aif JOURNAL . OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF % Qs Official Publication of the Acadents Volume 60 Number 2 Fall 1999 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 GoverninG Boarp For 1999 Executive COMMITTEE President: Gordon K. Weddle, Department of Biology, Campbellsville University, Campbellsville, KY 42718-2799 President Elect: Blaine Ferrell, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101 Vice President: Ron Rosen, Department of Biology, Berea College, Berea, KY 40404 Past President: Patricia K. Doolin, Refining Analytical Department, Marathon Ashland Corporation, Cat- lettsburg, KY 41129 Secretary: Stephanie Dew, Department of Biology, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422 Treasurer: William E. Houston, 161 Morningstar Court, Bowling Green, KY 42103 Executive Secretary (ex officio): Donald Frazier, Science Outreach Center, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, KY 40536-0078 Editor, JOURNAL (ex officio): John W. 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St ee a ee ed > eee te ee eee ee ee INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATES Fellow University of Kentucky University of Louisville Sustaining Member Eastern Kentucky University Northern Kentucky University Morehead State University Western Kentucky University Murray State University Member Bellarmine College Cumberland College Berea College Somerset Community College Campbellsville University Southeast Community College Centre College Associate Member Georgetown College Midway College Jefferson Community College © Owensboro Community College Kentucky State University Spalding University Kentucky Wesleyan College Thomas More College Maysville Community College Transylvania University INDUSTRIAL AFFILIATES Associate Patron Ashland Oil, Inc. ‘ Member Corhart Refractories Corporation MPD, Inc. Associate Member All-Rite Pest Control Wood Hudson Cancer Research Laboratory, Inc. a ie 7 aK ye Ki? . ate ola, ‘ang a0 oan} v7 te Tee, Wk 2 ee Wiel aha! a ; eee ee > Mee ee Oo as ae td “ag . . A WaROY Sea, s 4 Orie “7 c+ A i “eb 7 ay 4 q é + a A as J sane +f . ad 6 4d a , ess , i oe 4 * a ory = p am he 7 ie Ps ae ’ _ - ( » - - ea 7 = * ; « ad ’ ' JOURNAL OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ISSN 1098-7096 Continuation of Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Volume 60 Fall 1999 Number 2 J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):67-72. 1999. Possible Decline in Reproduction in a Freshwater Unionid (Mollusca: Bivalvia) Community in the Licking River at Butler, Kentucky Stephen E. McMurray,’ Guenter A. Schuster, and Barbara A. Ramey Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT In the Licking River at Butler, Pendleton County, Kentucky, glochidia, fishes, and unionids were collected to analyze recruitment in an historically diverse unionid community. Only 14 unionid glochidia and 50 juvenile Corbicula fluminea, were collected with drift nets. No fishes collected had any evidence of glochidial infestation. A small percentage of the unionids collected (13.5%) had gills modified as marsupia. Sex ratios, stage of gametogenesis, and marsupial contents of two target species (Actinonaias ligamentina and Elliptio dilatata) were determined in the laboratory. Actinonaias ligamentina was found to exhibit a 1:1 male-to- female ratio; E. dilatata had a ratio statistically different from 1:1. Causal factors for this possible decline in reproduction were unclear. INTRODUCTION in the Licking River at Butler, Pendleton \ North America’s rich unionacean (mussel) County, Kentucky. Originally, the data were to (Bivalvia: Unionidae) fauna (297 taxa) has dis- be compared to those from another comm: proportionately more endangered, threatened, ™y 2 the Licking River where it was hypoth- and special concern taxa than all the groups of esized recruitment had ceased or been dra- terrestrial organisms in North America com- matically decreased due to the release of hy- bined. Only 70 of the unionid taxa known polimnionic water from an upstream reservoir from the United States are considered stable (McMurray 1997). (Williams et al. 1993). Human activities in Kentucky have severely impacted unionid METHODOLOGY populations during the last 200 years, making Study Area this group of organisms the most endangered in the state (Cicerello et al. 1991). One of the most severe and perplexing problems facing freshwater mussels is the documented loss of recruitment (reproduction) in unionid com- flows northwesterly through the extremely munities previously thought to be healthy. variable topography of the Bluegrass region of The objective of at study was to analyze the state for 496 km (Burr and Warren 1986; reproduction in a diverse unionid community fyannan et al. 1982: Harker et al. 1979). This drainage covers all or a portion of 21 counties ‘Present address: Kentucky Division of Water, Water and encompasses Ca. 10% of the state (9601 Quality Branch, Nonpoint Source Section, 14 Reilly Road, km?) (Harker et al. 1979). The drainage has a Frankfort, KY 40601. diverse unionid fauna with over half of Ken- 67 The Licking River originates on the ungla- ciated Allegheny Plateau in the Appalachian Province of eastern Kentucky and is a sixth- order tributary to the Ohio River. The river Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Ohio River Licking River Butler, Kentucky North Fork Licking River N South Fork Licking River 0 20 40 60 Kilometers Figure 1. Licking River drainage in Kentucky. tucky’s native mussel fauna, 53 taxa, histori- cally existing in the drainage (Cicerello et al. 1991). A recent unionid survey by Laudermilk (1993) indicated that 50 taxa still reside in that portion of the river below Cave Run Reser- voir. The unionid community for our study was located just downstream from the SR 177 bridge at Butler (Figure 1). The watershed at this site is utilized mainly for agriculture, but there is some urbanization of the surrounding area. Substrate consisted mainly of cobble and boulder, with large amounts of gravel and sand intermixed in the riffle areas and along the stream margins. This site has had a diverse unionid community with 35 historical taxa (Laudermilk 1993). Location of the Butler, Pendleton County, Kentucky, unionid community. Inset shows the location of the Sampling and Laboratory Procedures Five collections of glochidia, fishes, and unionids were made from July through Octo- ber 1995. Unfortunately, high water conditions prevented collections in spring 1996. For each collection period a drift net was randomly placed in the bed to collect glochidia. After 1 hour, the contents of the drift net were pre- served in 70% ethanol and returned to the lab- oratory. Drift net collections were randomly examined using cross-polarized light micros- copy techniques (Johnson 1995) at 10-20 magnification. Glochidia were counted and re- moved along with any juvenile Corbicula flu- minea. Fishes were collected for 1 hour using a common sense minnow seine. A: fishes re- Freshwater Unionid Community—McMurray et al. 69 tained were initially preserved in 10% forma- lin and then transferred to 70% ethanol in the laboratory for final preservation. Following sorting and identification, the fins and scales of each individual were examined under a dis- secting microscope (10-30%) for attached glo- chidia. The opercular flaps were removed, and each gill arch was carefully examined under a dissecting microscope for attached glochidia (Bruenderman and Neves 1993). Unionids were randomly collected for 1 hour by snorkeling or with the use of water scopes. After identification, the shell of each unionid was carefully opened with a small screwdriver and the gills were examined for signs of gravidity. Notes were made of the spe- cies collected and the condition of the gills in each individual. All unionids, except for indi- viduals of two target species retained for his- tological examination, were retumed to the river. Two common unionid species, Actino- naias ligamentina and Elliptio dilatata, were chosen for histological examination. These species represented both breeding regimes of freshwater mussels (bradytictic and tachytictic, respectively), both are commonly encountered throughout their respective ranges (Oesch 1995), and neither has any federal or state protection status (KSNPC 1996). More indi- viduals for histological examination were also collected by the previously described method if enough individuals for analysis were not ob- tained in the original search. In most cases in- dividuals, and the respective data, for field and laboratory analyses were kept separate. If possible, three to five individuals of the two target species were retained for histolog- ical examination from each collecting period. These individuals were placed into a 10% for- malin solution and were then transferred to 70% ethanol in the laboratory for final pres- ervation. The valves were opened by cutting the adductor muscles, and portions of the go- nadal and gill tissues were removed and placed into either 70% ethanol or Bouins fix- ative. These were then dehydrated through-a series of alcohols and embedded in paraffin (Humason 1967). Sections were made at a thickness of 10 1m using an American Optical 820 Microtome and were mounted with Per- mount. The slides were stained with Ehrlich’s hematoxylin and counter stained with eosin (Humason 1967). The sections were then ex- amined under a compound microscope (400- 430) to determine a sex ratio for both spe- cies, to determine if gametogenesis was oc- curring, and to determine the contents of the marsupia. All drift net, fish, and unionid col- lections were deposited in the Branley A. Branson Museum of Zoology, Eastern Ken- tucky University (EKU). Five cell types of spermatogenesis (Garner 1993) were used to determine the stage of ga- metogenesis in males of both target species. Stage 1 males were those that had only sper- matogonia present in their acini; Stage 5 males had mature spermatozoa present. Stages 2, 3, and 4 corresponded respectively to sperm morulae, spermatocytes, and spermatids being present in the acini. Three cell types of 00- genesis in Elliptio dilatata (McMurray 1997) were used to determine the stage of gameto- genesis in females of that target species. A similar analysis of female Actinonaias ligamen- tina was not performed due to a lack of this type of classification for females of that species (McMurray 1997). Stage 1 females were those with oogonia as the dominant cell type in their alveoli; Stage 2 were those with oocytes dom- inant; and Stage 3 were those with mature ova dominant. Marsupia of both target species were classified according to their contents as being empty (EM) or containing mature glo- chidia (MG), early embryos (EE), or advanced embryos (AE) (Garner 1993). In the case of known females that did not have their gill tis- sues examined, the marsupia were considered to be empty since sections were made of any gill that showed signs of gravidity. RESULTS Only 14 unionid glochidia and 50 juvenile Corbicula fluminea were collected with drift nets. A total of 307 fishes was collected; none of these had any attached glochidia. Only 26 of the 193 unionids (13.5%) (Table 1) ob- served in the field had their gills modified as marsupia. This represented, based only on field observations of the gill condition, a 6.42: 1 male-to-female ratio. A total of 17 Actino- naias ligamentina and 22 Elliptio dilatata were returned to the laboratory. Histological ex- amination of these individuals revealed that the male-to-female ratio for A. ligamentina was statistically 1:1, and for E. dilatata was sta- tistically 1:2.7 (x? = 4.5455, a = 0.05). 0 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) lable 1. Taxa Actinonaias ligamentina (Lamarck, 1819) Alasmidonta marginata Say, 1818 Amblema plicata (Say, 1817) Cyclonaias tuberculata (Rafinesque, 1820) Elliptio dilatata (Rafinesque, 1820) Fusconaia flava (Rafinesque, 1820) Lampsilis cardium Rafinesque, 1820 Lasmigona complanata (Barnes, 1823) Lasmigona costata (Rafinesque, 1820) Megalonaias nervosa (Rafinesque, 1820) Obliquaria reflexa Rafinesque, 1820 Potamilus alatus (Say, 1817) Ptychobranchus fasciolaris (Rafinesque, 1820) Quadrula metanevra (Rafinesque, 1520) Quadrula nodulata (Rafinesque, 1820) Quadrula pustulosa (Lea, 1831) Quadrula quadrula (Rafinesque, 1820) Tritogonia verrucosa (Rafinesque, 1820) Totals: Most of the males of the two target species had more than one stage of spermatogenesis present in their gonads, but usually the most advanced stage present dominated the acini of the testes (Table 2). Spermatids and sperma- tozoa were the only cell types observed in male Elliptio dilatata, with spermatids being the most common. The same was observed in male Actinonaias ligamentina, with the excep- tion of one male that had spermatocytes pre- sent. The most advanced stage of gametogenesis present did not always dominate the alveoli of the ovaries in the female Elliptio dilatata, as was observed in the testes of the males. Most of the female E. dilatata were in the first (eight individuals) or second stages (seven in- dividuals) of oogenesis with oogonia and oo- cytes, respectively, dominating the alveoli. Even though all of the females had mature ova Table 2. Stages of spermatogenesis observed in male El- liptio dilatata and Actinonaias ligamentina from the Lick- ing River at Butler, Kentucky. Determined from the most advanced cell type present where stage 1 = spermatogo- nia, 2 = sperm morulae, 3 = spermatocytes, 4 = sper- matids, 5 = spermatozoa. Stage of spermatogenesis Taxa 1 2 3 4 5 Totals Actinonaias ligamentina 0 0 Din de a LO Elliptio dilatata 0 Pc | in VR: CaP. 6 Field observations of unionids with and without modified gills from the Licking River at Butler, Kentucky. With modified gills Without modified gills Totals 0 ] ] 0 | 1 | 52 53 0 9 9 1 14 15 0 ] 1 3 15 18 0 3 Bs 16 24 40 0 10 10 0 2 2, 4 18 22 ] 7 8 0) l 1 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 3 3 0 2 2 26 167 193 present in their alveoli, none had this as the dominant cell type. One female was catego- rized as unknown because the stage of oogen- esis could not be determined due to technical difficulties. Mature glochidia were present in the marsupia of most of the female Actino- naias ligamentina (57.14%). In E. dilatata most of the females (81.25%) had empty mar- supia (Table 3). DISCUSSION All drift net collections were made between 1000 and 1700 (EST), which corresponds to the period when glochidial densities should have been at their highest (Kitchell 1985). Bradytictic freshwater mussel species, such as Actinonaias ligamentina, tend to release their glochidia from ca. August to May; tachytictic species, such as Elliptio dilatata, tend to re- lease their glochidia from ca. May to August (Oesch 1995). It should reasonably be expect- Table 3. Marsupial contents observed in female Elliptio dilatata and Actinonaias ligamentina from the Licking River at Butler, Kentucky. Abbreviations are as follows: EE = early embryo; AE = advanced embryo; MG = mature glochidia; EM = empty marsupia. Marsupial contents Taxa EE AE MG EM Totals Actinonaias ligamentina 0 0 4 3 7 Elliptio dilatata 1 1 1 13,16 Freshwater Unionid Community—McMurray et al. al ed then, that even through our study occurred only in the summer to late fall, the glochidia of bradytictic mussel species would be col- lected with drift nets. The relatively large number of juvenile Corbicula fluminea col- lected (when compared to the number of glo- chidia collected) may impact any juvenile unionids present in the bed through resource competition (Neves and Widlak 1987). One of the most important factors determin- ing the success of reproduction in unionids is the presence of a suitable host. Only 25.7% of the fishes collected were suitable hosts for unionids known from the bed (Watters 1994): none of these had glochidia attached. The rea- son for the lack of infested fishes is unknown. The attachment of glochidia to their hosts is dependent upon several factors such as infes- tations of hosts by copepod parasites (Wilson 1916), age of the host, immunity caused by pre- vious infestations (Parker et al. 1984), and wa- ter temperature (Matteson 1948). The determination of a male-to-female ratio from field observations is probably not a true representation of the actual ratio since most unionids are not sexually dimorphic (McMa- hon 1991). The only way to determine the sex of an individual without using standard histo- logical techniques is to examine the gills for signs of gravidity in the field. Since several species of unionids usually maintain a 1:1 male-to-female ratio (Jirka and Neves 1992), the 6.42:1 ratio from the field observations may indicate a problem. The male-to-female ratio based only on these field observations in- dicated that less than 25% of the unionids in this community were females. The cause of the 1:2.7 ratio in Elliptio dilatata based on his- tological analysis in the laboratory was not known. Small sample size alone was probably not the reason because sample size did not differ greatly among the two target species. The lack of earlier stages of spermatogen- esis in males of both species is thought to be related to a normal temperature regimen at Butler. Water temperature is believed to be the most important exogenous factor control- ling reproduction in unionids (Matteson 1948; Tedla and Fernando 1969; Zale and Neves 1982) and is not regulated at this location by the releases of hypolimnionic water from an upstream reservoir as it was found to be at another site farther upstream and closer to the reservoir (McMurray 1997). Further study in this and in other freshwa- ter mussel communities needs to be complet- ed to assess the current health of these his- torically diverse and successful communities that were previously thought to be healthy. For example, the qualitative methods used to collect unionids are not sufficient to search for juveniles. Juveniles need to be extensively searched for in the community at Butler to affirm that recruitment is occurring. Also, a search for possible upstream causes is neces- sary to try and ameliorate the impacts to this community. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank C. Abbruzzese, J. S. Board, M. C. Compton, M. D. Moeykens, A. R. T. Nix, T. E. Oliver, M. A. Patterson, and D. Vey for as- sistance in the field and laboratory. R. R. Ci- cerello (KSNPC) and P. A. Ceas (EKU) as- sisted with fish identification. G. T. Watters (OSU) provided helpful hints on the use of cross-polarized light microscopy. D. L. Batch (EKU) served on the first author's thesis com- mittee. Two anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments. This research was funded by a grant from the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources (Project No. E- 2-9). LITERATURE CITED Bruenderman, S. A., and R. J. Neves. 1993. Life history of the endangered fine-rayed pigtoe Fusconaia cuneolus (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in the Clinch River, Virginia. Am. Malacol. Bull. 10(1):83-91. Burr, B. M., and M. L. Warren, Jr. 1986. A distributional atlas of Kentucky fishes. Kentucky Nature Preserves Comm. Sci. Techn. Ser. 4. Cicerello, R. R., M. L. Warren, Jr., and G. A. Schuster. 1991. A distributional checklist of the freshwater union- ids (Bivalvia: Unionoidea) of Kentucky. Am. Malacol. Bull. 8(2):113-129. Garner, J. T. 1993. Reproductive cycle of Quadrula me- tanevra (Unionidae) in Kentucky Reservoir, Tennessee River, Hardin Co., Tennessee. M.S. Thesis. University of Alabama, Huntsville, AL. Hannan, R. R., M. L. Warren, Jr, K. E. Camburm, and R. R. Cicerello. 1982. Recommendations for Kentucky's outstanding water classifications with water quality cri- teria for protection. Kentucky State Nature Preserves Comm. Techn. Rep., Frankfort, KY. Harker, D. F., S. M. Call, M. L. Warren, Jr., K. E. Cam- burn, and P. Wigley. 1979. Aquatic biota and water 72 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) quality survey of the Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky. Kentucky Nature Preserves Comm. Techn. Rep., Frankfort, KY. Humason, G. L. 1967. Animal tissue techniques, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Califor- nia. Jirka, K. J., and R. J. Neves. 1992. Reproductive biology of four species of freshwater mussels (Mollusca: Union- idae) in the New River, Virginia and West Virginia. J. Freshwater Ecol. 7:35—44. Johnson, L. E. 1995. Enhanced early detection and enu- meration of zebra mussel (Dreissena spp.) veligers using cross-polarized light microscopy. Hydrobiologia 312: 139-146. [KSNPC] Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1996. Rare and extirpated plants and animals of Ken- tucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 57:69-91. Kitchell, H. E. 1985. Life history of the endangered shiny pigtoe pearly mussel Fusconaia edgariana in the North Fork Holston River, Virginia. M.S. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. Laudermilk, E. L. 1993. A survey of the unionids (Bival- via: Unionidae) of the mainstem Licking River and se- lected tributaries below Cave Run Reservoir, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis. Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY. Matteson, M. R. 1948. Life history of Elliptio complanatus (Dillwyn, 1817). Am. Midl. Naturalist 40:690-723. McMahon, R. F. 1991. Mollusca: Bivalvia. Pages 315-399 in J. H. Thorp and A. P. Covich (eds). Ecology and classification of North American freshwater inverte- brates. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. McMurray, S. E. 1997. Reproduction in a freshwater mus- sel (Bivalvia: Unionidae) community downstream of Cave Run Reservoir in the Licking River at Moores Ferry, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis. Eastern Kentucky Uni- versity, Richmond, KY. Neves, R. J., and J. C. Widlak. 1987. Habitat ecology of juvenile freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in a headwater stream in Virginia. Am. Malacol. Bull. 5(1): 1-7. Oesch, R. D. 1995. Missouri naiades: a guide to the mus- sels of Missouri, Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, MO. Parker, R. S., C. T. Hackney, and M. F. Vidrine. 1984. Ecology and reproductive strategy of a south Louisiana freshwater mussel, Glebula rotundata (Lamarck) (Unionidae: Lampsilini). Freshwater Invertebr. Biol. 3(2):53—58! Tedla, S., and C. H. Fernando. 1969. Observation on the glochidia of Lampsilis radiata (Gmelin) infesting yellow perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchell) in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. Canad. J. Zool. 47:705-712. Watters, G. T. 1994. An annotated bibliography of the re- production and propagation of the Unionoidea (primar- ily of North America). Ohio Biol. Surv. Mise. Contr. 1. Williams, J. D., M. L. Warren, K. S. Cummings, J. L. Harris, and R. J. Neves. 1993. Conservation status of freshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6—22. Wilson, C. B. 1916. Copepod parasites of fresh-water fish- es and their economic relations to mussel glochidia. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 34:331-374. Zale, A. V., and R. J. Neves. 1982. Fish hosts of four spe- cies of lampsiline mussels (Mollusca: Unionidae) in Big Moccasin Creek, Virginia. Canad. J. Zool. 60:2535- 2542. ]. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):73-77. 1999. Relationships between Selected Meteorological/Pollution Parameters and Hospital Admissions for Asthma in South Central Kentucky L. Michael Trapasso College Heights Weather Station, Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 and Larisa Keith School of Planning, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 ABSTRACT Relationships between selected meteorological and pollution parameters and the number of hospital ad- missions for asthma attacks were investigated in the Bowling Green, Kentucky, area during calendar year 1994. Meteorological data were obtained from the College Heights Weather Station, Department of Ge- ography and Geology, Western Kentucky University. Meteorological parameters included temperature, rel- ative humidity, and barometric pressure. Pollution data were received from the Environmental Protection Agency and represented concentrations of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The num- ber of asthma admissions per day was recorded from two area hospitals. Analysis tested whether an increase in the number of asthma attacks would correspond with any or all of the following: low temperatures, low barometric pressure, high relative humidity, and high levels of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Lagged data allowed for correlation between asthma attacks on 1 day with atmospheric variables of up to 2 days previous. The graphical and statistical results showed several weak but significant correlations between the number of asthma attacks and the independent variables. INTRODUCTION Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease that occurs when the bronchial tubes in the lungs react negatively to a stimulant. These tubes become narrowed and block the flow of air. Simultaneously, muscles in the bronchial walls contract and a clogging mucus is secreted. The most common symptom of all asthma sufferers is a severe shortness of breath caused by re- versible airway obstructions. Other symptoms may include wheezing, chest pain, fatigue, nighttime cough, irritability, and loss of ap- petite. With allergic asthma, some symptoms are sneezing and itchy and runny nose and eyes (Tromp 1980). Asthma and Weather About 5 percent of the nation’s population has asthma. Around 2.5 million of those are children up to age of 17 (O’Hollaren et al. 1991). A possible cause of the increased num- ber of affected children could be exposure to dust mites. These tiny pests are more likely to infest a house that is well sealed. In recent years, Americans have more effectively sealed their homes to be more energy conscious. 73 Adult asthma is more frequent in women than in men. One possible cause is the hor- mone estrogen. Increasing estrogen has been shown to inhibit airflow through the lungs. Women who take post-menopausal estrogen are 50 percent more likely to develop asthma than those who have never taken it (Seachrist 1995). There are several meteorological parame- ters that have been linked to the onset of asth- ma, most of them very poorly understood. Certain meteorological events can contribute to the problem (Curson 1993): thunderstorms, sand storms, rapid passage of frontal systems, increased wind movement, excessive heat, hu- mid and still air, and spring rains. Rain and thunderstorms can foster the release of pollen, which can affect allergic asthma sufferers. Likewise, precipitation can bring sulfuric acid and other aerosols closer to the ground (Cur- son 1993). It has been theorized that changes in atmospheric ionization and falling baromet- ric pressure brought on by thunderstorms or frontal passages can aggravate the disease (Tromp 1980). In Helsinki, wind speed was correlated with asthmatic hospital admissions; however, though temperatures correlated pos- itively, relative humidity seemed to have no effect (Ponka 1991). In the early 1960s, researchers found that weather cold enough for activation of furnaces increased the number of hospital visits for asthma. Thus it was thought that the gases emitted from furnaces could have been the contributing factor (Greenburg et al. 1964). On the other hand, another study noted that a peak of asthma admissions did correlate with deep layers of cold air (Tromp 1980). Seasonal releases of pollen and mold appear to have an effect on asthma sufferers. A study in Switzerland found that the increase in hos- pital admissions for asthma attacks correlated first with birch and grass pollen (Frank et al. 1992) Some have claimed a seasonality with asth- ma attacks. The two seasons that seem to ir- ritate asthmatics most are spring and autumn. The increase of warmth and humidity as spring turns to summer increases the growth of mold and other fungi, thus affecting asth- matics (Curson 1993). It was also found that asthma attacks increase during autumnal storms and the strong atmospheric cooling in the transition to winter (Tromp 1980). Other research concluded that the reaction to all sea- sonal variations will differ strongly among asthmatics (Frank et al. 1992). Asthma and Pollutants In addition to allergens in the air, pollution also has been shown to have an effect on asth- ma sufferers. In 1991 sixty-three percent of asthma sufferers lived in areas where at least one U.S. federal air quality standard was ex- ceeded. Prolonged hot and humid weather is known to increase production of photochem- ical smog, which is one possible agent trigger- ing asthma attacks (Curson 1993). In New Jersey, from May to August 1988 and 1989, strong relationships were found be- tween summertime ozone concentrations and hospital admissions for asthma (Cody et al. 1992). Similar results were found in Los An- geles and in Ontario, Canada (Thurston et al. 1994). Using subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and who exercised lightly, investigators found that moderate ozone con- centrations did not produce serious risk to asthmatics (Linn et al. 1983). Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Other studies revealed that ambient air pol- lution, especially sulfur dioxide, along with cold weather, increases the frequency of asth- ma episodes (Ponka 1991). In Yokkaichi, Ja- pan, the mortality from chronic obstructive lung disease was measured in sulfur dioxide polluted areas. The findings showed that there was a larger mortality rate in polluted areas (Imia et al. 1986). Sulfur dioxide concentra- tions and cold air can affect asthma when tak- en together (Linn et al. 1984). Another possible contributor to increased asthma attacks is the total suspended particles in the air. In three similar cities close to a vol- canic eruption in Japan, it was found that the city closest to the volcano had the highest re- orted number of respiratory-disease cases (Yano et al. 1986). Around the Mount St. Hel- ens explosion of 18 May 1980 there was an increased number of emergency-room visits from respiratory complaints because of elevat- ed levels of suspended particles (Baxter et al. 1983). HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONSHIPS The literature is filled with confusing and sometimes contradictory results concerning the effects of weather and pollution variables on asthma. However confusing it might be, some of the possible causes of asthma attacks taken from the literature were used to develop specific relationships explored in our research. Relationship One: There is an inverse rela- tionship between temperature and asthma at- tacks. This argument is supported by Green- burg et al. (1964) and Tromp (1980). Relationship Two: There is a negative cor- relation between barometric pressure and asthma attacks. This argument is supported by Tromp (1980). Relationship Three: There is a positive cor- relation between relative humidity and asthma attacks. This correlation was suggested by Ponka (1991). Relationship Four: There is a direct rela- tionship between the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere and the number of asthma attacks. This suggestion is supported by Ponka (1991) and Linn et al. (1984). Relationship Five: There is a direct rela- tionship between carbon monoxide and asth- ma attacks. This is based on the work by Greenburg et al. (1964). Asthma in South Central Kentucky—Trapasso and Keith 75 Relationship Six: Nitrogen dioxide and asth- ma attacks are positively correlated with each other. This was indirectly supported by Yano et al. (1986). METHODS Study Area Our research was conducted in Bowling Green, in Warren County, Kentucky. The city’s two hospitals, the Medical Center at Bowling Green and the Greenview Hospital, serve the surrounding 10-county area. Data Collection Air pollution data were obtained from the Environmental Protection Agency State Office in Frankfort, Kentucky, which provided max- imum and mean values for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. These levels were recorded by the Shell Environ- mental Monitoring Company, subcontracted by General Motors, in Bowling Green. The data were collected in units of parts per mil- lion for each hour of the day. Meteorological data were acquired from the College Heights Weather Station, Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green. The daily mean temperatures were calculated from 24 hourly readings from thermograph charts. Daily mean relative humidity was calculated by the same method using hygrograph charts. Daily mean barometric pressure was derived from microbarograph charts. Asthma data, in the form of hospital admis- sions per day, were obtained from the two hos- pitals in Bowling Green. Also included were the age and sex of admitted patients. The con- fidentiality of hospital records allowed only for selected data to be released. The period of study ran from January to December 1994. Data Transformation The incompatibility of the various types of data was a major problem to overcome before any meaningful analysis could take place. The dependent variable of asthma attacks was re- corded in admissions per day. These numbers ranged from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 7. However, all the other types of data took very different formats and units of measure. Daily mean temperatures were measured in degrees F. Daily mean relative humidities were measured in percent. Daily mean baro- metric pressures were recorded in inches of mercury. Pollution data for both means and maximums were reported in parts per million. Considering the variety of units found with the raw data, a standard parametric statistical approach would render an invalid analysis. Therefore, a data transformation was neces- sary. All the data sets were transformed into an equal interval ranking system ranging from 0 through 7, using the Jenks Ranking Pro- gram. With this done, a non-parametric statis- tical approach could yield valid results. ANALYSIS After some basic descriptive statistics, the analysis proceeded through two stages. The first involved graphic analysis to check for ap- parent relationships between any of the vari- ables and the number of attacks through time. Though suggestive, these graphs were not conclusive. Next, statistical analyses were completed us- ing the Statistical Package for the Social Sci- ences (SPSS) to calculate Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients. The number of asth- ma attacks was then lagged 1 day behind the meteorological/pollution variables. In other words, we correlated the number of asthma admissions for a particular day as a function of the atmospheric conditions of the previous day. The analysis was then repeated with a 2- day lag to test if antecedent conditions of 2 days prior would affect the number of asthma attacks. RESULTS The total number of asthma attacks per day underwent basic descriptive statistics. The mean was 1.271 with a standard deviation of 1.705. All dates were used excluding only those with no data. A total of 434 attacks was recorded, of those 255 were female and 179 were male. The ages of the patients ranged from 4 months to 97 years. The patient’s age distri- bution was as follows: (1) 1 to 10, 100 cases: (2) 11 to 20, 60 cases; (3) 21 to 30, 57 cases: (4) 31 to 40, 66 cases; (5) 41 to 50, 30 cases; (6) 51 to 60, 45 cases; (7) 61 to 70, 43 cases: (8) 71 to 80, 24 cases; (9) 81 to 90, 7 cases and; and (10) 91 to 100, 2 cases. A graphic analysis took the independent Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) variables—daily mean temperature, baromet- ric pressure, relative humidity; daily SO, mean, SO, maximum, CO mean, CO maxi- mum, NO, mean, and NO, maximum, and su- perimposed the number of asthma attacks. These were then compared to the hypothe- sized relationships. Finally, Spearman Rank Correlation Coef- ficients were calculated for every variable with the number of asthma attacks per day. Signif- icance level was set at 90%. Relationship One: The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient was only —0.21, the 1- day lag yielded a —0.32, and the 2-day lag dropped ‘back to —0.20. The same- -day corre- lation was found to be significant. Though the correlation coefficients were found to be small, they were all negative relationships as was assumed. Relationship Two: The Spearman Coeffi- cient was 0.34, a 0.38 for the 1-day lag, and a 0.29 for the 2-day lag. The first two values proved to be significant, and the sign of the relationship supported the original assump- tion. These were the highest correlations found among the weather variables. Relationship Three: The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient was 0.22, the 1-day lag increased it to 0.31, and the 2-day lag amount- ed to 0.23. All of the coefficients concerning relative humidity were statistically significant at 90% level of confidence. Again the sign of the relationships held with the original as- sumption. Relationship Four: The Spearman Coeffi- cient for sulfur dioxide showed 0.30 for the mean values and 0.37 for the maximum values. The 1-day lag yielded 0.34 and 0.40 for mean and maximum, respectively. The 2-day lag pro- duced a 0.32 for the mean SO, and a statisti- cally significant (at the 90% level) 0.34 for the SO, maximum. These were among the highest correlations found in all of the analysis; and the sign of the relationships were all positive. Relationship Five: The Spearman Coeffi- cient for CO mean was a 0.19, and for CO max it was 0.26. For the 1-day lag a 0.27 and a 0.36 were calculated, respectively. The 2-day lag brought forth a 0.21 and a 0.24, respec- tively. Only one of these coefficients was sig- nificant, but again all the signs held with those hypothesized. Relationship Six: The Spearman Coeffi- cients showed 0.17 for NO, mean and, 0.22 for NO, maximum values. The 1-day lag yield- ed a 0.27 and a 0.30; the 2-day lag, a 0.21 and a ().22. Again only one of these correlations was significant at the 90% level. DISCUSSION We attempted to identify some possible fac- tors for the number of asthma admissions per day at the two area hospitals. Both graphic analysis and the Spearman Rank Correlation analysis showed no strong correlations be- tween the number of asthma admissions and weather/pollution parameters. All the corre- lation coefficients were rather weak. Herein lies the caveat when conducting human bio- meteorological research. When correlating something as tangible as a temperature read- ing with something as intangible as pain or feelings of discomfort, the coefficients will not be as strong as those in other types of re- search. Therefore, correlation coefficients in the 0.20 to 0.30 range are not as weak as they may seem, and coefficients reaching as high as 0.40 are, in the authors’ opinions, encourag- ing. It is also important to note two other con- sistencies found within the results. (1) Even with the weakest correlations, the sign of the relationships followed the assumptions made at the outset of our research. (2) With each parameter, the 1-day lag correlation was the highest. Interviews with respiratory specialists concurred with these findings using the fol- lowing rationale. On the same day as the onset of the asthma attack, chronic suffers may delay a trip to the hospital in hopes of a natural sub- sidence of the symptoms. The 1-day lag rep- resents a continued discomfort and a conse- quent request for treatment. The 2-day lag correlation coefficients drop off. This is likely affected by two reasons. The first is that the symptoms have subsided and the asthmatic chooses not to seek treatment; the second, that the asthmatic’s medication is taking effect. At any rate, these trends were consistent. The lack of very srong correlations cause other questions to come to light. For example, are hospital admissions per day a true measure of asthma attacks within the general populace? Future studies may attempt to find other sources for the asthma data, e.g., question- Asthma in South Central Kentucky—Trapasso and Keith tt naires and interviews with asthma sufferers or data from physicians in private practice. Another question may address the relatively small geographical area used in this study. Fu- ture studies may encompass larger metropol- itan areas for greater sample size. We certainly urge more research along these lines to help shed light on this still misunderstood disease. LITERATURE CITED Baxter, P. J., R. Ing, and H. Falk. 1983. Mount St. Helens eruptions: the acute respiratory effects of volcanic ash in a North American community. Arch. Environm. Health 38:138-143. Cody, R. P., C. P. Weisel, and G. Birnbaum. 1992. The effect of ozone associated with summertime photo- chemical smog on the frequency of asthma visits to hos- pital emergency department. Environm. Res. 58:184— 194. Curson, P. 1993. Climate and chronic respiratory disease in Sydney: the case of asthma. Clim. Change 25:405— 420. Frank, K., A. Boeriu, and P. Degens. 1992. A 3-year co- hort study on short term effects of air pollution in Ger- many. 1. Influences of medication and season. Sci. Total Environm. 127:69-78. Greenburg, L., P. Field, and J. Reed. 1964. Asthma and temperature change. Arch. Environm. Health 8:642— 647. Imia, M., K. Yoshida, and M. Kitabatake. 1986. Mortality from asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary dis- ease. Arch. Environm. Health 39:339-345. Linn, W., D. Shamo, and T. Vinet. 1984. Response to ozone in volunteers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch. Environm. Health 38:278-283. O’Hollaren, M., J. Yunginger, and K. Offord. 1991. Ex- posure to an allergen as a possible precipitating factor in respiratory arrest in young patients with asthma. New England J. Med. 324:359-363. Ponka, A. 1991. Asthma and low level air pollution in Hel- sinki. Arch. Environm. Health 46:262-269. Seachrist, L. 1995. Estrogen linked to adult asthma risk. Sci. News 148:279. Thurston, G., I. Ito, and C. Hayes. 1994. Respiratory hos- pital admissions and summertime haze air pollution in Toronto,Ontario: consideration of the role of acid aero- sols. Environm. Res. 65:271—290. Tromp, S. W. 1980. Biometeorology. W. and J. Mackay Ltd., London. Yano, E., S. Nishi, and Y. Yokoyama. 1986. Chronic pul- monary effects of volcanic ash: an epidemiologic study. Arch. Environm. Health 41:94—99. Acad. Sci. 60(2):78-86. 1999. Managing Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) Affects Breeding-Bird Communities of Pine-Oak Forests in Southeastern Kentucky Martina Hines Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, 801 Schenkel Lane, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 ABSTRACT Breeding-bird communities were surveyed on the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky, using point counts, in mid May, late May, and early June 1994 and 1995. Twenty-eight stands of Appalachian pine-oak forest were surveyed of which 14 were managed for red-cockaded woodpeckers (RCWs). Management involved removal of midstories (2.5-17.5 em dbh) and repeated prescribed burns. Results indicate that these management practices appear to have effects similar to that of timber harvests on species composition and abundance of breeding birds. Prescriptions for RCWs were beneficial to several species associated with early successional and edge habitat, including at least some neotropical migrants whose numbers are decreasing in eastern North America (e.g., indigo bunting, hooded warbler, and prairie warbler). Management for RCWs appears to decrease habitat quality for other neotropical migrants, particularly those associated with forest interiors. INTRODUCTION Appalachian pine-oak forests on the south- em part of the Daniel Boone National Forest (DBNF) are managed for red-cockaded wood- peckers (Picoides borealis). The United States Forest Service (USFS) manages RCW habitat according to guidelines developed in the coastal plains (USFS 1995), where the species inhabits mature open pine forests and where these stands are naturally maintained by fire. These forests are composed primarily of lob- lolly, slash, or longleaf pines and are consid- ered typical RCW habitat (Hooper et al. 1980; USFS 1995) but do not occur in Kentucky (Braun 1974). Instead, all known RCW colo- nies in Kentucky are in stands classified as Ap- palachian pine-oak forest (Evans 1991) and have a large upperstory hardwood component and possess a well-developed hardwood mids- tory. Forest management for RCWs in Ken- tucky, involving mechanical removal of hard- wood midstories and application of controlled burns, is intended to mimic typical habitat conditions found in the open pine forests of the southeastern United States. Unfortunately very little is known about the natural history of Appalachian pine-oak forests. Remnant populations of certain plant and ani- mal species with a fire affiliation indicate that fire might have played a role in shaping these stands (Campbell et al. 1990; MacGregor pers. comm. 1993), but uncertainty about the fre- 78 quency and impact of fires on pine-oak forests exists (Kalisz pers. comm. 1994). Since current management practices were implemented for RCWs in Kentucky in the late 1980s, the population has decreased from 18 to 1 native birds (Feltner pers. comm. 1998; KSNPC 1999). Because it is doubtful if management benefits RCWs in Kentucky and it is unclear how these management practices affect other components of the ecosystem, ad- ditional information is necessary to assess the overall efficacy of existing management prac- tices for RCWs in pine-oak forests. Breeding-bird communities are one of many components likely to be impacted by RCW management. Previous studies in other parts of the range of RCWs demonstrate that the structure of these communities changes in response to thinning and fire (Holmes et al. 1986; Robbins et al. 1989; Wilson et al. 1995). Wilson observed that those neotropical mi- grants depending on early-successional or open forest habitats benefit from RCW man- agement, whereas other species, dependent on undisturbed forests, decline. In my study I evaluated the effects of RCW management on breeding-bird communities in pine-oak forest in Kentucky. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area The study area, the Daniel Boone National Forest in southeastern Kentucky, lies along Red-Cockaded Woodpecker—Hines 79 the escarpment defining the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau physiographic region (Campbell 1997) and is included in the mixed mesophytic forest region (Braun 1974). All sites were on USFS lands in Whitley, Pulaski, and Laurel counties, the tracts of forest de- fined by the USFS as in need of management for RCWs. The terrain, rugged and stream eroded, supports a landscape that has rolling uplands, narrow ridges, steep slopes, and ravines. This geographic heterogeneity explains the pres- ence of numerous forest types. The well- drained soils of the ridge tops are covered pre- dominantly with pine and mixed pine-oak stands. These stands are often small, occurring as narrow bands along elevational contours. According to the USFS, pine and pine-oak stands, considered suitable habitat for RCWs, account for 35% of the total forested area (Ka- lisz and Boettcher 1991). Stand size ranges from ca. 2 to 5 ha. Upperstory basal area of stands ranges from ca. 5 to 13.3 m?/ha (Hines and Kalisz 1995). Common species are short- leaf pine (Pinus echinata), which accounts for 50 to 75% of the basal area; pitch pine (Pinus rigida); Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana); vari- ous oaks (Quercus alba, Q. coccinea, Q. fal- cata, Q. montana, Q. velutina); and tight- barked hickories (Carya glabra, C. tomento- Sa). ‘ Unmanaged stands have a well-developed hardwood midstory and a sparsely developed understory (Hines and Kalisz 1995). The low- er strata are dominated by red maple (Acer rubrum), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum) (Kalisz and Boettch- er 1991). Managed stands have an upperstory basal area comparable to that of unmanaged stands. But hardwood midstories (stem size of 2.5 to 17.5 cm dbh) were cut in 1989 and 1990, re- sulting in a large amount of woody debris on the ground. Controlled burns are conducted every 3 to 5 years. At the time of my surveys, some treatment stands (n1994 = 6, n1995 = 4) had been burned within the previous 2 months and supported limited growth in the understory, whereas the remainder (n1994 = 8, nl1995 = 10) were bummed 1 or 2 years ear- lier and supported a dense and brushy under- story. Field Methods During spring 1994 and 1995 I conducted surveys in 28 stands in Appalachian pine-oak forest; 14 of these were managed for RCWs. All stands were visited three times: mid May, late May, and early June of both years. During a survey period, all stands were visited in a random sequence within 3 consecutive days during the hours of 0600 to 1000 EDST. Rel- ative bird abundance was quantified using a fixed-radius point count method (Hutto et al. 1986). Observations were recorded from a point at the approximate center of each stand, =75 m from the stand boundary to minimize edge effects. For 12 minutes at each stand, birds were identified by sound and sight. Spe- cies, approximate distance to the observer, and location within or outside the survey stand were recorded for each individual bird. Only birds within a 100 m radius, or within the bor- ders of the stand, if that distance was smaller, were recorded. Statistical Analysis For the analysis, stands were classified as managed and unmanaged, lumping stands that were recently burned with stands that had been burned in previous years as managed. Mann-Whitney tests were used to compare differences in frequency of occurrence be- tween unmanaged and managed stands for in- dividual bird species and to test for differences in species richness and total abundance of edge and interior species, respectively, be- tween treatments. Bird species were divided into edge and interior species depending on their reported tolerance for edge habitat (AOU 1983; Hamel 1992; Mengel 1965; Palm- er-Ball 1995). Interior species were defined as species with a low tolerance for edge habitat; edge species included those that prefer open and disturbed areas (Table 1). A subset of data on forest-interior, neotropical migrants was analyzed separately. Mann-Whitney tests were also used to compare differences in species richness and total abundance between treat- ments for species with different nesting re- quirements. Species were grouped into five categories: primary and secondary cavity nest- ers, ground nesters, shrub nesters, midstory nesters, and canopy nesters. Previous research was used to identify which species were likely 80) Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) to be transients in the study area (Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball 1995). Accordingly, tran- sient species were excluded from analyses based on their nesting requirements (Table 1). Mann-Whitney tests were also used to test for differences in total abundance and species richness of avian species belonging to different foraging guilds. Species were divided into five guilds: ground/shrub, midstory, canopy, bole, and aerial foragers (Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball 1995). RESULTS A total of 1474 individual birds (n1994 = 626, nl1995 = 848) belonging to 44 (plus 5 migrant) species was recorded. Of these, 863 birds (n1994 = 351, nl1995 = 512) belonging to 43 species were recorded in managed stands, and 6111 birds (n1994 = 275, n1995 = 336) belonging to 32 species were recorded in unmanaged stands. Overall, species richness did not differ between managed and unman- aged stands. Bird abundance was slightly high- er in managed stands, but the difference was not significant (w = 28, P = 0.07). Differences in Abundance and Frequency of Occurrence of Individual Species The most common species in unmanaged stands were ovenbird (Seiwrus aurocapillus), red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus), pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), and indigo bunting (Pas- serina cyanea), respectively (Table 1). Other common species were hooded warbler (Wil- sonia citrina), Carolina chickadee (Parus car- olinensis), pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), white-breasted nuthatch (Sitta car- olinensis), and scarlet tanager (Piranga oliva- cea), all recorded =18 times. Common species in managed stands were indigo bunting, hood- ed warbler, prairie warbler (Dendroica discol- or), and rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythro- phthalmus), respectively (Table 1). Other common species were red-eyed vireo, pine warbler, Carolina chickadee, and pileated woodpecker, all recorded =35 times. Mann-Whitney tests indicated differences in frequency of occurrence for some species. Ovenbirds were more common in unmanaged than in managed stands (w = 21, P < 0.0057; Table 2). Red-eyed vireos were recorded twice as often in unmanaged as in managed stands (w = 26, P = 0.05). During 1994, yellow- breasted chats (Icteria virens) were more common in managed stands (w = 21, P = 0.0057) and were never recorded in unman- aged stands. In 1995, only a single individual was detected in a managed site. Indigo bun- tings were more common in managed stands (w = 21, P < 0.0057). No statistically signifi- cant difference was found for hooded war- blers, but about twice as many were detected in managed than in unmanaged stands. The following species were found to be signifi- cantly more common in managed than in un- managed stands: rufous-sided towhee (w = 21, P = 0.0057), prairie warbler (w = 25, P = ().0036), and pileated woodpecker (w = 7.5, P = 0.063). No difference in frequency of oc- currence was found for any other species. Responses to Treatments by Edge and Interior Species Species richness of edge species was higher in managed than in unmanaged stands. Twen- ty-two edge species were recorded in man- aged stands versus 15 species in unmanaged stands. Nineteen interior species were record- ed in managed versus 17 interior species in unmanaged stands. Edge species were signif- icantly more common in managed versus un- managed stands (496 versus 151 observations; w = 21, P = 0.0057). Total abundance of in- terior species was lower in managed than in unmanaged stands (355 versus 442 observa- tions). Nearly all species categorized as forest in- terior species in my study are neotropical mi- grants (14 of 20), whereas only about one fourth (6 of 24) of edge species are neotropical migrants (Table 1). There was no significant difference in the frequency of occurrence of neotropical migrants (447 vs. 490 observa- tions) between managed and unmanaged stands with 17 species observed in both types of treatments. A more noticeable difference in occurrence between unmanaged and managed stands for neotropical migrants was evident for forest interior species (w = 27, P = 0.05). This group of species accounted for 384 oc- currences in unmanaged and only 268 occur- rences in managed stands. Comparison of Abundance and Richness of Species of Different Nesting Requirements Primary and secondary cavity nesters were more abundant in managed than in unman- Table 1. Red-Cockaded Woodpecker—Hines and in unmanaged stands (u) in Kentucky. 81 Species parameters and total observations from 1994 and 1995 recorded in stands managed for RCWs (m) Stands Species American crow American goldfinch! American robin black-and-white warbler black-throated green warbler blue jay blue-gray gnatcatcher blue-winged warbler brown-headed cowbird Cape May warbler’ Carolina chickadee Carolina wren cedar waxwing cerulean warbler chestnut-sided warbler chipping sparrow common yellowthroat dark-eyed junco! eastern wood pewee hairy woodpecker hooded warbler indigo bunting Kentucky warbler! magnolia warbler mourning dove northern cardinal northem flicker ovenbird pileated woodpecker pine warbler prairie warbler red-bellied woodpecker red-cockaded woodpecker red-eyed vireo red-headed woodpecker rose-breasted grosbeak' rufous-sided towhee scarlet tanager summer tanager tufted titmouse white-breasted nuthatch wild turkey wood thrush worm-eating warbler yellow warbler yellow-billed cuckoo yellow-breasted chat yellow-throated vireo yellow-throated warbler Edge/interior edge edge edge intenor interior edge edge edge edge edge edge edge edge interior edge edge edge edge interior interior interior edge interior interior edge edge edge interior interior interior edge edge interior interior edge interior edge interior intenor edge interior edge interior interior edge edge edge interior interior \ Nesting niche canopy shrub shrub ground midstory midstory midstory ground parasite midstory 2nd cav 2nd cav midstory canopy shrub shrub shrub ground canopy cavity shrub shrub ground midstory midstory shrub cavity ground cavity canopy shrub cavity cavity midstory cavity midstory ground canopy canopy 9nd cav 2nd cav ground midstory ground srub midstory shrub canopy canopy Foraging niche pred/scav ground/shrub ground/shrub midstory midstory midstory midstory midstory ground/shrub midstory midstory ground/shrub midstory midstory midstory ground/shrub ground/shrub ground/shrub aerial bole midstory ground/shrub ground/shrub canopy ground/shrub ground ground/shrub ground/shrub bole midstory ground/shrub bole bole canopy bole midstory ground/shrub midstory midstory midstory bole ground ground midstory canopy midstory ground/shrub canopy bole Neotropical migrant nho yes no yes no no yes no no yes no no no yes yes no no no no no yes yes yes yes no no no yes no yes yes no no yes no yes no yes yes no no no yes yes yes yes no yes yes Type of residence year round year round year round summer summer year round summer summer summer transient year round year round summer summer summer year round summer year round summer year round summer summer summer transient year round year round year round summer year round summer summer year round year round summer year round summer year round summer summer year round year round year round summer summer summer summer summer summer summer m 13 21 4 15 — ww co Wwe ie) (ee) SCOnw fe ReAAS& — 11 | pw w ue bo oO Ow Hq 09 WoOooOodcdoOorFNnNUINNFGOSOCrF = Oe Ww CO D Ol () “I — ja bo SCOrFOoOrKRNNNOWORFrOwWAOCW — a" ' Species excluded from analyses because observations fell outside their reported range or breeding season. aged stands (w = 22.5, P = 0.007). Of these, pileated woodpeckers were the most common woodpecker regardless of stand condition. Ground-nesting species were slightly more abundant in unmanaged than in managed stands (w = 26, P = 0.036), with ovenbirds accounting for 81.7% of these observations (Table 3). Other ground-nesting species were represented in smaller numbers and did not exhibit patterns between treatments, except Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) fable 2. Abundance of selected species in stands managed for RCWs (m) versus unmanaged stands (u) in Kentucky observed during each survey.’ Yellow- Red-eyed breasted Rufous-sided Indigo Hooded Prairie Pileated Ovenbird Vireo Chat Towhee Bunting Warbler Warbler Woodpecker Surveys m u m u m u m u m u m u m u m u Mid-May 94 8 2] 15 l4 7 0 7 0 14 10 16 4 18 0 10 5 Late May 94 3 32 5 12 9 0 13 0 30 5 10 12 19 4 4 i) Early June 94 5 9 2 13 § l io" 0 27 5 14 7 21 0 mel) Mid-May95 6 23 (a 5.30 4 0 14 5 4 2 2° Q ee Late May 95 4 2 5 8 7 0 4 0 24 4 4 2 1 2; 6 ] Early June 95 6 2) 9 1S 2 0 5 | 18 12 8 5 1 ] S27 mrA Mean Qo cola OA OSE Ore CERO, PAI (ose 93153 7 UES rele Doe 2a Data are pooled across 14 stands in each category for rufous-sided towhees, which were more numerous in managed stands. Shrub-nesting species were more abundant in managed than in unmanaged stands (w = 21, P = 0.0057). Indigo buntings accounted for most observa- tions in managed stands (38%). Shrub-nesting species observed only in managed stands were yellow-breasted chat, chipping sparrow (Spi- zella passerina), and American robin (Turdus migratorius). Other shrub-nesting species rep- resented in small numbers, but not differing in abundance between treatments, were hood- ed warbler, prairie warbler, and common yel- lowthroat (Geothlypis trichas). Abundance of midstory nesters did not differ between un- managed and managed stands; however, a high number of red-eyed vireos was recorded in unmanaged stands (n = 88). Red-eyed vireos were also the midstory nester most often re- corded in managed stands but in much lower numbers (n = 43). Abundance of canopy-nest- ing birds did not differ between unmanaged and managed stands. The only nest parasite in the study area, the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), was infrequently observed in managed stands (n = 13) and never in un- managed stands. DISCUSSION Response of Individual Species Previous studies have shown that ovenbirds and red-eyed vireos are negatively affected by timber harvest regardless of the amount of basal area left standing (Baker and Lacki 1997; Thompson, Probst and Raphael 1992; Welsh and Healy 1993). My study demonstrated that a reduction in midstory basal area alone, even if the upperstory is left untouched, has a sim- ilar negative effect on these species. The high- er number of hooded warblers observed in managed stands, though statistically not sig- nificant, confirms previous studies, which have demonstrated that the species prefers a dense understory (Anderson and Shugart 1974; Bak- er and Lacki 1997). A reduction of the mid- story in managed stands, which encourages this type of habitat, might also improve con- ditions for fly-catching, a common foraging mode of hooded warblers (Bent 1953; Palmer- Ball 1984). Baker and Lacki (1997) observed that ru- fous-sided towhees are positively affected by clearcut and low-leave harvest relative to high- leave harvest or no-harvest; the species is as- sociated with early successional habitat (Ha- gan 1993). The positive response of rufous- sided towhees to RCW management observed in my study suggests that habitat quality of this species might be determined more by devel- opment of the understory than by canopy bas- al area. A mere reduction in midstory basal area, which facilitates the development of a dense, brushy understory, might be beneficial to towhees. These stands were characterized by a well-developed understory not unlike ear- ly successional habitat, which is the stratum this species uses for foraging and nesting (Palmer-Ball 1984). The higher number of prairie warblers ob- served in managed stands was expected; this species is associated not only with open, brushy areas and forest edges but also with open forests where much sunlight reaches the ground (Mengel 1965). Mengel specifically mentioned observing the species in pine-oak forests on the Cumberland Plateau. Again, the Table 3. Total numbers and means of individuals from different bird guilds in stands managed for RCWs (m) versus unmanaged stands (u) in Kentucky observed during each survey.! Cavity Canopy Midstory Nesting guilds Shrub Ground birds Neotropical interior Interior birds fe irds Ed bir Total abundance 17 m m 37 m m 56 102 76 m Surveys Mid-May 94 Red-Cockaded Woodpecker—Hines 83 11 10 9 7 22 17 28 32 28 38 25 11 9 18 32 35 31 4 11 15 25 33 25 32 12 22, 18 15 22 19 10 19 18 20 11 11 9 18 19 23 18 44 36 60 75 67 32 26 24 27 32 11 12 14 15 29 20 22 64 81 67 73 47 67 72 51 49 30 32 40 59 79 51 62 94 29 42 46 89 72 62 28 27 31 47 33 26 73 114 102 107 78 90 109 127 100 85 144 Early June 94 122 Mid-May 95 162 186 Early June 95 164 Late May 94 Late May 95 73 4 32 56.7 69.7 45.7 66.5 18.7 25.3 53.2 16.3 16.2 20.1 188) 2257 2 Semliowi 78.7 101.8 ' Data are pooled across 14 stands in each category. 143.8 Mean presence of a dense, brushy understory, where the species nests and forages (Hamel 1992; Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball 1995) is probably a key factor in determining habitat quality of this species. Higher abundance of indigo bun- tings and yellow-breasted chats in managed stands was expected; these species nest and forage in brushy situations and are associated mostly with landscapes altered by humans, e.g., field borders, selectively cut forests, and reclaimed strip-mines (Palmer-Ball 1995). Even though few brown-headed cowbirds were observed during my study, the presence of this species in managed stands but not in unmanaged stands is reason for concern be- cause of the impact the species can have on nesting birds, particularly neotropical mi- grants. Cowbird females use trees as perches to locate nests and observe host behavior (Robinson et al. 1992). Stands managed for RCWs might attract cowbirds because of their openness and an abundance of perches, thus increasing detectability of host species. Impact on Forest-Interior Species and Neotropical Migrants The positive response of edge species to RCW management indicates that a reduction in midstory basal area and controlled burns has an effect similar to that of other distur- bances, such as clearcuts, shelterwood har- vests, or selective cuts (Baker and Lacki 1997; Thompson, Dijak et al. 1992; Thompson and Fritzell 1990; Welsh and Healy 1993). The ob- served difference might have been even larger if most stands had not been located along roads, which can serve as corridors for edge species. Yellow-breasted chats, rufous-sided towhees, prairie warblers, and indigo buntings were all significantly more common in man- aged stands and are associated with edge hab- itat. The lack of a positive response by interior species suggests that habitat conditions of these species were not improved by manage- ment for RCWs. At least some neotropical mi- grants associated with forest interiors appear to be negatively affected by this type of man- agement. Ovenbirds and red-eyed vireos, both considered forest-interior species, were signif- icantly more common in unmanaged stands. Shifts in Species of Different Nesting Requirements The high number of primary and secondary cavity nesters in managed stands was likely i Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) due to the abundance of nesting sites. The number of snags was visibly larger in managed than in unmanaged stands (Feltner pers. comm. 1998). Most primary and secondary cavity nesters forage on boles. Availability of foraging structure in the form of numerous snags and an abundance of dead material on the “ground left behind from midstory removal was also likely attractive to these species, par- ticularly woodpeckers. In addition, most spe- cies of woodpeckers native to Kentucky en- gage in fly-catching in open forests (Davis pers. comm. 1995). Hence the open midstory stratum might also have contributed to a high- er abundance of woodpeckers in managed stands. Interestingly, pileated woodpeckers, which were significantly more common in managed stands, are generally considered a forest-interior species; however, this species is known to be tolerant of edge and successional habitat as it occurs throughout Kentucky, in- cluding the Inner Bluegrass region (Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball 1995). The higher number of cavity nesters in managed stands was also observed by Palmer-Ball (pers. comm. 1995) and should be considered when making man- agement decisions for RCWs. Increased com- petition for cavities resulting from manage- ment for this species may actually pose a threat to RCWs. In particular, competition for and destruction of cavities by pileated wood- peckers has already been noticed as a problem in managed stands for several years (Murphy 1980). The availability of open ground in unman- aged stands versus densely vegetated ground in managed stands is likely to contribute to higher numbers of some ground nesters in un- managed stands. By far the most common ground-nesting species observed was the ov- enbird, which is known to prefer habitat with open ground and closed canopy (Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball pers. comm. 1995). The same might not be true for other ground nest- ers. Black-and-white warblers, worm-eating warblers, and rufous-sided towhees are known to have an affinity for dense ground cover (Chapman 1968; Palmer-Ball pers. comm. 1995). They might have a preference for man- aged stands, but, except for rufous-sided to- whees, the number of observations was too small to confirm this hypothesis. The shrub layer was more developed and considerably denser in managed stands than in unmanaged stands. It is therefore not surpris- ing that shrub-nesting species such as hooded warblers were more abundant in managed stands. This confirms the results of Wilson et al. (1994) from a similar study in Oklahoma, which also generated results similar to those reported here for midstory nesters. The lack of midstory in managed stands probably con- tributed to the fact that midstory nesters were less abundant in managed than in unmanaged stands. A lower number of observations of birds in the upper canopy could have contributed to a lack of noticeable differences between treat- ments; however, because the basal area of the upper strata did not differ between treatments (management only involves manipulating un- der- and midstories), the finding of no differ- ence was not unexpected. Many questions regarding breeding-bird re- sponses to RCW management still remain un- answered. The response of breeding birds to recently burned pine-oak forests versus 2 to 3 years post-burning is still unknown. While burning results in a dense understory and in- creases habitat conditions for some species, it can decrease habitat conditions for others. The immediate result of a burn conducted in spring is a decrease in available prey and cover for especially those species that normally feed in these areas while raising offspring, which limits their range size. Cavity nesters, includ- ing RCWs, are the group most likely to suffer because, unlike other species, they cannot pick a temporarily more suitable nest site. CONCLUSION Managing stands for RCWs in Kentucky does not result in forest openings or a reduc- tion in the canopy basal area, as do most tim- ber harvest prescriptions. Nevertheless, con- trary to some previous findings (imiekeen et al. 1992: Thompson, Probst et al. 1992), I con- clude that management for RCWs, even when the canopy is left intact, changes the breeding- bird community in pine-oak forests in eastern Kentucky. Lowering the midstory basal area and applying controlled burns appears to have effects similar to that of timber harvests on species composition and abundance of breed- ing birds. Prescriptions for RCWs were ben- eficial to several species associated with edge Red-Cockaded Woodpecker—Hines 85 and early successional habitat, including at least some neotropical migrants whose num- bers are decreasing in eastern North America (e.g., indigo bunting, hooded warbler, and prairie warbler). A lack of habitat is not a lim- iting factor for edge and early successional species that benefit from RCW management in this region, and creation of additional hab- itat should not be a management priority. More importantly, management for RCWs ap- pears to decrease habitat quality for some neo- tropical migrants, particularly those associated with forest interiors. Because of rapid frag- mentation and intensive timbering of forests on private lands in Kentucky, interior habitat is becoming an increasingly limited resource. While RCWs in my study area were ob- served only in managed stands, preference for either habitat type by this species remains un- known because management was applied to all RCW colonies prior to the initiation of the study. The benefit of this management to RCWs in Kentucky is doubtful, since the al- ready small RCW population on the Daniel Boone National Forest dramatically declined since its initiation in 1989 from 18 to 1 native birds as of summer 1999 (Feltner pers. comm. 1999). Before the ecological impacts of RCW management are better understood, managing for this species in Kentucky should be con- ducted conservatively. Instead’ of creating open pine-oak savannahs, which mimic RCW habitat of the coastal plain, at least some pine- oak forests should be left untouched. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was funded by the Daniel Boone National Forest and the Kentucky De- partment of Fish and Wildlife Resources and was coordinated through The Nature Conser- vancy. I thank Jutta Krumm and Daryl Hines for assistance in the field and Michael Lacki, Jim Krupa, and Brainard Palmer-Ball for their helpful comments and suggestions. LITERATURE CITED [AOU] American Omithologists’ Union. 1983. Checklist of North American birds. American Ornithologists’ Union, Lawrence, KS. Anderson, S. H., and H. H. Shugart, Jr. 1974. Habitat selection of breeding birds in an east Tennessee decid- uous forest. Ecology 55:828-837. Baker, M. D., and M. J. Lacki. 1997. Short-term changes in bird communities in response to silvicultural pre- scriptions. Forest Ecol. Managem. 96:27—36. Bent, A. C. 1953. Life histories of North American wood warblers. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203. Braun, E. L. 1974. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Free Press, New York, NY. (Reprint of a work first published in 1950.) Campbell, J. N. 1997. Ecological regions of Kentucky— draft. The Nature Conservancy, Lexington, Kentucky. Campbell, J. N., D. D. Taylor, M. E. Medley, and A. C. Risk. 1990. Floristic and historical evidence of fire maintained, grassy pine-oak barrens before settlement in southeastern Kentucky. Pages 359-374 in Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives. Southeastern Forest Experimental Station, Asheville, NC. Chapman, F. M. 1968. The warblers of North America. Dover, New York, NY. Dickson, J. G., F. R. Thompson, HI, R. N. Conner, and K. E. Franzreb. 1992. Effects of silviculture on neo- tropical migratory birds in central and southeastern oak pine forests. Pages 315-330 in Status and management of neotropical migratory birds. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Techn. Rep. RM-229. Evans, M. 1991. Kentucky ecological communities—draft. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, KY. Hagan, J. M., III. 1993. Decline of the rufous-sided to- whee in the eastern United States. Auk 110:863-874. Hamel, P. B. 1992. The land manager's guide to the birds of the south. The Nature Conservancy, Chapel Hill, NC. Hines, M., and P. J. Kalisz. 1995. Foraging of red-cock- aded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis). Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 56:10-113. Holmes, R. G., D. L. Krusac, and F. W. Sturges. 1986. Bird community dynamics in a temperate deciduous forest: long term trends at Hubbard Brook. Ecol. Mon- ogr. 50:201—220. Hooper, R. G., A. F. Robinson, Jr., and J. A. Jackson. 1980. The red-cockaded woodpecker: notes on life history and management. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Rep. SA-GR 9. Hutto, R. L., S. M. Pletschet, and P. Henricks. 1986. A fixed-radius point count method for non-breeding and breeding season use. Auk 103:593-602. Kalisz, P. J., and S. E. Boettcher. 1991. Active and aban- doned red-cockaded woodpecker habitat in Kentucky. J. Wildl. Managem. 55:146-154. Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1999. Ken- tucky Natural Heritage Database. Kentucky State Na- ture Preserves Commission, Frankfort, KY. Mengel, R. M. 1965. The birds of Kentucky. Omitholog- ical Monographs. The American Ornithologists’ Union, Lawrence, KS. Murphy, G. A. 1980. Status, nesting habitat, foraging ecol- ogy, and home range of the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) in Kentucky. Unpublished Thesis. Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY. 86 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Palmer-Ball, B. L., Jr. 1984. Niche partitioning among mi- grant warblers (Parulinae) in the Louisville (Jefferson County), Kentucky area. Unpublished Master's Thesis. University of Louisville, Louisville, KY. Palmer-Ball, B. L., Jr. 1995. Kentucky breeding bird atlas. The Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frank- fort, KY. Robbins, C. S., J. R. Sauer, R. S. Greenberg, and S. Droe- ge. 1989. Population declines in North American birds that migrate to the neotropics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 86:765S8—7662. Robinson, S. S., J. A. Grybowski, S. I. Rothstein, M. C. Brittingham, L. J. Petit, and F. R. Thompson III. 1992. Management implications of cowbird parasitism on neotropical migrant songbirds. Pages 93-102 in Status and management of neotropical migrant birds. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Techn. Rep. RM-229. Thompson, F. R., III, W. D. Dijak, T. G. Kulowiec, and D. A. Hamilton. 1992. Breeding bird populations in Missouri Ozark forests with and without clearcutting. J. Wildl. Managem. 56:23-30. Thompson, F. R., III, and E. K. Fritzell. 1990. Bird den- sities and diversity in clearcut and mature oak-hickory forest. Res. Paper NC-293, USDA Forest Service, St. Paul, MN. Thompson, F. R., III, J. R. Probst, and M. G. Raphael. 1992. Silvicultural options for neotropical migratory birds. In Status and management of neotropical migra- tory birds. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Techn. Rep. RM-229. [USFS] United States Forest Service. 1995. Record of de- cision. Final environmental impact statement for the management of the red-cockaded woodpecker and its habitat on national forests in the southern region. U.S. Forest Serv. Managem. Bull. R.-MB 73, USFS South- ern Region, Atlanta, GA. Welsh, C. J. E., and W. M. Healy. 1993. Effect of even- aged timber management on bird species diversity and composition in northern hardwoods of New Hampshire. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 21:143-154. Wilson, C. W., R. E. Masters, and G. A. Bukenhoffer. 1995. Breeding bird response to pine-grassland com- munity restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers. J. Wildl. Managem. 59:56-67. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):87-93. 1999. Scientists of Kentucky Luke Pryor Blackburn, M.D.: Kentucky’s Good Samaritan Governor Did you know that in 1880 the governor of Kentucky and the nation’s favorite racehorse were both named Luke Blackbum? Or that the man Blackburn, often praised as the “sav- ior of Hickman” and the “good Samaritan gov- emor,” also practiced germ warfare during the Civil War? Or that Blackburn is considered the “father” of Kentucky’ prison reforms? And that Blackbum holds the distinction of being the only physician to serve as governor of Kentucky? Luke Blackburn (Figure 1) came from a large and prominent Woodford County family. His father was an attorney and one of the state’s leading breeders of fine horses. His grandfather helped draw up Kentucky's first constitution, an uncle served _as the first pres- ident of Centre College, and another uncle was a lieutenant governor of the common- wealth. During Blackbum’s formative years George Rogers Clark, Henry Clay, and the Marquis de Lafayette were guests in his home. Little is known about his early life. He grad- uated from Transylvania’s Medical Depart- ment in 1835 and practiced his profession in Frankfort and Versailles. In 1846 Blackburn and his wife, Ella, and young son, Cary, moved to Natchez. That wild, unhealthy river town introduced him to a disease then unknown in Kentucky—yellow fever. The scourge of the tropics, yellow fever was an annual threat to life and commerce throughout the 19th cen- tury; nearly every summer it spread from the West Indies to the American Gulf Coast, then inland along the South’s rivers. As new lands opened and the population of the Mississippi Valley skyrocketed during the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, the saffron scourge claimed thou- sands of American lives.» Blackburn and his contemporaries believed that yellow fever was caused by airborne germs produced by filth and rotting vegeta- tion. Such pathogens, they reasoned, were car- ried from place to place by the wind or by attaching themselves to clothing or to com- mercial goods transported by steamboats or railroad. Favorite methods of protecting com- 87 munities from the poisonous atmosphere in- cluded burning tar and other compounds in the streets, setting off cannons and firecrack- ers to purify the air by concussion, and disin- fecting nasty smelling areas with lime. Physi- cians disagreed on effective therapies, and medical journals carried a multiplicity of med- ical recipes, most of them heavily laced with narcotics and alcohol. Because those who sur- vived enjoyed a lifetime immunity, newcomers composed a large percent of the scourge’s vic- tims.° Blackburn served as health officer for Natchez during the yellow fever epidemics of 1848 and 1854. Believing that refugees fleeing from infected New Orleans could contaminate others, he established a quarantine station be- low Natchez and prohibited boats from dock- ing at the city’s landing. Because Natchez re- mained relatively free from disease, Blackburn concluded that his quarantine was responsible for the town’s deliverance. Consequently, he campaigned before the Louisiana legislature and spoke to a number of southern medical groups, urging them to institute a permanent quarantine station below New Orleans. Un- fortunately, the measure he advocated would hamper commerce, and thus businessmen who controlled state and local governing bod- ies opposed it. Following the death of his wife in the mid 1850s Blackbur spent a year studying Euro- pean hospitals. Shortly after his return to the states he married Julia Churchill of Louisville and moved to New Orleans. On the outbreak of the Civil War in spring 1861 Blackburn served the South in a number of civilian ca- pacities and in autumn 1863 joined a group of Confederate sympathizers living in Toronto. He remained in Canada for the duration of the conflict, except for at least one brief visit to Bermuda to aid physicians there in battling a yellow fever epidemic. On the day after President Lincoln was as- sassinated, the United States consul in Ber- muda wired details of a newly discovered plot to the already hysterical officials in Washing- Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Figure 1. ton. A confederate sympathizer named Dr. Blackburn had visited the island the previous year, he said, gathering blankets and clothing from the beds and bodies of yellow fever pa- tients. These items had been placed in trunks and shipped to Halifax. The soiled items, Ber- muda officials learned, were destined for used-clothing stores in northern cities where Blackburn hoped an epidemic among the ci- vilian and military population would bring the Union’s war machine to a standstill.¢ A few days later, northern newspapers re- ported sensational revelations given in Detroit by a man who claimed Blackburn had em- ployed him to take the trunks from Halifax to Luke Pryor Blackburn. Courtesy Kentucky Historical Society. Boston, New York, Washington, and Philadel- phia, as well as to New Bern, North Carolina, then occupied by Federal troops. When the disease did not break out in the metropolitan areas, Blackburn assumed the informer had not followed his instructions and refused to pay him. However, when he heard that yellow fever had felled several hundred in the New Bern area, Blackburn assumed his scheme had succeeded and vowed to try again the follow- ing year on a grander scale, claimed the in- former.® On receipt of these details, Union officials issued a warrant for the doctor's arrest. Black- burn was in Canada, however, and beyond Luke Pryor Blackburn 89 their jurisdiction. Details of the plot were aired at the trial of Lincoln’s assassins but in- terest waned when it became apparent that high-ranking Confederate officials could not be linked to the germ warfare scheme. Nev- ertheless, the murder indictment against Blackburn was never dropped. Although Blackburn was not accessible to American courts, Canadian authorities arrest- ed and tried him for violating that nation’s neutrality. He was acquitted. Had he been brought before an American court, he un- doubtedly would have been hanged for mur- dering the several hundred people who died of yellow fever at New Bern. Blackburn remained in Canada for a num- ber of years, lived in Arkansas for a while, and returned to Louisville in 1873. In late summer of that year yellow fever traveled up the Mis- sissippi River and struck Memphis, killing more than 2000 residents in a 6-week period. Volunteering his services to the authorities, Blackburn spent 6 weeks in the river town nursing the sick. Instead of prescribing the usual “heroic” measures favored by most of his medical colleagues, Blackburn generally lim- ited his treatments to “blistering” to eliminate “poisons” in the body and to toddies of warm lemonade and ice water to reduce fever. The local press praised his successes and humani- tarian efforts. The media also reported a dis- agreement he had with a local priest over a young orphan and the caning he gave to a vis- iting quack who tried to interfere with the treatment he had prescribed for a patient. Blackburn accepted no pay for his services at Memphis. To show its appreciation, the city presented him with a handsome silver tray. Several years later one of his grateful patients named a thoroughbred for the Kentucky phy- sician. “King of the Turf” Luke Blackburn was the nation’s number one racehorse in 1880, which was also the first year Dr. Blackburn served as Kentucky's chief executive.‘ In February 1878 Blackbur announced that he planned to run for governor. Most of his friends believed that the doctor's efforts would be in vain, for although his family was politically prominent and his brother Joseph then represented Kentucky in the U.S. Con- gress, Luke Blackburn had little knowledge of state politics. Nevertheless, he made a number of speeches during spring and early summer and laid plans for the campaign he hoped would win for him the Democratic Party’s nomination the following spring. Yellow fever, not his political ideas, catapulted him into the executive mansion. During summer 1878 an unusually vicious strain of yellow fever visited the Mississippi River Valley. The disease appeared earlier in the season than usual and by mid summer ev- ery town along the lower Mississippi had been hit. As the South’s refugees fled northward from the killer, cities on the upper river (in- cluding Paducah, Cairo, and Cincinnati) closed their doors by instituting strict quar- antines. Blackburn advised Louisville to do likewise. But the rest of the city’s physicians, none of whom had experience with the dis- ease, insisted that Kentucky was immune; the scourge had never visited the state, nor would it do so now, they maintained. Thus the mayor and council welcomed refugees fleeing from infected cities. In early August the Courier- Journal denied rumors of “yellow Jack” in the Falls City, then admitted the existence of a few cases among visitors. By mid month, many indigenous cases had been diagnosed and a number of deaths reported. Between early August and the first frost in mid October, 50 Louisvillians died from yellow fever. The disease also hit Bowling Green (Warren County), a transportation center located at the junction of the L&N railroad with its Mem- phis line. Nearly 50 indigenous cases were re- ported in the area near the railroad. “Yellow Jack” killed 26 of them. In western Kentucky, however, the disease reached epidemic proportions. A paddle wheeler that had previously docked at New Orleans and Memphis landed at the wharf in Hickman (Fulton County) on 3 August to dis- charge cargo. A day or so later a tow boat tak- ing barges from New Orleans to St. Louis an- chored near the town; three members of the crew visited the telegraph office and bakery. Another steamboat going upriver stopped at Hickman on 10 August to take on coal, and many of its 300 passengers strolled about the town. All of these vessels reported multiple fever fatalities before they reached their des- tinations. Hickman’s first cases of yellow fever were diagnosed in mid August among a teenager and two small children who peddled apples at 90 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) the wharf. All three died within 4 days. A youngster who played outside his father’s riv- erfront law office also sickened as did the bak- er and his wife and several members of the town band, who practiced three nights a week at a hotel near the river. The number of cases escalated. The Courier-Journal reported the children’s deaths but quoted Hickman physicians who disavowed that the disease was yellow fever. For 3 weeks rumors and denials appeared in the Louisville paper but on 5 September Hickman’s mayor telegraphed the president of the newly formed Kentucky State Board of Health that yellow fever was epidemic and re- quested help. Blackburn also received a plea for aid and volunteered to go to western Ken- tucky as the board’s official representative to direct medical and nursing care. On his arrival Blackburn found businesses and grocery stores locked and most of Hick- man’s 1200 residents gone. Of the 150 re- maining, 50 were mortally ill and the others suffered from a state of near hysteria. Three of the town’s six doctors were also sick. Blackburn quickly organized relief commit- tees to acquire and dispense food, clothing, and bedding. He also converted the local hotel into a hospital and instructed a group of wom- en in nursing techniques. Cleanup crews “dis- infected” the town with lime and burning tar. A group of African Americans volunteered their services to shroud and bury the dead and to guard vacant homes and businesses against vandalism. Blackburn reported to the Board of Health that additional volunteers were need- ed. He received a wire from the Louisville City Council saying, “Don’t let your people want for anything—call on us and you shall be supplied.” He answered with a request for 25 mattresses, 25 blankets, 5 gallons of bourbon, 5 gallons of sherry, 1 barrel of hams, 3 barrels of bacon, 1 barrel of sugar, and 100 pounds of coffee. Louisvillians filled the request. In answer to Blackburn’s plea for additional personnel, three physicians, several nurses, a telegraph operator, and a druggist hastened to Hickman. Despite his warnings that volun- teers should be southerners immune to the disease, all of them were from areas previously untouched by yellow fever and all but two contracted the malady and died. By late September the disease at Hickman appeared to be abating. Leaving the town in the care of volunteer physicians and well- trained nursing teams, Blackburn traveled to Martin, Tennessee, to organize patient care for fever victims at Memphis. Ten days after his departure the doctor received word that yellow fever had broken out with renewed force at Hickman, had been diagnosed in nearby Fulton (Fulton County), and had stricken the doctors of both towns. Blackburn returned immediately to Hickman and for sev- eral weeks worked day and night as the only physician in the Hickman-Fulton area. De- spite a hectic schedule in which he frequently made 30 or more house calls per day, Black- burn never admitted fatigue. He promised that as long as fresh horses were available he would attend to everyone who needed his help. According to contemporary reports, he not only treated the sick but also built fires, fixed coffee, prepared food, and even “bathed the feet” of his patients. Blackburn became the hero of the Purchase area. On 18 October, the masthead of the Paducah Daily News car- ried Blackburm’s name as its favorite candidate for governor; a week later Tennessee’s Union City Chronicle declared that Kentucky could not give the doctor a “more fitting reward” than the governorship. Shortly after the first frost Blackburn an- nounced that the epidemic was over. But it had taken the lives of more than 162 residents in the Hickman-Fulton area and was fatal to all but one of the local physicians and two of the volunteers who went to that area. The saf- fron scourge had also crippled area trade and commerce at a loss of hundreds of thousands of dollars.£ He was not the epidemic’s only hero, but Luke Blackburn received greater publicity for his deeds at Hickman than did other volun- teers. When he returned to Louisville from western Kentucky, his arrival was marked by a grand reception at the Galt House and by oth- er activities usually reserved for military he- roes. Poems, resolutions, and costly gifts were heaped on him. The most lavish display came from the citizens of western Kentucky, who gathered at Paducah a few weeks later to hon- or their savior. Street banners, a brass band, a glittering reception, a formal dance, and the presentation of a gold medal feted the man whose “heroic devotion to the people of Hick- Luke Pryor Blackburn 91 man ... during the plague of 1878” had won the state’s respect and admiration. After the epidemic, Blackburn returned to the campaign trail and everywhere was greet- ed as a hero. By spring 1879 even his chief opponent for the Democratic nomination, Lieutenant Governor John Cox Underwood, realized that Blackbum’s popularity overshad- owed the medical man’s lack of political acu- men. Kentuckians apparently believed that if the doctor wanted the governorship he should have it; it was a small enough reward for his humanitarian activities. On 1 May 1879 the Democratic State Convention selected the Hero of Hickman as the party's candidate for governor. A few days after being named his party's choice, Blackbur retreated to a resort at Crab Orchard (Lincoln County) and did not again appear in public until after the mid-August election. Explanations and accusations for his sudden disappearance included poor health, refusal to debate with his Republican oppo- nent, and charges about germ warfare. The initial mud-slinging came from the Cincinnati Gazette. Always eager to cast aspersions at Kentucky, who was her political and commer- cial rival, the Queen City tabloid printed ex- cerpts from the Lincoln assassination trial about Blackburn’s yellow-fever scheme. The paper's comments were quoted and misquoted by other journals across the nation. What would have otherwise been a quiet election commanded national attention as Kentucky and her hero were pelted with abuse. Many of the statements carried by northern newspapers bordered on the ludicrous. A Can- ton, Ohio, newspaper, for example, suggested that if Kentucky elected Dr. Blackburn, the commonwealth should be forced to secede from the Union. The Philadelphia Press begged that someone remove the “sacred re- mains” of Henry Clay from Kentucky’s now- polluted soil. A Chicago daily predicted that Kentuckians would probably vote for John Wilkes Booth if the assassin were still alive. Republican papers contended that only Dem- ocrats would nominate a “fiend” and “mass murderer,” but northern Democrats argued that it was only typical of southern Democrats to elevate the “worst monster since Nero” to the governor's chair. Blackburn remained silent during the months of name calling, and most Kentucky papers ignored the diatribes. Many of his sup- porters probably feared that more harm than good would result from refuting the state- ments; some perhaps applauded the doctor's efforts to bring the Union to its knees; and others did not care what had occurred more than 2% decades earlier. Whatever their sen- timents, more than 60 percent of the voting electorate cast their ballots for Blackburn. Professional politicians rejoiced that a nov- ice—a puppet they could manipulate—would occupy the governors office. But they mis- judged him; Blackburn would be no one’s lackey. Blackburn’s major crusade as governor in- volved improving conditions at the overcrowd- ed and poorly administered state penitentiary in Frankfort. Built in 1800 on a marshy area along the Kentucky River, the Kentucky Pen- itentiary had been earlier dubbed “Kentucky's Black Hole of Calcutta.” An open sewer ran through its poorly drained and debris-filled quadrangle, and its overcrowded cell houses suffered from poor ventilation, inadequate heat, and filthy quarters. The noxious odor emanating from the institution so permeated Frankfort that windows in the nearby gover- nors home remained closed year round to keep out the stench. The death rate had al- ways been high, but during the 1870s, scurvy joined intestinal and respiratory diseases to set new records." In his first message to the legislature Black- burn urged its members to appropriate money to build a new state prison and to provide bet- ter management of the existing facility. When the penny-pinching politicians refused to con- sider his suggestions, he used the only means at his disposal to aid the wretched prisoners— his executive pardon. The very young—some as young as nine—the elderly, and the seri- ously ill received his attention. At first the state’s papers praised the humanitarian who had taken as his cause the plight of the “for- gotten man.” But as the pardons increased, so did the opposition to freeing “cutthroats and murderers” who returned to communities that did not want them. Consequently, pressure on the lawmakers increased. Despite loud opposition, the legislature fi- nally passed two reform bills. One created a better system for governing the prison by sub- 92 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) stituting a warden for the lessee; the other es- tablished a committee to study penal institu- tions elsewhere and make recommendations for a new state prison. Although it would be several years before money was allocated and the facility constructed, the fortress-like pen- itentiary at Eddyville resulted from Black- burn’s efforts.’ To relieve overcrowded conditions until a new prison was completed, the legislature farmed out about half of the prisoners to build and repair railroads and other public works. Blackbur opposed the use of “chain gangs.” He frequently visited the railroad camps and presented horrifying proof to the legislature about inhumane treatment endured by the prisoners. But the politicians refused to make other arrangements. Thus, Blackburn contin- ued the liberal use of his executive preroga- tive. Every segment of society howled about Blackburn’s tends: Taxpayers resented the expenditure of money to aid felons; property owners feared the return of criminals to their communities; and laborers resented having to work along side of prisoners or compete with them for jobs. Members of his administration with political ambitions feared that Black- burn’s actions would harm their futures; jour- nalists, knowing that controversy sold news- papers, reported complaints, scorn, and ridi- cule. Consequently, the roar of criticism swelled and rumors and accusations ran ram- pant. In an effort to defend his actions, Blackburn occasionally became so frustrated that he made matters worse by hurling epithets at his critics. By the end of his administration, even the papers of western Kentucky had few kind words for the Hero of Hickman. Most of the state's press expressed delight that the term of the “old loon” was nearly over and that “Le- nient Luke” would soon return to private life where he could no longer harm the common- wealth. Blackburn’s efforts on behalf of prisoners at the Kentucky Penitentiary were not the only reforms of his administration. At his urging the legislature abolished the public whipping post and eliminated many padded accounts and fraudulent expenses concerning trials and the conveyance of prisoners from one county to another. He also insisted that unnecessary courts be abolished and that judges and dis- trict attorneys be paid pre-determined salaries rather than remunerated on the number of cases tried and won. He recommended the re- organization of Kentucky's strife-ridden A&M College, suggesting the creation of a “people’s college.” The resulting University of Kentucky opened in February 1882. Perhaps his most far-reaching act was the appointment of Dr. Joseph N. McCormack of Bowling Green to the State Board of Health. As the board’s secretary from 1883 until short- ly before his death in 1922, McCormack fought for legislation that required smallpox vaccinations for school children, Wassermann tests for marriage licenses, pasteurization of milk, and scores of other laws designed to im- prove public health. Under his direction Ken- tucky’s Board of Health grew from an advisory group with no power to an effective, farsight- ed organization that worked diligently to ed- ucate Kentuckians on matters of life and health. A master in mixing medicine and pol- itics, McCormack also served as the American Medical Association’s spokesman, traveling the length and breath of the nation to aid with reforms and reorganization. Elected on a wave of popularity that ig- nored his lack of political experience, Black- burn nevertheless instituted the first major re- forms in post Civil War Kentucky. However, he left office as one of the most unpopular executives of the century. Blackburn returned to Louisville and opened a sanitarium near Cave Hill Cemetery. He died 4 years later and was buried in Frankfort. His tombstone, erect- ed by the state, salutes the man who “defied disease and disapproval to help those unable to help themselves.” The monument also con- tains a handsome brass plaque that depicts the New Testament parable of the Good Samari- tan, who was also a physician named Luke. Nancy Disher Baird Kentucky Library Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY 42101 ENDNOTES a. Further information about the career of Blackburn is available in Nancy Disher Baird, Luke Pryor Blackburn: physician, governor, reformer (Lexing- ton: University Press of Kentucky, 1979). b. In 1822 Louisville was visited by what may have Luke Pryor Blackburn 93 been yellow fever. Generally diagnosed as “bilious fever,” it claimed at least 140 of Louisville’s 4000 residents. Believing that ponds generating miasma were responsible for the disease, the city trustees appointed an engineer to begin draining the ponds that dotted the town. During the colonial and early federal period, yellow fever killed thousands along the east coast, but after 1825 its most vicious attacks were in the Deep South, especially the Mississippi River Valley. Trans- ported from the West Indies to New Orleans and other gulf ports, yellow fever was usually present and, when conditions were right, it flared into fright- ening epidemics, depopulating urban areas, paralyz- ing trade and industry, and keeping southerners in a state of perpetual dread. The cause of the disease was unknown until 1900, when Dr. Walter Reed dis- covered that the female Aedes aegypti mosquito (which is native to a large portion of the United States, including Kentucky) acted as a vector host and transmitted the virus from person to person. Yel- low fever was carried upriver by sick refugees fleeing from infected areas; the severity and northward ex- tension of its nearly annual appearance depended on how early in the season the disease appeared in the gulf area, how great was the concentration of mos- quitoes and of susceptible persons, and when the first autumnal frost killed the insects. The mortality rate from yellow fever was 40-50 percent. A few days after being bitten by an infected mosquito, a victim experienced increasingly severe headache and backache, high fever, and extreme nausea; signs of impending death included “black vomit” (caused by hemorrhaging mucous membranes) and jaundice (a symptom of liver-cell destruction). Those who sur- vived the lengthy convalescence enjoyed a lifelong immunity to “yellow Jack.” Since most of its victims were newcomers to the South, yellow fever was often called the “stranger's disease.” “American Consular Reports—Civil War Period,” Bermuda Historical Quarterly, 19 (spring 1962) con- tain reports of Blackburn's activities, and the New York Times printed detailed accounts of testimony given at the assassins’ trial. For additional information about the Memphis epi- demics, see D. A. Quinn, Heroes and Heroines of Memphis: Or Reminiscences of the Yellow Fever Ep- idemic that Affected the City of Memphis during the Autumn Months of 1873, 1878 and 1879 (Provi- dence, R.I., 1887), and J. M. Keating, The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 (Memphis, 1879). Details about the epidemic in Kentucky were pub- lished in E. O. Brown, Official Report of Dr. E. O. Brown, Physician in Charge of the Yellow Fever Hos- pital, Louisville, Kentucky. (Louisville, 1878) and First Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Kentucky, 1878 (Frankfort, 1879). Contemporary newspapers, especially the Louisville Courier-Jour- nal, carried long columns of news and rumors re- garding the epidemic. The area of the Hickman cemetery where the fever victims lie contains no landscape plantings or indi- vidual gravestones. A large monument lists the dead and also salutes the “Hero of Hickman.” Over the years some of the graveyard’s caretakers have been reluctant to mow the area because of rumors that it is “unhealthy” and “haunted.” For additional information about the conditions at the prison, see Report of the Special Committee on the Penitentiary to the Senate, February 26, 1880, Kentucky Documents, 1880 (Frankfort, 1880); Re- port of Committee to Investigate Conditions of Con- victs, Kentucky Documents, 1882 (Frankfort, 1882), and other state documents and contemporary news- papers. Throughout most of the penitentiary’ history, a keeper or lessee rented the institution and its inhab- itants from the state and had complete control over them. Chosen by the legislature, the lessee fed, clothed, and provided bedding for the prisoners, hired the guards, and maintained order. The pris- oners worked at a variety of tasks, including the pro- duction of hemp rope and bagging, chairs, tables, and various other household items. Profits from their labors paid for food, supplies, and general prison maintenance; the net gains belonged to the lessee, who increased his profits by cutting corners on ne- cessities and by neglecting to keep the buildings and grounds in good condition. Operating a prison was very lucrative, and money and favors passed between candidates for the position and members of the leg- islature every 4 years at lessee-selection time. Al- though aware of the prison’s abominable conditions, the solons hesitated to interfere with the lessee’s con- tract because of the money and politics involved. Un- der the law approved by the 1880 general assembly, a salaried warden, selected for a 4-year term by the legislature, took charge of the prison and its inhab- itants. The new law defined his administrative and supervisory duties and created a commission com- posed of the governor and members of his cabinet who made monthly visits to the prison to see that the law was enforced. Although he arranged for the sale of convict-made products, the warden received no pecuniary profits from them. Ky. Aead. Sci. 60(2):94-107, 1999. Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter, Percina maculata (Teleostei, Percidae), in the Ohio River Drainage of Kentucky Ralph Steinberg and Lawrence M. Page Illinois Natural History Survey, 607 East Peabody Drive, Champaign, Illinois 61820 ABSTRACT Geographic variation in the blackside darter, Percina (Alvordius) maculata, in the Ohio River Basin of Kentucky was investigated by gathering meristic and morphometric data on 486 individuals from 16 drainages (13 Ohio River drainages). Character data were analyzed using frequency distribution tables and principal components analysis to identify trends in geographic variation and to recognize taxonomically distinct pop- ulations. Results did not indicate the need to diagnose new taxa, but populations show considerable variation. Among the most unusual populations are those in the Cumberland and Kentucky rivers, two drainages known for endemism and unusual biological communities. INTRODUCTION The blackside darter, Percina maculata (Figure 1), is the most widespread of the eight described species of the subgenus Alvordius (Page 1974). Its range extends from south- eastern Saskatchewan and North Dakota east to southern Ontario and New York and south to northeastern Texas and Gulf Coast drain- ages as far east as the Mobile Bay drainage of Alabama (Page 1983). The species is distrib- uted over four major basins, the Mobile Bay, Mississippi River, Great Lakes (excluding Lake Superior), and Hudson Bay; and three minor drainages of the Gulf Slope west of the Mobile Bay: the Calcasieu River, Lake Pont- chartrain, and Pearl River (Beckham 1983, 1986). Percina maculata occurs in small to moderate-sized, clear streams with sand and gravel bottoms and typically is taken from the margins of large pools with some current or small pools associated with riffles (Trautman 1957). Less often the species is found over mud and among accumulations of brush (Page 1983). Beckham (1983) studied geographic varia- tion in P maculata and found that meristic data exhibited pronounced clinal variation with relatively high interpopulational variabil- ity. The major trend was for a south-to-north decrease in counts for lateral line, transverse, caudal peduncle, and modified midventral scales and for lateral and dorsal blotches. Dor- sal spine counts also exhibited a south-to- north decrease but to a lesser degree than oth- er characters. Dorsal and anal ray counts 94 showed the reverse trend, a south-to-north in- crease. Beckham tested these trends within and be- tween six major basins occupied by P. macu- lata: Hudson Bay, Great Lakes, Ohio River, Upper Mississippi, Lower Mississippi, and Gulf Slope. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated a significant difference between at least two sample means for the majority of meristic characters examined. However, an ANOVA table was not presented in the anal- ysis, and there was no indication of any sig- nificant or non-significant differences when more than two sample means were consid- ered. Beckham also conducted a stepwise dis- criminant functions analysis of nine meristic characters exhibiting the most variation to de- termine where differences in sample means were occurring and whether differences were the result of breaks between interior drainages or due primarily to geographic extremes. Transverse scale count was the most reliable character in discriminating populations. Suc- cessive steps in the analysis added dorsal blotches, caudal peduncle scales, lateral blotches, lateral line scales, dorsal spines, dor- sal rays, midventral scales, and anal rays. Sam- ples varied from a high of 82.4% being cor- rectly identified for Hudson Bay to a low of 15.7% for Ohio River. According to Beckham, the inability to de- marcate populations in the Ohio River drain- age resulted from the high variability of me- ristic characters. Only 132 specimens were ex- amined from all Ohio river tributaries in Ken- Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page 95 Figure 1. Percina maculata. INHS 43425 (60.1 mm SL, male); Eagle Creek, Carroll Co., Kentucky. Photo by K. S. Cummings. tucky, and it is possible that distinct taxa from the Ohio river system were not detected. Specimens from above Cumberland Falls were not included in Beckham’s study. Hubbs and Raney (1939) examined variation in the blackside darter over its entire range and de- scribed the species as “probably a complex of subspecies.” Burr and Warren (1986) noted that this species exhibits considerable geo- graphic variation in Kentucky. Our study was undertaken to examine geographic variation in P. maculata in the north and west-flowing trib- utaries of the Ohio River in Kentucky and to determine whether distinct taxonomic units exist. Percina maculata is variably distributed in southem tributaries of the Ohio River (Beck- ham 1983; Burr and Warren 1986). It is wide- spread and common in the Tradewater, Green, Salt, Kentucky, Licking, Little Sandy, Big Sandy, and Kanawha rivers but is more rare in the Tennessee River system, with most re- cords being from the Clarks River in western Kentucky, the last tributary of the Tennessee River before its confluence with the lower Ohio River. Percina maculata is present in the lower and upper portions of the Cumberland River but is absent from the middle portion (Etnier and Stames 1993). METHODS AND MATERIALS Four hundred eighty-six specimens of. P. maculata were examined meristically; mor- phometric data were collected on 149 speci- mens. Specimens examined were from 16 drainages (see “Material Examined”); 13 of the drainages are major tributaries of the Ohio River, and three drainages (Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Mississippi River) were exam- ined for comparison to Ohio River populations (Figure 2). Standard length (SL) was used throughout. Only specimens greater than 45 mm SL were used for morphological analysis in order to reduce allometric bias. Counts were made only on specimens greater than 38 mm SL. Counts and measurements were made as described by Hubbs and Lagler (1964), except for the number of transverse scales, which was counted from the origin of the second dorsal fin down and back to the anal fin, as proposed by Raney and Suttkus (1964). Counts of bilat- eral features were made on the left side. Meristic characters included the number of total lateral line scales, pored lateral line scales, transverse scales, scales above the lat- eral line, scales below the lateral line, caudal peduncle scale rows, dorsal rays, dorsal spines, anal rays, anal spines, pectoral fin rays, and lateral blotches. Cheek, nape, and opercular squamation were analyzed as meristic vari- ables. Only large lateral blotches were counted from the first full blotch posterior to the pec- toral fin base back to, and including, the blotch ending at the hypural plate (Beckham 1983). Data were arranged in frequency dis- tribution tables, and sample means and modes from each drainage were compared for geo- graphic variation. Morphometric characters included head length, head depth, head width, snout length, predorsal length, eye diameter, gape width, pectoral fin length, pelvic fin length, spinous dorsal fin base length, soft dorsal fin base length, anal fin base length, caudal fin length, caudal peduncle width, caudal peduncle depth, spinous dorsal fin origin to pelvic fin origin, spinous dorsal fin origin to anal fin or- 96 Journal of the Kentucky Academy ef Science 60(2) fo Bee awe. eS nae Figure 2. Collection localities for specimens of P. maculata examined. igin, soft dorsal fin origin to anal fin insertion, data were analyzed with the use of principal soft dorsal fin origin to pelvic fin origin, spi- components analysis whereby the original set nous dorsal fin insertion to anal fin origin, and _ of variables was used to generate a new set of anal fin origin to soft dorsal fin insertion. The variables, uncorrelated with each other, that Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Pa were linear combinations of the original vari- ables (Pimentel 1979). RESULTS Although data for all populations are shown in Tables 1-12, comparisons are restricted to Ohio River tributaries and exclude the popu- lation in Scioto River because only four spec- imens from it were available for examination. The number of lateral line scales (Table 1) varied from a low mean of 61.1 and a mode of 59 in Little Sandy River to a high mean of 70.2 and mode of 71 in Cumberland River above Cumberland Falls. In general, popula- tions in extreme eastern Kentucky (e.g., Ty- garts Creek, Little Sandy, and Big Sandy riv- ers) had the lowest counts, and those in the southeast and north (e.g., Cumberland, Ken- tucky, and Great Miami rivers) had the high- est. The Kentucky River population had a bi- modal count with a concentration of individ- uals around 67 scales and another around 71 scales. The number of pored lateral line scales (Ta- ble 2) varied from a low mean of 59.7 and a mode of 57 in Little Sandy River to a high mean of 68.9 and mode of 70 in Cumberland River above the Falls. As for the lateral line scale count, populations in extreme eastern Kentucky (e.g., Tygarts Creek, Little Sandy, and Big Sandy rivers) had the lowest count, and populations in the southeast and north (e.g., Cumberland River above the Falls and Kentucky and Great Miami rivers) had the highest. The population in Cumberland River below the Falls had a mean of 65.9 and a mode of 67 scales; that above the Falls had a mean of 68.9 and a mode of 70 scales. The number of transverse scales (Table 3) varied from a low mean of 16 and a mode of 16 in Tygarts Creek to a high mean of 18.3 in Cumberland River below the Falls (mode = 18-19), Tradewater River (mode = 19), and Green River (mode = 18). Populations in the north and the east (e.g., Tygarts Creek and Great Miami River) generally had the lowest counts, and those in western Kentucky (e.g., Tradewater and Green rivers) had the highest. The number of scales above the lateral line varied from a low mean of 6.9 and a mode of 7 in Tygarts Creek to a high mean of 8.8 and mode of 9 in Tradewater River. Those popu- lations in the east (e.g., Tygarts Creek and Lit- Frequency distribution of lateral line scale counts in Percina maculata. Table 1. > iS) Q D 61 56 57 58 59 60 Drainage 40 67.6 3.31 0.05 13 646 3.23 0.05 45 66.2 3.12 0.05 12 67.9 4.50 0.07 1 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) Lake Huron Lake Michigan Mississip i River Tennessee River 7 63.9 4.53 0.07 25 69.8 4.19 0.06 28 70.2 3.01 0.04 19 68.3 3.28 0.05 2 | SH Cumberland River (above falls) Tradewater River Green River Cumberland River (below falls) Salt River 66.6 3.06 0.05 12 68.8 1.99 0.03 42 3.43 0.05 ga © 33 67.6 3.73 0.06 3.28 0.05 2.55 0.04 65.6 3.03 0.05 69.3 3.21 0.05 7 (llail 106 69.2 4] 21 64.2 22 1 Great Miami River Scioto River Little Sandy River Total Kentucky River Licking River Tygarts Creek Big Sandy River 1.71 0.03 4 65.8 487 2 10 11 3 3 2 18 14 10 20 28 28 38 48 51 59 41 39 42 eters Frequency distribution of pored lateral line scale counts in Percina maculata. Drainage Table 2. Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) SSesescesssssssesesa tle Sandy River) had the lowest counts, and LT Se aa a ee those in the west (e.g., Tradewater and Green HWIVISetassssenss rivers) had the highest. POPS Pe ae ee The number of scales below the lateral line Ue Nee a ar eet tees oat ce varied from a low mean of 9.9 and a mode of Ne ieplac A a tas egal ia sg sli! > alc 9-10 in Tygarts Creek to a high mean of 12.2 SSSA RRSISSBAT SAT Zz and mode of 12 in Tradewater River. In gen- eral, populations in the north and east (e.g., a ¥ Tygarts Creek and Great Miami River) had the e lowest counts; those in western Kentucky a a (e.g., Tradewater and Green rivers) had the 7 nt highest. The population in Cumberland River - - a 0 below the Falls had a mode of 12 scales; that Se Ho © above the Falls had a mode of 10. Bags a a as The number of scale rows around the cau- ie ap eer ee ewe = dal peduncle (Table 4) varied from a low mean of 21.4 and a mode of 22 in Little Sandy River to a high mean of 24.4 and mode of 24 in Ado enanaon Hay Cumberland River below the Falls. As for a scales below the lateral line and transverse ee NN BNO M Ah rc S A e Pi 3 i oeecct scales, the populations in the north and east Aaa ao tec? we x (e.g., Tygarts Creek, and Great Miami, Lick- ing, and Little Sandy rivers) had the lowest | ta oO - wood 19 0D ED No st wn counts, and those in western Kentucky (e.g., OCAMAAANANDOOTA co Tradewater and Green rivers) had among the Sia SLE. qh ran 1 t+HAA w highest. “ae = = Pectoral fin rays showed little variation (Ta- io) fn) nN Ome re NN ee Ye) ble 5); 8 of 13 populations had a mode of 14 ee y=, ONO Ab, geen eR rays. Except for the Salt River population, 5 which had a mode of 10 anal fin rays, little SON Ger ee ae Mees SP Sa toe variation was found in the number of anal rays aL eee ane = (Table 6); other Ohio River populations had = modes of 8-9 rays. tee, 3 im ean area Ri The number of dorsal rays (Table 7) varied = = ee ra from a low mean of 11.7 and a mode of 12 in le me ea Saget fo Kentucky River to a high mean of 12.5 and aa ey ei «| mode of 13 in Cumberland River below the Falls. Populations in eastern Kentucky (e.g., Cumberland River above the Falls, Kentucky River, and Tygarts Creek) generally had the lowest counts; those in western Kentucky (e.g., Tradewater, Green, and Salt rivers) had the highest. Most populations (9 of 13) had a mode of 14 dorsal spines (Table 8). | ] | 3 ys. lower Ohio R. (IL) mberland River (below falls) Jumberland River (above falls) a | Open 5 2 8 2 S ie ge The number of lateral blotches (Table 9) SE RST BESS Zorg s varied from a low mean of 6.5 and a mode of as Bos ge Sena se = 7 in Great Miami River, to a high mean of 7.7 geese ees SU Esse Sei hrs and mode of 7 in Kentucky River. Populations Salo GEOG Gael in western Kentucky (e.g., Tradewater and Green rivers) generally had the lowest counts, while those populations in the east (e.g., Ty- garts Creek, Kentucky, and Big Sandy rivers) had the highest. Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page 99 Table 3. Frequency distribution of transverse scale counts in Percina maculata. Drainage 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 N X SD CV Lake Huron 1 10 18 9 1 39 16.0 0.84 0.05 Lake Michigan 6 6 1 13 166 0.65 0.04 Mississippi River 2 12 17 9 4 AA 10 O02 0106 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 8 3 3 4 12 iS 1A O06 Tennessee River D; 4 1 7 180 1.00 0.06 Cumberland River (below falls) ] 5 8 8 Oe il Bs lee ee! (O.07/ Cumberland River (above falls) 8 8 11 1 2 Sie eee Oe OLOG Tradewater River I 5 4 6 3 IS) SB} LS) (0) 0)7/ Green River 2) 4 21 9 5 Il 42 183 1.05 0.06 Salt River 2} 2 5 2) 1 1S: IS) IRS. OMe Kentucky River 1 9 32 43 18 Te all 111 17.8 1.08 0.06 Licking River 4 7 9 12 1 S83 VO ILI Or Tygarts Creek 2; 4 9 5 1 21 160 102 0.06 Little Sandy River a 3 2} 1 7 164 098 0.06 Big Sandy River 3 13 18 7 2, ] 44 16.9 1.06 0.06 Great Miami River 2 9 4 6 a 2 NG Sie 22 ae LON Scioto River 1 3 4 168 0.50 0.03 Total 3 628 102 134 Wy Be Bil 4 ae) The percentage of the opercle covered with scales (Table 10) varied little among popula- tions (most means were 94-99 and 100) with the exception of the population in Cumber- land River above the Falls which had a mean of 51 and a mode of 50-75. The population in Cumberland River below the Falls and those populations to the east and north (e.g., Tygarts Creek, and Kentucky, Licking, Little Sandy, and Big Sandy rivers) had a few individuals with reduced squamation on the opercle. The percentage of the nape covered with scales (Table 11) varied from a low mean of 28 and a mode of 10 in Cumberland River above the Falls to a high mean of 97 and a mode of 100 in Tennessee River. In general, populations in eastern Kentucky (e.g., Tygarts Creek and Kentucky, Licking, Little Sandy, and Big Sandy rivers) had the lowest percent- ages, and those in the west (e.g., Tennessee, Tradewater, and Green rivers) had the highest. With a mean of 87 and a mode of 100, the population in Cumberland River below the Falls differed substantially from that above the Falls with a mean of 28 and a mode of 10. The percentage of the cheek covered with Table 4. Frequency distribution of counts of scales around the caudal peduncle in Percina maculata. 18 19 20 6 21 16 1 10 Drainage Lake Huron Lake Michigan Mississippi River Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) Tennessee River Cumberland River (below falls) Cumberland River (above falls) Tradewater River Green River Salt River Kentucky River Licking River Tygarts Creek Little Sandy River Big Sandy River Great Miami River Scioto River Total 1 — wwe — _ WONIWIRONHENE BRwWDP ak bo _ 13 117 23 24 Bey PAs) Af EX} N X SD CV 4 39 214 0.88 0.04 5 3 13° 22.8 0.93 0.04 12 1 45 22.0 0.82 0.04 3 7 1 12 23.7 0.78 0.03 3 2 T 22:9 Oat OlOS 3 1 7 Ss 1 25 244 1.33 0.05 10 ) 1 28 22.8 0.92 0.04 1 ie ntti 2, 19 24.3 IJ11 0:05 o 23° 13 AQ 241" “O82 10108 3 Ab 8) 12 2340 LO reO05 DW Bit MS LL 237 elo OL0 6 8 ] 33 22.6 1.08 0:05 4 2 21 2207 OF 0105 1 8 214 1.06 0.05 13 8 1 44 22.6 1.09 0.05 4 4 1 22 225 1.14 0.05 4 21.5 1.00 0.05 OO AI ol 7 2 483 LOO Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) l4 15 N X sD CV Table 5. Frequency distribution of pectoral ray counts in Percina maculata. Drainage 12 13 Lake Huron "1 Lake Michigan | 5 Mississippi River 3 31 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 10 Tennessee River 3 Cumberland River (below falls) | 7 Cumberland River (above falls) 7 Tradewater River | 9 Green River ] 21 Salt River 3 Kentucky River | 23 Licking River 8 Tygarts Creek 8 Little Sandy River Big Sandy River 14 Great Miami River 1] Scioto River 2 Total 8 169 scales (Table 12) varied from a low mean of 33 and mode of 15 in Cumberland River above the Falls to a high mean of 95 and mode of 100 in Great Miami River. Populations in northeastern Kentucky (e.g., Licking River and Tygarts Creek) had the lowest percent- ages, and those in the west (e.g., Tennessee and Tradewater rivers) had the highest. As for nape squamation, a large difference in mean and mode occurred between populations be- low (mean = 84, mode = 90-100) and above (mean = 33, mode = 15) the Falls in the Cumberland River. Table 6. Drainage 6 il 8 9 Lake Huron 1 24 Lake Michigan ] Mississippi River 10 31 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 2, Tennessee River 3 Cumberland River (below falls) 10 12 Cumberland River (above falls) 7 Tradewater River 1 2 Green River l if Salt River 2 2 Kentucky River 42 66 Licking River 10 21 Tygarts Creek 1] 10 Little Sandy River 4 Big Sandy River 2 15 25 Great Miami River ] Scioto River ] 2) Total 2 3 140 282 24 8 39 140 063 0,04 5 2 13 136° «O87 ae ll 45 13.2 053 0.04 2 12 13.2) 0.80: «lyroles 3 7 13.7... 0:76) — 80:06 17 25 13:6. 0.57 soa 17 4 28 13.9 0.68) 9/9005 9 19 13.4 061 0.05 18 2 42 135 063 0.05 7 2 12 13.9 067 0.05 68 19 111 13.9 064 0.05 21 4 33 13.9 O.600n mies 10 g 21 138 © O70 Ons 6 2 8 143 046 e008 29 | 13.7 AOSHI 0.04 10 l 29 13.5. O60 0\m0104 2 135 058 0.04 259 49 485 A principal components analysis of meristic characteristics of Ohio River populations in Kentucky failed to show any clear separations. In contrast, when morphometric data for these same populations were analyzed, popu- lations in the Kentucky, Big Sandy, and Trade- water rivers emerged from one another. The best separation was shown by the plot of PCII against PCIII (Figure 3). A MANOVA indi- cated that all three populations differed sig- nificantly from one another (Kentucky River vs. Big Sandy River, P < 0.0001; Kentucky River vs. Tradewater River, P = 0.0007; Big Frequency distribution of anal ray counts in Percina maculata. 10 1] N xX SD CV 13) 2) Ao) oi ics ong 6 13. 94> 065) 00m 4 45. 89 055 \90lt6 12 88 089 70.04 1 7 8&7 0.76 0.09 3 25 (87), 0168 amOlns 3 28 8.5) 0505 H0l0n 4 19 9.0 0.75, /90t08 3 42 88 0.66 0.07 7 1 “12 96 “OGOneous 3 lll 86 0.53 0.06 2 33. 88 0.56 0.06 21 18.5 Osos 8 85 053 Waals 2 44 86 0.65 0.08 5 22 92 050 Welds 4 7.8 11267 10NG 56 3 486 Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page 101 Table 7. Frequency distribution of dorsal ray counts in Percina maculata. Drainage 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 N X SD CV Lake Huron 2» 15 23 40 15) 0.60 0.05 Lake Michigan 5 8 13 12.6 0.51 0.04 Mississippi River 8 26 11 45 WAI 0.65 0.05 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 1 10 1 12 12.0 0.43 0.04 Tennessee River 1 3 2 a 7 12.4 0.98 0.08 Cumberland River (below falls) 1 4 7 9 3 1 25 ORS 1.16 0.09 Cumberland River (above falls) 1 9 14 4 28 11.8 0.75 0.06 Tradewater River il 11 7 19 RS 0.58 0.05 Green River i 3 20 16 2 42 1253) 0.87 0.07 Salt River 1 1 4 6 12 12.3 0.97 0.08 Kentucky River 5 38 58 10 111 Walz 0.71 0.06 Licking River 4 23 6 33 12.1 0.56 0.05 Tygarts Creek Leo Sa 16 1 21° 118 060 0.05 Little Sandy River 1 4 3 8 12.3 0.71 0.06 Big Sandy River 5 29 9 a 44 12.1 0.63 0.05 Great Miami River 2 14 4 y 22 12.3 0.77 0.06 Scioto River 1 ® Il 4 12.0 0.82 0.07 Total 1 9 84 Sandy River vs. Tradewater River, P < 0.0001). Additionally, the plot of PCII against PCIII indicated that three other populations overlapped with Kentucky, Big Sandy, or Trade- water river populations but were separate from the remaining two. Tygarts Creek over- lapped with Kentucky River but was separate from Big Sandy and Tradewater rivers (Figure 3). Both the Tennessee and Green rivers over- lapped with the Tradewater River population but were separate from the Kentutky and Big Sandy rivers (Figure 3). For morphometric data, the first principal component (PCI) explained 90.1% of the var- iance (Table 13); however, PCI is primarily a size component strongly influenced by varia- tion in size of the specimens and provides lit- tle taxonomic information (Pimentel 1979). Loading most heavily on PCII (2.4% of the variance) were eye diameter, pectoral fin length, gape width, snout length, and caudal peduncle width; on PCIII (1.5%) were gape width, snout length, eye diameter, anal fin base length, and the length from the spinous dorsal fin origin to the anal fin insertion; on PCIV (1.2%) were caudal peduncle width, soft Table 8. F requency distribution of dorsal spine counts in Percina maculata. Drainage 12 13 14 15 16 N D4 SD CV Lake Huron 2, 28 10 40 14.2 0.52 0.04 Lake Michigan 2 8 3 13 14.1 0.64 0.05 Mississippi River 3 Qi 9 6 45 13.4 0.81 0.06 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 3 8 1 12 13.9 0.79 0.06 Tennessee River 1 1 5) 7 13.6 0.79 0.06 Cumberland River (below falls) 2 9 2 Q 95 13.6 0.77 0.06 Cumberland River (above falls) 4 13 9 2 28 14.3 0.82 0.06 Tradewater River if ri 5 19 13.9 0.81 0.06 Green River Il 18 17 6 42, 13.7 0.75 0.06 Salt River 3 5 4 12 14.1 0.7 0.06 Kentucky River Y 7 63 16 109 13.8 0.70 0.05 Licking River 15 16 2 33 13.6 0.61 0.04 Tygarts Creek 6 1] 3 1 21 14.0 0.80 0.06 Little Sandy River 4 4 8 ISAS) 0.53 0.04 Big Sandy River a 4 28 11 44 14.1 0.65 0.05 Great Miami River 2 a 10 7 1 21 14.2 0.98 0.07 Scioto River 1 2, 3 ISH 0.58 0.04 Total 15 139 238 84 5 482, 02 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) fable 9. Frequency distribution of counts of lateral blotches in Percina maculata. Drainage 5 6 7 8 9 10 N X SD CV Lake Huron 8 26 4 ] 39 6.0 0.65 0.11 Lake Michigan 4 8 | 13 5.8 0.60 0.10 Mississippi River 5 24 10 4 ] 44 6.4 0.89 0.14 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 1] 11 7.0 0.00 0.00 Tennessee River 7) 4 ] 7 7.0 1.00 0.14 Cumberland River (below falls) l 5 15 3 24 6.8 0.70 0.10 Cumberland River (above falls) 2 21 5 28 7.1 0.50 0.07 Tradewater River 2 2 15 19 6.7 0.67 0.10 Green River ll 33 ] ] 42 6.9 0.53 0.08 Salt River 10 2 12 e2, 0.39 0.05 Kentucky River | 51 46 12 1 11] Tall 0.72 0.09 Licking River 3 23 i 33 Tell 0.55 0.08 Tygarts Creek l 11 8 ] 2) 7.4 0.68 0.09 Little Sandy River | 5 2 8 Til 0.64 0.09 Big Sandy River l 27 15 l 44 7.4 0.57 0.08 Great Miami River 4 6 9 3 22 6.5 0.93 0.15 Scioto River 2 2 4 Te) 0.58 0.08 Total 24 89 252 99 17 1 482 dorsal fin base length, anal fin base length, and eye diameter; and on PCV (0.9%) were anal fin base length, soft dorsal fin base length, length between spinous dorsal fin origin and pelvic fin origin, pectoral fin length, and the length from the spinous dorsal fin origin to the anal fin insertion. DISCUSSION Populations examined in our study exhibit considerable geographic variation, with the most extreme character states in individuals from the Cumberland and Kentucky rivers. Table 10. However, it appears that gene flow is occur- ring even among the most divergent popula- tions, and no population is taxonomically di- agnosable. Percina maculata in the Cumberland River above Cumberland Falls has several charac- teristics that distinguish it from the Cumber- land River population below the Falls. Lateral line and pored lateral line scale counts were higher above the Falls than below (Tables 1, 2): transverse scales, scales above the lateral line, scales below the lateral line, caudal pe- duncle scales, and dorsal rays were much low- Frequency distribution of percentages of opercle covered with scales in Percina maculata. Drainage 10 25 50 mm 100 N X SD CV Lake Huron 40 40 100 0.00 0.00 Lake Michigan 13 13 100 0.00 0.00 Mississippi River 45 45 100 0.00 0.00 Direct tribs. lower Ohio R. (IL) 12 12 100 0.00 0.00 Tennessee River Of 7 100 0.00 0.00 Cumberland River (below falls) 1 i 1 22 25 94 0.18 0.19 Cumberland River (above falls) 4 5 8 2 28 51 0.27 0.53 Tradewater River 19 19 100 0.00 0.00 Green River 42, 42, 100 0.00 0.00 Salt River 12 12 100 0.00 0.00 Kentucky River 1 3 107 11] 99 0.06 0.06 Licking River 2 31 33 98 0.06 0.06 Tygarts Creek 1 19 20 99 0.06 0.06 Little Sandy River i 7 8 97 0.09 0.09 Big Sandy River ] 2 39 42 98 0.09 0.09 Great Miami River 22 22, 100 0.00 0.00 Scioto River 4 4 100 0.00 0.00 Total 4 6 11 103 Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page Nee eS a cD O rh Siete Soo > 1S) vil 2G OI Se € I ial G I 61 I fb I 6 I L € V Uh LZ GG SG S I € 6 @ Sill I L vy 6 L Tz I V I I V € SI G £ II I ial 6 fell 9 CV lap ico} ONAN aH Onna [OL JOATY 0JO1NS JOATy Ture year Jaany Apurs Sig joary Apues apwy yearn syesAy, JOANY SUP] jaary Ayonjuey IOAN YRS IOAN WdaI5) IOAN JOYMOpPeIL, (s[[e} eaoqge) roany pueprequinD I (s[[eF MOTEq) JeAny puepequing IOATY Qossouuay, (TT) “HW O1YO Fomor “squQ oar roary tddisstsstyy UBIO, OYeT UOINET 24e'T aseulriqg 6 vl & @ I #6 6 @ & #A Wt il | oan st co won fox (oa) Lo ANAOAANI (ap) Nn Gr O7 § U 6 OW a om & ‘DYD]NIDUL DUIDAAg Ul SoBOs YIM P2teA00 ye2yo jo sasequooi1ed jo uOnNGLySIp Aouonbe1,y GL 2F[G2L es ee SS ee EE SSS SS Se IW QL 9S CV LG 6€ VS gc 16 c6 86 18 L6 V8V GH) i Hiv SG 15 18S tell I REMC cele 36 y @9 I & I G V lis: Sh G¢ eo ul 9 6 i I & & ol Uw I I I 6l if © 6 2 62. I y Ut & 6 Cap acre Gee Ula & 6 & 6 i G6 OaN 6 G © WwW VY Ly ZL Al Wo Al Sl Se 7 Il [FIOL I iP 1 TOATY 0}O1S ol © Il I TOATY TUT] FVOIT) I Vv 9 (See alle Ww ee raany Apues Sig i 1 € & goary Apurg ofa] I I 9 ee lee el I YoeID syesay, € rs i Om ie ee eae 6 ee TOANY SULT G Or G OL Si SG 6 6 OM 9 Taany Apon Wey G I I 6 ll TOATY 3S I I IOAN WaeI5) IdATY To}JEMaIpel], I ¢ 6 I ¢ P G p, G (S][B} eAoge) ToAnYy puepoquinD I G I (S[[BF AOpEq) ToATY pUuR[tequiny ToATY IISSouUY], I (TI) “YH OFYO 42M0] ae pord 2 Cael aVs mee O rr call seme Lag al PC 2 I qoany iddississtyy I I j I ueBIYoIA, Oye] € I Coxe Ip dkeSe TCS 1G SG ey G vom Pa aseulriq ‘DIDINIVU DUIdJag UI SeTeos YM pateaoo adeu jo saseyusoied yo uoynqmysip Aouenberq “TT e4eL, 104 FACTOR (2) FACTOR(3) Figure 3. Principal component analysis of morphometric variables for P- maculata. T = Tennessee River, K = Ken- tucky River, W = Big Sandy River, V = Little Sandy Riv- er, G = Green River, R = Tradewater River, L = Licking River, S = Salt River, Y = Tygarts Creek, A = Cumber- land River (above Falls), B = Cumberland River (below Falls). Outlined populations are ones with extreme values. er above the Falls than below (Tables 3, 4, 7). The population above the Falls exhibited much reduced opercle, nape, and cheek squa- mation. Percina maculata was described by Beckham (1983) as having a fully scaled op- Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) ercle; however, the majority of specimens ex- amined from above the Falls had percentages of squamation at 75% and below (Table 10). Mean percentages of scales covering the nape and cheek (28% and 33%, respectively) fall well below the means for other Ohio River populations (Tables 11, 12). Three fishes are endemic to the upper Cumberland River drainage: Phoxinus cum- berlandensis, Etheostoma sagitta sagitta, and E. nigrum susanae (Starnes and Starnes 1978). The closest relatives of P. cumberlandensis are P. tenneseensis and P. oreas (Starnes and Jen- kins 1988). Phoxinus tenneseensis occurs in the upper Tennessee River drainage, and P. oreas is found in the upper Tennessee, New, and Atlantic Slope drainages. The ancestor of these three species is thought to have lived in the preglacial Teays River drainage, and a pop- ulation isolated in the Cumberland River drainage above the Falls differentiated into P. cumberlandensis (Starnes and Jenkins 1988). The arrow darter, E. sagitta, includes two subspecies, E. s. sagitta, an endemic of the Cumberland River above the Falls, and E. s. spilotum of the upper Kentucky River basin (Kuehne and Bailey 1961). The two forms are readily distinguishable (Kuehne and Bailey 1961) and presumably differentiated after a stream capture event isolated them (discussed below). Table 13. Variable loadings for principal component analysis of measurements of Percina maculata. Variable PCI PCII PCIII PCIV PCV Head length 0.0598 —(0.0067 0.0022 0.0045 0.0026 Head depth 0.0719 —().0067 0.0032 —0.0001 —0.0081 Head width 0.0631 —0.0073 —0.0016 0.0077 0.0003 Snout length 0.0835 —0.0182 —0.0149 —(0.0097 —0.0022 Predorsal length 0.0616 —0.0051 0.0039 0.0083 0.0004 Eye diameter 0.0497 —0.0126 —0.0023 0.0155 0.0093 Gape width 0.0859 —0.0332 —().0186 —0.0188 —0.0061 Pectoral fin length 0.0645 —0.0164 —(0.0021 0.0133 0.0121 Pelvic fin length 0.0631 —0.0061 (0.0038 0.0064 0.0092 Spinous dorsal fin base length 0.0683 0.0023 0.0078 0.0057 —0.0033 Soft dorsal fin base length 0.0757 0.0105 0.0136 —0.0131 0.0146 Anal fin base length 0.0736 0.0085 0.0062 —0.0211 0.0115 Caudal fin length 0.0592 —0.0099 0.0041 0.0093 0.0052 Caudal peduncle width 0.1060 0.0389 —(0.0344 0.0082 0.0013 Caudal peduncle depth 0.0672 0.0056 0.0027 —().0019 —0.0045 Spinous dorsal fin origin to pelvic fin origin 0.0780 0.0034 0.0117 0.0003 —0.0147 Spinous dorsal fin origin to anal fin origin 0.0690 0.0008 0.0079 0.0101 —().0079 Soft dorsal fin origin to anal fin insertion 0.0769 0.0098 0.0087 —0.0051 0.0004 Soft dorsal fin origin to pelvic fin origin 0.0649 0.0014 0.0063 0.0069 —0.0068 Spinous dorsal fin insertion to anal fin origin 0.0800 0.0094 0.0078 0.0002 —0.0062 Anal fin origin to soft dorsal fin insertion 0.0730 0.0096 0.0054 —0.0108 —0.0001 Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page Studies by Kuehne and Bailey (1961) and Starnes and Starnes (1979) suggest that mul- tiple faunal exchanges have occurred between the Cumberland and Kentucky rivers. Etheos- toma sagitta and E. baileyi both occur only in the upper Cumberland and upper Kentucky river basins (Kuehne and Bailey 1961). The absence of close relatives of these two darters in the central Ohio River basin suggests that their presence in the upper Kentucky River is a result of transfer by stream capture. Kuehne and Bailey (1961) hypothesized that the trans- fer occurred when Little Richland Creek, an upper Cumberland tributary, was captured by Collins Fork, a small tributary of the upper Kentucky River. Alternatively, these darters entered the Cumberland from the Kentucky River. This latter hypothesis is based on the Pliocene connection of the Kentucky River to the Teays River (which flowed west to the Mississippi River) and the fact that the closest relative to E. sagitta is E. nianguae, an inhab- itant of the Missouri River system in Missouri (Burr and Page 1986; Burr and Warren 1986). Etheostoma nigrum susanae, endemic to the upper Cumberland River, appears to in- tergrade with E. n. nigrum in the headwaters of the adjacent Kentucky River system to the north (Starnes and Starnes 1979). Several pop- ulations from the upper Kentucky River sys- tem, particularly in the Middle Fork, have re- duced head and belly squamation, closely ap- proaching that of E. n. susanae, that probably results from gene flow between upper Cum- berland and Kentucky river populations (Starnes and Starnes 1979). Strange (1998) interpreted mitochondrial DNA variation in the upper Cumberland and upper Kentucky River drain- ages to suggest that E. n. susanae had invaded the upper Cumberland system at least twice, the first time from an unknown source and the second time from the Kentucky River. Percina maculata in the Kentucky River has several unusual characteristics. In particular, lateral line scales exhibit a bimodal distribu- tion; a strong cluster of individuals centers around 67 scales and another around 71 scales (Table 1). Mean lateral line scale counts for the Licking River, which lies just northeast of the Kentucky River, and Cumberland River above the Falls (just to the south) were 67.6 and 70.2, respectively, suggesting that intro- gression into the Kentucky River population is 105 occurring from the Licking and upper Cum- berland river systems. Specimens from the Kentucky River also share with the Cumber- land River population reduced squamation on the nape, cheek, and opercle, again suggesting intergradation. Populations of P. maculata in Tygarts Creek and Licking, Little Sandy, and Big Sandy riv- ers exhibit low values in several meristic char- acters compared to values for other Ohio Riy- er tributaries. The Little Sandy River popula- tion has the lowest mean values for lateral line scales, pored lateral line scales, scales around the caudal peduncle, anal rays (shared with Tygarts Creek), and dorsal spines (Tables 1, 2, 4, 6). The Tygarts Creek population has the lowest mean values for transverse scales, scales above the lateral line, scales below the lateral line, and anal rays (shared with Little Sandy River) (Tables 3, 6). Percina maculata in the Licking River groups with Little Sandy River and Tygarts Creek for scales around the caudal peduncle, percentage opercle squama- tion, percentage nape squamation, and per- centage cheek squamation. Percina maculata in the Big Sandy River groups with Little Sandy River and Tygarts Creek for lateral line scales, pored lateral line scales, percentage op- ercle squamation, and percentage nape squa- mation. Geological evidence indicates that these and other eastern tributaries of the Ohio River were tributaries of the ancestral Teays River and were separated from the Kentucky River in the early Pleistocene (Hocutt et al. 1986). As a result, the Licking River fauna closely resembles the Big Sandy fauna, rather than that of the adjacent Kentucky River, which has faunal affinities with lower Ohio River tributaries (Hocutt et al. 1986). Populations of P. maculata in the Tradewa- ter, Green, and lower Cumberland rivers, trib- utaries of the lower Ohio River, exhibit high values in several meristic characters. The high- est mean value for transverse scales in PR. ma- culata is shared by the Tradewater, Green, and lower Cumberland rivers (Table 3). The Trade- water river population has the highest means and modes for scales above the lateral line, scales below the lateral line, and number of pectoral fin rays (Table 5). The population of P. maculata in the lower Cumberland River has the highest values for scale rows around the caudal peduncle and dorsal rays (Tables 4, 106 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) 7). The extreme values for these populations can be attributed to the fact that they are geo- graphically distant from drainages to the east (e.g., Kentucky and Big Sandy rivers). The Tradewater, Tennessee, and Green river pop- ulations overlap each other on the plot of PCII and PCIII but are separate from the Kentucky and Big Sandy river populations (Figure 3). The distance between eastern and western drainages effectively serves as a barrier to gene flow and has led to populational differ- ences in meristic characters and body shape. Although P. maculata shows considerable variation in tributaries of the Ohio River, new taxa cannot be diagnosed. The examination of large samples from Ohio River tributaries sug- gests that gene flow has prevented speciation, even in geologically distinct areas such as the upper Cumberland River. MATERIAL EXAMINED Numbers of specimens of P. maculata are in parentheses. Complete locality data may be obtained from the authors upon request. In- stitutional abbreviations are as listed in Levi- ton et al. (1985). Lake Huron drainage. MICHIGAN: Osco- da Co., UMMZ 194283 (29): Isabella Co., INHS 57895 (8), 57913 (1), 57924 (2). Lake Michigan drainage. MICHIGAN: Ingham Co., INHS 79581 (1): Allegan Co., INHS 38819 (2), 41972 (10). Mississippi River drainage. IL- LINOIS: Kankakee Co., INHS 5356 (6), 5630 (4): Woodford Co., INHS 10930 (14); Piatt Co., INHS 8541 (10); Will Co., INHS 4872 (11). Direct tributaries, Ohio River. ILLI- NOIS: Pope Co., INHS 1350 (6), 1468 (4), 41009 (2). Tennessee River drainage. KEN- TUCKY: Calloway Co., INHS 40872 (1); SIUC 7681 (1), 10405 (2); Graves Co., SIUC 8755 (1), 11866 (1); Marshall Co., INHS 77681 (1). Below Cumberland Falls, Cumber- land River drainage. KENTUCKY: Trigg Co., INHS 41907 (1); SIUC 12274 (1); Livingston Co., INHS 75545 (1), 75546 (4); Laurel Co., EKU 536 (1); SIUC 8511 (2); Rockcastle Co., SIUC 15568 (2): Jackson Gos SIUEG14902.(h): 27174 (2); Logan Co., SIUC 11616 (6); Todd Co., SIUC 10333 (4). Above Cumberland Falls, Cumberland River drainage. KEN- TUCKY: McCreary Co., SIUC 6872 (9), 9466 (13), 23852 (1): Whitley Go.) SIUG) 2382. (); 8451 (1); Bell Co., SIUC 186 (1), 16894 (1); Letcher Co., SIUC 23251 (1). Tradewater Riv- er drainage. KENTUCKY: Crittenden Co., INHS 78370 (1); Caldwell Co., SIUC 8913 (18). Green River drainage. KENTUCKY: Todd Co., INHS 58214 (4); SIUC 9241 (30): Christian Co. INHS 27502 (7); Allen Co., EKU 140 (1). Salt River drainage. KEN- TUCKY: Marion Co., SIUC 14257 (8); EKU 757 (1); Bullitt Co., SIUC 16987 (2); Wash- ington Co., INHS 75543 (1). Kentucky River drainage. KENTUCKY: Clay Co., INHS 43044 (19), 64303 (3), 79026 (8), 79196 (4), 86873 (1), 88555 (3); EKU 593 (2): Lincoln Co., EKU 342 (7), 387 (1), 400 (1), 411 (2), 429 (2); Jackson Co., EKU 435 (2), 576 (3), 968 (1); Owsley Co., EKU 765 (1); INHS 79213 (1), 88536 (1); Letcher Co., EKU 1299 (8), 1303 (8); Carroll Co., EKU 485 (2); INHS 42992 (1); Wolfe Co., EKU 24 (2); INHS 39096 (3); Powell Co., EKU 1270 (8); INHS 87422 (3); Rockcastle Co., EKU 455 (2); Lee Co., EKU 1271 (2); Breathitt Co., INHS 64290 (6): Leslie Co., INHS 78497 (4). Lick- ing River drainage. KENTUCKY: Montgom- ery Co., EKU 1304 (1); INHS 75544 (1); Bath Co., EKU 1272 (2); Nicholas Co., EKU 1315 (1); Fleming Co.; SIUC 11375 (3) pi68eaGy Magoffin Co., SIUC 8243 (25). Tygarts Creek drainage. KENTUCKY: Carter Co., EKU 137 (4), 1061 (2), 1068 (5); SIUC 5660 (2), 9314 (1); INHS 88040 (7); Greenup Co., EKU 164 (1). Little Sandy River drainage. KENTUCKY: Elliott Co., EKU 1038 (1); SIUC 11225 (2); Carter Co., SIUC 7177 (7), 13387 (1). Big Sandy River drainage. KENTUCKY: Pike Co., EKU 59 (2): INHS 76999 (20); Lawrence Co., SIUC 8824 (7); Martin Co., SIUC 8864 (13); Floyd Co., SIUC 16587 (2). Great Miami Riv- er drainage. OHIO: Darke Co., OSM 63502 (2), 63538 (4), 63556 (4), 63562 (2), 63594 (1); Miami Co., OSM 63533 (3), 63572 (1), 63609 (1), 63902 (1); Preble Co., OSM 4836 (3). Sci- oto River drainage. OHIO: Scioto Co., OSM 62750 (4). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank S. Kohler and R. Warner for help- ful reviews of the manuscript, and J. W. Arm- bruster, K.S. Cummings, M. Hardman, J.H. Knouft, T.J. Near, J.C. Porterfield, M.E. Retz- er, M.H. Sabaj, J. Serb, and C.A. Taylor for thoughtful discussions and assistance. Speci- mens were loaned to us by B.M. Burr (SIUC), Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter—Steinberg and Page P.A. Ceas (EKU), T. Cavender (OSM), and D. Nelson (UMMZ). Financial support was pro- vided by the Illinois Natural History Survey and the University of Illinois Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Scienc- es. LITERATURE CITED Beckham, E. C. 1983. Systematics, redescription, and geo- graphic variation of the blackside darter, Percina ma- culata. Ph.D. Dissertation. The Louisiana State Univ. and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Rouge, LA. Beckham, E. C. 1986. Systematics and redescription of the blackside darter, Percina maculata (Girard), (Pisces: Percidae). Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Louisiana State Univ. 62:]—11. Burr, B. M., and L. M. Page. 1986. Zoogeography of fishes of the Lower Ohio-Upper Mississippi Basin. Pages 287— 324 in C. H. Hocutt and E. O. Wiley (eds). Zoogeog- raphy of North American freshwater fishes. Wiley-In- terscience, New York, NY. Burr, B. M., and M. L. Warren Jr. 1986. A distributional atlas of Kentucky fishes. Kentucky Nature Preserves Comm. Sci. Techn. Series 4. Etmier, D. A., and W. C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Ten- nessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville, TN. Hocutt, C. H., R. E. Jenkins, and J. R. Stauffer Jr. 1986. Zoogeography of the fishes of the central Appalachians and central Atlantic Coastal Plain. Pages 161-211 in C.H. Hocutt and E. O. Wiley (eds). Zoogeography of North American freshwater fishes. Wiley Interscience, New York, NY. Hubbs, C. L., and K. F. Lagler. 1964. Fishes of the Great Lakes region. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI. Hubbs, C. L., and E. C. Raney. 1939. Hadropterus oxy- 107 rhynchus, a new percid fish from Virginia and West Vir- ginia. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan 396:1-9. Kuehne, R. A., and R. M. Bailey. 1961. Stream capture and the distribution of the percid fish Etheostoma sag- itta, with geologic and taxonomic considerations. Cop- eia 1961:1—8. Leviton, A. E., R. H. Gibbs Jr., E. Heal, and C. E. Daw- son. 1985. Standards in herpetology and ichthyology: Part I. Standard symbolic codes for institutional re- source collections in herpetology and ichthyology. Cop- eia 1985:802-832. Page, L. M. 1974. The subgenera of Percina (Percidae: Etheostomatini). Copeia 1974:66-86. Page, L. M. 1983. Handbook of darters. T.F.H. Publica- tions, Neptune City, NJ. Pimentel, R. A. 1979. Morphometrics the multivariate analysis of biological data. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, IA. Raney, E. C., and R. D. Suttkus. 1964. Etheostoma moor- ei, a new darter of the subgenus Nothonotus from the White River system, Arkansas. Copeia 1964:130-139. Starnes, W. C., and R. E. Jenkins. 1988. A new cyprinid fish of the genus Phoxinus (Pisces: Cypriniformes) from the Tennessee River drainage with comments on rela- tionships and biogeography. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 101: 317-529. Starnes, W. C., and L. B. Starnes. 1978. A new cyprinid of the genus Phoxinus endemic to the upper Cumber- land River drainage. Copeia 1978:508-516. Starnes, W. C., and L. B. Starnes. 1979. Taxonomic status of the percid fish Etheostoma nigrum susanae. Copeia 1979:426—-430. Strange, R. M. 1998. Mitochondrial DNA variation in johnny darters (Pisces: Percidae) from eastern Kentucky supports stream capture for the origin of upper Cumberland River fishes. Am. Midl. Naturalist 140:96-102. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus, OH. |. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):108-112. 1999. Potential Influence of Predator Presence on Diel Movements of Small Riverine Fishes in the Ohio River, Kentucky Richard K. Kessler Department of Biology, Campbellsville University, Campbellsville, Kentucky 42718 ABSTRACT I investigated the hypothesis that onshore night migrations by small riverine fishes are potentially linked to offshore increases in predator abundance. Offshore predator presence was determined by fishing a gill net offshore from two separate cobble beds near Westport, Kentucky, on the Ohio River over two 24-hour periods. Shoreline fishes were collected along cobble beds by boat electrofishing in water <1 m depth at over two 24-hour periods. Small, non-schooling fishes such as Cyprinella spiloptera, Percina spp., and Mi- cropterus spp. young-of-the-year (YOY) were most common at night; their increase in abundance was sig- nificantly correlated with increases in abundance of piscivores offshore. Schooling fishes such as Dorosoma cepedianum and Notropis atherinoides were most common during the day; their abundances were signifi- cantly correlated with light levels INTRODUCTION The phenomenon of diel fish movement is well documented in many systems, including coral reefs (Helfman 1993) and lakes (Tonn and Paszkowski 1987). Coral reefs are often represented by distinct day-versus-night fish communities, and studies of lakes and reser- voirs have shown that many species of fishes occur in shallow, littoral zones in greater num- bers at night. Others have shown that some small cyprinids stay inshore during the day then move offshore at night in lakes (e.g., Bohl 1980). These results are not surprising for temperate aquatic systems, especially given the importance of the changing light intensi- ties to fish ecology (Copp and Jurajda 1993). Similar results were obtained in large river systems, but such studies have not typically addressed the ecological factors associated with such movements (Sanders 1992). Re- search by Copp (1992), Kessler (1997), and Sanders (1992) have shown that species rich- ness and/or overall abundance of fishes (aged 0+ and small adults) occurring along the shorelines of rivers often increases at night, and Clark (1979) demonstrated a similar pat- tern for fish larvae occurring near the shore in the Ohio River. Such in-shore diel movements are poorly understood in riverine systems compared to our knowledge of such move- ments in lakes and reservoirs (Copp and Ju- rajda 1993). Diel shifts in fish distribution within rivers may be linked to the influence of predation risk. Predation may affect fishes directly (by killing) or indirectly (shifts in distribution, habitat use, foraging behavior, or a combina- tion of these). Shoreline habitats are among the most structurally heterogeneous of river- ine habitats (Lobb and Orth 1991) and prob- ably represent an important refuge from pre- dation. Suspended structure is important to some small cyprinids as a diurnal predator ref- uge (Fraser 1983), and shoreline habitats may also function as a refuge from piscivorous fish- es due to their size-limiting shallowness (Copp and Jurajda 1993). It has been observed and experimentally demonstrated that the depth distribution of fishes in small (1st—3rd order) streams is linked to the type and intensity of predation pressure (Power 1987; Schlosser 1988). The hypothesis of Power and Schlosser was that larger fishes are limited in their abil- ity to exploit shallow-water habitats (pool mar- gins) due to presence of non-gape limited wading bird predators. Small fishes are at greatest risk of predation from gape-limited swimming predators in deeper water (pools). The differential influence of these predator types should result in diel shifts in fish distri- butions. The purpose of my study was to address the following two basic questions. First, are night migrations of many small fishes toward shore in the Ohio River correlated with an increas- ing occurrence of piscivores offshore, -as shown in some European rivers? Second, do different types of predator threats (i.e., swim- 108 Diel Movements of Ohio River Fishes—Kessler ming, gape-limited versus wading, non-gape limited piscivores) influence fishes in the same way? METHODS AND MATERIALS I conducted two diel field studies were con- ducted during base-flow (August—October) 1994 in the McAlpine Pool of the Ohio River near Westport, Kentucky. All fish sampling oc- curred at six 4-hour intervals from 0800 to 0400 (0800-—1200—1600—2200-2400-0400- 0800). In August, I estimated the diel abun- dance of potential piscivores (those individuals >150 mm whose diets are known to consist mainly of fishes in nearshore waters of the main channel. A 30 m by 2.5 m experimental nylon gill net was fished during two separate 24-hour periods offshore from two extensive (200-400 m long) cobble beds. The gill net consisted of three equal-area panels of nylon mesh with mesh sizes of 2.54, 3.75, and 5.08 cm*. A 180 m transect in 2.5-3.0 m deep wa- ter was established parallel to shore at each site and six 30 m sections were marked with fluorescent floats. The gill net was fished at each section in random order during each 24- hour period at both sites. Fishes were collect- ed and preserved in 10% formalin for identi- fication and measurement. Shoreline fishes were sampled over two 24—hour periods in October. Physical conditions during both pe- riods are historically very similar, and prior fish collections yielded mostly the same species and size classes in August and October (Pear- son and Krumholz 1984; Kessler 1997). For collection of shoreline fishes, 100 m transects were established parallel to shore at each of the cobble beds previously mentioned. Both transects were sampled every 4 hours over each 24-hour period. Boat electrofishing was used to collect fishes. Two forward booms (1.8 m apart) each supported one 2.5-cm diameter electrode. A 3500 W generator was used to power the electrodes with 220 V AC. This method was well suited for Ohio River cobble beds (versus other shoreline habitats, e.g., macrophyte beds) because consistent straight- line sampling in water <1 m deep could be consistently achieved. All stunned fishes be- tween the two booms were collected by one person with a mesh dip net (45 cm wide, 35 em deep, mesh = 6.5 mm). Night collections were aided by two boat headlights and halo- 109 gen headlamps. Fishes were retained in an aerated cooler until they could be identified and measured; they were released after each 100 m sample was completed. Downwelling light intensity (footcandles) was measured just below surface at each 4-hour interval over one 24-hour period using a digital photometer. Diel relative abundance was determined for offshore piscivores and shoreline fishes (<100 mm). Fish abundances for separate diel col- lecting periods were combined for both off- shore and shoreline samples and relative abundance for each 4-hour interval (total sum of individuals of species a collected during that interval/ total sum of individuals of spe- cies a over the 24-hour period) was tabulated for all species or assigned taxonomic groups represented by >five individuals. Data were combined for the following taxa: Micropterus salmoides and M. dolimieui (Lacepede); Eth- eostoma blennioides (R.) and E. flabellare (B.); Percina caprodes (R.) and P. shumardi (Gi- rard). Data were standardized against the hy- pothetical average value of relative abundance for each interval (0.167). The resulting values were used in further between-group compar- isons. Distributions over time were then com- pared using the Pearson Correlation Coeff- cient (PCC). A simple linear regression (SLR) was employed to compare fish frequency dis- tribution to light intensity. RESULTS The field study demonstrated that there are differences in distribution of schooling and non-schooling fishes at shoreline cobble beds. Non-schooling fishes were collected at all sam- ple intervals (except for Etheostoma spp. and A. grunniens) but were most abundant during the 2000 and 2400 samples (Table 1). This was a consistent trend for Cyprinella spiloptera (Cope), Micropterus spp., Percina spp., A. grunniens, and combined non-schooling fishes (Table 1). The schooling fishes (N. atherino- ides and Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur) were collected only during the day along the cobble shorelines. The highest occurrence of both was during the 1600 sample. Piscivores were present offshore at all sample intervals but increased in night samples (2000-0400). The offshore increase of piscivores and the shoreline increase in small, non-schooling fish- es at night was positively correlated for C. spi- 110 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) ‘able 1. Light intensity and total number and (relative occurrence) of taxa of Ohio River fishes over two 24-hour periods. Time OSOO 1200 1600 2000 2400 0400 Total Light intensity (footcandles) 100 500 950 l 0 0 — Cyprinella spiloptera 1 (.100) 0 1 (.100) 3 (.300) 3 (.300) 2 (.200) 10 Notropis atherinoides 8 (.066) 32, (.262) 82 (.672) 0 0 0 122 Dorosoma cepedianum 0 32 (.151) 180 (.849) 0 0 0 212 Microplerus spp. 0 0 1(.143) 2(.286) -2(.286) —-2(.286) 7 Etheostoma spp. 1 (.143) 0 0 0 2 (.286) 4 (.571) 7: Percina spp. 6 (.188) 1 (.031) 2 (.062) 9 (.281) 9 (.281) 5 (.156) 32 Aplodinotus grunniens 0 0 0 AT (.412) 51 (.447) 14 (.140) 112 Total 24 (.047) 67 (.131) 267 (.520) 60 (.117) 67 (.131) 28 (.055) 513 Combined schooling 8 (.023) 64(.192) 262 (.784) 0 0 0 334 Combined non-schooling 16 (.089) 3 (.017) 5 (.028) 60 (.335) 67 (.374) 28 (.156) 179 Piscivores 6 (.111) 2 (.037) 3 (.056) 15 (.278) 18 (.333) 10 (.185) 54 loptera (PCC = 0.964; P = 0.002), Microp- terus spp. (PCC = 0.813; P = 0.049), Etheos- toma spp. (PCC = 0.363; P = 0.479), Percina spp. (PCC = 0.933; P = 0.007), A. grunniens (PCC = 0.966; P = 0.002), and the combined non-schooling category (PCC = 0.991; P < 0.001). The relative abundances of N. atheri- noides, D. cepedianum, combined schooling and total fishes were all negatively correlated to the increase of piscivores offshore at night, but not significantly. The abundance each of these was significantly related to light inten- sity, however. This relationship was consistent for emerald shiners (SLR; P < 0.001, r = 0.966), gizzard shad (SLR; P = 0.007, r? = 0.864), combined schooling (SLR; P = 0.004, r? = 0.905), and total fishes (SLR; P = 0.031, r2 = 0.979). DISCUSSION Although several studies have demonstrated shifts in diel fish distribution in rivers, most collections have not been designed to assess the purposes of such community shifts (Sand- ers 1992). Sanders (1992), Copp and Jurajda (1993), and the present study have shown that species richness increases along shallow riv- erine habitats at night. Copp and Jurajda (1993) also found that densities of those same species increased at night within the same habitat. This increase of species at night does not support the hypothesis that fishes use shoreline habitats as a velocity refuge or for other abiotic reasons that are constant on a diel basis. Instead it suggests the influence of a biotic factor that may exhibit some diel var- iation, like predator-prey interactions. My field study, and that of Copp and Jurajda (1993), have drawn similar conclusions from the Ohio River and the River Morava (a Dan- ube River tributary), Czech Republic, respec- tively. Both studies demonstrated that an in- crease in the densities of small fishes inshore at night is often correlated with a rise in the numbers of potentially piscivorous fishes in adjacent deeper offshore waters. As an exam- ple from the present study, densities of five of the seven taxa analyzed were positively cor- related with increasing numbers of piscivores offshore at night. Copp and Jurajda (1993) showed that the number of small fishes (<100 mm) in the River Morava increased along a shallow sandy bank with decreasing light levels and decreased along a steep boulder bank at night. Interestingly, this general pattern was associated with an increase in the numbers of “potentially” piscivorous fished (>80 mm) along the deeper, boulder bank at night. They found this pattern to be consistent for all spe- cies occurring along the shallow sand bank. Fish size is one of the most important de- termining factors when assessing the influence of piscivores on their prey. Even though pis- civores usually broaden diets as they grow to include larger prey, most continue to show a selective preference for small-sized prey; this is probably due to some form of “differential size-based capture success” (Juanes 1994). Schlosser (1988) demonstrated that small, hor- nyhead chubs (Nocomis bigutattus (Kirtland)), 60-65 mm) were three times more at risk from predation by smallmouth bass than were larger chubs (100-110 mm). Also, it is not un- common that habitat choice by small fishes, Diel Movements of Ohio River Fishes—Kessler under increased need to seek refuge due to threat of predation, results in a concentration of those fishes in some common habitat (Mit- tlebach and Chesson 1987; Osenberg et al. 1994: Werner 1986). While such arguments may explain the presence of small fishes in shallow refuge hab- itats, they do not account for the diel differ- ences exhibited in these riverine systems. Diel shifts in light intensity are likely to account for at least some of the observed patterns. Some piscivores are known to be most effective un- der low-light conditions (Cerri 1983; Helfman 1993). Cerri (1983) further suggested that small prey fish encounter an increased risk of predation with twilight conditions and that the survival of the prey largely depends amount of and access to refuge areas during early life- history stages. Sanders (1992) attributed ob- served differences in diel fish distributions in his Ohio River study to twilight movements of fishes from offshore to nearshore habitats. Why not simply remain in the shallow ref- uge areas day and night? One explanation might be the influence of avian predators. I have noted that herons and other wading birds are quite common along the shorelines of the Ohio River during summer when turbidity lev- els are low. The threat from such predators is greater during periods of high light intensity (Cerri 1983). This may explain the absence of all but the small, schooling fishes (emerald shiners and gizzard shad) during the day in shallow zones. Both Power (1987) and Schlos- ser (1988) demonstrated that non gape-limited avian predators may discourage use of shallow areas by larger fishes, while gape-limited pis- civores represent the largest predation threat in deeper water. In related experiments using live bass and a great blue heron model, Kes- sler (1997) demonstrated that gape-limited and non-gape limited predators exert different effects on small prey compared to larger ones. The experiments suggested that indicated a dominant effect of gape-limited, swimming predators (bass) on emerald shiners versus the effect of a diurnal, non gape-limited wading predator (heron). Larger, non-schooling fresh- water drum YOY were more influenced by the non gape-limited wading predator. The differ- ential influence of a swimming, gape-limited predator supports the hypothesis that such predators affect small prey more than large 141 prey, while the opposite holds true for the ef- fect of non-gape limited avian predators. Such results suggest that differential predatory in- fluences on prey depth distributions are prob- ably mediated by prey size and/or behavioral differences in prey species. It is still not clear why the small, schooling fishes were present along the shoreline only during the day. Schooling behavior, however, is a visual behavior largely dependent on light, and this group behavior may afford some pro- tection from avian predators. The present study revealed a significant positive correlation between light intensity and the onshore pres- ence of schooling species. However, given their small size and the fact that schooling be- havior usually breaks down at night (Helfman 1993), one would assume that offshore move- ments would be risky for small emerald shin- ers and gizzard shad knowing that piscivores increase in number and effectiveness during this time. Interestingly, Schael et al. (1995) found the density of threadfin shad in a North Carolina reservoir greatly increased in open surface waters at night versus day; they con- cluded that this may be due to an onshore movement of this fish during the day, sug- gesting a possible important link between the littoral and limnetic food webs. Earlier, Bohl (1980) demonstrated that movements of ju- venile roach (Rutilus rutilus (L.), rudd (Scar- dinius erythrophtalamus (L.), and bleak (Al- burnus alburnus (L.), to pelagic zones off- shore at night in Bavarian lakes was correlated with increased feeding rates. While the pre- sent study did not reveal any discoveries re- lating to the offshore presence/absence of em- erald shiners, it is plausible that the distribu- tion of YOY emerald shiners in particular may be influenced by another factor—the distri- bution of their prey. Zooplankton is an impor- tant component in the diet of such fishes; it has been suggested that some zooplankton may undergo a lateral and/or horizontal mi- gration in large rivers (J. D. Jack and J. H. Thorp, pers. comm.); many zooplankton or- ganisms actually increase nearshore during the day followed by a rise in densities in the chan- nel at night. Therefore, it could be that species such as the emerald shiner, which are espe- cially dependent on zooplankton when young, are afforded sufficient protection from avian predators in shallow water during the day by 112 virtue of their schooling behavior and that the risk of offshore predators at night is out- weighed by the presence of a necessary food source. The increased number of small pisci- vores along the shore at night (e.g., YOY sau- ger) may provide an additional impetus for their offshore movement. However, much fur- ther study is needed before such interactions can be conclusively determined. In conclusion, it is clear that offshore pre- dation threat was a strong correlate of the on- shore occurrence of many species of small, riv- erine fishes. A number of field studies and ex- periments strongly suggest that gape-limited piscivores and shallow avian predators elicit different responses from larger, solitary spe- cies versus smaller, schooling species. A com- plete understanding of the influence of pred- ators and related factors on the diel distribu- tion of small fishes in large rivers depends on future comparative studies from a variety of large river systems. Future studies should in- corporate simultaneous diel sampling of shoreline and offshore fishes as well as in situ predator-prey experiments. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the Sport Fishing Institute and Uni- versity of Louisville’s Center for Environmen- tal Studies for supporting this project; James H. Thorp, Paul Bukaveckas, William Pearson, Jeff Jack, and Mike Delong for reviewing var- ious components of the manuscript; and An- drew Casper, Tim Sellers, Richard Sodano, and Kim Greenwood for assistance in the field. LITERATURE CITED Bohl, E. 1980. Diel pattern of pelagic distribution and feeding in planktivorous fish. Oecologia 44:368—375. Cerri, R. D. 1983. The effect of light intensity on predator and prey behaviour in cyprinid fish: factors that influ- ence prey risk. Anim. Behav. 31:736—742. Clark, A. L. 1979. Temporal and spatial distribution of ichthyoplankton at Ohio River Mile 571. Master's The- sis, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY. Copp, G. H. 1992. An empirical model for predicting mi- crohabitat of 0+ juvenile fishes in a lowland river catch- ment. Oecologia 91:338—345. Copp, G. H., and P. Jurajda. 1993. Do small riverine fishes move inshore at night? J. Fish Biol. 43:229-241. Fraser, D. F. 1983. An experimental investigation of ref- Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) uging behavior in a minnow. Canad. J. Zool. 61:666— 672. Helfman, G. S. 1993. Fish behaviour by day, night, and twilight. Pages 479-507 in T. Pitcher (ed). Behaviour of teleost fishes. Chapman and Hall, New York, NY. Juanes, R. 1994. What determines prey selectivity in pi- scivorous fishes? Pages 79-103 in D. J. Stouder, J. L. Fresh, and R. J. Feller (eds). Theory and application in fish feeding ecology. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. Kessler, R. K. 1997. The functional importance of shore- line habitats to fishes of the Ohio River. Ph.D. Disser- tation, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY. Lobb, M. D., HII, and D. J. Orth. 1991. Habitat use by an assemblage of fish in a large warmwater stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 120:65-78. Mittlebach, G. G., and P. L. Chesson. 1987. Predation risk: indirect effects on fish populations. Pages 315-332 in W. C. Kerfoot and A. Sih (eds). Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH. Osenberg, C. W., M. H. Olson, and G. G. Mittlebach. 1994. Stage structure in fishes: resource productivity and competition gradients. Pages 151-170 in D. J. Stouder, K. L. Fresh, and R. J. Feller (eds). Theory and application in fish feeding ecology. Belle W. Baruch Li- brary in Marine Sciences, no. 18. Univ. South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. Pearson, W. D., and L. A. Krumholz. 1984. Distribution and status of Ohio River fishes. Oak Ridge Natl Lab. Publ. ORNL/Sub/79-7831/1. Power, M. E. 1987. Predator avoidance by grazing fishes in temperate and tropical streams: importance of stream depth and prey size. Pages 333-352 in W. C. Kerfoot and A. Sih (eds). Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. Unversity of New England Press, Hanover, New Hampshire. Sanders, R. E. 1992. Day versus night electrofishing from near-shore waters of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers. Ohio J. Sci. 92:51-59. Schael, D. M., J. A. Rice, and D. J. Degan. 1995. Spatial and temporal distribution of threadfin shad in a south- eastern reservoir. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 124:804—812. Schlosser, I. J. 1988. Predation risk and habitat selection by two size classes of a stream cyprinid: experimental test of a hypothesis. Oikos 52:36—40. Tonn, W. M., and C. Paszkowski. 1987. Habitat use of the central mudminnow (Umbra limi) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) in Umbra-Perca assemblages: the roles of competition, predation, and the abiotic envi- ronment. Canad. J. Zool. 65:865-870. Werner, E. E. 1986. Species interactions in freshwater fish communities. Pages 344-358 in J. Diamond and T. Case (eds). Ecological communities. Harper and Row, New York, NY. Wilkinson, L. 1989. Systat: the system for statistics. Systat, Evanston, Illinois. ]. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):113-123. 1999. Empirical Measurements of the Antenna Radiation Pattern of the Morehead Radio Telescope Benjamin K. Malphrus and Michael S. Combs Morehead Astrophysical Observatory, Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351 Randolph P. Lillard Department of Physical Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351 Jeff Kruth Kruth Microwave Electronics, Ellicott City, Maryland 21043 ABSTRACT The Morehead Radio Telescope, an instrument designed for undergraduate research, consists of a sur- plused 44-foot Nike-Hercules radar antenna modified for astronomical observations, an automated alt-azi- muth positioning system, a custom-designed sensitive front and back-end receiver system, and supporting electronics and hardware. The telescope incorporates a modular design in which components may be easily removed for use in laboratory investigations and student research and design projects. The performance characteristics of the telescope allow a varied and in-depth scientific program. The sensitivity and versatility of the telescope design facilitate the investigation of a wide variety of astrophysically interesting phenomena. The radiation or beam pattern of the antenna of a radio telescope is of primary importance to the instru- ment’s overall performance. The radiation pattern of an antenna is its sensitivity response as a function of direction. The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional representation of the magnitude, phase, and polari- zation of the antenna’s directivity function. Empirical measurements of the radiation pattern of the Morehead Radio Telescope’s parabolic antenna have been completed. A mathematical model of the far-field radiation pattern will be produced from the results of this experiment. INTRODUCTION The design of the Morehead, Radio Tele- scope (MRT), Morehead State University (MSU), Morehead, Kentucky, provides an in- strument capable of supporting scientific re- search in observational astrophysics at radio frequencies. The design and fabrication of the basic MRT systems are complete; first light was achieved on 12 Oct 1996. Among the most important characteristics that determine a ra- dio telescope’s performance is the antenna’s radiation (beam) pattern, its pattern of sensi- tivity to the sky. The beam pattern is a three- dimensional representation of the magnitude, phase, and polarization of the antenna’s direc- tivity function and therefore determines the instrument's spatial resolution, which is typi- cally expressed as the half-power beam width (HPBW), that is, the width of the sensitivity profile at half maximum. The intent of this ex- periment was to empirically measure the MRT antenna’s far-field radiation pattern, model its geometry, and compare this model to the the- oretical performance characteristics of the an- tenna. The instrumentation used, the experi- mental procedures, and project significance are described. MRT INSTRUMENTATION The basic design of the MRT includes a wire-mesh parabolic reflecting antenna (Fig- ure 1), alt-azimuth tracking positioner control and drive systems, receiver and signal pro- cessing system, a controlling computer with an interface device, and supporting electronics and hardware. The system is designed around a total power receiver that converts radiation from space concentrated by the antenna sys- tem to an electrical signal, which is amplified, modified, and interpreted. The MRT system is controlled by a Macintosh IIsi controlling computer and utilizes a National Instruments Lab NB interface board, optical isolation sys- tem, and robotic drive and control systems de- veloped by MSU faculty and students. The controlling computer positions the telescope, instructs it in robotic tracking of cosmic sourc- es, and controls data collection and storage. (Malphrus et al. 1992). 113 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Figure 1. a ae "RANVAN \ WeaNen rl . menue Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. The wire-mesh parabolic reflecting antenna and positioning system as it sits above the Morehead Astrophysics Laboratory. The telescope utilizes a total power receiver system operating over a 6 MHz band centered at 1420 MHz. This receiver configuration al- lows observation of the atomic hydrogen line and sufficient bandwidth to observe most of the hydrogen in the galaxy. The measured and estimated performance characteristics of the system are as follows: spatial resolution = 0.9 arcdegrees, total receiver system temperature = 67.3 K, and the minimum detectable flux tengic = 4.3 Jy. The instrument is described in some detail in Section II along with a brief description of observations made with the MRT. A detailed description of the instrument has been published previously (Malphrus et al. 1998). The current experiment utilized the MRT system and a 1420 MHz radio frequency transmitter operated from atop a remote mountain. The primary components of the system utilized in this experiment and the 1420 MHz radio frequency transmitter are summarized below. Antenna The MRT employs a high-gain, 40-foot an- tenna designed for L-Band operation. A sur- plused Army NIKE-Hercules ANS-17 Radar antenna was obtained and modified for radio astronomy applications. The basic system in- cludes a parabolic reflector, antenna feed horn, waveguide system, and azimuth-eleva- tion positioning system. The current, third-it- eration-positioning system provides azimuth coverage of 360° at a maximum antenna ro- tation speed of one revolution in 12 minutes and elevation coverage of 0 to 90° in 10 min- utes. The positioning system also allows for continuous drive in tracking mode, essentially one degree in 4 minutes of time at the celes- tial equator and slower by the cosine of the declination as the angle increases or decreases. Control and Indication Systems Controlling computer. The MRT control- ling computer currently in use is a 400 MHz Petar processor with 128 MB of RAM and 9 GB of hard disk space. A multifunction an- alog, digital, and timing I/O (Input/Output) eal is maeealled in the computer. It contains a 12-bit successive approximation A/D con- verter with 16 analog inputs, two 12-bit D/A Radiation Pattern—Malphrus et al. converters with voltage outputs, 8 lines of transistor-transistor logic compatible I/O, and two counter/timer channels for timing I/O. The board has a 500kS/s single channel sam- pling rate. The multifunction interface board is controlled by LabVIEW, a software system that features interactive graphics, a state-of- the-art user interface, and a powerful graphi- cal programming language “G.” This software is used to (1) send the input pulses to both the azimuth and elevation translators, (2) move the telescope, (3) analyze the data col- lected from the optical encoder and clinome- ter, and (4) collect the data from receiver sys- tem. Position Indication Systems Azimuth indication system. The Azimuth indication system is based on measuring the rotation of an axle in the drive system with an optical absolute shaft encoder. The optical ab- solute shaft encoder is a noncontacting rotary- to-digital position feedback device mounted on the azimuth drive shaft at the stepper mo- tor assembly. The internal monolithic elec- tronic module converts the real-time shaft po- sition angle, speed, and direction into TTL- compatible outputs. The encoder is used to count the rotations of the stepper motor shaft. These data basically provide feedback as they are used to determine if the shaft rotation count is equal to the number of pulses sent to the stepper motor. The number of steps per degree of sky has been empirically determined for the azimuth system during a series of ex- periments. Azimuth calibration experiments were performed from the period of 1994— 1996 and again in 1998 after relocation to the new Astrophysical Laboratory facility. The re- sulting indication system provides feedback for the telescope position in azimuth to an ac- curacy of 0.10° and allows the telescope to po- sition itself to any desired azimuth. Elevation indication system. The elevation indication system is based on precisely mea- suring the tilt of the antenna focal plane with a high-precision bi-axial clinometer developed by Applied Geomechanics. The clinometer utilizes a precision electrolytic transducer that comprises the sensing elements. It produces two orthogonal tilt angles (X and Y tilt) and one temperature channel as its output chan- nels. The clinometer is mounted on the par- 115 abolic reflector of the MRT and the orthogo- nal Y tilt angle is used for elevation position- ing. As the antenna is moved from the local horizon to the zenith, the electrolytic trans- ducer’s voltage changes accordingly. This value is collected by the computer, and the software converts this value to elevation degrees utiliz- ing a look-up table produced from a series of elevation calibration experiments performed during 1997-1998. Remote 1420 MHz transmitter A 1420 MHz transmitter was designed and construct- ed to generate an artificial signal to sweep the antenna beam through in order to determine the directivity pattern. The transmitter was designed and constructed by K-MEC and Morehead State University students. The de- vice uses a voltage oscillator to create the 1420 MHz signal (Figure 2). The final transmitter design is seen in Figure 3. The final iteration produced a phase stable radiation source at 1420 MHz that allowed the radiation pattern experiment to be performed. THEORETICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MRT ANTENNA The response of an antenna as a function of direction is given by its radiation pattern. This pattern is the same for receiving as it is for transmitting—a phenomenon known as anten- na reciprocity. Typically, there is one main lobe flanked by several smaller lobes. The evaluation of the radiation pattern and lobes it contains can reveal important characteristics of the antenna’s performance. To measure this pattern, a transmitter must be used to create the desired frequency. There is a point in the measurement process at which the pattern will not change if the transmitter is taken any far- ther away. This is called the far-field pattern. For measurements inside this distance, the pattern obtained is a near field pattern, which is a function of angle and distance. There are constraints that must be satisfied for the far- field pattern to be effectively measured. The minimum range distance must be much great- er than the diameter (or greater than the ma- jor axis aperture of a non-circular antenna) S im >> D, and the minimum range distance must be much greater than the incident wave- length S,,,, >> . Specifically, the minimum range distance equation is 16 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Mionre 2 Figure 2. Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. The portable 1420 MHz transmitter and the accompanying Yagi antenna used to propagate the test signal. JOR: Sain = dX where S,,,,, is the minimum range distance, D is the largest aperture dimension of the anten- na, and ) is the wavelength. Using 13.25 m for D and 0.2112 m for the wavelength, the minimum range distance is 1662 m (The ARRL Antenna Book). The field intensity measured as a function of azimuth angles proves to be the most useful method when evaluating antenna performance characteristics. After the measurements of the far-field pattern are collected, a useful numer- ical specification to describe the pattern is the beam solid angle. This is the angle through which all the pow- er from a transmitting antenna would stream if the power achieved its maximum value. It can be represented by the following double integral: 0, = {| A(8, b) dO all sky A(9,) represents the relative antenna power pattern as a function of angle (Napier et al. 1989). An important relationship in antenna theory states that the product of the effective area, Ao, and the beam solid angle is equal to the square of the wavelength. AQ, =»? If A, is equal to 1 everywhere, then 2, has a maximum value of 47. This also demonstrates that the primary antenna is isotropic and can see the whole sky with equal sensitivity. Another important antenna parameter is the directivity. This property is very important for all directional antennas. It can be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity, given below i) sadn arin avg Where U(0,6),,,. equals the maximum radia- tion intensity (watt sr~'), and U,,, is the av- erage radiation intensity (watt sr'). The av- Radiation Pattern—Malphrus et al. 317 Tuning Regulator DC/DC Converter Ty, Voltage Oscillator Voltage Regulator Figure 3. Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. Schematic diagram of the portable 1420 MHz transmitter. erage radiation intensity is given by the total power W divided by 41. The total power is equal to the radiation intensity U(@,¢) inte- grated over 4m. UGib) as W Aq Since the radiation intensity is proportional to the Poynting vector, D can be simplified to the following At Dae SS [| 2.040 The directivity of an antenna is a fixed nu- merical (dimensionless) quantity. If the direc- tivity is multiplied by the normalized power pattern, the directive gain is produced. The directive gain, which is a function of angle, is below = D(O,_ ) max [| D(0, b) dQ = 47 | Antenna patterns may be plotted in terms of directive gain. For a nondirectional antenna the pattern would be everywhere equal to the level D(6,b) = 1. This is referred to as the isotropic level. This isotropic level is refer- Dp = S———— Cr i U(8, db) max det O, enced with the sidelobe structure in many cas- es (Kraus 1986). Figure 4 is an ideal plot of the radiation pattern in terms of the directive gain. These characteristics along with the half- power beam width (HPBW), which is quali- tatively related to the directivity function, de- fine the overall spatial resolution of the anten- Figure 4. Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. An idealized polar plot of the radiation pattern of a circular antenna in terms of the directive gain. 11s na. Knowing the performance of the telescope allows proper subtraction of noise and inter- pretation of data received. If the far-field ra- diation pattern is obtained experimentally, then the theoretical aspects of the antenna can be observed and a better understanding of data taken during observations can be ob- tained. The spatial resolution (expressed as_half- power beam width-HPBW?) is derived from the radiation pattern and may be theoretically determined for a uniform reflector from the following relationship: 58\(m) HPBW° = D(m) where: HPBW° = Half-power beam width in degrees \ = Operating wavelength in meters D = Aperture diameter in meters Calculation of the HPBW of the existing MRT system must be performed in two steps as the antenna is symmetric about a major and a mi- nor axis (Malphrus et al. 1998). HPBW of the major axis = 0.911°; HPBW of the minor axis =' 3.6°. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The far-field radiation pattern is often quot- ed as the most demanding of all antenna mea- surements. For optimum measurements, the transmitter must be placed well past 1662 m. Other factors that must be considered are: is the terrain relatively flat, is it free of obstruc- tions, and is it of uniform consistency (i.e., gravel, dirt, buildings, etc.). All of these factors contribute to the radiation pattern measured. Any variability in these factors will cause de- viations in the true pattern. To deter some of these problems, the source antenna used was directive, that is the waves were focused in one direction. A Yagi arrangement was found to meet this criterion and allowed for easy ad- justment to the appropriate polarization. This allowed the radio waves to be relatively unaf- fected by radio frequency reflective structures (mountains, buildings, etc.) which could cause aberrations in the experimental data (ARRL Handbook). To begin the experiment, the transmitter Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) was located atop a mountain, located 3.8 km away, a distance well beyond the far-field pat- tern limitation. Initial measurements of the transmitted signal were contaminated by the 300K radiation contribution from the ground (mountain) on which the transmitter antenna was located. This necessitated installing the antenna on a television tower at a height of ca. 185 ft. Elevating the antenna provided a better line of sight, one uncontaminated by ground radiation. The transmitter was then tuned to the desired frequency of 1420 MHz by analyzing the signal with the back-end spectrum analyzer located at the Astrophysical Laboratory. Pre-detection and post-detection gains were then adjusted until the signal pro- duced on the virtual strip-chart recorder stayed within a 10-volt range allowed by the receiver system. The virtual strip chart record- er is a virtual instrument (VI) developed uti- lizing the LabView environment using “G.” It has been calibrated relative to three conven- tional electro-mechanical strip chart recorders and relative to two voltmeters. Next, the an- tenna position of maximum signal was ob- tained by aiming the antenna at the transmit- ter and then scanning very slowly in azimuth and elevation. A maximum signal of 8.18 volts was detected at 89° azimuth. The next component of the experiment was to map the radiation pattern by scanning across the signal in a raster scan method, anal- ogous to the motion of the electron beam in a standard television set. The procedure was to produce scans with the telescope in azimuth for a specific altitude, increasing the tele- scope’s altitude by 2° each scan, which allowed for polar plots of the data at each altitude. This procedure also provided three-dimen- sional information from which a data cube of azimuth, altitude, and induced voltage could be produced. Scans ranged in azimuth from 76° to 102°, and in elevation from —4° to 21°. (In local horizon coordinates, 180° azimuth is true south and 0° elevation is the local hori- zon.) A 26 square degree area of sky was mapped in this manner. An essentially com- plete measurement of the Ona hy of 3-D radiation pattern was attaine dcune this scanning procedure. RESULTS The experiment resulted in 13 elevation scans, each consisting of 409 data points. An- Radiation Pattern—Malphrus et al. Radiation Pattern Radiation Pattern 119 Radiation Pattern Figure 5. Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. Four perspectives of the three dimensional representation of the antenna radiation pattern. tenna radiation pattern data are generally rep- resented in polar coordinate systems and in Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions. A series of three-dimensional depictions of the data is presented in Figure 5. Viewing the data from different perspectives in three-dimen- sions lends significant insight into the geom- etry of the radiation pattern including the main beam and its side lobe structure. A con- tour map of the three-dimensional radiation pattern (Figure 6) shows that the radiation pattern is basically elliptical as expected. The radiation pattern, however, is much more complex than previously suspected, very much resembling a shark’s dorsal fin whose long axis corresponds with the elevation axis of the ra- diation pattern. This “shark fin” feature actu- ally makes sense in terms of the antenna’s original function as one component of the two-element Nike Hercules radar system. The Nike Hercules system utilized two antennas— a 44-ft. antenna (ie., the MRT aperture) moved in azimuth only and was used to illu- minate the target and determine its precise azimuth. A smaller antenna was then pointed to the appropriate azimuth and scanned in the vertical dimension to pinpoint the target's el- evation. It was desirable that the larger anten- na produced a narrow beam in azimuth and a broad beam in elevation, hence its cosecant? cross-section. The radiation pattern measured in this experiment therefore seems very con- sistent with the original design purpose of the MRT aperture. Two basic antenna measurements can be obtained from these data. First, the half-pow- 0 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Mm @ < oD = S = Azimuth Figure 6. diation pattern. er beam width can be determined from the width of the voltage profile at 50% of its max- imum. A peak voltage of 8.18V recorded at azimuth 89° and the width of the curve at half-maximum was found to be 1.035°. This value yields a 13% error from the theoretical HPBW for the major axis, indicating some agreement, especially given that the mea- sited value is expected to be larger than the theoretical value. Unfortunately, given the complex shape of the beam pattern and its extent along the elevation axis, this value is not the only one of importance. Given the quasi-elliptical nature of the beam, the HPBW in elevation may be described along with the beam solid angle. The plewstion HPBW is difficult to measure because of the Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. Contour map of the antenna ra- complex geometry. Taken at exactly the half- voltage maximum, the HPBW is ca. 10°. An inclined plateau, however exists in the ele- vation profile. Taking the width above the profile’s plateau produces a value of ca. 7°, which is in closer agreement with the theo- retical value. Calculating the beam solid an- gle as 4/3(HPBW.,,,;*HPBW,,,,.) gives a value of 7.2 square degrees, not an unreasonable value for this size aperture. Another impor- tant value derived from this project is side- lobe height compared to the main deflection. This is found by the following equation, S adB—10 oe( 5) Radiation Pattern—Malphrus et al. 121 0s 180° | le SS BR ‘5 - == Toe Sap eHees _—— — \ of) oOLC Figure 7. Morehead Radio Telescope, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY. Radiation pattern at 6.0° elevation. where S is the side lobe height and S, is the height of the main deflection. S was measured at 0.18v and S, was found to be 8.18V. This yields a dB of —16.5 (ARRL Handbook). These experimentally-produced values fa- vorably correspond to theoretical and expect- ed values. For a highly directional antenna, which is ideal for radio astronomy applica- tions, the desired side lobe height is somewhat smaller. More significant, however, is the com- plex nature of the radiation pattern. For most astrophysical observations, a circular beam is considered ideal. In reality, however, many ra- dio telescopes produce beams with elliptical geometries. Even synthesized beams pro- duced with interferometry techniques such as the VLA exhibit elliptical geometries when the array points toward objects near the Southern horizon. The fact that the MRT aperture ex- hibits a complex elliptical geometry is there- fore not completely surprising. The significance of the 360° azimuth scan is that the HPBW can be found graphically from a polar plot of the data (Figure 7). The width of the peak at half maximum is related to the HPBW. By using 6 = s*l-', where @ is the HPBW in radians, s is the arc length, and 1 is the distance from the point at half maximum 122 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) to the center of the plot. Analysis of the polar plot produces a width of the curve at half max- imum of 6 = 0.03509 radians, which corre- sponds to a HPBW of 1.08°. This value implies good agreement with both the theoretical and fhe value based on the 3-D pattern. In theory, the two experimental values of the HPBW should be approximately the same. The em- pirical measurements, however, are expected to be greater than the theoretical, which can- not be achieved in reality. Possible variables for the greater empirical value include surface deformations and asymmetries in the reflect- ing surface, and the non-parabolic shape of the telescope. CONCLUSIONS AND PROJECT SIGNIFICANCE The performance characteristics of radio telescopes, specifically antenna gain, minimum detectable flux density, and spatial resolution are critical characteristics that affect the sci- entific results of a given research project. The primary intent in measuring the radiation pat- tern is to gain an invaluable diagnostic tool to determine if the antenna is functioning in a manner in which it was intended. The most important lesson to be learned from this ex- periment is the complex nature of the MRT antenna’s radiation pattern and its exaggerated extent in elevation. Additionally, some of the features such as the inclined plateau and the symmetrical sidelobes, may imply that the electrical focus is not coincident with the an- tenna’s mechanical focus. The inclined plateau in the “shark fin” may represent a coma lobe caused by surface deformations or a de-fo- cused feed. This problem may potentially be ameliorated by the implementation of a trav- eling feed horn and waveguide system, which will allow mechanical alignment of the feed horn with the electrical focus. The same ex- periment can be repeated and the data com- pared in an iterative manner to improve the radiation pattern by empirical determination of the electrical focus. Additional measure- ments can be made to show the improvements that have been made to the telescope (opti- mization of the surface geometry, for example) and will yield new information regarding ad- ditional modifications. Another very important aspect of the radi- ation pattern is that it has implications for im- proving image quality in mapping projects. The antenna receives signals from space that contain information from the astronomical ob- ject convolved with the antenna’s radiation pattern. If the radiation pattern can be mod- eled by computer, it can be subtracted out to obtain very accurate “cleaned” maps of source structure in the astronomical object. The final significance of empirical measure- ments of the radiation pattern is that it rep- resents one of the most important perfor- mance characteristics of the radio telescope system. Two additional important experiments that can be executed are an empirical mea- surement of the antenna temperature and an empirical measurement of the antenna gain. Both of these performance characteristics will also serve as excellent diagnostic tools for the future. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Funding for the MRT was provided by the National Science Foundation’s Instrument and Laboratory Improvement program and by Morehead State University. Funding and as- sistance were provided by Dr. C. J. Whidden, chair of the Department of Physical Sciences, Dr. Gerald DeMoss, dean of the College of Science and Technology, Dr. Michael Moore, vice president of Academic Affairs, Morehead State University. Additionally, we thank Verle Pennington of ULTA-Vision, Mt. Sterling, KY, for allowing us access to an appropriate trans- mission site beyond the far-field limit of the telescope; and Michael Williamson, produc- tion technician, for climbing the ULTA-Vision tower on more than one occasion to mount the transmission antenna. LITERATURE CITED The ARRL Antenna Book. 1998. 18th ed. The American Radio Relay League, Newington, CT. Kraus, J. D. 1986. Radio Astronomy, 2nd ed. Cygnus Qua- sar Publishers, Powell, OH. Kruth, J. 1994. A receiver system for radio astronomy. Kruth Microwave Corporation, Internal Document, Hanover, MD. Malphrus, B. K. 1996. The history of radio astronomy and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory: evolution toward big science. Krieger Publishers, Melbourne, FL. Malphrus, B. K. 1998. The Morehead Radio Telescope: design and fabrication of a research instrument for un- dergraduate faculty and student research in radio fre- quency astrophysics. J. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 59:77-92. Radiation Pattern—Malphrus et al. 123 Malphrus, B. K., R. Brengelman, D. Cutts, and C. Whid- Napier, P. J. 1989. The primary antenna elements. Pages den. 1992. The Morehead Radio Telescope: design and 39-58 in A. Perly et al. (eds). Synthesis imaging in radio fabrication of a research instrument for undergraduate astronomy. Astronomical Society of the Pacific, San faculty and student research in radio frequency astro- Francisco, CA. physics. Grant proposal submitted to the National Sci- ence Foundation. Morehead State Univ., Morehead, KY. j. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):124-126. 1999. NOTE Rare and Extirpated Plants and Animals of Ken- tucky: 1999 Update.—The Kentucky State Nature Pre- serves Commission (KSNPC) published a list of rare and extirpated plants and animals of Kentucky in 1996 (1) that was updated in 1997 (2). The list and update, developed with the assistance of many scientific authorities, were based on distributional and ecological data available as of 31 Dee 1996. KSNPC (1) committed to update the list annually so that decision makers would have current in- formation on rare species in Kentucky, but it was not up- dated in 1998. Herein we provide an update based on data available through 31 Dec 1998. The methods and status categories used herein follow KSNPC (1). Species whose conservation statuses are be- ing changed are given in Table 1; changes in nomenclature and additions to the list are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Common names are used only when there is a nomenclature change from KSNPC (1, 2) and when a species is added to the list. Sources for plant names are Cronquist (3) and Medley (4). Sources for animal names and statuses are as follows: mollusks—Turgeon et al. (5); insects—Arnett (6), Cassie et al. (7), McCafferty (8), and Schuster (9); fishes—Etnier and Starnes (10), and Page and Burr (11); amphibians and reptiles—Carlin (12) and United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (13): and birds—USFWS (14). We welcome questions or com- ments about this update or KSNPC (1, 2). We thank the following individuals for sharing infor- mation and for their assistance: T.C. Barr Jr, Nashville, Tennessee; B.M. Burr, Southern Illinois University at Car- bondale; P.A. Ceas and G.A. Schuster, Eastern Kentucky University; M.C. Compton, Kentucky Division of Water; C.V. Covell Jr., University of Louisville; P.A. Florence, Jef- ferson Community College; J.D. Kiser; L.E. Kornman, K.W. Prather, T. Sloan, S$. Thomas, and T. Wethington, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources; J.R. MacGregor, United States Forest Service; W.P. McCafferty and R.P. Randolph, Purdue University; Lara Minium, The Nature Conservancy; and T.J. Timmons, Murray State University. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1996. Rare and extirpated plants and animals of Kentucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 57: 69-91. (2) Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1997. Rare and extirpated plants and animals of Kentucky: 1997 update. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 58:96-100. (3) Cronquist, A. 1980. Vascular flora of the southeastern United States. Vol. 1. Asteraceae. Univ. North Carolina Table 1. Conservation status changes for rare and extirpated Kentucky plants and animals. Old PLANTS Carex buxbaumii Forestiera ligustrina Juncus elliottii Monarda punctata Myriophyllum pinnatum Silene ovata FISHES Ammocrypta pellucida Clinostomus funduloides Cyprinella camura Etheostoma lynceum Etheostoma parvipinne Etheostoma pyrrhogaster Etheostoma swaini Moxostoma poecilurum Noturus hildebrandi Noturus phaeus REPTILES AAA’ Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta BIRDS Anas discors E Haliaeetus leucocephalus == KSNPC! US? New Old New H = set T oat a H ae =i H = pe: H ab. ie T ni) fs delist — — delist — — E Ex 228 E seu ae E i 1 E ae al E pe, ee E pee ut E at os, E ae ers T ue abe a E AP 'S = Special Concern, T = Threatened, E = Endangered, H = Historic. > PT = Proposed Threatened, T = Threatened, E = Endangered. 124 Notes 125 Table 2. Nomenclature changes for rare and extirpated Table 3. Additions to the list of rare and extirpated Ken- Kentucky plants and animals. Old Name New Name PLANTS Solidago caesia var. curtisii Solidago curtisii SNAILS Anguispira rugoderma Pine Mountain disc Mesodon chilhoweensis Mesodon panselenus Mesodon wetherbyi Triodopsis dentifera Triodopsis multilineata MUSSELS Fusconaia subrotunda subrotunda Long-solid Pegias fabula Little-wing pearlymussel Plethobasus cooperianus Orange-foot pimpleback Pleurobema pyramidatum Toxolasma texasensis INSECTS Madeophylax sp. A caddisfly (undescribed) Pseudanophthalmus abditus Pseudanophthalmus caecus Pseudanophthalmus major Pine Mountain tigersnail Appalachina chilhoweensis Patera panselenus Fumonelix wetherbyi Neohelix dentifera Webbhelix multilineata Longsolid Littlewing pearlymussel Orangefoot pimpleback Pleurobema rubrum Toxolasma texasiensis Manophylax butleri A limnephilid caddisfly P. horni abditus P. horni caecus P. desertus major FISHES Fundulus dispar Northern starhead top- Starhead topminnow minnow AMPHIBIANS \ Eurycea longicauda guttolineata E. guttolineata Press, Chapel Hill, NC. (4) Medley, M.E. 1989. Silphium wasiotense (Asteraceae), a new species from the Appala- chian Plateaus in eastern Kentucky. Sida 13:286—291. (5) Turgeon, D.D., J.F. Quinn, A.E. Bogan, E.V. Coan, F.G. Hochberg, W.G. Lyons, P.M. Mikkelsen, R.J. Neves, C.F.E. Roper, G. Rosenberg, B. Roth, A. Scheltema, F.G. Thompson, M. Vecchione, and J.D. Williams. 1998. Com- mon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the United States and Canada: mollusks. 2nd ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 26. (6) Arnett, R.H., Jr. (ed). 1983. Checklist of the beetles of North and Central America and the West Indies. Flora and Fauna Publications, Gaines- ville, FL. (7) Cassie, B., J. Glassberg, P. Opler, R. Robbins, and G. Tudor. 1995. North American Butterfly Association (NABA) checklist and English names of North American butterflies. North American Butterfly Association, Morris- town, NJ. (8) McCafferty, W.P. 1996. The Ephemeroptera tucky plants and animals. KSNPC! US PLANTS Agalinis auriculata E = Earleaf foxglove Aster radula E _ Low rough aster Bouteloua curtipendula S — Side-oats grama Krigia occidentalis E — Western dwarf dandelion Silphium pinnatifidum S — Tansy rosinweed Silphium wasiotense S = Appalachian rosinweed Vaccinium erythrocarpum EK — Highbush cranberry INSECTS Callophrys irus S — Frosted elfin Ephemerella inconstans H = An ephemerellid mayfly Euphyes dukesi S = Duke's skipper Erora laeta Early hairstreak Polygonia faunus Green comma Polygonia progne Gray comma Raptoheptagenia cruentata A heptageniid mayfly Traverella lewisi A leptophlebiid mayfly BIRDS Anas clypeata E = Norther shoveler he | !'§ = Special Concer, E = Endangered, H = Historic. species of North America and index to their complete no- menclature. Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 122:1-54. (9) Schuster, G.A. 1997. Description of a new species of ter- restrial limnephilid caddisfly (Trichoptera) from Kentucky and West Virginia (USA). Pages 417-424 in R.W. Holzen- thal and O.S. Flint Jr. (eds). Proceedings of the 8th In- ternational Symposium on Trichoptera, 1995. Ohio Bio- logical Survey, Columbus, OH. (10) Etnier, D.A., and W.C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. University Press, Knoxville, TN. (11) Page, L.M., and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. (12) Carlin, J.L. 1997. Genetic and morphological differentia- tion between Eurycea longicauda longicauda and E. gut- tolineata (Caudata: Plethodontidae). Herpetologica 53: 906-217. (13) United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; de- 126 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) termination of threatened status for the northern popu- to reclassify the bald eagle from endangered to threatened lation of the copperbelly water snake. Fed. Reg. 62:4183- __ in all of the lower 48 states. Fed. Reg. 60:36000-—36010.— 4192. (14) United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. | Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, 801 Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; final rule | Schenkel Lane, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601. List of Reviewers for Volume 60 of Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science Charles T. Bryson Michael A. Flannery A. A. Reznicek David M. Brandenburg Stanley Hedeen Gary Ritchison Michael Carini Edmund D. Keiser Patrick Schultheis Ronald R. Cicerello Michael J. Lacki James Sickel Wallace Dawson James O. Luken William T. Smith Kenneth Embry Debra K. Pearce Richard Snow Richard Feist Thomas C. Rambo Richard White J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 60(2):127-132. 1999. INDEX TO VOLUME 60 Compiled by Varley Wiedeman 92-kDa type IV collagenase, expres- sion of, 52 92-kDa type IV collagenase, in met- astatic neuroblastoma, 52 ws poly(A) site, 52 ABEL, VERDIE J., 31 Abstracts from 1998 Meeting, 50-63 Acer rubrum, 79 Aconite, 26 Aconitum napellus, 26 Actinonaias ligamentina, 67, 69, 70 African American foods, taste panel acceptance of modified, 58 African Americans, breakfast con- sumption of, 59 African Americans, diet quality of, 59 Agalinis auriculata, 125 Ageratina altissima, 51 influence of temperature on dor- mancy, 51 influence of temperature on seed germination, 51 Agricultural Sciences, 50-51 Agrostis spp., 50 Alasmidonta marginata, 70 Alburnus alburnus, 111 Alder, 34 Alnus, 34 Amblema plicata, 70 American Almanac, 16 American beech, 10 American crow, 81 American goldfinch, 81 American Medical Botany, 18 American robin, 81, 82 American sycamore, 10 American wocdcock, 31—36 nest selection, 31-36 roost site selection, 31—36 Ammocrypta pellucida, 124 Ana discors, 124 Anas clypeata, 125 ANDERSON, KIMBERLY W., 56 Anguispira rugoderma, 125 Antenna radiation pattern, 113-123 Antigen in the eye, 54 ANTONIOUS, GEORGE F., 50 Aplodinotus grunniens, 109, 110 Appalachian rosinweed, 125 Appalachina chilhoweensis, 125 Arabidopsis, 53 cloning senescence associated genes, 53 identifying senescence associated genes, 53 senescence associated genes freom, 53 Arabidopsis thaliana, 54 oxylipin experimentation, 54 with an inducible suppression of allene oxide synthase, 54 Asimina triloba, 50, 51 Aspen, 34 Aster radula, 125 Aster, low rough, 125 Asthma, hospital admissions for, 73— a in south central Kentucky, 73-77 meteorological relationships, 73— Tah pollution relationships, 73-77 B cell lymphoma, expression of MHC class II genes in, 57 BADGETT, TOM C., 54 BARKSDALE, JAMES B., JR., 60 Barton, Benjamin Smith, 16 Barton, Dr. Christine K., 47 Bartram, John, 16 Bass, smallmouth, 110 Bat, big brown, 9, 10 little brown, 9, 10 » northern,9-11 Rafinesque’s big-eared, 9, 12 red, 9, 10 Virginia big-eared, 9, 12 Bats, 9-14 Beach, Wooster, 21 BEATTIE, RUTH E., 61 Beech, American, 10 Bentgrass, as golf course fairways, 50 at lower nitrogen input, 50 Berman, Alex, 25 Betula lenta, 10 Big brown bat, 9, 10 Bigelow, Jacob, 18 BINGHAM, GINA L.., 52 Birch, sweet, 10 Bivalva, 67-72 Black oak, 10 Black Samson, 25 Black walnut, 10 Black-and-white warbler, 81 Black-throated green warbler, 81 Blackburn, Luke Pryor, M.D., 87— 93 Blackgum, 79 127 Blackside darter, 94-107 Blackside darter, geographic varia- tion in, 94-107 in the Ohio River Drainage of Kentucky, 94-107 BLANCH, VINCENT, 56 BLANK, SARAH M., 60, 63 Bleak, 111 Blue catfish, 4-8 Blue jay, 81 Blue-gray gnatcatcher, 81 Blue-winged warbler, 81 Bone mineral content, effects of soy protein on, 59 effects of soy protein on, 59 Bone resorption, 61 direct measurement of, 61 in hypertensive rats, 61 in normotensive rats, 61 utilizing [SH]-tetracycline, 61 Book Review, 45 BORUSKE, V., 60, 61 Botany and Microbiology, 51 Botany, medical, in Kentucky, 15-30 Bouteloua curtipendula, 125 Brachycentridae, 2 Breast cancer cell adhesion, 56 effect of TNF-a and shear stress stimuli on, 56 TNF alpha, 56 Brown, Samuel, 17 Brown-headed cowbird, 81, 82 BRUCE, SHIRLEY R., 52 Bryonia, 26 dioica, 26 BRYSON, J. SCOTT, 57 Bubo virginianus, 35 Bunting, indigo, 80, 81 Caddisfly, 125 Caddisfly, from Kentucky, 1-3 limnephilid, 125 Caldwell, Charles, 17 Callophrys irus, 125 Cape May warbler, 81 Cardinal, northern, 81 Carex amphibola, 39, 41 amphibola var. amphibola, 41 amphibola var. rigida, 37, 41 bulbostylis, 39, 41, 42 buxbaumii, 124 corrugata, 39, 41 edwardsiana, 39, 41, 42 godfreyi, 39, 41 grisea, 39 grisea var. rigida, 37 oligocarpa, 39, 41, 42 ouachitana, 39 planispicata, new species, 37-44 128 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) section Griseae, 37-44 Carolina chickadee, 80, 81 Carolina wren, 81 CARTER, J., 60, 61 CARY, KEVIN B., 58 Carya glabra, 79 sp., LO tomentosa, 79 Catfish, blue, 4-8 Cedar waxwing, 81 Cellular and Molecular Biology, 52 Ceraclea diluta, 1, 2 ophioderus, 1, 2 Cerulean warbler, 81 Channel catfish, 4 Chat, yellow-breasted, $1, 82 Chestnut-sided warbler, 81 Chickadee, Carolina, 80, 81 Chipping sparrow, $1, 82 Chiroptera, 9-14 Chubs, 110 Cimicifuga racemosa, 26 Clapp, Asahel, 18, 25 CLARK, LORI, 52 CLARK, TIM, 63 Clinostomus funculoides, 124 COLE, SARA, 53 Collections For an Essay Towards a Meteria Medica of the United States, 16 College students, study-learning habits of, 62 COMBS, MICHAEL S., 113 Comma gray, 125 green, 125 Common yellowthroat, 81, 82 Coneflower, purple, 23 Constructed wetland research pro- ject, 50 COOPER, ROBIN L.., 55 Corbicula fluminea, 67-69 Cornus, 34 florida, 79 Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 9 spp-, 12 townsendii virginianus, 9 COTHRAN, E. GUS, 53 Cowan, David, 26 Cowbird, brown-headed, 81, 82 Cowen, David, 16 Cranberry, highbush, 125 Crataegus, 34 Crayfish neuromuscular junction, 55 Critical Reading Guides, 61 enhancing student through, 61 Crow, American, 81 Cuckoo, yellow-billed, 81 CULLEN, KATHERINE E., 55 Curtis, Alva, 21 learning Cyclonaias tuberculata, 70 Cyperaceae, 37-44 Cyprinella camura, 124 spiloptera, 108, 109 Dandelion, western dwarf, 125 Dark-eyed junco, $1 Darter, blackside, 94—107 geographic variation in, 94-107 in the Ohio River Drainage of Kentucky, 94-107 DAVIDSON, JEFFREY N., 55 DAVIS, FRANKIE, 52 DeMOSS, D. L., 61 Dendroica discolor, 80 pinus, 50 DERTING, TERRY L., 63 Diet quality of school age Ameri- cans, 58 Dihydroorotase, hamster, 55 Disc, Pine Mountain, 125 Distinguished Scientist Award, 46— 49 Dogwood, 34 flowering, 79 Dorosoma cepedianum, 108-110 DOTSON, PETE, 50 Dove, mourning, 81 DOYON, JOSHUA, 53 Drake, Daniel, 16 Dryocopus pileatus, 80 Dudley, Benjamin, 17 Duke’s skipper, 125 Dunglison, Robley, 15- Dwarf dandelion, western, 125 Earleaf foxglove, 125 Early hairstreak, 125 Eastern hemlock, 10 Eastern pipistrelle, 9, 10 Eastern red-cedar, 35 Eastern wood pewee, 81 Eastern woodrat, 11 Echinacea, 26 angustifolia, 23, 25, 26 purpurea, Da 2A. Edible roots, modification by soil colored covers, 50, 51 Ehrlich, Paul, 26 Elfin, frosted, 125 IDILILACOM MI (Ge tats} Elliptio dilatata, 67, 69, 70 Ephemerella inconstans, 125 Ephemerellid mayfly, 125 Eptesicus fuscus, 9, 10 Erora laeta, 125 Esox masquinongy, 60 Etheostoma blennioides, 109 flabellare, 109 lynceum, 124 nianguae, 105 nigrum nigrum, L105 nigrum susanae, 104, 105 parvipinne, 124 pyrrhogaster, 124 sagitta, 105 sagitta sagitta, 104 spp., 110 swaini, 124 Eupatorium rugosum, 51 Euphyes dukesi, 125 Eurycea guttolineata, 125 longicanda guttolineata, 125 longicauda longicauda, 125 Extirpated animals of Kentucky, 124-126 Extirpated plants of Kentucky, 124— 126 Fagus grandifolia, 10 Familial abuse, by adult Appala- chian students, 62 experience of, 62 Fathead minnow, 60 FERSTL, BRADLEY L., 63 Fishes small riverine, 108-112 diel movements of, 108-112 in the Ohio River, 108-112 predator presence on diel move- ments, 108-112 FLANNERY, MICHAEL A., 15 Flexner, Abraham, 26 Flicker, northern, 81 Flowering dogwood, 79 Forestiera ligustrina, 124 FOWLER, CAROL, 52 Foxglove, earleaf, 125 FRASER, D. G., 53 FRITZ, D., 60 Frosted elfin, 125 FUKUSHIGE, HIRO, 54 Fuller, G. T., 23 Fumonelix wetherbyi, 125 Fundulus dispar, 125 Fusconaia flava, 70 subrotunda subrotunda, 125 GAN, SUSHENG, 53 Gelsemium, 26 sempervirens, 26 Geography, 58 Geothlypis trichas, 82 GIESKE, KATIE, 53 Gnatcatcher, blue-gray, $1 Goldenseal, 23, 24 Goldfinch, American, 81 Grama, side-oats, 125 Gray comma, 125 Great horned owls, 35 Green warbler, black-throated, 81 Green comma, 125 GREEN, ANTHONY, 53 GRIESER, ERIC, 54 Griffith, R. Eglesfeld, 18 Grosbeak, rose-breasted, 81 Guetig, Mr. Richard G., 48 Guidelines for contributors, 64—65 Hair woodpecker, 81 Hairstreak, early, 125 Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 124 Haller, John, Jr., 19 Hamster dihydroorotase, 55 HARRISON, DOUG, 53 HARTMAN, D., 60, 61 Hatching enzymes, isolation of, 60 Hawthorn, 34 Health Sciences, 58 Heat shock factor 1, 55 Hemlock, eastern, 10 HEMPEN, PAULA, 56 Heptageniid mayfly, 125 HEYWOOD, ELIZABETH B., 54 Hickories, tight-barked, 79 Hickory, 10 Highbush cranberry, 125 HILDEBRAND, DAVID, 54 HINES, MARTINA, 78 Histocompatability complex of the horse, 53 gene linkage within, 53 Holley, Horace, 17 HONG, YILING, 55 Hooded warbler, 80-82 Hormone sensitive genes, 54 5 nested delections of promoters of, 54 Hormone sensitive genes, cell line transfection assay, 54 HOUP, RONALD E., 1 Human auditory system, computer modeling of, 61 HURST, B., 60, 61 HUTCHINSON, JEFFREY T., 9 Hydrastis canadensis, 23 Hydropsyche aerata, 1, 2 bidens, 1, 2 cuanis, 1, 2 patera, 1, 2 rossi, l, 2 Hydropsychidae, 2 Hydroptila talladega, 1, 2 waskesia, 1, 2 Hydroptilidae, 2 Hyla chrysocelis 63 hypoxia as a stimulant for hatch- ing, 63 Ictalurus furcatus, 4-8 punctatus, 4 Imlay, Gilbert, 15 Indigo bunting, 80, 81 Index to Volume 60 JAK and STAT homologues, 53 in Drosophila, 53 Jay, blue, 81 John Uri Lloyd: The Great Ameri- can Eclectic, 45 JONE GRACE, 54 JONES, SNAKE C., 50, 51 Juglans nigra, 10 Junco, dark-eyed, 81 Juncus elliottii, 124 Juniperus virginiana, 35 JUST, JOHN J., 60, 63 KAETZEL, CHARLOTTE, 56 KEITH, LARISA, 73 Kelly, Howard, 15 Kent, Donald, 26 Kentucky Academy of Science Res- olution, 14 Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, 124 Kentucky warbler, 81 KESSLER, RICHARD K., 108 King, John, 25 Knorr, Ludwig, 26 Kolbe, Hermann, 26 Krigia occidentalis, 125 KRUTH, JEFF, 113 LACKI, MICHAEL J., 9 Lampsilis cardium, 70 LARSEN, JENNI, 54 Lasiurus borealis, 9, 10 Lasmigona complanata, 70 costata, 70 LAU, JOANN M., 51 LAYNE, DESMOND R., 51 BAYNE, TRACEY, 54 LEE, C. J., 58, 59 LEMAN, EDDY S., 56 Leptoceridae, 2 Leptophlebiid mayfly, 125 Leucotrichia pictipes, 1, 2 LEWIS, CHAD, 63 Licking River, freshwater unionid community in, 67-72 LILLAR, RANDOLPH P., 113 Limnephilid caddisfly, 125 Liriodendron tulipifera, 10 LISTERMAN, LAURA R., 55 Little brown bat, 9, 10 Little-wing pearlymussel, 125 Littlewing pearlymussel, 125 LIU, HAIBO, 50 LIVINGSTON, TRACY E., 63 Lloyd, John Uni, 24, 25 Long-solid, 125 Longsolid, 125 Loomis, D. Alden, 23 Low rough aster, 125 Lung cancer, 57 role of the aryl hydrocarbon re- ceptor in, 57 129 Macrotys, 26 Madeophylas sp., 125 Magnolia warbler, 81 MALPHRUS, BENJAMIN K., 113 MANAK, M., 60, 61 Manophylax butleri, 125 Maple, red, 79 MARLETTE, MARTHA, 58 Materia Medica Americana, 16 Materia Medica of the United States, 18 Mathematics, 60 Mayfly ephemerellid, 125 heptageniid, 125 leptophlebiid, 125 MAZLOOMDOOST, DONNA, 55 McCONNELL, W. SCOTT, 55 McMURRAY, STEPHEN E., 67 Medical botany in Kentucky, 15-30 Description of the More Impor- tant Plants Used in Medicine, 18 Medical Education in the United States and Canada, 26 Medical Flora, or, Manual of Med- ical Botany of the United States of North America, 22 Megalonaias nervosa, 70 Mesodon chilhoweensis, 125 panselenus, 125 wetherbyi, 125 Meyer, H. C. F., 23, 94 mHSF1, 55 Micrasema charonis, 1, 2 Micropterus dolimieui, 109 salmoides, 109 spp., 108-110 MIMS, STEPHEN D., 59 Minnow, fathead, 60 MITCHELL, WENTZEL, 58 Molanna blenda, 1, 2 Molannidae, 2 Mollusca, 67-72 Molothrus ater, 82 Monarda punctata, 124 MOORE, KENYARI L., 50 MOORMAN, KENNETH, 61 Morehead Radio Telescope, 113— 123 Morrow, Thomas Vaughan, 21 Mourning dove, 81 Mouse, white-footed, 11, 63 Moxostoma poecilurum, 124 Muskie, 60 Myotis lucifugus, 9, 10 septentrionalis, 9, 10 spp., 12 Myriophyllum pinnatum, 124 NACZI, ROBERT F. C., 37 National Formulary, 16, 25 130 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Neohelix dentifera, 125 Neotoma magister, 11 Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta, 124 Neuromodulators, effects of on syn- aptic transmission, 55 Neurospora crassa, 54 developmentally regulated pro- teins in, 54 mating type proteins in, 54 New Guide to Health, or, Botanic family Physician, 19 Newton, Robert, 25 Nocomus bigutattus, 110 Non-traditional students, 62 Northern bat, 9-11 Northern cardinal, 81 Northern flicker, 81 Northern shoveler, 125 Northern starhead topminnow, 125 NOTE, 124-126 Notropis atherinoides, 108-110 Noturus hildebrandi, 124 phaeus, 124 Nuthatch, white-breasted, 80, 81 Nyssa sylvatica, 79 Oak black, 10 scarlet, 10 white, 10 Oaks, 79 Obliquaria reflexa, 70 Ochrotrichia arva, 1, 2 eliaga, 1, 2 riesi, 1, 2 Oecetis scala, 1, 2 Orange-foot pimpleback, 125 Orangefoot pimpleback, 125 Orthopedic biomaterials, 53 collagen deposited on, 53 release of biomolecules on, 53 retention of biomolecules on, 53 Outstanding Teacher Award, 46-49 Ovariectomized rats, 59 effect of energy restriction on bone mineral content, 59 effect of energy restriction on bone mineral density, 59 effect of exercise on bone mineral content, 59 effect of exercise on bone mineral density, 59 Ovenbird, 80, 81 Oxydendrum arboreum, 79 Paddlefish, 59 effect of marination time on salt content, 59 effects of thickness on salt con- tent, 59 salt content of, 59 PAGE, LAWRENCE M., 94 PALOMBI, PEGGY SHADDUCK, 61 Parus carolinensis, 80 Passerina cyanea, 80 Patera panselenus, 125 Pawpaw, 50, 51 as a new commercial tree fruit crop, 51 regional variety trial, 51 shading affects growth and devel- opment, 51 Pearlymussel littlewing, 125 Pedestrian fatalities in the United States, 58 Pegias fabula, 125 Peptide, vasodilatory, 52 from the salivary glands of lice, 52 Percidae, 94-107 Percina caprodes, 109 maculata, 94-107 geographic variation in, 94-107 in the Ohio River Drainage of Kentucky, 94-107 shumardi, 109 spp-. 108-110 subg. Alvordius, 104 Peromyscus leucopus, 11, 63 food selection of, 63 PETERSON, MARTHA, 52 PETERSON, R. NEAL, 51 Pewee, eastern wood, 81 PHILLIPS, KEM, 56 Phoxinus cumberlandensis, 104 oreas, 104 tenneseensis, 104 Phyacophia vibox, 1, 2 Physiology and Biochemistry, 60 Picoides borealis, 78—86 Pileated woodpecker, 80, $1 Pimephales promelas, 60 Pimpleback, orange-foot, 125 Pine Mountain disc, 125 Pine Mountain tigersnail, 125 Pine warbler, 80, 81 Pine, pitch, 10, 79 Pine shortleaf, 10, 79 Virginia, 35, 79 Pinus echinata, 10, 79 rigida, 10, 79 virginiana, 35, 79 Pipilo erythalmus, 80 Pipistrelle, eastern, 9, 10 Pipistrellus subflavus, 9, 10 Piranga olivacea, 80 Pitch pine, 10, 79 Platanus occidentalis, 10 Plethobasus cooperianus, 125 Pleurobema pyramidatum, 125 rubrum, 125 Polycentropodidae, 2 Polycentropus neiswanderi, 1, 2 Polyethylene soil colored covers, 50, 51 Polygonia faunus, 125 progne, 125 Polymeric immunoglobulin recep- tor, regulation of, 56 POMPER, KIRK W., 50, 51 Populus, 34 Potamilus alatus, 70 Prairie warbler, 80-82 Prostate cancer cells, 60 Prostate cancer cells, cysteine pro- teinases in, 60 inhibitors in, 60 Prostate cells, 61 interaction of estrogens with Ta- moxifen, 61 growth inhibition of human, 61 Pseudanophthalmus abditus, 125 caecus, 125 desertus major, 125 horni abditus, 125 horni caecus, 125 major, 125 Psophia leucoptera, evolution of co- operative polyandry in, 63 Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 70 PULEO, DAVID A., 53 Purple coneflower, 23, 25 Pythagorean theorem, unconven- tional versions of, 60 Quadrula metanevra, 70 nodulata, 70 pustulosa, 70 quadrula, 70 Quercus alba, 10, 79 coccinea, 10, 79 falcata, 79 montana, 79 velutina, 10, 79 Rafinesque’s big-eared bat, 9, 12 Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel, DOOR RAMEY, BARBARA A., 67 Raptoheptagenia cruentata, 125 Rare animals of Kentucky, 124-126 Rare plant of Kentucky, 124-126 Red bat, 9, 10 Red maple, 79 Red-bellied woodpecker, 81 Red-cedar, eastern, 35 Red-cockaded woodpecker, $1 Red-eyed vireo, 80, 81 Red-headed woodpecker, 81 REED, EDDIE B., 51 REES, P., 60, 61 Resolution, Kentucky Academy of Science, 14 Rhododendron maximum, 10 Rhyacophilidae, 2 RICE, ALIZHA, 56 RICE, DAVID, 61 Riddell, John, 25 RITCHISON, GARY, 31 RIZZO, JAMES, 55 Roach, 111 Robin, American, 81, 82 ROBINSON, DAVID L., 51 ROCK, MICHAEL, 57 Rose-breasted grosbeak, 81 Rosinweed Appalachian, 125 tansy, 125 ROSZMAN, THOMAS, 57 Rough aster, low, 125 Rudbeckia purpurea, 23, 25, 26 Rudd, 111 RUDOLPH, JACK, 50 Rufous-sided towhee, 80, 81 Rush, Benjamin, 17 Rutilus rutilus, 111 Samson, black, 25 SANDOVAL, KATRINA, 56 SARGE, KEVIN D., 55 Scardinius erythrophtalamus, 111 Scarlet oak, 10 Scarlet tanager, 80, 81 Schépf, Johann David, 16 SCHUSTER, GUENTER A., 67 Science Education, 61 Scientists of Kentucky, 87-93 Scolopax minor, 31 SEGELEON, PATRICK, 56 Seiurus aurocapillus, 80 SHERMAN, PETER T., 63 SHIBER, JOHN G., 62 SHIYANBADE, MARIAN, 59 Short, Charles Wilkins, 17, 21 Shortia, 17 Shortleaf pine, 10, 79 Shoveler, northern, 125 SHUCKMAN. L., 59 SHULTS, RUTH A., 58 Side-oats grama, 125 Silene ovata, 124 Silphium pinnatifidum, 125 wasiotense, 125 Sitta carolinensis, 80 Skipper, Duke's, 125 Smallmouth bass, 110 SMITH, CHERICE P., 56 Sociology, 62 Solidago caesia var. curtisii, 125 curtisii, 125 Sourwood, 79 Sparrow, chipping, 81, 82 Index to Volume 60 Spizella passerina, 82 STABEN, CHUCK, 54 Stactobiella martynovi, 1, 2 Starhead topminnow, 125 northerm, 125 STEINBERG, RALPH, 94 STILES, GEORGE, 50 Stizostedion vitreum, 60 STRALEY, SUSAN, 55 Study-learning habits, 62 STUMBO, JESSICA, 57 Summer tanager, 81 SUMMERS, MELISSA A., 56 SUN, QIWEIN, 59 Sutton, William Loftus, 25 SWANSON, HOLLIE, 57 Sweet birch, 10 Sycamore, American, 10 Synaptic transmission, effects of neuromodulators on, 55 Synopsis, or, Systematic Catalogue of the Medicinal Plants of the United States, 18 T-cells, role of calpain in integrin signaling in, 57 Tanager scarlet, 80, 81 summer, 81 Tansy rosinweed, 125 Taylor, George, 23 Teleostei, 94—107 Telescope Morehead radio, 113-123 radio, 113-123 radio, antenna radiation pattern, 113-123 Temperature, as a function of ele- ‘vation and latitude in Kentucky, 58 TEMPLETON, SUSAN, 58, 59 Thompson, Samuel, 19, 20 Thrush, wood, 81 Tigersnail, Pine Mountain, 125 Tight-barked hickories, 79 Titmouse, tufted, 81 TIU, LAURA G., 4 Topminnow starhead, 125 northerm, 125 Towhee, rufous-sided, 80, 81 Toxolasma texasensis, 125 TRAPASSO, L. MICHAEL, 73 Traverella lewisi, 125 Tree frog, hypoxia as a stimulant for hatching, 63 Triaenodes perna, 1, 2 Trichoplusia ni., 54 Trichoptera, from Kentucky, 1—3 Triodopsis dentifera, 125 multilineata, 125 Tritogonia verrucosa, 70 131 Trumpters, white-winged, 63 evolution of cooperative polyan- dry in, 63 Tsuga canadensis, 10 Tufted titmouse, 81 Tumor cell growth, 56 inhibition of by suppression of eIF4E function, 56 Turdus migratorius, 82 Turkey, wild, 81 TURNER, TERRIH, 51 Tyler, Varro E., 27 Unionid community, 67-72 possible decline in reproduction in, 67-72 United States Dispensatory, 16 United States Pharmacopeia, 16, 25 Vaccinium erythrocarpum, 125 Vasodilatory peptide, 52 from the salivary glands of lice, 52 Vegetable Materia Medica of the United States, 18 VENUGOPAL, NITHYA, 57 Vireo olivaceus, 80 red-eyed, 80, 81 yellow-throated, 81 Virginia big-eared bat, 9, 12 Virginia pine, 35, 79 Vourvopoulos, Dr. George, 46 Walleye, 60 WALLS, MICHAEL, 57 Walnut, black, 10 WANG, CHANGZHENG, 59 Warbler black-and-white, 81 black-throated green, 81 blue-winged, 81 Cape May, 81 cerulean, 81 chestnut-sided, 81 hooded, 80-82 Kentucky, 81 magnolia, 81 pine, 80, 81 prairie, 80-82 worm-eating, 81 yellow, 81 yellow-throated, $1 Waxwing, cedar, 81 WEAVER, JEFF D., 60 Web site concerning pawpaw, 50 Webbhelix multilineata, 125 WEBSTER, CARL D., 4 Western dwarf dandelion, 125 White oak, 10 White-breasted nuthatch, 80, 81 White-footed mouse, 11, 63 White-winged trumpeters, the evo- lution of cooperative polyandry in, 63 Wild turkey, 81 132 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 60(2) Wilsonia citrina, 80 WOLEF, P., 60, 61 Wood pewee, eastern, 51 Wood thrush, 81 Woodcock, American, 31—36 nest selection, 31-36 roost site selection, 31-36 Woodpecker hairy, 81 pileated, 80, 81 red-bellied, 81 red-cockaded, 78—86 and breeding bird communities, 78—S6 managing, 75—S6 of pine-oak forests, 75-86 red-headed, 81 Woodrat, eastern, 11 WOODWARD, JEROLD, 54 Worm-eating warbler, 51 Wren, Carolina, 81 WRIGHT, G. L., 61 Yandell, Lunsford P., 17 YANG, JUNHAU, 57 Yeast two hybrid screening, 55 Yellow warbler, 81 Yellow-billed cuckoo, $1 Yellow-breasted chat, 81, 82 Yellow-poplar, 10 Yellow-throated vireo, 81 Yellow-throated warbler, 81 Yellowthroat, common, 81, 82 Yersinia pestis, 55, 56 invasion of nonphagocytic cells by, 55 YORKEY, CHRIS, 54 ZHANG, YI, 59 ZIMMER, STEPHEN, 56 Zollickoffer, William, 18 Zoology and Entomology, 63 NEWS John Uri Lloyd: The Great American Eclectic, by Michael A. Flannery, has just been published. A hard- cover book of 234 pages, this biography covers the life of an adopted son of Kentucky who rose from humble origins in Florence, Boone County, to become a pharmaceutical manufacturer and researcher of international renown. In addition, Lloyd was the leading founder of the Cincinnati-based library of botany, horticulture, and pharmacognosy that bears his name. The book, fully indexed, includes five appendices and 14 pages of illustrations. It is available from Southern Illinois University Press, P.O. Box 3697, Carbondale, IL 62902: ISBN 0-8093-2167-X; price $34.95 plus $3.50 shipping. Phone orders: (618) 453-2281. vA 3 9088 01304 3385 CONTENTS ARTICLES Possible Decline in Reproduction in a Freshwater Unionid (Mollusca: Bi- valvia) Community in the Licking River at Butler, Kentucky. Stephen E. McMurray, Guenter A. Schuster,and Barbara A. Ramey .................04++ 67 Relationships between Selected Meteorological/Pollution Parameters and Hospital Admissions for Asthma in South Central Kentucky. L. Michael Trapasso and Lariad Keith iiss. iiecidccsdasccnscadepinideshncesaqeeedcatheacanccanantane 73 Managing Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) Affects Breed- ing-Bird Communities of Pine-Oak Forests in Southeastern Kentucky. Martiina: FHIm@s i ciiciccccconssschatecncvanl cvnesecueuatandadtedessaddeeatexdiat-aecanar aaa 78 Scientists of Kentucky Luke Pryor Blackburn, M.D.: Kentucky’s Good Samaritan Governor. Nancy Disher: Bait osc. ies catndcdgecssveninns cvavdesaanaontagweecsvedeshiaebeet satin 87 Geographic Variation in the Blackside Darter, Percina maculata (Teleos- tei, Percidae), in the Ohio River Drainage of Kentucky. Ralph Steinberg and Lawrence ‘M: Page 2.03 .cccnicederentiockdincbestenuatanasansedgadontice aahasny nanan 94 Potential Influence of Predator Presence on Diel Movements of Small Riv- erine Fishes in the Ohio River, Kentucky. Richard K. Kessler ................ 108 Empirical Measurements of the Antenna Radiation Pattern of the Morehead Radio Telescope. Benjamin K. Malphrus, Michael S. Combs, Randolph P: Lilard;.and Jeff Kratyi. ios. sccccvewssaccadccavascewatens cansvendee sees tesa 113 NOTE Rare and Extirpated Plants and Animals of Kentucky: 1999 Update. Ken- tucky State Nature Preserves COMMISSION ...........c.seceeceeeecessceescaccceees 124 List of Reviewers for Volume 60) .........ccscneccccgesavesosccscocsebecs suescantandenshuauken 126 Indéx: to: Voletiie’ GO. cc iccodeccc cscs ccsacece bse vbaseegecuaghs ands wcaceweml dus tenants tae mma 127 bis eed