on California Fruits
Plum and prune pollination investiga-
tions have been carried on during the
past three years by Hendrickson at the
California State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Observations in 1915 on
50,000 plum and prune blossoms and
on 87,000 during 1916 show definitely
that all varieties of the Japanese group
of plums (P. triflora) are self-sterile
with the possible exception of Climax.
The varieties of this group seem to
cross-pollinate readily. Of the Euro-
pean varieties of plums (P. domestica),
Tragedy and Clyman show distinct
evidences of self-sterility. French and
Sugar prunes seem to be self-sterile to
some extent. Robe de Sergeant and
Imperial prunes are distinctly self-sterile.
Imperial, French, and Sugar prunes
seem to cross-pollinate satisfactorily.
An important observation during
the season of 1916 has been the notice-
able lack of pollinating agencies in some
prune orchards. The normal set of
French prunes was about 4% as com-
pared with 19% on a tree which was
covered with a mosquito net tent under
which the bees were confined.
During 1916 observations on almonds
by Tufts show that there is a distinct
pollination problem with this fruit.
Thirteen varieties, including practically
all grown on a commercial scale in
California, proved to be wholly self-
sterile under conditions existing at the
university farm. Of still greater im-
portance is the fact that the Nonpareil
and I. X. L., two of the leading varieties,
were found to be intersterile as well as
self-sterile. Ne Plus Ultra was found
to be very satisfactory as an inter-
pollinizer with both I. X. L. and
Nonpareil.
Observations during 1916 by Tufts on
cherries show that the leading com-
mercial varieties grown in the State,
including Napoleon (Royal Ann), Lam-
bert, Bing, Black Tartarian and Black
Republican, are self-sterile. There is
also distinct evidence of intersterility
between several varieties, for example,
Bing and Napoleon. The work has
not yet gone far enough to determine
the best pollinizers for cherries in this
State.—Annual Report of Director.
AN IMMIGRATION
POLICY
Any Plan for Restriction Must Take Account of Asia as Well as Europe—
Percentage Basis the Best One for Limitation—Arrangements
Must be Made to Americanize Those Who Come
SIDNEY L. GULICK
Representative, Commission of Relations with Japan; 105 East Twenty-second Street
New York, N. Y.
HE need of adequate and wise
immigration and Americanization
legislation is imperative. Now,
while war suspends the tide of
new-comers to our shores, is the time
for enacting the new laws to regulate
the coming of fresh aliens.
No one can foretell how large or
small will be the immigration from the
war-ravaged countries of Europe. One
factor in the problem that is generally
overlooked is this: Wages in America
will be high after the war and demand
for cheap labor will be urgent. Immi-
gration companies and steamship lines
will seek for fresh sources of cheap
labor to bring to America. What is to
prevent them from securing hundreds
of thousands from West and North
Africa, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor?
Present laws afford no method of
control either of the numbers or of the
race types that may be admitted, if
only they pass the physical tests now
authorized. We have reason to expect
a large immigration of peoples that will
prove extremely difficult of Americani-
zation.
We need, therefore, a comprehensive
and constructive policy for the regu-
lation of all immigration, a policy that
is based on sound economic, eugenic,
political and ethical principles, and a
program worked out in detail for incor-
porating that policy into practice.
Such a policy, moreover, must take
into consideration not merely the rela-
tions of America with Europe, Africa
and West Asia, but also with China,
Japan and India. The world has be-
come so small and travel so easy that
economic pressure and opportunity are
now bringing all the races into inevitable
546
contact and increasing intermixture.
To avoid the disastrous consequences
of such contacts and intermixtures, and
to enable the United States not only to
provide for her own prosperity, but also
to make to the whole world her best
contribution for human _ betterment,
we need policies that are based upon
justice and good will, no less than upon
economic and eugenic considerations.
The following proposals are offered as
a contribution to the discussion of these
important matters.
The need of regulating immigration
from Europe and West Asia is so well
recognized that nothing further will be
said upon it in this brief discussion. It
is important, however, that Americans
should realize that the present laws
dealing with Japanese, Chinese and
Hindoos are quite obsolete. They are
not only obsolete; they are positively
dangerous.
THE NEW ORIENT
New Japan has already acquired the
mechanical instruments, the political,
economic and industrial methods, and
the science, education, ideas and ideals
of occidental civilization. New China
is rapidly following in the footsteps of
Japan. Both are increasingly self-con-
scious and insistent on courteous treat-
ment and observance of treaties. They
are asking, with growing earnestness,
for recognition on a basis of equality
with nations of the West.
The great world-problem of the
twentieth century is undoubtedly the
problem of the contact of the East and
the West. Whether it shall bring us
weal or woe depends largely on the
United States. Shall our oriental policy
Gulick: An Immigration Policy
be based on race pride, disdain and
selfishness? Shall it be entirely devoid
of sympathy? And shall we rely on
brute force for carrying it through? Or
shall we give justice, courtesy and a
square deal, refusing to be stamped by
ignorance, ill-founded suspicion and
falsehood? Shall we ‘“‘ prepare’”’ to main-
tain by our military might a policy of
arrogant disregard of their needs and
feelings, or shall we remove dangers of
conflict by a policy of friendly con-
sideration and genuine helpfulness?
The new Orient renders obsolete and
dangerous our nineteenth century Asi-
atic policy. Let us now promptly
adopt a new policy—one that will pro-
vide, on the one hand, for the just
demands of the Pacific Coast States to
be protected from a swamping Asiatic
immigration; and yet that also pro-
vides on the other hand for full cour-
tesy of treatment and for complete
freedom from race discrimination which
is inevitably regarded as humiliating.
The new policy should provide for
observance of the spirit no less than of
the wording of our treaties, and be thus
in harmony with the principles of good
neighborliness.
THE NEW IMMIGRATION POLICY
All this means that we need compre-
hensive immigration legislation dealing
with the entire question in such a way
as to conserve American institutions,
protect American labor from dangerous
economic competition, and promote
intelligent and enduring friendliness
between America and all the nations,
east and west, because free from
differential race treatment.
Restriction of immigration has been
widely demanded in recent years. Three
times Congress has passed a literacy
test immigration bill. Three times has
it been vetoed. But even if it became
law, would it suitably and adequately
regulate immigration? Would it avail
in maintaining a wholesome proportion
between the aliens and the naturalized?
Moreover, a literacy test law could not
wisely be applied to Asiatics, for it
would admit millions.
Do we not now need legislation,
limiting immigration on a numerical
547
basis? Should not the annual immi-
gration be adapted to our economic
conditions? And should not that limi-
tation deal equally with all races?
Should not our immigration legislation,
moreover, also provide for the rapid
education and Americanization of those
who are admitted?
Such a policy and program consti-
tutes one of the pressing needs of the
times. Quite as important as military
““preparedness’’ to resist attack is
diplomatic and legislative ‘‘prepared-
ness’’ to reduce tension and promote
international friendship.
The following paragraphs present in
barest outlines a constructive program
for comprehensive immigration legis-
lation:
1. The Control of Immigration.
Immigration from every land should
be controlled, and, if excessive, it should
be restricted. The principle of re-
striction should be applied equally to
every land, and thus avoid differential
race treatment.
2. Americanization the Principle
of Control.
The proved capacity for genuine
Americanization on the part of those
already here from any land should be
the measure for the further immigra-
tion of that people. Newcomers make
their first contact with America through
those who speak their own language.
The Americanization, therefore, of new-
comers from any land depends largely
on the influence of those already here
from that land. The number of new-
comers annually admissible from any
land, therefore, should be closely de-
pendent on the number of those from
that land who, having been here five
years or more, have actually become
American citizens. These know the
language, customs and ideals of both
peoples, ours and theirs.
America should admit as immigrants
only so many aliens from any land as
she can Americanize.
3. The Proposed Restriction Law.
Let, therefore, an immigration law be
passed which provides that the maxi-
548
mum permissible annual immigration
from any people shall be a definite per
cent (say five) of the American-born
children of foreign parents of that peo-
ple plus the number of those from that
same people who have already become
naturalized citizens.
The grandchildren as a rule do not
know their ancestral language, and
therefore do not aid particularly in the
Americanization of newcomers.
The permissible annual immigration
from the respective peoples, as calcu-
lated from the census of 1910, is given
in the tables of the Appendix. They
show that in general there would be no
restriction on immigration from North
Europe. The reverse, however, would
be the case for the countries of South
Europe. The permissible immigration
from China and Japan would be less
than that which has been coming in
recent years. (See Appendix.)
Provision should be also made for the
protection of all newcomers from ruth-
less exploitation and for their distribu-
tion, employment and rapid American-
ization. To aid in the accomplishment
of these ends, the Federal Government
should establish—
4. Bureau of Registration, Employ-
ment and Distribution
All aliens should register annually
until they become American citizens,
and should pay an annual registration
fee, of say $10. We need to know who
the aliens are and where they live, and
they need to know that we know these
facts about them. <)
SOMATIC SEGREGATION E. J. Kraus
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WHAT GENETICS IS
Genetics is the study of the laws governing heredity, and their application to
all living creatures. Heredity, in Ribot’s definition, is “that biological law by
which all beings endowed with life tend to repeat themselves in their descendants;
it is for the species what personal identity is for the individual. By it a ground-
work remains unchanged amid incessant variation; by it Nature ever copies and
imitates herself.”
‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity, says William Bateson, ‘‘will
probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power over
nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they wi!l appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
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WHAT GENETICS IS
“An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its.committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
. It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL’ (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Il, Nox, 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol: --V, Nos..5:.6,:7,.8, 9, 10, 1P and 12:
Vol. Vi, Nos.°2,.3, 4,5; 6, 7, 9,.10, 11 and: 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
di osit Pobre |
a
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, ger Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of a Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
|
The American Genetic Association
we a me 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 we 0 os —_ a —__ 0 —__ wo —__ 0 —__ 0 —__ 00 —_ 0 —__ wo - — me —_ 0» —__ 00 —__ 0» —__ 0 00 —__ 00 0.0 0 oo
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. C.
0 a et
Genetics Literature
|
|
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIT' (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. -UiI, “Na:.°2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address —
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
oe 0 0 me vo ——_ 0 — ~ 0 —— 0 0 —_ 0 ——_ 0 ——_
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Pg eee Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Sig Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Go. Ne a Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
ngton, D
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, aoe National Chairman, Woman’s Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Genetics Literature
arte
|
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
|
|
|
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. Vi,jNOs-:2,:3,)4, 5,°6,. 7, 9; 11 and 12,
~ - . = Es FE ds
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid. |
|
|
|
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
a et a
oe ro we wo oe
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of zoology. Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge,
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant ig Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant ndustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Cro a eeysoley and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women’s Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C,
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WAR, SCIENCE, CIVILIZATION - - - - - A Review
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AT ILLINOIS
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
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WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’’ says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means .
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
se
The Journal of
HEREDITY
A monthly publication devoted toPlant reeding
Animal Breeding and Lugenucs
&
cis
A FOWL WITH HORNS
HEREDITY OF ALBINISM
IS TWINNING HEREDITARY?
BREEDING NEPHROLEPIS FERNS
GROWING MELONS ON TREES
INBREEDING IN EUROPE
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC :ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON °- D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
VOLVII-Noh, MAY1916
_—
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
soe
_ The Journal of
HEREDIT
A monthly publication devoted toflant,breeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics
'e0
be
gv)
JUNE, 1916
‘“‘BULL-DOG” CATTLE
EUGENICS AND AGRICULTURE
TESTING CRIMINAL OFFENDERS
WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE HAWTHORNS?
REDFIELD BROADENS HIS OFFER
WAR, IMMIGRATION, EUGENICS
LAUGHING AND CRYING
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in ‘his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
+
Sel
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL' (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Ill, Ne. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos.'2;:.3,.4, 5,:7,:9).11-and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N Y.
0 0 OO OO OS SLD I AD
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D0. C.
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three éf these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIIL' (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
a a a NG Em) pa Sh A I nl
-_
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of wey Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women’s Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
gp 0 ee ne os nn no — ~ 0 ——_ 0 —_ 0 —__ 0 —__ 0 —__ wn —__ 0 —__ 00 —___ 0 —__ 0» —__ 00 —__ 00 —__ 0 ___ 00 __ 00 ___ 0 ___ 00 00 ___ 00 —__ 00 —___ 00 0 0» __ 0 —_ 0 o_o os
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D.C.
Genetics Literature
eer
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in™the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII’ (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V5 Nas... 5,6; 75.8, 9; 10, Tl and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
a EB J
8
—
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W.. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
DAVID FAIRCHILD, 4 yee Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, if.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of —T Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
+ 0 —— 00 — 0 0 0 0 LLL OD
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. C.
The Journal of
HEREDIT
A monthly publication devoted toPlantireeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics
= : :
: i \ Je
79
(38)
JULY, 1916
HYBRID TREES
MUSICAL ABILITY
A BOTANICAL PARADOX
LET’S POSITIVIZE OUR NEGATIVE EUGENICS
WHERE ARE THE BEST PAPAWS?
EXTRA FINGERS AND TOES
CHANGE OF SEX IN HEMP
PREPOTENCY
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘“‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,” says William Bate-
son, ‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved: scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
The Journ al of
HEREDITY
A monthly publication devoted toPlant freeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics
(
4
os
AUGUST, 1916
MOTHERCRAFT
EVOLUTION AND MAN
SORREL COLOR IN HORSES
CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE
INHERITANCE: OF BALDNESS
POLLINATING FRUIT TREES
PHILIPPINE HORSES
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC*ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON ~- D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP |
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
oe ee
|
oa
ae
The Journal of
HEREDITY
| monthly publication devoted toflant,Greeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics
g9,
i}
é
SEPTEMBER, 1916
PYRONIA
COLLARETTE FLOWERS
A CHANGE IN SEX-RATIO
HEREDITY OF HAIR-FORM
THE LONG-LIVED FIRST-BORN
ANCESTRY OF THOS. A. EDISON
CARMAN’S WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS
BABIES IN THE CURRICULUM
POLLINATION IN THE PINE
THE WHITE-BARKED PINE
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’ says William Bate-
son, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the world,
and in his power over nature, than any other advance in natural knowl-
edge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which proceeds, in
practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding, for the reason
that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in Man, and its operation
can be more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in
methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals and,
most important of all, in the improvement of the human race through the science
of eugenics, which was defined by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of
future generations, either physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, co-operative in nature and devoted to promoting
knowledge of the laws of heredity in the broadest sense of the word, and their
application to the improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks. It
is the largest organization in the world for the advancement of genetics, and its
organ, The Journal of Heredity, is the most important agent for furthering the
interchange of ideas between investigators of different phases of these problems,
and for the presentation of their results to the public.
Through its committees on research, co-operation with which is not obligatory,
but is urged upon every member, the association collects information by means
of approved scientific methods applied to the subject of genetics. This infor-
mation, as well as that derived from other authoritative sources, it endeavors to
place before the public by means of its committee on education and extension,
and before its membership, in an attractive and understandable way, through
this magazine. The association constantly strives to further the cause of con-
servative, constructive science and to check the progress of fallacious and sen-
sational pseudo-science. While it can not assume responsibility for the accuracy
of statements made by contributors to The Journal of Heredity, it endeavors to
publish only such as are on a sound scientific basis, and members are urged to
contribute such articles, with illustrations. The magazine does not pretend en-
tirely to cover the immense field of genetics, but it is designed to keep members
informed of the latest results in research in the most interesting lines, and to present
these results in such a way that they will appeal not only to the specialists, but
to the general reader who desires to know what the specialists are doing in a science
that is of such personal importance to each individual.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of scientists, teachers, publicists, physicians, clergymen,
students, horticulturists, and breeders of live stock, throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the improvement
of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants and animals, is
eligible for membership. The secretary will be glad to correspond with those
interested, and to send a copy of the magazine for examination. Annual dues,
giving the right to attend all meetings and to receive the Journal of Heredity,
are $2; life membership is $50. Address all communications to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
—
—_—
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be ee to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C,
|
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.
First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of
Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of
Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi-
mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York,
N.Y
IN: 7Y...
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, III.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H .HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry te Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.
ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.
HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.
DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti-
tute, Ward's Island, N. Y.
DR. A. J. ROSANOFF, Resident Physician, Kings’
Park State Hospital, Long Island, N. Y.
DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland
Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, ay
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first
vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General,
U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super-
intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES ARY RUMSEY, New York,
Nurs
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of
Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D0. C.
Sa es Re
i Sg —
——s 5
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. III, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol, VI, Nos; 2;.3, 4,.5;7,-9; 11 and. 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.
First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Roar of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I
.; Washington, D
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge,
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D
DAVID FAIRCHILD, A
Plant Industry, U.
of ons y? Coop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
icultural se hoetey in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
T. H. KEARNEY, Ph
siologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant ndustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of
Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Ma cig oe Botanist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D.
HERBERT ie WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of
Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi-
mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
as rome Cornell Medical College, New York,
Ye
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
a of Henry ig 7 Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
opkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHA LES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.
ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.
HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.
DR. AUGUST oar Director Psychiatric Insti-
tute, Ward's Island,
DR. A. aRGSANOFF, "Resident ie as Kings’
Park State Hospital, Long Island, N.
DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medica Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland
Stanford Junior niversity, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, “a
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first
vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General,
U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(secretary).
gt oe FISHER, Professor of Political Economy
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super-
intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
Rey eee ARY RUMSEY, New York,
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of
Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D.C.
cc OL LLL LI LLL LL LLL LL LD TD
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII’ (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Ill, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4,5, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. First President, JAMES WILSON,
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE. Former Secretary of Agriculture.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM, Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C. Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of Plant Breeding, University of California, Director of Citrus
Substation and Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Calif.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of Soa Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES. R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York, N. Y.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Washington.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman, Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, National
ivic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
LL LL LLL LLL LLL LL A
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, DO. C.
The Journal of
HEREDIT
o, | monthly publication devoted to lant Breeding
Animal Breeding and. Lugenucs
()
4
oes
OCTOBER, 1916
PEAR BREEDING
THE JUKES IN 1915
FECUNDITY AND STAMINA
AN APOLOGY FOR YAWNING
RELIGION AND BIRTH CONTROL
WOMEN’S EYES AND POTATO SKINS
ARE MORE BOYS BORN IN WAR TIME?
EXTREMES OF HUMAN STATURE
FORGOTTEN BUD VARIATIONS
HEREDITY AND THE MIND
MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Frinted for Circulation among Members only
a it i i ts en 9 8 a ss
i cn cee 8 ns ee 8 —) ns tt ns 9s —— 0 —— ——
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’’ says William
Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the
world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in
natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”’
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which
proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding,
for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in
Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so
gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated
plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve-
ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined
by its founder, Francis Galton, as “the study of agencies under social control
that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to
promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the
improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks.
It owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is published monthly and
sent free to each member.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys-
icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live
stock, etc., throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the
improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants
and animals, is eligible for membership.
The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to
send a copy of the magazine for examination.
Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the
JOURNAL OF HeEreEpiITY, are $2; life membership is $50.
If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you
think is eligible for membership, write to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
—s
The Journal of
HEREDIT
A monthly publication devoted toPlantreeding
Animal Breeding and. Eugenics
(,)
4
ess
NOVEMBER, 1916
THE HUMAN MACHINE
MULES THAT BREED
ORIGIN OF THE LOGANBERRY
IRIS BREEDING
LOBED LEAVES IN MAIZE
HAND AND FOOT PRINTS
CALIFORNIA GRAPEFRUIT
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN: GENETIC:-ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON °- D.C.
Printed for Circulation. among Members only
i ts ns nt 8 ns ne ts es
0 en ee te
|
eh i EL LE EE LE ES Eh
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’”’ says William
Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the
world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in
natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this. knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which
proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding,
for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in
Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so
gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated
plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve-
ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined
by its founder, Francis Galton, as ‘“‘the study of agencies under social control
that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to
promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the
improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks.
It owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is published monthly and
sent free to each member.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys-
icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live
stock, etc., throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the
improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants
and animals, is eligible for membership.
The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to
send a copy of the magazine for examination.
Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, are $2; life membership is $50.
If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you
think is eligible for membership, write to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
= —2.0 ——0n ——s » —— 2 ——00 ——-5 0 ——— 00 0 0 »« ——— 0 —— 2 ns —— 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 oo e
a a ee
—s
The Journal of
HEREDIT
7 monthly publication devoted toPlant freeding
Animal Breeding and. Eugenics
9,
e
4
DECEMBER, 1916
SOUTHERN STRAWBERRIES
THE TIDE OF IMMIGRATION
AN IMMIGRATION POLICY
PITTED EAR LOBES
LINEBREEDING
THE GREAT UNMARRIED
FECUNDITY AND LONGEVITY
HARVARD AND YALE BIRTH RATES
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC ‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only
WHAT GENETICS IS
‘‘An exact determination of the laws of heredity,’”’ says William
Bateson, ‘‘will probably work more change in man’s outlook on the
world, and in his power over nature, than any other advance in
natural knowledge that can be clearly foreseen.”
To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics, which
proceeds, in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and animal breeding,
for the reason that heredity is less complicated in these organisms than in
Man, and its operation can be more easily made out. The knowledge so
gained finds its application in methods for the improvement of cultivated
plants and domesticated animals and, most important of all, in the improve-
ment of the human race through the science of eugenics, which was defined
by its founder, Francis Galton, as “‘the study of agencies under social control
that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
is an incorporated organization, cooperative in nature. It is devoted to
promoting a knowledge of the laws of heredity and their application to the
improvement of plants, animals, and human racial stocks.
It owns the JouRNAL OF HerepITy, which is published monthly and
sent free to each member.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP
Membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists, phys-
icians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists and breeders of live
stock, etc., throughout the world.
Subject to the approval of the council, any person interested in the
improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties of plants
and animals, is eligible for membership.
The secretary will be glad to correspond with those interested, and to
send a copy of the magazine for examination.
Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings and receive the
JourNAL OF Herepity, are $2; life membership is $50.
If you want to become a member, or if you know anyone who you
think is eligible for membership, write to
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
o—— #2» —_90 ———0 0 ———«
o—— ro 0
nn nt EE EB
- .
oo
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol. Il, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
a - x : aoe
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.
First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C,
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of
Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of
Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. C
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi-
mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York,
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry FiSppe Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. ;
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.
ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.
HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.
DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti-
DR. x WROSANOPR, "Resident Physici Kings
Oy. ee 7% , Resident sician, Kings’
Park ea Hospital, Long Island, N. o'
DR. THOMAS . SALMON, Medical Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland
Stanford Junior University, California ehesan.
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U ¥
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first
vice-chairman). ;
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General,
U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(secretary).
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super-
intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York,
Ni in
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of
Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, 0. ©.
._ os
——
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4.° Vol. IH, No. 2.
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
i i op 8 0 8 0 8 ns 8 9 0
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secrelary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.
First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland,
N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Aveheidisan tion: Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, ie lac eaio Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, 6
. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Becker of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of
free Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau
Ay Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.
WALTE ER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of
Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor _ of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi-
mental Breeding, University ‘of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
sac Cornell Medical College, New York,
Yi.
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, III.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder Bs Eugenics Record Maas Cold Spring
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts ‘Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
or of Henry Phi ipps . he Fg Clinic, Johns
Ele Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.
ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.
HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.
DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti-
fae Ward's Island, N. Y.
DRA. 3. ROSANOFF, Resident Physician, Kings’
Park State Hos ital, Long Island, N. Y.
DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland
Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon overs U.
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first
vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman).
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General,
U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(secretary).
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, It
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super-
intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, ‘New York,
Re $4
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the School of
Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
» WASHINGTON, ©
Genetics Literature
HE annual reports of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION, published in
seven volumes, form the most valuable collection of material for students of
genetics which has been published in the United States. Most of them are
out of print and are becoming very valuable. All of them are nearly indispensable
to libraries, institutions and students of plant and animal breeding, heredity,
variation, eugenics, or genetics in general.
The Association still has on hand a limited number of copies of three of these
reports, which it offers for sale.
Vol. VI, Proceedings A. B. A. (1910), contains 465 pages. Illustrated.
It includes 80 papers on general genetic subjects, and among the contributors
are practically all the leaders in this study in the United States. Issued at $2,
now offered for $1.
Vol. VII, Proceedings A. B. A. (1911), and Vol. VIII (1912), bound in one
volume of 593 pages, illustrated, and including 73 monographs on the most vital
and interesting features of genetics. Issued at $3, now offered for $1.50.
The volumes are substantially bound in cloth and will be sent post-paid on
receipt of price.
As the Association frequently receives requests for other volumes of
the proceedings, which are now out of print, it will be glad to hear from those
who have copies for sale or exchange.
In addition to its annual reports, the Association still has on hand a few copies
of the following issues of the AMERICAN BREEDERS’ MAGAZINE:
Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. Vol, 11], No: 2,
Vol. II, Nos. 3 and 4. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 4.
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:
Vol. V, Nos. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Vol. VI, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Each of these issues contains numerous articles on plant and animal breeding
and eugenics, written by specialists and in most cases describing the results of
their own researches. In many instances these researches have never been de-
scribed elsewhere. These numbers will be sold for 25 cents each, post paid.
Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
511 Eleventh Street Northwest WASHINGTON, D. C.
—e
The American Genetic Association
President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, CORCORAN THOM,
Vice-Pres. American Security & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.
First President, JAMES WILSON,
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture
Editor, PAUL POPENOE.
COUNCIL
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Chairman of the Board of Scientific Directors of the Eugenics Record
Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.; Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.
BLEECKER VAN WAGENEN, Trustee of the Vineland, N. J., Training School; New York, N. Y.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, 0.5: Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
DR. W. C. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH
Plant Breeding
ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Chairman, Professor of
Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
G. N. COLLINS, Vice-chairman, Botanist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.
WALTER T. SWINGLE, Physiologist in Charge of
Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.
Animal Breeding
T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Experi-
mental Breeding, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York,
N. Ys
GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
DAVID WHITCOMB, Seattle, Wash.
E. A. MCILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics
MRS. E. H .HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y.
DR. FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts ‘Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
DR. ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of anna ae Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New Yor
ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Marienteh es! Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.
HOMER ‘FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.
DR. AUGUST HOCH, Director Psychiatric Insti-
tee Ward's Island, N. i
DR. A. J. ROSANOFF, Resident Ph sician, Kings’
Park State Hospital, Long Island, N. Y.
DR. THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City.
COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor of Leland
Stanford Junior University, California (chairman).
DR. RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon meng
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first
vice-chairman).
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare we ea Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
page Cerne
DR. W. RUCKER, Assistant Surgeon General,
0.8. Kiblnc Health Service, Washington, D. C
(secretary).
i 9 8 0 5 0 tt ee
NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS,
IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, ‘New Haven, Conn.
DR. ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Super-
intendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.
i coeaan 2 ARY RUMSEY, New York,
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Dean of the eg of
Journalism, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
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