7 7 é é bat . -_ vy : ic a uaa 2 ere t a) Me ' v9 - a j Mie ie ARs k ie ae ee ee, 2 - 7 + y ¢ ~~ ’ -_ a ] ¢ ee at } i i - —_— : } ‘ i an | i Cara i Pai Kaye a ee! we (INDEX, Vol. IX JOURNAL OF HEREDITY 1918 a ae = 3 MOY Sy: ~ | V4 INDEX FOR VOL. IX The Testing of a New Tree Crop for Hardiness, 368 Fairchild, Henry Pratt (Review of Book by). Outline of Applied Sociology, 7 Families of Six Generations, 132 Fecundity in Domestic Fowl. E. B. Babcock, R. E. Clausen, 333 Feebleminded, Counting the, in New York, 285 Feeblemindedness in Delaware, 45 : Fighting Instinct Is Not the Warring Instinct. Alleyne Ireland, 303 Filbert, Another Chance for the, 158 Food in War Time (Review of Book by Graham Lusk), 192 Index iil Food Froduction, Assistant Secretary Ousley Tells Need for Sull More, 342 Forage Plant, A New. F. B. Linfield, 135 _ Freeman, George F. Producing Bread- Making Wheats for Warm Climates, 211 French Stocks in Canada. Canon V. A. Huard, 144 Fruiting of Apple Trees Every Other Year. B.S. Brown, 04 3 Fruiting Orange Thorn, A. A. D. Shamel, C. S. Pome- roy, 315 Fruits, Colors in Vegetable. Byron D. Halsted, 18 Gallichan, Mrs. Walter M. (C. Gasquoine Hartley), Re- “view of Book by. Motherhood, 66 Gardens for Plant Breeders. David Fairchild, 112 Gates, William H. Another Hen that Crowed, 343 Genetic Terms, Meanings of, 91 Genetics in Relation to Agriculture (Review of Book by E. Babcock and R. E. Clausen), 361 Germination Tests, Ohio, Reveal Lack of Good Seed Corn, 157 Girdling the Corinth Grape to Make lt Bear. Geo. C. Husmann, 201 Inheritance of Absence of the Senze of Smell, 347 Grafted Jujube of China, The. David Fairchild, 3 Grain, Small, Investigations. Hes ove. No 2: Craig, 67 Grape, Corinth, Girdling the, to Make it Bear. Geo. . Husmann, 201 Ground Squirrels, Utah Exp_riment Station Aids Farm- ers in War Agaiast, 300 Guatemala, Avocados as Food in. Guinea-Pig Hair, Pigmentation in. Sewall Wright, 173 Gulick, Sidney L. League for Constructive Immigra- tion Legislation, 379 Wilson Popenoe, 99 Harrison R. Hunt, Halsted, Byron D. Colors in Vegetable Fruits, 18 Reciprocal Breeding in Tomatoes, 169 Hansen, Albert A. A Striking Reproductive Habit, 85 Petalization in the Japanese Quince, 15 Hartley, C. Gasquoine (Mrs. Walter M. Gallichan), Review of Book by. Motherhood, 66 Hauser, Irue. Plant Breeders Find New Tobacco Hy- : brid, 354 Hayes, H. K. Natural Crossing in Wheat, 326 Hays, H. K., and E. M. East. ‘he Effect of Recessive Factors, 134 Hen, Another, That Crowed. William H. Gates, 343 Hens, Selection of Laying, 226 Heredity and Disease. Charles Herrman, 77 Heredity, Democracy and the Accepted Facts of. AI- leyne Ireland, 339 Heredity, Kaiserism and. Frederick Adams Woods, 348 Heredity, The Influence of, in Diabetes, 28 Heredity of Stature in Man, 295 Heredity of Tumors of the Nerves, 380 Herons, Inherited Feeding Habit of. John T. Zimmer, 271 Herrman, Charles. Heredity and Disease, 77 Hodgson, Robert W. An Interesting Bud-Sport in the Washington. Navel Orange, 301 Holmes, S. J., and C. M. Doud. ‘he- Approaching Extinction of the Mayflower Descendants, 296 OLE Se a J. .The Cow in Calf Deserves More Honor, Horse ae Steer, Extra Toes in. B. O. Severson, 39 Horse Breeders, War Makes Large Demands upon, 124 Horse Breeding, Decadence of. Henry M. Jones, 125 Horse Breeding in Brazil, 96 Horsford, F. H. Longevity i in Lily Pollen, 90 How Sorghum Crosses Are Made. T. E. Nafziger, 321 Huard, Canon, V. A. French Stocks in Canada, 144 Hunt, Harrison R., and Sewal! Wright. Pigmentation in Guinea-Pig Hair, 178 Husmann, Geo. C. ‘Girdling the Corinth Grape to Make it Bear, 201 - Hybridization, Evolution by. E.C. Jeffrey,25 . Hybrids, Artificial, between Pike and Pickerel. G.-C. Embody, 253 Hybrids of the Live Oak and Overcup Oak. H. Ness,/263. Immigrant, Mentality of the Arriving; 268. Improper Feeding among New York School Chitdren, 154. Infant Welfare Work in War Time, 111 - =" Inheritance, Color, in Mammals. - Sewalk Wright: I—Swine, 33 Il—The Dog, 87 I]I—The Cat, 139 ITV—Man, 227 Inheritance of Diathesis through Five Generations, 130 Inherited Feeding Habit of Herons. John T. Zimmer, 271 Insanity, Crime, Marriage and, Effect of War on, 365 Insect Pests, Introduction of, to be Avoided, 23 Intelligence, The Place of, in Evolutions (Review of Book by Nels Quevli), 76 Interesting Bud-Sport in the Washington Navel Orange, An. Robert W. Hodgson, 301 Introduction to Socia! Psychology (Review of Book by Charles A. Ellwood), 17 Towa Agricuitura! Experiment Station Annual Report, Ames, Iowa, 353 Ireland, Alleyne. Democracy and the Accepted Facts of Heredity, 339 Is War Necessary? Paul Popenoe, 257 Japanese Quince, Petalization in the. Albert A. Han- sen, 15 Jeffrey, E. C. Evolution by Hybridization, 25 Jones, Henry M. Decadence of Horse Breeding, 125 Jujube of China, The Grafted. David Fairchild, 3 Kaiserism and Heredity. Kearney, Thomas H. Mutation, 51 Frederick Adams Woods, 348. A Plant Industry Based upon Labor gondiions for Women in France, Improvement of, 165 Lambing Percentage, New Zealand, Rie in, 95 League for Constructive Immigration Legislation. . Sidney L. Gulick, 379 Lemion Orchard from Buds of Single Selected Tree. A.-D,.Shamel, 319 Lemon Tree; Orange-ike Fruit from a. Brown, 308 Lethal Factors and Sterility. John Belling, 161 Life, The Origin and Evolution of (Review of Book by Henry Fairchild Osborn), 14 “Like Marries Like,’’ Further Evidence That, 378 Linfield, F. B. A New Forage Plant, 135 Live Oak and Overcup Oak, Hybrids of the. H. Ness, 263 Longevity in Lily Pollen. F. H.’Horsford, 90 Love, H. H.,-and W. T. Craig. Small Grain Investiga- _.. tions, 67 Lull, Richard Swann, Review of Book by. Evolution, 32 Lusk, Graham, Review of Book by. 192 Thomas W. Organized Food in War Time, MaclInnes, L. T. The Testing of New South Wales, 307 Maize, Tropical Varieties of. G. Mammals, Color Inheritance in. I—Swine, 33 Ii—The Dog, 87 IiI—The Cat, 139 IV—-Man, 227 Marriage, Crime, and Insanity, Effect of War on, 365 Mayflower Descendants, ‘The Approaching Extinction of the. S. J. Holme;, C. M. Doud, 2°6 McWhorter, V. O., Sheep-Killing Habit among Dogs Incurable and Infectious, 381 Meade, Rowland M. Bee- Keeping May Improve the, Pure-Bred Cows in N. Collins, 147 Sewail Wright: 282 Meanings of Genetic Terms, 91 Mertal Inheritance, Standardized Tests and. June E. Downey, 311 Migcod. ee W.H., Review of Book by. Earliest Man, eee Imbecility, The Cause of, 23 Monkeys, Some Observations on. R. W. Shufeldt, 182 Morality, Will- Not, Necessarily Improve? Frederick Adams Woods, 331 Mortality, Will, Disappear? Mutation, A-Plant Industry Based upon. Kearney, ‘51 Paul Popenoe, 269 Thomas H. Nafziger, T. E. - How SoreBven Crosses Are Made, 321 Nassau, Survey, The (Review of a Report by ‘Aaron J. Rosanoff), 108 Natural Cros:ing in Wheat. ~-H. K. Hayes, 326 Nerves, Heredity of Tumors of the, 380 Ness,. H... Hybrids of the Live Oak and Overcup Oak, 263 New Forage Plant, A. F. B. Linfield, 135 iv Index New Scientific Journal, A, 131 Nicolson, J. W., and Frank A. Spragg. Rosen Rye, 375 Ohio Conserving Superior Seed Corn, 84 Orange, the Washington Nave!, an Interesting Bud- Sport in. Robert W. Hodgson, 301 Orange. Blood, A Dry, Strain. A. D. Shamel, 174 Orange Bud Variations, Striking. A. D. Shamel, 189 Orange-ike Fruit from a Lemon Tree. Thomas W. Brown, 308 Orange Thorn, A Fruiting. eroy, 315 A. D. Shamel, C. S. Pom- Oranges, Why Navel, Are Seedless. A. D. Shamel, 246 Organic Evolution from a Paleo-tologist's Point of View (Review of Book by Richard Swann Lull), 32 and Evolution of Life, The (Review of Book by Henry Fairchild Osborn), 14 Osborn, Henry Fairchili, Review of Book by, 14 Ostrich Eggs, Absence of Xenia in. J. E. Duerden, 243 Outline of Applied Sociology, An (Review of Book by Henry Pratt Fairchild), 7 Overcup Oak, Hybrids of the Live Oak and. H. Ness, 263 Origin Paper-Making Materials, New, 138 Patvardhan, G. B. Penetration of Scion by Stock, 187 Penetration of Scion by Stock. G. B. Patvardhan, 187 Petalization in the Japanese Quince. Albert A. Hansen, 15 Petsai, The Chinese, as a Salad Vegetable. David Fair- child, 291 Pickerel, Artificial Hybrids between Pike and. G. C. Embody, 253 Pigmentation in Guinea-Pig Hair. Sewall Wright, 178 Harrison R. Hunt, Pike and Pickcrel, Artificial Hybrids between. G. ce Embody, 253 Plant Breeders Find New Tobacco Hybrid. True Hau- ser, 354 Plant Breeders, Gardens for. Plant-Breeding, Selection of. John Belling, 95 Plant Foods, New, Advertising. David Fairchild, 155 Plant Industry Based upon Mutation, A. Thomas H. Kearney, 51 Polydactylism and Tooth Color. S. Sinha, 96 Pomeroy, C.S.,and A.D Shamel. A Fruiting Orange Thorn, 315 Popenoe, Wilson. Avocados as Food in Guatemala, 99 Popense, Paul. Is War Necessary? 257 Will Mortality Disappear? 26¢ Population Problems in France, 330 Prolification in a Double-Flowered Form of Calendula Officinalis. Peter Bisset, 323 Producing Bread-Making Wheats for Warm Climates. George F. Freeman, 211 Proschowsky, A. Robertson. on Tree Growth, 80 Psychobiology, 314 Putnam, Eben. Tracing Your Ancestors, 8 David Fairchild, 112 Influence of Environment Quevli, Nels, Review of Book by. _ Cause of Evolution, 76 Quince, Japanese, Petalization in the. Cell Intelligence the Albert A. Hansen, Recessive Factors, The Effect of. H. K. Hays, E. M. East, 134 Reciprocal Breeding in Tomatoes. Byron E. Halsted, 169 Radish, Variability in the. E. Eugene Barker, R. H. Cohen, 357 Rehabilitation of Our Wounded, 300 Reinisch, E. F. A. Whythe Buttoaball Degenerates in Town, 61 Reproductive Habit, A Striking. Albert A. Hansen, 85 Rosanoff, Aaron J., Review of a Report by. Survey of Mental Disorders in Nassau County, 108 Rosen Rye. Frank A. Spragg, J. W. Nicolson, 375 Rye, Rosen. Frank A. Spragg, J. W. Nicolson, 375 School Enrollment, Effect of War on, 210 Scion, Penetration of, by Stock. G. B. Patvardhan, 187 Selection of Plant-Breeding. John Belling, 95 Severson, B. O. Extra Toes in Horse and Steer, 39 Sex Ratic in Cattle Cannot Be Controlled, 38 Shamel, A. D.: A Dry Blood-Orange Strain, 174 Bud Variation in Dahlias, 362 Chrysanthemum Varieties, 81 Lemon Orchard from Buds of Single Selected Tree, 319 Some Variable Ears of Dent Corn, 29 Striking Orange Bud Varieties, 189 _ Why Navel Oranges Are Seelless, 246 Shamel, A. D., and C. §. Pomeroy. A Fruiting Orange Thorn, 315 Sheep-Killing Habit among Dogs Incurable and In- fectiovs, V. O. McWhorter, 381 Shufeldt, R. W. Some Observations on Monkeys, 182 Sinha, S. Polydactylism and Tooth Color, 96 Small Grain Investigations. H. H.. Love, W. T. Craiz, 67 Smell, Inheritance of Absence of the Sense of. O. C. Glaser, 347 Social Psychology, An Introduction to (Review of Book by Charles A. Ellwood), 17 Sociology, An Outline of Applied (Review cf Book by Henry Pratt Fairchild), 7 Some Observations on Monkeys. R. W. Shufeldt, 182 Some Variable Ears of Dent Corn. A. D. Shamel, 29 Sorghum Crosses, How, Are Made. T. E. Nafziger, 321 Spragg, Frank A., and J. W. Nicolson. Rosen Rye, 375 Stallion Enrollment Work for 1917 in Indiana, 249 Standardized Tests and Mental Inheritance. June E. Downey, 311 Steer, Horse and, Extra Toes in. B. O. Severson, 39 Sterility, Lethal Factors and. John Belling, 161 Striking Orange Bud Variations. A. D. Shamel, 189 Striking Reproductive Habit, A. Albert A. Hansen, 85 Supermen, A Test for, 42 Test for Supermen, A. 42 Testing of a New Tree Crop for Hardiness, The. David Fairchild, 368 Testing of Pure-Bred Cows in New South Wales, The. L. T. MacInnes, 307 Thorn, A Fruiting Orange. A. D. Shamel, C. S. Pom- eroy, 315 ; Tobacco Hybrid, Plant Breeders Find New. True Hau- ser, 354 Toes, Extra, in Horse and Steer. B.O. Severson, 39 Tomatoes, Reciprocal Breeding in. Byron E. Halsted, 169 Tooth Color, Polydactylism and. S. Sinha, 96 Tracing Your Ancestors. Eben Putnam, 8 Training Little Children for the New Life, 322 Tree Crop, The Testing of a New, for Hardiness. Fairchild, 368 Tree Growth, Influence of Environment on. A. Robert- son Proschowsky, 80 Trees, China's, and Ours Strikingly Alike, 272 Tropical Varieties of Maize. G. N. Collins, 147 Tumors of the Nerves, Heredity of, 380 Twins, Photographs of, Wanted, 262, 332 David Variability in the Radish. E. Eugene Barker, R. H. Cohen, 357 Vegetable Fruits, Colors in. Byron D. Halsted, 18 Vocational Guidance in Music, 66 War, Is, Necessary? Paul Popenoe, 257 Wheat, Natural Crossing in. H. K. Hayes, 326 Wheat A thers, An Anomaly of. S. A. Anthony, 166 Wheats, Producing Bread-Making, for Warm Climates. George F. Freeman, 211 White, Orland E. Breeding New Castor Beans, 195 Why Navel Oranges Are Seedless. A. D. Shamel, 246 Why the Babies Die. The Editor, 62 Will Mortality Disappear’? Paul Popenoe, 269 Will Not Morality Necessarily Improve? Frederick Adams Woods, 331i Women, The Position of, after the War (Review of Book by Mrs. Walter M. Gallichan), 66 Woods, Frederick Adams. Kaiserism and Heredity, 348 Will Not Morality Necessarily Improve? 331 Wright, Sewall Color Inheritance in Mammals: I—Swine, 33 II—The Dog, 87 IlI—The Cat, 139 IV—Man, 227 Wright, Sewal!l, and Harrison R. Hunt. in Guinea-Pig Hair, 178 Pigmentation The Journal of Heredity (Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine) Volsixe Noel January, 1918 CONTENTS The Grafted Jujube of China, by David Fairchild.................. 3 Outline of Applied Sociology (Review of a Book by Henry Pratt [Paine fl Nag 5S Sola m wldedee so Oboe) Buca Nees ee ace me 7 Prectina Vi@DIre ASICS 106 8 os ae Sree teed ote ae oer eae 8 The Origin and Evolution of Life (Review of a Book by Henry Fair- clorilG| Dsic@rnn))s o ate diSpis'S Mace Satie oe SORE eee nee aa 14 Petalization in the Japanese Quince, by Albert A. Hansen... ...... 5 An Introduction to Social Psychology (Review of a Book by Charles AN. Lal cescorea ls: iso) Sa 6 BIO arr RIE oe OR oa cane en 17 Colors in Vegetable Fruits, by Byron D. Halsted... ................ 18 MheGanseormvionvohandmbectlty 25.060 0. be ne i ee 23 Introduction of Insect Pests to be Avoided......................... 23 Unusual Variation in Crook-Neck Squash _.......................... 24 Evolution by Hybridization, by E. C: Jeffrey...............20...00: 29 Mheininence of Heredity in Diabetes... : 2.5.0.6... 65. ee es 28 Some Variable Ears of Dent Corn, by A. D. Shamel................. 29 Organic Evolution (Review of a Book by Richard Swann Lull)...... 32 ANi@tlagll oe. an SS Renee |) Cy ee ee ee 32 Color Inheritance in Mammals; VIII, Swine, by Sewall Wright..... 33 Sexehationn Cattle Cannot be:‘Controlled. ....2 2.2... cet. cee ees 38 Extra Toes in Horse and Steer, by B. O. Severson................... 39 AN Tesi fpr SUP TCTA TAS Seo Re 8 Sree ee eS ce nce eee eae 42 Wetmaquerntaeallardsre sce = seers ok ne a ce ee wees ee he 44, Heeblemumoacaness im Delaware. =... 0.5.56 ones. Bao eee ee oe ees 15 Moreihemarkable Button-alls. —..... 2.3.2 os Stig tne ee ee 48 The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single copies. 25 cents. Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1917 by the American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. Date of issue of this number, DECEMBER 28, 1917. THE TOOTH JUJUBE, AN UNUSUALLY GOOD VARIETY Jujube fruits natural size, from the U. S. Plant Introduction Field Station, at Chico, Cali- fornia. This variety is grown in Peking gardens under the name “Yu tsao’’ meaning, “Tooth jujube” on account of the form and shape of the fruit. The quality of the fresh fruit, when ripe, is very good indeed. It processes well, and is one of the best flavored grafted sorts that have so far fruited in this country. S. P. I. 36854. Photograph by P. H. Dorsett, Oct. 1917. (Frontispiece.) — Heb eGRAFIED JUJUBE OF CHINA A Deciduous Hardy Fruit Tree That Flowers so Late in the Spring That Its Blooms Are Never Caught by the Frost Davip FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Indusiry, U . S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. HE word jujube is connected in the public mind with jujube paste and jujube lozenges, which formerly were in vogue as a cough remedy. These lozenges often had noth- ing whatever to do with the jujube, be- ing made of gum arabic and sugar. The Chinese jujube is practically a newly discovered fruit tree, so far as American agriculture is concerned; for although there are seedling jujubes in various public parks and door yards, which doubtless are the result of early introductions, through missionaries in China, the importation of the large fruited, grafted Chinese varieties was only begun in 1906. While some of the early introduced seeds have now grown into large sized trees and borne crops of small fruits which are of good flavor, these fruits have been too small to attract the seri- JUJUBE TREE WEIGHTED DOWN WITH FRUIT Nearby view of a jujube tree in the test orchard at the U.S. Plant Introduction Field Station. Chico, California. The limbs and main branches of the tree are weighted down with fruit There has not been a single failure of a crop of jujubes at the station since the trees were old enough to bear fruit something over six years ago. 1917. (Fig. 1.) Photograph by P. H. Dorsett, Oct. 2 re) JUJUBE TREE BEARING BEFORE ONE YEAR OLD A young jujube plant in nursery row, produced from a bench graft of January, 1917. This small tree less than a year old is bearing a very good crop of fine large fruit. This plant is especially interesting for the reason that the fruit is borne on hard wood branches that are not deciduous; while generally on older trees the fruit is born on slender deciduous branches of the current season’s growth. (Fig. 2.) ous attention of horticulturists. With the bearing in this country of the large fruited Chinese varieties, which were in- troduced in 1906, the jujube appears in quite a different light—one worthy of the serious consideraton of amateur and practical horticulturists living in those regions where they can be grown suc- cessfully. The claims of this new fruit tree may be briefly stated as follows, judging from the limited experience which this Office has had with it in various parts of the country, but without any pretence of being a complete statement of its possi- bilities, of which it is one of the objects of the distribution of plants to find out: The jujube is a medium-sized spiny tree which grows to be forty or more years old. Its rate of growth depends upon the climate in which it is grown. oa Photograph by P. H. Dorsett, Oct. 1917. Chico gardens. In New England, or regions with cool summers, it makes a very slow growth; whereas in northern California, where the thermometer goes to 120°F., it grows rapidly. No weather appears to be too hot for it, and so far as resistance to cold is concerned, it has withstood tempera- tures of 22° F. below zero without injury. Just how much lower winter tempera- tures it will withstand, has not yet been determined. The range of territory, however, over which it is likely to prove a success as a fruit tree, will be probably limited more by the warmth and length of the summer season than by the sever- ity of the winter. The whole southwest, with the exception of the elevated areas where cold summer nights occur and those portions of the Mississippi Valley, where the humidity and rainfall are not too great, as well as the drier portions FRUITING BRANCH OF THE MELTING JUJUBE This variety is known in China under the name ‘‘Langtsao.”’ Frank N. Meyer who intro- duced it says that it might be called ‘‘The melting jujube.’”’ The fruit when ripe is crisp and pleasing to the taste. The trees bear heavily and the fruit are excellent when processed. No. 22686 naturalsize: Photograph by P. H. Dorsett, Oct. 1917. (Fig. 3.) DECIDUOUS FLOWERING BRANCHES Showing deciduous flowering branches of the jujube natural size. From a tree in the test orchard at the U.S, Plant Introduction Field Station, Chico, Cal., May, 1916. Photograph by P. H. Dorsett. (Fig. 4.) of the Atlantic Coast states, appear promising regions in which to test the jujube. It enjoys brilliant sunshine, dry weather, and long, intensely hot sum- mers, and although it will form good sized trees under other conditions, it appears to require these climatic factors to make it fruit early in its life, regularly, and abundantly. As regards soil conditions, it appears to withstand slight amounts of alkali and to grow with special vigor on the loess, or wind drifted soil formations of China. As this formation composes large areas of north-western Iowa, it might be tested there, though the climate may prove too severe for it. Under irriga- tion in northern California, and without irrigation in central Texas, the trees have grown luxuriantly and fruited abundantly. In the warm humid sum- mer region of Maryland, seedling trees 6 have grown well, but fruited sparingly and irregularly. In Georgia, old seed- ling jujubes have fruited well. The trees have the characteristic habit of starting into growth slowly in the spring, which protects them from late spring frosts. The flowers are produced on the new growth of slender branches, and in this respect the jujube resembles the grape; with this difference, however, the new bearing canes of the grape are not deciduous; whereas the slender bearing twigs of the jujube as a rule fall after the first hard frosts, and soon after the leaves have fallen. The peach, almond and _ apricot bloom in northern California in Feb- ruary and March whereas the Chinese jujube blooms in May and June when all danger from frost is long over. Only those who have lost a fruit crop from frost can appreciate the advantage of Fairchild: The Grafted Jujube of China 7 this late blooming habit. Since trees in California and Texas first fruited, over six vears ago, they have never failed to produce good crops. The fruits of the wild jujube, which are produced in great abundance, are only about one-half inch in diameter, but some of the grafted Chinese varie- ties are as large as the French prune. They have a curious way of ripening, which gives a mottled appearance to the half ripe fruit. Brown spots appear upon the perfectly green fruit and these spread gradually until they meet and the whole fruit becomes chestnut brown. Shortly after the fruits turn brown they begin to shrivel and lose their crispness and become spongy. These dried juju- bes form an important article of com- merce in China, and deserve to be studied here. When not over-ripe the jujubes have a sweet delicate flavor, quite unlike any other fruit, and a texture and crispness which reminds one of a crabapple. One becomes fond of them even though they cannot be said to compare with other fresh fruits like the pear or apple. The ripe fruit contains a high per cent of cane sugar—as much as 20%. ‘It is as a prepared or candied fruit that the jujube deserves to be most ser- iously considered by American horticul- turists, for when processed as they are by the Chinese, they compare favorably with the Persian date in flavor and pala- tability, and to the unobserving, they might be mistaken for dates; in fact Europeans in China have persistently confused them with the fruit of the date palm. The preparation of candied jujubes is a simple culinary process consisting of boiling the ripe fruits for two hours in a thick syrup consisting of one pound of granulated sugar to one-half cupful of hot water. Three pounds of jujubes are put into this syrup in a low preserv- ing kettle and boiled slowly for two hours, and are then lifted out with a strainer and dried in the sun or in a heated oven. Some of the methods in use in China are more complicated than the above, honey being used as well as sugar, and they make a better product. Mr. Frank N. Meyer, who has seen the process in China, reports that the practice is to dry the jujube fruits, and to boil them three different times in sugar syrup, and afterwards 1n honey and sugar. Then, by slashing the skins af- ter the second boiling with a special tool, which cuts the skin into narrow longi- tudinal strips, a remarkable confection is produced which is comparable with the best Algerian or Persian Gulf date. What will be the fate of the Chinese grafted jubube in America it is impos- sible to predict, but it has shown its possibilities to hundreds of American horticulturists and their ingenuity and enterprise may be depended upon to develop its culture in the big compre- hensive way in which they have de- veloped the grape fruit, the olive, the date, the avocado and other fruits new to America. An Outline of Applied Sociology OUTLINE OF APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, by Henry Pratt Fairchild, Ph.D., assistant professor of the science of society in Yale University. Pp. 353, price $1.75. New York, the Macmillan Company, 66 Fifth avenue, 1916. Dr. Fairchild discusses eugenics and feminism together in a chapter en- titled “‘Revolutionary Schemes.’ He sees much value in such work as the elimination of the feebleminded, but thinks constructive eugenics will ap- peal least to those who need it most. “Tt must be observed, however,’ he says, “that the eugenics movement, as far as its leaders are concerned, makes no extreme claims, nor ad- vocates policies which it is not pre- pared to support. In this it differs diametrically from feminism. Eu- genics is thoroughly scientific.’ Dr. Fairchild is probably open to the criti- cism of construing eugenics too nar- rowly; as a fact, most of the hundred pages he devotes to questions of the family and population may be said to deal with eugenics. This part of the work will be of great value to eugenists, for it is clear, sensible, and interesting. TRACING YOUR ANCESTORS Genealogy not a Fad, but a Study of Importance to Every Individual—How to Investigate a Family History! YSTEMATIC study of ancestry has nowhere reached the development that it has in the United States. This is especially true in New Eng- land and in those sections most in- fluenced by New England. Theaverage American who claims an ancestry reach- ing back to pre-Revolutionary times is very likely to know a great deal about his family history, and is inclined to learn all he can. This is true of our people, whether they come of New England stock or of families who settled in the middle and southern states. . The advent from various parts of the world during the past quarter century of people, who are of different race affilia- tions, has tended to strengthen in the American of American lineage his inter- est and pride in his ,own forbears. Whatever the recent immigrant may have contributed toward the material wealth of the country, or to its institu- tions—and his influence has been greater than is realized—the true Ameri- can remembers that it was his ancestors who created this nation; and while he is willing to share largely with the new comer, he is usually anxious that his children shall know that they are de- scended from several generations of Colonial stock. This pride of ancestry has been found worthy of emulation by the descendants of the more intelligent class of emigrants, and the great advance in the study of eugenics has won many persons to an interest in genealogy, who hitherto had regarded ‘‘ancestor worship”’ as a mere fad. People have come to appreciate the fact that it is not a false pride which has led to the collection of data con- cerning one’s ancestry and connection, but a very sensible and practical desire to learn the nature and source of our various characteristics, worthy or other- wise. The study of genealogy in con- nection with eugenics bids fair to solve many a problem of the future. Fore- warned is forearmed. WHAT GENEALOGY 15S Genealogy is something more than the mere collection of names and dates. It should be a study of the individual and of the family group to which the indi- vidual belonged. Uncle and nephew may be more nearly allied in family traits than father and son. Hence one must include in his ancestral scheme the descendants for one or more generations of the common ancestor in each genera- tion. Also, as each individual inherits from two parents, and these parents from their parents, the investigation must be extended sufficiently to comprise at least four generations in every line of ancestry. Certain dominant character- istics will be found to persevere in a given family, and it is that family line which will probably afford the most interest, whether it be the paternal line or some line of one of the four grand- parents. The accident of a name does not determine the dominant family traits. The individual is a mosaic rather than a blend. Opportunity is, of. course, a controlling factor, whether accidental or established by persistent effort. Assuming an interest, dormant or active, in family history; the fact remains that very few persons have the information needed to enable them to make a systematic investigation. To such as have access to some of our large, 1The manuscript of this article some time since was given to the Editor of the JOURNAL OF Herepity by Eben Putnam, formerly editor of the Genealogical Magazine (now Capt., 2d M.R. C., in active service), with permission to make use of such portions as seemed of interest. The whole appeared of interest, and hence has been printed under the above caption. Captain Putnam was one of the first among American genealogists to appreciate the importance of genealogy to eugenics, and of preserving records of transmission of hereditary characteristics. He received an award at the U. C. E. in 1892 for his systems for collecting and arranging information.—EDITOR. 8 Tracing Your Ancestors 9 well-equipped libraries, opportunity is afforded to procure the information needed to begin a preliminary study, for there have been several books and a number of contributions to genealogical magazines which aim to guide the begin- ner. It is unfortunate, however, that the greater number, in fact most libraries, have failed to place such works on their shelves. The beginner in genealogy is therefore entirely at sea how to go about collecting the data he needs to form an intelligent foundation for the study of his ancestry. Yet the data are really nearly always ready at hand, or readily accessible if the right steps are taken. The first step is to arrange in a sys- tematic manner what information one already has regarding the family. There are a number of publications especially designed to record such data. Any up- to-date bookseller can procure these publications. But as a matter of fact the best system is home made. Later, when the material is in hand, verified, arranged, it can be transferred to some specially designed book. HOW TO CLASSIFY DATA The simplest method is to take a sheet of paper, of letter size, and midway in the left margin enter the name of the person whose ancestry is to be studied. At one-quarter the distance from the top, and about the same distance from the left margin, write the name of the father, and directly under his name and one-quarter the distance from the bot- tom write the name of the mother. Join these names by a bracket. Under each name write the date and place of birth, the date and place of death, and under the mother’s name the place and date of marriage. Under the father’s name write his occupation or profession, his titles if any, and other brief notes if there is room. Now make a third column, and write the names of the parents of father and of mother, join- ing each pair as before, and taking care that the distances between the names are equal. In a fourth column write the names of the great grandparents, joining each couple with a_ bracket. This last column will contain eight names, and will be at the very right of the sheet. Under each name write the date and place of birth, death, etc., and under the wife’s name the date and place of her marriage. This sheet now con- tains the names of every ancestor in three generations of the person whose name was first written. It carries the names of fifteen individuals. Take eight sheets of the same size as the first. At the left of each sheet write the name of one of the great grandparents, and duplicate for that person the record for his or her ancestors in the same fashion as on sheet No. 1. When complete, this series of nine sheets will show seven full generations of ancestry of the person whose name was first written on Sheet No. 1. Such a record, if complete, is in itself a very creditable performance, and few people can make up such a record without extensive research. As the average American of pre-Rev- olutionary ancestry is of the eighth or ninth, and often of the tenth generation from the emigrant ancestor, a third series of sheets will be required to show all of these ancestors. In the fourth generation appear eight ancestors. In the seventh generation there were sixty-four ancestors, and in the tenth generation there would be 512 ancestors. It is very probable that in one or more instances cousins will be found marrying, and hence the actual number of different individuals will be less than that estimated. In this connection it should be asserted that the often repeated statement that if the lines of everyone were extended back for a cer- tain number of generations it would re- sult in proving that all persons inherited more or less the same ancestry, is not the truth, unless, of course, we trace back to a common progenitor. The fact is, that people of one class or of one community marry among themselves, and in the community it 1s usually people of the same class who intermarry. Hence, while it may be true that a thousand years ago every yeoman in a certain village or even a larger district may be claimed as a common ancestor by those people who have remained in about the same social position, it is not the fact that every inhabitant in that district 10 The Journal can be claimed as a common ancestor by those people. The families of mer- chants married with other merchants, or with persons of less wealth but higher rank perhaps, the families of clergy with sons and daughters of clergymen or their connections, of nobles with nobles, etc. Soit might be that the descendants of a swineherd of King Alfred’s time never married out of their own circle unless it happened that they were of exceptional ability, or that they moved to some other district or country. It is probable that the blood of the higher class such as nobles is much more widely distributed in the lower classes than is the blood of lower. classes among repre- sentative upper class people. There are plenty of exceptions, and the intro- duction of the blood of the more able or attractive of the lower class into that of their superiors in position has undoubtedly been of greater value than the reverse condition, for a descent in the social scale usually indicates loss of some of those traits which enable one group of people to maintain their superiority over another group. NUMBERING THE ANCESTORS Having noted the ancestors as far as known, in the fashion described above, the next step is to number each one. Begin with the person whose ancestry is to be traced, let his father be No. 2, his mother No.*3, the paternal grand- father No. 4, the paternal grandmother No. 5, and so on, numbering down to the foot of each column, and giving a num- ber to any blank just as if the names were recorded. Thus each male has an even number, and each female an un- even number. Take a sheet of paper, the same size as the charts, and head it with the name and number of an individual. On this sheet in proper order write all the infor- mation known about that person. Give his life history. Describe his physical and mental characteristics. On the reverse of the sheet give a list of his children (in the case of women, the names of children by another husband than the ancestor should be given, but —_—_ of Heredity do not duplicate the names of children on her husband’s sheet). Number the children, the eldest being No. 1, and record the dates and places of their birth, marriage and death, and the places where they lived; their occupa- tion or profession, and what is known of them, their mental and physical char- acteristics, accomplishments, and what- ever is of interest in them or their descendants. If necessary, add sheets bearing the same number, and lettered in order, as No. 1A, No. 1B, ete. It will be seen that from such a record, however incomplete it may be, can be discovered very much of interest and value. The reading of C. B. Daven- port’s book ‘Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” or M. F. Guyer’s “Being Well Born,’’ will serve to direct one as to the character and detail of the informa- tion which should be preserved, and the use that information can be put to. Other information which should be recorded is whatever pertains to the military, naval, civil, educational, or social activities of the person described. Every item recorded should be ac- companied with a reference to the source of information. This is most important. Enclose the reference in parentheses after the statement, thus “Born 10th Oct., 1836 (Family bible in possession of Aunt Mary Smith),” “Served in Jackson’s 10th N. H. regiment, Clay’s company, June, 1862—Sept., 1864 (Regi- mental History by Jones, page 345) (also enlistment and discharge papers, my possession).’’ ‘Black hair and eyes, tall (5 ft. 11 inches), weight about 190 pounds (statement: of Chas. F., his son).”’ “Died Jan. 20, 1897 (grave- stone at Lebanon, also Lebanon town record).”’ As it is not likely that the information to be entered on these sheets will be at hand, it is well to consider how it may be obtained. THE FIRST STEP The first recourse one thinks of is some relative more or less acquainted with the family history. Sometimes a personal interview is practicable, but it 2 Even more useful is Bulle/in No. 13 of the Eugenics Record Cffce: ‘‘How to Make a Eugeni- cal Family Study,” by Charles B. Davenport and Harry H. Laughlin TrE Ep1TcR \ Tracing Your Ancestors 11 is rarely that the first interview yields all that the person interviewed really knows. Ifa letter is written, it is best not to demand too much information at first. Proceed by degrees. Everyone may not be as interested as you are, and to write at one time a detailed history of all the members of the family of whom one has knowledge is a task apt to be shirked rather than accomplished. In the first letters ask only the leading questions. Let each subsequent letter deal with a special individual or sub- ject. File the answers to your letters of inquiry, giving each a proper number, if practicable the number of the person to which it mostly relates. The second step is to discover if there exists any family record, as is often found in a Bible, and to cover every item therein. Great care should be taken in writing such abbreviations as Jan. and Jun., and in writing dates. A careless ‘copy often leads to much vexation at a later period when the original cannot be referred to. If members of the family have been interred in some nearby cemetery, their gravestones should be examined to obtain the dates usually cut upon them. If the family has resided long in one place, the town record of births, mar- riages, and deaths will yield information. So, usually, will the church records, especially of certain denominations. Admissions and dismissals from church membership should be examined as well as records of baptisms, marriages and burials. The latter are not always kept. The above sources of information having been exhausted, one may now seek information in printed books. To discover if any family history has been published examine the list of American and English Genealogies published in 1910 by the Library of Congress, which may be had of the Government Print- ing Office for a dollar, if it is not on the shelves of the local library. If the local library has ever paid any attention to genealogy, it will most likely have Durrie’s Index, and later publications, giving lists of articles devoted to certain families which may have been printed. A _ well-equipped library will have a number of reference works of that character, and may pos- sess the Index to the first fifty volumes of the New England Historical Genea- logical Register, a valuable and expen- sive work which will prove of the greatest service, especially if the fa- mily lines run back to New England. For New York, and many New England families, the New York Bio- graphical Genealogical Record will be found useful, and for the South such publications as the William and Mary Aitstorical Quarterly and The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. There are a number of genealogical periodicals, published privately or by societies, and proceedings of historical societies, to all of which the librarian can direct a searcher, or concerning which information may be obtained by writ- ing to The Genealogical Magazine, 26 Broad Street, Boston, Mass. CRITICAL JUDGMENT NECESSARY In using any printed source it must be borne in mind that all that is in print is not truth. Especially is this true of publications prior to 1880, or even later, as not until quite recent years has genealogy become the exact study it now is, and tradition and guesswork were often responsible for many statements which cannot be authenticated by re- corded evidence. If the family is settled in the West, in fact anywhere west of the Hudson River, it is rare that the family history can be traced for more than three or four generations without resorting to the original records found in the older set- tlements. It may be that histories of the family under investigation have been printed either separately or in some town or county history. Such publications are, very numerous for some portions of the country, and are more or less helpful according to circumstances. A few libraries have sought to place all such publications on their shelves. Every library should have some guide to what has been published. Inquiry and a little persistence will sometimes result in the purchase by local libraries of a few of the most useful books. Libraries rarely buy what there is little or no call for, and the average library 12 The Journal of Heredity appropriation is far too small for its needs. One of the most important steps is to learn what records exist, and the use which may be made of them. A very useful aid in this connection is a series of articles which appeared in the Genea- logical Quarterly Magazine for 1900 and 1901. In the July, 1900, issue were published ‘‘Some Directions for Compil- ing and Publishing Family Histories,”’ “The Printed Book,” ‘‘Eligibility in Hereditary Societies,’ and “‘Surnames;”’ in the October issue, ““Some Sources of Information Regarding Pennsylvania and New Jersey Genealogy,” and in the December issue, ‘Records and Record-Searching in England.”’ These articles are all of broader application than the titles indicate, and will be found to abound’ with references to printed as well as original sources. Other helpful articles of similar nature are found in other issues of that maga- zine, and its predecessor, Putnam’s Historical Magazine. Reference to the ‘‘Guide to Contents,’ under ‘‘Genea- logy,” and similar heads will help. Phillemore’s, ‘‘How to Write the His- tory of a Family,” although intended for English readers, will be found of service, as also Mills’ ‘‘Foundations of Genea- logy.”” Rye’s “Records and Record- Searching,’ also an English work, may be profitably referred to. ORIGINAL SOURCES The original sources may be briefly classified as follows: Town Records.—In Massachusetts the records of a great many towns have been published in a series entitled “Vital Records,’ and in addition many other town records have been printed. Every state library has a set of the published Vital Records of Massachusetts. County Records.—In most states the county seat is the depositary of the probate and land records, and often of marriage records or licenses, as well of other series of helpful records. The settlement of estates is a prolific source of information. The establishment of new counties out of old should always be borne in mind, as the estate of a ’This refers to peace time conditions. in National Archives. person dying before the setting up of the new county is found in the old. In some instances there are published lists of estates settled. State Archives—The Secretary of State usually has in his charge a great variety of records, relating to grants, lands, estates, soldiers, court proceed- ings, etc. The Clerks of the Supreme Court have also records of genealogical value. Clerks of all courts are custo- dians of various records. Asa rule only the experienced searcher can use these records to advantage, but they are in- dispensable in completing a thorough search. National Archives.*—The national gov- ernment has such an immense accu- mulation of historical and genealogical material in its possession, that reference must be made to the published guide to the Archives. The most useful series and the series most likely to be used with profit by the beginner in genealogy are the Revolutionary pension files and the Land Office records. The published Census of 1790 is of the greatest value, as most heads of families, their resi- dence, number of males and females in family, and other facts are given. There are also published lists of pensioners at different times. To obtain proof of eligibility to certain hereditary societies these records are of the greatest help. Information regarding any known sol- dier ancestor who was a pensioner may be had by writing to the Commissioner of Pensions. Most of the older states ‘have published lists of their Revolu- tionary War soldiers, and there are many lists of soldiers in subsequent wars, while the Civil War rolls of the various states have, of course, been largely published. Application to the Adjutant-General of any state will bring information concerning a Civil War soldier if information sufficient to aid in his identification is furnished. As one’s ancestral record grows, the lack of certain information becomes ap- parent, and the very character of that information will in itself suggest a course of inquiry if the investigator has taken pains to acquaint himself with the character of modern and earlier records. At present it is not advisable to attempt research Tracing Your Ancestors 13 When the time comes’ that certain definite information is needed, and the source of that information is not acces- sible, the services of genealogists.may be had. There are many persons who fol- low this profession and are more or less well qualified to conduct a _ search. Some are merely record agents, that is, they look up certain records and copy the items found. Such agents are usually qualified to suggest further sources of information. Their charges are ordinarily based on the time con- sumed in the work, so much by the hour on day, (Others are what might be termed constructive genealogists. These will accept a commission to work up all that may be found concerning an individual and his ancestry, or a family, and are usually competent to arrive at correct deductions as to relationship, etc. These usually base their charges upon the service rendered, dependent upon the difficulty of the work, its importance, etc. Charges vary greatly. It is always customary to forward the fee in full or part at the time the com- mission is placed. Of course special arrangements are made in the case of expected extensive and prolonged re- search. Having unearthed what may be found about one’s American ancestors, it is always satisfactory to learn something of their origin. It is still more satis- factory if their English, Scottish, Irish, French, Dutch, or German ancestry, as the case may be, can be discovered, and this is frequently accomplished. It isa department of genealogical work for which special preparation and experience is needed, and is most successfully under- taken by Americans familiar with Euro- pean records. The prospectuses so often received by Americans sent out by European record agents, publishers of armorial works, etc., should be carefully scrutinized before acceptance, and if possible information sought of the officers of some of the genealogical societies in this country, who are in- formed as to the reliability of many of the foreign genealogists. Foreign investigation sometimes leads to very interesting discoveries. The work of the late Henry F. Waters, the results of which have been largely printed, has given us access to a great mass of material relating to the families of American pioneers of the seventeenth century. Other investigators preceded him and have followed him, and very much is known about our first settlers, far more than is generally realized. COATS OF ARMS In all European countries there are certain persons whose right to use armorial bearings is officially recognized. In this country it is a matter of con- science and good form. Coat armol is sometimes the badge of ancient de- scent, sometimes not. A grant may be of yesterday or of five centuries past. Some arms may be of such antiquity that their origin is unknown. But in every instance the right to arms is hereditary. It isa right which descends usually from the father to all his male descendants. The use of coat armor is hedged about by many rules, and when properly observed these rules are a help in genealogical research. An American who inherited a coat of arms has a per- fect right to display that coat, but unless the right to bear arms is undoubted, a matter either subject to proof or of ancient usage, it is considered bad form to use a coat of arms. Arms are not at- tached to a name, but toa person. All persons of the same name are not entitled to bear the same arms. The usual source of information regarding armorial bearings is Burke’s descriptive catalogue of arms made up from every source imaginable. It has no authority sharcoeree and is responsible for more instances of “‘bogus”’ arms than any other source. Heraldic Visitations were established in England and maintained for two hundred years, and few in- stances of legitimate arms escaped registration. Some arms in use prior to the visitations are not recorded. If descent from a person legitimately bear- ing arms not recorded in the Visitations can be proved, the right to bear those arms exists. Arms illustrated in an American family history are frequently, we may say usually, not authoritative so far as that particular family is con- cerned. It requires very careful iden- tification to prove the descent of ar- morial dignities, and the ancestry of 14 The Journal of Heredity the emigrant has sometimes to be proved several generations to establish any right to arms. In most cases that right cannot be established, whether it exists or not. As the greater portion of the population of any country is not en- titled to bear coat armor, it follows that emigrants from such a country are more likely to be of the non-armorial popula- tion than the reverse. The average emi- grant to America was no more likely to be of armorial dignity than the people of his class whom he left at home. It is true, however, that the emigrant was superior in energy to the people of his class who remained at home. Most of the early emigrants were yeomen, mer- chants, adventurers, people who were seeking new fields to improve their con- dition. There was a fair proportion of men of good position who were of the landed class, or men of wealth, or mem- bers of gentle families. This propor- tion was as great in New England as in any part of the country. Moreover, fewer indentured servants were sent to New England, or came to New England of their own accord, than to any other part of the country. Hence if one traces one’s ancestry to New England there is perhaps a better chance of dis- covering the origin of the emigrant than if he went to some other portion of the sea-board. The emigration of the Scots settled in Ireland (the so-called Scotch-Irish), that of the Dutch to New York, and of the Germans to Pennsylvania and New York, are all special features in genealo- gical research, and difficulties in tracing American ancestry in the regions in which they settled are somewhat greater than tracing ancestry in other parts. This is due to various factors, such as change in name in the case of the Dutch; and in the case of the Scotch-Irish to the lack of records, both here and in Ireland. Whether one confines his work to the American ancestors, or follows one or more particular lines across the ocean, the fact remains that without careful work in checking results the conclusions drawn regarding hereditary charac- teristics will be worthless. The field is a broad one, nor must it be supposed that the characteristics of a remote an- cestor are without interest. They are often so vital, so persistent, that a descendant many generations removed appears more nearly allied to some remote ancestor than to those of im- mediately preceding generations. The Origin and Evolution of Life THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE, by Henry Fairchild Osborn. Pp. 322, with 135 illustrations; price $3.90. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1917. Professor Osborn is not satisfied with the current method of studying evolu- tion, because it attempts to reach the causes by working backward from a study of form and function in animals and plants. He proposes to start from the other end and study evolution in terms of energy. The actual problem, he says, is the interrelations of four distinct evolutions of energy: (1) or- ganic environment, (2) organism, (3) heredity-germ, (4) life environment. This is doubtless sound philosophic- ally, but as a method of research it 1s predestined to failure, for “living en- ergy’ is far too elusive a thing for the evolutionist profitably to grapple with. Professor Osborn himself does not get far; he brings together a vast and beau- tifully illustrated compilation of facts, but the critical genetic reader will quickly discover that the inductions drawn from them present more novelty in phraseology than in ideas. The author admits that much more progress in science must be made before the success of his method can be deter- mined; but certainly those who have used it in the past have found it barren and, indeed, essentially mystical. It is doubtful if even the championship of such a weighty authority as Dr. Osborn will cause many students to revert to the old viewpoint of the ‘evolution of energy’”’ while the study of form and function is yearly becom- ing more fruitful. PETALIZATION IN THE JAPANESE QUINCE ALBERT A. HANSEN L .S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C VERY one has frequently won- dered just why a cultivated rose should possess an abundance of petals, whereas the wild rose usually has but five petals. To fully understand this phenomenon, funda- mental explanations may be of great assistance. It is well known that a leaf bud is simply a tiny branch bearing a number of tiny leaves; when the miniature branch expands and grows the surround- ing bud bracts drop and the leaves en- large. In such plants as the horse- chestnut the number of leaves contained in the bud is frequently the same as the number of leaves appearing on the resulting developed branch. In a similar manner there is reason to consider a flower bud as a tiny branch containing leaves, differing in that the stem remains practically the same length throughout the entire life of the flower; 1. e., the stem remains shortened instead of elongating, as was the case with the stem in-the leaf bud. Upon this much shortened stem are groups of leaves, mostly highly modified; in its fullest expression a typical flower contains leaf groups known as sepals, pétals, stamens, and pistils. The plasticity of these leaf groups 1s COMPLETE SERIES FROM PETAL TO ANTEER A complete series is here represented, starting with a perfect petal to the left. Byg radu stages, petals with remnants of the anther lobe attached are reached and next may noted an anther which has become slightly petaloid, while on the extreme right is the perie stamen. With the progressive petalization of the filaments, the anther shows less and less development, finally disappearing entirely. (Fig. 5.) TWO ENTIRE FLOWERS SHOWING PETALIZATION Views of two flowers of the Japanese Quince, Cydonia japonica, showing the extent to which petals, inarily realized. Complete inter- gradations may be worked out from the bracts enveloping the flower bud to the whorl of stamens. Thus in the cactus wer it 1s practically impossible to say ‘enveloping bracts stop and the sepals commence. Likewise in the white water lily one cannot distinguish vhere the sepals stop and petals begin. Similarly, in the flower of the Japanese quince (Cydonia japonica). here illus- ed, there is a complete intergrading of the petals and stamens, there being listinct line of demarcation between sets of plant structures. An examination of the accompanying illus- tration will reveal the interesting fact y be found half of which are in the form of petals, and petals may form of stamens. so complete that entire petals are present containing what be but the remnants of an anther on the appear to top. 16 takes place on the individual flowers. | while close scrutiny will reveal slight petalization of some of the anthers. Remnants of anthers may be seen on A similar phenomenon is exhibited in many double flowers as, for instance, in double roses. By means of cultivation, man has succeeded in changing the stamens and pistils of completely double flowers into petals. That the pistils react similarly is demonstrated in wild plants by certain species of Trillium and in cultivated plants by roses and cher- ries; in these plants the pistils occasion- ally are transformed into green leaf-like structures. In order to create flowers with a large number of petals by means of cultiva- tion, 1t is obvious then that a plant should be selected for experimentation containing a large number of stamens, a plant such as the wild rose, buttercup, or strawberry. The process is techni- cally termed petalody or petalization. It seems to be aided, as is suggested by the petalization of tulips, by the presence of abundant nutrition, particularly the presence of nitrogenous substances. Hansen: Petalization in the Japanese Quince 17 Abundant nitrogen in the soil tends toward leaf production among plants in general. With an appreciation of these facts in mind the question naturally arises: Did stamens originate from petals or did petals originate from stamens’ Neither viewpoint can be satisfactorily and ade- quately supported, although the evi- dence leans most strongly to the view thati petals originated from stamens. This was accomplished probably by the progressive petalization of the fila- ments, accompanied by a proportionate decrease in development of the anther or zore-sac, until the anther disappeared entirely. Although scientifically not fully under- stood, petalization seems to be heritable, since the phenomenon is frequently re- peated by the offspring. Inheritance by means of seed is possible when sufficient stamen structure remains for pollination purposes, and inheritance by vegetative reproduction is frequently attained when complete petalization robs the plant of the chance to produce seed. Among flowers of the composite type, repre- sented by the asters and chrysanthe- mums, doubling never prevents seed production, due to the fact that petaliza- tion is of a different morphological nature than the same phenomenon in the groups lower than ‘the composites. Double petunias are propagated by seed in a most interesting manner. The hereditary character of the doubling is so strong that seeds are saved from petunias which are almost completely petalized, only sufficient pistil and stamen structure remaining to insure pollination. Still another factor which may cause petalization is disease due to the presence of fungi and perhaps to other causes. This type of petalization is not, of course, hereditary, but may be infec- tious. The phenomenon of the intergrading of petals and stamens such as is here illustrated is well known, but the fact that it is so perfectly shown in the Japanese quince is not a matter of com- mon knowledge. No mention is made of it in the botanical text-books now in common use in which this interesting subject is discussed, hence the matter is brought to the attention of teachers and others so that a source of unsuspected illustrative material may thus be re- vealed. Japanese quince is a common ornamental, frequently used in land- scape work. An Introduction to Social Psychology AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSY- CHOLOGY, by Charles A. Ellwood, Ph.D., professor of sociology in the University of Missouri. Pp. 343, price $2.00 net. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1917. Eugenics is outside the scope of Pro- fessor Ellwood’s book, and he does not even refer to it directly. But what he has to say about evolution and human nature are of interest to the student of heredity, even though his discussion is largely theoretical and little illustrated by concrete examples. Four wide- spread views of human nature must now be abandoned, he says. These are (1) the view that the individual is passive and acts only as the result of Stimuli from the environment; (2) that the individual’s acts are due to the desire to seek pleasure or to avoid pain; (3) that the individual is in- nately selfish, and such altruism as exists is an out-growth of egoism; (4) that the individual is a self-contained entity. Instead, ‘“‘science shows the individual to be a self-active unit, fashioned by the forces of an organic evolution which has been, at the same time, a social evolution; that is, the individual has been developed as a member of a group, and the environ- ment to which he has had to adapt him- self has been largely an environment of his fellow beings.’”’ Action really springs from within, although it is guided by the external environment; and altruism is just as original a tend- ency in human nature as is selfishness. COLORS IN VEGETABLE FRUITS Tomato, Eggplant and Pepper, Belonging to the Same Family, Have Similar Groups of Simple Color Factors—Combinations Are Easy to Make. Byron D. HALstep Botanical Department, New Jersey Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. HE maturity colors of the fruits of tomato, pepper, eggplant, as well as other vegetable fruits, lend themselves well to a study of their inheritance. In the tomato fruit, the skin and the flesh may be considered separately at the outset. The skin is either trans- parent or is colored with an orange pig- ment. These two types are easily dis- tinguished by removing a portion of the skin, scraping it clean of all adhering pulp and holding it up toward the sun or other light, or laying it upon white paper. The flesh is either pink-purple or lemon-yellow, and this fact needs no further demonstration than that of making slices through the mature fruit. It is not claimed that there are no variations, but the above statements hold in a general way and serve as a basis for the more detailed consideration that follows. As all tomato fruits consist of the interior and the skin surrounding it, and as there are two colors for both flesh and skin, it is clear that the possible com- binations are four, namely: (1) lemon flesh and colorless skin, (2) lemon flesh and orange skin, (3) red flesh and color- less skin, and (4) red flesh and orange skin. These four combinations con- stitute four fruit colors in the order above given as follows: (1) lemon, (2) orange, (3) pink, and (4) red. All of these color-terms are only approximate, but they will serve for the present pur- pose and have the advantage of being short and leading to no confusion. In breeding it is found that the pink flesh is dominant over the lemon flesh, and the orange skin is dominant over the colorless skin. It follows that the varieties of lemon-colored tomatoes are doubly recessive, and when bred within 18 the group are not expected to produce any other color of fruit. It, by the way, is a group of kinds that is rarely repre- sented in cultivation excepting where a large assortment is sought for some special purpose. The reason for this general exclusion of the lemon tomatoes is not within the scope of this paper to consider. The orange-colored group of varieties perhaps stands second in repre- sentatives in the fields and gardens and is particularly noticeable among the smaller types, like “pear,” plimiy and ‘‘cherry”’ sorts used for preserving, pickling, etc. In breeding it is to be borne in mind that the two characters combined are the lemon flesh and the orange skin, in other words a recessive for the former and a dominant for the latter, and within the group the offspring would be expected to be constant in fruit color. BREEDING TWO GROUPS Let the two above groups be bred together and it is clear that the flesh will remain the same and the only variation will be in the skin, for here a dominant (orange) is combined with a recessive (colorless), and according to rule in the F, all plants will bear orange fruits, and in the F, three-fourths of the plants will bear orange fruits and one-fourth lemon fruits. In the third group the fruits are pink (sometimes called purple, as the Ponderosa) and therefore have a domi- nant flesh color and a recessive skin color. This group seems to stand third on the list for popularity among the growers of the fruit. When bred with- in its own group, no change need be expected so far as fruit color is con- cerned. Let it be bred with the first group, the lemon-fruited sorts, and then there is a combination of the flesh colors with no diversity in skin. Here the Halsted: Colors in Vegetable Fruits result will be according to rule, namely, all plants bearing pink fruits for Fi, and three-fourths of the plants bearing pink, and one-fourth plants bearing lemon colored fruits in the F2. When bred with the second group, namely, the orange-fruited sorts, the combination is between the colorless skin and pink flesh of one parent with the orange skin and lemon flesh of the other, and there- fore both pairs of characters are present. In the F,; the two dominants assert themselves and all plants produce red fruits, that is, neither parent color is reproduced; while in the Fall four of the above named types are obtained in the following ratios: red 9, pink 3, orange 3, lemon 1. The following table may help to add clearness to the above conclusions by graphically showing the details of the combinations: 19 is, contain nothing that is unexpressed, and these occupy diagonal squares from the upper left to the lower right hand corner. Plants that arise from these unions, if grown in strict isolation, re- produce themselves and through their progeny for all time either red, pink, or- ange or lemon fruits as the case may be. SECOND GENERATION COMBINATIONS The diagrammatic table is introduced in particular to show in how many ways the four characters are combined in the F, of the cross that is here considered. It is seen that the following unions are expecseGeuis © e((2))5 Os e(2).2 PO: eve (hala len c(2) hance c(2)- thats, there is one in eight of the plants with red fruits that carries the factor for lemon flesh, and an equal number of red fruited plants with the colorless skin factor recessive. For example, when a TABLE I eerie 7 —— ~ San (ere ee Se ae ea eRe pees Male | Red Pink Orange Lemon Female er | 12s (0), Pac 1@} ics Red (sea 2 3 4 POE 2a4O. SAPO) P2O><¢Ere Is @sS<12s Or cP n® Red Red Red Red Pink 5 6 7 | 3 IP 12 OSI. Pace ae IO SGeac: Licxaileic Pep cliec 5 OL SUNUSUAL_SORTS Aside from the four types above men- tioned there are others, as, for example, the- striped-fruited group; and this, when bred with a white sort, gives slightly striped fruits in the F,;; and when ee) 22 The Journal united with a purple-fruited kind yields solid purple fruits in the F; and a small percentage of striped fruits in the Fs, thus indicating the recessive nature of the character of stripedness. When Long White is bred with Dwarf Purple all the fruits in the F; are purple, but in the F. four types are secured, namely: (1) purple, (2) pink, (3) green, and (4) white with the ratios of 9:3:3:1. This cross presents a full expression of all four factors that resided in the parents and by isolation, new types, so far as this cross is concerned, may be established; but historically they are probably as old as those from which they sprang in this particular cross. While red as a final color does not appear in the American eggplants it is common to the genus, as, for example, the Chinese group that breeds with our garden kinds and yields hybrids that are beset with puzzling color combi- nations. PEPPERS Another genus (Capsicum) of the Solanaceae contain the peppers of the vegetable garden. Their fruits are of the same botanical type (berry) as the tomato and eggplant, but usually differ from them in certain structural peculi- arities. However, it might be written in passing that the kinship is shown by those members which have fruits so nearly alike in size, shape and color as to be easily mistaken for each other. Thus the tomato pepper closely re- sembles the dwarf Champion type of tomatoes and from them the fruits of the Chinese eggplant are not easily distinguished at a distance. The leading colors of peppers are the red and orange, the red being much more common in the market. In breeding, the orange is clearly a recessive to the red. The skin is transparent and does not develop the combinations noted in tomato and eggplant. There are, how- ever, other color differences that need a word of consideration, and this relates to the color of the fruit before it reaches the red or orange of the fully matured state. of Heredity On account of peppers being sold in large part before they are mature, these transitory colors deserve more than a passing word. For example, there are certain leading commercial sorts that are of a light green color while others are dark green. This is due to a lack of much of the chlorophyll that abounds in the wall of the fruit. This character of light green is a recessive to the dark green, as has been shown by breeding together the two types. When mature, these two classes of fruits are not dis- tinguishable by their color. Again, the color path that the fruit takes in going from the green to the fully mature condition varies. Ordi- narily the way is strictly from the green to the red (or orange) by all graduations from green to red (or orange), but there’ are some kinds that pass first to the orange through an attractive lemon (quite pale at first), and then on to the red. In this last phase the fruits often exhibit, at the same time, a wide range of colors from the original green that may be retained in some parts, due to the lack of exposure to the direct sun- light, to the red and orange mingled with the red. This fleeting maturation color display proves to be a breeding character that is recessive to the ordi- nary simple line of changes. WIDESPREAD COLORATION Lastly, the whole pepper plant may be more or less endowed with the power to develop a purplish color. This mani- fests itself most frequently in the nodes, but may be so abundant as to mark the green in the whole stem and appear in the petals and the fruit. This purple color is subject to much fluctuation within the variety, but cer- tain sorts exhibit it generally and often so strongly that the fruit, for example, when green, is so dark that it appears almost black. The breeding values of the purple color are not fully under- stood. It seems at least to emphasize the relationship to the eggplants where, as previously noted, a similar color abounds and becomes a_ foundation factor in the grouping of the varieties. In the tomatoes a similar purple, al- though usually less pronounced, is found Halsted: Colors in Vegetable Fruits 2S in the stems, and abounds in many allied genera as Datura, etc. A general breeding color scheme for peppers, not at all inclusive, is as follows: (1) orange-indirect, (2) orange-direct, (3) red-indirect, (4) red-direct. This does not embrace the characters for amount of green in immature fruits; or the presence of purple, that is a general plant color; or those several modifica- tions of red or orange that seem to be associated with firmness of the flesh, that is, a fruit with unusually long vacant spaces is often pale, as compared with the color of the solid fruits. It is noted that, broadly considered, the tomato, eggplant and pepper have red and yellow as the leading fruit colors. With tomato and eggplant the skin- color is a fundamental character in breeding. In pepper several color fac- tors are active before full maturity, and in this it shows its close affinity to the eggplant. The purple color is a plant character that is most conspicuous in table-mature eggplant, quite common in young peppers and least evident in the tomato, and is subject to a wide range of expression, as influenced by the environment. The Cause of Mongolian Imbecility One of the rarer forms of feeble- mindedness, making up 3% or 4% of all cases, is Mongolian imbecility, so-called because those affected have a facial appearance more or less remotely re- sembling that of the Mongolian races. Mongolian imbecility has been gener- ally believed to be due to something in the condition of the mother, and not to heredity. Dr. Charles Herrman, writ- ing in the Archives of Pediatrics (July, 1917), points to the fact that of twins, one may be a Mongolian imbecile and the other normal. ‘There is no posi- tive evidence,” he concludes, ‘‘that worry, emotional shock, illness during pregnancy, or congenital syphilis are important or essential factors in the causation of Mongolian imbecility. The evidence that Mongolian imbecility is a unit character and recessive, although not conclusive, is certainly suggestive.” The evidence on which Dr. Herrman relies, however, is very slender, and the case must be considered still open. Introduction of Insect Pests to be Avoided While increased production of food stuffs and the practice of war economies is being constantly preached on every side, there is another phase of the problem which is not so generally dis- cussed, but when once considered, is found to be of vast import. This is the prevention of the further introduction of insect pests and plant diseases into this country. The Massachusetts For- estry Association in Bulletin 121 has brought together some striking figures to show the loss annually caused by those pests and diseases which are already pres- ent and makes the startling statement that the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture has listed over 3,000 more insects which are found in foreign countries as pests and although not yet introduced here may have to be ‘contended with at any-moment. It appears that the insects which by a con- servative estimate are costing the coun- try $500,000.000 annually are but a scattered vanguard of the myriads which are ready to follow at the first oppor- tunity. Undoubtedly the only possible prophylactic measure is to enact such legislation as will provide for keeping these pests out by keeping diseased importations out. It is not so much a question of keeping the plants out as of how the plants shall be brought in, but without insects and diseases. Effec- tive quarantining before the pest has secured a foothold in this country. would do much to make the task of those who are producing the food stuffs to win the world war less heavy. UNUSUAL VARIATION IN:‘CROOK-NECK SQUASH In the springfof 1916 I planted seed of the ‘‘scallop” and of the ‘‘crook-neck’”’ squash (without warts), in the same bed. The fruit was the same as the original. I reserved for seed one of the ‘‘crook-neck”’ which I planted this spring. The result was surprising. The forms and:general characters were very diverse, as may be seen above, which shows a few of the various shapes. Some were smooth, while others had warts. The colors varied from white and light grey to yellow and’orange. (Fig. 7.) J. GLENN Cook, Baltimore, Md. EVOLUTION BY HYBRIDIZATION Review of a Book by J. P. Lotsy—Interesting Views Regarding Origin of Variability Set Forth—Extreme Mechanistic Hypothesis Upheld by Author— Analogies Presented Are Interesting but Do Not Constitute Real Scientific Argument E._C.. JEFFREY, Botanical Laboratories, Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. as the basis of the present observa- tions, Dr. Lotsy has put forward very interesting views as to the origin of variability. As is well known, Charles Darwin accepted variation as a funda- mental and unexplainable quality of living matter, acted upon by natural selection for the production of new species. The great English biologist held that the most significant variations were as a rule small ones, which only became accentuated in the process of time as a result of the cumulative action ef the process of selection. More recently De Vries on the botanical side has put forward the view that new species originate full armed, as it were, by the mysterious process of mutation, which takes place in certain instances— for example, in.a considerable number of species of the American genus Oenothera, under conditions which have not yet been satisfactorily explained. The au- thor under discussion puts forward the extreme hypothesis that all variability in living beings is due to crossing or hybridization.! ; Lotsy’s attitude is mechanistic in the extreme, as may be inferred from the following italicized statement from his book, the italics being his: “The problem of the species and its origin 1s consequently comparable to that of the pure chemical substance and its origin, the problem of the heterozygotes of differ- ent constitutions which we find in nature and of their origin 1s comparable to the problem of the ores found in nature and their origin.” “It is difficult indeed to see anything |: THE slender volume which serves in common between a hybrid and an ore (compound) of iron or copper found in nature. This extreme laxity of com- parison is all the more surprising, as the author states on a later page (144), “So one reaches all kinds of attractive but quite unfounded conclusions, as f. t. (by which the author means for instance), the flapper (sic!) of a seal is a metamorphosed hind leg (sic!) of a land animal, which conclusion is about as well founded as that the door of my house is a metamorphosis (sic!) of the door of my neighbor’s (sic/).’’ Quite aside from any obvious criticism of the author’s English, he clearly labors under the elementary error of supposing that the flipper of a seal represents the posterior appendage of a land mammal, and he further supposes that evolution- ists still hold to the antiquated doctrine of metamorphosis. Charles Darwin with characteristic honesty admitted his indebtedness to Paley’s ‘‘ Evidences of Christianity,” which he was forced to study in college, in acquiring a clear and logical method of reasoning. It would apparently be well for the mechanistic biologists, who swarm at the present time, to admit also their indebtedness to the oldest if not the least dogmatic of the sciences, theology. If they had the grace to do so, their debt would doubtless be to Bishop Butler’s famous ‘‘ Analogy of Religion.’’ Lotsy’s comparison of hy- brids with metal ores is on all fours with the well-known Butlerian argument. that the human worm will enjoy a future winged state because the lowly cater- pillar later becomes the resplendent 1 Evolution by Means of Hybridization, by J. P. Lotsy. The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1916. 25 26 The Journal butterfly. Analogies are interesting but they do not constitute scientific argu- ment, however much they may appeal to the socialistic and half educated mind. Much of the present-day mechanism has a foundation not more substantial than the resemblance between a butterfly and an angel. NATURE OF SPECIES Our author makes a serious beginning with his subject in connection with the discussion of the perennial subject of the nature of a species. He points out that the Linnean conception of a species was a collection of like individuals, influenced more or less in unimportant details by conditions of environment. For some reason, which he does not make clear, he also conceives this to be the mor- phological definition of a species. An unfortunate defect of the work through- out is a strong bias against morphology, which Darwin strongly states in his “Origin of Species”? to be the soul of biology. To the Linnean definition of a species the author applies the name Linneon. Jordan in the nineteenth century pointed out, in a controversy with De Candolle, that it was necessary that a species should not only be defined as an aggregation of like individuals, but that there should be added to this conception the quality of coming true to.seed. To this conception the author applies the name of Jordanon. His own conception of a species is an assemblage of like individuals, which not only breed true to seed but likewise show themselves genetically pure when back-crossed. He naively admits, however, that this definition does not work in every case and that the morphological criterion of pollen sterility must be employed in doubtful instances. Foilowing Lotsy’s own terminology the genetically deter- mined species may perhaps be desig- nated a Mendelon. It seems clear that genetical analysis, in addition to the older criteria of Linnaeus and Jordan, cannot be considered as infallible criteria of species, however much the tenden- cies of the moment may seem to justify such a conclusion. There are many cases of known hybrids which are quite constant under the most severe genetical of Heredity analysis. If a definition of a species is something really attainable, it must be arrived at by the use of all possible data, and above all those supplied by internal morphology. ‘To the conception of a species thus broadly founded, we may perhaps, in harmony with Lotsy’s ter- minology, apply the designation, Dar- winon, after the greatest of all biologists. Perhaps the most suggestive chapter in the work is that which deals with the possibility of Linneons, or assemblages of like individuals, taking their origin from self-fertilized hybrids on the one hand, or from a hybrid community in which free intercrossing obtains on the other. Inthe former instance heterozy- gosis ina few generations is reduced to an extremely small percentage, on the basis of formulae put forward by Jennings. In the case of the free intercrossing of heterozygotes, dominance and _ partial dominance in a short time make for an apparent uniformity which would well accord with the ordinary systematic conception of a species, that is the Linneon as defined by our author. It is perhaps well to point out in the pres- ent connection the interesting results obtained by Professor Tower of the University of Chicago in his interbreed- ing in nature of two species of potato beetle, namely the Colorado beetle, D. decimlinzata, and the Mexican, D. oblongata. A uniform community was obtained in a few generations, which quite accords with the theoretical con- clusions reached by Reimers, and cited by Lotsy in the case of the freely crossing heterozygous population. A FUNDAMENTAL DEFECT The fundamental defect in the work under review seems to be an excessive confidence in experimental results. Its author assumes that, since variability in offspring is a well-known conse- quence of crossing, hence all variability is an indication of heterozygosis. This will be admitted by all but jug-handled geneticists to be a conclusion without solid foundation. The morphological criteria of hybrids, geographical dis- tribution, and development in geologi- cal time should all be taken into con- sideration in arriving at conclusions Jeffrey: Evolution by Hybridization ZT which are likely to have any permanent value. A significant fault in our author is a depreciation of morphology and phylogeny, although he admits his for- mer close relations with these aspects of biological science. When a man past middle age abandons the beliefs of his most vigorous years, the critical reader is not likely to have much more confi- dence in his later than his earlier faith. As a matter of fact, however, our author’s biological faith can never have been very well founded, for he makes the sweeping statement that all groups at their period of greatest luxuriance are in a condition of hybridism and in their later and degenerate stage represent a few purified and homozygotic species, which show a repugnance to crossing. He cites the cryptogamic groups in proof of his assertion. The living Equiseta or horsetails were represented in the past by numerous and arboreal Calamites, which are assumed by the author, quite without proof, to have been heterozygotic. The only possible evi- dence in this connection is morphological since the genetical analysis to which our author strongly inclines is quite un- available in the case of extinct plants. The spores of all known Calamites are uniformly well developed and do not show the imperfections characteristic of hybrids. There is good reason, then, for regarding the ancient and more luxuriant representatives of the horsetail stock as quite homozygous. In the case of the living survivors, however, the case is quite otherwise. Here there are very numerous varieties as well as recognized species. One of the systematically ad- mitted species, Equisetum littorale Kuel, on the basis of its anatomy and highly abortive spores is a cross between E. arvense L. and FE. fluviatile L. Miss Holden has shown that FE. variegatum var. Jesupi is highly sterile and on anatomical gounds a cross between E. Iuemale L. and E. variegatum Schleich. Investigations proceeding in the re- viewer’s laboratory tend to show that a number of the so-called varieties of the species of Equisetum are in reality nothing but hybrid forms. Thus in the horsetail stock the older forms contrary to Lotsy’s assumption are probably homozygous in spite of their numbers and vigor, while the few surviving species of the stock are characterized by a large amount of hybrid contamina- tion. A similar case could be readily made out for the fern stock. CONDITIONS FOR HYBRIDIZATION As a matter of fact hybridization can- not occur unless conditions are favorable. The lower vascular plants which owe their fertilization to the agency of male elements swimming in water cannot freely cross if they happen to live on land. The crossing of existing species of the genus Equisetum is apparently favored by the appendages attached to the spores, which cause them to adhere in clusters while in the dry condition. Later, when germination takes place, cross fertilization is favored by propin- quity. The Calamites and their Meso- zoic successors had no such appendages to their spores. Among the cryptogams crossing can only occasionally occur, and this situation still obtains to a large extent in wind pollinated forms, such as the Conifers. What Lotsy elucidates as favoring his hypothesis that earlier groups in their plastic and luxuriant phase freely hybridize in reality bears quite another interpretation in the light of actual history. The older forms possessed a number of clearly recognized characteristics, which made them un- suited to modern conditions. Just why these features unfitted them for actual existence we do not know, but it is abundantly clear in all the great lines of vascular plants that those of old time had an archaic organization, which in every case was correlated with relative extinction under modern conditions. This is a sufficient reason on inductive grounds, however defective it may be from the purely imaginative, for their having passed from the scene. Hybrid- ism seems to have had little or nothing to do with the matter, to judge from the actual facts. To take a parallel case, ancient languages were to a large extent written from right to left, as for exam- ple the early Latin, the most ancient Greek of the age preceding Solon, the hieroglyphics of the Egyptian monu- ments, etc., and even many of the older 28 The Journal of Heredity runic inscriptions of our own Teutonic stock. Languages of this type have actually ceased to exist (except in the Orient) or have modified to the modern style of writing from left to right. This linguistic situation’ can as readily be explained by resort to heterozygosis as can that of the disappearance of the ancient arboreal types of fern-like plants which flourished so luxuriantly in the coal forests of the Paleozoic. The case of the Angiosperms stands by itself, and unfortunately it is this very group upon which the greater part of the genetical theories of the day have their sole support. As our author points out, insect pollination and the capacity for cross fertilization are a striking feature of the highest seed plants. This has led to wholesale hybridization, the wide extent of which we-are only begin- ning to appreciate. It has been stated that there are scarcely any pure blooded species among the Rosaceae. Recent investigations from the anatomical and reproductive side have made it clear that great numbers of the recognized species of the large genus of pondweeds (Potamogeton) are in reality hybrids. So accomplished a systematist as Pro- fessor Trelease has recently listed more hybrid oaks than recognized species among our splendidly abundant Ameri- can Querci. It is becoming obvious to all but a very few that the genus Oenothera is a plexus of hybrids and not an aggregation of even reasonably pure blooded species. HAS STIMULATING EFFECT Dr. Lotsy’s book will be accepted rather for its stimulating effect than for the accuracy or sufficiency of the facts that it brings to bear. It is now quite clear that hybridization has played a very large part in the evolutionary history of the highest and most useful plants, the Angiosperms; but mechanis- tic and exclusively genetical methods of attack are quite inadequate to resolve the fascinating and complicated prob- lems thus opened. Mendelian analysis alone, and experimental methods by themselves, can lead to no reliable con- clusions. The geneticists will be com- pelled to renew their acquaintance with morphology, else, in the words of Mr. Kipling, it will be said of them: ‘They steam for steaming’s sake Their port is all to make.”’ The Influence of Heredity in Diabetes “A Study of the Significance of Heredity and Infection in Diabetes Mellitus’’ is reported by Dr. John R. Williams, of Rochester, N.-Y., in the September issue of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences. He presents 100 case-histories of diabetics and an equal number of non-diabetics, careful inquiry having been made about the relatives in all cases. He finds that ‘‘diabetes, arterial disease, and obesity occur with extraordinary fre- quency in the parents and ancestors of diabetics, and also that they appear commonly in their progeny.” Dr Williams takes pains to point out that facts of this sort are not crucial enough to be offered as proof that diabetes is inherited; ‘“‘they do justify the con- clusion, however, that a favorable soil for the disease is created in the off- spring of those afflicted either with diabetes or arteriosclerosis, or with both combined; and to a lesser degree with obesity.” SOME VARIABLE EARS OF DENT CORN A. D. SHAMEL, Riverside, Cal. VERY autumn many corn grow- ers find odd and peculiar ears in their crop. The explanation for these variations from the normal is not always clear. Some of them, however, such as those due to Xenia, have received the attention of scientists and the cause of this condition has been satisfactorily explained. The accom- panying photographs of some typical freak ears of corn were collected by the writer and are shown as illustrations of some interesting cases of variations of corn ears coming under his observation. The ears in Figs. 8 and 9 were collected from two crops of yellow dent, and those in Fig. 10 from a crop of white dent corn. The monstrosity shown in Fig. 11 was found in a field of Reid’s yellow dent. : a 005, "Oonney Ven, bday MOT TT TTT PPeAa 08009 900d, #as) 9” cs e>0 405 a ~ >» . ebar set? ses 990000000 jp © 200000000000, 4% > e5004\o0 A Fae It seems desirable, from the viewpoint of the writer, that corn growers be urged to look for variable ears of corn, partic- ularly those showing strikingly differ- ent characteristics from those of the variety grown. These variations or sports are not likely to be of much im- portance or value from the standpoint of securing valuable seed, but they are likely to be of interest and importance to students of the principles of variation and breeding. The writer feels strongly the desira- bility of this effort to secure further information concerning the variability of corn varieties from the fact that he remembers finding many interesting cases of variability which at the time were not thought to be of sufficient value and importance to photograph or INTERESTING VARIATIONS OF YELLOW DENT CORN While explanations have been offered as to the causes of some of these variations, the reason for others remains a mystery. A study of similar variations and their behavior during prop- agation has done much to throw light upon the origin of our corn varieties and has assisted in the formulation of fundamental principles of breeding. (Fig. 8.) 29 «ss 8087* 000! gon ane SOME FREAK EARS OR SPORTS OF YELLOW DENT it of the pistillate and staminate inflorescene is well illustrated in three of nin this illustration. (Fig. 9.) SPORTS FOUND IN A nae es OF WHITE DENT CORN e of two of these ear Sta m : flowers occurred with the pistillate as can be seen yh. ich ee as these are not on ily striking at first sight, but offer for extended study. *j Otogran}t <= AN UNUSUAL CONVOLUTED EAR STALK A striking freak or sport found in a field of Reid’s yellow dent corn. The extraordinary development of the ear stalk, the unusual occurrence ot twin ears, and the peculiar leat growth makes this case one of the out-of-the-ordinary illustrations of corn variations. (Fig. 11.) 32 The Journal describe. It seems likely that if a more general interest is aroused in the importance of this matter that some valuable information can be secured from constantly occurring variations in corn which will be of scientific interest and possibly of practical value in the study of the improvement of corn varie- ties through seed selection and breeding. It seems to the writer that observers should be urged, upon finding interesting cases of corn varietions, to send them to of Heredity the State University, or to the Federal Department of Agriculture, or to other institutions where the subject of plant breeding is being investigated. This effort, the writer believes, will tend to increase the interest of corn growers or others in a more careful observation of the corn crops, and this more intense observation may also lead toa better and more careful selection of valuable seed ears for propagation than is ordinarily the case. Organic Evolution from a Paleontologist’s Point of View ORGANIC EVOLUTION, by Richard Swann Lull, Ph.D., professor of vertebrate paleontology in Yale University. Pp. 729, with 253 text figures and 30 plates; price $3.00. The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth avenue, New York City, 1917. Professor Lull’s very comprehensive work will be welcomed by students of evolution who want in accessible form the facts in the family history of ani- mals. Whether it be an elephant or an insect, the ancestry can here be learned with a minimum of search, and all geneticists owe the author a vote of thanks for his critical compilation. They will, however, quarrel with him frequently over the more general part of the book, in which variation, heredity, and the methods of evolution are de- scribed. This has a peculiarly anti- quated air, suggesting the biological literature of a generation ago, and shows little knowledge of the modern work in heredity which, as many students think, has thrown more light on evolution in 20 years than the pre- ceeding half century had given. It would not be fair to condemn Dr. Lull too severely for the inadequacy of his biological discussion, for he writes primarily as a paleontologist. But at least it is necessary that those who read the book—and they will be many —should be on their guard. Apart from this, the book can be warmly commended and will probably not fail to gain the wide circulation it deserves. Alcohol as a ‘‘Racial Poison’’ It is widely supposed that alcohol is a “racial poison,” that is, that it can so affect the germ-plasm of an indi- vidual as to originate defect or degen- eracy in the individual’s offspring. But the evidence is contradictory. The widely-known experiments of Charles R. Stockard (see JOURNAL OF Herepity, Vol. V, p. 58) indicate that it affected the progeny of guinea-pigs; but Raymond Pearl found no marked evidence of defects in the offspring of alcoholized fowls; nor is there any ade- quate proof that alcohol produces de- fects in the offspring of the man who drinks it. L. B. Nice reported in 1911 that white mice were not mark- edly affected when alcohol was given in their food; but in the light of Dr. Stockard’s experiments he determined to repeat his own, administering the narcotic by inhalation instead of in the food. The results are described in the American Naturalist, Oct., 1917. The study is small in extent but so far as it goes does not show any serious effect of alcohol either on fertility, vigor of growth, or viability. Pro- fessor Nice points out that guinea- pigs are particularly sensitive animals, and that it is a mistake to draw con- clusions from them and apply them too sweepingly to other species. COLOR INHERITANCE IN MAMMALS VIII, Swine—Much Evidence Still Necessary to Clear up Problems—Three Independent Kinds of Variations Can Be Distinguished SEWALL WRIGHT Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. tance in hogs are rather fragmen- tary, and few certain conclusions can be drawn. There are, never- theless, some features of very great interest. There is considerable variety of color. Self colored black, red, and white breeds are known. All three kinds of bi-colors, and also tri-colors, are familiar. The color of the wild Sus scrofa is none of these but a pattern something like the agouti of rodents. In the young there is a yellowish ground color, with dark, longitudinal stripes. The dark color increases later at the expense of the yellow, producing a sort of agouti pattern. r NHE published data on color inheri- WHITE PATTERNS There are several kinds of white patterns. One of these is the beit of Hampshire swine which bears a resem- blance to the pattern of Dutch belted cattle, Dutch rabbits and, to a less ex- tent, to that of other piebald mammals. In Hampshires the ground color is black. Simpson! has shown that the belt can be transferred to red hogs by crossing Hampshire with the red Tamworths or Durocs and extracting reds in later generations. In this way he has devel- oped a belted red breed. It is clear that, whatever its mode of inheritance, the factor or factors for Hampshire belt belong in class las, as determining a white which replaces color irrespective of its quality and producing a_ piebald pattern. The mode of inheritance has not yet been thoroughly cleared up. The pat- tern varies from white merely on the fore feet, through the clear-cut pattern of the Hampshire in which the beit passes from the forefeet over the shoulders to a condition found in Ger- man Hanoverian swine 1n which only the head remains colored. There is in most cases a tendency to dominance in F,. Thus in the cross of Hanoverian by the self-colored European wild boar, the hybrids are belted though less than in Hanoverians.? Segregation of a unit factor, however, is not certain. Evenin pure Hampshires, Spillman? found that SOLID BLACK HOG—vydE,, Unit factor not certain. la, = Tate Vi ,-V. V =white belt of Hampshire. la; aaa sD, d E,D =white to roan. Byd =sandy to red. 2a, — Agouti of wild vs black of Hampshire? 2a, eS. E,; Ex E,,=black spots on red ground (carried by selection nearly to solid black in Berkshires and Poland Chinas, to solid red in Duroc-Jersey and Tamworth. E, =solid red (present associated with D in solid white Yorkshires and Chesters) E,, E, and E,, have not been proved to be triple allelomorphs. Two independent sets of factors may be involved. 2a; — 2b — Black of Hampshire vs Agouti of wild? (See 2a)). Classification explained in paper on the mouse, JOURNAL OF HERED!TY, 8:373, August, 1917 1 Simpson, Q. I. 2 Frohlich, G. 1913. 3 Spillman, W. J. 19075 Set,, 252541. 1914. Jour. HER., 5:329-339. Jour. f. Landw., 61:217. os) Oo 34 The Journal of Heredity . the inheritance could not be explained short of two factors, as belt by helt might produce solid black, and self by self might produce belt. No doubt part of the variation is developmental, and not genetic, as has been suggested by Simpson.* Another type of white pattern is found in the irregular splashes formerly com- mon on the sides of Poland-China, and Berkshires. In a reduced form, this type of white seems to be responsible for the six white points on feet, nose and tail of the present representatives of the above breeds. A third type of white is found in the solid white breeds, as the Chesters, Yorkshires and German Edel- schwein. The white in red roan Tam- worth-Yorkshire crosses, and in blue roan Sapphires, are additional kinds. THE WHITE OF YORKSHIRES The relations between the solid white of Yorkshires and the black with white points of Berkshires and Poland-Chinas has been worked out by W. W. Smith.® In his crosses, F; was always solid white. A Berkshire backcross gave thirty-two white to thirty-three black, the latter with more or less extensive irregular splotching with white. A Poland-China backcross gave nine white to twelve black, the whites in this case showing small spots of black in most cases while the blacks were splotched with white as in the Berkshire cross. F.2 from the Berkshire cross gave twenty pure white to six splotched black. The evidence is clear for a unit Mendelian difference which determines a big difference in level in a series from clear white through white with black spots, to black with white splotches. It is also clear that there are independent subsidiary factors favoring white in the Yorkshire and black in the Berkshires and Poland-Chinas. One point of great importance is the failure of red spots to appear in F2 or the back- crosses. There is no evidence that Yorkshires transmit anything which tends to change black to red and, indeed, 4Simpson, Q. I. 1914. Loc. cit. 5Smith, W. W. 1913. 6 Spillman, W. J. 1906. 7 Simpson, Q. I. and J. P. 8 Spillman, W. J. 1906. SGt., 24-444. 1911. Loc. cut. the occasional small spots which may appear on Yorkshires themselves are black. When Yorkshire is crossed with a solid red as Tamworth or Duroc, F, is again pure white. In F. and in back- crosses with the red (Spillman,® Simp- son’) there is clear-cut segregation between red and white or nearly white. The latter show more or less red roan. If the writer understands Simpson cor- rectly nothing approaching a solid black ever appears in any generation. Cur- iously enough in the Duroc cross small spots of black may appear but no red spots. It has been general to consider the white of Yorkshire as a dominant white, which is able to inhibit either red or black, in short a factor of class lai. The results cited above, however, show ' great difficulties in the way of this view. As we have just seen, white Yorkshires neither transmit red in crosses with black, nor black in crosses with red. This fact at once distinguishes them from the dominant whites of cattle, horses and other animals. Further, Yorkshire white does not act on color in a way irrespective of its quality. In crosses with black, the white appears to be the extreme in a spotting series. In the cross with red, it appears to be an extreme roan and such spots as may ap- pear are not red but black. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES Spillman’ attempted to account for such results as these on a system of three allelomorphs like the polygamous factors of Wilson in horses and cattle. White is WW, black BB and red RR. This will evidently explain the main genetic facts above, assuming that WB is white with a tendency toward black spotting, and WR white with a tendency toward roan. It does not work so well in more complex crosses, examples of which are cited later. As an alternative hypothe- sis, it may be supposed that white of Yorkshire differs from red of Tamworth for a reason wholly independent of that Amer. Breed. Mag., 4:113-123. Amer. Breed. Ass. Rep., 7:266-275. Wright: Color Inheritance in Mammals é in which it differs from black of Berk- shire. Let us suppose that there is a se- ries between complete extension of black over the coat and restriction of black to the eyes, in which black splotched with’ red, and red-spotted with black, are in- termediates (factors of class 2a2) and another series, inherited wholly inde- pendently, of grades of dilution of red, a kind of dilution (class 1b) in which black is not appreciably affected. On this view Yorkshire white and the white points of Berkshires are due to extreme dilution of self red and red splotches respectively and cannot be compared with the white of the Hampshires. It should be impossible to transfer the Berkshire or Yorkshire kind of white toa red breed with the production of reds with Berkshire markings or whites with occasional red spots. The white splotch- ing of Berkshire-Yorkshire F. hybrids resemble closely in character the red or sandy splotching of Tamworth-Berk- shire hybrids and, indeed, purebred Berkshires and Poland-Chinas formerly showed sandy splotching on their sides. PECULIAR RESULTS In attempting to apply this hypoth- esis in detail certain difficulties must be met. Spillman? showed that all blacks are not alike in their behavior toward Tamworth or Duroc red. Hamp- shire by Tamworth produces self black (except for the white belt) while Berk- shire or Poland China by ‘Tamworth produces a mixture of black and red like ‘tortoise-shell guinea-pigs. This, how- ever, is not wholly unexpected since Berkshire and Poland Chinas visibly show less perfect extension of black than Hampshires (again overlooking the belt). A more surprising difference comes out between the behavior of Tamworth or Duroc red and Yorkshire white in crosses with the black breeds. In both of these, black is either absent, or present only in small spots, and one would expect them to contain the same restriction factor for black. Yet where Hampshire by Tamworth produces full extension of 5 Ov ing to Simpson!® produces full restriction (white). Similarly, Berkshire by Tam- worth produces partial restriction (black- red) while Berkshire by Yorkshire pro- duces full restriction (white). Simpson and Spillman have reported on some very interesting crosses which tend to show clear-cut segregation between some factor in Tamworths and an allelomorph in Yorkshires which produce effects in the extension series. Thus Simpson"! crossed a pure Hampshire with two roan sows which were 34 Tamworth, 14 York- shire. The young were 5 black, 4 white, 3 red roan, and 4 red, all with more or less of the Hampshire belt. These may be looked on as 5 fully extended like F; Hampshire by Tamworth, and 11 fully restricted (or nearly so), in this respect like F,; Hampshire by Yorkshire. Spill- man! reports a somewhat similar cross between Poland-China and Yorkshire- Tamworth hybrids. This cross pro- duced 2 black-and-white (of which one had as much black as a Poland-China) 3 black-and-red, 2 self white (or nearly so) and 2 self red (or nearly so). These may be divided into 5 partly extended like Fi Poland-China by Tamworth and 4 fully or nearly fully restricted like F, Poland- China by Yorkshire. While these results would hardly be expected a priori on the hypothesis of independent extension and _ dilution series, they are even more difficult to explain on the other theories. If York- shire white were simply a dominant white in the usual sense, there is no ap- parent reason why self reds should appear in either of these crosses. We have seen that Hampshire black is fully dominant over red of Tamworth, that Poland-China black is partially domi- nant over the latter and finally, that Yorkshire has no tendency to transmit red in crosses with black breeds (Poland- China and Berkshire, at least), yet in the crosses above pure Hampshire or Poland China sires have solid red oif- spring. On Spillman’s hypothesis that black, red and white make up a series of three allelomorphs the results are equally black, Hampshire by Yorkshire accord- inexplicable. Both crosses must be of 9Spillman, W. J. 1907. Loc. cit. 11 Simpson, O. I. 1914. Loc. cit. 10Simpson,Q. I. 1914. Loc. cit. 12 Spillman, W. J. 1906. Loc. cit. 36 The Journal type BB X RW on this hypothesis, which means that KBR must be the formula of both self blacks and self reds in one cross, black-and-reds and self reds in the other, while BW must be the for- mula of the roans as well as the whites. {t remains to show that these crosses can be explained by the hypothesis of independent extension and _ intensity series. The necessary assumptions are: first, that there is a unit Mendelian difference between Yorkshire and Tam- worth in their reaction toward extended black, the former possessing a dominant, the latter a recessive restriction factor; second, that there is a unit Mendelian difference between the white of York- shire (dominant dilution) and the red of Tamwerth. The roan York-Tamworth hybrids are thus double heterozygotes. The Hampshires and Poland Chinas transmit more or less extended black which serves to bring out the difference between the two restriction factors, and they also transmit a condition of inten- sity of red to which white of Yorkshire is dominant. The cross should produce blacks with more or less red, blacks with more or less white, self reds, and self whites in equal numbers. Inthe Hamp- shire cross the first two classes become indistinguishable, both being self black. The results are in close agreement with this expectation. The production of solid red offspring from a pure Hamp- shire or Poland China sire can hardly be explained except as due to combination of a dominant restriction factor from the Yorkshire with the intensity of red of Tamworths. The possibility of produc- ing a red breed dominant even over the black of Hampshires is_ practically demonstrated. Thus restriction of Yorkshire and re- striction of Tamworth show a segregat- ing difference in their reaction to ex- tended black. It has also been noted that extension of Hampshire and of Berkshire or Poland China show dit- ferences which are increased by crosses with a given red. The difference between Berkshire or Poland China and Tamworth or Duroc, on the other hand, tends to be reduced by crosses and there 13 Severson, B.O. 1917. of Heredity seems to be no good evidence of segrega- tion. Berkshire extension comes out of Yorkshire crosses with almost as much white as black, while Duroc restriction often comes out of York- shire crosses with black spots. Thus it is not impossible that Berkshire black and Duroc red may possess the same main factors for extension but have become distinct in appearance through a process of selection of minor factors. INTENSITY Turning to intensity, the evidence is clear that white of Yorkshire differs from red of Tamworth by at least one clear-cut dominant factor. There is difficulty, however, in attempting to classify the Berkshires, Poland-Chinas and Hampshires with respect to this series. The fact that the first two ordinarily show only white in place of red, would lead one to classify them with Yorkshire. The failure of reds to ap- pear when these breeds are crossed twice with Yorkshires is further evidence in this direction. On the other hand, Berkshires and Poland-Chinas may show sandy splotches themselves and in crosses with Tamworths or Durocs pro- duce black and red pigs in F; in marked contrast with the whites from York- shire crosses. Similar results were shown in the more complex crosses cited above. Some evidence has recently been presented by Severson!* on _ crosses, between Berkshire and Duroc-Jersey which bears on the genetic relations both as regards intensity of red and exten- sion of black. The offspring of the cross were variable but all intermediate between the parents. Ten were red with varying amounts of black spotting, while two were predominately black, the parts which were not black being white in them. Two sows representing ex- treme types in F,, a red with black spots and a blacks with white splotches, were backcrossed with a Berkshire boar. The same kinds of young were produced in both cases. There were reds with black spots, blacks with white splotches, and tricolors. These classes graded Jour. HER., 8:379-381. Wright: Color Inheritance in Mammals oh into each other and there was no evi- dence for segregation of an outstanding unit factor either for extension of black or intensity of red. The indications are that both Berkshires and Durocs possess the same partial extension factor and the same intensity factor. The genetic evidence suggests that both have been selected from a sandy colored hog with black spots. From such a foundation (as far as color is concerned), Durocs (and Tamworths) have been selected for restriction and intensity, so produc- ing solid red breeds, while Berkshires (and Poland-Chinas) have been selected for extension and dilution, so producing black breeds with white points. Selec- tion appears to have worked through minor factors leaving the major factors essentially the same in all four breeds.'4 In Severson’s crosses, extension of black appears to be associated with dilution of red. Whether this is merely accidental or because the paler parts of the coat are the last to be invaded by black or because there is a real physio- logical interrelation is not clear. Under the last head it is conceivable that com- petition between the processes of form- ing black and red pigment might lead to such a correlation. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions reached may. be sum- marized in the scheme of factors given below. of the JOURNAL for October. (Fig. 13.) A CASE OF REVERSION TO ANCESTRAL FORM The extra digit is not produced in this case by splitting but is connected at the pastern joint with the splint bone and is probably a reversion to the older polydactylic horse. (Fig. 14.) A TEST FOR SUPERMEN Professor Terman’s Ingenious Method of Finding How Large a Vocabulary One Commands—-Marked Difference Exists Between ‘Average Adult” and “Superior Adult’’ O SINGLE test can supply an adequate measure of intelli- gence, but for English-speaking persons the vocabulary test prob- ably has a higher value than any three other tests, says Prof. Lewis M. Terman.! In a large majority of cases this test alone will measure the sub- ject’s intelligence within 10% of the accuracy of the entire Binet-Simon scale. The vocabulary used (printed in a box herewith) consists of 100 words “derived by selecting the last word of every sixth column in a dictionary containing approximately 18,000 words, presumably the 18,000 most common words in the language. The test is based on the assumption that 100 words selected according to some ar- bitrary rule will be a large enough sampling to afford a fairly reliable index of a subject’s entire vocabulary. Rather extensive experimentation with this list and others chosen in a similar manner has proved that the assump- tion is justified. Tests of the same seventy-five individuals with five differ- ent vocabulary tests of this type showed that the average difference between two tests of the same person was less than 5%. This means that any one of the five tests used is reliable enough for all practical purposes. It is of no special importance that a given child’s vocabulary is 8,000 rather than 7,600; the significance lies in the fact that it is approximately 8,000 and not 4,000, 12,000, or some other widely different number. “It may seem to the reader almost incredible that so small a sampling of words would give a reliable index of an individual’s vocabulary. That it does ‘Terman, Lewis M. (Professor of Education in Stanford University). Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916. Intelligence. so 1s due to the operation of the ordinary laws of chance. It is analagous to predicting the results of an election when only a small porportion of the ballots have been counted. If it is known that a ballot box contains 600 votes, and if when only thirty have been counted it is found that they are divided between two candidates in the proportion of twenty to ten, it is safe to predict? that a complete count will give the two candidates approximately 400 and 200 respectively. In 1914 about 1,000,000 votes were cast for governor in California, and when only 10,000 votes had been counted, or a hundredth of all, it was announced and conceded that Governor Johnson had been reelected by about 150,000 plu- rality. The completed count gave him 188,505 plurality. The error was less than 10% of the-total vote.” DIRECTION FOR USE OF TEST The 100 words thus chosen are ar- ranged approximately (though not ex- actly) in the order of their difficulty, and the examiner usually begins with the easier words and proceeds to the harder, continuing until the subject examined is no longer able to define the words. ‘With children under 9 or 10 years,’ Dr. Terman directs, “begin with the first Apparently normal chil- dren of 10 years may safely be credited with the first 10 words without being asked to define them. Apparently normal children of 12 may begin with word 16, and 15-year-olds with word 21. Except with subjects of almost adult intelligence there is no need to give the last ten or fifteen words, as these are almost never correctly defined by school children. A safe rule to follow is to The Measurement of 2 Provided that the ballots have been shuffled. 42 A Test for Supermen 43 continue until eight or ten successive words have been missed and to score the remainder minus without giving them.” As to scoring, “credit a response in full if it gives one correct meaning for a word, regardless of whether that mean- ing is the most common one, and re- gardless of whether it is the original or a derived meaning. Occasionally half credit may be given, but this should be avoided as far as possible. “To find the entire vocabulary (of the individual who is being examined), multiply the number of words known by 180. Thus the child who defines twenty words correctly has a vocabu- lary of 20 X 180 = 3,600 words; fifty correct definitions would mean a vocab- ulary of 9,000 words, etc. The follow- ing are the standards for different years, as determined by the vocabulary reached by 60% to 65% of the subjects of the various mental levels: Words Vocabulary Eight years..... 20 3,600 den years...... 30 5,400 Twelve years... 40 7,200 Fourteen years.. 50 9,000 Average adult... 65 11,700 Superior adult... 75 13,500 Although the form of the definition is significant, it is not taken into con- sideration in scoring. The test is in- tended to explore the range of ideas rather than the evolution of thought forms. When it is evident that the child has one fairly correct meaning for a word, he is given full credit for it, however poorly the definition may have been stated. “While there is naturally some diffi- culty now and then in deciding whether a given definition is correct, this happens much less frequently than one would ex- pect. In order to get a definite idea of the extent of error due to the individual differences among examiners, we have had the definitions of twenty-five sub- jects graded independently by ten dif- ferent persons. The results showed an average difference below three in the _ number of definitions scored plus. Since these subjects attempted on an average about sixty words, the average number of doubtful definitions per subject was below 5% of the number attempted. “An idea of the degree of leniency to be exercised may be had from the follow- ing examples of definitions, which are mostly low grade, but acceptable: 1. Orange. ‘‘An orange is to eat.’’ ‘It is yellow and grows on a tree.”’ 2. Bonfire. ‘‘Youburnit outdoors.’ ‘You burn some leaves or things.”’ ‘‘It’s a big fire.” 3: Roar. “A lion roars.’ “You holler loud.”’ 4. Gown. “Tosleepin.” ‘It’s a nightie.” “Tt’s a nice gown that ladies wear.”’ The test is particularly interesting since it seems to give reasonably correct measurement of the intelligence of adults, and there are very few single tests which can be easily applied, that give re- liable results in such cases. There is, Professor Terman finds, a well-marked difference between the average adult and the superior adult, although the number of words in the vocabulary by which they differ is only ten. A majority of average adults can give sixty-five words, but only one-third of them can give seventy-five words—the test of the superior adult. But of those whom ex- tensive testing shows to be ‘‘superior adults,”’ 90% can pass the superior adult test of seventy-five definitions. ‘“‘ Ability to pass the test is relatively independent of the number of years the subject has attended school, our business men show- ing even a higher percentage of passes than high-school pupils.”’ While this test may be more reliable than any other single test, it would be a mistake to place too much dependence onit. It is somewhat influenced by the kind of training and education one has had—although less so than would be ex- pected. No single test, and no series of tests, is an adequate measure of the general intelligence. The trained ex- aminer takes account of every clue he can find, and it would be a disservice to psychology to give the impression that any tests are infallible, especially if given by unskilled examiners or by auto- examination. The most that is claimed for the Binet tests, for example, may be stated in Dr. Terman’s own words: “One who knows how to apply the 44 The Journal of Heredity 1. orange 22. outward 42. brunette 61. priceless 81. incrustation 2. bonfire 23. lecture 43. snip 62. swaddle 82. laity 3. roar 24. dungeon 44. apish 63. tolerate 83. selectman 4. gown 25. southern 45. sportive 64. gelatinous 84. sapient 5. tap 26. noticeable 46. hysterics 65. depredation 85. retroactive 6. scorch 27. muzzle 47. Mars 66. promontory 86. achromatic 7. puddle 28. quake 48. repose 67. frustrate 87. ambergris 8. envelope 29. civil 49. shrewd 68. milksop 88. casuistry 9. straw 30. treasury 50. forfeit 69. philanthropy 89. paleology 10. rule 31. reception 51. peculiarity 70. irony 90. perfunctory 11. haste 32. ramble 52. coinage 71. lotus 91. precipitancy 12. afloat 33. skill 53. mosaic 72. drabble 92. theosophy 13. eye-lash 34. misuse 54. bewail 73. harpy 93. piscatorial 14. copper 35. insure 55. dispropor- 74. embody 94. sudorific 15. health 36. stave tionate 75. infuse 95. parterre 16. curse 37. regard 56. dilapidated 76. flaunt 96. homunculus 17. guitar 38. nerve 57. charter 77. declivity 97. cameo 18. mellow 39. crunch 58. conscientious 78. fen 98. shagreen 19. pork 40. juggler 59. avarice 79. ochre 99. limpet 20. impolite 41. majesty 60. artless 80. exaltation 100. complot 21. plumbing OF COURSE, YOU ARE A SUPERIOR ADULT If so, you can give passable definitions of at least seventy-five of the above words The average adult, who does not read the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, cannot manage more than sixty-five of them. Ability to give seventy-five definitions from the above list indi- cates the possession of a working vocabulary of 13,500 words. tests correctly and who is experienced in the psychological interpretation of re- sponses can in forty minutes arrive at a more accurate judgment as to a subject’s intelligence than would be possible with- out the tests after months or even years of close observation. . . Exceptionally superior endowment is discoverable by the tests, however unfavorable the home from which it comes, and inferior endow- ment cannot be normalized by all the ad- vantages of the most cultured home. Or to quote from William Stern, the greatest German exponent of the psy- chology of individual differences, “The tests actually reach and discover the general developmental conditions of in- telligence, and not mere fragments of knowledge and attainments acquired by chance.” Delinquent Dullards The same group of tests was given to forty-three members of an aviation corps and fifty inmates of a state peni- tentiary, by Thomas H. Haines (Journal of Delinquency, Sept., 1917). “The aviation men are above average in endowment and training. Three-fourths of them are college men.’ The peni- tentiary inmates are the more intelligent and better trained men of their group. “They can all read and write and figure with fair facility.’ ‘‘The median score of the aviation men is 77.7% and the median of the penitentiary men 36.3%. The range of the aviation men was from 57.1% to 90.4% and the range of the delinquents was from 03.8% to 83.3%. There is here further evidence that even the better endowed delinquents are dis- tinctly inferior to such a picked group of talented men as enter the air service.” While such men as are found in the average penitentiary could never be made brilliant by any system of educa- tion, Dr. Haines thinks that they could at least be made law-abiding, by a proper education. They are capable, not incapable, inferiors. FEEBLEMINDEDNESS IN DELAWARE Survey by Children’s Bureau Finds Many Mental Defectives, Mostly In Bad Surroundings and Not Properly Cared for—Reduction of the Fecundity of the Socially Inefficient May be the Most Effective Way of Preventing the Multiplication of Feeblemindedness NDER what home conditions do | | mental defectives live? To geta fair picture, the federal Chil- dren’s Bureau made a study! of New Castle county, Delaware, and found that the conditions were very bad indeed. New Castle is the northernmost of the three counties of Delaware. Containing the large city of Wilmington, it has a population of: 131,670, a majority of whom are whites of the old American stock. While the study was far from thor- ough, 212 very obvious cases of feeble- mindedness were found, and 361 addi- tional who were suspect. Not one in twenty of these persons was receiving proper care, Delaware being one of the few states of the Union which has no provision for its feebleminded.? “The coincidence of mental defect and low grade of environment was striking,’ says Miss Lundberg, author of the report. But is it a coincidence? She herself probably does not think so; certainly most of those who have given the problem most study think other- wise. The idea that a child has a low grade of intelligence because he comes from a poor home is now held by few, for It is recognized that the home is an index of the kind of people who make it, and that on the average the inferior homes are the expression of germinal inferiority of their occupants. “The common opinion that the child from a cultured home does better in tests [of intelligence] solely by reason of his superior home advantages is an en- U.S. Dept. of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Pub. No. 24. tirely gratuitous assumption,” as Profes- sor Terman says.? ‘Practically all of the investigations which have been made of the influence of nature and nurture on mental performance agree in attributing far more to original endow- ment than to environment. Common observation would itself suggest that the social class to which the family belongs depends less on chance than on the parents’ native qualities of intellect and character. DIFFERENCES ARE HEREDITARY “The results of five separate and dis- tinct lines of inquiry based on the Stan- ford data agree in supporting the con- clusion that the children of successful and cultured parents test far higher than children from wretched and ignorant homes for the simple reason that their heredity is better. “Tt would, of course, be going too far to deny all possibility of environmental conditions affecting the result of an intelligence test. Certainly no one would expect that a child reared in a cage and denied all intercourse with other human beings could by any system of mental measurement test up to the level of normal children. There is, however, no reason to believe that ordinary differ- ences in social environment (apart from heredity), differences such as those ob- taining among unselected children at- tending approximately the same general type of school in a civilized community, affect to any great extent the validity of the scale. “A crucial experiment would be to A Social Study of Mental Defec~- tives in New Castle County, Delaware, by Emma O. Lundberg. Washington, 1917, pp. 38. 2 The only provision in Delaware for the care and training of mental defectives is the State fund for the maintenance of fourteen Delaware children in the Pennsylvania Training Schoo! for the Feebleminded Children at Elwyn, Pa. 3Terman, Lewis O. The Measurement of Intelligence, pp. 115 ff. Boston, 1916. > on 46 The Journal of Heredity take a large number of very young children of the lower classes and, after placing them in the most favorable environment obtainable, to compare their later mental development with that of children born into the best homes No extensive study of this kind has ever been made, but the writer has tested twenty orphanage children who, tor the most part, had come from very inferior homes. They had been in a well-conducted orphanage for from two to several years, and had enjoyed during that time the advantages of an excellent village school. Nevertheless all but three tested below average.”’ “The importance of school instruc- tion to neutralize individual differences in native endowment will be evident to any one who follows the school career of backward children. The children who are seriously retarded in school are not normal, and cannot be made normal by any refinement in educational method. As a rule, the longer the inferior child attends school, the more evident his inferiority becomes. It would hardly be reasonable, therefore, to expect that a little instruction in the home would weigh very heavily against these Same native differences in endowment. Cases like the following show conclu- sively that it does not: X is the son of unusually intelligent and well-educated parents. The home is every- thing one would expect of people of scholarly pursuits and cultivated tastes. 3ut_ X has always been irresponsible, troublesome, childish and queer. He learned to walk at two years, to talk at three, and has always been delicate and nervous. When brought for examination he was 8 years old. He had twice at- tempted school work, but had accom- plished nothing and was withdrawn. His play-life was not normal, and other chil- dren, younger than himself, abused him and tormented him. The Binet tests gave an IO of approximately 75; that is, the re- tardation amounted to about 2 years. The child was examined again three years later. At that time, after attending school 2 years, he had recently completed the first grade. This time the IQ was 73. Strange to say, the mother is encouraged and hope- ful because she sees that her boy is learn- ing toread. She does not seem to realize that at his age he ought to be within 3 years of entering high school. The 40-minute test had told more about the mental ability of this boy than the in- telligent mother had been able to learn in eleven years of daily and hourly observa- tion. For X is feebleminded; he will never complete the grammar school; he will never be an efficient worker or a responsible citizen. Let us change the picture. Z isa bright- eyed, dark-skinned girl of 9 years. She is dark-skinned because her father is a mix- ture of Indian and Spanish. The mother is of Irish descent. With her strangely mated parents and two brothers she lives in a dirty, cramped, and poorly furnished house in the country. The parents are il- literate, and the brothers are retarded and dull, though not feebleminded. It is Z’s turn to be tested. [inquire the name. It is familiar, for I have already tested the two stupid brothers. I also know her ignorant parents and the miser- able cabin in which she lives. The exam- ination begins with the 8-year tests. The responses are quick and accurate. We proceed to the 9-year group. There is no failure, and there is but one minor error. Successes and failures alternate for a while until the latter prevail. Zhas tested at 11 years. Inspite of her wretched home, she is mentally advanced nearly 25%. By the vocabulary test she is credited with a knowledge of nearly 6,000 words, or nearly four times as many as X, the boy of cul- tured home and scholarly parents, had learned by the age of 8 years. Five years have passed. When given the test Z was in the fourth grade and, as we have already stated, 9 years of age. Asa result of the test she was transferred to the fifth grade. Later she skipped again and at the age of 14 is a successful student in the second year of high school. To as- say her intelligence and determine its quality was a task of 45 minutes. In the light of these facts, there is no difficulty in understanding the conclu- sions at which Miss Lundberg arrived, after her survey of New Castle county: FEW PROPERLY CARED FOR ‘A total of 175, or. 82:59 08 gums cases studied were in need of public supervision or institutional care. Nine- ty-five of these were at large in the com- munity in immediate need of special care and protection, sixty-eight were in institutions not designed for their care, and twelve were provided for only tem- porarily in an institution for the feeble- minded. ‘A study of individual cases of mental defectives reveals in a striking way the coincidence of mental defect and pov- erty, abnormal home conditions, neglect, and dependency. A majority of the Feeblemindedness in Delaware 47 mental defectives were found in an en- vironment making normal standards of living impossible. “Kighty-three, or 39% of the total number, were living under adverse home conditions—extreme poverty, al- coholism, immorality, or entire lack of home protection. An additional 68, or 32%, were in institutions not adapted ‘to their needs, making a total of 71% living under conditions where adequate care and protection were impossible or provided for only temporarily in institutions designed to care for other classes. “That society must provide special protection for mental defectives is strongly indicated by the fact that 98 of the total number studied had delin- quency records or were immoral or diffi- cult to control. Seventy-nine of these were living under adverse conditions or in institutions not adapted to their needs, while seven were in an institution for the feeble-minded, and twelve were living in good homes. “The problem of those requiring special care and training because of subnormal mentality is not limited to the 212 positive cases of mental defect included in this study. The 361 indi- viduals classified as of questionable men- tality undoubtedly included a number who were actually mentally defective. All of them presented problems of retardation or abnormality. More than one-third of the questionable cases, for whom information as to individual characteristics was secured, were known to be delinquent or uncontrollable. Little, C. C., 1914. JouRNAL HEREDITY, 5:244-248. 6 Barrows, W. M. and J. N. Phillips. 7Galton, F., 1897. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., 61. ®Castle, W. E., 1912. 9 Hagedoorn, A., 1912. Amer. Nat., 46:682. 10Tbsen, H. L., 1916. Genetics, 1:367-376. - 11 Barrows, W. E. and J. N. Phillips. Loc. cit. Loc. cit. Amer. Nat., 46:437-440.: 90 in which white-bellied yellows differ from solid yellows. It should be added, however, that factors are known which produce effects as if of both class 1 and class 2, and the bicolor pattern of dogs may be one of these. Further data would be very welcome. The relation of black-and-tan to black and to red is another question on which further data is necessary. There are three possibilities. The recessive factor by which the black-and-tan differs from black may be identical with factor e by which red differs from black. In this case, a subsidiary factor or factors must be supposed to modify a red into a black-and-tan. Second, the black-and- tan pattern may be due to an allelo- morph of factors E and e, intermediate in effects. Third, it may be due to a factor independent of the extension series as supposed by Barrows and Phillips.44_ Ibsen quotes Barton to the effect that red by red may occa- sionally produce black-and-tan, and that black-and-tan by black-and-tan may occasionally produce red. Hage- doorn is also quoted, as stating that red may be dominant over black-and- tan. This evidence is easily harmonized with the first hypothesis above, but not so easily with the second and third. The Journal of Heredity If the last proves correct, it must be supposed that reds are of two kinds, some dominant over black, some re- cessive. LIVER COLOR IN DOGS Perhaps the best established factor in dogs is one of class 2b. Lang! obtained indications, in a_ particular cross, that brown is recessive to black. Little!’ thoroughly confirmed _ this conclusion in Pointer dogs, and Bar- rows and Phillips! in Cocker Span- iels. This factor converts all black pig- ment in skin, fur and eyes to brown, thus changing solid black dogs to solid browns or “‘livers”’; black-and-tans to liver-and-tans; and reds with black nose, ears and eyes to reds with brown nose, ears and eyes. Barrows and Phillips suggest further that red is reduced to lemon, but this seems inconsistent with their statement that both reds and lemons may have either black or brown points. Little speaks of yellows with brown points as somewhat duller than those with black points, but this may be due merely to reduction of a slight black sootiness in the fur to brown. On the whole there seems little reason for doubting that this factor may be compared with the chocolate-brown variations of rodents. Longevity in Lily Pollen During the season of 1916 I made a large number of crosses among my various lilies and wishing to use some of the earlier kinds with the later, I saved in small envelopes, the pollen of all the best early sorts to use later as later kinds bloomed. I found most of the pollen was good for two or three months saved in this way. Wishing to know if the pollen of some of the late ones might be kept over to use on the early ones in spring, I saved it from the L. auratum, wrapped in two or three sheets of paraffine paper and kept in a warm, dry place. Last spring I opened this and used it on a 12ZLang, A., 1910. Zeit. Abst. Ver., 3:1-33. 13Little, C. C. Loc. cit. 14 Barrows, W. M. and J. N. Phillips. Loc. Ctt. flower of Lilium martagon. ‘The first application was a success and a good capsule of seed was obtained, but later this was tried on a lot of flowers of other lilies with no results. Only when the pollen was first exposed to the air was it potent. Care was taken to re- move the anthers before the flower had opened and to cover well as soon as the old pollen had been applied. Had the pollen been divided and kept in separate envelopes so that it was used at once when first exposed to the air, I believe more capsules would have been ferti- lized. F. H. Horsrorp, Charlotte, Vt. MEANINGS OF GENETIC TERMS Every New Science Coins New Words or Gives New Meanings to Others— Genetics Not an Exception to Rule—Scientific Workers Forced to Use Modern Terms—Explanation of Terms Should Help to Avoid Confusion! dification of a germinal trait. It is difficult to draw a line between characters that are acquired and those that are inborn. The idea in- volved is as follows: in a standard en- vironment, a given factor in the germ- plasm will develop into a trait which varies not very widely about a certain mean. The mean of this trait is taken as representing the germinal trait in its typical condition. But if the environ- ment be not standard, if it be consider- ably changed, the trait will develop a variation far from the mean of that trait in the species. Thus an Ameri- can, whose skin in the standard envi- ronment of the United States would be blonde, may under the environment of Cuba develop into a brunet. Such a wide variation from the mean is called an acquired character; it is usually im- pressed on the organism after the ger- minal trait has reached a full, typical development. Allelomorph, one of a pair of factors which are alternative to each other in Mendelian inheritance. Instead of a single pair, there may be a group of “multiple allelomorphs,” each mem- ber being alternative to every other member of the group. Allelomorphism, a relation between two or more factors, such that two which are present in one zygote do not both enter into the same gamete, but are separated into sister gametes. Biometry, the study of biology by statistical methods. Brachydactyly (short-fingeredness), a condition in which the bones, particu- ager CHARACTER, a mo- larly of the fingers and toes, fail to grow to their normal length. In well- marked cases one phalanx or joint is wholly lacking. Character (a contraction of ‘‘char- acteristic), a term which is used, often rather vaguely, to designate any func- tion, feature, or organ of the body or mind. Chromosome (so called from its affinity for certain stains), a body of peculiar protoplasm, generally cylindrical in the nucleus of the cell. Each species has its own characteristic number, the cells of the human body contain 24 chromo- somes each. Congenital, present at birth. The term fails to distinguish between traits which are actually inherited, and modi- fications acquired during prenatal life. In the interest of clear thinking its use should be avoided so far as possible. Correlation, a relation between two variables in a certain population, such as that for every variation of one, there is a corresponding variation of the other. Mathematically, two correlated variables are thus mutually dependent. But a correlation is merely a statistical description of a particular case, and in some other population the same two variables might be correlated in a different way, other influences being at work on them. Cytology, the study of the cell, the constituent unit of organisms. Determiner, an element or condition in a germ-cell, supposed to be essential to the development of a particular quality, feature or manner of reaction of the organisms, which arises from the 1 Although material for this glossary has been borrowed liberally from many sources, it is not to be supposed that the definitions will meet with universal acceptance. It is believed, however, that they will at least help those who are not familiar with the vocabulary of genetics to understand what is meant when a certain word is used.—THE EDITOR. 91 92 The-Journal of Heredity germ-cell. The word is gradually fall- ing into disuse, and ‘‘factor”’ taking its place. Dominance, capacity of a in Mendelian hybrids the character, which is de- rived from only one of the two generat- ing gametes, to develop to an extent nearly or quite equal to that exhibited by an individual which has derived the same character from both of the gener- ating gametes. In the absence of dom- inance, the given character of the hybrid usually presents a “‘blend”’ or interme- diate condition between the two parents. Dysgenic, tending to impair the racial qualities of future generations; the opposite of eugenic. Endogamy, a custom of primitive peoples, in compliance with which a man must choose his wife from his own group (tribe, clan, etc.). Eugenic, tending to improve the racial qualities of future generations, either physical or mental. Euthenic, tending to produce better conditions for people to live in (but nor tending to produce people who can hand on improvement by heredity). Evolution (organic), the progressive change of living forms, usually asso- ciated with the development of com- plex from simple forms. Exogamy, a custom of primitive peoples which requires a man to choose a wife from some other group (tribe, clan, etc.) than his own. Factor, a name given to the hypo- thetical something, the independently inheritable element in the germ-cell, whose presence 1s necessary to the de- velopment of a certain inherited char- acter or characters, or contributes with other factors to the development of a character. “‘Gene’’ and “determiner” are sometimes used as synonyms of factor. Feeblemindness, a condition in which mental development is retarded or in- complete. It is a relative term, since an individual who would be feeble- minded in one society might be normal or even bright in another. The cus- tomary criterion is the inability of the individual, because of mental defect existing from an early age, to compete on equal terms with his normal fellows, or to manage himself or his affairs with ordinary prudence. American students usually distinguish three grades of men- tal defect: Idiots are those who are unable to take care of themselves, even to the extent of guarding against com- mon physical danger or satisying physi- cal needs. Their mentality does not progress beyond that of a normal two- year-old child. Imbeciles can care for themselves after a fashion, but are un- able to earn their living. Their mental ages range from three to seven years inclusive. Morons, who correspond to the common acceptation of the term feebleminded, ‘“‘can under proper direc- tion become more or less self-supporting but they are as a rule incapable of undertaking affairs which demand judg- ment or involve unrestricted competition with normal individuals. Their in- teligence ranges with that of normal children from seven to twelve years of age.’’ There is necessarily a consider- able border-line, but any adult whose intelligence is beyond that of the normal twelve-year-old child is usually considered to be not feebleminded. Gamete, a mature germ-cell, in ani- mals an ovum or spermatozoon. Genetics for a long time meant the study of evolution by experimental breeding and was often synonymous with Mendelism. It is gradually re- turning to its broader, original meaning of the ‘study of heredity. This broader meaning is preferable. Germinal, due to something present in the germ-cell. -auad 04 SJ001 S}I JO dine] oy} ‘puvy JoyyO 94} UD “Mop USA puUe SJOMOYS JYST] WIOIF IoZEM OY} OZITIJN 0} Szeut jo adéy sty} salqeus D}AY DAZ JO SJOOI BY} JO UOINII4sIp sdeJINS oY, “FYSII oy} UO AyoLIeA YUAp ALeUIpJO Ue JO pue ‘4JO] 944 04 DJUZy DAZ JO UOIYNQIIySIp yOOY TIN HO NOILOAETHLSIG LOOY AAILVUYVdNOD TROPICAL VARIETIES OF MAIZE Great Diversity of Types of Maize—Most Important Food Crop Cultivated by Natives of America at Time of Discovery—Plant Shows Wide Distribution! G. N. Co..ins Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture AIZE, or Indian Corn, was the most widely distributed and by far the most important food plant cultivated by the natives of America at the time of the discovery. It is still the most important American crop plant, and while much more pro- ductive strains have been developed than any grown by the aborigines, the range of the species on the American Continent has not been greatly ex- tended. To be able to grow under the widely different conditions that are found in the region from central New England to Argentina and Chile, there must be a great diversity of types. How great this diversity is and how inadequately it has been utilized in developing strains adapted to the needs of the different agricultural communities it is the object of the present paper to discuss. The Department of Agriculture here at Washington has for a number of years been collecting the types of maize from the different parts of the world. These varieties have been grown and _ their characteristics studied with a view to determining which of the characters they possess may be utilized in develop- ing varieties better adapted to the dif- ferent parts of the country. It has not been possible to make an adequate survey of the existing varieties of any country and there are many regions of which we have practically no knowledge of the kinds of maize. Agricultural expeditions that are sent out are usually compelled to pass more or less hurriedly through the countries they visit and the explorers in charge are always charged with collecting a great variety of plants and data, so that little more can be done than to snatch what is exhibited in the markets or what is found growing immediately along their rqutes. Such collections have been supplemented by seed secured from consuls and correspondents. While many valuable introductions have been secured in this way, ignorance of the normal behavior of the varieties and of the cultural and climatic conditions under which they have been grown often stand in the way of making the most of the peculiar qualities they may possess. As a result of this rather haphazard manner of securing material our collec- tions are very uneven. In some few places the series of varieties is compara- tively complete, but there are whole countries not represented in our collec- tion by a single maize variety. Enough has come to light, however, to show that, especially in the countries of tropical America, we have an immense storehouse of valuable material that awaits the utilization of the breeder. We have come to believe that the search must be made for characteristics rather than for varieties ready made, as it were. It seldom happens that a variety from one locality will be found adapted to any other locality, but often the most unpromising and insignificant variety, grown perhaps by some back- ward tribe of natives, will possess some peculiarity or adaptation that needs only to be combined with the desirable qualities of other varieties to become of great value. Instead, therefore, of attempting to present any complete description of 1 Paper presented before the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Washington, D.C, December 27, 1915-January 8, 1916. 147 148 The Journal varieties of corn, I shall enumerate a few of the more striking adaptations that have thus far been discovered, beginning with the varieties grown by the Indians of the western United States. HOPI MAIZE The Hopi, Navajo, and Zuni Indians are still growing a type of maize that seems to have spread but little outside the region inhabited by these tribes. The prevailing type of seed is soft or amylaceous, the plants tiller abundantly, they are early maturing, and make com- paratively rapid growth at low tempera- tures. Their exact water requirement has not been determined, but it would appear that they are comparatively economical in the use of water. These characters, while valuable, are a!l quan- titative. This type of maize does, however, possess one unique feature. All other types of maize thus far studied produce three or more roots from the seed. These roots support the young plant until the permanent roots that develop from the nodes have been formed. In the type under discussion there is but one root developed from the seed. The economy of this arrangement seems to be that the single root is able to penetrate to a greater depth than is possible when the reserve material of the seed is divided among three ormore roots. In combination with this character there is also the possibility of a much greater development of the mesocotyl than in other types. The mesocotylisa specialized organ found in the seedlings of maize and some other grasses. It may be described as the part of the main axis that connects the seed with the first leaf of the seedling. So long as the germinating seed remains in the dark, the mesocotyl elongates, stopping only when the tip of the seedling reaches the surface of the ground or the limit of elongation is reached. . In planting their maize the Hopi Indians dig into the sandy soil until they reach moist earth, usually found at a depth of from 6 to 18 inches. The seed is deposited in these holes in contact with the moist soil. Although these holes may be left only partly filled, the drifting sand soon fills ear and to reach the surface the young of Heredity plants must penetrate from 6 inches to a foot of soil. Experiments have shown that com- mercial varieties of maize planted under these conditions will not reach the sur- face. The maximum development of the mesocotyl in commercial varieties is from 8 to 10 centimeters. After this elongation is reached the leaves attempt to expand beneath the ground, and as they unfold they are not sufficiently rigid to force their way through the soil. It was found that the mesocotyl of Hopi maize is capable of elongating to a length of 36 centimeters or over three times the length attainable in other varieties. At the same time the single strong seminal root is following the re- treating moisture and keeping the young plants alive until the summer rains wet the soil above and allow the develop- ment of lateral roots. A long mesocotyl thus divides the work of reaching mois- ture with the single seminal root and the combination makes possible the estab- lishing of young plants in soils where the nearest available moisture is a foot or more below the surface of the ground. These peculiarities make this type of maize beautifully adapted to the condi- tions that obtain on the wind-swept plateaus of northern New Mexico and Arizona where the variety is grown. In this region there is a winter rainfall, but by the time the weather is sufficiently warm to warrant the planting of maize, the surface soil is thoroughly dry. Sum- mer rains may be expected in June or July, but if planting were delayed until the rains came there would not be time enough for the crop to mature before the frosts came in September. These adaptations should find an application wherever maize is planted during a dry season. and the young plants are forced to depend on moisture stored in soil. At San Diego, Cal., the past season plants of this type matured normally without a drop of rain during the growing season. ' That adaptations of so great economic importance should exist inside our own country and remain unnoticed is a striking indication of how inadequately the possibilities of maize development have been investigated. MAIZE FROM PERU AND BOLIVIA Seeds of Cuzco maize from Peru and an ear of a Bolivian variety of maize having the quality of remaining green a long time after maturity. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 1.) 150 The Journal Another set of interesting adaptations have been found in a type of maize from the table-lands of Mexico. This type was early recognized as a distinct form. In 1829 it was given specific rank by Bonafous under the name Zea hirta. The most striking characteristic of this type is a peculiar development of hairs on the leaf sheaths and also to some extent on the blades. For this most conspicuous peculiarity we have not as yet been able to discover any adaptive significance. On the tablelands of Mexico where this maize is grown the rainfall is very light. In the parts of the United States with a similar rainfall maize produc- tiont is not considered possible. We were, therefore, extremely optimistic re- garding the utilization of this type of maize. Our early experiments were very disappointing. In the semiarid regions of the West this variety was a com- plete failure. Instead of being drought resistant the plants appeared to suffer from drought more than the ordinary varieties from the corn belt. With- out the viewpoint that each distinct type of maize possesses adaptive char- acters this variety would have been dis- carded as worthless. As soon, how- ever, as the variety was scrutinized with respect to the separate characteristics instead of trying to utilize it as it was, important adaptations came to light. The first peculiarity noticed was the nature of the root distribution. In this type of maize the roots seem to have lost the ability to penetrate the soil. In a full grown plant the roots are all hort- zontal and confined to the upper 6 inches of soil. There is so little direct attach- ment to the soil that the whole plant can be lifted up and down by the hand. The plants are on rather than in the ground. This peculiar root distribution helps to explain why the plants are able to grow in Mexico with so little rainfall and why they fail in the western part of our country. In the part of Mexico from which this variety was secured the little rain that falls comes during the growing season in the form of light, misty showers. The rainfall is at no time sufficient to penetrate to of Heredity any extent and an extensive superficial root system is best adapted to utilize the moisture. This particular adaptation we are un- able to utilize in this country, for in the drier parts of the United States the rainfall comes largely in the winter in- stead of during the growing season, and growing plants must draw their water from that stored in the ground some distance below the surface. There are, however, many regions in_ tropical America where this adaptation should be of value. Through the work of Briggs and Shantz, of the Department of Agriculture, it has been shown also that Zea hirta is the most economical of water of any of the varieties of maize yet studied. Still another adaptation possessed by this type of maize was observed during the past season in the course of experi- ments conducted near San Diego, Cal. It there developed that this type of maize made satisfactory growth at lower temperatures than any of the other types with which we were experimenting. This does not mean frost resistance, nor does it mean that this type is suited to extend maize growing farther north. It means rather that this type pos- sesses one of the characteristics neces- sary to a variety of maize for regions where the temperatures are uniformly too low for the ordinary varieties. Tem- peratures below the optimum for maize are the rule over a large part of the elevated regions of the tropics. In the development of varieties for cool cli- mates, this type of maize promises to be of great value. Our experience with Zea hirta shows also the folly of looking for drought resistance as such. To make progress, we must distinguish be- tween the different kinds of drought re- sistance and search for the particular adaptation needed. Nearly every region from which we have received varieties has contributed adaptations that promise to be of value. From Bolivia has come a type possess- ing to a marked degree the quality of remaining green for a long time after maturity. Mexico has given us one variety with the largest ears and another with the ability to withstand extremely rr, a WAXY CHINESE MAIZE A typical plant of the Waxy Chinese variety of maize, showing numerous tassel branches, erect leaf blades and curved tassel. The kernels of this remarkable Chinese maize have a waxy endosperm which distinguishes them in a striking way from other varieties of maize. Photograph by courtesy of the Journal of Agricultural Research. (Fig. 2.) The Journal high temperatures. Peru contributes the largest seeds. From China comes a variety with a new type of endosperm and the ability to withstand hot dry winds at the time of flowering. Our best protected ears come from Guatemala. Enough has now been said to indicate what is meant by adaptation and how the varieties must be studied to realize and appreciate the adaptations. Only a beginning has been made. When it is realized that no two regions present exactly the same environment and that maize, though a very ancient crop, is very plastic and has molded itself to the conditions under which it has been grown, some idea may be gained of the multitude of adaptations that await discovery. RECOMBINATION OF CHARACTERS A word must now be said regarding the recombination of these adaptations into new varieties suited to new condi- tions or representing an improvement over varieties already existing. Regarding the recombination of char- acters, our knowledge is still very im- perfect, but here also a beginning has been made and results sufficient to serve as demonstrations have been secured. An example may be taken that is particularly applicable to tropical America. When a traveler from the north visits tropical America and finds maize a staple crop and often growing lux- uriantly, he is naturally struck by the absence of table or sweet varieties so generally grownin this country. Ihave made inquiry in a number of instances and almost invariably have been told that sweet varieties have been intro- duced, but that they did not do well, and that their growth was given up on that account. If it were possible to combine the palatability of the sweet varieties with the luxuriant growth and freedom from insect attack of the native varieties, a valuable addition might be made to the rather meager list of really delicious vegetables available in many parts of the tropics. We are to some extent confronted with the same prob- lem in our own southern states where the ravages of the corn worm practically of Heredity preclude the growing of commercial varieties of sweet corn. In the breeding of commercial varieties of sweet corn, one of the most im- portant considerations has been earli- ness. In breeding for earliness the number of leaves has been reduced. In reducing the number of leaves the number of husks, which are homologous to leaves, have also been reduced with the result that the ears of sweet corn are poorly protected. This was of little or no importance north of the region in- fested by the corn worm, but it is this that renders the commercial sweet varieties unsuited to southern regions. In 1912 crosses were made between commercial sweet varieties and southern varieties of field corn having well pro- tected ears. The first generation plants were grown in 1913, and selections were made from those plants with the most perfectly protected ears. From the ears thus obtained, which contained a mixture of sweet and non-sweet seed, we selected the sweet seed for planting in 1914. In that season the plants were very variable, but all the seeds were sweet. Crosses were made between the most promising plants, special attention being again paid to the covering of the ears. The results of the past season demonstrated that we already have a fairly uniform and productive variety of sweet corn. Although grown in a region where the infestation of corn worms is particularly severe the dam- age to the ears was insignificant, less, in fact, than was the damage done to field varieties in the same region. ‘Thus in three years we have combined the sweet seeds of the table varieties with well- protected ears of the larger field varie- ties. It would appear that there is no valid reason why any region that can grow maize successfully should be without sweet varieties. Whether earli- ness must necessarily be sacrificed, or whether it is possible to secure earliness and still keep the well-protected ears, is an interesting question that must await further investigation. All characteristics cannot be manip- ulated as easily as the sweet endo- sperm, which from the alternative nature of its inheritance permits of > A HAIRY VARIETY OF MAIZE. Leaf sheaths of the Esperanza variety of maize, showing the maximum development of tuberculate hairs.. Photograph by courtesy of the Journal of Agricultural Research. (Fig. 3.) 154 Mendelian recombination, but our ex- periments indicate that most of the characters of maize are independent of another in inheritance and that recombination is only a question of careful selection following hybridiza- tion. one CONCLUSIONS The work of discovering new and valuable characteristics is one in which a codperative arrangement among the different maize-growing countries of America would be especially applicable. Once an adaptation is observed and the discovery announced, it becomes available to all countries. Of course, an important step to take is the interchange of varieties, but it 1s of equal importance to have the varie- ties studied in their native countries by observers familiar with the maize plant and its variations. The Journal of Heredity I would strongly urge that each of the maize-growing countries of America make a canvass of the maize varieties existing within its boundaries. In the study of these varieties the particular conditions under which they have de- veloped should be kept in mind. Thus, if a variety is found growing in a region of cool nights, high winds, or any other pronounced environmental factor an effort should be made to determine how the variety meets the peculiar con- dition. I venture again to call atten- tion to the necessity of looking for desirable adaptations rather than de- sirable varieties and to urge that no variety be overlooked simply because it appears insignificant or worthless. If a variety is growing under climatic conditions that are extreme in any particular, it is more than probable that the variety possesses valuable characteristics. Improper Feeding among New York School Children. Thirty-three per cent of the girls and 38% of the boys in two New York pub- lic schools are suffering from improper feeding, due to ignorance of what con- stitutes a suitable diet under present conditions, according to studies made by New York social workers, utilizing the medical services of the Department of Health and the Association for Im- proving the Condition of the Poor. The school lunch is considered a di- rect way of meeting the problem re- vealed by these studies Nutritional clinics have been established and a spe- cial committee of the pediatric section of the New York Academy of Medicine has been appointed to cooperate in the experiments now proposed. ‘The first of these experiments is an extension of the existing school lunch service at School No. 40, East 20th Street, where twenty-five of the children are to be given one meal a day for three months. The Post Graduate Hospital, the New York School Lunch Committee, and the People’s Institute are cooperating to bring the utmost of scientific control to the experiment and in making known the results in terms of physical improve- ment, scholarship, cost, and applicability of the results to school children gen- erally. The menus for the feeding experi- ment have been carefully worked out by Dr. Mary Schwartz Rose of Colum- bia University and Miss Lucy K. Gil- lette, dietitian of the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. These menus are to contain 900 calories. The foods selected are those most easily available to the people during the pres- ent war time crisis and those which should be used for purposes of conser- vation. ‘The boys volunteered to eat these meals for a period of three months as “Food Scouts” to prove what food in war time children must eat in order to reach proper physical development. ADVERTISING NEW PLANT FOODS War Conditions Make Evident Necessity of Forming Food Habits of People Along Right Lines—This Work Should be Especially Directed by Department of Agriculture—Incessant Hammering of Modern Advertising Has Created a Vast Market For Many Commercial Products. Davip FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. HE days of the helter-skelter of democracy are drawing rapidly tov a close. “The method of leaving the development of so- ciety to the confused welter of forces which prevail within it” must give way. We have “discovered the necessity and value of a conscious direction of its ac- tivities.” The war is making this great change evident to everyone. We must know what we are doing as a people, and our habits—our likes and dislikes— must form the study of our most bril- liant minds. The results of these studies must be taken to all the people with the same certainty as the advertisements of the great corporations are ham- mered home, until they become brain patterns on the mind of every man, woman and child, patterns as clear as, or clearer, than Coca Cola, Cascara, or Quaker Oats. FOOD HABITS OF VAST IMPORTANCE Our food habits—why should they not form one of the very first and most important problems with which this conscious direction should concern it- self? “Food will win the war” is now on every stamped envelope. If this is true, then the food habits of the people form one of the most vital problems at the present time, and are likely to do so for some years to come. To the generation just past, pater- nalism was considered a great error, something that would undermine the morals of the people. My first experi- ence in the introduction of plants into America was with this mistaken buga- boo of democracy. I was asked, by the head of the Di- vision of Horticulture of the Federal Department of Agriculture, to secure for a pioneer, who was trying to estab- lish the citron industry on his place in the foothills near Los Angeles, some cuttings of the citron of Corsica. After the negotiations had proceeded so far that I was on my way to Corsica the matter came to-the attention of the Sec- retary. “I would just as soon give a man a set of Plymouth Rock eggs as to get for him, at government expense. a lot of cuttings of the citron,” was his reply. (And as a result I got the cuttings with my own money, and it was a long time before the Government ewerrpaid me-sback.) | “Thisiis.a” bit of department history that has never be- fore been published. Today the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction is expending a hun- dred thousand dollars a year in getting and handing over to just such pioneers as Smith, of Monrovia, Calif., new plant material from foreign countries. PRODUCTS SHOULD BE MADE KNOWN It is now twenty years since this work was begun, and we have arrived at still another step in the progress towards paternalism which it is evident to me is necessary. ‘This step is the conscious direction of the people in acquiring new food habits. We have been aiding the new indus- tries to get the material with which to begin; and the pioneers have been put- ting their lives and their money into the growing of the trees and the plants, and the acquiring of the necessary infor- mation with regard to their cultivation and the handling of the product, and 155 156 now they are ready to put their pet products on the market. But, alas, there is no market. They have con- vinced themselves that the fruit or the vegetable is better in some respects than what their neighbors are growing, and that there are good reasons why it should be grown over a considerable area of land, but they have spent all the money they could spare in the growing of their product and they have never con- sidered the selling end. They have done what the farmer has done so often, neglected the selling end of the propo- sition. ADVERTISING TOO COSTLY Now it is entirely beyond the limits of the pocketbooks of any man or small body of men to put up the money for the advertisement of a new vegetable. Advertising is expensive, and the prices paid by the big manufacturing firms would be out of the question for the producer of a new vegetable. He sim- ply could not do it. Before one got back in sales the money which he put into advertising he would find that some one else was growing the same or a similar product and reaping the benefits. Is this state of affairs to be always left to the helter-skelter competition of food manufacturers with secret pro- cesses, and the manufacturers of foods which are so well known that only superior quality counts anyway? If it is important for the people that these new plants should be developed into plant industries, then it seems to me that a market for them must be created and the necessary advertising be done by the Government. MARKET HARD TO CURE This doctrine is the result of experi- ence, not merely an office view of the situation. I have had the experience of seeing farmers become interested in a new industry, of seeing them plant several acres to a new crop, and then, when the harvest time came, discover that nobody was gcing to help them advertise the fruit or the vegetable; and, not being men of large means, their enthusiasm has melted away and The Journal of Heredity the industry, which deserved a larger try-out and a fuller experience, has died out for lack of advertising. Had 1% of the money spent every month in the advertising of some new brand of chewing gum been available for the new and wholesome food, sales could have been made, the growers en- couraged to go ahead, and a new plant industry established. In the one case a new chewing gum, made from the same ingredients as any other, has sup- planted some other chewing gum with absolutely no good results as far as the public is concerned; in the other the death of an industry which would have brought new land areas under cultiva- tion and made safer for the future our agriculture and more secure our food supplies of the future. DISEASES MUST BE COMBATTED For it must not be supposed by the public that there is any certainty that we shall be able always to combat the epidemic diseases of plants. Nor must it be forgotten that these may gain in virulence with the extension of the areas planted. Nature is not made in any one mold, and each case will have to be fought out singly. We have spent hundreds of thousands of dollars try- ing to grow the old world grape in the Eastern States of America and have utterly failed. The history of the pioneers in the establishment of the American grape industry is illuminat- ing in this connection. This industry deserved to have a much smoother path and to have sacrificed many less pioneers. Under our very eyes today the same kind of a struggle is going on in the South where the delicious Scupper- nong grape is being developed, and the growers are trying, without organiza- tion, and with only half-hearted govy- ernment aid, in the form of advice “and experimental work, to create a market for what is in reality a delicious new drink. At the same time a single con- cern with a mixture of California grape juices has worked up a trade in a new drink and is selling it by the carload. This new drink has been built up by concentrating capital on the simple mat- Fairchild: Advertising New Plant Foods ter of salesmanship. In the one case the growers of the Scuppernong grape cannot sell their product because they have no salesman and cannot afford to engage one. In the other, an already established industry creates a market for a new drink py skilful advertise- ment. The question which I want to ask is: Why should not the Government have expert salesmen? LARGE FIELD FOR CORN AND RICE Had the success of the corn campaign in Europe been followed up as it should have been years ago there is little doubt but that the ignorance which has pre- vented the Belgians and English from eating corn cakes and other corn prod- ucts would have been immensely mini- mized. Had salesmen been employed to teach the people how to cook rice and encouraged its consumption we would have, instead of the paltry consumption of seven pounds per capita, some- thing approaching the amount which we ought to consume. An active rice campaign might have prevented the overbalanced sugar consumption of 90 pounds which we now have, largely as the result of the advertising placards and newspaper urgings, and the inces- sant hammering of thousands of sales- men along the line of natural small re- sistance. These chocolate and candy and ice cream and sweet drink manufac- turers have had free access to the pub- lic, and have developed in the children of the coming generation a sweet tooth which will require the sugar planta- 15% tions of the West Indies and the East Indies as well to supply. And this, too, in the face of the fact that the sugar habit, like the alcohol habit, has ob- jectionable features about it which the doctors have long ago pointed out. The conscious direction of the food consumption of the people will, I con- ceive, bring into existence the govern- ment salesman, and with it the develop- ment of what has already come in other lines government advertising and gov- ernment street car yj-osters and fence advertisements. DISCRIMINATION AGAINST PRODUCTS The newspapers and magazines have always looked upon the stories about new foods in the light of news, and they have always been glad to spread any items of interest which would help the sale of things in which the farmer is interested. They have drawn the line when it comes to the advertising of any manufactured product—that was advertising and should pay its way. The path of the government sales- man should be made easy since he would not be working for any one small set of men, but for the develop- ment of a new plant: industry which would be free for all to enter, and would support, on the land, families which would add to the building up of the country. When the industry reached a stage where it could afford to organize and engage its own sales- men then would be the time for the Government to withdraw its support. Ohio Germination Tests Reveal Lack of Good Seed Corn. Most of the corn harvested in Ohio in 1917 is not fit for seed, according to the Ohio Experimental Station, which has been testing nearly two thousand samples representing almost every county in the State. Crib and field lots range in germination from 1 to 40%. Corn gathered and stored under arti- ficial drying conditions before the freez- ing weather last December show 90 to 100% germination in these tests. Half of the corn kept from the crop of 1916 tests this high, and three-fourths of such samples are above 80%. Seed corn this spring must come from three sources: A few farmers stored their corn early so that it was well dried out when cold weather came. Some corn matured comparatively early in southern counties and can be used in that part of the State. All old corn from 1916 should be held for seed and tested for germination. Since local seed corn is always safest, from three sources: A few farmers to buy as near home as pessible and to test each ear before planting. ANOTHER CHANCE FOR THE FILBERT Previous Attempts to Grow Filberts Along Atlantic Coast Failures—Layered Plants Now Growing Successfully in Maryland Suggest a Retrial of this Valuable Nut Tree in Eastern United States—Filbert Nuts Might Form a Valuable Addition to War Foods FTER repeated failures in trying to yay erow the European filbert suc- cessfully in the eastern United States, comes the report that layers brought into Maryland from introduced trees grown by the late Felix Gillet are exhibiting great vigor and unusual freedom from disease and are sO promising as to suggest a retrial of these valuable nuts on the Atlantic Coast. In case they succeed in becom- ing well established and resistant to eastern diseases and pests, a vast field will be opened where eastern growers may compete with the exportations from the Old World. Although commercial growing in the northwest has been made an actuality during the last quarter of a century, immense opportunities for the development of the industry still remain, The best varieties of the northwest, including the Barcelona and DuChilly, were developed by the late Felix Gillet. and for this reason, the Maryland trees may well be taken to be the most vigor- ous and resistant which can be produced. So far they have made a splendid show- ing. But it is very possible that it is because of an isolated position and because of the fact that they have not yet been exposed to attacks by the filbert blight that they have been im- mune. It will be necessary to have them more widely distributed and more exposed to infection before any defi- nite claims for immunity can be set forth. The filbert blight has so far succeeded in destroying all European filberts which have been planted along the Atlantic coast, and may not yet have reached the new Maryland layered plants. d . Although filberts have entered largely into the diet of the inhabitants of the Old World since an early epoch, being 158 highly praised by Virgil himself, these delicious nuts of unusual food value have been almost in the nature of a curiosity in America, especially along the North Atlantic Coast, and except for an occasional importation sold in small quantities at such prohibitive prices as to make any use of the nut as a food product an impossibility, have been practically unknown to the general public. Due to the fact that filbert exporta- tions from the Old World amounted to millions of dollars annually, many attempts have been made to introduce the growing of filberts into this country, but it is only during the last quarter of a century that sufficient success has been attained to warrant plantations for com- mercial purposes. Even during this time, practically all the successes were scored in the western and northwestern parts of the United States, it seeming to be impossible to secure varieties that would do well along the Atlantic Coast. There are two native species of filbert (Corylus rostrata and C. americana) which would appear to be of value in the American field, but due to their rela- tively small nuts are unable to success- fully compete with the two European species (C. Avellana and C. Colurna). C. Avellana of which the Barcelona, Du Chilly and Géant des Halles are all varieties, seems to be on the whole the best adapted to American needs. NUT OF GREAT ANTIQUITY The history of the filbert as a food product is lost in the mists of antiquity. It may have been known to the Romans as Nux Pontica, probably introduced from Pontus. The Italian name of Avellana seems to have been first applied to the wild hazel of Britain long before 8- YEAR-OLD FILBERT IN MARYLAND Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, Cal., a French nurseryman and writer on the subject of filberts and almonds collected at his Barren Hill Nursery a number of the best European varieties of filberts. The illustration is of a tree of the Géant des Halles variety of Corylus avellana raised in Maryland from a layer of one of this collection. The great vigor and unusual free- dom from disease ot the whole collection and the fact that they bear regularly suggest the advisability of trying them again in the Eastern States on well-drained hillsides. (Fig. 4.) THE BARCELONA VARIETY GF EUROPEAN FILBERT Aithough our American hazelnuts (Corylus americana and C. rostrata) are familiar to most, he larger-fruited cultivated filbert of Europe (Corvlus avellana), is still comparatively unknown in the Eastern states, except in the markets, and has only begun to attract attention in California, Oregon, and Washington. The behavior of several varicties brought into Maryland as layers from introduced trees grown by the iate Felix Gillet of Nevada City, Cal., is so promising as to suggest a retrial of various varieties of this valuable nut on the Atlantic Coast. (Fig. 5.) it was adopted by Linnaeus as the specific name of the indigenous species. Virgil states in Eclogue vii that it was more honored ‘“‘than the vine, the myrtle or even the bay itself.” Members of the genus Corylus long enjoyed the distinction of being endowed with occult powers, and twigs from them were used as divining rods for locating treasures, veins of metal, sub- terranean water and even criminals, and this miraculous power is still believed in by many people at the present day. Although the powers were later attri- buted to other plants as well, most notably to the peach and the witch hazel the myth has always been con- nected principally with the Old World Mult, CEES: Improvement of Beans in Manchuria The Manchuria Daily News states South Manchuria Railway’s agricultural station has been experiment- ing on the improvement of Manchurian beans for several years. Species from Ssupingkai have been distributed to dif- ferent places. 160 that the The results in 1917 were favorable on the whole, and about 20% increase in the yield was realized. Moreover, the new output is superior in weight, percentage of oil, luster, etc. These seeds are to be more widely distributed im LOWS: Pela AL FACTORS AND STERILITY Certain Factors Cause Death of Homozygous Embryos—Sublethal Factors or Combinations Also Affect the Zygote—Action on Pollen Grains and Embryosacs JOHN BELLING, Washington, D. C. 1; LETHAL FACTORS, .OR COMBINATIONS OF FACTORS, ACTING ON THE ZYGOTE NOMINALLY recessive (actu- ally intermediate) genetic factor, causing the death of al! embryos homozygous for it, was demon- strated by Baur, in Antirrhinum, in 1907 (2). On selfing, the heterozygote, MGmetavewl> 324 a: Oa, (1 green: 2 gold-color). Similar factors have been found in several other cases. In these plants, the embryos burst the seed- coats, and sometimes, as in maize, have a sufficient food store to grow leaves some inches long. But in VOeno- thera lamarckiana, as Renner (37) has shown, 4% of the embryos die in the seeds, without emerging. It 1s, I think, likely that such a mortality in the seed exists in other cases; probably in Vib- morin’s dwarf wheat (52) which was constantly heterozygous, and gave ap- proximately a ratio of OA::2Aa: las (two dwarf to one tall) when selfed; and possibly also in many first-genera- tion species hybrids. In the heterozygote Aa, where a: is lethal, if any factor B is linked with A, then a plant heterozygous for AB will give progeny, as regards J, in the pro- portion of (m?+2mn) Bs: 2(m?+-mn+ n*) Bb+-(n?+2mn)be, where m:n is the gametic ratio for coupling or repulsion. The resulting numerical ratios for coupl- ing (Table I) show a deficit in reces- sives increasing as the coupling be- comes closer, and a small excess in homozygous dominants, the ratio of dominants to recessives increasing from over 3:1 to an indefinite extent as the gametic ratio increases. For repulsion, on the other hand, there is a correspond- ingly large decrease in homozygous dominants and a small increase in recessives, the ratio of dominants to recessives varying with the gametic ratio from under 3:1 to a limit of 2: 1. Hence, wherever there are lethal factor combinations, as in species crosses, we may expect to meet with ratios of dominants to recessives in the second generation differing from the usual 3:1 ratio, because of linkage and cross- ing-over. I have shown (7) that cross- ing-over occurs in some species crosses. TABLE. I AaBh plant, and B are linked. Ratios in progeny of lethal, and A Where d» is Gametic ratios AB or ab: Ba: Bix bs as Ab or aB Seo eal 8: 14 25 44:1 Sisal S562 SF iL 8.8: 1 10:1 120 227.0 e 21 Ose 100: 1 10200: 20202: 201 fod sent ey 5214 78 DAW M85 11:62 335 Palen 1: 10 Dili 222, al20 22031 1: 100 201: 20202: 10200 Z2AQid In the case of Oenothera lamarckiana, the death of half the embryos, as well as the results of crossing, are met by Renner’s hypothesis; that, after selfing, a pair of factors, or combinations of factors, are lethal to the zygote, when homozygous; so that Le and i are eliminated, and only L! embryos left. Then a factor B, linked with L, will be found in the proportions of mnB»: (m?+ n?) 5b: mnbe, the numerica! results being given in Table II. (ABER LE plant, when and LZ and Ratios in the progeny of an L/Bb L, and /, are lethal combinations, B are linked. Gametic ratio Bo: Bb: bs Dom.: Rec. Deel tore ee eS) so? BE 5a 5-1 0orl:5 5 26 aS) 625i 10: 1 or 1: 10 LOO SLO sLalaitoay: 100: 1 or 1: 100 100: 10001: 100 101.0: 1 161 162 The Journal There is here a large excess of hetero- zygotes, increasing rapidly with the intensity of the linkage, the results for coupling being the same as those for repulsion. Il, SUBLETHAL FACTORS, OR FACTOR COM- BINATIONS, AFFECTING THE ZYGOTE These factors usually cause the death of a fraction only of the zygotes possess- ing them, the mortality varying with the environment from zero to perhaps total. Selective elimination, or differen- tial viability, are terms often applied to this mortality, which may be found in the second generation of plant crosses, especially wide crosses. When vicin- ism is absent, the presence of sublethal factors may often be recognized by the abnormal ratios in the second. genera- tion, which usually include a lessened proportion of recessives. A back-cross of /*; with a full recessive best shows this differential viability. In Mat- thiola, Saunders (40) found the hetero- zygote 1 to 1 double-thrower to have a sublethal factor combination. In flax, Tammes (46) ascertained that in a cross of blue and white-flowered races, in a progeny of 4,000 plants, there was always a deficit in the recessive white- flowered. The white-flowered plants were found to have 13% fewer seeds in a seed vessel than the blue-flowered plants of the same family: and of the seeds the white-flowered plants pro- duced, a smaller percentage germi- nated than of those from the blue- flowered. Hence az was sublethal to the embryos. (Aa plants, however, were apparently just as viable as A» plants.) After reckoning in the ob- served mortality, the ratios agreed with expectation. If a recessive sublethal factor a» is the cause of selective elimination in the case of x of the individuals possessing dz in the second generation; then a factor B being linked with A, there will be found, among the m surviving plants of the second generation, 3x plants which will be with regard to B in the proportions (m?-++ 2mn) Bs: 2(m?+ mn-+ n*) Bb: (n?+2mn)bo; while the n-+ 3x remaining plants of the second gen- eration, in which a2 was not present or of Heredity was not eliminated, will be in the ordinary proportion of 13: 2Bb: 1b». It was shown above that the former of of these two proportions gives ratios greater than 3:1 for coupling, and less for repulsion. Hence, in all cases where a factor B is linked with a sub- lethal factor, A or a, the second-genera- tion ratios will differ from the normal, not only for A and a, but also for all other differential factors in the same chromosome pair. | III, LETHAL FACTORS, OR FACTOR COM- BINATIONS, ACTING ON THE POL- LEN GRAINS AND EMBRYOSACS (HAP- LOID GENERATION). These factors cause partial sterility, where only a definite fraction of the pollen grains and embryosacs remain viable. They cause a selective elimina- tion of pollen grains and embryosacs, and their effect must be distinguished from that of zygotic factors which also may cause a total abortion of pollen grains (as in the recessive sweetpea with aborted pollen, 18), or of em- bryosacs (as in some double petunias), or partial abortion (as I have found in some F3 families from Stizolobium crosses); but do not cause selective elimination among members of the haploid generation. A special case of partial sterility due to lethal combinations of factors is semi-steritlity, where half of the pollen grains and half of the embryosacs perish because of their possession of such lethal combinations. Semi-ster- ility has been especially studied in three. Stizolobium crosses (5 and 6), where a satisfactory hypothesis was that each of the two combinations of factors, KL and kl, not found in the original parents, was lethal; while either of the two combinations, K/ and kL, peculiar to the parents, was not lethal. H and P were factors (for lateness of flower- ing, and pigmentation of seedcoat) linked with kK. In Fs, both H and P occurred in the usual 3:1 ratio, not- withstanding the elimination of pol- len grains and embryosacs. But the second generation consisted of fertile and semi-sterile plants in equal numbers. Among these two classes, the factor H, aT Belling: Lethal Factors and Sterility for example, was to be expected in the following different proportions. dle 25 LIRURS Se ai (m?-+-n?) : 4mn (m?-+-n?) Fertile plants.... 2(m2--n? is 2 Semi-sterile plants. 2mn : With a gametic ration of 5:1, which approximates the figures actually found, the plants would be in the following proportions (7). So Se H»: Hh: hz |Dom.: Rec. Fertile plants....... 6202965) 1.824 Semi-sterile plants ... 10:52:10 Op2as 1 The fertile plants have a large excess of homozygotes, and the semrsterile plants a corresponding excess of hetero- zygotes. The results for coupling are the same as those for repulsion. In the case of Oenothera lamarck- jana, which Geerts (16) has proved to be semr-sterile in pollen and embryo- sacs, we may use the same hypothesis as for the Stizolobium crosses; in which case the fertile combinations, Kel2 and kel», perish as embryos, and only the semi-sterile plants, KkLI, survive, the proportions in the second generation with regard to any factor B which is linked with L being, for either coupling or repulsion, Ba: bb: be mn: (m?-+-n?) > mn. This gives a large excess of hetero- zygotes. We get precisely the same result as regards linkage if we take up the alternative (and perhaps more probable) hypothesis of a pair of allelomorphs, Aa, one of which is lethal to the pollen grains which con- tain it, and the other lethal to the megaspores having it. In this case, however, a separate factor pair, Cy and €2z, must be regarded as responsible for the death of half the embryos. In the double-throwing stock (Mat- thiola) which gives about equal num- bers of singles and doubles, the facts (40) may, I think, be met by the hy- pothesis that this plant; in addition to being heterozygous for a factor E (double plants having e), differs from the normal wild form in that the factor 163 E has undergone a mutation to £!, E! being lethal to pollen grains. Then any factor B (white-flower color as opposed to cream) linked with E!, will give, in the progeny of the heterozygote E'eBb, Plants with Bs 3 Bb (bs Normal flowers......... mn: m+n? :mn Neuter double flowers... n? :2mn : m? This gives (with close coupling) many Bb and very few 5: and by plants among the singles, and mostly b. plants with fewBb among the doubles (40). Some extensive investigations of the mortality of pollen grains in known and suspected hybrids have been made lately, especially by Jeffrey (21 and 22), Dorsey (13), Standish (43), Hoar (19), and Cole (10). Further work of a quantitative nature on the amount and inheritance of this mortality, and on the state of the embryosacs of these hybrids, is needed before a factorial hypothesis can be applied. There are several distinct causes for empty pol- len grains (and for aborted embryosacs, which, however, are not readily count- ed). (1) There is a mortality due to accidents of environment; in which case the lethal effect is usually different in different flowers on the same plant, or in different plants of the same homozygous line, or at different times of the year. Cold, at a critical period of pollen formation, in the spring or fall, affects the pollen of some tropical plants; as Stizolobium, or cotton (1). This mortality is apparently not selec- tive, and presumably does not affect the ratios of zygotes. (2) There is a partial mortality of pollen grains due to zygotic factors, which factors I have found cause the death of usually a small fraction of the pollen grains in certain fertile and semi-sterile lines from Stizolobium crosses. This tend- ency is inherited, but is apparently random, not selective. (3) The whole (or nearly the whole) of the pollen of a plant may perish by the action of zygotic factors, as in the sweet-pea with empty anthers. In these cases the abortion is not selective. (4) Lethal factors, or combinations of factors, acting on the haploid generation may cause semi-sterility ; that is, the death of half the pollen grains and half the em- 164 The Journal In this case the elimination and the /y ratios are altered for fertile and semi-sterile plants, and for cases of linkage. (5) There may be selective partial elimination of pollen grains or embryosacs by — sublethal factors (though this has not yet been bryosacs. is selective, proved for any one case). It would of course immediately affect the F» ratios and linkage, if at all extensive. Since two or more of these causes of mortality of pollen grains and embryo- sacs may occur in the same plant, even to determine for instance whether a hybrid plant is precisely semi-sterile or not may require an examination of the pollen from many flowers, and in some cases (as in Citrus species hybrids) for several seasons in succession. LITERATURE (1) Batts, L. 1909, Rept. of Am. Breed. Assn., 5:16. Abortion of Pollen Greatest in Cold Weather (in cotton). (2) Baur, E. 1907, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 25:442. ‘Lethal Intermediate F actor in Snap- dragon (chlorophyll factor). (3) Baur, E. 1914, Einf. in die exp. Vererbungslehre, 2 Aufl., Berlin, p. 98. Sub- lethal Recessive in Snapdragon (color factor). (4) Bracn, S. A. and Maney, T. J. 1912, Rept. of Am. Breed. Assn., 8: 214. Recessive Disease Factor in Prunus Cross. (5) BELLING, J. 1914, Zeitsch. f. ind. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 12:303. Inheritance of Semi-sterility Due to Lethal Combinations (in Stizolobium). (6) BELLING, J. 1915, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1914: 96. Inheritance of Semi- sterility in Later Generations. (7) BELLING, J. 1915, Am. Nat., 49: 582. Linkage of Late Flowering and Pigmentation of Seed Coat with One Factor for Semi-sterility. (8) BirFen, R. H. 1905, Jour. Agr. Scz., 1:4. Selective Elimination Found in Second- Generation Families of Wheat. (9) BirFen, R. H. 1907, Journ. Agr. Sci., 2: 109. A Sublethal Dominant Disease Factor in Wheat. (10) Cote, R. D. 1917, Bot. Gaz., 63: 110. Pollen Abortion in Rosa. (11) Correns, C. 1913, Zeitsch. f. ind. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 10: 130. A Recessive Sublethal Factor in Mirabilis. (12) Davis, B. M. 1915, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 54: 226. Selective Elimination and Ster- ity in Oenothera. (13) Dorszy, M. J. 1914, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 144. Pollen Abortion in Hy- brid and Other Grapes. (14) East, E. M. 1915, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 53:70. Pollen Abortion and F. Elimina- tion in Nicotiana Cross. (15) Emzrson, R. A. 1912, Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 25:89. Lethal Recessive in Maize (chlorophyll factor). of Heredity (16) Geerts, J. M. 1909, Rec. des Trav, Bot. Néerl., 5:93. Semi- sterility cf Oenothera Lamarckiana, and of pee Onagracee ae. (17) Greoory, E. 1907, our. of Bot., 45: 377. Pollen of tybrid Violets. (18) Grecory, R. P. 1905, Proc. Camb. Philos. Soc., 13:148. Pollea Abortion in Sweet-pea. (19) Hoar, C. S.-1916,° Bot: Gass 622370: Pollen Abortion in Rubus. (20) JANCzEWski, E. 1908, Bul. Acad. Sci. Cracovie. Math. Nat., 1908:587. Pollen Abortion in Ribes Hybrids. (21) JEFFREY, E. C. 1914, Bot. Gas., 5 322. Abortion of Microspores or Pollen gr ains in Bae Hybrids and Presumed Hybrids. ) JEFFREY, E. C. 1915, Am. Nat., 49: it Potien of Crypthybrids. (23) JesENKo, F. 1913, Zettsch. f. ind. Abst. u. V “ererbungsle hre, 10: 311. Pollen Abor- tion in Wheat-rye Cross; First Generation Sub- sterile. (24) Jones, W. N. Journ. Genetics, 2:71. Sub-sterile Digitalis Species Cross. (25) JueL, H.O. 1900, Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., 35: 638. Pollen Abortion in Presumed Hybrid Syringa. (26) Kurrrer, K. R. 1905, Acta Hort. Bot. Univ. Imp. Jurjevensis. 6:1. Pollen Abortion, A Test for Species Hybrids. (27) Liprorss, B. 1914, Zettsch. f. ind. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 12:1. Pollen Abor- tion in Rubus Crosses. (28) LinpstroM, E. W. 1917, Am. Nat., 51: 224. Linkage with A Chlorophyll Factor in Maize. (29) Mites, F. C. 1915, Journ. Genetics, 4:193. Lethal and Sublethal Chlorophyll Factors in Maize. (30) Murcxke, M. 1908, Bot. Zezt., 66: 1. Acorus Calamus, Aborted Pollen and Embryo- sacs. (31) Nitsson-EHLE, H. 1912, Zetisch. f. Pflanzenzuechtung, 1:3. Sublethal Combina- tions in Wheat. (32) Nivsson-EHLE, H. 1913, Zeztsch ff. ind. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 9: 289. Recessive Lethals in Wheat and Barley (chlorophyll factors). (33) Orton, W. A. 1911, Rapp. 4°. Conf. internat. de Génétique., Paris, p. 247. Sub- lethal (disease) Factors. (34) Osawa, I. 1912, Journ. Coll. Agr: Imp. Univ., Tokyo, 4:83. Pollen and Em- bryosac Abortion in Citrus. (35) Osawa, I. 1913, Journ. Coll” Agr: Tokyo, 4: 237. Abortion of Pollen and Em- bryosacs in Daphne odora. (36) PELLEW, C. and DurHAM, F.M. 1916, Journ. of Genetics, 5:159. Abortion of Over Half the Pollen of a Diploid Primula Species Hybrid. (37) RENNER, O. 115. Abortion of Zygotes lamarckiana and Its Crosses. (38) ROSENBERG, O. 1909, K. Sv. Veten- kaps. Akad. Handl., 43, No. II. Abortion of Pollen and Embryosacs in a Sub-sterile Drosera Hybrid. 1914" (lora IN jb aie in Oenothera Belling: Lethal Factors and Sterility (39) SALAMAN, R. N. Soc., 39:301. Pollen Abortion in Effects of Season. (40) SaunpDERS, E.R. 1911 and 1915, Jour. of Genetics, 1:303 and 5:137. Sublethal Factor Combination in Matthiola. (4) SHULL, G: E1914, Zettsch. f: id. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 12:97. Recessive Sublethal Factor in Bursa. (42) SHuLt, G. H. 1914, Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 31; Gen. Vers. Heft.:40. Lethal and Sublethal Factors (for chlorophyll) in Melan- 1910, Jour. Linn. Potato. drium., (43) SranpisH, L. M. 1916, Journ. of Heredity, 7: 266. Pollen Abortion in Cra- taegus. (44) Stomes, T. J. . 1912, Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 30:406. Abortion of Zygotes in Oenothera Crosses. (45) Surron, A. W. 1914, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., 47:427. Sterility and Fertility of Species Crosses in Pisum. (46) Tammes, T. 1914, Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch., Amsterdam, 16:1071. Quanti- tative Study of Sublethal Recessive in Flax. (47) FiscHtrer, G. 1903, Beth. Bot. Cen- 165 tralbl., 15:408. Abortion of Embryosacs in Ribes and Syringa Hybrids. (48) FiscHLER, G. 1906, Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 24:83. Abortion of Pollen and Embryosacs in a Bryonia Species Hybrid. (49) FiscHLter, G. 1906, Jahrb. f. Bot., 42:545. Pollen Abortion in Hybrids. (SO) FiscHLER, G. 1908, Archiv. f. Zell- forschung, 1:33. Pollen Abortion in Hybrids of Mirabilis, Potentilla, and Syringa. ©) MEISCHEER, |G.) 1910,- Archi. Ff. Zell- forschung, 5: 622. Pollen Abortion in Bananas with Different Chromosome Numbers. (52) Trow, A. H. 1916, Journ. of Genetics, 6:66. Recessive Lethals in Senecio (chloro- phyll factors). (53) Vi~MoRIN, P. Genetics, 3: 67. inant, in Wheat. (54) WETISTEIN, R. v. 1908, Wiesner— Fetschrift, p. 368. Sempervivum Hybrids with Less Pollen Abortion when Grown from Cuttings. (55) WuirTe, O. E.° 1913, Am. Nat., 47: 206. Pollen Abortion in Abnormal Anthers of Fas- ciated Strain of Tobacco. WISS. Ribes DEN elo lS