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THE

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OF

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Pow &
{ 1 ar

ZOOLOGY. |
Oeg>
ee Ve ee
\% wes
VOL. XIII. Ke ¥ ip
Ny, ¢ Cy,
| LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE,
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1878.

Dates of Publication of the several Numbers included in this Volume.

No. 65,
» 66,
» 97,
», 68,
» 69,
» 40,
» “1,
> 02,

pp. 1-46, was published September 19, 1876.

» 47-109,
,, 110-185,
, 185-260,
, 261-334,
» 335-384,
., 385-457,
» 457-530,

December 15, ,,
February 28, 1877.
June 5, 3
June 20, 3
August 20, a
September 25, _,,
February 27, 1878.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STRBET.

LIST OF PAPERS.

Auiman, Professor, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., &e.
The Anniversary Address of the President for 1876.—Recent
Researches among some of the more simple Sarcode Organ-
Bertisec Guy itt LO ood Cubs.) crt akonate iY twit ile nurs S elegans

The Anniversary Address of the President for 1877.—Recent
Researches among some of the more simple Sarcode Organ-
isms. (Second Notice.) (With 17 woodcuts.)............

AnpDERSON, Dr. Joun, F.L.S. &c., Curator of Indian Museum, Cal-

cutta.
On the Habits of Hornbills, being extract of a Letter to Dr. J.
Murtes ces si tal ate SUA a a ge eer i IRR Ro Ia ere

Baty, JosEPH, S., Esq., M.R.C.S., F.L.S., &e.
Descriptions of Genera and Species of Australian Phytophagous
HS Sep leary termes Seer semitone ene ev ohana a ata ANet«P- st areth aan enctare aay ae

Buriter, Artuur G., F.L.S., F.Z.8., &c., Senior Assistant in the
Zoological Department, British Museum.
Descriptions of two new Lepidopterous Insects from Malacca..
On new Species of the Genus Huptychia, with a tabular view
of those hitherto recorded. (Plate XII.) ...............:
The Butterflies of Malacca. (Abstract.)...........

CARPENTER, P. HERBERT, B.A., Biological Master at Eton College.
On the Genus Actinometra, Mill., with a Morphological Ac-
count of a new Species (4. polymorpha) from the Philippine
stands aC Mos tracts) > ict eed palePe Curasak wc nol osie a eae

CxiaRrke, The Rey. Ropert, F.LS., and Prof. Sr.-GzoreE Mivarr,
Secretary of the Linnean Society.

Page

261

440

On the Sacral Plexus and Sacral Vertebree of Lizards. ( Abstract.) 370

iv
Page
CoBBoxp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Correspondent of the
Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia.
Trematode Parasites from the Dolphins of the Ganges, Plata-
nista gangetica and Orcella brevirostris. (Plate X. and wood-
(It Pe SSG o.c c's 9 5 <6 OS ean Rene CP rites 3 Sint c 30
CoLuLETT, Ropert, Esq., Conservator, University Museum, Chris-
tiania, C.M.Z.8., &e.

On: Diyodes lemmuisHmNOEWway eats. «ss. cuss oo nemo 527
Crotcu, W. Duppa, Esq., M.A., F.L.S.

On the Migration and Habits of the Norwegian Lemming .... 27

Additional Note relative to the Norwegian Lemming........ 83

Further Remarks on the Lemming. (Plate XIII.).......... 157
Day, Francis, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &e. |

On some Irish Gasterostei. (With a woodcut.) ............ 110

Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes :—
Part I. The Acanthopterygii, Spiny-rayed Te' PpSIeRD Fishes. 138

art 00, Che Silumideas G2. xokavstd.ereietal etl eet ete et alllnh a alec 388
On Amphibious and Migratory Fishes of Asia. cwith a wood-
GU Yoder SRG OtB ches cae coren en Grace Aaa oben into a id aA Ne Ca coo 198

Doran, ALBAN H. G., F.R.C.S.
Morphology of the Mammalian Osstcula auditis. (Abstract.).. 185

ErHeripGEe, Ropert, Jun., F.G.S., and Prof. Nrcnouison, M.D.,
D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.
Notes on the Genus <Alveolites, Lamarck, and on some allied
Forms of Paleozoic Corals. (Plates XIX. and XX.)...... 353

GintHeEr, Dr. A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the Zoological Depart-
ment, British Museum.
Notice of two large Extinct Lizards, formerly inhabiting the
Mascarene Islands. (With 6 woodcuts.) ................ 322

Lussock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.RS., F.LS., D.C.L., Vice-Chan-
cellor of the University of London.
Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wasps.—Part
TV. (Plate XVII. and 7 woodcuts.) ..... Be ane 2 cee 217

MInrosu, W.C., M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., &e.
Note on a new eat of the ieacaaee: (Anaitis rosea) .. 215

M‘Lacuran, R.,.Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., &.
On the Nymph-stage of the Embidz, with Notes on the Habits
of the Paniily, Geta te tate NOSE) nic gem an, cus co deo eee

4
: Page

Miers, Epwarp J., Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.8., Assistant in the Zoological

Department, British Museum.

Notes upon the Oxystomatous Crustacea. (Abstract.)........ 107

On Acteomorpha erosa, a new Genus and Species of Crus-
erection. 4 1e7 gel. GU 1G) Ae eee a Panto. ee Le a 183

On Species of Crustacea living within the Venus’s Flower-

basket (Euplectella) and in Meyerina claviformis. (Plate
RURGIEN | Mester ceecah ec coe ec cleraccr eho the elel tia 8 SPSS Int aI eRe AIR EP 506

Mrvart, Prof. St.-GroreGE, Secretary of the Linnean Society, and
the Rev. RoBERT CLARKE, F.LS.
On the Sacral Plexus and Sacral Vertebree of Lizards.
(AMLUISTEY SLD) Sea A mS on ieee a OTC 370

_ Nrcxoxson, Prof. H. ArtEyneE, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.LS., and
Ropert ErHeRiveGsr, Jun., F.G.S.
Notes on the;Genus Alveolites, Lamarck, and on some allied
For. .,, aleeozoic Corals. (Plates XIX. and XX.) ...... 353

Pracu, Cuartes Wit1iaM, Hsq., A.L.S. &e.
Observations on British Polyzoa. (Plate XXIII.) ............ 479

ROLLESTON, GrorGrR, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Linacre Professor of
Anatomy and Physiology, Oxford.
On the Prehistoric British Sus. (Abstract.)..........0.... 108

Romanes, GrorGe J., M.A., F.LS., &e.
An Account of some new Species, Varieties, and Monstrous
Forms of Meduse.—II. (Plates XV. and XVI.).......... 190

SEELEY, Harry Govier, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.G.8S., Professor of Geo-
graphy in King’s College, London.
On the Organization of the Ornithosauria. (Plate XI.)........ 84

SHarp, D., Esq., M.B. &c.
Description of some new Species of Beetles (Scarabzeidee) from

Centrale Ami enicagas te scar yah ae, shorts: oh tenes a caverns rg ve 129
Observations on the Respiratory Action of the Carnivorous
Wrateribcenles (Dy tiseidea)y ie oii ints vie ae viene arcele mc oats 161

SHarps, R. Bowpier, Hsq., M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S., &e., Senior As-
sistant, Zoological Department, British Museum.
On the Geographical Distribution of the Accipitres. (Part I.
The Vulturide.) (Plates I—-[X., coloured maps.) ........ 1

¥1

SHarpe, R. Bownier, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., &e. (contenwed).
Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea :—
Part. I. Notes on a small Collection of Birds from South-
eastern New Guinea ........ 7 nahi ee 79
Part II. On the Ornithological Collections formed by the late
Dr. James in South-eastern New Guinea and Yule

Islan ge epeaeie ee ie caer. oils locke el, ep eee 005

Part III. On a new Species of Goshawk from the Island of
doles (Elis XCSCUR)c goo podacaen so odeasosode 457

Part IV. On the Collection of Birds brought by Mr. Octavius
C. Stone from South-eastern New Guinea...... 486
Description of a new Hornbill from the Island of Panay ...... 155

Smirn, Epear A., F.Z.8., Zoological Department, British Museum.
Description of Acantharachna mirabilis, a new Form of Ophiu-

ibe “Cubes WAllb) peeaesutebeoousroomcb os noe Shsc.4 7 330

Tomson, Sir C. Wyvittn, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,

&e., Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of

Edinburgh, Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff of the ‘ Chal-

lenger’ Exploring Expedition.

Notice of new living Crinoids belonging to the Apiocrinide.
(ANGI Sy yyOOulemirsh)) “Gab ode ao 505 ¢agdeoes 554 ob obo auc: 47

Notice of some Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation of cer-
tain Echinoderms of the Southern Sea. (With 13 woodcuts.) 55

VERRAL, G. H., Esq., Memb. Entom. Soe.
Description of a new Genus and Species of Phoridz parasitic on
J NHS eg. S Senay OS OO AEE OEE Oued een oobedaniods 258

Wuire, Dr. F. Bucwanan, F.LS. &e.
On the Male Genital Armature in the European Rhopalocera.
(UNSER) iad Wann Shas eimona Galea pin oso bm aig se brordibo on 195

vil

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE
tea)
Il. | AccriprrrEs.—Their Geographical distribution, dlustrating Mr. R.
1. | Bowdler Sharpe’s paper by nine coloured maps. The range of
iv \ the genera and species of the Vulturide are indicated by different

colours, the genera included comprising Vultur, Sarcorham-
phus, Cathartes, Gyps, Catharistes, Pseudogyps, Lophogyps:
VIL. | Rhynogryphus, Otogyps, and Neophron.

X. Fiuxss, from Gangetic Dolphins, showing anatomyof Distoma lancea,
D. campula, and D. Anderseni, to illustrate Dr. Cobbold’s history
and description of these Trematode parasites.

XI. ORNITHOSAURIA.—Structural details and comparisons of Fossil and
Recent Birds and Reptiles, illustrating Prof. Seeley’s paper on the
organization of the group in question.

XII. Burrerriies.—Illustrating Mr. A. G. Butler’s paper on new species
of the genus Huptychia.

XIII. Cuart AnD Puians showing routes of the migration of the Norwegian
Lemming as specified in Mr. W. Duppa Crotch’s remarks thereon.

XIV. AcTmOMORPHA EROSA, illustrating Mr. H. J. Miers’s description of this
new genus and species of Crustacean.

& cies and of malformations in this group, illustrating Mr. G. J,

| inant of mal and diagrammatic representations of new spe-
XVI. Romanes’s account of his observations.

XVII. Sprctzs or Ants, illustrating Sir J. Lubbock’s paper (Part IV.) on
the habits of these creatures.

XVIII. ACANTHARACHNA MIRABILIS.—Figures of, and details illustrating,
Mr. E. A. Smith’s new Ophiurid.

XIX.7 Patmozorc Coras.—Microscopic structural peculiarities of the
& genus Alveolites, &c., illustrating Prof. H. A. Nicholson and Mr, R.
XX. Etheridge’s paper on the group.

vill

PiatTE
XXT. Origoroma Micnarti1.—Larva, nymph, and perfect insect, in illus-

tration of Mr. R. M‘Lachlan’s paper on the Hmbide.

XXII. Astur Meyverianus.—Figure accompanying Mr. R. B. Sharpe’s de-
scription of this Goshawk.

XXIII. Britisn Potyzoa.—Illustrating Mr. C. W. Peach’s observations and
descriptions of new species of this group.

XXIV. Crustaceans In SponeEs.—Figures in illustration of Mr. EH. J.
Miers’s paper on species living within Huplectella and Meyerina.

ERRATA.

Page 310, line 9 from bottom, p has dropped out from L. cyanocephala
(Lath.).
327, top line heading table (Dr. Giinther’s paper on extinct Mascarene
Lizards), G. Newtonii and G'. verus should be transposed
and correspond in position to those in table p.326.
348, lines 11, 12, & 18, O, O, O should be OC, C, C, in agreement with
the contraction for genus Callichrous.

”

3”)

THE JOURNAL

OF

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

On the Geographical Distribution of the Accipitres.
By R. Bowprer Suarps, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e.

[Read February 3, 1876.]
(Puatss I.-IX.)
Part I. The VULTURID A.

Tue following papers will form a supplement to the British-
Museum ‘ Catalogue of Birds.’ In the latter volume a classifica-
tion of the Accipitres is unfolded; and I now propose to treat of
the geographical distribution of the birds described in the first
volume of that work; for until a classification has been deter-
mined upon, my experience tells me that it is impossible to treat
of the distribution of the feathered tribes over the earth’s surface.
I am at the same time aware that several writers have called in
question my arrangement of the birds of prey, notably that con-
scientious and indefatigable naturalist Mr. Robert Ridgway ; but
TI have as yet found no reason to modify my conclusions in any
serious degree; and I therefore feel pleased to have an opportu-
nity of expounding my system of classification of the Accipitres,
feeling, as I do, that the consideration of their geographical distri-
bution will confirm the views expressed in the work above
alluded to.

It is here necessary only to state that I divide the birds of prey
into three distinct groups, which I consider to be of the rank of
suborders. These are Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. The second
and the last have a remarkable osteological character in common in
the long tibia, which is more than double the length of the tarsus;
and they have at the same time the outer toe reversible. These

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 1

2 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

points seem to me to be of the first importance ; and as further
characters can be found for the separation of the Owls from the
other birds of prey, it seems to me natural to consider the Ospreys
as Accipitres with an owl-like structure and the habits of Fishing
Eagles; and thus they would naturally occupy an intermediate
position between the Owls and the great mass of the diurnal birds
of prey.

The first of my suborders, the Falcones, is much the largest of
the three, and may be divided into two primary groups— Vultures
(Vulturide) and Hawks (Falconide). The former have never any
true feathers on the crown of the head, this part being either quite
bare or covered with silky down. In habits, the American Vul-
tures so closely resemble those of the Old World, that I cannot
bring myself to consider them anything but Vultwres, though ad-
mitting that they are very aberrant in their structure. I there-
fore still keep them in the family Vulturide, and divide these
birds into two subfamilies, one of them ( Vulturine) containing the
Old-world vultures, and the other (Sarcorhamphine) containing
the American species. It is with the geographical range of these
birds that we now propose to deal.

1. VutruR Monacuus. (Map L.)

V. monacuus, Lu.; Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 3.

For the distribution of the Cinereous Vulture see Dresser’s
‘Birds of Europe’ (pt. xiii.); but observe that the bird does not
visit West Africa as there stated. The vulture mentioned by
Fraser under the name of V. monachus is the small form of African
Hooded Vulture, Neophron monachus (Temminck), peculiar to the
Ethiopian region, into the north-eastern portion of which alone
the present species ranges.

PALZARCTIC REGION.

France. Occurs accidentally in Provence, Languedoc, and Dauphiné
(Degland & Gerbe); mhabits the Spanish Pyrenees as well as the French,
where it arrives in June, departing in October. It is not, however, un-
common on a fine winter day to see them appear in the neighbourhood of
Bagnéres-de-Bigorre, which fact seems to indicate that at least some indi-
viduals winter, if not in the French, at any rate in the Spanish Pyrenees.
The localities which it seems to prefer in the western chain of these moun-
tains are, according to M. Darracq, Mounts Orsamendi, Mousson, Rei-
boura, La Rhum, and especially the Aldules. .... A large band of them
passed near Angers in October 1839, computed to number 100 individuals,

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF 'FHE ACCIPITRES. 3

of which three were secured; and a still larger band was said to have
passed two years previously. Both came from the north and journeyed
towards the Pyrenees (Jaubert et Barthélemu- Lapommeraye).

Spain. By no means rare throughout Andalucia (Saunders); Castilles
(Lilford); near Marbella and Cordova (Lilford); on the Spanish side of
the Straits frequently to be seen in winter and early spring, though not
nearly so common as the Griffon Vulture ; it is more common near Seville
than Gibraltar; some breed in Andalucia. Found by Lord Lilford nesting
near Madrid (ef. Irby’s B. Gibr. p. 28).

Portugal. Portugal (Bocage); Benavente (Welwitsch); Alemtejo (Mira) ;
Collares (Menezes). Cf. Souza, Cat. Accipitr. Lisb. Mus. p. 30.

Balearic Isles. Resident in Mallorca (Saunders).

Switzerland and Savoy. Very rare in both these countries (Bailly).

Italy. Accidental in the Apennines ; two specimens killed near Sarona,
according to Durazzo; two killed in May 1863, near Ripatransone, in the
province of Ascoli-Piceno (Salvador?).

Sardinia. Commonest Vulture in the island (Brooke).

Austrian Empire. Rarer than the Griffon, and occurs but seldom in the
northern and western portions, Kloubouker district (Briinner-Kreis); Stein-
burg, in Carinthia; Southern Styria, accidental, once near Pettau; not
rare in Siebenburgen;* doubtful whether it breeds in the High Tatra,
Galicia ; Hungary, near Ofen, common in the south (Von Tschudi); Banat
(Zelebor, Mus. Wien). Cf. Pelzeln, Geier und Falk. p. 126.

Bohemia. Very rare (Fritsch, J. f. O. 1871, p. 175). Comes from the
east; Konig-gratz; the Georgsberg near Laudnic; near Leitomitschl
(Fritsch).

Germany. Once in Schleswig, once in Ober Lausitz, once in E. Prussia
(Borggreve), Frankstadt (Mahren) in the end of May 1873; Hochwald,
not far from Frankstadt; about the same time near Bielitz, Silesia, on tac
authority of Prof. Tolsky (Von Tschusi, J. f. O. 1874, p. 341).

Kurland. Shot by Forester Tamma (Goedel, J. f. O. 1873, p. 8).

Poland. Kielce and Rakolupy in the Government of Lublin; near
Warsaw; near Lomze (Taczanowski).

Turkey. By no means & common species in Central Bulgaria; breeds
in the thickly wooded hills that border on the Pravidy Valley (Farman) ;
plentiful on the southern Danube (Dresser); common in Macedonia and
Bulgaria, numerous in February (Elwes § Buckley); very common on
the Bosphorus during migration (Alléon & Vian).

Greece. Breeds in Attica from Corinth to Livadia, resident also im winter
(Lindermayer); breeds in the Cyclades, leaving in winter (Erhardt);
Tonian Islands (Lilford).

Southern Russia. Steppes of Bessarabia (Nordmann); Crimea [?] (Nord-
mann); Tiflis (Radde). Sabandeif did not meet with it m the southern «
Ural.

Asia Minor. Xanthus (Fellows); “only of very rare occurrence near

1*

4 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Smyrna in summer ; but I think I have seen it with other Vultures near
Kaias (Kriiper, J. f. O. 1869. p. 23).

Cyprus. (Mus. Berol.).

Palestine. By no means common, but a few scattered over the country
(Tristram).

Egypt. Throughout the country, but nowhere abundant (Shelley). Von
Heuglin only once saw it, near Benisouef, and considers it to be a very
rare straggler.

Algeria. Not common, only seen singly or in pairs (Loche); in the
mountainous parts, more especially in the neighbourhood of Constantine
(Taczanowski, J. f. O. 1870, p. 36).

Morocco. Once near Tangier (Favier); a specimen, perhaps the identi-
cal one obtained by Favier, is in the Norwich Museum from Tangier Irby
B. Gibr. p. 28).

Northern Persia (Blanford).

Turkestan. All over the country, breeding. Found during the winter
season in the north-western and south-western divisions of the country
(Severtzoff). Cf. Dresser, Ibis, 1875, p. 98.

India. By no means rare throughout the north-west provinces, becoming
more common in the country north-west of Delhi in the cold weather
(Jerdon, Ibis, 1871, p. 234). Throughout the Punjaub, N.W. Provinces,
Oudh, and Rajpootana, north-west of the Avavalli Hills in the cold weather,
being most abundant in the far north-west, and becoming less and less
common as you proceed south and west; a few specimens met with in that
portion of the Central Provinces known as the Sagar and Nerbuddah terri-
tories, and in the northern or Shikarpoor collectorate of Sindh (Hume) ;
once about twenty miles north of Ahmedabad (Butler); not yet received
or heard of from Jodhpoor, Cutch, Kattiawar, or Sindh; and though it
may doubtless occur within this vast tract, it can only be as a rare strag-
gler (Hume); met within the cold weather near the Sambhur lake (Adam,
S. F. 1873, p. 367); once at Ajmere, and further north in Rajpootana it
is not uncommon (Hume); Nepal (Hodgson); Darjeeling Cendons Bho-
tan (Hume); Assam (Jenkins, Mus. Calc.).

Mongolia (David).

China. Peking (David); Ningpo (Swinkoe, Mus. Brit.); mouth of the
Shanghai river and Chusan archipelago (Swinhoe).

2. Gyps FuLvus. (Map I.)

G. FuLvus (Gm.); Sharpe, Cat. i. p. 5.

The Griffon Vulture is here considered as one species, for after
Mr. Gurney’s observations (Ibis, 1875, pp. 88, 89) I do not think
that my proposed separation of the Spanish bird asa distinct race
can be upheld. In fact the way in which the Griffons wander
would render it difficult to draw the exact range of one of the

17 3

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPILRES.

G. fulvus group; and therefore I relinquish the name G. héspanio-
lensis; but at the same time the Spanish birds now alive in the
Zoological Gardens show no inclination to paler colouring as
they get older, but have the rufous coloration which induced
me first to separate them. I further stated my belief that
the Algerian Griffon (and probably the bird from North-east
Africa also) would prove to be the same as G. hispaniolensis from
Southern Spain. As to their habits of wandering, Canon Tristram
says that during the Crimean war the Arabs believed that “ the
Vultures from all North-east Africa were gathered together to
feed on Russian horses in the Crimea, and declare that very few
‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.” Nor is the
Spanish Vulture free from these erratic habits; for Mr. Howard
Saunders, writing of his trip to Southern Spain in 1868, says, “it
had been a bad year for Vultures generally (they were away in
Morocco feeding on Moors and Riffites).” I depended a great
deal on the restricted habitat of G. hispaniolensis as a special
feature; but if the bird wanders as stated above, then it is worth-
less; and moreover Mr. Gurney’s researches (J. c.) tend to prove
that the value of the Spanish bird as a race is very doubtful.
Still the question is undoubtedly not yet settled, and a larger
series will be necessary to determine the matter. I may re-
mark, en passant, with regard to Mr. Gurney’s statement that in
the event of G. hispaniolensis proving distinct it must be called
G. occidentalis, Bp., that this is certainly not so ; for Bonaparte’s
name is taken from Schlegel’s Vultur fulvus occidentalis, the types
of which exist at Leiden, and are inseparable from the Hast-Euro-
pean bird. Pyrenean specimens may be the same as Sardinian ;
but my G. hispaniolensis, be it remembered, is the bird from
Southern Spain.

PaL#ARcTIC REGION.

Great Britain. Once, on the rocks near Cork Harbour. (For particulars,
see Newton’s edition of Yarrell’s ‘ British Birds.’)

France. Twice, in the department of the Seine Inférieure, in a plain at
Saint Romain de Colbose, and near Bolbec (Lemettei/). Of frequent oc-
currence in Provence, and occasionally in Languedoc, Dauphiné, and the
north of France ; one killed near Armenbiéres in July 1828, and a young
bird killed near Abbeville (Baillon); mountains of Provence, |’Ardéche,
the Pyrenees, and especially the Cevennes ; only a very accidental visitor in
Savoy in autumn and spring. The localities where it has been met with
are the mountains adjacent to Montiers, those of the Bauges, especially

6 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

those which feed large flocks of kids or sheep, such as the mountains of
Trélez, Orgeval, Rosannaz, and those of Faucigny, whence in 1846 M.
Louis Coppier received a young male captured at Chamounix (Bailly) ;
a regular migrant in the south of France (Jaudert et Barthélemy-Lapom-
meraye).

Lorraine. Very rare (Godron}; killed once near Rémilly in 1842
(Hollandre).

Spain. Common in Southern Spaia (Saunders); very plentiful near
Gibraltar, nesting in colonies (Jrby); Guadalquivir river (Lilford) ; Sierra
de Ja Palmiterra near Marbella (Li/ford).

Psrtugal. Said to be common in the southern distriets, and seen on
several occasions in the plains of Alemtejo (Smith); comimon in the last-
named locality (Bocage).

Italy. Resident in the Alps of Nice and in Sicily, and of accidental oc-
eurrence all over Italy (Salvadort).

Sardinia. By no means uncommon; resident and breeding (A. B
Brooke).

Austria. Often plentiful in Southern Hungary, Dalmatia, and Servia
(Fritsch) ; Zwolfaxing (Brezenheim); breeding in the Banat (Zelebor); cf.
Pelz. Sitz. z.-b. G. Wien, 1862, p. 129; a male procured at Neutitschein
(Mahren) in October 1873 (Von Tschust).

- Bohemia. Comes from the eastward, particularly from Galicia and Hun-
gary (Fritsch. J. f. O. 1871, p. 175).

Germany. Of accidental occurrence nearly all over Germany ; Ober-
Lansitz ; Oldenburg, near Miinster ; Dantzig, &c. (Borggreve).

Poland. Rarer than Vultur monachus; near Samosé; near Warsaw
( Taczanowskt).

Russia. Courland ; killed in the Mitau district (Goebel). According
to Mr. Dresser, it was found by Sabanaeff “in the Kaslinsky Ural,
where it breeds;‘ and he further states that it ranges as high as
59° N. lat., having been obtained in the Pavdinskaia Dacha. He records
the capture of one within sixty miles of Moscow in 1841, and says that
sportsmen have assured him that they have seen this species in the district
of Jaroslaf, which he thinks may have been the case. He also speaks of
it as an annual migrant in the Government of Voronege.”” Uman, ob-
served on the 26th of April, 1871. (Goebel, J. f. O. 1873, p. 131); near
Tiflis (Radde) ; more or less common on all the shores of the Black Sea,
more abundant in Bessarabia, only in small numbers on the mountains
which border the south coast of the Crimea (Nordmann) ; abundant near
Sevastopol in 1854 (G. C. Taylor).

Turkey. One of the commonest birds throughout Central Bulgaria ;
particularly partial to the Pravidy Valley (Harman); common in Mace-
donia and Bulgaria (Hlwes & Buckley); common during migration, pass-
ing the summer in the interior, some few remaining (Alléon).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 7

Greece. Resident (Lindermayer); abundant in Epirus (Liiford); Athens
(Merlin); numerous near Missolonghi; breeds at Mount Varassoro and in
the Klissouras of Aracynthus (Hudleston).

Crete (J. H. Gurney).

Syria. Beyrout (Lauretta).

Palestine. Common all over the country ; plentiful in the hill-country
of Judza, and observed breeding in some ravines near the Dead Sea
(Tristram).

Egypt. Plentifully distributed throughout Egypt and Nubia (Shelley).

Tunis. Not noticed in this regency (Salvin); occurs here and in Fez
(Von Heuglin).

Algeria. Throughout the country (Loche); first seen at Souk Harras;
several pairs also seen at Djebel Dekma and at “ Khifan, Msakta;’’
very plentiful at Kef Laks and in the neighbourhood (Salvin) ; Laghouat
(J. H. Gurney, jun.); Sahara (Tristram).

Morocco, Common at Tetran (Drake); occurs commonly in Tangier,
both as a resident and on passage (Favier). “Idid not see many Griffons
in Morocco; but there were a few near Jebel Moosa in April” (Irby).

Central Africa (Denham, Mus. Brit.).

ETHIOPIAN REGION.

N.E. Africa. Resident along the coast of the Red Sea to 16° N. lat.;
the whole of Egypt and Nubia; Abyssinia to 12,000 feet; singly in Kor-
dofan, and on the Lower Blue and White Niles (Von Heuglin); Senafe in
April; common in the Abyssinian highlands (Jesse); common in Samhar
and on the Barka (Antinori). A species called the “Armed Vulture ” is
mentioned by Browne in his ‘African Travels,’ and is said to be extremely
frequent in the country of Darfur, where it flies about in thousands (ef.
‘ Discoveries in Africa,’ p. 441, 1849). This is perhaps the Griffon.

Arabia. Near Akabah, Peninsula of Smai (Wyatt).

Persia. Plentiful in the mountainous parts and at Vemavend (De Filippi);
Southern Persia (Blanford).

Turkestan (Severizof). Dr. Severtzoff, one of the keenest ornitholo-
gical observers 1 have ever met, seems to consider the Turkestan Griffon
distinct ; for he proposed the name of G. rutilans for it at one time (ef.
J.f. O. 1870, p. 382 &c.).

InpDIAN REGION.

India. Mr. Hume has named the Griffon of India Gyps fulveseens, on
account of its persistent bay colour; and I must say that the specimens in
the Museum bear evidence of its distinctness. Taking into considera-
tion the above observations of Dr. Severtzoff, the Indian Griffon (which,
like G. himalayensis and Otogyps calvus, doubtless finds its way to Tur-
kestan) is most probably distinct. Mr. Hume says, “I have found this
bird very common throughout the Punjaub, Northern Rajpootana, and the
north-western provinces, north and west of Etawah: and Colonel Tytler

8 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

has a young bird from Oraiee.”’ As far asI can yet judge, it is essentially
the vulture of the desert. In richly cultivated tracts, far from any sandy
wastes, it is rare; but in the lower portions of the North-western Pro-
vinces and the Punjaub i is common, and in and on the borders of Bha-
wulpoor, Bikaneer, Jodhpoor, and Northern Jaipoor it abounds.” Cap-
tain C. Marshall has found it breeding near Lahore. In Sindh, writes
Mr. Hume, “this was the only species of Vulture that I actually shot and
identified ; but other species doubtless occur. Vultures, however, are
very rare in Sindh, compared with what they are in Upper India.”” He then
gives additional evidence as to the distinctness of G. fulvescens (cf. Sir.
F. 1873, pp. 148-150). Common near the Sambhur lake (Adam).
Captain Butler, in his paper “On the Birds of Mount Aboo and Northern
Guzerat,” includes the true Gyps fulvus as “ common on the plains,” and
he says that G. fulvescens of Hume is not very common. Mr. Hume ob-
serves that the latter species has been shot by himself at Deesa and Jodh-
poor, and he has received it from Cutch, Kattiawar,and Sindh. With re-
gard to Captain Butler’s observation, it is worthy of note that he, a good
field-naturalist, is acquainted with two species of Griffon on the plains of
North-western India; and this is an additional argument in favour of the
recognition of G. fulvescens. Kumaon (Strachey). Nepalese examples col-
lected by Mr. Hodgson are in the British Museum. It is said to have
been procured by Griffith in Assam ; but Mr. Blyth suggests that, as Mr.
Griffith also collected in Afghanistan, the Griffon may have come from
the latter place, owing to some misapprehension as to the locality.
Upper Pegu. Perhaps occurs here. Cf. Hume, Str. F. 1875, p. 18.

3. GYPs HIMALAYENSIS. (Map III.)

G. HIMALAYENSIS, Hume; Sharpe, Cat. B.1.p. 8.

Hab. Himalaya Mountains from Cabool to Bhootan; breeds in the
Himalayas in January, February, and March (Hume). Nepal (Hodgson,
Mus. Brit.). ‘‘ Not common between Gangaotri and Musscorie ; occasion-
ally seen’ seated on its nest above the road, but so high up that it was
almost out of rifle-shot, and at the opposite side of the narrow glen in
which the river there runs. But for the white mark on the rock caused
by the dung of the bird, I should not have noticed it. .... All the
nests of this bird which I saw were inaccessible; and whether they cou-
tained young or not I could not tell. None of them occurred below Bara-
hath; eyry the above referred to was not far from Danguli (Brooks);
Major Lloyd noticed a Griffon about the cliffs and valleys of the Geerwar
(Kattiawar) which he thinks may be this species (Ibis, 1873, p. 402).
Turkestan; resident in the north-eastern district “ comprismg Semiratchje,
Issikkul, the Upper Narin, Acksay, Kopal, and Vernoe”’ (Severtzoff, cf.
Dresser, Ibis, 1875, p. 97). Its vertical range in Turkestan is “A winter
visitant in district 3, a resident in district 4, where it breeds, and probably
nests in districts 3, 4, and 5” (Severtzoff, J. c.). (For the explanation of
the vertical range, vide Dresser, J. c.)

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 9

4, Gyps KonBr. (Map IIT.)

G. KoLBI (Daud.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 8, pl. 1.

Hab. South Africa; pretty generally distributed throughout the Cape
colony, still lingering even near Capetown (Layard); Gauritz river
(Atmore). Caffraria (Brehm). Port Elizabeth and East London
(Rickard). Algoa Bay (Mus. Wien). Common in Natal (Ayres). Ex-
tremely common from Natal up to the Matabili country (T. E. Buckley).
Breeding in the Transvaal Republic (Ayres). Very numerous during a
journey from Potschefstroom to the river Limpopo (Ayres). In all pro-
bability the species of Griffon met with in the; Zambesi delta by Dr. Kirk
(Ibis, 1864, p. 314). Sparingly found in Damara Land, chiefly observed
in the vicinity of the sea above Oosop rocks in the lower course of the
Swakop river. Mr. Andersson does not seem to have sent home any skins
of this Vulture, with which, however, he was doubtless thoroughly well ac-
quainted. Mr. Chapman states that it is found nearly all over South
Africa, but is more common to the south and east than in either Damara or
Great Namaqua Land.

N.B. It has not yet been met with by Anchieta in Mossa-
medes or Benguela, and seems to be much rarer on the western
side of the continent. It was probably at one time more frequent
in the western parts of the Cape colony, as Sir Andrew Smith,
writing in 1829, speaks of it as occurring in great abundance
throughout the whole of South Africa (S. Afr. Q. Journ. i. p. 11).

There is no valid evidence of its occurrence out of the South-
African subregion; and its reputed capture in North-east Africa
requires confirmation, while Von Pelzeln (Sitz. z.-b. G. Wien,
1862, p. 180) very properly doubts Erhardt’s statement of its oc-
currence in the Cyclades (Naumannia, 1858, p. 16).

5. Gyps RUEPPELLI. (Map IV.)

G. RUEPPELLI, Brehm; Sharpe, Cat. B.i.p. 9.

Hab. N.E. Africa. Takar and Southern Nubia; Kordofan, Senaar ;
Abyssinia ; Djak on the White Nile, less abundant on this river; comes
to the sea-coast in Samhar, and occurs on the high mountains of Sémien
and in the Galla countries up to 10,000 feet (Von Heughn). Angollala,
Shoa, October 1842 (Harris, Mus. Brit.). Autrub, on the Blue Nile (An-
tinori). The great majority of the Vultures met with in the Abyssinian
Highlands were probably of this species, which was by no means confined
to the high tableland; abundant in the Anseba valley at from 4000 to
4590 feet; Rairo, north of the Lebka valley, at 3000 feet (Blanford).
South Africa, rare; seldom found to the south of the Orange river (J.
Verreaux). Port Natal (J. Verreaux, Mus. Lisb.); rare in this part of the

colony Ayres).

10 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

S.W. Africa. Ondonga, Ovampo Land, Nov. 1866.

I cannot help thinking that this is the identical specimen men-
tioned by Professor Schlegel (Revue, Accipitr. p. 140) as Vultur
fulvus kolbet. When I gave up collecting large African birds in
order to restrict myself to Passeres and Picarie, most of the
former passed into the hands of Mr. Frank, by whom they were
offered to the Leiden Museum. I may state therefore that
the bird in question was examined both by Mr. Gurney and
myself, and identified as G. rueppelli, which, as I have observed
in my ‘ Catalogue,’ when adult, is unmistakable, but when young
more nearly resembles the other Griffons.

6. Gyps typicus. (Map IV.)

G. InDicus (Scop.); Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 10.

Hab. All over India, more rare towards the south, and then chiefly near
mountains; not rare on the Neilgherries, where it breeds (Jerdon). Kat-
tiawar (Lloyd); breeds at the Taragurh Hill near Ajmere, and in the Gai-
mookh cliffs on Mount Aboo (Hume); very common near the Sambhur
Lake (Adam); common in Oudh and Kumaon (Irby) ; Nepal (Hodgson);
Deccan (Sykes); probably occurs in the Wardha valley (Blanford) ;
Assensole, Chota Nagpur district (Brooks); breeds near Calcutta (Blyth);
very abundant in Burmah (Jerdon); Arakan (Blyth) ; Zwagaben Moun-
tains (Beavan); nowhere in great numbers in Upper Pegu, but is not un-
common near villages (Oates); Siam (Schomburgk); an adult and a nest-
ling procured by Mouhot in Siam, 200 miles N.E. of Bangkok, in the Nor-
wich Museum (Gurney, Cat. Rapt. B. Norw. Mus. p. 74) ; Malayan penin-
sula: “I have seen two specimens of this Vulture in a Malacca collection.
No doubt a Vulture of any kind is there rare, or it would not have been
deemed worthy of preservation; according to Sir Stamford Raffles, Vul-
tures are rare on the west coast of Sumatra, but are occasionally seen on
the Malayan peninsula and at Penang” (Tr. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 277;
Blyth, B. Burma, p. 64).

Mr. Hume believes that two distinct birds are generally com-
prised under the name of G. zndicus, and he has named one of
them G. pallescens. Captain Butler says that the Long-billed
Brown Vulture is very common near Mount Aboo and in Northern
Guzerat; and Mr. Hume states that the bird from these parts is
the pale cliff-breeding G. pallescens, and not the so-called G. in-
dicus of Scopoli, “so common in the eastern portions of our
empire.” He states that he has received it from Jodhpoor, Cutch,
and Kattiawar, but not Scimdh as yet.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 11

7. PSEUDOGYPS BENGALENSIS. (Map V.)

P. BENGALENSIS (Gm.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 11.

Hab. The commonest Vulture in India; in immense numbers all over
the country, extending imto Assam and Burmah (Jerdon). Candahar
(Hutton); commonest Vulture in Kattiawar (Lloyd); very plentiful both
on the hills and in the plains near Mount Aboo and Northern Guzerat
(Butler); common all ever Rajpootana, the North-west Provinces, and the
major portion of the Punjaub (Hume); very common near the Sambhur
Lake; “a great quantity of camels and bullocks which die near here
attract these birds in great numbers” (Adam); common throughout the
year in Oudh and Kumaon (Irby); Nepal (Hodgson); Chota Nagpur
(Ball): Wardha valley near Chanda (Blanford); Deccan (Sykes); Travan-
core (Elwes); Burmah, often seen in great numbers, even in the suburbs
of large towns (Mason). ‘I noticed a few about Akyab only. It abounds
as much in Siam as in Bengal” (Blyth, B. Burma, p. 65). A specimen
received from Thayetmyo; occurs as far south, at any rate, as Tavoy

(Hume); Pabyouk, Tenasserim; occasionally seen (Davison); Province
Wellesley (Cantor).

8. Psrvpocyes arricanus. (Map V.)

P. arricaNnus (Salvad.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 12.

Hab. From the Soudan northwards to Chartoom; Western Abyssinia ;
Southern Kordofan and the districts of the White Nile and Gazelle River
(Von Heuglin, Antinori) ; Senaar (Kotschy, Mus. Wien, cf. Pelz. Sitz.
z.-b. G. Wien, 1862, p. 130), Nubia (Baron Von Mueller, Mus. Stuttg., cf.
Calwer, Cat. p.2). Senegal, Dakar (Marche, ef. Bouvier, Cat. p. 5,
Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 13). S.W. Africa; Humbe on the Cunene river
(Anchieta, ef. Bocage, Jorn. Lisb. 1874, p. 47).

9. Lopnoeres ocorpitatis. (Map VI.)

L. occrpiTaLis (Burch.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 15.

Hab. N.E. Africa. It affects only the wooded districts of the equato-
torial north-east, the Abyssinian coast-land, the districts of Bogos and
Maria, Central Abyssinia, Senaar, Southern Kordofan, and the countries
about the White Nile and Gazelle River westwards as far as Kosanga. It
wanders more rarely into the southernmost parts of Nubia and Takah
and the Bisharim steppes; it is not rare near Massowa; not observed
in Somali Land (Heuglin). Senaar (Kotschy, Mus. Wien). Nubia
(Clot-Bey, Mus. Lugd.). Mansura, Barka river, Anseba river, Keren,
Bogos Land (Antinori & Beccari). W. Africa. Senegal (Mus. Lugd.).
Bissao (Beaudouin, Calheiros), Fernand Vaz (Marche). S.Africa. Not
found within the limits of the Cape colony (Layard); rarest of the Vul-
tures in Natal (Ayres); plentiful near Kuruman (Chapman); breeds in

12 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

the Transvaal (Ayres); originally obtained in the Bechuana country by
Burchell ; not a very common species from Natal to the Matabili country
(T. E. Buckley); near the Seko-kaama Hill, the Koppes, S.W. of Lake
Ngami, March 2, 1862 (Baines): ‘I do not remember to have met with
this fine Vulture in Damara Land, but have observed it, though only at a
distance on a few occasions, in Great Namaqua Land” (Andersson).

10. Orogyrs aurrcuLaRis. (Map VIL.)

O. auricuLaRIS (Daud.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 13.

fiab. S. Africa; pretty generally distributed in South Africa (Layard);
breeding near Beaufort in August (Jackson); Natal (Ayres); Transvaal
(Ayres); Modder river, near Bloemfontein, Orange Free State (Ezton);
the commonest Vulture in Damara and Great Namaqua Lands, and also
found in all the parts bordering those countries (Andersson); probably in
the Zambesi (Kirk).

N.E. Africa. Not found in Northern Egypt, but in the middle and
southern provinces tolerably plentiful; common in Nubia, Northern Kor-
dofan and Senaar; in Takah and the whole of Abyssinia up to 12,000 feet
in the latter country—in the district of the middle and upper White Nile
apparently entirely absent—on the Red-Sea coast seemingly only of acci-
dental occurrence (Heuglin); met with on the highlands of Abyssinia at con-
siderable elevations, and occasionally seen in the Anseba valley at lower
levels (Blanford) ; Shoa (Harris, Mus. Brit.); Khartoum (Vierthaler) ;
Senaar (Reitz, Mus. Wien).

W. Africa. Cape-Verd peninsula, Senegal (Marche). Cf. Bouvier,
Cat. p. 2.

N. Africa. Sahara; constant resident, though in limited numbers ( Tris-
tram); breeds to the S.W. of Biskra, remains all the year round in the
district between the Mzab country and the oasis of Waregha, lat. 32° N.
(Tristram) ; probably to be found in the southern part of Morocco
(Irby).

Palestine. Mount Lebanon (Mus. Marseilles).

Europe. Once near Arles, 8. France (Jaubert § Barthélemy-Lapomme-
raye). The same gentlemen state that it has once nested in Spain. The
Norwich Museum has a specimen said to have been killed in Greece (ef.
Gurney, Cat. Rapt. B. p. 58).

N.B. It will be seen that I have treated all the eared Vultures
of Africa as being of one species, the only specific difference being
the greater amount of wattled skin on the sides of the bare neck
in South-African specimens. Dr. Exton has some remarks
on this subject (Cape Monthly Mag. 1875, p. 259), and considers
that the preparation of the skin has much to do with the appear-
ance of the birds when preserved.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 13

11. Oroayrs catyts. (Map VII.)

O. catvus (Scop.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 14.

Hab. Found commonly throughout India, extending into Burma, but
by no means abundant in individuals (Jerdon); not uncommon in Kattia-
war (Lloyd); found in the hills and plains near Mount Aboo and in north-
ern Guzerat (Butler); Jodhpoor, Cutch, Kattiawar, Sambhur, and Raj-
pootana generally, but not as yet from Sindh (Hume); common near the
Sambhur Lake; “in the month of March I saw this bird sitting on its
nest, which was in the face of a rock in the hills near the town of Nawa’’
(Adam, 8. F. 1873, p. 367); Etawah, breeding at Ajmere (Hume); be-
tween Simla and Mussoorie (Tytler, Ibis, 1871, p. 194); “seen occasion-
ally between Mussoorie and Gangaotri, and far into the hills, where one
would not expect to see a plains-loving Vulture. I saw one or two soar-
ing high above Derali” (Brooks, S. F. 1875, p. 228); frequently noticed at
Nynee Tal and Almora (Brooks); found in Oudh and Kumaon throughout
the year, breeding inthe cold season (Irby); Nepal (Hodgson); from the
neighbourhood of Caleutta (Mus. Ind.) ; not uncommon in Chota Nagpur,
but more than a pair rarely observed at a time (Ball, S. F. 1874, p. 376) ;
Wardha valley (Blanford, J. A. S. B. 1871, p. 270);. Deccan (Sykes) ;
breeding near Gotekindee, Sattara district (Davidson, S. F. 1874, p. 336);
Travancore (Elwes); Khasia and Garo hills, six or eight specimens ob-
served at Chatak (Godwin-Austen, J. A. S. B. 1870, p. 265); not a com-
mon species in Burma (Blyth, B. Burma, p, 64); Upper Pegu (Oates,
Feilden) ; Siam (Schomburgk). Turkestan, an occasional summer yisitant
to district III. (“the north-western district comprising Karatau, the west-
ern Thianshan mountains, the upper portions of the rivers Aris, Kedess,
Chirchick, and their tributaries, the lower Syr-Daria, from the source of
the Aris to Lake Aral and the delta of the Syr-Daria”): Severtzof’; ef.
Dresser, Ibis, 1875, p. 97. The “ vertical range”? is given in the same
paper as follows: “an occasional straggler during summer in district II.
(the cultivated districts, grassy steppes, and gardens to 3000 or 4000 feet
altitude ).”

12. NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS. (Map VIIL.)
N. PERCNOPTERUS (L.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 17.
PAL#ARCTIC REGION.

Norway. Buffon records a specimen from this country.

Great Britain. Accidental visitor; once in October 1825 near Kilve in
Somersetshire ; a second in September 1828. For particulars, cf. New-
ton’s edition of Yarrell, vol. 1. p. 7.

France, Of doubtful occurrence in the department of the Seine Infé-
rieure (Lemetteil, Cat. i. p.82). Tolerably common in many places in the
Pyrenees, on the lofty mountains of Provence, in the departments of the
Var and the Basses Alpes; it lives also on those of L’Isére, La Drome,

14 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

L’Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhdne, L’Ariége. Lastly, Abbé Vineelot
records it as an accidental bird of passage in the department of Maine-et
Loire ; it arrives in April to breed in the above places, and leaves at the
end of the summer (Degland et Gerbe, Orn. Hur.i. p. 13). Not common
in Savoy or Switzerland, and cnly comes durimg the summer, arriving with
the first days of March (Bailly).

Spain. Very commonin Andalucia and probably all other parts of Spain
in summer (Lilford); abundantly distributed near Gibraltar (Irby, B.
Gibr. p. 31); common in Southern Spain except in winter, when but few
remain (Saunders).

Portugal. Common in the Sierra de Louza (Bocage); apparently rare
in Algarve (Rey, J. f. O. 1872, p. 141).

Balearic Isles. Mallorca, May 2 (Von Homeyer).

Italy. Salvadori states that it is resident in the district of Nice in the Siena
Maremma, especially about Cape Argentaro, where Save found it breeding,
and in the Roman Campagna. Itseems to run down the west coast ; but
to the east of the Apennines it does not occur, with the exception of a
single example at Taranto. It is found in the mountains of the Neapu-
litan districts; and recent investigations have shown, according to Prof.
Doderlein, that it is by no means rare, although somewhat local, in the
island of Sicily, in the mountainous districts of which it nests. Said to be
pretty common on the Monte Argentaro and in the Siennese Maremma,
but does not occur near Pisa (Giglicli).

Malta. Merely an accidental visitor (Wright).

Austrian Empire. Appears to be not so rare in Southern Hungary. Herr
O. von Hermann obtained three specimens on the 12th of July near Brazias
(Von Tschusi, J. f. O. 1874, p. 341).

Turkey. ‘In the Pravidy valley, in the neighbourhood of Shumla; and
wherever the hills show a broken face of rock, there I found this Vulture
pretty abundant; but in the open country and wooded districts, though
occasionally to be met with, it is comparatively scarce ; arrives in March,
leaves in October” (Farman) ; plentifulin Bulgaria (Elwes and Buckley) ;
abundant in and about Constantinople in spring and summer (G. C. Taylor, |
This, 1872, p. 228); common in spring in Turkey, arriving by thousands
(Alléon).

Greece. Very common in summer on the mainland (Albania &c.); breeds
in Corfu and in Epirus; first observed at Prevesa, in the Gulf of Arta, on
the 15th of March, 1857 (Lilford); Dobrudscha (Hudleston).

Crimea (Pallas).

Asia Minor. Not rare near Smyrna, arriving in March (Kriiper, J. f. O.
1869, p. 22).

Palestine. Universally distributed throughout Palestine in summer

_ (Tristram); strictly migratory; plentiful in Gilead and Moab (Tristram).

Egypt. Extremely abundant throughout Egypt and Nubia (Shelley) ;

breeds among lofty crags along the banks of the Nile in Nubia( Leith Adams).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 15

Sixaitic Peninsula. Generally distributed, but not very common
(Wyatt).

Algeria. Very rare in winter, but found in summer in the Sahara (Tris-
tram). Extensively distributed in Algeria and Tunis; breeds (Salvin).

Morocco. Common in Tangier; breeds near Tetuan (Drake); appears
near Tangier in flocks during migration, some remaining to nest in the
vicinity, awaiting the return of the autumn migration to winter probably in
the interior of Africa. They pass over to Europe from February to April,
returning in August and September (Favier, ef. Irby, B. Gibr. p. 31).

Canary Islands &c. Common in all the Canarian Group; breeds in
Teneriffe and probably in the other islands (Godman). Madeira (Vernon
Harcourt).

Persia &c. Rare in Persia to the south of Elburz, frequent in the Cau-
casus and at Ghilan (Filippi); the first specimens seen at Bakou in the
Caucasus in spring, and afterwards on the mountains of Talyche, but never
were more than two together (Ménétriés, Cat. p. 27).

Turkestan. Breeds in the whole country, and is found during summer
in the district “ from 600 to 1000 feet above the sea-level, comprising the
salt-plains, the cultivated districts, grassy steppes, and gardens to 3000
or 4000 feet altitude, and is said to breed in the larch-woods, apple- and
ash-groves of the Karatau and the lower Thian-Shan mountains ” ( Severt-
zoff, ef. Dresser, Ibis, 1875, p. 99).

ETHIOPIAN ReGIoNn.

N.E. Africa. Commonest bird of prey in Egypt, Arabia, and the Somali
coasts ; in the interior of Abyssinia to about 11,000 feet; on the Upper
White Nile and Gazelle River only accidental (Heuglix) ; found on the
coast of Egypt between Cosseir and Suakin, coast of Abyssinia, Danakil
country between the peninsula of Buri and the Gulf of Tadjura, Somali
coast; South Arabia (Heuglin); Zoulla and Senafé (Blanford); Angollala,
Shoa (Harris).

E. Africa. Zanzibar (Von der Decken).

S. Africa. Zambesi district (Kirk); very rare in Natal (Ayres); said
to be common in the interior of Cape colony and about Namaqua Land—
at the western end of the colony decidedly searee—Hopefield, Malmesbury
district (Layard) ; Kingwilliamstown (Trevelyan); breeds near Swellendam
(Atmore); not uncommon in Damara and Great Namaqua Lands and the
parts adjacent, more especially in the neighbourhood of the coast (Anders-
son); Mossamedes (Sala, Mus. Lugd.).

West Africa. Absent.

Cape-Verd Islands (Bolle, Dohrn). St. Iago (Mus. Lisb.), Mayo
(Bouvier).

18. NeopHron cinernranus. (Map VIII.)

N. ernerntanus (Lath.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 18.
This species differs from the ordinary Scavenger Vulture of

16 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Europe in having a yellow instead of a blackish bill. Mr. Brooks
writes (Ibis, 1870, p. 290) :—‘ The distinction of the dark bill does
exist, but only in certain localities in India. When at Delhi the
other day I observed that some of these birds had dark bills,
others not so dark, and some had light ones. The difference may
be due to some peculiarity of climate ; that it is specific I do not
believe. I shot one bird at Delhi which hasa dark bill and claws,
the cere of a deeper colour than the rest of the bare skin, and a
few small white feathers on the throat ; but had I chosen, I could
also have procured close to this bird one with a light bill, and a
complete representative of our more southern bird. In size, pro-
portion of wings to tail, and other points these birds vary a
little ; and in colour of the bill they vary much. I could not
procure a black-billed one here at Etawah, nor could I at
Almorah, which is much further north than Delhi; but at Delhi
the black bills are the rule. The one I shot has a dark bill; but
I saw many others with the point of the bill nearly, or quite,
black.

“Between this and Delhi there must be a part of the country
where light and dark bills will be equally common; and north
and west of Delhi there will be a place where the weakly birds
with pale bills will never be found. Ihave no doubt that dark
and light-billed birds will sometimes be found breeding toge-
ther, a dark-billed male and a light-billed female, or vice versa.
Mr. Blyth, not having seen dark-billed birds in India, was
quite justified in thinking then that our pale-billed bird was of
another species. With the aid of a powerful glass I examined
every Weophron I saw at Delhi; and few indeed had light bills.”

The above interesting note shows that in all probability the
two Neophrons grade into each other; and it is certain that
the range of the two is continuous; for Mr. Hume writes :—
“In Sindh, at Gwader, and at Muscat it swarms wherever human
habitations are found, and in the most uninhabited parts, even in
the Kelat Hills a pair may occasionally be found.” Again, he
writes that it occurs throughout Sindh, Kutch, Kattiawar, Jodh-
poor, and Rajpootana. Captain Butler says that it is a very
common species both on the hills and in the plains near Mount
Aboo, and in northern Guzerat. According te Mr. Blyth, it
is a summer visitor to Afghanistan; and Mr. Ball has lately
noticed it from the Suliman Hills, west of Dera Ghazi Khan; but
he collected no specimens. He writes, “It was more abundant

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 17

in the Sulimans than in any other part of India which I have
visited. This was probably due to the fact of the absence or ex-
treme rarity of any of the true Vultures” (Str. F. 1875, p. 205).

Not uncommon in Kattiawar, but somewhat locally distributed
(Lloyd).

Occurs in the N.W. Himalayas, and is common in the large stations up
to at least 9000 feet elevation (Jerdon, Ibis, 1871, p. 237).

Between Simla and Mussoorie; notcommon. I didnot see more than a
dozen together at all heights (Tytler, Ibis, 1871, p. 194).

Breeds at Murree; a nest found ina cliffin May, with two fresh eggs, at
an elevation of about 4000 feet (Cock &§ Marshall, S. F. 1873, p. 349).
Noticed this species as high as Danguli between Mussoorie and Gangaotri
(Brooks, 8. F. 1875, p. 228). Nepaul (Hodgson); in great numbers
in Oudh and Kumaon; frequently seen in Kumaon, and is common at
Nynee Tal and Almora; seldom, if ever, seen near Calcutta (Irby).

Abundant on the plains of India; rare and accidental below the tideway
of the rivers in Lower Bengal (Blyth); common in villages in Chota Nag-
pur, especially about those of the untidy aborigines (Ball, S. F. 1874,
p: 3/7). Whardha valley ; breeding in a cliff at the side of the Whardha
river on April 14; again on atree on May 2 (Blanford); Deccan (Sykes);
Travancore (Hlwes).

Ceylon. One specimen at Newara Ellia (Vincent Legge, S. F. 1875,
p. 195).

14. Neopuron prneatus. (Map IX.)

N. pryeatus (Burch.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 18.

South Africa. Not found in the colony (Layard); but few seen in Natal
(Ayres); not common in Damara Land, but becomes more numerous
towards the Orange river (Andersson); universal in the Zambesi region
(Kirk).

W. Africa. River Gambia (Bravo); Raffisque, Senegal (Marche);
Bissao (Pimenta, Mus. Lisb.); Sierra Leone (Ussher, Marche); very com-
mon on the Gold Coast (Ussher); Aguapim (Riiss); mountains of Agua-
pim at Aburi, also on the Wuri, Cameroons (Reichenow). Reichenow is
surprised to find that Ussher mentions this Vulture as bemg common
at Cape Coast, since he did not meet with it at Accra and other places
on the Gold Coast (J. f. O. 1874, p. 384); Shelley and Buckley, how-
ever, record it as abundant at Cape-Coast Castle all the year round,
being never molested; but they also note its absence near Accra (Ibis,
1872, p. 292); River Volta (Ussher); Lagos (Ussher); river Niger
(Baikie); S. Thomas (Lopez de Lima).

N.-E. Africa. In N.-E. Africa northwards to 14° or 17° N. lat.; in
southern Arabia, Samhar, and the mountains of the Beni Amer, com-
moner than N. percnopterus on the White Nile (Heuglin); breeds on the
Blue Nile in December (A. Brehm); Senaar (Kotschy, Vierthaler); Shoa
(Harris); Keren, Bogos (Antinori § Beccari) br eeds near Massowa

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 2

18 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

(Duke Ernst); Zoulla (Blanford); common from the coast to the high-
lands of Abyssinia (Jesse); islands of the Dahalak group, very common
in marshy country near Chor-Mosgan, Somali, not seen about Tadjura
and Berbera (Heuglin).

E. Africa (Von der Decken). No exact locality recorded.

15. SARCORHAMPHUS GRYPHUS. (Map. I.)

S. crypuHus (L.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 20.

Hab. “The Condor is known to have a wide range, being found on the
west coast of South America, from the Strait of Magellan, throughout the
range of the Cordillera, as far, according to M. d’Orbigny, as 8° N. lat. On
the Patagonian shore the steep cliff near the mouth of the Rio Negro in
lat. 41° was the most northern point where I ever saw these birds or heard
of their existence; and they have wandered about 400 miles from the
great central line of their habitation in the Andes. Further south, among
the bold precipices which form the head of Port Desire, they are not un- ~
common ; yet only a few stragglers ever reach the coast” (Darwin). Chili,
from the Strait of Magellan to the Atacama desert (Philippi); found in all
the provinees of Chili, and very abundant in the elevated valleys of the Andes
(Brydges). ‘The Condor I first saw at Cape Possession, considerable
numbers of the bird nesting on high ledges of the cliffs in this vicinity”
(Cunningham) ; “in all the western parts of the La-Plata countries on the
Cordilleras, but also on the high ranges in the interior—namely, on the
Sierra de Cordova and Aconquija, where I myself saw the bird” (Burmei-
ster); Peru (Mus. Philad.) ; Ecuador (Orton); Columbia, ‘‘ We saw the
Condor as we were crossing the Paramo of Pamplona above Vetas, altitude
11,500 feet ” (Wyat?).

N.B.—The Condor is here treated as a single species; but
there are probably three species or races—the first from Magellan
Strait and Chili, the second from Peru, and the third from Ecua-
dor and Columbia. Since I named the last §. equatorialis, I have
seen no additional evidence as to its distinctness as a species, and
the question remains in statu quo. I recently examined a bird in
Mr. Boucard’s house from Columbia; but the specimen was evi-
dently young, and could not be compared with the scuthern form,
of which we have only adults in the Museum.

16. Carnarres PAPA. (Map IT.)

C. papa (L.); Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 22.

Hab. Southern Mexico (Sallé). Vera Cruz, S. Mexico (Boucard). Three
specimens captured in the mountains near Acaponetti, about eighty miles
south-east of Mayatlan (Grayson, cf. Lawrence, Mem. Bost. Soc. ii.p.303).
Honduras, procured at Omoa and in the mountains of San Pedro, not com-
mon about Omoa, but more frequently seen in the less-inhabited districts im

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 19

the centre of Vera Paz, frequenting the higher ranges( Leyland). Guatemala:
Coban, Vera Paz ; found only in the coast districts, does not extend its range
into the central districts (Salvin). Costa Rica; only in the warmer and
more retired parts of the country, especially in the neighbourhood of the
coast ; seen in San Juan de] Nerte, and some specimens on the western side
(Pacaca) (Von Franizius). Panama (M‘Clelland); New Granada (Salmon);
Bogota (Selater); Santa Martha (Verreaux); Trinidad, met with on a
journey from Port of Spain to the east coast (£. C. Taylor); British
Guiana (Schomburgk); by no means common in Demerara (Bonyan).
Brazil; Rio Itapemirini, Rio Perahype, Rio Ilheos (Prince Mazimilian) ;
Lagoa Santa (Burmeister); Rio de Janeiro (Mus. Lisb.); Minas Geraes
(Lund); Ytararé (February), Murungaba (March), Rio Araguay (October,
November), Jacobina (July), Caigara (October), Engenho de Capt. Gama
(September), Borna, Rio Branco (April, May), Serra Carauman (July)
(Naiterer). All the forests of the Lower Amazons (Wallace); Xeberos
and Santa Cruz, Huallaga river, E. Peru (#. Bartlett). The whole of
Brazil, Western Peru, and Bolivia; towards the south it extends its migra-
tions to the 28th degree of lat. to Paraguay and Corrientes, where, how-
ever, it becomes rare, never found to the west of the Andes (D’Orbigny).

17. CATHARISTES ATRATUS. (Map III.)

C. arratus (Bartr.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 24.

N. America. “ Quite common along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from
North Carolina to Mexico. It does not occur on the Pacific coasts of the
United States, though given by Douglas as being abundant on the Columbia
river; indeed it has not, that J am aware of, been detected west of the
Rocky Mountains. It is, however, as Dr. Gambel states, very common
about the Gulf of California; and at Mazatlan, particularly, he saw it round
the town in large companies. On the Atlantic coast it is not often met
with further north than Wilmington, N.C. I could not detect it near
Norfolk, Va., nor could I understand that it was known ever to occur
there. Accidental specimens have been taken, two on the coast of Mas-
sachusetts and one in the Bay of Fundy; but such occurrences are very
rare. Along the coast of all the Southern States, from North Carolina
to Texas it is much more abundant than R. aura, eyen where, in the
interior of the same state, it is far less frequent. Along the banks of
the Mississippi and its tributaries, as far as Ohio to the east and Illinois
to the north, it is found more or less abundantly at certain seasons.
It is met with in several of the West-India Islands, though rare in
Jamaica ”’ (Brewer, in the 3rd vol. of N.-American Birds, p. 352); Florida
(G. C. Taylor); on the Rio Grande, Texas, about equally common with
C. aura, but towards San Antonio, much less so (Dresser).

C. America. Orizaba, Mexico (Bottert); Mazatlan, ‘‘may be met with
- in all Mexico, but is more common in the tierras calientes (Grayson,

D*

20 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

cf. Lawrence, Mem. Bost. Soc. u. p. 303); everywhere in Guatemala
(Salvin) ; very abundant in Honduras in the villages (G. C. Taylor); in
great numbers about Omoa (Leyland); breeds in Costa Rica, where it isa
very common species in the neighbourhood of almost every imhabited
place (Von Franézius); Panama (J4‘Clelland).

West-India Islands. Cuba (Gundlach); Jamaica, recently arrived
(March) ; not seen there by Mr. Gosse ; not in Porto Rico (£. C. Taylor),
nor in any of the islands between Trinidad and S. Thomas (L. C. Taylor).

S. America. Very common in Trinidad and Venezuela (E. C. Taylor);
widely distributed in British Guiana (Bonyan); Surinam (Mus. Luyd.) ;
New Granada (Mus. Lugd.); Columbia, Ocana (Wyatt); Ecuador, in hun-
dreds at Babahoyo, Perruche, common in the pueblo, sitting on the roofs,
and above Puellaro (Fraser); Fiz, ra, common throughout the country
ail the year round, more especiall, '« the dry season, when the Peruvians are
collecting and drying Vacea marina and fish (H. Bartlett). ‘“ We have
met with this Vulture in the whole of Brazil, m the Republie of Uruguay,
in Patagonia, Paraguay, Chili, Peru, Bolivia. Itis common at Maldonado,
in the Banda oriental of La Plata, but is never found near Buenos Ayres.
Tt only commences to become common again in Patagonia, which caused
Azara to say that it was not found to the south of the La Plata. We can only
attribute its disappearance to the absence of trees or bushes in the Pampas ;
for it reappears in numbers on approaching the Cordillera of the Andes. It
disappears at once, and is seldom seen in the elevated parts of this Cordil-
lera. We have met with it more often and in large troups in Patagonia,
on the banks of the Rio Negro, near the towns in Chili, and particularly
on the maritime coasts of Peru, as well as in the ‘interior in the plains of
Bolivia; but it is rare in the mountains” (D’Orbigny). Rio Janeiro
(December), Ypanema (April, May) (Natterer); Para (Wallace, Layard);
Lagoa Santa (Lund); Catangallo (August) (Huler) ; Santa Catharina (Ber-
lepsch); Rio Negro, Patagonia (Hudson); never found to the south of this
river, never seen in Patagonia or Tierra del Fuego (Darwin); common in
the whole of Brazil, spread through the La-Plata States, but more plen-
tiful in the east and north than in the west and south, nowhere so common
as in Brazil (Burmeister); comes into the province of Santiago and the
northern parts of Chili, but not in such innumerable quantities asin Peru,
where thousands of these birds are found in the streets of Lima (Bibra) ;
found on the eastern sides of the Andes near Mendoza, and occasion-
ally seen in the province of Colchagua (Brydges); common in Mendoza;
not seen in Chiloe or on the west coxst of the continent to the south of that.
island (Darwin). Prof. Cunningham, however, found this Vulture very
common in Chiloe; so that perhaps it has been introduced there since
Mr. Darwin’s voyage.

The British Museum has a skin said to be from Buenos Ayres ;
but it is probably from some adjacent locality.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. Pall

18. Rurwroerypuus aura. (Map V1.)

R. aura (L.); Ridgw. N. A. Birds, ii. p. 344.

CEnops aura (L.); Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 25.

Hab. Dr. Coues gives a very concise account of the range of this bird,
which I extract from his ‘ Birds of the North-west :’—“ Although more par-
ticularly an inhabitant of the warmer parts of America, and most numerous
in the Southern States, along with the Black Vulture (Catharistes atratus),
the Turkey Buzzard is nevertheless found all over the United States and a
little way into British America. On the Atlantic coast its ordimary limit
is Long Island; Audubon’s data were incomplete in rendering his state-
ment that it is wever seen beyond New Jersey. It has been repeatedly
observed in southern New England, and at least once in Maine. Its
Nova-Scotia record, as remarked by F %¢ rewer, is vague, and probably
unfounded; and even its New-Englant: decurrences are rare, if not alto-
gether casual. It is included in Mr. M‘Ilwraith’s list of the birds of
Hamilton, Canada West, with the remark that it is a regular summer Visi-
tor to the extensive flats near Chatham and along the shores of Lake
Saint Clair. In the interior it regularly goes further north than on the coast.
Mr. Trippe found it abundant in Minnesota, where it breeds; and Sir John
Richardson’s well-known record fixes its northern limit at about latitude
53°, in the region of Saskatchewan, where it arrivesin June. The highest
point where I ever saw it myself, up to the date of present writing, was
Fort Randall, lat. 43° 11’, on the Missouri: at the close of the most ter-
rific storm of the season of 1872-3, memorable for its severity, five or
six birds came sailing over the fort. This was on the 15th of April;
none had been observed previously after October; and I do not think it
usually passes the inclement season at this point.

“This brings us to consider the resident range of the species as com-
pared with its summer dispersion. It has not been observed to winter on
the Atlantic beyond New Jersey, and even in that State is more numerous
in summer than in winter. But at Washington, D. C., my home for a
number of years, where the bird is very common, I noticed no material di-
minution of its numbers during the colder months. The same is the case
in both the Carolinas, where I constantly observed it during a residence of
three or four years. In the interior it appears to winter higher up; thus
Mr. Trippe saw it late in October, and again in December, in Minnesota.
But the last may have been an unusual occurrence; probably the parallel
of 40°, or rather the isothermal! corresponding to this ijatitude on the
Atlantic coast, may approximately indicate the line of its northernmost
winter residence.”

Captain Blakistone’s observations on the Turkey Vulture in British
North America are as follows :—‘ A specimen was shot at Red-River Set-
tlement on the 27th of April; observed at Fort Carlton near the forks of
the Saskatchewan river in lat, 53° on May 7th, and again on the 7th of

oD. MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

September. I saw one feeding on a dead horse at the western base of the
Rocky Mountains, a few miles south of where I determined the interna-
tional boundary, 49th parallel. Again I saw many Vultures ia the northern
part of the State of Minnesota in the early part of the May following.
Several specimens are in the Smithsonian Institution just from near the
49th parallel.”

Common on the Rio Grande at Los Pinos, about 20 miles below Albu-
querque (Coues); abundant at Fort Whipple, Arizona, but migrating in
the latter part of October (Cowes).

Dr. Brewer (B. N. 4. iii. p. 345) completes the range of the bird in
North America as follows :—‘ West of the Alleghanies it has a much less
restricted distribution, from Central America almost to the Arctic regions,
It is found more or less frequently in all the middle, the southern, west-
ern, and north-western States without an exception. It is met with in
large numbers throughout the entire Pacific coast of North America, from
Lower California to Washington territory.

Vancouver’s Island (Brown).

Florida (G. C. Taylor). Matamoras, Texas (Dresser).

Bahama Islands (Baird).

Bermuda. Once in December (Baird).

CENTRAL AMERICA.

Mexico. Orizaba (Botteri). Very numerous in Western Mexico, and I
found it as far south as Tehuantepec and in the Tres Marias (Grayson,
ef. Lawrence, Mem. Bost. Soc. ii. p. 303).

~Honduras. Common, usually seen in the outskirts of towns and in the
villages (G. C. Taylor).

Guatemala. Not nearly so abundant as Catharistes atratus, frequenting
the uncultivated and forest districts ; a few may always be seen about the
Lake of Duentas (Salvin).

Costa Rica. Much rarer than C. atratus, and only found far from human
habitations (Von Frantzius, J. f. O. 1869, p. 370).

Panama (M*Clelland).

West-Inpia Isuanps.
Jamaica. The scavenger in towns and villages (H.C. Taylor).
Cuba. Resident (Gundlach).
N.B.—Dr. Gundlach discredits the occurrence of the species
in Porto Rico (augé), and also in 8. Domingo.

Soutn AMERICA.
Columbia Ocaita (Wyatt).
Ecuador. J think it probable that the Turkey Vulture of these countries
will prove to be the true R. aura; but Ihave not seenaspecimen. Fraser
obtained them at Puellaro, Pallatanga, and Babahoyo. It is to be noted

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES. 23

that he gives the colour of the legs as “‘ yellow ;”? Audubon describes them
as “ flesh-coloured tinged with yellow.”

Venezuela. Mr. E. C. Taylor does not notice any difference between
the Turkey Vulture that he found to be “‘numerous on the Orinoco,” and
the one he observed in Jamaica.

Trinidad (E. C. Taylor). Whichever species the Venezuelan bird proves
to be, the species will doubtless be the same from this island.

Chili. The Turkey Vulture, identical with North-American specimens,
is found in Chili, and probably migrates along the chain of the Andes.
Unfortunately we do not know whether it is resident or only a visitant
to this country. Dr. Philippi speaks of it as being as common as R.
atratus, but always found near the coast (Cat. Mus. Sant. p. 2); itis found
in abundance along the coast of Chili, also in the interior (Brydyes); Has-
leyn Cove (May 1868), Halt Bay, and Messeur Channel (Cunningham).

La-Plata States. In the western and northern part of the La-Flata
country— Mendoza, Catamarca, Tucuman (Lurmeister).

19. RuINoGRYPHUS PERNIGER. (Map V1.)

CENoPsS PERNIGER, Sharpe, Cat. B. 1. p. 26.

In my ‘ Catalogue’ I separated the Turkey Vulture of South
America as a distinct species from that of North America. ZR.
perniger I believe to be a small form resident in South America;
but the range is at present entirely undecided. The British
Museum has a specimen from the north side of the river Ama-
zon, collected by Mr. Wallace; and I believe that another skin
procured by Mr. H. Whitely at Arequipa, in Peru, is the same
bird. Itis doubtless the bird of which Burmeister speaks, under
the name of Catharistes awra, as breeding in Brazil, where it is not
found in the wood-region, but more in the Campos districts of
inner Brazil; it is not nearly so common as C. afratus, and
was not met with by him on his journey. It does not live in
troops like the last named, but singly or in pairs, like the King
Vulture. Azara found it in Paraguay. WNatterer’s localities are
as follows :—

Forte do S. Joao, on the sea-shore (February) ; Mattodentro (Decem-
ber); Ypanema (April); Sapitiba (February); Fachina Velha (August);
Ytararé (April) ; Forte do Rio Branco (February, April).

From what I have said, it will be seen that it is by no means
easy to define the species or the ranges of the Turkey Buzzards;
and a great deal more research and a larger number of specimens
are required to solve the problem.

24 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

20. RutnoGRYPHUS FALKLANDICUS. (Map. VI.)
Cinops FALKLANDICA, Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 27, pl. u. fig. 1.
Hab. Falkland Islands, where it replaces the true R. aura, from which
it is distinguished by the secondaries being grey externally.

21. RuINoGRYPHUS URUBITINGA. (Map VII.)

(inors URUBITINGA (Pelz.); Sharpe, Cat. Afr. B. i. p. 28, pl. 2.
fig. 2.

Hab. Brazil (Mus. Norw.); Ivisanga (S. Paulo), December; Sapitiba,
February ; Forte do Rio Branco, February, March, and April (J. Natierer).
Chyavetas, E. Peru, “keeps to the forest in pairs, never approaching the
towns and villages” (H. Bartlett). Surinam (Mus. Brit.). British
Guiana, and less numerous than Catharisies atratus; found principally
about the creeks of Mahaica and Mahaicony ” (Bonyan).

N.B. This may also be the Yellow-headed Vulture noticed by
Mr. Layard near Para (Ibis, 1873, p. 395).

22. RHINOGRYPHUS CALIFORNIANUS. (Map VIL.)

CENOPS CALIFORNIANA (Shaw); Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 28.

Hab. Pacific-coast region of North America, from the mouth of the
Colorado to the Columbia, Southern Utah (Henshaw). Fort Yuma,
Arizona (Coues; cf. Ridgway, N.-A. Birds, iii. p. 339; Cowes, B. N.W.
p- 384).

As in the case of the other North-American Vultures, I extract the
range as given by Dr. Brewer in his great work on North-American Birds :—
“This large Vulture, so far as is known, is restricted to the area on the
Pacific coast from the Columbia river to the Colorado, and extending as
far to the east as the Sierra Nevada. None are known to have been taken
in Mexico; and it very rarely goes north of the Columbia. It is said
to be most common in the hot mterior valleys of California, where are
large herds of cattle, upon which it to a large extent depends for its food.
Dr. Cooper saw none on the Colorado, and met with none east of the San-
Bernardino Mountams. Even at Fort Mohave the cattle killed during the
five months he resided there did not attract one of these Vultures.

« Dr. Cooper did not see these birds in any number along the sea-coast,
and has noticed none on the islands or in the highest Sierra Nevada. Yet
they are said, when other food is scarce, to feed on dead seals and whales ;
but this fact he has never witnessed,

“Dr. Newbury states * * * after his party left the Sacramento Valley,
he saw very fewin the Klamath basin, and met with none within the limits
of Oregon. It is occasionally found there, but much more rarely than in
California.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TITE ACCIPITRES. 25

EXPLANATION OF THE MAPS (PLATES I.-IX.).
Map I.

The range of Vultur monachus in the Old World is coloured
yellow, the probable distribution of the species being coloured
lighter.

In the New World the range of the Condors (Sarcorhamphus
gryphus and allied species) is coloured blue.

Mar II.

The Griffon Vulture’s range is here coloured yellow, the pro-
bable extent of it being represented lighter. No distinction is
made in the habitats of G. fulvus, G. fulvescens, &c.,as their spe-
cific value is still swb judice; and therefore the map shows the
distribution of the true Griffons.

The blue colour illustrates the range of the King Vulture (Ca-
thartes papa).

Wee

The South-African Griffon (Gyps Kolbi) inhabits the part of
Africa coloured yellow ; and its ally, the Himalayan Griffon (Gyps
himalayensis), is found in the Himalayas and in Turkestan, in the
country coloured pink.

In the New World the range of the Black Turkey-Vulture
(Catharistes atratus) is coloured blue.

Map LY.

The range of Ruppell’s Griffon (Gyps Rueppelli) is coloured
yellow, and that of the Long-billed Griffon (Gyps indicus) pink,
both being Old-world species.

Map V.

This map illustrates the range of the genus Pseudogyps,—the
Bengal White-backed Griffon (P. bengalensis) being found in the
country coloured pink, whilst the range of its African represen-
tative, the White-backed Griffon (P. africanus), is shown by the
yellow colouring.

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIE. 3

26 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACCIPITRES.

Mar VI.

The range of the genus Lophogyps is here shown by its single
species, Z. occipitalis, found in Africa, as illustrated by the yellow
colour.

The ordinary Turkey-Vulture of the New World (Rhinogry-
phus aura) is found in the countries coloured green; and the
habitat of its South-American representative (2. perniger) will
most likely be found to be in the part of the continent coloured
blue, the Falkland-Islands Turkey- Vulture (2. falklandicus) being
confined, as its name implies, to the Falklands (pink).

Map VII.

This shows the range of the genus Otogyps—that of the Indian
Eared Vulture (O. calvus) being coloured pink, while its African
ally is found in the districts coloured yellow, no distinction being
made between the Nubian and South-African races.

- In the New World is illustrated the range of the Californian
Vulture (green); and that of the Yellow-headed Turkey- Vulture
(&. urubitinga) is coloured blue.

Map VIII.

On this map is shown the range of the White Scavenger Vul-
tures, Neophron percnopterus and N. ginginianus. That of the
former is coloured yellow, and that of the Indian species pink ;
but it is difficult to say where the ranges of the two species coalesce.

Map IX.

In this map is illustrated the range of the Hooded Scavenger
Vulture (Weophron pileatus), no distinction being drawn between
the typical form and the smaller and more northern one, W. mona-
chus, which I do not now believe to be of specific value (yellow).

MIGRATION AND HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING. 27

On the Migration and Habits of the Norwegian Lemming.
By W. Duppa Croteg, Esq., M.A., F.L.S.

[Read May 4, 1876.]

AutHover much has been written and constantly repeated, with
reference to the habits and migrations of the Lemming, yet the
obscurity which hangs alike over its permanent home and the
motive of its journeys has never been completely dissipated ; and
I much fear that the present paper will rather suggest a new pro-
blem than prove a satisfactory solution of those already existing.

During ten consecutive summers spent in Norway I have
three times lived literally in the midst of the lemmings, and
have even, though involuntarily, shared my bed with them; thus I
am enabled to speak positively, so far, at least, as my observation
extends.

The species to which these remarks apply rejoices, unfortunately,
in many an “alias ;’’ but perhaps the name Lemmus norvegicus *
will best suit the present purpose, especially as the native name
for the animal is “ Lemander.’”? This mouse, or rather vole, since
it belongs to the Arvicole, resembles in colour and form a dimi-
nutive Guinea-pig, and is extremely variable in its size and mark-
ings. It has long attracted the notice of writers, both on account
of its sudden appearance and its pugnacious and indomitable
disposition; and the early description, “ Victitat betule nane
amentis, lichene rangiferino et aliis, mordax, sibilat, hieme sub
nive currit, singulis circiter decem annis, insigni gelu presertim
imminente, universus animalium exercitus, autumno, noctu pre-
sertim linea recta migrat; pauca tamen in montes redeunt,”
has been usually followed and quoted, although, as will presently
appear, it leaves much to be desired. Olaus Magnus thought
that lemmings fell from the clouds, to which Ray rejoins, “ mihi
minime probatur,”’ adding that anatomical investigation had con-
vinced him that “ nature had not been such a niggard of her gifts
as to render such a method of generation necessary.”

Pennant ¢ says that the Norwegian lemmings, which are larger
than the Russian species, descend from the Kolen, marching in
parallel lines 3 feet apart ; they traverse Nordland and Finmark,
cross lakes and rivers, and gnaw through hay- and corn-stacks

* [Even more correctly Myodes lemmus (Linn.).—Ep. |
t Synop. of Quad. 1771, p. 271; Hist. Quad. 1798, p. 198.

3*

28 MR. W. D. CROTON ON THE MIGRATION AND

rather than go round. They infect the ground, and the cattle
perish which taste of the grass which they have touched : nothing
stops them, neither fire, torrents, lakes, nor morasses. The greatest
rock gives them but a slight check; they go round it, and then
resume their march directly without the least division. If they
meet a peasant, they persist in their course, and jump as high
as his knees in defence of their progress. They are so fierce
as to lay hold of a stick and suffer themselves to be swung about
before they quit their hold. If struck, they turn about and bite,
and will make a noise like a dog. Foxes, lynxes, and ermines
follow them in great numbers; and at length they perish either
through want of food or by destroying one another, or in some
great water, or in the sea. They are the dread of the country ;
and in former times spiritual weapons were exerted against them:
the priest exorcised them, and had along form of prayer to arrest
the evil. Happily it does not occur frequently, once or twice in
twenty years. It seems like a vast colony of emigrants from a
nation overstocked—a discharge of animals from the northern
hive which once poured out its myriads of human beings upon
Southern Europe. They do not form any magazine for winter
provision ; by which improvidence, it seems, they are compelled to
make their summer migrations in certain years, urged by hunger.
They are not poisonous, as vulgarly reported; for they are
often eaten by the Laplanders, who compare their flesh to that
of squirrels.

Here I must enter a protest ; for having tasted many animals,
I should prefer even the “‘ cold missionary ” of Sydney Smith to
a lemming ragout. However, tastes differ. I once made a
savoury mess of stewed ermines, and invited my Norwegian guide
and friend to partake of it. He gently and politely said, “I
have breakfasted,”’ but immediately walked out and returned
without that most necessary meal.

Prof. Newton *, writing on the migration of birds, distinguishes
as “ partial migrants ”’ such species as the woodcock, of which only
the majority of individuals migrate. The lemmings must belong
to this class, since although none of their wandering hosts return,
it must be assumed, even if it be difficult of proof, that some re-
main at home to supply material for future emigrants. While
a deficiency of food explains the departure, it does not, as Prof.
Newton rightly remarks, account for the return of those birds

* Encyel. Brit. 9th ed. (1875) vol. iii. p. 765.

HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING. 29

which migrate south. There is, however, in birds, and, I believe
in fish, a very strong affection for their old nests and breeding-
places generally, which cannot exist in the lemmings, since they
breed en route.

M. Guyon*, writing in 1863, disposes of the theory that these
migrations are influenced by approaching severe weather, since
the one witnessed by himself took place in the spring; also the
superabundance of food during the previous autumn seemed evi-
dence against the theory of starvation. He therefore adopts a
third view, that excessive multiplication in certain years neces-
sitates emigration, and that this follows a descending course like
the mountain-streams, till at length the ocean is reached.

It is, however, very remarkable that no one professes to have
seen the lemming at home; and as he is not shy, the broad fjelds
of Norway are as conspicuous by his absence as by his too de-
monstrative presence.

I well remember, in the autumn of 1867, when I happened to
be shooting at an elevation of about 4000 feet, that my attention
was suddenly drawn to a shrill note, which I imagined to be pro-
duced by some bird unknown to me, till my Norsk companion
told me it was the ery of a Lemander or lemming.

T had not long to search for the musician. He had set his back
against a stone, and, repeatedly jerking his body up and down as
though intending to jump at me, kept uttering the quick shrill
yelp which first drew my attention. I made a hasty snatch at the
pretty animal, whose black bead-like eyes protruded with rage.
He also made a snatch; and his snatch proved the more suc-
cessful of the two, as his incisor teeth left their pattern on my
hand for some days afterwards.

My companion was no friend to the lemmings, and was loud
in his prophecies as to a severe winter and diminished grass to
follow in the spring. However, “one swallow does not make a
summer,” and it was some weeks before I saw another lemming ;
then, on lifting a large flat stone, I found six in a snug nest,
apparently recently born. In a few days the whole fjeld be-
came swarming with these pretty voles. My dogs waged inces-
sant war upon them, although they never eat them ; and I noticed .
that several species of hawks became unusually plentiful.

As the season advanced and snow covered the ground, footprints
showed how foxes had joined in the pursuit, whose tracks were
* ‘Comptes Rendus, 1863, p. 486; and Ann. & Mag.’N. H. 3rd ser. xii. p. 407.

30 MR. W. D. CROTCH ON TUE MIGRATION AND

studded with dead lemmings, which they had killed but not
eaten, probably having plenty of more delicate food. In the
higher fjelds I noticed that the Reindeer had often killed the lem-
mings, apparently by stamping upon them, though I do not believe
their bodies are ever eaten.

It was a curious sight, when the whole visible landscape was of
a spotless whiteness, to see an apparently black form suddenly
spring from the surface and scurry over the snow and again
vanish. I found some of the holes where this feat was executed
were at least 5 feet in depth ; and when the snows of eight months
had melted beneath perpetual daylight and almost perpetual sun-
shine, it became easy to trace the long lines formed in the grass
by these improvident excursionists. I use the word improvident,
because no stores were accumulated by them as by the common
field-mouse ; but yet this probably only necessitated foraging ex-
cursions whilst their congeners were lazily sleeping.

Tn this country we fail to conceive how much active life goes
on beneath the snow; but in northern latitudes its warm pro-
tection serves as a roof to numerous birds, quadrupeds, and
insects, who are thus enabled to find an otherwise impossible sus-
tenance. It is only at the commencement of the winter that the
footprints on the snow tell of the ceaseless struggles and surprises
which render the long autumnal nights so fatal to all but preda-
eecous animals.

Tt does not appear that the migration of the lemmings is ever
completed in one year. In this case, and im all the others that
I have noticed or heard of, the animals came during the summer.
There was no “ procession,” no serried bands undeterred by ob-
stacles; but there was a continuous invasion of temporary settlers,
which reared their young two or three times in the summer, and,
with reinforced numbers, spread even further westward. They
certainly did not mine through hay- and corn-stacks, as those
familiar objects are all but unknown in Norway.

Ou calm mornings my lake, which is a mile in width, was often
thickly studded with swimming lemmings, every head pointing
westward; but I observed that when the boat came near enough
to frighten them, they would lose all idea of direction, and fre-
quently swim back to the bank they had left. When the least
wind ruffled the water, it was all over with the swimmers; and
never did a frailer bark tempt a more treacherous sea, as the wind
swept daily down the valley and wrecked all who were then afloat.

HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING. 31

It was impossible not to feel pity for these self-haunted fugi-
tives. A meré cloud rapidly passing over the sun affrighted
them ; the approach of horse, cow, dog, or man alike roused their
impotent anger ; and their little bodies were convulsively pressed
against the never-failing stone of vantage whilst they uttered
cries of rage. I collected five hundred skins with the idea of making
a rug, but was surprised to find that a portion of the rump was
nearly always denuded of hair; and it was long before I discovered
that this was caused by that habit of nervously backing up against
a stone, to which I have already alluded. As this action is excited
by so slight and constant a matter as the passage of the shadow of
a cloud, [ confess I am surprised not to find a natural callosity
rather than so constant a lesion ; and this is a point which seems
of some little importance in connexion with the whole subject of
undoubtedly inherited tendencies, of which migration is an example.

Mr. Wallace * suggests that “the survival of the fittest ’’ has
played an important part in causing migration by giving an ad-
vantage to those animals which enlarge their breeding-area by
travel. The lemming, it is true, always breeds during migration ;
but if none return or survive, it is difficult to say what becomes
of the fittest. However, I shall shortly have to mention a theory
which may tide over the difficulty.

The lemmings certainly do not visit my part of Norway at any
recurring period of years; but every third or fourth year they may
be expected with tolerable regularity, though in variable num-
bers. Thus it is quite probable that some migrations may have so
far escaped notice as to give rise to the old idea that they took
place every tenth year.

They are, however, always directed westwards; and thus the
theory that they are caused by deficiency of food fails so far, that
these migrations do not take place in a southerly direction, by which
a larger supply might be obtained. M. Guyon (J. c.) suggested
that the course followed was merely that of the watershed.
However, this runs east as well as west, and follows valleys which
often run north and south for hundreds of miles, whereas the
route pursued by the Lemming is due west. At all events this is the
case in Norway, where they traverse the broadest lakes filled with
water at an extremely low temperature, and cross alike the most

rapid torrents and the deepest valleys.

With no guiding pillar of fire, they pass through a qildevarse
by night ; they rear their families on their journey ; and the three

* Nature, 1874, vol. x. p. 459.

32 MR. W. D. CROTCH ON THE MIGRATION AND

or four generations of a brief subarctic summer serve to swell
the pilgrim caravan. They winter beneath more than 6 feet of
snow during seven or eight weary months; and with the first days
of summer (for in these regions there is no spring) the migra-
tion is renewed. At length the harassed crowd, thinned by the
unceasing attacks of the wolf, the fox, the dog, and even the
reindeer, pursued by eagle, hawk, and owl, and never spared by man
himself, yet still a vast multitude, plunges into the Atlantic Ocean
on the first calm day, and perishes with its front still pointing
westward. No faint heart lingers on the way ; and no survivor re-
turns to the mountains. Mr. R. Collett,a Norwegian naturalist,
writes that in Noy. 1868 (quoted by Lilljeborg znfra) a ship sailed
for 15 hours through a swarm of Lemmings, which extended as far
over the Trondhjemsfiord as the eye could reach.

In this remarkable migration it is not perhaps the power of
direction evinced whieh is most striking. Domesticated animals,
and even men in a savage state, have often distinctly manifested
this faculty, which, to whatever it may be owing, is certainly not
explicable by any “ known sense or power of judgment.” |

Herr Palmén*, indeed, says “ experience guides migration,” and
the older migrants guide the younger, like one of Mr. Cook’s
“personally conducted tours.” This cannot be true of the lem-
mings. I may briefly mention that a young dog whieh I took
from England, and then from my home in Vaage Valley by a path
to Heindaken, a distance of forty-six miles, ran back the next
morning by a direct route of his own, crossing three rapid rivers
and much snow, and accomplishing the distance in less than six
hours without the vestige ofa path. This same dog afterwards
repeated the feat, but followed the path, and took two days in
reaching his destination, hindered and not aided, as I believe, by
his experience. But to return to the lemmings—it seems almost
impossible that a so-called instinct, even if this could be shown to be
independent of inherited experimental experience, would so totally
and persistently fail in its only rational purpose. If insufficiency
of food be alleged as the present cause of these migrations, the ques-
tion at once arises, why do not settlers make a permanent home
in the many oases through which they pass ? Why, in fact, do they
migrate westward and not southward? and why do they not re-
turn? ‘The Swallows and all our familiar migratory birds seek

* Om Foglarnes flyttningsvagy (Helsingfors, 1874), an abstract of whose
views is given by Prof. Newton, op. e7t.

HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING. 33

a more genial climate and more abundant food, but return to us
as surely as summer itself; nor do they ever, so far as I know,
breed during their passage. Even the Locusts present no such
problem as the lemmings, since it is generally the wind rather
than any migratory instinct which brings their dreaded hosts to
the shores of Europe. Perhaps the most noticeable parallel is
afforded by the migration of Pallas’s Sand-grouse in 1863*, when a
species, whose home is in the Tartar steppes, journeyed in consi-
derable numbers to the most western shores of Europe, and very
probably many individuals perished, like the lemmings, in the
waves of the Atlantic.

There is, however, a solution of this difficulty, Tae alatee a
subject that has always seemed to me of the deepest interest,
and which led me to spend two years among the Canaries and ad-
jacent islands. I allude to the island or continent of Atlantis.

Now without going so far as to assert that the Canary and
other Atlantic groups are but the uppiled volcanic summits of a
submerged land, it yet is evident that land did exist in the North
Atlantic Ocean at no very distant date; and the depth of water
on the so-called telegraph-plateau disposes of one of the difficul-
ties felt by many with regard to more southern latitudes. Is it not
then conceivable, and even probable, that when a great part of
Europe was submerged and dry land connected Norway with
Greenland, the Lemmings acquired the habit of migrating west-
ward for the same reasons which govern more familiar migrations?

To make this clearer, let me put a hypothetical case. Suppose
the Swallows were partial migrants from Great Britain, and sup-
pose that Africa were to become submerged, would not many
generations of Swallows still follow their inherited migratory in-
stincts, and seek the land of their ancestors through the new waste
of waters ? whilst the remaining stock, unimpeded by competition,
would soon recruit the ranks for a new exodus. It appears
quite as likely that the impetus of migration towards this conti-
nent should be retained as that a dog should turn round before
lying down on arug, merely because his ancestors found it neces-
sary thus to hollow out a couch in the long grass.

Influenced, I feel bound to admit, by this idea, I should
willingly have found lemmings in Iceland; but the only indi-
genous mammal there, I believe, is the Mus islandicus (? sylva-

* Vide ‘This,’ 1864, pp. 185-222.

34 ON THE MIGRATION AND HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING.

ticus). I presume Mr. Andrew Murray* had been misled by
insufficient description to suppose that this was a lemming
from the American continent, from which he would have derived
the comparatively recent connexion of Iceland and America.
Indeed Steenstrup has shown that this theory, so far as it was sup-
ported by the identity of species, was quite untenable. In the ab-
sence of living specimens, I turned to fossil remains; but the so-
called lemming of Brixham cave is stated to be Lagomys speleus,
which is more nearly allied to the hares. However, Professor
Owen found a Georychus, which probably is the Siberian lemming,
in company with remains of Elephas primigenius in lacustrine
brick-earth near Salisbury. Jam therefore inclined to assume
that in former days the lemming had a climatal motive for its
migrations ; and it may even be supposed that some, at least, re-
turned to their northern home ; otherwise it seems hard to account
for the persistency with which they cling to a suicidal routine.

One more point occurs to me before I conclude; and that is that
Ihave been quite unable, although living very high up in the
fjeld, to obtain any lemmings during the intervals of migration ;
nor can I throw any satisfactory light on their home, if it can be
called by that name. Prof. Lilljeborg statesT (as most Norwegians
believe, but few or none have verified) that the lemming has its
head quarters on the higher fields.

Finally, 1 feel that, whilst thus claiming this birthright of in-
herited tendencies for the lemming, 1 may be asked, ‘“‘ Why, then,
has the singular fact of the raw and denuded back produced no
inherited modification in the present race, since it is presumable
that their enemies are not creations of yesterday ?’’? Well, that I
cannot answer; and one of my chief reasons for publishing this
paper has been the hope that some one may be able to throw more
light on the subject.

* Geograph. Distrib. of Mam. (1866) p. 26.
+ Sveriges och Norges Ryggradsdjur, (1874) p. 374.

ON TREMATODE PARASITES FROM DOLPHINS. 35

Trematode Parasites from the Dolphins of the Ganges, Platanista
gangetica and Orcella brevirostris. By T. Spencer CoBso.p,
M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Correspondent of the Academy of
Sciences of Philadelphia.

[Read May 4, 1876.]
[Puate X.]

AN instructive coincidence in the pursuit of helminthology affords
ine the pleasure of bringing before the Society some noteworthy
facts respecting two forms of fluke parasite*.

The special interest attaching to these insignificant creatures
arises, in the first place, from the circumstance that they have been
obtained from cetacean hosts that were not previously known to be
liable to be infested by them. In the second place, both of the
parasites have each only once before been seen by any observer ;
and in either case the original cetacean host is generically distinct
from the hosts whence we have now obtained the parasites.
Thirdly, the locality whence we have procured these entozoa is
situated thousands of miles apart from either of the two regions
in which the original specimens were discovered. Fourthly, the
original localities yielding the specimens are themselves widely
divergent from one another. Fifthly, and in either case, verifi-
cation of the previously recorded facts has only been acquired
after a lapse of many years. Lastly, our knowledge of the inter-
nal structure of both of the parasites, which was hitherto very
limited, is now rendered tolerably complete, at least as regards the
morphology and arrangement of all the more important internal
organs.

For the possession of these parasites I stand indebted to Dr.
John Anderson, F.L.S., Superintendent of the Indian Museum,
Calcutta. I received them, with several others, on the 27th of
September, 1875; and if I understand rightly, they together
formed part of a much larger collection of entozoa, all of which
have been secured by Dr. Anderson from hosts occupying the
North-eastern Province of India. I may mention that the nema-
toid worms forming part of the contribution have already been
described by me elsewhere ; and, through the kindness of the donor,
I am encouraged to look forward to the receipt of additional spe-

* In an Appendix to this paper I have also noticed a third species.

36 DR. T. 8. COBBOLD ON TREMATODE PARASITES
cimens, whose examination will in all likelihood yield interesting
results.

The first trematode that I proceed to notice is the species
termed Distoma lancea by the late C. M. Diesing. His descrip-
tion was based upon the examination of several parasites found
by the Brazilian traveller Natterer. They were discovered in the
biliary ducts of a male Dolphin dissected at Barra do Rio Negro
on the 29th of December, 1833. Natterer calls this cetacean the
Tacuschi, and in a letter to Diesing names the species Delphinus
zacuschi in order to distinguish it from the D. amazonicus of Spix
and Martius.

In all cases of parasitism it is desirable, when possible, to get
accurate information as to the species of host infested. Accord-
ingly I have sought Professor Flower’s assistance ; and he informs
me that there are certainly two, if not three, species of Dolphin
inhabiting the Amazons. In his paper in the ‘ Trans. Zool. Soc.’
vol. vi. p. 87, he has shown that Spix and Martius’s D. amazonicus
is clearly referable to the Inia or Bolivian Dolphin (Inia Geof-
JSroyi). Thus far the views of Flower, Natterer, and Diesing are
in agreement; moreover the geographical position of Barra
shows that the Dolphin in question could not be the Inia, since,
as Blyth long ago remarked, this form “ inhabits only the remote
tributaries of the Amazon and the elevated lakes of Peru.’ Seve-
ral other species from this river have been described, one of
these being placed by Mr. Gray in a separate genus, and named
by him Steno tucuxi. From the specific title there can, I think,
be little doubt that Gray’s cetacean answers to the Delphinus
tacuschi of Natterer; but Professor Flower is of opinion that
Gray’s species is an ordinary Delphinus, in the sense in which that
genus is now commonly restricted. In this case it may, he thinks,
probably be referred either to the D. fluviatilis or to D. pallidus.
Whichever view is correct, it is clear that Natterer’s parasite was
obtained from a thoroughly fiuviatile cetacean, and not from an
oceanic or even an estuary form.

From Diesing’s original description, I am led to infer that
Natterer had carefully examined several Dolphins, with negative
results as regards the presence of flukes; at all events it is ex-
pressly stated that he found the Distoma lancea “ once only,”
when numerous examples of the parasite were secured. Dr.
Anderson’s specimen was a solitary one, procured from the short-
snouted Dolphin (Orcella brevirostris, Owen). He obtained it

FROM THE DOLPHINS OF THE GANGES. 37

on the 3rd of January, 1873. As it was removed from the duo-
denum, it might be expected to turn out a different species ; pro-
bably it had escaped from the liver, the ducts of which may have
contained others that evaded notice. Be that as it may, there can
be no doubt as to the species, which is easily recognized by the
fact that the body is irregularly serrated at its margin on either
side below the ventral suckers. I know of no other trematode
possessing these sinuosities. Dr. Anderson’s parasite does not
exhibit these irregular serrations so distinctly and sharply as the
artist has represented them in Diesing’s enlarged figures ; but this
may be due to the fact that the parasite is preserved in glycerine,
which has certainly distorted the specimen. Without attempting
any description of the anatomy of the worm, Diesing remarks that
the internal organs may he seen through the transparent body.
The uterine organs, crowded with ova and of a purple colour,
are represented in his figures as forming a rather complicated
rosette, branched after the fashion of a raceme. I have no doubt
that the artist has been misled. He has represented its mode of
termination above the ventral sucker quite correctly ; but the
uterine channel is not branched. I could not myself trace the
passage towards its lower or ovarian end; but the upper uterine
folds were few in number, broad, and simple in character.
Diesing’s figures give only obscure hints as to the situation of the
remaining internal organs. Dr. Anderson’s specimen showed
two large irregularly oval testes placed one above the other in
the middle line and rather higher up than is usual with those
distomes that have the organs presenting this simple form. Its
ducts were not visible. The yelk-forming glands are particularly
well marked in Anderson’s specimen, and consist of two laterally
disposed masses, that on the left side reaching somewhat higher,
whilst that on the right side extends correspondingly lower than
its fellow. None of the vitelligene ducts were visible; but the
so-called yelk-cells or capsules were well seen. The oval-shaped
eggs were tolerably distinct and measurable, yielding a length of
ziy inch from pole to pole, by about 5}y inch in their transverse
diameter, I could not get a clear view of the digestive canals;
but, from the slight markings here and there noticeable, I feel
tolerably sure that they conform to the ordinary unbranched type.
I have represented their probable position and extent by a dotted
outline. I saw no spines on the surface of the body ; but the
well-known tendency of these organs to fall off may have been the

38 DR. T. S. COBBOLD ON TREMATODE PARASITES

cause of their apparent absence. As regards size, the shrivelled
and shrunken character of the worm hardly permitted me to ascer-
tain the length with accuracy. It did not, however, when unrolled,
exceed one sixth of an inch at most, whereas some of Natterer’s
Specimens measured up to half an inch in length. The neck of
my specimen had also entirely lost that full and rounded charac-
ter which Diesing has so well figured and called skittle-shaped
(kegelformige). The ventral sucker is very nearly twice as large
as the oral sucker, the former measuring about the <1, and the
latter =, inch in diameter from side to side. Diesing represents
the ventral sucker as perfectly circular ; but in Anderson’s spe-
cimen this organ is broadly oval, the transverse diameter being
longer than the vertical. The central cup is somewhat less than
zis inch in breadth.

The second trematode is one to which I am inclined to attach
more importance, partly, no doubt, on account of the circumstance
of its having been discovered by myself nearly twenty years since,
but chiefly because the possession of many specimens has enabled
me to acquire a much more accurate knowledge of its structure and
affinities than that obtained in the case of Distomalancea. In the
22nd volume of the Society’s ‘Transactions’ I described a fluke
of which I had secured numerous examples from the peripheral
branches of the biliary ducts of a Porpoise (Phocena communis).
The cetacean was shot by Mr. Jardine Murray in the Firth of
Forth in April 1855, and was regarded as a fine and healthy
animal. I mention this because the bile-ducts were diseased in a
similar way to that ordinarily observed in cases of rot affecting
sheep, cattle, and other animals infested by flukes. In the origi-
nal paper I did not perhaps lay sufficient stress upon the patho-
logical facts that were observed by me at the time; but on refer-
ring to the manuscript notes still in my possession, I find it is stated
that ‘the liver-ducts were in several places thickened and knotted
near the surface of the organ. On opening these, they were
were found to be loaded with small distomata.”’ It is added that
whilst the flukes were alive they displayed, under the microscope,
a “double and peculiar intestinal tube,’ the skin also being
clothed with spines which are arranged throughout with perfect
regularity. Unfortunately the day on which Mr. Murray sent
the Porpoise was a Saturday ; consequently my dissections were
hurried, and the specimens were placed in strong spirit, which im-
mediately destroyed their transparency. I was further embar-

FROM THE DOLPHINS OF THE GANGES. 39

rassed, inasmuch as Mr. Murray had also kindly sent a large
number of birds for dissection (Guillemots, Gulls, and a Parrot-
beaked Awk) at the same time. I may yet further supplement the
originally published record by stating that, when the ducts lying
immediately below the surface of the liver were dissected out, they
presented a distinctly beaded appearance, the successive enlarge-
ments of the lumen of the ducts being occupied by flukes closely
packed together. At least twenty were found in one spot. As
no figure of these abnormal ducts was published, I subjoin an
outline which is an exact reproduction of a sketch I made in
my note-book during the dissection. Unfortunately the actual
thickness of the walls of the ducts was not represented ; but, from
recollection, I can state that it was considerable.

Outline of an abnormally enlarged biliary duct. Nat. size.

The most striking feature connected with the structure of the
worm was the regularly twisted condition of the digestive canals.
They presented, in short, a zigzag appearance, the lateral folds
being so angular when seen in profile that they seemed to consti-
tute, as it were, a transition between the ordinary simple tubes
of a true Distoma and the branched intestinal tubes seen in Fas-
ciola. In this view it was that I placed the worms in a distinct
genus, for which I proposed the term Campula. I now think that
there was no sufficient ground for this generic separation, since,
although in all the flukes which I have examined from Plata-
nista the characteristic zigzag appearance is present, yet I find
no trace of any attempt at branching. In all Dr. Anderson’s
specimens obtained from the lver-ducts of the Gangetic Dol-

40 DR. T. S. COBBOLD ON TREMATODE PARASITES

phin more or less decomposition of the contents of the intes-
tinal tubes has occurred; consequently the angular appearance
of the folds is entirely lost, the margins looking uniformly
rounded in profile.

From the other characters of the worms I cannot bring myself
to believe that these flukes from the Ganges are specifically differ-
ent from those obtained from the Firth of Forth. Nevertheless,
in order to make sure that I had not exaggerated the angular
character of the intestinal folds as they appeared in my original
specimens from the Porpoise, I recently broke up a preserved
microscopic slide, and, after soaking the specimens in glycerine,
succeeded in bringing the digestive organs well into view, when
they displayed precisely the same degree of angulation as the ori-
ginal figure in the Society’s ‘Transactions’ shows. There were,
however, no traces of rudimentary diverticula, such as I fancied I _
saw, but did not actually describe, in the original specimens. I
now believe that the deceptive appearances were due to the
sharpness of the turns or coils of the tubes, which in rather opaque
objects is very apt to mislead. This is especially the case with
the uterine folds, which, as in the case of Distoma lancea, have
been represented as branched when perfectly simple. From a
recent examination of my dried specimens of D. crasswm I do not
feel quite sure that I have not myself fallen into this error. Be
that as it may, I desire (on the supposition of an error of inter-
pretation of the facts) to restore my Campula oblonga to the genus
Distoma, and I shall therefore in future speak of this parasite as
D. campula, retaining the generic as an appropriate specific title.
By this change I do not think that the morphological significance
of the folded digestive tube is by any means lost. As obtains in the
spiral gut of sharks and rays, the object of folding can only be to
gain a larger extent of intestinal capacity without incommoding the
animal and thereby interfering with its ordinary manner of life.
In the members of the genus Fasciola and also in the allied Plana-
rians this requirement appears to obtain its maximum. Here,
however, even the additional surface gained by a spiral extension
of the intestinal tubes appears to be inadequate, since to meet
the demand we find the two main channels branched in a most
striking manner.

I cannot here treat of this part of the subject to the extent it
deserves; but in relation to the question of transition-forms I
may remark that an extreme degree of folding seems as if it must,

FROM THE DOLPHINS OF THE GANGES. Al

when pushed further, result in branching. This, I think, would
happen should any departure from the central distome type be
rendered necessary by the exigences of the creature. At all
events, the spirally twisted and branched digestive organs consti-
tute different ways in which nature attains one and the same end.
I may add that this coiled condition of the tubes in D. campula
is by no means unique, since I have seen it slightly developed in
other trematode forms, and very conspicuously so in a species
(D. compactum) which I procured from an Indian Ichneumon,
described to this Society in 1859.

Turning to the other internal organs, I have to state that whilst
the flukes from the Porpoise only showed that the vitelligene
glands were well developed and that the reproductive outlets occu-
pied the usual position, Dr. Anderson’s specimens have furnished
a good general view of all the reproductive organs. In particular
they show that the single, relatively narrow, and unbranched
uterine canal is of great length and coiled upon itself in a singularly
tortuous manner. In this way the duct passes from side to side,
crossing the central line of the body at least a dozen times, whilst
every fold is likewise bent upon itself to such anextent as to increase
its length to at least four times that of the animal. Jn short, the
uterine folds may be pretty accurately described as passing in a
regular manner from side to side, each separate coil being very
much twisted upon itself, thus frequently forming secondary coils.
In the fluke here drawn (PI. X. fig. 2) I have accurately represented
every winding of the duct from its vaginal outlet above to its ter-
mination, where it is joined by the ovarian and vitelligene ducts
in the ordinary way. Only the merest traces of these smaller
channels, however, were here and there visible ; but the two oval
testes are conspicuous and well defined, occupying a position
somewhat lower than usual in the typical forms of fluke. There
was a third organ, apparently the ovary. This was less well de-
fined, and situated higher up in the middle line. The vitelligene
glands occupied the usual position ; but their precise limits could
not be accurately fixed throughout. The terminal cells or cap-
sules with their efferent ducts were well seen in several specimens.
Lastly, the water-vascular system was constantly visible, or at
least that part of the main channel which expands into a large
vesicle immediately above the central point of the tail. At this
part several of Dr. Anderson’s specimens had given way entirely,
the parenchyma of the body, and sometimes the testes, bursting

LINN, JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOU. XIII. 4

42 DR. T. S. COBBOLD ON TREMATODE PARASITES

through. In all of them the caudal end thus exhibited a sort of
tail as a mere result of post mortem changes. None of the Edin-
burgh specimens displayed the slightest trace of this projection or
of the water-vessel connected with it.

The other points remaining to be noticed may be dismissed ina
few words. The uterine duct was well filled with eggs, but it was
nowhere abnormally distended. Approximately the ova gave a
measurement of 77/57 of an inch from pole to pole by 34455 inch in
breadth. Although in Anderson’s specimens the integumentary
spines had fallen off, they were still attached in the original spe-
cimens from Edinburgh, and measured on the average =}5 of an
inch in length. With their shafts directed downwards, they sepa-
rately presented the form of a long cone, the base of which was only
tore broad. Close to the apex each point of the spine curves
gently upward. In connexion with the form of the parasite, I
have only further to observe that the normal relative size and si-
tuation of the suckers is faithfully depicted from Anderson’s spe-
cimens; but the tail end of the body is abnormally produced, from
causes already referred to.

To conclude somewhat as I began, let me remark more fully
upon the main points of interest suggested by these finds. So
few in number are the students of helminthology that it need oc-
casion no surprise if the internal parasites of cetaceans are little
studied. Apart from what is stated in the writings of systema-
tists (Rudolphi, Dujardin, Diesing, &c.), we have but few and
scant notices of cetacean parasitism. The most important contri-
bution is by Professor Van Beneden (‘ Les Cétacés, leurs Commen-
saux et leurs Parasites’). The Belgian helminthologist evidently
desired to render his list of the parasites as complete as possible ;
nevertheless, extended as his record is, he neither notices Campula
oblonga nor the remarkable cestode discovered at the same time.
Mr. Murray’s porpoise not only yielded numerous flukes, but it
played the role of host to five large tape-worms (Diphyllobothrum
stemmacephalum) and to multitudes of nematodes infesting the
bronchi, the pulmonary vessels, and the heart (Prosthecosacter in-
Jlexus and P. convolutus). Other parasites were detected in the
stomach ; but I referred them to the partly digested fishes whose
remains accompanied them. Van Beneden points to a paper by
Lebeck describing a round worm from the stomach of a Gan-
getic Dolphin (Ascaris delphini). Dr. Anderson also found ne-
matodes in the intestines of Platanista; but these correspond with

FROM THE DOLPHINS OF THE GANGES. 43

the A. simplex of Dujardin. On this head I will only add that
cetaceans are evidently very much victimized by parasites, both
by attacks from within and without ; and it is clear that our know-
ledge of the species is exceedingly imperfect.

On 4 priori grounds it might be supposed that aberrant ceta-
cean hosts would be likely to yield correspondingly aberrant pa-
rasitic types. ‘This is not the case, however, either as regards the
flukes and nematodes, or, indeed, as regards the cestodes, to any
very marked extent. The explanation is not far to seek; for
however divergent particular hosts may be, mere morphological
changes in their organs will not of themselves materially alter the
conditions of the parasite’s existence. ‘To be sure, in the case of
the liver-infesting flukes, the mere size of the biliary ducts will
tend to modify the size of the parasite; but it is incapable of
altering the type. Thus the common liver-fluke attains very
much smaller proportions in the hare and rabbit than it does
in the donkey and ox; but the essential generic character seen
in the branched intestine is strictly maintained. Again, the
liver-fluke of the giraffe, if it in any degree coordinated with the
aberrant characters of its host, would, we might presume, exhibit
departures from the type still more marked. The facts, however,
show that the only marked differences between the giraffe’s
Fasciola and the ordinary fluke refer to external configuration.
Even the liver-fluke of the elephant (Ff. Jacksoni), the shape
of which presents a striking contrast with that seen in the Rumi-
nants, still displays the branched intestinal canals, and that, too,
in such a manner as to suggest the closest alliance with the Pla-
narians. As Ihave shown in my communication “On the De-
struction of Elephants by Parasites’ (The Veterinarian, 1875),
the mud-swallowing habits of these huge hosts are eminently
favourable to the introduction of fluke-larve ; and it is worthy of
remark that the intermediary bearers likely to be thus swallowed
abound in just those very localities where Planarians have their
head quarters.

If my argument is sound, it is clear that neither Platanista and
Orcella, on the one hand, nor Jnia and Delphinus, on the other, need
be expected to yield fluke-parasites generically differing from those
found in Phocena and other cetacean types. Even wide differ-
ences of geographical distribution do not appear to exert any very
marked change ; and this is the more remarkable since such varia-
tions of habitat by the host might be expected not only to supply

44, DR. T, S. COBBOLD ON TREMATODE PARASITES

new and peculiarly modified intermediary bearers, but also in other
ways to alter materially the conditions of existence. Without a
doubt some fluke-parasites are confined to particular localities ;
and this is solely due to the fact that their bearers and interme-
diary bearers are alike restricted to a limited territory. But for
these restrictions, there is good reason to fear that (as in the case
of Bilharzia, for example) several of the most terrible endemic
disorders, now confined to limited areas, would become world-
wide. Fortunately for them, the lower animals are much more
capable of resisting the untoward effects of parasitism than our-
selves. We, however, have the power of warding off most of the
dangers from this source, since we are now in a position to adopt
preventive measures. This is entriely due to the advance of
helminthology. As regards domesticated animals, it may pro-
bably be said with truth that they suffer from entozoa more than
wild ones. In the course of a large experience, however, I cannot
say that I have found wild animals very much lessinfested. With
the multiplication of beasts of burden and other serviceable quad-
rupeds there have also arisen greater facilities for infection ; and
if, as unfortunately seems to be the case, parasitism amongst do-
- mestic animals has increased rather than diminished, it is because
those who possess the power to put a check upon these disorders
have not thought it worth their while to obtain special informa-
tion on this head.

As regards wild animals, it is well nigh impossible to acquire
correct daia as to the destructiveness of parasites. I have no he-
sitation in saying that half the amount of parasitism that I found
in Mr. Murray’s porpoise would have killed any ordinary domesti-
eated animal. Our cattleand sheep are carried off by thousands by
much less formidable lung-parasites than that cetacean harboured.
Doubtless wild animals, cetaceans amongst them, becoming at
length weakened by their parasitic guests, more readily succumb to
their various other enemues, which, in the struggle for existence,
are only too ready to reap the desired advantage. On the other
hand, I have little doubt that the porpoises and seals that have
died at the Zoological Gardens, and whose lungs were largely in-
fested by parasites, would, in their natural haunts, have borne up
against the evil effects of a much larger amount of parasitism than
they were enabled to do in confinement. One conclusion, at all
- events, is inevitable, namely that endemics, epidemics, or epizootics
of the parasitic kind, call them what we may, are for the most part

FROM THE DOLPHINS OF THE GANGES. 45

due to the excessive multiplication of particular helminths during
certain seasons. As obtains in non-parasitic plagues of all sorts,
there is a perpetual rise and fall in their prevalence; and this is
simply due to the presence or absence, as the case may be, of
favourable conditions. This is the general explanation of the
irregularity observed in the periodical return and degree of viru-
lence of the grouse-disease, which I hold to be due to parasites.
The same explanation holds good in the case of the disorder I
have termed Olulaniasis in cats, also in that of a nemato-helminthi-
asis affecting pigeons, due to Ascaris maculosa, also of a similar
epizooty occasioned by the four-spined Strongyle (8. tetracan-
thus) infesting the horse, also of the well-known parasitic bron-
chitis caused by Strongyles in lambs and calves, also of a like
disease occasioned by §. commutatus which sometimes carries off
hares in great numbers. In short, this explanation applies to
many other more or less clearly defined parasitic maladies.
Flukes, generally speaking, are comparatively harmless. As arule,
_ and with some few and notable exceptions (Bilharzia, &c.), only
such of them as occupy the liver are capable of doing serious harm
to their bearers, whether wild or domesticated. That their pre-
sence in the liver of cetaceans is capable of setting up an unhealthy
action is abundantly proved by the facts incidentally noticed in
this paper. The whole subject of animal parasitism is one of in-
creasing interest —zoologists, physiologists, and sanitarians being
equally interested in-its revelations. This consideration must
serve as my excuse for noticing some of the practical points sug-
gested by the study of these dolphin-trematodes.

Appendix.

Since the completion of this paper I received a letter from Dr.
Anderson enclosing “a drawing of a parasite, enlarged 28 times,
from the small intestine of Platanista.”” The drawing had been
overlooked, but was fortunately found by Dr. Murie amongst
some loose papers. Judging from the illustration (here repro-
duced), this is another distinct species of cetacean trematode, and
at present new to science. When I received the specimen Dr.
Anderson was making preparations to leave England; but in
reply to my inquiries, he found time to inform me in a second
letter that the host was a different individual from that which
yielded Distoma campula. He obtained the new parasite in

LINN. JOURN—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 5

46 ON TREMATODE PARASITES FROM DOLPHINS.

March 1873. In this case there does not appear to have been
more than one parasite present in the intestine. There is cer-
tainly something very peculiar about the head and neck of this
fluke ; but assuming that it was not in any way injured before the
drawing was executed, I offer provisionally for its recognition the
following nomenclature and characters.

Distoma ANDERSONI, n. sp. Body oblong, smooth externally, uni-
form in thickness, six times as long as broad; head with lateral pro-
jections ; ventral sucker large and prominent; neck much constricted ;
tail evenly rounded off, bluut. Length 3”, breadth about 345”.

In addition to the above-mentioned characters, the drawing
shows that the testes are globular and placed high up in the middle
line of the body. The small lobed gland immediately above them
is probably the ovary. The clear narrow line extending from the
border of the lower testis to the end of the tail seems to mark
the limit of the vitelligene organs on either side below. These
glands in all likelihood extend upwards to the neck, being appa-
rently very largely developed in this species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Distoma lancea, x 70 diameters.

2. D. campula (=Campula oblonga, Cobbold), X 50 diam. (The small
letters refer to the same parts in these two different species.) a, oral
sucker; 0, ventral sucker; c, reproductive papilla; d, oesophageal
bulb; e, esophagus; f, intestinal tube; g, ceecal end of the same;
h, testes; 2, ovary; &, vitelligene gland ; /, uterine canal; m, trunk of
the water system.

3. D. Andersoni, X 28 diam. a, oral sucker; 6, lateral prominence of the
head; c, ventral sucker; d, neck; e, esophageal bulb; ff, body;
g, ovary; h, testes; i, central clear line; & &, vitelligene gland of
one side; 7, water-vascular outlet.

STR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON NEW LIVING CRINOIDS. 47

Notice of new living Crinoids belonging to the Apiocrinide.
By Sir C. Wyvitte Tomson, LL.D., DSc., F.R,S., F.LS.,
F.G.S., &c., Regius Professor of Natural History in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff
of the ‘ Challenger’ Exploring Expedition.

[Read June 1, 1876.]

On the 25th of August, 1878, on our voyage from St. Vincent to
Bahia, we sounded in 1850 fathoms with a bottom of “Globigerina-
ooze,” and a bottom-temperature of 1°-8 C., in lat. 1° 47’ N., long.
24° 26' W., about 300 miles east of St. Paul’s Rocks. The trawl
was put over; and when recovered in the evening it yielded us an
unusually large number of interesting forms :—with many others,
several large specimens of a fine species of Limopsis ; several Bra-
chiopods; a small Umbellularia; some remarkable Bryozoa; several
specimens ofa large species of Salenia, differing apparently in other
characters besides its much greater size from the widely distribu-
ted S. varispina ; an entire specimen of a beautiful stalked Cri-
noid which I shall describe under the name of Bathycrinus aldri-
chianus ; and some fragments of the stem of another Crinoid,
Hyocrinus bethellianus*, of which we afterwards took one or two
complete specimens and several fragmentary portions, at Station
147, lat. 46° 16’ S., long. 48° 27’ E., 30 miles to the westward of
Hog Island, one of the Crozet group.

I now give a preliminary sketch of these two new Crinoidal
forms, in the hope of preparing a detailed description of these and
of the large number of undescribed Pentacrint which were among
the most interesting of our captures, on my return.

I deseribed and figured in the ‘Depths of the Sea’ (p. 452),
under the name of Bathycrinus gracilis, a delicate little Crinoid
which we dredged in the‘ Porcupine’ from a depth of 2475 fathoms
to the south of Cape Clear. I think there can be little doubt,
from the structure of the stem and calyx, and from the form and

* As the stalked Crinoids are perhaps the most remarkable of all the deep-
sea groups, both on account of their extreme rarity and of the special interest of
their paleontological relations, I mean to associate the names of those naval
officers who have been chiefly concerned in carrying out the sounding, dredging,
and trawling operations with the new species whose discovery is due to the
patience and ability with which they have performed their task. Lieutenant
Pelham Aldrich was first lieutenant of the ‘Challenger’ during the first two
years of her commission ; he is now with Captain Nares as first lieutenant of
the ‘Alert ;’ Lieutenant George R. Bethell, I am glad to say, we have still with us,

LINN. JOURN,—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 6

48 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON NEW LIVING

sculpture of the plates and joints, that the first named of the
two species now to be noticed must be referred to the same genus.
There is, however, one marked difference between the two: in
our specimen of B. gracilis, which looks as if it were full-grown,
the ten arms are perfectly simple, and there is no trace of pinnules, -
while in B. aldrichianus the pinnules are well developed.

AsThave already said (oc. ect.), strong resemblances in the struc-
ture of the stem, in the structure of the base of the cup, and in the
form and arrangement of the ultimate parts of the arms associate
Bathycrinus with Rhizocrinus; but the differences between the two
genera are very obvious. The radial axillary joints, which in RAz-
zocrinus are contracted to support a single first brachial, are here
expanded and bear two articulating surfaces giving origin to two
arms ; so that, as in most Crinoids, the number of primary divi-
sions of the arms is ten. The structure of the cup and of the
upper part of the stem, while essentially the same in both, is dif-
ferent in detail : in Rhizocrinus the funnel-shaped piece formed by
the coalescence of the basals with the fused first radials above
and the dilated upper joint of the coalesced upper joints of the
stem beneath, makes up a large part of the cup; while in Ba-
thycrinus the stem barely enlarges at its junction with the cup,
the ring formed by the basals is very small, and the first radials
are free from the basals, and often free from one another. The
oral plates, which are conspicuous in Rhizocrinus, are absent im
Bathycrinus.

Hyocrinus is a totally different thing ; but, as we shall see here-
after, it presents certain general resemblances and even certain
special correspondences in structure which seem to associate it
also with Rhizocrinus.

There seems little doubt that Rhizocrinus finds its nearest known
ally in the chalk and tertiary Bourguetticrinus, and that it must
be referred to the neighbourhood of the Apiocrinide. Were it
not that Bathycrinus and Hyocrinus are so evidently related to Rhi-
zocrinus, the characters of the Apiocrinide are so obscure in the
two first-named genera that one would certainly have scarcely
been inclined to associate them with that group.

They are both comparatively small forms ; and although they do
not show the peculiar tendency to irregularity in the number of
their principal parts which we find in Fhizocrinus, their calyces
are small in proportion to the size of the stem, so that there is still
a comparatively excessive development of the vegetative system.

4c

CRINOIDS BELONGING TO THE APIOCRINID.

Three times the natural size.

Bathycrinus aldrichianus, Wy. T.

x0) SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON NEW LIVING

In Bathhycrinus aldrichianus (fig. 1) the stem is, in full-grown
specimens, 200 to 250 millims. in length, and about 2 millims. in
. diameter across the enlarged articulating end of a joint. The
longest stem-joints, from about the middle of the stem downwards,
havea length of 4 millims. ; and they rapidly shorten towards the
base of the cup. They are dicebox-shaped, and have their ends
bevelled off on different sides alternately, for the accommodation of
masses of muscle. Towards the base of the stem, a few strong
jointed branches come off and form a sort of imperfect root of
attachment. The cup consists of a series of basals which are
soldered together into a small ring, scarcely to be distinguished
from the upper stem-joint. Alternating with these are five large
triangular first radials: these are often free ; but in old examples
they also are frequently ankylosed into a funnel-shaped piece.
The second radials are articulated to the first by a true joint with
strong bands of contractile fibre; they are broad and flat, with an
elevated vertical central ridge which is continued down upon the
first radials (though in these it is not so marked), and lateral wing-
like extensions which curve up at the edges and are thus slightly
hollowed out vertically on each side of the central ridge. In the
third radials or “radial axillaries,” which are joined to the second
by asyzygy, the upper border of the plate is nearly straight, but
it is divided into two facets for the articulation of the first two
brachials. Theridge is continued from the second radial to about
the middle of the third, where it divides into two, and its branches
pass to the insertions of the brachials to be continued along the
middle line of the arms. The wing-like lateral processes are con-
tinued along the sides of the radial axillaries and along each side
of at least the first three brachials. The arms are ten in number.
In the larger specimens they are about 30 millims. in length, and
consist of from forty to fifty joints. The first and second and the
fourth and fifth brachials are united by syzygies; and after that
syzygies occur sparingly and at irregular intervals along the arms.
There are no pinnules on the six or seven proximal joints of the ~
arms; but towards the distal end there are usually about twenty
in two alternating rows ; the number and amount of development
of the pinnules seems to depend greatly upon age, and not to be
very constant. The arms and the pinnules are deeply grooved
within ; and along the edges of the’grooves are ranges of imbricated
reniform plates, fenestrate and very delicate, much resembling
those in the corresponding position in Fhizocrinus. The disk is

CRINOIDS BELONGING TO TITHE APLOCRINID &:

membranous, with scattered calcare-
ous granules. The mouth is sub-
central; there are no regular oral
plates; but there seems to be a de-
termination of calcareous matter to
five interradial points round the mouth,
where it forms little irregular calcare-
ous bosses. There is an oral ring of long
fringed tentacles ; and the tentacles are

long and well marked along the radial.

canals. The excretory opening is on a
tow interradial papilla. The ovaries are
borne upon the six or eight proximal
pinnules on each arm; they are short
and rounded, resembling much in form
those of Antedon rosaceus. Bathycri-
nus appears to possess an assemblage
ot characters in some respects inter-
mediate between Fhizocrinus and the
_pentacrinoid stage of Antedon. I
reserve a full discussion of its syste-
matic position until I have an oppor-
tunity of describing it more in detail.
It seems to be widely distributed ; we
have detected fragments of it at at
least six or seven stations in the
Atlantic and the Southern Sea.

Hyocrinus bethellianus (fig. 2) has
much the appearance, and in some pro-
minent particulars it seems to have
very much the structure, of the paleeo-
zoic genus Platyerinus, or its subgenus
Dichocrinus.

The longest portion of the stem
which we dredged was about 170 mil-
lims. in length ; but the basal part was
wanting, and we have no means of
ascertainiug what may have been its
means of attachment. The stem is
much more rigid than that of Bathy-
crinus, and is made up of cylindrical

ANN "
SS

SS <&
=a
SSSSSSSSSN
SSSoaustiapue
IN
SR
ESSER REE
——————

ws
Si; y

=e
—

Ss

BA ASA
RIN)
0 Alp: ip vi)
(AIBN
AN
te

=

a
SHS
SESS

SS)
=
SS ww

Lali NING
1 a
3 it

aS
See
= = S Ee
SS

Li
iB

I}
ala

SS

Hyocrin us bethel lianus,
Wy. 7.

About twice the natural size.

52 SIR C. W¥VILLE THOMSON ON NEW LIVING

joints, which are united to one another by a close syzygial suture,
the applied surfaces being marked with a pattern of radiating
grooves and ridges like those of so many of the fossil genera, and
like those of the recent Pentacrini. The joints become short and
very numerous towards the base of the cup.
‘The head, including the calyx and the
arms, is 60 millims. in length. The cup
consists of two tiers of plates only (fig. 3);
the lower of these, which must be regarded
as a ring of basals, is formed as in some of
the Platycrinide, of two or three pieces : itis
difficult to make out which with certainty ;
for the pieces are more or less fused, and the
junctions in the mature animal are some-
what obscure. The second tier consists of five
radials, which are thin, broad, and spade-
shaped, with a slight blunt ridge running
up the centre and ending in a narrow arti-
culating surface for an almost cylindrical
first brachial. The armsare five in number,
they consist of long cylindrical joints deeply
grooved within, and intersected by syzygial
junctions. The first three joints in each
arm consist each of two parts separated by
a syzygy; the third joint bears at its distal
end an articulating facet from which a
pinnule springs. The fourth arm-joint is
intersected by two syzygies, and thus con-
sists of three parts; and so do all the sue-
ceeding joints; and each joint gives off a
pinnule from its distal end, the pinnules
arising from either ‘side of the arm alter-
nately. The proximal pinnules are very
long, running on nearly to the end of the arm;
and the succeeding pinnules are gradually
shorter, all of them, however, running out
nearly to the end of the arm, so that distally
the ends of the five arms and the ends of all
the pinnules meet nearly on a level. This Hyocrinus Bechelianns
18 an arrangement hitherto entirely un- Wy. T
known in recent Crinoids, although we haye About four times the

: au ae 4 natural size. Station
something very close to it in some species 147,

CRINOIDS BELONGING TO THE APIOCRINID &. 53

of the paleozoic genera Poteriocrinus and Cyathocrinus; here, I
believe, however, the resemblance between Hyocrinus and the
early fossil forms ends.

The arms and pinnules are deeply grooved within; and the
grooves are bordered on either side by lines of imbricated, close-
set, reniform, fenestrated plates, closely resembling those of Zthi-
zocrinus and Bathycrinus.

The peripheral part of the disk is paved with plates irregular
in form and closely set (fig. 4); round the mouth there are five
very strong and definitely shaped valves, slightly cupped above
and marked beneath with deep impressions for the insertion of
muscles. The valves are pointed, and close over the mouth, form-
ing a very perfect five-sided pyramid. The anal opening is on a
short plated interradial tube.

Disk of Hyocrinus bethellianus, Wy.'T. ight times the natural size.

The mouth opens into a short slightly constricted cesophagus,
which is succeeded by a dilatation surrounded by brown glandular
ridges (fig. 5, d, e). The intestine is very short, and contracts
rapidly to a small diameter (/) ; the whole alimentary tract forms
a single simple loop. Round the cesophagus a somewhat ill-defined
vascular ring (6), which may possibly be continuous with the body-
cavity, gives off opposite each of the oral plates a group of four
tubular tentacles (c); and lines of similar tentacles of smaller

54 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON NEW LIVING CRINOIDS.

size fringe the radial grooves and the grooves of the arms and
pinnules. The ovaries are very long and narrow, extending three

fourths of the length of the first three or four pinnules on each
arm.

Fig. 5.

Arrangement of the soft parts in Hyocrinus bethellianus. a, oral valves ;
8, oral vascular ring ; ¢, oral tentacles ; d, e, inner aspect of the cesophagus and
stomach ; f, intestine; g, loose areolated connective tissue. Hight times the
natural size.

The assemblage of characters connected with the disk and soft
parts thus shows a considerable resemblance between Hyocrinus
and Rhizocrinus. My strong impression is that the mode of nu-
trition of the Cyathocrinide, and consequently the structure and
arrangement of their disk, was essentially different from that of
all the yet known living forms ; and I think it probable that when.
we have an opportunity of studying the structure of Hyocrinus
carefully, we shall find that its striking resemblance to Platycri-
nus is in a great degree superficial.

The following are, I believe, all the Crinoids, referable to the
Apiocrinide, which we have hitherto met with during our deep-
sea explorations :—

Rhizocrinus lofotensis, Sars.
Bathycrinus aldrichianus, sp. 0.
B. gracilis, sp. 0.

SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 59

Hyocrinus bethellianus, sp. n.
Hl. bethellianus ?

The last is a beautiful little thing which we dredged from a
depth of 2325 fathoms at Station 228, lat. 5° 31’ N., long.
145° 13' E., in the east Pacific, with a bottom of Globigerina-ooze,
and a bottom-temperature of 1°2 C. It certainly is in many re-
spects very unlike the adult H. bethellianus; but it may possibly turn
out to be the young of that species. There was only one specimen.

It has been found impossible, or at all events too dangerous, to
examine and compare the species belonging to the Pentacrinide
on board ; many of the specimens are very large, and they are very
tender, requiring the utmost delicacy in handling ; it has there-
fore been thought in most cases advisable to pack them away in
safety at once, and to defer their discrimination until our return
honie. -

‘Challenger,’ South Atlantic,
March 5th, 1876.

Notice of some Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation of certain
Echinoderms of the Southern Sea. By Sir C. WrviLue
Tomson, LL.D., D.Sc., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS., &., Regius
Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh,
Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff of the ‘ Challenger ’
Exploring Expedition.

[Read June 1, 1876.] _

Tur very remarkable mode of reproduction of certain members of
all the recent classes of Echinodermata by the intervention of a
free-swimming bilaterally symmetrical “ pseudembryo ” developed
directly from the “morula,” from which the true young is subse-
quently produced by a process of internal budding or rearrange-
ment, has long been well known through the labours of a host. of
observers headed and represented by the late illustrious Professor
Johannes Miller of Berlin.

At the same time it has all along been fully recognized that re-
production through the medium of a “ pseudembryo ” is not the
only method observed in the class, but that in several of the Echi-
noderm orders, while in a certain species a wonderfully perfect and
independent bilateral locomotive zooid may be produced, in very
nearly allied species the young Echinoderm may be developed im-

06 SIR ©. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

mediately from the segmented yelk without the formation of a
“pseudembryo,” or at all events with no further indication of its
presence than certain obscure temporary processes attached to
the embryo, to which I have elsewhere (Phil. Trans. for 1865,
p. 517) given the name of “ pseudembryonie appendages.”

I have not at present an opportunity of consulting autho-
rities; but if I may trust my memory, this direct mode of de-
velopment has been described in Holothuria tremula by MM.
Koren and Danielssen, in Synaptula vivipara by Professor
Oersted, in a “viviparous sea-urchin” by Professor Grube, in
Echinaster and in Pteraster by Professor Sars, in Asteracanthion
by Professor Sars, Professor Agassiz, Dr. Busch and myself, in
Ophiolepis squamata by Professor Max Schultze, and in “a vivi-
parous ophiurid’’ by Professor Krohn. No less than four of
these observations were made on the coast of Scandinavia. In tem-
perate regions, where the economy of the Echinoderms has been
under the eye of a greater number of observers, the development
of the free-swimming larva appeared to be so entirely the rule
that it is usually described as the normal habit of the class ;
while, on the other hand, direct development seemed to be most
exceptional, I was therefore greatly surprised to find that in the
southern and subarctic seas a large proportion of the Echinoderms
of all orders, with the exception perhaps of the Crinoids (with
regard to which we have no observations), develop their young
after a fashion which precludes the possibility, while it nullifies
the object, of a pseudembryonic perambulator, and that in these
high southern latitudes the formation of such a locomotive zooid
is apparently the exception.

This modification of the reproductive process ‘Gonsigts in all
cases, as it does likewise in those few instances in which direct
development has already been described, of a device by which the
young are reared within or upon the body of the parent, and are
retained in a kind of commensal connexion with her until they are
sufficiently grown to fend for themselves. The receptacle, in cases
where a special receptacle exists in which the young are reared,
has been called a “marsupium” (Sars), a term appropriately
borrowed from the analogous arrangement in their neighbours the
aplacental mammals of Australia. The young do not appear to
have in any case an organic connexion with the parent ; the im-
pregnated egg from the time of its reaching the “morula”’ stage
is entirely free ; the embryos are indebted to the mother for pro-

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 57

tection, and for nutrition only indirectly through the mucus
exuded from the surface of her perisom, and through the currents
of freshly aerated water containing organic matter brought to
them or driven over them by the action of her cilia.

Animals hatching their eggs in this way ought certainly to give
the best possible opportunities for studying the early stages in
the development of their young. Unfortunately, however, this
is a kind of investigation which requires time and stillness and
passable comfort; and such are not the usual conditions of a
voyage in the Antarctic sea. Specimens have been carefully pre-
served with the young in all stages; and I hope that a careful
examination of these may yield some further results.

Although the principle and the leading features of the process
are the same in all, the details vary greatly in the different groups.
My present object is to give a preliminary sketch of some of the
more remarkable modifications. In the absence of a sufficient
supply of books of reference, I cannnot vouch for the accuracy of
specific determinations ; the names which I have given to the
species referred to must therefore be taken in some cases as pro-
visional. I will select examples from the leading groups in order.

I. HoLorHUROIDEA PEDATA.

Cladodactyla crocea, Lesson, sp. (fig.1). An elegant cucumber-
shaped sea-slug, from 80 to 100 millims. in length, by 30 millims.
in diameter at the widest part, of a bright saffron-yellow colour,
very abundant, adhering to the vast fronds of Macrocystis in from —
five to ten fathoms water in Stanley Harbour at Hast Falkland
Island. The mouth and arms are terminal; ten long delicate
branched oral tentacles, more resembling in form and attitude
those of Ocnus than those of the typical.Cucumaria, surround the
mouth: the perisom is thin and semitransparent ; and the muscular
bands, the radial vessels,and even the internal viscera can be plainly
seen through it. The three anterior ambulacral vessels are ap-
proximated ; and on these the tentacular feet are numerous and well
developed, with a sucking-disk supported by a round, cribriform,
caleareous plate, or more frequently by several wedge-shaped
radiating plates arranged in the form of a rosette ; and these three
ambulacra form together, at all events in the female, a special
ambulatory surface. The two ambulacral vessels of the bivium
are also approximated along the back; and thus the two inter-
ambulacral spaces on the sides of the animal, between the external

SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

Cladodactyia crocea, Lesson,

Natural size.

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 59.

trivial ambulacra and the ambulacra of the bivium, are con-
siderably wider than the other three; consequently, in a trans-
verse section, the ambulacral vessels do not correspond with the
angles of a regular pentagon, but with those of an irregular figure
in which three angles are approximated beneath and two above.
In the female the tentacular parts of the dorsal (bivial) ambulacra
are very short ; they are provided with sucking-disks; but the cal-
careous support of the suckers is very rudimentary, and the
tubular processes are not apparently fitted for locomotion. In
the males there is not so great a difference in character between
the ambulacra of the trivium and those of the bivium; but the
tentacles of the latter seem to be less fully developed in both
sexes, and I have never happened to see an individual of either
Sex progressing upon, or adhering by, the water-feet of the dorsal
canals.

In a very large proportion of the females which I examined,
young were closely packed in two continuous fringes, adheritig to
the water-feet of the dorsal ambulacra (fig. 1). The young were in
. all the later stages of growth, and of all sizes from 5 up to 40
millims. in length; but all the young attached to one female
appeared to be nearly of the same age and size. Some of the
mothers with older families had a most grotesque appearance—
their bodies entirely hidden by the couple of rows, of a dozen
or so each, of yellow vesicles like ripe yellow plums ranged along
their backs, each surmounted by its expanded crown of oral ten-
tacles ; in the figure the young are represented as about half-
erown. All the young I examined were miniatures of their
parents ; the only marked difference was that in the young the
ambulacra of the bivium were quite rudimentary, they were
externally represented only by bands of a somewhat darker orange
than the rest of the surface, and by lines of low papille in the
young of larger growth; the radial vessels could be well seen
through the transparent body-wall; the young attached them-
selves by the tentacular feet of the trivial ambulacra, which are
early and fully developed.

We were too late at the Falklands (January 23) to see the
process of the attachment of the young in their nursery, even if
we could have arranged to keep specimens alive under observation.
There can be little doubt that, according to the analogy of the
class, the eggs are impregnated either in the ovarial tube or im-
mediately after their extrusion, that the first developmental

60 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON TILE MODE OF

Fig. 2. Psolus ephippifer, Wy. Thomson.

About three times the natural size.

Fig. 3. Psolus ephippifer, Wy. Thomson.

About three times the natural size.

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. G1

stages are run through rapidly, and that the young are passed
back from the ovarial opening, which is at the side of the mouth,
along the dorsal ambulacra, and arranged in their places by the
automatic action of the ambulacral tentacles themselves.

This is one of the cases in which there is no special marsupium
formed ; it is possible that the comparatively genial conditions of
the land-locked fiords and harbours of the Malvinas, and the aa-
ditional shelter yielded by the imbricating fronds of Macrecystis,
may render such exceptional provision unnecessary.

On the morning of the 7th of February, 1875, we dredged at a
depth of 75 fathoms, at the entrance of Corinthian Harbour (alias
“Whiskey Bay’’) in Heard Island (so far as I am aware the most
desolate spot on God’s earth), a number of specimens of a pretty
little Psolus, which I shall here call for the sake of convenience
P. ephippifer, although it may very possibly turn out to be a
variety of the northern P. opereulatus.

P. ephippifer (figs. 2, 3) is a small species, about 40 millims. in
length by 15 to 18 millims. inextreme width. In accordance with
the characters of the genus, the ambulatory area is abruptly de-
fined, and tentacular feet are absent on the upper surface of the
body, which is covered with a thick leathery membrane in which
calcareous scales of irregular form are imbedded. The oral and
excretory openings are on the upper surface, a little behind the
anterior border of the ambulatory tract, and a little in advance of
the posterior extremity of the body, respectively. A slightly ele-
vated pyramid of five very accurately fitting calcareous valves
closes over the oral aperture and the ring of oral tentacles ; and a
less regular valvular arrangement covers the vent.

In the middle of the back in the female there is a well-defined
saddle-like elevation formed of large tessellated plates somewhat
irregular in form, with the surfaces smoothly granulated (fig. 2).
On removing one or two of the central plates we find that they are
not, like the other plates of the perisom, imbedded partially or
almost completely in the skin, but that they are raised up ona cen-
tral column like a mushroom or a card-table, expanding above to
the form of the exposed portion of the plate, contracting to a stem
or neck, and then expanding again into an irregular foot, which
is imbedded in the soft tissue of the perisom ; the consequence of
this arrnagement is that when the plates are fitted together edge
to edge, cloister-like spaces are left between their supporting
columns. In these spaces the eggs are hatched, and the eggs or the

62 STR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

young in their early stages are exposed by removing the plates
(fig.8). At first,;whenthere are only morules or very young embryos
in the crypts, the marsupium is barely raised above the general sur-
face of the perisom, and the plates of the marsupium fit accurately
to one another ; but as the embryos increase in size, the marsupium
projects more and more, and at length the joints between the plates
begin to open (fig. 2), and finally they open sufficiently to allow
the eseape of the young. The young in one marsupium seem to
be all nearly of an age. In P. ephippifer the marsupium occupies
the greater part of the dorsal surface, and its passages run close
up to the edge of the mouth, so that the eggs pass into them at
once from the ovarial opening without exposure.

In the male there is, of course, no regular marsupium; but the
plates are arranged in the middle of the back somewhat as they
are in the female, except that they are not raised upon peduncles,
so that it is not easy at once to distinguish a male from an infe-
cund female.

Although we have taken species of Psolus sometimes in great
abundance in various parts of the world, particularly in high lati-
tudes, southern and northern, I have never observed this peculiar
form of the reproductive process except on this one occasion.

. II. HEonrnorpr&aA DESMOSTICHA.

Among the marine animals which we dredged from the steam-
pinnace on the 19th of January, 1874, at depths of from 50 to 70
fathoms in Balfour Bay (a fine recess of one of the many channels
which separate the forelands and islands at the head of Royal
Sound, Kerguelen Land), there were several examples of a small
Cidaris, which I will name provisionally C. nutriz. As, how-
ever, in the case of Psolus ephippifer, I do not feel by any means
certain that this is a distinct species. It comes certainly very
near to some of the smaller varieties of C. papiliata; but as it pre-
sents differences which serve at once to distinguish it, and as its
veculiar mode of reproduction may perhaps be regarded as in itself
a character of specific value, I give it in the mean time the benefit
of the doubt.

C. nutria (fig. 4) resembles C. papillata in the general form
and arrangement of the plates of the corona, in the form and ar-
rangement of the primary tubercles of the interambulacral areas
and of the secondary tubercles over the general surface of the
test, in the form of the plates of the apical disk and of the im-

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 63

bricated calcareous scales of the peristome, in the form, sculp-
ture, and proportionate length of the primary spines, and in the
form of the different elements of the jaw-pyramid and in that of
the teeth; but the test is more depressed, the secondary spines
which articulate to the ambulacral plates and cover the pore-areas
are longer and more cylindrical, not so much flattened as they are
in C. papillata; the large tulip-like pedicellarie and the long
thin tridactyle pedicellariz mixed with the secondary. spines in
the northern species are wanting, or in very small number ; and
the minute pedicellariz of the peristome are much fewer. The
ovaries, which in C. papillata have the walls loaded with large
expanded calcareous plates, contain only a few small branched

Fig. 4.

by Ae
hs Ke

ES

Cidaris nutric, Wyy. Thomson.

bes I

LINN, JOURN.——ZOOLOGY, VOU. XIiT.

G4 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

spicules; and the calcareous bodies in the wall of the intestine are
sthall and distant. The perforations in the ovarial plates in the
female are somewhat larger than in CO. papillata; and the ripe
ova in the ovary appear to be considerably larger.

_ The eges, after escaping from the ovary, are passed along on
the surface of the test towards the mouth ; and the smaller slightly
spathulate primary spines which are articulated to about the first
three rows of tubercles round the peristome, are bent inwards
over the mouth, so as to form a kind of open tent in which the
young are developed directly from the egg without undergoing
any metamorphosis ; until they have attained a diameter of about
2°5 millims., they are entirely covered with plates, and are provided
with spines exceeding in length the diameter of the test. Even
before they have attained this size and development, the more
mature or more active of a brood may be seen straying away
beyond the limits of the “nursery,” and creeping with the aid
of theiz first few pairs of tentacular feet out upon the long spines
of their mother; [have frequently watched them return again after
a short ramble into the “ marsupium.”

I am not aware that a free pseudembryo, or “pluteus,” has
been observed in any species of the restricted family Cidaride ;
but I feel very certain that Cidaris papillata in the northern he-
misphere, except possibly in the extreme north, has no marsupial
arrangement such as we find in the Kerguelen Czdarzs. There have
passed through my hands during the last few years hundreds of
specimens of the normal northern form, of the Mediterranean varie-
ties, C. hystria and C. effinis (stokesii), and of the American C.
abyssicola, from wide-spread localities and of all ages ; and I have
never found the young except singly, and never im any way spe-
cially associated with breeding individuals.

The genus Goniocidaris (Desor) seems to differ from the genus
Oidaris in little else than in having a very marked, naked, zigzag,
vertical groove between the two rows of plates of each interambu-
lacral area, and one somewhat less distinct between the ranges of
ambulacral plates. It includes about half a dozen species, which
appear to be mainly confined to the colder regions of the southern
hemisphere, although two of the species extend as far to the north-
ward as the East Indies and Natal.

On the 28th of January, 1876, we dredged from the steam-
pinnace, in about 10 fathoms water, off Cape Pembroke, at the en-

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 65

trance of Port William, East Falkland Island, a number of speci-
mens of a pretty little species, Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Agas-
siz (fig. 5). This species has a general resemblance, at a first
glance, to Cidaris papillata, var. stokesii; but the radioles are

Gontocidaris canaliculata, Agassiz. ‘Twice the natural size.

thinner and much shorter, and differ wholly in their sculpture ;
the shell is even more depressed ; the secondary tubercles are more
distant; and avery regular series of short club-shaped rays seated
on miliary granules are interposed in the rows between the
spines of the second order. The ovarial openings are extremely
minute, and are placed close to the outer edge of the ovarial
plates. The upper part of the test is quite flat, the flat space
including not only the ovarial plates and the plates of the pe-
riproct, but the first pair, at least, of plates of each interambulacral
area. Articulated to the primary tubercles of these latter are two
circles of radioles, the inner more slender and shorter, the outer
stouter and longer, but both series much larger than radioles

usually are in that position on the test.
7%

66 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

These special spines are cylindrical and nearly smooth, and
they lean over towards the anal opening, and form an open tent
for the protection of the young, as in Cidaris nutrix, but at the
opposite pole of the body. In this species the eggs are extruded
directly into the marsupium ; and I imagine, from the very small
size of the ovarial openings, that when they enter it, they are
very minute, and probably unimpregnated. In the examples which
we dredged at the Falkland Islands, the young were, in almost
every case, nearly ready to leave the marsupium ; we were too late
in the season to see the earlier stages. The young in the same mar-
supium are nearly all of an age, some somewhat more advanced
than others. The diameter of the test is from 1 to 1°5 millim.,
and the height about °8 millim.; the length of the primary spines
is, in the most backward of a brood, *5 millim., while in the most
advanced it equals the diameter of the test. The perisome, in
which the cribriform rudiments of the plates of the corona and
the young spines are being developed, is loaded with dark purple
pigment, which makes it difficult to observe the growth of the
calcareous elements. About thirty primary spines arise on the
surface of the corona almost simultaneously in ten rows of three
each: they first make their appearance as small papille covered
with a densely pigmented ciliated membrane; and when they
have once begun to lengthen, they run out very rapidly until they
bear to the young nearly the same proportions which the full-
grown spines bear to the mature corona. Very shortly some of
the secondary spines, at first nearly as large as the sprouting pri-
mary spines, make their appearance in the interstices between
these ; and a crowd of very small spines rise on the nascent scales
of the peristome. Successively five or six pedicellarie are deve-
loped towards the outer edge of the apical area, which at this stage
is disproportionately large; the pedicellariz commence as purple
papille, which are at first undistinguishable from young primary
spines ; the first set look enormously large in proportion to the
other appendages of the perisome. Almost simultaneously with
the first appearance of the primary spines, ten tentacular feet,
apparently the first pairs on each ambulacrum of the corona just
beyond the edge of the peristome, come into play; they are very
delicate and extremely extensile, with well-defined sucking-disks ;
and with these the young cling to and move over the spines of
the mother, and cling to the sides of the glass vessel, if they

PROPAGATION OF CERYAIN ECHINODERMS. 67

are dislodged from the marsupium. ‘This species seems to
acquire its full size during a single season. We dredged it at
the close of the breeding-season, and we took no specimens inter-
mediate in size between the adult and the young.

III. EcuHIno1p£A PETALOSTICHA.

In shallow water, varying from 20 to 50 fathoms, witha muddy
bottom, in Accessible Bay, Kerguelen’s Land, we dredged on the
9th of January, 1874, from the steam-pinnace, innumerable Urchins
very much resembling in general appearance Brissopsis lyrifera,
the common Fiddle Urchin of the boreal province of the British
seas. The group to which these Urchins belong requires careful
revision; but it seems, from the absence of the subanal fasciole and
from some other characters, that the species at present under con-
sideration must be referred to the genus Hemiaster ; and itis very
probable, from its great abundance in ordinarily accessible depths,
that it will turn out, on comparison, to be one of the species
brought home by Sir James Clark Ross’s Antarctic Expedition.

Fig. 6.

Henuaster, sp. Twice the natural size.

68 SIR 0. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

The test of a full-sized example (iig. 6) is about 45 miltims. in
length and 40 millims. in width; the height of the shell in the
female is 25 millims., in the male it is considerably less. The
apex is nearly in the centre of the dorsal surface; the genital
openings are three in number, in the female very large ; the bila-
biate mouth is placed well forward on the ventral aspect ; and the
excretory opening is posterior and supramarginal. The odd an-
terior ambulacrum is shallow and the tube-feet which are projected
from it are large and capitate. The anterior paired ambulacra
are somewhat longer than the posterior. The whole of the surface
of the test is covered with a close pile of small spines of a dark
green colour ; those fringing the ambulacral grooves are long and
slightly curved, and they bend and interdigitate so accurately
over the ambulacra that one might easily overlook the grooves at
a first glance. The peripetalous fasciole is somewhat irrecular ;
but in those examples in which it is best defined, it forms a wide
arch extending backwards on each side a little beyond the lateral
ambulacra of the trivium, and then contracting a little, forms a
rudely rectangular figure round the bivium. The paved ambula-

Hemiaster, sp. Apical half of the test of a male example, from within.
Natural size.

cral grooves in the male are shallow, not much deeper than the
anterior ambulacrum (fig. 7); in the female the pore-plates of

“PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 69

the paired ambulacra are greatly expanded and lengthened, and

thinned out and depressed so as to form four deep, thin-walled,

oval cups sinking into and encroaching upon the cavity of the test

(fig. 8). The ovarial openings are, of course, opposite the inter-
Fig. 8.

Hemiaster, sp. Apical half of the test of a female example, from within.
Natural size.

radial areas ; but the spines are so arranged that a kind of covered
passage leads from the opening into the marsupium ; and along this
passage the eggs, which are remarkably large, upwards of a milli-
metre in diameter when they leave the ovary, are passed, and are
arranged very regularly in rows on the floor of the pouch, each
egg being kept in its place by two or three short spines which
bend over it (fig. 9).

Among the very many examples of this Hemiaster which we
dredged in Accessible Bay, and afterwards in Cascade Harbour,
Kerguelen, there were young in all stages in the breediug-pouches ;
and although from the large size and the opacity of the egg and
embryo it is not a very favourable species for observation, had
other conditions been favourable we had all the material for
working out the earlier stages in the development of the young
very fully. The eggs, on being first placed in the pouches, are
spherical granular masses of a deep orange colour, enclosed within.
a pliable vitelline membrane, which they entirely fill. They become
rapidly paler in colour by the development of the blastoderm ; and
they inerease in size probably by the imbibition of water into the

70 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

gastrea cavity ; and a whitish spot with a slightly raised border
indicates an opening which, I have no reason to doubt, is the per-
manent mouth; but of this I cannot be absolutely certain. The

Hemiaster, sp. The arrangement of the eggs in one of the marsupial recesses,
Five times the natural size.

surface now assumes a translucent appearance, and becomes deeply
tinged with dark purple and greenish pigment ; and almost imme-
diately, without any definite intermediate steps, the outer wall is
filled with calcified tissue, it becomes covered with fine spines
and pedicellariz, a row of tentacular feet come into action round
the mouth, the vent appears at the posterior extremity of the
body, and the young assumes nearly the form of the adult. These
later changes take place very quickly; but they are accompanied
by the production of so much heavy purple and dark-green pig-

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. Fi

ment that it is difficult to follow them. The viscera are produced
at the expense of the abundant yelk; and the animals at once
take a great start in size by the imbibition of water into the pre-
visceral cavity. The young Urchings jostle one another on the
floor of the breeding-pouch, those below pushing the others up until
the upper set are ferced out between the rows of fringing spines
of the pouch; but even before leaving the marsupium, on carefully
opening the shell of the young, the intestine may be seen already
full cf dark sand, following much the same course which it follows
in the adult. The size of the test of the young on leaving the
marsupium is about 2°5 millims. in length by 2 millims. in width.

LV. ASTERIDEA.

On the 27th of January, 1874, at station 149, off Cape Maclear,
on the south-east coast of Kerguelen Land, we dredged a hand-
some Starfish of the genus <Archaster from a muddy bottom
at a depth of 30 fathoms. As this species, which is not far re-
moved from A. andromeda of the northern seas, appears to be un-
described, I will give it provisionally the name of A. excavatus
(fig. 10).

A well-grown example is from 100 to 120 millims. in diameter
from tip to tip of the arms; the length of the arm is about three
times its width near the base, and three times the diameter of the
disk. The pairs of marginal plates are long and narrow, running
up with a slight curve outwards from the edge of the ambulacral
groove until they meet the border of the dorsal perisome above ;
they are closely set with short blunt spines, which become gradu-
ally a little longer towards the radial groove ; and at the edge of
the groove each plate bears a tuft of about six rather long spines:
these tufts in combination form a scalloped fringe spreading in-
wards on each side over the groove. The dorsal surface of the
body is covered with a tessellated pavement composed of capitate
paxilli. The heads of the paxilli in close apposition combine to
form a mosaic with rudely hexagonal facets; and as they are
raised upon somewhat slender shafts whose bases, like the plinths
of columns, rest upon the soft perisome, arcade-like spaces are left
between the skin and the upper calcareous pavement. The eggs
pass into these spaces from the ovarial openings: on bending
the perisome and separating the facets, they may be seen in num-
bers among the shafts of the paxilli. There is a continual dis-

72 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

charge of ova into the passages, so that eggs and young in different
stages of development occupy the spaces at once. The young do
not escape until at least six ambulacral suckers are formed on
each arm; they may then be seen pushing their way out by
forcing the paxilli to the side, and squeezing through the chink be-

Archaster excavatus, Wy. Thomson. Twice the natural size.

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 73

tweenthem. While it is extricating itself, the oral surface of the
young is always above; and the centre of the star with the mouth
is usually the part which first protrudes ; then the arms disengage
themselves one after another, many of the brood remaining
for a time with one or two arms free and the others still under
the paxilli. When the young have become disengaged, they re-
main for a considerable time attached to the parent by the centre
of the dorsal surface. I could never satisfy myself by what means
this is effected ; the attachment is very slight, and they are re-
moved by the least touch. In this attached stage, until they en-
tirely free themselves, which they do when the number of tenta-
cular feet on each arm has reached about twenty, they cluster in
the reentering angles between the arms of the mother, spreading
a little way along the arms and on the dorsal surface of the disk }
the young escape from the marsupium chiefly in the neighbour-
hood of the angles between the rays. The madreporiform tubercle
is visible in the young near the margin of the disk between two
of the arms; but in the mature Starfish it is completely hidden
by the paxilli, and no doubt it opens into the space beneath
them.

We took Archaster excavatus only on that one occasion ; and
the weather was so boisterous at the time that it was impossible
to trace the early stages in the development of the embryo. It is
evident that the process generally resembles that described by
Professor Sars in Pteraster militaris ; and it is quite possible that,
while there is certainly not the least approach to the formation of
a locomotive bipinnaria, as in that species some provisional organs
may exist an early period.

In ‘The Depths of the Sea’ (p. 120) I noticed and figured a
singular little Starfish from a depth of 500 fathoms off the north
of Scotland under the name of Hymenaster pellucidus. This form
was at that time the type of a new genus; but the researches of
the last three years have shown that, with the exception perhaps
of Archaster, Hymenaster is the most widely distributed genus of
Asterids in deep water. It is met with (sparingly, it is true, only
one or two specimens being usually taken at once in the trawl) in
all parts of the great ocean; and it ranges in depth from 400 to
about 2500 fathoms.

On the 7th of March, 1874, we dredged an extremely handsome
new form, to which I shall give provisionally the name of H, nobilis,

74 SIR C. WY VILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

in lat. 50° 1' S., long. 123° 4’ E., 1099 miles south-west of Cape
Otway, Australia, at a depth of 1800 fathoms, with a bottom of

Globigerina-ooze, and a bottom-temperature of 0°3 C. (station
158).

Fig. 11.

Hymenaster nobilis, Wy. Thomson. Half the natural size.

Hymenaster nobilis (fig. 11) is 300 millims. in diameter from tip to
tip of the rays; the arms are 55 millims. wide; and, as in H. pellu-
cidus, a row of spines fringing the ambulacral grooves are greatly
lengthened and webbed ; and the web running along the side of
one arm meets and unites with the web of the adjacent arm, so

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. 75

that the angles between the arms are entirely filled up by a fleshy
lamina stretched over and supported by spines, the body thus
becoming a regular pentagon. The arms are 55 to 60 millims. in
diameter ; the upper surface of the body, disk, and arms, all the
surface, except the smooth membrane between the arms, is covered
with fascicles of four to six diverging spines. These spines are
about 3 millims. in height; and they support and stretch out a
tolerably strong membraue clear above the surface of the perisome
like the canvass of a marquee, leaving an open space beneath it.
A close approach to this arrangement occurs also in Pteraster.
At the apical pole the upper free membrane runs up to and
ends at a large aperture, 15 millims. in diameter, surrounded by a
ring of five very beautifully formed valves. These valves do not
essentially differ from the ordinary radiating supports of the mar-
supial tent; a stout calcareous rod arises from the end of the
double chain of ossicles which form the floor of the ambulacral
groove. From the outer aspect of this support three or four spines
diverge in the ordinary way under the tent-cover; but from its
inner aspect six or eight slender spines rise in one plane with a
special membrane stretched between them. When the valves are
raised and the pentagonal chamber beneath them open, these
spines separate from one another, and, like the ribs of a fan
spread out the membrane in a crescentie form (fig. 11) ; and when
the valves close, the spines approximate and are drawn down-
wards, the five valves forming together a very regular, low, five-
sided pyramid (fig. 12). Looking down into the chamber when
the valves are raised, the vent is seen on a small projecting pa-
pilla in the centre of the floor ; and between the supporting ossicles
of the valves, five dark opeu arches lead into the spaces opposite
the reentering angles of the arms, which receive the ducts of the
ovaries. In the particular specimen to which I have referred,
which is considerably the largest of the genus which we have yet
met with, there were one or two eggs in the pouch; but they were
apparently abortive. It seemed that the brood had been lately
discharged ; for some oval depressions still remained on the floor
of the central chamber, in which the eggs or the young had evi-
dently been lodged. I have on three occasions found the eggs
beneath the membrane in the angles of the arms and, in a more
advanced stage, congregated in the central tent, but never under
circumstances such that I could keep and examine them ; exposed

76 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON THE MODE OF

or loosely covered eggs or embryos, or any soft and pulpy organs or
appendages are always in a half disintegrated state when they are
brought up from such great depths, if they are not entirely washed
away.

Fig. 12.

Hymenaster nobilis, Wy. Thomson. The marsupial chamber with the yalves
closed. Twice the natural size.

As [have already said, Hymenaster is closely allied to Pteraster :
the arrangements of the marsupium are nearly the same in both;
and it is highly probable that, as in P. militaris, a provisional ali-
mentary tract may be developed in the early stages of the
embryo.

There are several fine species of Hymenaster within reach of
British naturalists in the deep water at the entrance of the
Channel and off Cape Clear; but I fear there will be great diffi-
culty in determining this point unless the genus turns up some-
where in shallower soundings where specimens can be taken
alive.

V. OpHIURIDEA.

At station 194, at the entrance of Royal Sound, on the 8.E.
coast of Kerguelen Land, we dredged, on the 17th of January,

PROPAGATION OF CERTAIN ECHINODERMS. iE

1874, a large number of specimens of a species of the genus
Ophiocoma of which I can find no description; and I accordingly
name it provisionally O. didelphys (fig. 18). We afterwards met
with the same species in other localities among the fiords and bays
of Kerguelen.

The disk is about 20 millims. in diameter; and the arms are
four times the diameter of the disk in length. The disk is uni-
formly coarsely granulated; the arm-shields, which are well-de-
fined through the membrane, are rounded in form and roughly
granulated like the remainder of the disk. ‘The character which
at once distinguishes this species from all the others of the genus
is, that the normal number of the arms is seven instead of five,
which is almost universal in the class. The number of arms is
subject to certain variation. I have seen from six to nine, but
never fewer than six. The arm-spines are numerous and long.
The general colour of the disk and arms is a dull greenish
brown.

A large proportion of the mature females, if not all of them,
had a group of from three to ten or twelve young ones clinging to
the upper surface of the disk by their arms: the largest of these
were about a quarter the size of their mother; and they graduated
down in size until the smallest had a diameter of less than 1°5
millim. across the disk. The largest and oldest of the progeny
were always uppermost, furthest from that disk, the series de-
creasing in size downwards, and the supply evidently coming
from the genital clefts beneath. In several specimens which I
examined, although by no means in all, there were groups of eggs
and of young in still earlier stages, free in the body-cavity in the
interbrachial spaces.

It thus seems that in this case the true “ marsupium”’ is a por-
tion of the body-cavity, and that the protection afforded by it is
supplemented by the attachment of the young to the surface of the
disk, maintained for some time after their extrusion or escape.

The process of propagation in Ophiocoma didelphys differs from
most of the other cases described in the eggs being successively
hatched, and the young being found consequently in a regularly
graduated series of stages of growth. Although I had not an op-
portunity of working the matter out with the care and complete-
ness I could have wished, I feel satisfied, from the examination of
several of the young at a very early period, that in this case no

78 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON ON CERTAIN ECHINODERMS.

provisional mouth and no pseudembryonice appendages whatever
are formed, and that the primary aperture of the gastrula re-
mains as the common mouth and excretory opening of the mature

Ophiocoma didelphys, Wy. Thomson. Twice the natural size.

form. From the appearance of the ovaries and of the broods of
young, I should think it probable that this species gives off young
in a continuous series for a considerable length of time, probably
for some months.

I have selected for illustration in the foregoing pages, out of a
much larger number, eight examples representing four orders show-

MR. R. B. SHARPE ON BIRDS FROM S.E. NEW GUINEA. 79

the development of the young of Echinoderms from the egg with-
out the intervention of a locomotive “ pseudembryo.”” As I have
already stated, I cannot, on account of the unfavourable conditions
for carrying on such investigations under which the majority of
the species were procured, say with certainty that no trace of
pseudembryonic appendages or provisional organs exists in any
of these instances; but I feel satisfied that none such oe¢cur in
Psolus ephippifer, in the Kerguelen species of Hemiaster, or in
Ophiocoma didelphys; nor am I in a position to affirm that in
these high southern latitudes direct development is universal in
the subkingdom. I believe, indeed, that it is not so; for species
of the genera Echinus, Strongylocentrotus, and Amblypneustes run
far south, and a marsupial arrangement seems improbable in any
of these. It is, however, a significant fact that while in warm and
temperate seas “ Plutei’”’ and “ Bipinnariz ” are constantly taken,
in the surface-net, during our southern cruise between the Cape
of Good Hope and Australia only one form of Echinoderm
“pseudembryo”’ occurred ; and that we regarded with some little
doubt as the larva of Chirodota, from the presence of calcareous
wheels in the skin.

South Atlantic,
March 14, 1876.

Note.—Since this paper was written, several notices of these
Kerguelen Echinoderms have appeared, both in this country and
in America, in connexion with the preliminary reports of the natu-
ralists attached to the Transit Expedition. As, however, this com-
munication is only intended as a preliminary sketch of some of
the peculiar phenomena of their propagation, and does not pretend
to accuracy in nomenclature, I have thought it better to allow it
to remain without alteration. When satisfactory descriptions

and figures are published, it will be necessary to go into the whole ‘

question of synonymy in detail—C. Wy. T. A

Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea.—Part I.
Notes on a Small Collection of Birds from South-eastern New
Guinea. By R. Bowpier Suarpr, F.L.S.

[Read June 15, 1876.]

So much interest attaches to the natural history of New Guinea,

that I am sure the Members of the Society will be pleased

to see a few birds which have been forwarded to the British
LINN, JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XII 8

80 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON BIRDS FROM

Museum by the Rey. J. S. M‘Farlane. The following is an extract
from a letter addressed to me by that gentleman explaining the

circumstances under which the specimens were procured :—

“ Somerset, Cape York,
“Jan. 31st, 1876.

“The remnant of the Macleay Expedition have just returned
from Port Moresby in our little steamer. They have given me a
Bower-bird’s nest and some specimens, which I also send to you
by this mail in a case; they are from the neighbourhood of Port
Moresby, about twenty miles inland.”

Mr. M’Farlane also writes :—‘ I send you a Bird of Paradise
which I got up the Baxter river; I skinned it myself, and when
I got back I got one of the ‘ Chevert’ staff to do it up for me.
It is not a very good specimen, but yet the best, I think, out of
New Guinea. . . . D’Albertis has not got any of this kind; and
the party from the ‘ Chevert’ are not likely to get them at Port
Moresby, except mutilated ones from the natives. They seem to
come from the head of the gulf.’

My disappointment may be imagined on finding that the Bird of
Paradise here referred to had been abstracted in transitu, appa-
rently by rats, and that only a few red plumes remained of this
highly interesting bird, which was apparently an adult male of
P. raggiana.

1. GEOFFROYIUS PUCHERANI.

Pionias pucherani (Bp.); Finsch, Papag. ii. p. 385.

The only skin sent is not adult; but on comparing it with our
series in the Museum, I believe it to be referable to G. pucherani.

2. DoMICELLA SCINTILLATA.

Domicella scintillata (Temm.); Finsch, Papag. ii. p. 752.

I have compared the specimen now sent with others from New
Guinea and the Aru Islands, and can find no specific difference,
though the Port-Moresby skin is not fully adult. The species is
not mentioned in the last of D’Albertis’s collection.

3. TRICHOGLOSSUS MASSENA.

Trichoglossus massena, Bp.; Salvad. & D’ Albert. Ann. Mus. Genov. vi.
p- 812.

Count Salvadori compared D’ Albertis’s single specimen with Mr.
Gray’s Plate of the species in the late Mr. Brenchley’s ‘ Cruise
of the Curagoa,’ and came to the conclusion that the New-Guinea
bird was the same. I have compared a fine skin sent by Mr.
M‘Farlane with the others in the Museum from the Solomon
Islands, and can confirm Count Salvadori’s determination.

SOUTH-EASTERN NEW GUINEA. Si

4, CENTROPUS SPILOPTERUS.
Centropus spilopterus, Gray, P. Z. S. 1858, p. 184; Schl. Obs. Zool. iv.

poll:

This is a very interesting bird, as hitherto the species has been
supposed to be confined to the Ke Islands. On comparing the
specimen now sent with the type of C. spilopterus, I can find no
specific differences, nor with two other specimens from New
Guinea collected by Mr. Wallace. These latter birds are named
C. violaceus ; but they are certainly not the true species, as they
are greenish and have no violet shade about them. The bird will,
I believe, ultimately bear the name of C. spilopterus,—not that the
streaks on the wing-coverts are a specific character ; for I regard
them as nothing but the last remains of the speckled plumage.
Professor Schlegel has given a sketch of the Papuan Centropz (Obs.
Zool. iv. p. 11), in which he recognizes four species :-—

(1) C. MENEBEKI, Less.
Hab. New Guinea, Salwatti, Aru Islands, Mysol.

(2) C. BERNSTEINI, Schl.
Hab. Salwatti.

(3) C. spILopTERUS, Gray.

Hab. Ke Islands.

(4) C. viotaceus, Q. & G.

Hab. Soek Island.

This latter species Count Salvadori has named Wesocentor chaly-
beus from a Mysor skin, believing it to be distinct from the true
C. violaceus, which is from New Ireland.

As regards C. bernsteini and C. spilopterus, I believe that they
are one and the same species, the latter not being quite adult.
The synonymy, therefore, will be as follows :—

C. spiLoprerus.—C. spilopterus, Gray, P. Z. S. 1858, p. 184; id.
Cat. Mamm. & B. N. Guinea, p. 43 (1859) ; id. P. Z. S. 1861, p. 437
Schl. Obs. Zool. iv. p. iii; Gray, Hand-l. B. ii. p. 214 (1870).—C.
violaceus, Finsch, Neu-Guinea, p. 160 (1865); Gray, Hand-l. B. ui.
p- 214 (1870).—C. bernsteinii, SchJ. Obs. Zool. ii. p. 31, iv. p. 11.

Mr. M‘Farlane’s specimen measures as follows—total length
19°5 inches, culmen 1:5, wing 8°8, tail 12:5, tarsus 2:0.
5. GRAUCALUS ANGUSTIFRONS, sp. n.—G. hypoleucus, Gould ; Salvad.
& D’ Albert. t. c. p. 24.
I cannot follow Count Salvadori in referring the white-breasted

Graucalus of Southern New Guinea to the G. hypoleucus of Gould.
Q*

$2 ON BIRDS FROM SOUTH-EASTERN NEW GUINEA.

No dimensions are given by the last-named author, to begin with ;
but the bird sent to me by Mr. M‘Farlane is rather larger than
Mr. Gould’s figure. There are several other little points in
which the New-Guinea bird differs; but, before every thing, Mr,
Gould makes no mention of the black frontal line in the Austra-
lian species, which is very conspicuous in the one to which I now
give the name of angustifrons. Iam sorry that I have not in the
Museum an Australian skin to compare. At the same time I.
would draw Count Salvadori’s attention to the Aru bird, of which
he has probably a better series than we have in London. It has
the black frontal line, succeeded by a very distinct line of white
which occupies the hinder part of the eyelid, leaving the fore and
lower parts of the latter black like the lores. This is very well
marked in the adult Aru specimen now before me, and differs from
the New-Guinea bird and from Mr. Gould’s figure.

6. CRAcTICUS CASSICUS.
C. cassicus (Bodd.); Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 27.

Two specimens.

7. EULABES DUMONTI.

Mino dumonti, Less. ; Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 828.

Appears to be quite inseparable from other specimens from
Dorey and the Aru Islands.

8. ORIOLUS STRIATUS.

Mimeta striata, Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 828.

The single specimen sent by Mr. M‘Farlane agrees with others
from Dorey collected by Mr. Wallace. This species seems to vary
very little; but the bill shows some difference in length and thick-
ness; both thick- and thin-billed examples, however, occur in the
same locality. The streaks on the breast are broader in some
birds than in others, being apparently more pronounced in the
younger individuals.

9. CLAMYDODERA CERVINIVENTRIS.

C. cerviniventris, Gould; Salvad. § D’ Albert. t.c. p. 828.

Three specimens of this Bower-bird have been sent ; and Signor
D’Albertis had already procured a pair on the coast of New
Guinea opposite Yule Island. They cannot be separated from
Australian examples, with two of which I have compared them ;
but they differ somewhat inter se. The streaks on the forehead
appear to extend further up the crown in two of the specimens ;
and the mottlings on the back are less pronounced than in

MR. W. D..CROTOH ON THE NORWEGIAN LEMMING. 83.

one of the Cape-York skins, while the light tips to the
wing-coverts and secondaries are not very distinct. All are in
somewhat worn plumage. Mr. M‘Farlane also sends the bower
of this bird, which closely resembles the original one discovered
by Mr. Macgillivray and now in the British Museum. It is not
ornamented with shells, but has a few berries scattered about on
the floor and near the top.

Additional Note relative to the N orwegian Lemming.
By W. Dupra Crorcn, Esq., F.L,S.

[Read June 15, 1876.]

In the course of a paper which I lately had the honour of reading
before the Linnean Society I stated, with reference to the migration
of the Lemmings, that this was usually considered to indicate a
severe winter approaching.

It is a fact that the Lemmings began to appear last autumn in
Ovre Gudbrandsdalen; .and I now know that the field is
overrun with them. Moreover the winter has been very severe,
and the summer exceptionally backward, so that ice still remains on
many lakes. Yet 1 am disinclined to believe in this motive for
their peregrinations :—first, because they have not chosen warmer
quarters than they had “at home,” wherever that may be; and,
secondly, because, as they live entirely beneath the snow during
winter, they are practically unaffected by its severity, and not
much troubled by its continuance. With reference to the theory
of Atlantic land to which they may in former ages have retreated,
I am glad to find that the Norwegian Government have fitted out
a ship, the ‘ Voringen,’ under Capt. Wille, for the express pur-
pose of exploring the ocean between Norway and Greenland.
The survey in question is to determine the extent of the deep channel
which fringes the coast, and to explore the bank between the
Faroe Islands and Iceland, as well as to conduct other inves-
tigations which may possibly add-to (or diminish) the probabi-
lity of the former existence of land to which, as I have before
said, the Lemmings and many other migrants may have betaken
themselves, but which has now left no surer traces in these lati-
tudes than the hereditary instincts of its former visitants.

84 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

On the Organization of the Ornithosauria. By Harry Govier
Sertey, F.LS., F.Z.8., F.G.8., Professor of Geography in
King’s College, London.

[Read November 18, 1875.]
(Prats XT.)

Tur Pterodactyles have long been grouped with the Reptilia by
the chief European anatomists. De Blainville placed them as a
class between reptiles and birds. Earlier writers (Hunter and
Blumenbach), with slender materials, included these animals with
birds ; and others, like Sommerring, believed that they had some
affinities to mammals. These conclusions necessitate modifica-
tions of the zoological ideas of reptile and bird on the part of
those who would place Ornithosaurs in either group. But the
evidence as to their organization has not been very conclusively
set forth; and their place in nature has always been more as-
sumed than proved. ‘The difficulty consists chiefly in the absence
from anatomical science of definitions which would fix the zoolo-
gical value of the characters observed in such fossils as these.
No one has specified with sufficient detail the osteological struc-
tures which constitute an animal a reptile, or a bird. The task
is extremely difficult. My own endeavours that way have led to
the conclusion that it is within the limits of possibility for an ani-
mal to have its skeletal characters so modifled by loss, substitution,
or development as to be no longer recognized as a member of its
class by the form or proportions of a single bone. The great
range of actual variations in the skeleton, seen among fishes, rep-
tiles, and mammals, sufficiently demonstrates that characters
must be found more constant than those of the bones before an
extinct animal’s affinities can be indubitably determined. There-
fore, though ordinal groups are defined by the bones without diffi-
culty, the characters of the class can only be found in the soft
vital organs.

In the animals whose organization I purpose to examine, two
of the vital organs can be investigated—one by the form of the
cerebral cavity of the skull, the other by nearly all the bones
showing conspicuous apertures which are formed and situate pre-
cisely as are the pneumatic foramina in the bones of birds. Such
foramina characterize no other kind of skeleton ; and since in birds
they serve to prolong the air-cells from the lungs into the bones,
it can only be inferred legitimately that the similar foramina in
fossil bones subserved an identical purpose.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 85

The form of the cerebellum, the size and position of the cere-
bral hemispheres, and the inferior and lateral place of the optic
lobes in the skulls of Pterodactyles offer another coincidence
of distinctive structures’ with those of the class Aves. These
are the only vital organs of birds which have a paleontological
value: with them may be associated any bones that the condi-
tions of existence tend to elaborate. Any corresponding concep-
tion of a reptile is unattainable; hence ideas of the boundaries of
the Reptilia must always be vague.

Professor Huxley, in 1867*, so far modified the ordinary con-
ception of a reptile as to maintain that the Ornithosauria were
reptiles with hot blood. I had previouslyt detailed reasons for
believing that they were hot-blooded, but had inferred for them
from that an affinity with birds. It is within the limits of possi-
bility for a reptile to be hot-blooded without having the organs
associated with hot blood in mammals and birds, since there are
hot-blooded fishes.

Professor Huxley followed up his belief that Ornithosaurs were
hot-blooded reptiles by another belief that the pneumaticity of
the bones and the avian characters of Ornithosaurs might be
merely adaptiwe modificationst. By that expression Professor
Huxley evidently intends to convey the impression that the struc-
tures in question are resemblances consequent upon the parts of
the body having had to perform identical functions, so that the
bones of different animals have acquired identical shapes and
structures. For he goes on to say, “ Pterodactyles, among rep-
tiles, approach birds much as bats among mammals may be said
to do. They are a sort of reptilian bat rather than links between
reptiles and birds; and it is precisely in those organs—the manus
and the pes—which in birds are the most characteristically
ornithic, that they depart most widely from the ornithic type ’’t.

I have given reasons for thinking neither manus nor pes the
most characteristic organs of birds, and believe that brain and lungs
are organs of incomparably greater value in questions of organiza-
tion. When, therefore, Professor Huxley launches this scientific
dictum without facts to supportit, we may usefully compare his
views as. given at the Zoological Society. “ Birds,” says Professor
Huxley, “ have hot blood, a muscular valve in the right ventricle,

* “Classification of Birds,” P. Z. 8., 1867 p. 417.
ft Ann. Nat. Hist. 1866. ;
t Popular Science Review, 1868, p. 242, being a Royal-Institution lecture. ~

. 86 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

-a single aortic arch, and remarkably modified respiratory organs ;
but it is, to say the least, highly probable that the Pterosauria,
if not the Dinosauria, shared some of these characters with them.
The amount of work involved im sustaining a Pterodactyle in the
air would seem, physiologically, to necessitate proportional oxida-
tion and evolution of waste products in the form of carbonic acid.
If so, a proportional quantity of heat must have been evolved, and
there must have been a ready means of eliminating the carbonie
acid from the blood. We know of no such means except those
which are afforded by highly developed circulatory and respiratory
organs ; and therefore itis highly probable that the Pterodactyles
had more perfect organs of this kind than their congeners, accom-
panied by the correlative hot blood. But since we know that the
organs of respiration and circulation of a bat are very different
from those of a bird, it is quite possible that those of a Pterodac-
tyle may have been different, in detail, from either’’*.

This passage may perhaps be reconciled with the preceding one
by means of the dictum often laid down by Professor Huxley, that
birds are greatly modified reptiles. But I do not think that the
assertion that birds are reptiles would go a great way towards
aendering it probable that the pneumatic skeleton of Pterodac-
tyles is an adaptive modification.

On the hypothesis that Pterodactyles are reptiles, Professor
Huxley would infer, I think, that flight caused the development
in them of the pneumatic skeleton; but seeing that the Cheiro-
ptera, among mammals, have great powers of flight without the
skeleton being pneumatic, the statement can but rank as a sur-
mise unsupported by evidence, and, so far, contrary to evidence.
Dnutil some living animal, demonstrably reptilian, is discovered to
possess limb-bones marked with pneumatic foramina, it seems to
me that teaching from any one will lack weight when it refers
fossil pneumatic skeletons to the Reptilia. Among living animals
the pneumatic foramina exist only that avian lungs may have their
air-cells prolonged into the bones; so that no other function can
fairly be inferred for them when they are found in fossil bones, _

The pneumatic foramina of Ornithosaurs so closely resemble
those of birds in almost every bone of the skeleton, that the re-
semblance often amounts to complete coincidence. The holes are
usually in exactly the same positions on each of the bones in both
groups; and in both they have the same details of reticulate ©
structure. It must, then, be sound physiology to infer that such

P, Z, S, 1867, pp. 417-18.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 87

identity of structure is due to identical causation, unless we have
at least some evidence to the contrary. If the formula adaptive
modification means that the Pterodactyles acquired by flight lungs
similar to those of birds, it seems as though it were only an-
other and less striking way of saying that reptiles are birds. If
Professor Huxley could give to reptiles a bird-like heart and bird-
like lungs, it would be important to learn the characters by which
they could still be recognized as members of the class Reptilia.

The only remaining vital character which can be recognized
in a fossil is the brain; and if the respiratory system of a rep-
tile could become adapted so as to be undistinguishable from that
of a bird, what reason is there that it should not be supposed
that the brain also of a flying reptile would become indistinguish-
able from that of a bird?

But between birds and Ornithosaurs there is a great struc-
tural resemblance in the brain. A bird’s brain so fills its brain-
case that a mould of this chamber gives a true idea of the form of
the brain. The evidence for the identity of cerebral structure
in these two groups rests upon the form of the cerebral hemi-
spheres in the Pterodactylus longirostris and on other specimens
from the lithographic slate, on an undescribed skeleton from the
Wealden of the Isle of Wight, preserved in the collection of
the Rey. W.. Darwin Fox, and on several fragments showing dif-
ferent portions of the brain-cavity of the Ornithocheirus in the
Cambridge Upper Greensand. That these latter fossils do not
pertain to true birds, remains of which also occur in the deposit,
but really belong to Ornithosaurs, is demonstrated by the associ-
ation of the similar Wealden cranium with a typical Pterodactyle
skeleton.

The Upper-Greensand specimens on which I rely for evidence
as to cerebral characters are two in number—first, the hinder
part of a cranium, and, secondly, a mould of the upper por-
tion of the brain-cavity. The former specimen is in the Wood-
wardian Museum of the University of Cambridge, and the latter in
that of J. F. Walker, Esq., M.A., F.L.8. The Woodwardian spe-
cimen shows a vertical section of the brain made in about the line
of junction of the frontal with the parietal bones, or just behind that
line (Pl. XI. fig. 4). I have excavated the brain-cavity a little, so
as to make its outlines distinct ; but the hard and brittle character
of the specimen rendered it impossible to remove the material
which fillsit. In its greatest lateral width it measures 42 of an

88 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

inch, while its greatest depth in the middle of each cerebral he-
misphere is about 14 of an inch. It has the outline shown |
in Pl. XI. fig. 4. I regard the upper part of the outline as
showing that the cerebral hemispheres were divided from each
other, as among birds, by a deep impression of the parietal bones,
that they were convex from within outward, and deep from above
downward, as among birds. At the two lower corners of the sec-
tion of the cerebrum are two distinct rounded cerebral masses
which extend outward beyond the adjacent part of the cerebrum,
so as almost to excavate a way through the region of the alisphe-
noid bones (fig. 4,0). The position of these masses below the cere-
brum and in the alisphenoids seems to me to demonstrate that they
are the optic lobes of the brain ; and since they hold the same posi-
tion and proportion as the excavations for the optic lobes of the
brain in the skulls of birds, I infer that in this important point the
Ornithosaurian brain is identical with the avian brain. To make
this clear, I have prepared a vertical section of the cerebral cavity
in the skull of an owl in the same relative plane with the section
of the fossil skull, and give the figure for comparison (see dia-
gram, Pl. XI. fig. 5)—from which it will be seen that the only
difference between them is, that the owl’s brain has a wider cere-
brum, and is marked by lateral cerebral impressions which are
not shown in the fossil. These differences are only of the kind
which distinguish the brains of different genera of birds from each
other.

Mr. Walker’s fossil displays the upper surface of the cerebrum
(Pl. XI. fig. 2), and, so far as regards the form of the cerebrum, con-
firms the evidence from the Woodwardian fossil; but too little of
the under part of the specimen is preserved for it to show the optic
lobes. The cerebral lobes are 1% of an inch long, and each is 7% of
an inch wide; they have the lateral outline rounded, and the front
outlines combined in the middle to make the front of the brain
rounded. The lateral outlines similarly converge behind, except
that in between the hinder mesial part of the cerebral hemi-
spheres is placed a distinct, small, convex, cerebral mass (Pl. XT.
fig.2,cm). Itis separated from the cerebral lobes by well-marked
grooves directed backward and outward, and does not extend be-
tween them for more than ;, inch. Ina line with the hinder
limit of the cerebral lobes this mass attains its greatest width
of about 53, inch; and behind this line the cerebral mass be-
comes a little narrower. The outermost corners of this mass
are each prolonged as a slightly elevated ridge obliquely out-

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 89

ward and forward over the cerebral lobes towards the portion of
the frontal bone which formed the hinder wall of the orbit. The
antero-posterior extent of this cerebral mass (as preserved; for
it is somewhat fractured behind) is ;3, inch; but on the under
side of the fossil (PI. XI. fig. 3, em), where this brain-region is well
defined between the bones on each side of it (fig. 3,s), itis ;4 inch
wide, and extends forward for ;4 inch, thus demonstrating that
while it is seen for ;4; inch behind the cerebrum, it also extends
forward under the cerebrum for ;4; inch. Therefore I identify
this cerebral mass as the cerebellum, and infer from the antero-
posterior convexity of its exposed superior portion that its hinder
outline was vertical, and did not extend much behind the part of
the brain preserved. The ridge over the cerebrum is due to a
blood-vessel.

The resemblance of form and arrangement of parts between this
fossil animal’s brain and the brain ofa bird (Pl. XI. fig. 1) amounts,
as far as the evidence goes, to absolute identity. This is manifest
on comparing a cast of the brain-cavity of a bird with the natural
mould of the brain-cavity of the Cambridge Greensand Pterodac-
tyle. The cerebrum being the cerebrum of a bird, the optic lobes
those of a bird, and the cerebellum that of a bird, no more perfect
Specimen could add to the force of the conclusion that the
Ornithosaurian brain is’ an avian brain of typical structure.
It seems to me, therefore, an inevitable conclusion that the Orni-
thosauria are members of the same great class as birds, and are
separated from carinate and other birds only by such charac-
ters as divide mammalian or reptilian orders of animals from
each other—that is to say, by modification of the skeleton. If

this claim to admit the Ornithosauria, on account of vital struc-

tures, into the class Aves is allowed, then it follows that the
skeletal modifications of Ornithosaurians are as much avian
structures as the skeletal modifications of the Cetacea, Carni-
vora, and Monotremata are all mammalian structures.

Turning to the skeleton in Ornithosaurian animals, I propose to
point out the characters of the several bones without regard to
theoretical conception of the Ornithosaurian organization. On
a priori grounds it would be reasonable to expect that no greater
variations from a common avian plan would be presented than are
seen in the variations from the mammalian common plan shown
by Hdentates, bats, and whales, or are presented by the variations
of the several orders of reptiles from the common plan of the Rep-
tilia. I do not think it will be found that the variations from the

90 MR H. G. SERLEY ON THE

avian type of structure exhibited by the skeletons of Pterodactyles
are as Important as those in the cases cited have been.

First, as to the structure of the skull and vertebral column.
Von Meyer has remarked on the preponderating resemblance
to the bird’s skull shown in the skulls of Ornithosaurian fossils
from the lithographic slate of Germany; and elsewhere I have
translated his exposition of their characters*. But although he
states the several bones, as well as their texture, condition, and
arrangement, to be avian, he does not mention the particular birds
with which comparison may be made. Some of these comparisons
T will supply.

If our attention is turned to the skull, seen from above, as in
the published figures and casts of Rhamphorhynchus Gemmingi,
the outline of the skull is a long triangle terminating sharply in
front, similar to that presented by the skull of the great African
Kingfisher (Ceryle maxima), in which the positions and propor-
tions of nares, orbits, and temporal fosse correspond closely, the
differences being that the Ornithosaur has no premaxillary facial
joint, and the bird has no complete temporal fossa. The common
Heron (Ardea cinerea) also resembles the Pterodactyle in the fore
part of the head, but behind the eyes it has the skull both longer
and larger.

If the comparison is made from the side view, the small back-
wardly placed nares and complete orbit of Rhamphorhynchus
Gemmingi show some resemblance to these organs in the parrots.
The orbital circle, however, is formed in different ways. An in-
teresting resemblance, both in the position and proportion of the
several regions of the side of the skull (nares, orbits, cerebral
space and quadrate bone), may be noticed on comparing Ptero- .
dactylus longirostris and P. scolopaciceps with the Bar-tailed
Godwit (Limosa lapponica). The quadrate bone is similarly in-
clined forward in the Curlew, Snipe, and other birds, while it
articulates inferiorly with the squamosal region of the brain-case,
as the quadrate bone articulates in birds and in no other animals.

When a bird has a circular orbit for the eye, the circle appears
to be completed below by a downward and backward growth of
the lachrymal bone uniting with a forward growth of the frontal
bone in its postfrontal region. Many water-birds, especially the
Maned Goose (Bernicla jubata), the Swan,‘and the Teal, show an
approximation to such acondition. The Great Bustard, too, shows

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 1871.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 91

forward growths both from the squamosal and frontal margins ;
and in the Snipe both of these processes meet the lachrymal
bone. Thus one distinctive feature of the bird’s orbit, by which
it differs alike from Ornithosaurs, reptiles, and mammals, is that
it forms a circle above the bar containing the malar bone, so that
the malar bone is not admitted into the orbit of the eye.

In the Ground-Hornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus), however, and in
the Shoebill (Baleniceps rex), the lachrymal bone meets the malar
bar without uniting with it, and the postfrontal region of the
skull is prolonged downward almost as far as the malar bar—thus
showing that it is possible for a bird to have its orbital circle
formed by the same bones, and in the same way, as among Ptero-
dactyles: that is, the frontal bone is above, the lachrymal in front,
and the malar below. But Ornithosaurs sometimes differ from
birds in admitting the quadrato-jugal bone into the orbital circle
behind. The quadrato-jugal bone has, I believe, in most speci-
mens hitherto been regarded by others and by myself as the post-
frontal bone ; but the postfrontal bone seems to me now usually
to have no separate existence in Ornithosaurs, being united with
the frontal bone as in adult birds.

My reasons for making this determination are, that the bone iu
question appears usually to have two articulations with the qua-
drate bone, and to be situated between the malar bone and the
proximal end of the quadrate bone. Since the frontal bone
expands at the back of the orbit as in birds, and the squamosal
bone similarly contributes to the wall of the brain-cavity, there
ean be no reason for supposing that the bone in question, which
makes the outer boundary of the temporal fossa, is the postfrontal,
so long as the quadrato-jugal bone remains unaccounted for.
The position of the bone is somewhat analogous to that of
the quadrato-jugal Hatteria, so far as concerns the orbit, and
similar to the quadrato-jugal in Jgwana in its relations to the
quadrate and squamosal bones, and therefore is more lizard-like
than the quadrato-jugal of birds. But, in consequence of this ar-
rangement, it results that the malar bone unites with the distal
end of the quadrate bone; and this union distinguishes Ornitho-
saurs from all existing animals, whether birds or reptiles. These
differences from birds, even from a morphological point of view,
ought not to be regarded as resemblances towards one class of
animals or another, but merely as characters useful in the subor-
dinate details of classification.

92 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

No ornithosaurian fossil has displayed the undisturbed palatal
aspect of the skull; but in Cycnorhamphus swevicus and Pachy-
rhamphus erassirostris the palatal bones may be detected as
‘slender elements comparable to those of birds. The palate of
Pachyrhamphus may have approximated towards the palate of
such a struthious bird as the Emu; but Cyenorhamphus had a
palate more like that of a natatorial or gallinaceous bird, as I have
already tried to show in a published restoration *. In neither of
these genera, nor in any known Ornithosaur, have the palatal
bones any reptilian features.

Formerly considerable weight was given to the occurrence of
teeth in Ornithosaurians as a point of resemblance to reptiles ;
but this feature is now balanced by the occurrence of similar
teeth, according to Professor Marsh, in the jaws of the cretaceous
birds Hesperornis regalis and Ichthyornis dispar +, as well as by
the presence of teeth anchylosed to the jaw in Odontopterysx {.
Since Hesperornis possesses so many of the characters of existing
birds, there seems to be no reason why the occurrence of teeth
in Pterodactyles should be regarded as a character more reptilian
than avian. Some years ago I pointed out that since the teeth
in the maxillary bone in the Delphinide are all simple and
conical with one fang, the occurrence of teeth similarly simple in
Ornithosaurians is no more a resemblance to reptiles than it is to
mammals, and is therefore valueless as a mark of affinity. The
tooth-structure is not very like that of any living animal.

When printing my book on the Ornithosaurians, I stated that
the teeth resembled those of some mammals in the dentinal cells.
The point always appeared to require further examination; and
beautiful new sections made for me by Mr. Cuttell, of New
Compton Street, demonstrate no such structure. From studies
of sections of teeth, it seems to me that we can by no means cer-
tainly determine, on microscopical evidence, whether a tooth is
reptilian or mammalian, especially when the type to which it be-
longed is extinct.

Tn longitudinal sections of the tooth of Ornithochezrus from fang
to crown (Pl. XI. fig. 11) the calcigerous tubes radiate as in the
teeth of Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs; they are wavy tubes which
occasionally bifurcate, but are remarkable for the many branches

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 1871, vol. vii. pl. 2.

+ Am. Jour. Sci. vol. x. 1875, pl. 10.
{ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. pl. xvi.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 93

which each gives off at right angles. The branches appear to be
best seen in the transverse section, where many can be traced ex-
tending in a wavy course for some distance at right angles to the
tube from which they are given off. The branches are sometimes
as large as the principal tubes, which, towards the outer part of the
tooth run straight. In the transverse section (Pl. XI. fig. 12) the
branches appear to unite the tubes together much as the principal
tubes are united in some Carboniferous species of the coral Syriigo-
pora; but this appearance is probably delusive. The enamel is very
thin, and only distinguished from the dentine by being perfectly
translucent; but calcigerous tubes are continued into it without
any break. Exactly the same kind of structure has not been
figured, so far as I know, in any existing animal. It reminds me
of that attributed by Professor Owen to Sawrocephalus ; but in
this fish, which has a similar form of tooth, the tubes are fewer
beyond comparison. Among reptiles, there is a resemblance in
the number of tubes to Jgwana. Cetaceans and bats indicate
structural resemblances probably as close, though in those ani-
mals the tubes are fewer.

The only remaining points of importance in the skull are that
the eyes usually, if not always, abut against the anterior walls of
the brain-case, as they do in some birds, and that the skull is
articulated at right angles to the vertebral column, as it is in all
birds. Perhaps little importance should be attached to this latter
character, although it is found in no reptile, because in Ceta-
ceans the head is in a line with the vertebral column, as it is in
reptiles, while in the fish Azppocampus the head is placed at an
angle to the vertebral column, as it 1s in birds.

Finally, every point of the Ornithosaurian skull upon which
I have not offered comment presents absolute identity with the
corresponding structures in birds. I now pass them over, not
‘because their great weight should be overlooked in an attempt to
estimate the osteology of the group, but because there are no new
facts to be adduced in addition to those given in previous writings
on the subject.

On the whole, I do not regard the Pterodactyle’s skull as dif-
fering from the bird’s skull to any thing like the same extent
ag the skulls of birds, or of Pterodactyles, differ from each
other.

The vertebral column presents considerable variety in the
-Ornithosauria. Owing to the conditions of fossilization, the num-

94 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

ber of vertebre in the several regions of the body is not easily
determined. There appear to be usually seven or eight cervical
vertebre, which is fewer than is recorded in any bird, though the
number is not more reptilian than mammalian. Sometimes the ver-
tebre are elongated, subcylindrical, and without conspicuous pro-
cesses, a8 in Pterodactylus longirostris, and then they closely re-
semble in form the vertebree in the neck of the Purple Heron.
If there were any ground for comparing the animal, as a whole,
with Terrapins, a certain parallelism would be remarked in the
form of the neck-vertebre of the two groups.

In other genera of Ornithosaurs from the lithographic slate,
such as Cycnorhamphus, in Dimorphodon from the Lias, and in all
the Ornithocheiroidea from the Cretaceous strata, the neck-ver-
tebre are large, broad from side to side, more or less flattened on
the under face, and have the neural arch extending transversely
beyond the centrum, as in Bucorvus abyssinicus. But birds, even
raptorial birds, have a much smaller development of the neural
spine. No reptile has a neck formed on this plan. -

As yet, the nature of the articulation of the centrum in the ver-
tebre of most Ornithosaurs from the lithographic slate is unknown,
though the condition is certainly not uniform. In the genera
from the Cambridge Upper Greensand and the Chalk all the ver-
tebre have the centrum depressed ovately, concave in front, and
convex behind. Some of the vertebree of Dimorphodon have the
same character. But the elongated caudal vertebra of that genus,
like similar vertebre from the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays, have
the articular ends of each centrum biconcave, as are the later
caudal vertebre in most Vertebrata. This proccelous character
of the neck and back is at once a difference from all known birds,
and a resemblance to the form of vertebral articulation among
lizards, serpents, and crocodiles. The resemblance is the more
worthy of being carefully weighed, because no mammals are re-
ported to possess proccelous vertebre. Although, no doubt, a
biconcave vertebra, such as that of Ichthyornis, or of the tail of
an existing bird, might become as easily moulded to the lacertilian
as to the avian form, hitherto the condition has not occurred in
birds, recent or fossil; but on that account the probability of its
occurrence hereafter is not decreased.

Nevertheless the character can scarcely be called reuia
since in such reptiles as the Chelonians and Rhynchocephala for
example other modes of vertebral articulation prevail. If the

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 95

character is reptilian it must be a resemblance to either crocodiles,
lizards, or serpents, but can only be so regarded provided the
predominant resemblances of the skeleton ipeare to be with those
ordinal groups.

The Ornithosaurian vertebre, ea show a resemblance to
those of birds and many mammals in the small size of the cen-
trum and in the large extent to which the sides of the neural arch
contribute to form the lateral parts of the intervertebral artieula-
tion. I have not detected a like structural condition in the ver-
tebre of reptiles. But the character becomes modified in impor-
tance by the relation being reversed in some mammals, since the
canal for the spinal cord is sometimes partly formed by the
centrum in Cetacea.

The atlas and axis resemble those of a bird in proportion and
form ; but the condition of the odontoid process is different. When
the atlas separates from the axis of a bird, the odontoid process is
seen usually, if not always, to have formed the upper part of the
cup for the occipital condyle. In Ornithocheirus a perfect disk
comes away from the axis, and displays a slight prominence on
the upper part of the anterior face of the axis with a concave space
around it. But I have no evidence whether the elevation represents
the centrum of the atlas in a diminished form, or whether that
bone unites with the other elements of the first vertebra, after the
pattern of Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus, as would seem not
improbable. It thus differs alike from birds and reptiles.

Von Meyer states that the dorsal vertebra vary in number from
12 to 16; but in associated sets of bones from the Cambridge
Greensand the dorsal vertebre are few. They resemble those of
a bird in relative shortness, but do not appear to form a trans-
verse platform from which the neural spine rises, as do similar
vertebra of adult birds and crocodiles, in this respect being more
like vertebree of lizards.

Sometimes the centrum is flat on the visceral side, as in Apteryz,
sometimes rounded, as in such birds as the Heron. Altogether
the dorsal region is less bird-like than is the neck, but the diver-
gences do not show marked resemblances to any existing ordinal
group of reptiles.

The nature of the attachment of the ribs may perhaps be variable.
Several forms certainly possessed double-headed ribs like those
of birds and mammals ; and all specimens and figures, including

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 9

S6 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

those of Pachyrhamphus crassirostris, appear to me to demonstrate
that the articulation of the ribs was avian, and not crocodiliau.

The sacrum differs from that of a bird chiefly in its shortness, and
in including but few vertebre. Prof. Huxley has proposed to call
the five posterior vertebree of the sacrum in a chicken caudal, limit-
ing the term “ sacral’ to the five vertebre anterior to these, while
the four vertebre anterior to the latter are named dorso-lumbar.

The number of the vertebre is variable in these regions, and
they often differ slightly on the two sides of the animal. While
such division on homological grounds is valuable, on morphological
grounds it is untenable, since at no period of the development of
the chick do the vertebree named caudal and dorso-lumbar form
part of either the tail or back.

The points stated by Prof. Huxley serve to show probable limits
of variation among fossil birds, and that animals may be avian in
having only four or five vertebre in the sacrum; although they
would then probably belong to a new subdivision of the bird class.
In several Ornithosaurs there are four, five, or six vertebre in the
sacrum, so that the number of vertebre is so far in harmony with
the avian type as conceived by Professor Huxley. In having the
neural spine well developed there is a resemblance to the anterior
part of the avian sacrum, while in having the transverse processes
well developed, there is a resemblance to the hinder part of the
avian sacrum. The sacrum is therefore distinct from that of birds,
and yet altogether unlike the sacrum of any reptile.

The caudal vertebre vary considerably in Ornithosaurs. All
the members of the Cretaceous order ORNITHOCHEIROIDEA appa-
rently have elongated caudal vertebre unlike those of existing birds,
and resemble the anterior caudal vertebre of reptiles in having the
centrum concave in front and convex behind. But, so faras I am ~
aware, in all the other forms (the Prmropacryiia) the caudal
vertebree, whether short as in Pterodactylus, or long as in Rham-
phorhynchus, have the centrum flat or slightly concave at both ends.

In some birds the caudal vertebre often present a marked re-
semblance in proportion and form of the articular face to those
of Plesiosavrus and occasionaliy in Ornithosaurs the tail may have
avian proportions. Butthe neural arch is never so elevated as in
Birds, even when it is preserved ; for in some specimens from the
lithographic slate the neural arch in the tail is said to be absent,
as it is in the later caudal vertebre of mammals.

Thus it appears that the vertebral column shows some striking

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 97

resemblances to certain groups of reptiles, especially in the form of
the intervertebral articulation ; but this structure is coupled with
so many other characters (especially in the neck and sacrum) which
are not found in reptiles, that, unless the predominant resemblances
of the rest of the skeleton prove to be with the Reptilia, it would
be philosophical to infer that other groups of animals besides
reptiles possess proccelous vertebre. We have already seen that
opisthoccelian vertebre occur in every division of the vertebrata ;
and this fact, when considered in connexion with the variations of
intervertebral characters in different vertebrate classes, would
appear to render the proccelous articulation less important than
it has been supposed to be by morphological anatomists.

The pectoral and sternal bones are about as markedly avian as is
the skull. The sternum appears to differ from that of most birds in
being as broad as long, while it is probably relatively much shorter.
The keel is only well developed at the proximalend asin the Gannet;
and the semicircular posterior border to the bone, observable in
some German specimens of Ornithosaurs, is a character not seen in
birds. Von Meyer reports, in some specimens of Rhamphorhynchus,
that the lateral portions of the sternum to which the sternal ribs
are attached are distinct ossifications, as they are in at least some
young birds, such as the chicken. The sternal ribs which articulate
with the sternum are ossified, as is the case with birds; and there
iS a resemblance to birds in that only a few join the sternum.
But there is a striking difference from birds in that, behind the
sternum, V-shaped abdominal ribs are freely developed, as in
Hatteria &c., and these structures do not occur in birds. I have
moreover never seen in an Ornithosaur any trace of the epipleural
element characteristic of Hatteria, of Crocodiles, and of Chelonians,
and so often seen in the ribs of birds; so that, if developed, it
must have been cartilaginous. |

The right angle at which the coracoid meets the scapula is cha-
racteristic of carinate birds. The coracoid much resembles the
bone in birds, yet has distinctive differences. The bird-like fea-
tures are the elongated form, rounded inner side, and compressed
outer margin of the bone; the distal articulation with the sternum
is concave from within outward, and convex from before backward,
as in birds; and the proximal articulation with the scapula simi-
larly looks backward. But there isa difference, in Cretaceous
species, from the coracoid of a bird in that the bone is not pro-
longed proximally beyond the articulation for the humerus.

58 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

With that character necessarily follows the absence of a furcula,
seeing that there is no surface on the coracoid to which it might
be attached.

In the so-called Rhamphorhynchus Bucklandi, and apparently in
Dimorphodon, this clavicular process of the coracoid is developed,
though perhaps a clavicle may not be inferred for those genera.
The scapula is a bone which, in Dimorphodon, is compressed and
curved like the scapula of the fowl, and was similarly placed.
In the Oolitic fossils the bone is still more like the seapula of a
bird than any thing else ; but in the Cambridge-Greensand genera
the form of the bone is subeylindrical, terminating backward in
an expanded and abruptly truncated and ovate end. This is not
bird-like, and not like the bone in any other animai.

The only reptiles which have the pectoral arch similarly consist-
ing of scapula and coracoid are crocodiles and chameleons. Since
the scapula is elongated in Chameleo as well as in the Mole ( Tulpa),
the elongation is evidently not correlated exclusively with develop-
ment of the pectoral muscles. And since the coracoid has no corre-
sponding form or function in bats, the shape of that bone in Pte-
rodactyles cannot be explained by its function only. The Orni-
thosaurian humerus, with marked resemblances to birds and
chameleons, is yet so different as not to be mistaken for either.
Remembering that Ornithosaurs were often quadrupedal, and that
the whole fore limb was usually modified for walking as well as for
flight, it is scarcely to be expected that the resemblances of limb-
bones to those of any existing mammals should be remarkable.

In the forearm both bones are large and usually of equal size,
as Von Meyer and Professor Owen long since pointed out ; so that
the ulna is as large as in a bird, and the radius much larger. The
ulna is large in birds, | presume, because the feathers are attached
along its shaft, and the equality in size of the bones in Pterodac-
tyles may indicate that both bones performed nearly equal amounts
of work. Still the resemblances to birds are more marked than
to other animals. There is, however, in many species a third
bone in the forearm, which is articulated to the pisiform bone. It
is imperfectly developed proximally, and appears to correspond
to the olecranon seen in the skeleton of Ophthalmosawrus. In
Cycnorhamphus a second bone of this kind appears to be present,
the homology of which is more difficult to understand.

The carpus has always been regarded as reptilian, seemingly
because it consists of two rows of bones. It is a yery variable

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 99

part of the Ornithosaurian skeleton. In 1870, in my “ Remarks on
Prof. Owen’s Monograph on Dimorphodon,” I pointed out that in
the Cretaceous genus Ornithocheirus (Pl. XI. fig. 6), the carpus
consists of three bones :—a proximal carpal, as in birds, which cor-
responds closely in form with the bone in the ostrich (Pl. XI. fig.7);
a lateral carpal, as in birds,which I interpreted as the pisiform bone;
while the third bone or distal carpal of Ornithocheirus is, in birds, of
the same form, but becomes anchylosed to the metacarpus. Until
placed in separate genera by me*, the Cambridge-Greensand fossils
had been included by Prof. Owen in the genus Pterodactylus. Prof.
Owen now, however, in recent publications of the Paleontogra-
phical Society, adopts the generic groups which I suggested, but
discards my names, alleging that there is no evidence of avian
type of carpus to justify the name of Ornithocheirus.

If the foregoing account of the carpus does not justify the name,
I might quote Dr. Rosenberg’s observations+, that in early life
there are two elements in the distal carpal row of birds, and that
these carpal bones subsequently unite with each other. They
correspond with the four metacarpal bones of birds, and become
subsequently united to the metacarpus. Thus in the composite
structure of the carpus and in the number of metacarpal elements
there is an absolute agreement with the conditions in embryonic
or young birds, while I am aware of no such resemblances to
reptiles. Ifthe fourth metacarpal of the bird becomes absorbed,
then Ornithocheirus apparently agrees with birds in having three
metacarpal bones. But it differs from birds in the distal carpal
(which is separated from the metacarpus) being made up of three
carpal elements, one corresponding to each of the three metacar-
pal bones—although in the mature animal the metacarpals are
not always attached to their corresponding carpal ossifications.
The distal carpal bone of Ornithecheirus sometimes shows on its
proximal surface a Y-shaped groove ; and occasionally the sutural
surfaces indicated by this groove remain unattached to each other.
Hence the bones are placed one above the fork of the Y, and one
on each side of its stem ; so that they are not arranged in one line, as
is usual, but in two limes. These three bones are probably the
trapezoid, the magnum,and the unciform (Pl. XI. fig.9). The middle
bone of the Y, I regard as the magnum squeezed out from between
the other two, as is the case with the same bone in the horse and

* ‘Index to Secondary Reptilia,’ &c., 1869, and ‘ Ornithosauria,’ 1870.
+ Quoted in Foster and Balfour’s ‘ Embryology,’ p. 175.

»

100 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

other animals in which the metacarpus is unusually modified. One
of the two other bones terminates at the end in a rounded articular
edge, which gives attachment to another bone, which for conveni-
ence may be named the lateral carpal; it is evidently homologous
with the lateral carpal bone of birds, which is probably the pisi-
form bone. Iam aware that Dr. Foster aud Mr. Balfour regard
that bone in birds as the united lunar and cuneiform bones.
Whichever nomenclature should be preferred, all are agreed that
it is attached to the exterior side of the, distal carpal ; and as 1t has
the same articulation in Ornithocheirus, it follows that the element
of the Ornithosaurian distal carpal to which it is attached is the
unciform bone; and to this bone the minutest metacarpal bone is
attached (Pl. XI. fig.10). The other carpal element is therefore the
trapezoid ; and that bone will be seen to give attachment to the
wing metacarpalbone. The structure of this carpal row, and the
articular surfaces on its distal face, demonstrate that the great
wing-finger of Ornithosaurs is not the fifth digit, or little finger, as
stated by the older writers, but the middle finger, or index finger,
as I first determined many years ago. This is a point of some
importance, since it removes the Ornithosaurian hand from the
eategory of osteological anomalies, and shows that it is constructed
on a plan absolutely identical with the plan of the hand in birds ;
for it is the second or index digit in birds also which is chiefly
extended for the support of the wing-membrane.

The distal carpal row of Ornithocheirus appears to differ from
the corresponding bones in birds in being formed from three centres
instead of two, though the rule is not constant for all Ornitho-
saurs; while, on the other hand, we have no evidence that the two
distal carpal cartilages, detected by Dr. Rosenberg, characterize
the distal carpal row of all birds. In any case we are justified in cor-
relating the two carpal cartilages of the young bird with the exist-
ence of the two metacarpal bones of the adult which are anchylosed
to them; while, since Pterodactyles have three or four metacarpal
bones fully developed, we may expect tofind a correspondingnumber
of carpal elements in the distal row of the Ornithosaurian carpus.

I prefer to regard the lateral carpal as the pisiform bone, because
it articulates proximally with a third bone of the forearm, which
becomes intelligible as the distal end of the olecranon—an inter-
pretation to which I am led by a study of certain Ichthyosaurs,
regarding the olecranon as a third bone of the forearm, external
in position to the ulna, and capable of being developed either

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 101

proximally or distally. Whatever value may be attached to the
resemblances of this carpus to the carpal bones of birds, it appears
to render a modification necessary of Prof. Huxley’s statement
that the manus is a part of the skeleton in which birds and Pte-
rodactyles diverge most widely.

Turning next to the metacarpus, I find that just as Dr. Rosen-
berg describes four metacarpal cartilages, as I also have observed
in the chicken, so Pterodactyles from the Lithographic slate have
four metacarpal bones—one of them more developed than in
birds, and three thread-like, or at least much more slender than
the other. The Ornithocheirus from the Cambridge Upper
Greensand shows on the distal surface of the distal carpal three
distinct articulations for metacarpal bones, two of which have
articular surfaces of not dissimilar size ; and these seem to me to
correspond to the two elongated metacarpal bones of birds. The
fact of the metacarpal bones not being anchylosed together has
never been thought to militate against the systematic position of
Archeopteryx asa bird. Like the blended characters of the meta-
tarsus in birds, it is so certainly functional that I am not disposed
to regard the separate condition of the metacarpal bones either as
a very important character, or as an evidence of reptilian affinity
in Ornithosaurs. The Pterodactylian metacarpus, then, as Pro-
fessor Owen has demonstrated, does not diverge greatly from the
metacarpus of Archeopteryx.

The resemblance of the wing-digit to that of a bird is very
remarkable, since the difference chiefly consists in the introduc-
tion of extra phalanges into the Ornithosaurian wing-finger.

There is felt by some writers to be a difficulty in accepting any
modification of the old interpretation of the Ornithosaurian hand,
on account of the number of phalanges in each of the four digits
present in all Pterodactyles from the Oolitic rocks, though Von
Meyer has said that the number of the phalangeal bones is variable
in those animals. The number is usually stated as 4, 4,3, 2 ; which,
according to the interpretation of the hand just given, would read,
four bones in Digit I1., four in Digit III., three in Digit IV., and
two in Digit V. So long as the Pterodactyle was supposed to be a
modified lizard it was not unnatural that the reverse reading should
be taken, and the increase in number of phalanges considered to be
in harmony with the lizard type, in which the phalanges from first
to fifth are 2,3,4,5,3; while in the chameleon they run, from first to
fifth, 2, 38, 4, 4, 3. Thus, striking off the fifth digit of the cha-

102 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

meleon, there looks to be an @ priori probability that the number
of phalanges, digit for digit, is identical with that in the digits of
of the Ornithosaurian hand. Von Meyer appears to have sus-
pected a fallacy in this conclusion ; for, in his ‘ Fauna der Vorwelt,’
he observes, “even Cuvier believed that the wing-finger corre-
sponded to the fourth finger of lizards ; but lizards, like crocodiles,
have five fingers, so there can be no real affinity.”” In this is a
- suggestion of explanation of the difficulty. If the animal were
essentially a lizard, then it would be improbable that the lizard plan
of the hand would be departed from, even when modified for flight.
But if the animal is not a lizard, or even a modified lizard, then
there can be no 4 priori reason for anticipating any structure of
hand whatever. For though mammals usually have three pha-
langes in each digit, Cetacea are not to be classified by digital
rules. Ifthe Ornithosauria are admitted to be an extinct order
either of reptile or bird type, then, bearing in mind the variation in
the number of phalanges of the digits in existing reptile orders,
I cannot realize any insuperable difficulty to believing that the
phalanges of the second to fifth digits of chameleon, 3, 4, 4, 3,
might under exceptional functional conditions become altered to
the Ornithosaurian formula 4, 4, 3, 2. The matter of a pha-
lange more or less in a digit in an extinct type is not the sort of
evidence on which to settle an animal’s place in nature, or on
which to determine such homologies as those in question. The
carpus is the only key to the structure of the hand. If that has
been correctly interpreted in the Cambridge-Greensand Ornitho-
cheirus, then the inferences which it enforces must, I consider, be
true also for the other genera of Pterodactyles, no matter what
the number of bones may be in their digits. In short, this portion
of the skeleton diverges wider than any other from the bird and
reptile types, and is distinctive of Ornithosaurs.

Thus, reviewing the morphological indications of the fore limb,
and of its scapular arch, I fail to detect any characters which can
be shown to be decidedly reptilian ; nor do I detect, except in the
ways pointed out, any remarkable divergence from birds ; though
the divergences are usually sufficient to prevent an experienced
anatomist from mistaking even isolated Pterodactyle bones for the
bones of birds. On the other hand, the whole limb in every part
shows characters which are only found in the bones of birds, which
I cannot see my way to explain as adaptive modifications, because
bats, which similarly fly, have no such characters. The patagial

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 1038

membranes, which are well preserved in a specimen figured by.
Winckler as Pterodactylus Kochii, prove to be exactly in the
same regions as the patagial membranes of the wing of existing
birds ; while the great elongation of the wing-bones in Ornitho-
saurs only extends the wing to a similar extent to that in which
the wing of a bird is extended by its feathers. It is reasonable
therefore to suppose that if less organic energy were directed to
formation of the covering for the skin in birds, more might go to
the elongation of the wing-bones.

Finally, in the absence of any manner of evidence as to the
existence of winged reptiles, and in face of the evidence as to
avian resemblances which has been given, it seems to me hazardous
to infer that the characters which some Pterodactyles may seem
to have in common with reptiles in the bones which have been
discussed, indicate any close genetic relation between the two

types.

The pelvis and hind limb are the least reptilian portions of the
Ornithosaurian skeleton. Whatever may be the physiological
significance of the relation of direction of the ilium to the sacrum
in the vertebrate classes, the morphological fact remains that in
birds the ilium extends along the sacrum both in front of the
acetabulum for the femur and behind it, and that this condition
characterizes no other existing group of animals. In mammals
and batrachians the ilium is directed forward, while in reptiles it
usually directed backward or is vertical. And though the ilum
of a seal makes an approximation to the ilium of a crocodile, which
may be to some extent functional, these osteological characteristics
of classes are sufficiently well marked to suggest the inference
that an animal with the avian form of ilium is likely to be related
to birds, either as an ancestral or as a parallel group. Like
the whole pelvis the ilium is variable among Ornithosaurs ; and in
so far as it diverges from the avian form, it approximates to the
mammalian shape. But it is rarely, if ever, so deep as in a bird,
never has the characteristic avian form, terminates at both ex-
tremities in relatively narrow rounded processes, and is attached
to sacral ribs which are longer than is usual among birds. There
is also a remarkable difference from birds in the ilium joining the
pubis and ischium in the middle of the acetabulum, which is thus
made imperforate in the specimens which I have examined. This
imperforate character is also found in reptiles. And though the
ischium and pubis are occasionally directed backward after the

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 10

104 MR. H. G. SEELEY ON THE

manner of the Apteryx, the two bones are usually united by
suture throughout their length, so as to leave a small obturator
foramen near to the acetabular border. If this foramen were larger,
the bones which enclose it would bear a close resemblance to those
of the Kehidna, which is the more interesting since, in common
with the lower mammals, the Ornithosaurs also possess prepubie
or marsupial bones. These bones are of different forms in the
several groups of Ornithosaurs, being triangular in Dimorphodon,
T-shaped in some genera from the Lithographic slate, and pro-
bably forming by union with each other a bow-shaped arch in
another genus from Solenhofen.

The exact position of the prepubic bone on the anterior margin
of the pubis is not quite certain, though probably placed in the
middle of the margin; and there may be some doubt whether it
is truly homologous with the marsupial bone. In Chelonians
and Lacertilians a prepubic process is developed, often of large
size, and the ornithosaurian bone may be likened to what such a
process might become if converted into a distinct osseous ele-
ment. A smaller but similar process is also to be seen on the
pubic bone in some birds, such as the Apteryx, and in many
mammals. In Jguanodon the process is enormous. The pelvis
might perhaps as easily be regarded as of a modified mammalian
type as avian; but it does not closely resemble either, and is
somewhat intermediate between them. In this light it may serve
to point a caution by showing that monotreme characters in the
pelvis may coexist with lacertian characters in the articulations of
the vertebra. The pelvic bones met in the median line of the
body, as in mammals and reptiles, and were not divided from each
other, as is usual among birds.

The femur is in no respect a reptilian bone, unless it be in
sometimes having the articular head directed a little forward.
But in most English specimens there is a distinct articular head
separated from the shaft of the bone by a considerable neck, which
is directed upward as in carnivorous mammals; though in the
genera from the lithographic slate the proximal end of the bone
is more like the same part in birds. The distal end is rarely so
deeply grooved in front as in the bird’s femur, though it corre-
sponds in thickness and form and does not approximate towards
mammals.

The tibia and fibula are altogether avian, so much so that in
many genera no anatomist could distinguish them from the same

ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. 105

bones in birds. The fibula, slender, style-like, developed chiefly
at the proximal end (Pl. XI. fig. 8,/), is often prolonged, no
thicker than a thread, down the tibia to its distal end. The tibia
expands moderately at the proximal end, is elongated, and termi-
nates distally in a rounded trochiear end identical with that of
birds, and apparently similarly formed by the anchylosed tarsal
bone (Pl. XI. fig. 8, a). This may be seen in Dimorphodon (Pl. XI.
fig. 8) and in many Ornithosaurs from Solenhofen, though -the
tarsal element is occasionally unanchylosed, as in young birds.
This point has some interest, since the blending of the tibia and
tarsus is one of the strongest points in Prof. Huxley’s definition
of a bird. And it seems to assist in modifying Prof. Huxley’s
assertion that the pes is a part of the skeleton in which birds
and Ornithosaurs diverge most widely.

The metatarsal bones of Ornithosaurs are perhaps the most
variable part of the skeleton. They appear to have been applied
to the ground as in unguiculate mammals and reptiles, sometimes
to have diverged widely, and sometimes to have been packed close
together as in Dimorphodon. ‘There is no evidence that they
became anchylosed into one mass in any species; but, on the
other hand, the evidence is not perfectly satisfactory that the
metatarsal bones were anchylosed in Archeopteryx.

Ornithosaurs have either four or five toes, in which the phalanges
- appear usually to successively increase in number as in birds and
lizards. The claws also are large and compressed from side to
side as in lizards and birds.

Thus in the hind limb there is no structure which can be re-
garded as truly reptilian, though the separation of the metatarsal
bones, taken together with the number of phalanges in the digits,
is a closer resemblance to reptiles than to birds. But the partial
separation of the metatarsals in the Penguins seems to indicate
that total separation of the bones would not be inconsistent with
avian structure.

From this review of the osteology of this group of animals, it
seems to follow :—

(1) that the reptilian hypothesis of their structure, though not
without some interesting indications, especially in the vertebral
articulation, is in general so unsupported and so opposed to facts
that it must be regarded as no longer tenable.

(2) That if the pneumatic foramina and cerebral structures had

106 ON THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA.

remained unknown, the forms of the bones would have been suffi-
cient to show that in their osteology Ornithosaurs resemble birds
more closely than other animals; and that the differences from
_ birds in osteology are much less than the differences between the
several orders of mammals or of reptiles.

(3) That the resemblances to reptiles do not necessarily indi-
cate genetic affinity with reptiles, any more than the resemblances
to mammals indicate mammalian affinities; and that it is more
than probable that both kinds of resemblances are to be ranked
among the ordinal rather than with the class characters of the
group.

(4) That the osteology, being largely avian, is in entire harmony
with the indications of the soft organs, and justifies the con-
viction that the pneumatic foramina seen in the bones served
identical purposes in living birds and in these animals, and there-
fore that Ornithosaurs form a group of birds which bears relation
to existing birds such as the Chelonia hold to the Crocodilia
among reptiles. That is, Pterodactyles are birds in the large

sense of the term, in some respects auties more reptilian than any
birds which now survive.

Hereafter perhaps it may be found desirable to group Ornitho-
gaurs with the Dinosauria and Dicynodontia in the class Paleo-
-sauria instituted by Von Meyer for those extinct orders which
hold places intermediate between the higher vertebrata ; but in the
mein time they may well rest near to birds.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Brain of Owl (Strzx otus), seen from above, after Leuret.

Fig. 2. Natural mould of the upper part of the brain-cavity of an animal from
the Cambridge Upper Greensand, referred to Ornithocheirus, show-
ing the cerebellum (cm) between and behind the cerebral hemispheres,
Portions of the cranial bones in the squamosal regions (s) are left
attached to the mould. Nat. size.

Fig. 3. Inferior aspect of the same specimen, showing the oblong mass of the
cerebellum (cm) extending between (s) the lateral bones of the
hinder part of the brain-case and (e) the back of the orbit of the
eye. Nat. size.

Fig. 4. Transverse vertical section through the parietal segment of the skull of
an Ornithocheirus in the Woodwardian Museum, showing the posi-
tion of the optic lobes (0) relatively to the cerebrum (c).

Fig. 5. Transverse vertical section through the skull of an owl in the parietal
region, for comparison with the preceding figure of an Ornithosau-

MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE OXYSTOMATOUS CRUSTACEA. 107

rian. In all these figures, c, cerebrum; 0, optic lobe; cm, cerebel-
lum; s, squamosal region. ;

Fig. 6. Vertical diagram of the carpus of Ornithocheirus, for comparison with
fig. 7. ‘

Fig. 7. Vertical diagram of the carpus of an Ostrich (Struthio camelus). In
these figuers, p, lateral carpal ; g, proximal carpal ; 7, distal carpal.

Fig. 8. Tibia and fibula of Dimorphodon from the Lias, from a photograph of
a specimen in the British Museum: 7, tibia; f, fibula; a, anchylosed
tarsal element. # nat. size.

Fig. 9. Diagram outline of proximal surface of distal carpal of Ornithocheirus,
showing separation into:—, magnum ; Z¢d, trapezoid ; w, unciform.

Fig. 10. Diagram of distal surface of same distal carpal, showing pm, deep pneu-
matic foramen at the confluence of the three bones, and outlines of
the positions of articular surfaces for three metacarpal bones. ‘The
evidence for these diagrams is in the Woodwardian Museum.

Fig. 11. Longitudinal section of a tooth of Ornithocheirus, curved from end to
end, showing close-set radiating calcigerous tubes. Enlarged 8.

Fig. 12. Transverse section from the base of the crown of a large tooth of Ornt-
thocheirus from the Cambridge Upper Greensand. Enlarged $.

Notes upon the Oxystomatous Crustacea.
By Epwarp J. Mriurs, Esq., F.L.S.

[Read June 15, 1876.]
(Abstract. )

In this paper (which will be published shortly in the Society’s
Transactions with illustrations) the author first enters into the
literature of the subject, and then gives descriptions of species of
the family Leucosiide. _

Of the genus Leuwcosia there are in the British Museum eight
species hitherto unrecorded ; and these are now named and may be
enumerated as follows :—

L. fusco-maculata. L. reticulata.
L. pulcherrima. L. whitmeei.
L. affinis. LL. perryt.

LD. brunnea. L. pubescens.

A variety of Myra mamillaris, Bell, is noted, possibly an imma-
ture example; and he suggests that the JL. carinata and WL. ele-
gans of Bell may turn out not to be adult animals.

Nursia sinuata is referred to a8 a new Australian form; and
comparisons between what have been termed WV. plicata, N. abbre-
viata, and NV. hardwickii are instituted. Arcania granulosa and
Cryptocnemius holdsworthi, respectively from Australia and Ceylon,
are considered among the new species.

108 PROF. G. ROLLESTON ON

The family Matutide is next treated of, and subsequent to a his-
torical summary a revision of the species. of the oriental genus
Matuta completes the paper. Formal reference to nine species
of the genus is made, and others are more or less incidentally
mentioned. Five new species of MWatuta are described, viz. :—

MM. rubro-lineata. M. maculata.
MM. linevfera. M. obtusifrons.
M. granulosa.

On the Prehistoric British Sus.
By Professor G. Rouueston, F.R.S., F.L.S., &e.

[Read June 15, 1876.]
(Abstract. )

THs memoir will be printed in the Society’s Transactions in full.

The following specimens were exhibited at the Meeting :—1.
Skull of S. scrofa, var. domesticus, from a late Celtic interment.
2. Skulls of S. scrofa, var. ferus, from alluvium near Oxford and
from Germany. 3. Skull of S. andamanensis, forwarded to the
Author by J. Wood Mason. 4. Skull of S. eristatus, lent by Sir
Walter Elliot, K.C.S.1. 5. Skull of S. barbatus, wrongfully
named S.verrucosus, and needlessly Hwhys barbatus in some mam-
malogical catalogues.

Upon these and other data the author bases the subjoined con-
clusions :—

1. The domesticated pig of pre-Roman times, at least as
exemplified by the specimens from the interment referred to, ap-
pears to resemble S. scrofa, var. ferus, rather than S. eristatus or the

‘domestic variety, S. indicus.

2. On the other hand, S. eristatus, the Indian wild hog, appears
to him, whilst being readily and always distinguishable from 8.
scrofa, var. ferus, to differ from it mainly by the retention perma-
nently of certain structural conformations which were only tem-
porarily represented in the European wild species. The third
molars of the male S. eristatus varied, however, concomitantly
with its canines, and showed a much iarger development of their
posterior lobe than either 8. scrofa, var. ferus, or the females of
their own species. The rearmost lobe, however, of the posterior

ON THE PREHISTORIC BRITISH SUS. 109

molar varies a good deal in S. scrofa, var. ferus, irrespective of
SEX.

3. Bearing in mind the elasticity of the swine type and the power
for changing which their domestication has shown them to pos-
sess, Dr. Rolleston has less difficulty in conceiving that the so-
called S. indicus was really a modified 8. eristatus, than that it
had been evolved from any Sws (such as 8. lewcomystaa) from coun-
tries further away from Europe than India. SS. eristatus had the
malar border of the lachrymal always marked by the relative
shortness insisted on by Nathusius. It had not the relatively
wider palate; but upon this point too much weight had been
laid.

4. A skull of a wild sow from the alluvium, later in date than
the “ river-gravel,’ near Oxford, combined the stort lachrymal
characteristic of young pigs and of S. ertstatus with the worn-
down teeth, elongated facial skeleton, and disproportionately small
size of an old wild sow (S. scrofa, var. ferus). Such a combination
of characteristics tended.to suggest carefulness as to accepting the
Torf-Schwein (S. scrofa, var. palustris) of Riitimeyer as a distinct
species, or taking even such a point as the shortness of the lachry-
mal as constituting a specific difference.

5. The simplicity of the third molars in the very large skull of
S. barbatus appears to be of greater value, as the rugose condition
might have been expected to be forthcoming in so large, so well-
armed, and so well-fed a Sws as this from Borneo.

6. The true S. verrucosus differs from S. barbatus in having the |
lachrymal’s malar edges long, relatively to its orbital, as well as
in the peculiarities which its specific name implies. These pecu-
liarities were reproduced in the old Irish “ Greyhound Pig,” figured
by Richardson, ‘ Domestic Pigs,’ p. 49, ed. Warne.

7. The often quoted paper by Dr. Gordon, ‘ Medical Times and
Gazette,’ May 2, 1857, p. 425, led us to suppose that Tenia
solium of man infested the domestic pig of India, as it does those
of other parts of the world. The facility with which the pig lends
itself to domestication enables us to understand how the many-
sided commensalism which now exists between man and that
animal may have set up in very early times. Indeed the par-
ticular result of their commensalism which their solidarity as
regards the alternations of the generations of Tenia soliwm repre-
sents, suggests that their coexistence in time must have been more
extensive than even the coexistence in space ascribed to them,
not quite correctly, by Gibbon (‘ Decline and Fall,’ chap. ix. note
9, p. 392, Smith’s edition).

LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. Xi. dk

110 ; MR. FRANCIS DAY ON

On some Irish Gasterostet.
By Francis Day, F.LS., F.ZS8., &e.

[Read November 2, 1876.]

Tue following short remarks on some Irish Sticklebacks are
based upon a small collection of fish which I made in June this
year whilst with Dr. Dobson at Edgeworthstown (county of Long-
ford), Ireland.

My attention had been drawn to Dr. Sauvage’s interesting revi-
sion of the family Gasterosteide (‘ Nouvelles Arch. du Mus.

- d’ Histoire Naturelle,’ 1874), which I had with me, and wherein
he augments the species resident in Europe from seven (as given
in the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes of the British Museum’ in 1859) to
seventeen. Dividing the genera into three subgenera, he at-
taches considerable prominence to the presence or absence of
plates along the sides, whilst the character of the pubic bone is
deemed of sufficient importance to form a subgenus upon it. I
wished to test his conclusions by fresh specimens; and if results
tend to throw doubt upon some of his admitted species, it must
be remembered that my facts have been collected subsequent to
the publication of the memoir alluded to.

Abnormal variations of form or structure in single specimens,
of course, are not of the same importance in zoology as abnormal
variations or varieties of species due to local influences. The
jirst may be accidental, as owing to injury in the specimen; the
second has some local cause at work, the action of which is more
or less apparent in the whole of the members of the species. When
such local effects can be ascertained, they are interesting ; where
the cause can be shown, doubly so; for a local cause may have a
wider signification than is at first apparent.

Some fishes doubtless show a greater proclivity to abnormal de-
viations from the original type than others. Thus the Perch (Perca
fluviatilis) is not considered to be subject to any considerable va-
riation in the normal number of its dorsal spines and rays; on the
other hand, the contrary is observable in the majority of the East-
Indian freshwater Acanthopterygian forms,

Much stress has been laid in ichthyology on the presence or
absence of ventral fins. Irrespective of the apodal fishes, we
have, amongst the Acanthopterygians in the family Ophiocepha-
lide, the genus Channa, separated from Ophiccephalus owing to its

SOME IRISH GASTEROSTET. 111

wanting ventral fins, which, however, are but indifferently deve-
loped in the latter genus. For the same cause, amongst the
Siluride, Azlchthys is separated from Ailia. In the Cyprinodon-
tide Tellia is a Cyprinodon deficient in ventrals. In the Cypri-
nidex, subfamily Cobitidina, Apua is closely allied to Acanthoph-
thalmus, but has no ventrals ; whilst one of the chief differences
between the Clupeoid Opisthopterus and Pellona is that the former
is without ventrals, whilst the latter has only small ones*.

Amongst a number of Sticklebacks (Gasterosteide) obtained
in Ireland were two very distinct species. The one was bright
pink on the chest and along the under surface of the body ; whilst
the second or more elongated form was of a dull cobalt-blue on
the head and chest +. The pink ones had three or four serrated
dorsal spines; the blue ones from two to nine smooth spines, and
were either without or with small ventral fins.

Had I merely captured specimens of this little species (desti-
tute of ventral fins), 1 might have been induced to believe that I
had discovered a novel subgenus of Gasterosteus. But as speci-
mens came to light demonstrating that the ventral spine might be
present, and this not due to age or sex, the fact became obvious
that the presence or absence of this fin in Gasterosteus is insufi-
cient even to characterize a species. And when one considers
that the comparative length of the ventral spine to the pubie plate
is still looked upon by some ichthyologists as a good diagnostic
signification of a species, one is tempted to question the correct-
ness of such a proposition.

Before entering upon the description of the fishes obtained, it

* Respecting the marine fifteen-spined Stickleback, Couch remarks of the
development as follows :—‘At the precise time of quitting the egg the young
were placed under a magnifier of moderate power, when it was observed that
.... the belly was protuberant, and in some the ovum was still visibly attached
to the body, and, as the point of union was diaphanous, globules could be seen
that had passed from the egg to the intestine. No ventral fins could be per-
eeived, which is less a matter of surprise that it has been observed in other in-
stances ; these organs are the last that go through the process of development ”
(Fish. British Islands, vol. i. p. 183).

+ Newman observes, ‘The Fishes of Scandinavia," that the G. pungitius. ov
“sma sprigg” of Sweden, during the breeding-season, is coloured red about
the lower jaw, cheeks, gill-cover, and base of the pectoral. Those I obtained
in Ireland were breeding, and of a colour as described above. ;

les

112 ‘MR. FRANCIS DAY ON

may not be amiss to point out that the Acanthopterygian, or spiny-
rayed, fishes appear to be most numerous in the ocean (preying
upon their articulated-rayed neighbours the Clupeide &c.); but
as we examine waters more inland, the Salmonide or Cyprinide
usurp their place, these latter not being possessed of spinate, but
merely articulated rays. A maritime residence appears most
adapted for the Acanthopterygian or spiny-rayed fishes ; a fresh-
water inland one to the Malacopterygian, or spineless forms. The
family Gasterosteide, however, are found in both localities, and,
being so, are well worthy of particular attention.

M. Blanchard observes of the Gasterosteide, that it is in the
vicinity of the coast that we find the species in which the arma-
ture is most largely developed, whilst those having the free por-
tion of the tail unarmed are met with at the greatest distance
inland.

The single known marine species G. spenachia has about fifteen
dorsal spines, whilst laterally the body is covered with plate-like
scales. In the inland forms we do not find such a numerous de-
velopment of the dorsal spines. The G. pungitius to which I
shall have to allude, is possessed of the most (or nine) spines;
but these may be materially reduced in number, as to four, or even
to two; whilst its ventral spine may be entirely wanting, owing
to a non-development of the pubic plate.

Amongst the fishes which I obtained were the following :—

GaASTEROSTEUS PUNGITIUS, Linneus, Yarrell, Giinther, Couch, Se.
Length of head 33 to 43, of caudal 53 to 77; height of body 5} to 63
in the total length. yes, diameter 3; to 4 in the lengti of head,
one diameter from the end of snout, and also apart. The maxilla
extends posteriorly to below the front edge ofthe eye. Vins, first eight
dorsal spines of varying length, but low, being about half the height
of the rays, all smooth, the last being invariably the longest; caudal
slightly lobed. Ventrals entirely absent in eleven out of thirteen
specimens, whilst the pubic plate was also deficient.
Out of 18 specimens varying from 1-4 inch to 2:1 inches in
length were the following :—

2 specimens, each 1:7
aye) MOWINS aneoke gene
9 specimens, from 1-4
to 1:9 inch long ...

} D, 9/9, P. 10, V. 1. A. 1/9, C. 12.

} D. 8-9/9-10, P.10,V.0,A.1/9-10, €.12,

SOME IRISIL GASTEROSTET. — 113

1 specimen 2:1 inches

longi eeuenee } D. 4/10, P. 10, VY. 0, A. 1/9, C. 12.

bo. 2/9, P. 10, V. 0, A. 1/9, C. 12.

In the specimen with only two dorsal spines the seventh and
ninth were visible, the remainder not appearing above the inte-
gument.

In examining the specimens wherein ventral spines existed,
they, as a rule, were not one half the length of the pubic plate; in
one specimen the spine on one side of the body was one third
shorter than its fellow on the opposite. In those wherein no
ventral spines existed, the pubic plate was also absent, and, as a
natural result, the spines which arise from it were likewise
deficient.

Further extended investigations are necessary to solve the ques-
tion, whether these fishes which are resident far inland are subject
to an arrest of development in their ventral spines and pubic
bones, or whether those whieh live nearest the coast have, as a
consequence, an increased development of offensive or defensive
armature.

Diagrams of Stickleback and ventral plates.

Fig. A, abnormal example of Gasteresteus pungitius ; B, ventral spines &e. of
specimen of G. aculeatus ; C, ventral spines ke. of second specimen of G. aculeatus,

G. acuLEatus, Linneus, Yarrell, Ginther, Couch, &c.

D. 3-4/11-12, P. 10, V. 1/1, A. 1/8-9, C. 12.

Without entering into any detailed description of the fish of
this species or its synonymy, I will merely advert to such varieties
as were captured. Out of upwards of two hundred specimens, none

114 MR. F, DAY ON SOME FRISH GASTEROSTET.

were deficient of any portion of the pubic arch; but the tri-
angular pubic plate differed both in its form and size. The
height of the dorsal spines was subject to great variation, and
the comparative length of the ventral spine to the pubic plate
was inconstant, these variations not being due to the size of
the specimens (see figs. B and C).

The lateral scale-like plates were either three long ones articu-
lating with the ventral plate, or else a fourth and even a fifth
were also present—this being an advance towards the variety
trachurus, wherein these plates are found along the whole length
of the body of the fish.

Those with three dorsal spines had the first two from 13 to 2,
24, and 3 times in the height of the body ; those with four spines
had the second 2 to 24 and 24 in the height of the body. This
species appears to be subject to various deviations from the type,
seen in the greater or less amount of scaly plates along the sides,
and in the difference observed as to the comparative length of the
ventral spine to that of the pubic plate. Desirous, however, of
testing these questions, | examined numerous specimens of this
fish captured at the same place; and they give the following
results :—

As an average, specimens

2°4 inches long, ventral spine from ? to 2 length of pubic plate,

2:2 2» ry) 73 22 e 99 93
21 29 9) 99 99 gz to 4 99 39
20 99 ” 39 pb) 2 7) ”
1:5 inch BS : RB Fi be \

If we turn to the definition of this species, we find the ven-
tral spine given as nearly or quite as long as the pubic plate.

There were other variations likewise perceptible in these Irish
specimens : in some the ventral spine was serrated on both sides, in
others only externally ; the dorsal spines were likewise much less
serrated in some than in others. But to me all appear to be va-
rieties of one species; and if such can be discovered in so limited
an extent of country, one cannot but surmise that a search through
an extended area might be productive of greater results, and occa-
sion the suppression of several, at present, recognized species.

ON LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS FROM MALACCA, 115

Descriptions of two new Lepidopterous Insects from Malacca.
By Artuour G. Butzer, F.LS., F.Z.S.

[Read November 2, 1876.]

Tur British Museum has recently been presented, by Captain
Stackhouse Pinwill, with a fine collection of Lepidoptera from
Malacca and Penang, a complete list of which I hope shortly to
have the pleasure of laying before the Society for publication; in
the meanwhile I am anxious to secure to the National Collection
the types of two of the finest novelties, and therefore hasten to
describe and name them.

THAUMANTIS PSEUDALIRIS, N. sp.

3 differs from T. aliris § (Borneo) in having the band of primaries
half the width, not notched, yellower, and terminating upon the outer
instead of the inner margin; the basal area of all the wings and
the body distinctly ferruginous ; below, the area beyond the band of
primaries is uniformly ferruginous, like the outer border, not striated ;
outer border paler externally, shortened by the obliquity of the trans-
verse band; basal spots ferruginous instead of reddish brown and
black ; the irregular band of secondaries paler and much more con-
stricted in the centre; the external and discal areas altogether paler
and more uniform in tint, the ocelli very much smaller and paler;
the spots between the ocelli and the yellow submarginal spots obso-
lete : expanse of wings 4 inches 7 lines.

S Malacca (Pinwill).

Professor Westwood seems to have noted this species ds the
male of his Z. aliris (Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. vol. iii. p. 176, 1856-
1858); but as he figures the female of the Bornean species from
an example in his own possession, the latter must be considered

his type.

AMESIA PEXIFASCIA, 0. sp.

@.. Primaries rich purplish chocolate; external two fifths covered by a
broad, externally deeply dentate-digitate, snow-white band, inter-
rupted by the black nervures, the portion filling the.end of the dis-
coidal cell divided longitudinally so as to form two large spots;
secondaries almost exactly as. in A. euplecides, but the anal angle
deep greenish grey ; body deep purplish chocolate, the last three seg-
ments of the abdomen green ; palpi, tegule, and thorax dotted with
lilacine; primaries below as above, excepting that there are a dasa!
white spot, two costal, two subcostal, two discoidal, and two interno.

116 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON

median blue-edged white spots; secondaries below nearly as in 4.
-eupleoides, but the anal angle grey; body below brown, with lateral
blue-edged white spots: expanse of wings 3 inches 11 lines.
© Malacca.

On new Species of the Genus Huptychia, with a tabular view of
those hitherto recorded. By Arruur G. Bururr, F.LS.,
F.Z8., &e.

[Read November 2, 1876.]
(Prats XII.)

Wuen I first began to study this group of Butterflies, only seventy-
one species were catalogued; several of these, however, upon
careful examination, proved not to be congenerie. My mono-
graph of Huptychia, read before the Zoological Society in 1866,
added sixty new species; and a supplementary paper which ap-
peared in the following year added ten more.

Since the appearance of my memoir on the genus, the number
of species has gradually increased to 179; it is therefore only
natural that the determination of the novelties which still con-
tinue to arrive from all parts of Tropical America, should have
become a laborious operation. Whilst adding to this trouble by
making known to science several interesting species from the
collections of Dr. Staudinger and Mr. Osbert Salvin, I propose to
counteract it in a great measure by grouping the allied forms
together and presenting them in a tabular form for the sake of
easy reference.

Genus Euprycuta, Hiibner.

Specific name. Author. Mae: eRe oy ney ber) Typical localities.
EE. ocirrhoé group.
Ocirrhoé...... Fabricius ..| Sulzer, Gesch. Ins. pl. 17, figs.) Central Amer.
3, 4 (P. hesione)
eyGiagesne riser Cramer .... ae eo ii. pl. 148, figs. C, D} Surinam.
(1779).
Calpurmia ....| Felder...... Reise Noy. iii. p. 484 (1867) ..| Cayenne.
| Metaleuca ....| Boisduval ..| Lép. Guat. p. 63 (1870) = E.But-;| Guatemala.
leri, Distant.
| Langnida ....| Butler...... Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. viii.) Bogota.
| p. 282 (1871).

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA.

Specific name.

Hilara......
Mollis:

oe ec eae

= Mollina

| ¥ Westwoodii

Binocula

Franeisea ..

Vesta

Abretia

Liturata
Vesper
Armilla-

Ocypete
TUBINS oan

ec acn ee

ooo nD Os

ee or sees
eee ee ne ol!

Macrophthalma

e@sececee ee

oo rp eee

Nossis........

Albofasciata ..

Pronophila....

eee ee eee
see eee

eevee oe

.| Butler

Author.
Hubner ....

Felder. .
Staudinger ..

Butler and
Druce

ee eeee

Staudinger...

HeBublerse sce

oo se oe

Hewitson

Hewitson_..

Hewitson ..

Butlerwee cr
Capronnier. .

Hewitson ..

Cramer ..

....| Reise Nov. iii. p. 485 (1867).

_,| Exot. Butt. iii. pl. 44, fig.4(1862)

Where figured, or (if not figured)
where first described.

E. mollina group.

Sml. exot. Schm. Zutr. figs. 105,
106 (1806).

Zool.-botan. Ges. Wien. p. 105
(1875).

(Ciepeel Dingo) 0s CLs) Bacoomadsn
Prec. Zool. Soc. pl. 12, fig. 3
(1867).

Lep. Exot. pl. iv. fig. 6 (1869).
Pp. Z.8. pl. 39, fig. 22 (1866) ..
Ent. Mo. Mae. vi. pl. 1. fig. 1
(1870).

Lep. Exot. pl. iv. fig. 5 (1869).

Zool-botan. Ges. Wien. p- 106
(1875).

Lep. Exot. pl. xviii. fig. 4 (1870)

E. saturnus group.

P. Z. S. pl. 39. fig. 19 (1866)
P.Z. S. pl. 39, fie. 20 (1866)

1a

Amazons.

Bogota.
Chiriqui.

Costa Rica.
Honduras.
Ecuador.
Cuenca.
Cayenne.
Chiriqui.

Ecuador.

-| Venezuela.
..| Venezuela and

Bogota.

=Jaresia, Butl.

E. nossis group.

Exot. Butt. mi. pl. 49, fig. 1
(1862).

Butler, Lep. Exot. pl. 18, fig. 7
(1870).

E. pronophila group’
P. Z.S8. pl. 12, fig. 20 (1867) ..

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. xvii. pl. 1
fig. 6 (1874).

fi, liturata group.

Butler, Lep. Exot. pl. 18, fig. 6
(1870).
P. Z.S. pl. 12, fig. 18 (1867) -..

P. Z. S. pl. 12, fig. 19 (1867)
P. Z.S. pl. 12, fig. 21 (1867)

EE. ocypete group.
Gen. Ins. Mant. p. 260 (1776). .
Reise Nov. ii. p. 483 (1867) ..
Ent. Mo. Mag. 6, pl. i. fig. 2)

Tapajos.

Quito.

Ecuador.

Rio Janeiro.

>») Valenga.

Ecuador.

7?

2

-| Minas Geraes.

Surinam.
Cayenne.
Veragua and

(1870).

.| Pap. Exot. ii. pl. 194, figs. F, G

ee

Guatemala.
p Suna

Typical localities.

San Geronimo.

118

Specific name.

Palladia......
Terrestris
Penelope
Themis ......
Usitata .

Undina =).
Pieria ¢:...5 0.
EKurytus ......
wether eee

Krigone

Argyrospila
Crantor

see eee

Eriphule......
Electra
‘| Variabilis ..

| Disaffecta ....

eee eee

Angularis ....
Straminea .

Vestigiata .
Ochracea

Renata
| Celmis
Phronius

ee eeeeee

MR. A. G. BUTLER ON

Where figured, or (if not figured)

Typical locality.

Author, where first described.

Cramer ....| Pap. Exot. iii. pl. 293, fig. C) Surinam.
(1782).

Butler...... P. Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 21(1866) ..| Tapajos.

son | butler. /s ual eee. nl. 9, fig. 1 (1866) Para.
.| Fabricius ..| (elarissa) Cramer, Pap. Exot. iv.| Surinam.

pl. 293, figs. D, E (1782).

Butler. . Boz. pl. 12, fig. 13 (1867)=| Guatemala.
? E. similis*.

Butler...... P.Z. S. pl. 39, fig. 2 (1866)... .| Venezuela.

Butler see (similis part) P. G8. pl. 12 irae Nicaragua.
13 (1867).

Butler peoAe yl shaun ig. 3 (1866)....} Honduras.

Butler... .. P.Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 4 1866)....| Bogota:

...| Butler... ....| P.Z.S. pl. 40, fig. 3 (1866)....| Rio Negro.
Fabricius ..| Syst. Ent. p: 487 (1 ED) areas United States.
Godart .| Ene. Méth. ix. pp: 465 and 495} Brazil.

(1819).
Butler......| P.Z. S. pl. 12,"fig. 1 (1867) ..| Venezuela.
Cramer ....| Pap, Exot. iv. pl. 264, figs. C, D) Surinam.
1781).
Butler...... Pp Z. 5S. pl. 39, fig. 5 (1866) ../ St. Paulo.
Pebutlens ae micas pl. 11, fig. 12 (1867)..| Ega.
Fabricius ..) Ent. Syst. iii. p. 158 (1793) F..} ——
Butler seek P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 8 (1867) ..| Amazons.
Butlers... les Ap tee ise 39, Be. 6 (1866) ..| Pernambuco.
butlers. P. Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 7 (1866) ..}| Bahia.
Uterine Bo ZeiSe pl. 39s ae (1866) ..| Pernambuco.
Butler yand (CPZ. (S.9p. So0sCS 74): cee eee Costa Rica.
Druce.
Butlenys ga. P. Z. S. pl. 12, fig. 8 (1867) Minas Geraes.
Butler...... P. Z. S. pl. 12, fig. 9 (1867) ..| Minas Geraes.
BULLER secre P. Z. S. pl. 39, fig. 9 (1866) ..| Pernambuco.
Butler...... P. Z. S. pl. 12, fig. 17 (1867) ..| Minas Geraes.
Butler...... P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 5 (1867) ..| Brazil.
E. renata group.
Cramer ....| Pap. Exot. iv. pl. 326, fig. A} Surinam.
(1782).
| Godart .| Enc. Méth. ix. pp. 463 & 489) Brazil.
| (1819).
Godart .| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 466 & 496) Brazil.
(1819).
Godart ....| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 464 & 498] Brazil.
(1819).

* Mr. Salvin tells me that Z. sémilis is distinct ; but I have not had an opportunity |
of comparing the two types.
t Donovan's figures are not trustworthy ; and therefore I do not quote them.

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA.

119

Specific name.

Marmorata....

aeeree

Ambigua :
Modesta......
Hiibneri......

Galesus ......
Melobosis ....
Camerta......
Umbrosa ....
Undulata
Atalanta....
Fallax......
Hermes ....

Sosybius....
Maimouné ...

Boltys... aca

Eotis

Epimephele....

Planes! ate. 5
Rubrieata ....
Pharella

Author.

Godart

Capronnier. .
Cramer ...

Butler......

Fabricius
Fabricius

.| Butler.....

Prittwitz....
iltibner ....

Felder.....
Felder......

Godart

Edwards....
Butler......

.| Reise der Nov. Lep. ui. p. 476

.| Encye. Méth. ix. pp. 464 & 491

where first described.

E. grimon group.
P. Z. 8. pl. 40, fig. 1 (1866) ..

.| Enc. Méth. ix. pp. 464 & 490

(1819).

E. ambigua group.
P. Z. S. pl. 39, fig. 10 (1866)
P. Z.S. pl. 12, fig. 12 (1867)
P.Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 11 (1866)

E. hermes group.

.| Enc. Méth. ix. pp. 465 & 496

(1819).
Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. xvii. pl. i.
fig. 5 (1874).

.| Bap. Exot. iv. pl. 293; figs EF

(1872).
Lep. Exot. pl.
(1870). .
P. Z. 8S. pl. 39, fig. 13 (1866)..
P. Z. 8. pl. 39, fig. 12 (1866)..
Wien. ent. Mon. vi. p. 177
(1862).

xvi. fig. 8

_| Ent. Syst. iii. p. 158 (1793)...
_| Ent. Syst. iii. p. 219 (1793)...

Ent. Mo. Mag. 6, pl. 1, fig. 4
(1870). .

.| Wien. ent. Monatsehr. vi. p. 177

(1862).
P. Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 14 (1866) ..

Stett. Ent. Zeit. p. 311 (1865).
Zutr. figs. 233, 234 (1806) ....
Lep. Exot. pl. iv. fig. 3 (1869) ..
P. Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 15 (1866) ..

E. phares group.

(1867).
Reise der Noy. Lep. ii. p. 477
(1867).

(1819).
Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. (1871).
P. Z. S. pl. 39, fig. 16.(1866)..

| Where figured, or (if not figured) Typical rebates

Rio Janeiro and
Rio Grande. -
Brazil.

Rio Janeiro.

.| Para.
.| Para.

Brazil.

Chapeo d’Uvas.
Surinam.
Ecuador.

Para.
Venezuela.
Rio Negro.

Brazil.

ey

Pebas.

Rio Negro and
New Granada.

Kerguelen and
Pernambuco.

Coreovado.

Baltimore.

Rio.

Para,

Mexice.
Bogota.

Brazil.

Texas.
Rio Janeiro.

120

ee
| Specific name.

—

Gulnaré

eee eee

eee ene

| Zeba
| Sabina

Satyrina....

| Gicas
| Gigas

eee ee eee

| Libyoidea .. |

| Saundersii ....

| Butler
| Felder

Mimavsisce cc
| Fumata
| Pacarus

eeeeee|

Weve! ey)

MR. A. G@. BUTLER ON

Author.

Butler

Cramer ....

ee eeee

Where figured, or (if not figured)

where first described.

—— —$_—_——

E. harmonia group.

...| Ent. Mo. Mag. vi. pl. 1, fig. 3

(1870).

Harmonia ....} Butler ..../ P. Z.S. pl. 39, fig. 17 (1866) . .
Yphthima ....} Felder Reise der Nov. Lep. ill. p. 481
(1867).
PPhmeuss ok cise Butler ....| P. Z. 8. pl. 39, fig. WA 3
| Nebulosa s| Butler enol oa. 1S. pl 12, fis 2 (1867)...
{Orelas . itiegetss Butler .| Evt. Mo. Mag. vi. pl. J, fig.
| (1870).
| E. necys group.
Obscura ...... | Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 9 (1867) .
NeGysinni cide: Godart ....| Enc. Méth. ix. pp. 466 & 511
, (1819)=vastata, Buti.
| Squamistriga . .| Felder .| Zabdi, Butler, Lep. Exot. pl. iv.
| fig. 7 (1869),
| Rustica ...... Butler ....) Cat. Sat. pl. 1, tig. 4 (1868)
Polyphemus ..| Butler oC} Pe Casey ps 488, pl. 12, fig. 5
(1867).
E. quantius group.

| Muscosa...... Butler ....| Ent. Mo. Mag. 6, pl. 1, fig. 6

(1870).
' Quantius .| Godart .. ,| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 466 & 511
(1819).
Stelligera ....| Butler .| Trans. Ent. Soe. p. 424 (1874)

E. libye group.
Pap. Exot. 1, pl. 59, figs. E, F
(1779).

-..| Lep. Exot. pl. iii. fig. 3 (1869) .

Reise der Noy. Lep. il. p. 483
(1867).

Batesvusices: Ent. Mo. Mag. 1, p. 179 (1865)
Butler «....| P. ZS. pl. 40; fig. 7 (1866)
Hewitson ..| Butler, Lep, Exot. pl. 18, fig. 4
(1870)
Linneus.. ..| Syst. Nat. ii. p. 772 (1766) .
Butler ....) P. ZS. pl. 1] fig. 13 (1867) ..
E. pacarus group.

Butler ..| P. ZS. pl. 40, fig. 17 (1866) ..
Butler ..| P. ZS. pl. 12, fie. 7 (1867)

| Butler ....| P. ZS. pl. 12, fig. 14 (1867) .
Godart ....| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 465 & 495

(819).

Typical localities.

Panama.

Quito.
Bahia.

Venezuela.

; a

{5

-| Bolivia.

Brazil.

Mexico.

.-| Bolivia.

Bugota.

Brazil.

Brazil.

-| Mimas Geraes.

Surinam.

Pebas.
Cayenne.

-| Guatemala.

.| Mexico.

Eeuador.

--| West Indies,

‘India,’ Line.
Niearagua.

Ega, Pemam-
bueo.

: Japan

Br ae : |

a

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA.

121

Specific name. Author. ee eae A gured) Typical localities. |
Peculiaris ....| Butler ..| Trans. Ent. Soc. p. 424 (1874) .| Minas Geraes. |
Masienis) ...% .. Butler .| P. Z.5S. pl. 40, fig. 12 (1866) . .| 2
Erichtho...... Butler P. Z. S. pl. 40, fig. 15 (1866) ..| Pernambuco,

| Rio,Ega,Para.|
£. lea group.
Mea es Cramer .... he u. pl. 151, figs. C, D) Surinam.
9).
LIMA aie ian ss Cramerier) 1: ites iv. pl. 292, figs. D, E) Surinam. |
2).
Philippa...... Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 3 (1867) ..| Ega. |
Angelica...... Butler ....| Trans. Ent. Soc. p. 424 (1874). .| Rio.
E. gera group.
Bates 2)... Butler .| P. Z.S. p. 493, pl. 40, fig. 16) Tapajos.
(1866). 5 ee !
Tricolor ...... Hewitson .. oF Diurn. Lep. pl. 65, fig. 3) Amazons.
(1851). |
Fulgora ...... Butler ..| Lep. Exot. pl. iii. fig. 4 (1869) .| Pebas.
Moriian ine. «= Hewitson .. ot eam ii. pl. 44, fig. 2) Amazons.
(1861).
RECTAN feelers oe Hewitsen ..| Gen. Diurn. Lep. pl. 63, fig. 4) Tapajos. |
(1851).
Metagera ....| Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 4 (1867) ..) UpperAmazons.
Hiemalis...... Butler ....| P.Z.S. pl. 12, fig. 4 (1867) ..| Amazons.
E. cluena group.
Clienatwies . Drury...’.. fil. Exot. Ent. iii. pl. 7, figs. 5,6) Brazil.
(1782).
E. doris group.
Doris ........ Cramer : Supe i. pl. 8, figs. B, C | Surinam.
(1779).

Glaucina......| Bates ..... Ent. Mo. Mag. i. p. 202 (1865)| Guatemala. |
Aigrota ...... Butler Sachi: 2. S.pl ly fies 21860)... | Para.
eilatancr sears Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 40, fig. 3 (1866) ..) Ega.

Brixiola ..., Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 40, fig. 9 (1866) ..| Para.

Brixius ....{ | Godart ....| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 464 & 490) Brazil.

(1819).

@telestise: js) Butler ....| P. Z.S. pl. 40, fic. 5 (1866) ..| Ega. |
NGRS 6G vooem Butler ....| Lep. Exot. pl. ii. fig. 6 (1869) .| Para.
Cerulea...... Butler ....| Lep. Exot. pl. iii. figs.1,2 (1869), Maranham.
Cyanites...... Butler .| Ann. & Mag. Nat. His’. viii.) Brazil. |

p. 282 (1871). |

LAUER Serre Butler ..| Lep. Exot. pl. iv. fig. 1 (1869) .| Pebas. |
Wiramiai cede Butler .. P. ZS. pl. 40, fig. 6 (1866) ..) Cameta.
celica) anc: Hewitson .. Butler, Lep. Exot. pl. xviii. fig.2) Ecuador.

(1870). |

Lobelia ..-...| Butler .| Lep. Exot. pl. xvii. fig. 5) Ecuador. |

| (1870). |

122

MR. A. G. BUTLER ON

Druce.

P y p (if | fioured 3 ano
Specific name. Author. ene peer nie pee ) Typical localities.
E. meépius group. a3
Mepius ...... Godart ....| Enc. Méth. ix. pp. 464 & 490) Guiana.
(1819).
BiCeabe ers ocala! Butler .|P.Z. 8S. pl. 12, fig. 6 (1867) ..| Ega.
E. doxes group.
Junonia ...... Butler ..| RB. ZS. pl. 11, fig. 11 (1867) ..| Tapajos.
Gemmula ..| Butler .| P. Z. S. pl. 11, fig. 7 (1867) ..| Rio Janeiro.
Doxesiy cise Godart Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 465 & 493) Brazil.
. (1819).
Erycina ...... Butler ..| P. Z. S. pl. 11, fig. 6 (1867) ..| Brazil.
Heatiaine time oc: | Butler .| P. Z. S. pl. 40, fig. 14 (1866) ..| Bahia.
E. arnea group.
ANOTESES ne bc Fabricius ..| Cramer, Pap. Exot. iv. pl. 292,| Surinam.

; figs. F,G (1782) = E. ebusa.. :
Sericeella ..J| Bates ......| Ent. Mo. Mag. i. p. 202 (1865) | Guatemala.
Byses........ Godart .| Ene. Méth. ix. pp. 466 & 496) Brazil.

(1819).
Chioristies.. .- Cramer ....| Pap. Exot. iv. pl. 293, figs. A, B| Surinam.
(1782). mk
Hierse ys. ...| Cramer ....| Pap. Exot. i. pl. 10, figs. C, D| Surinam.
(1779).
Callichloris....| Butler ....| P. Z. S. pl. 40, fig. 10 (1866) ..| Ega.
Hewitsonii ....| Butler~....| P. Z. S. pl. 40, fig. 4 (1866) ..| Para.
Neatina vee ere Butler ....| P. Z. 8S. pl. 40, fig. 8 (1866) ..| Para.
Tolumnia ....| Cramer ....| Pap. Exot. ii. pl. 130, figs. F, G} Surinam.

| (1779).

ANE Ego hon 6d Butler .. | P.Z.S. pl. 40, fig. 11 (1866). .| Tapajos.
WHS sooo ane 24 Felder .| Reise der Nov. Lep. iii. p. 483) Bogota.
(1867).

E. clorimena group. 7
Cosmophila ..| Hiibner ....| Zutriige, figs. 255,256 (1806). .| Bahia.
IPRA Ge coo Godart ....| Butler, P. Z. S. pl. .11, fig. 1} Brazil.

(1867).
Neomisisericcs: Hewitson ..| Exot. Butt. iii. pl.44, fig. 3(1862)| Para.
Quadrina Butler .| Lep. Exot. pl. iii. fig. 5 (1869) .| Maranham.
Clorimena ....| Stoll ...... Pap. Exot. pl. 13, figs. 2, 2 6) Surinam.
(1791).
Salwinilgeiaemeds Butler .| P. ZS. pl. 40, fig. 13 (1866) ..| Panama.
E. phocion group.
Phocion...... Fabricius ..| Ent. Syst. iii. p. 218, n. 683] United States.
(1793).
Pyracmon ....| Butler ..| P. Z.S. pl. 11, fig. 10 (1867). .| Mexico.
Cornelius ....| Fabricius ..| Hiibner, Zutrage, figs. 7,8 (1806); —— 2
| as E. gemma.
Argentellay.|...| Butler: aud |/Cist. Entei p.98)......... 0): Costa Rica.

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA.

123

Where figured, or (if not figured)

Specific name. Author. Schone ech cenne Typical localities.
Ithama = 2.04. Butler .| Lep. Exot. pl. iv. fig. 4 (1869) .) Central
America.
Undetermined species*.
npitat sci Reakirt ....| Proc. Acad. Phil. p. 331 (1866) | Mexico.
ANMROG 5 cede Felder ....} Reise der Nov. Lep. ii. p. 477) Bogota, Vene-
; (1867). zuela.
Shlain sols ih Felder ..| Reise der Nov. Lep. iii. p. 478] Bahia.
| (1867).
| Numeria...... Felder .| Reise der Nov. Lep. iii. p. 478) Bahia.
(1867).
Numilia...... Felder .| Reise der Nov. Lep. i. p. 478) Bogota.
(1867).
Pompilia...... Felder : meie6r). Nov. Lep. ui. p. 479} Bogota, Mexico.
1867).
Belorian Gof ..e Felder. ....| Reise der Nov. Lep. iii. p. 479} Venezuela.
(1867).
Manasses Felder .| Reise der Nov. Lep. ii. p. 479} Bahia*.
(1867).

EUPTYCHIA ANACLETA, 0. sp.

Descriptions of mew Species.
Pl. XII. fig. 4.

Wings semitransparent, pale brown, becoming more opaque towards the

*

outer margin, with two parallel regular central dusky bands; an ill-
defined discal nebula; one ill-defined dusky subapical blind ocellus in
primaries and five increasing blind ocelli in secondaries, the fifth
largest, better-defined, and blackish ; primaries with a dusky submar-
ginal diffused band, secondaries with two undulated submarginal lines,
distinctly separate towards anal angle, but coalescing towards apex;
abdominal area of female whitish: body grey, head brown: wings
below very pale grey, nearly white, crossed by three bands, the two
nearest to the base red-brown, the third broader, red-brown on secon-
daries, more or less ochreous on primaries (entirely so in the male) ;
two irregularly undulated submarginal blackish lines, terminating at
anal angle of secondaries in two irregular orange liture ; primaries
with a large subapical black ocellus, with blue pupil and testa-
ceous iris ; below it two small ill-defined ocelli; a large diffused discal
ochreous patch ; subapical area dusky; a grey marginal Jine; secon-
daries with five ocelli, the fifth large, the first, second, and fifth black,
with blue pupils and stramineous irides, the third and fourth dusky,
with silvery pupils and pale testaceous irides ; a dusky nebula round

the ocelli: body below whitish: expanse of wings d 1 inch 4 lines,
2 1 inch 5 lines.

The species described by Felder, and here enumerated, will remain unknown

to science until either proper descriptions are published, or the types can be ex-
amined.

124 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON

o Chiriqui (Ribbe); 2 Bogota (Nolecken). Coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.
Allied to #. palladia.

E. urBana, n. sp. Pl. XII. fig. 7.

Wings above olive-brown, basal area and outer border of primaries rather
darker, an undulated submarginal line and two marginal lines dark
brown; secondaries with a lie enclosed by the two marginal lines,
testaceous at the anal angle ; two oval subanal ocelli, the exterior one
on the first median interspace double as large as the other, both of
them black, with testaceous iris and silver pupil ; body blackish : wings
below paler, irrorated with dark brown; two central irregular ferru-
ginous lines, submarginal and marginal lines as above, excepting that
the line on the margin is black; primaries with the central lines di-
vergent towards costa, the inner one angulated; a small blind sub-
apical ocellus ; secondaries with the central lines parallel, slightiy
irregular, the outer one feebly angulated at the end of the cell; six
discal ocelli; the first, third, and fourth small, the fourth malformed,
the first two and the last two black; all of them with silver pupils,
broad ochraceous irides, and dusky diffused zones : bedy below grey ;
expanse of wings I inch 8 lines.

Columbia (coll. Sommer). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

Allied to #. variabilis, but smaller, the primaries narrower and

more produced.

E. soTrr, n. sp. Pl. XII. fig. 11.

Wings above pale olive-brown, slightly darker towards the base ; a black-
ish transverse dot at the unton of the upper and lower discocellulars
of primaries ; a dark brown zizgag submarginal line, a marginal tes-
taceous line edged on both sides with dark brown; fringe greyish
brown; primaries with a straight transverse discal dark brown line;
secondaries with minute ocelli, on mterno-median and first median
interspaces : body blackish; wings below sandy brown, reticulated
and speckled with dark brown; a central, broad, slightly irre-
gular band darker than the ground-colour and edged on each side by
a brown line; submarginal and marginal lines as above; primaries
with a minute silver-pupilled subapical ocellus ; secondaries with six
minute discal ocelii in an irregular series, the fourth indistinct, the
second and fifth with two very small silvery pupils: body below
greyish; legs pale brown: expanse of wings | inch 7 lines.

New Friburg. In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

E. BENEDICTA, sp.n. Pl. XII. fig. 14.

Wings above olive-brown ; outer border of primaries dusky; seconda-
ries with two undulated darker brown submarginal lines; marginal
line black : body blackish : wings below paler ; two transverse rather
broad central eastaneous bands ; a zigzag submarginal red-brown line,

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA. 125

beyond which is a slender, undulated, submarginal black line; outer
margin black ; primaries with central bands slightly divergent ; three
subapical discal ocelli, the uppermost black, white-pupilled, with
yellow iris, the other two ill-defined ; secondaries irrorated with tes-
taceous; with six oeelli, the first, second, and fifth black, the
others brown, the first and last small, the second and fifth largest,
all excepting the first and last bipupillated, all with yellow inides ;
body below blackish : expanse of wings 1 inch 10 lines.
Sarayaco, Ecuador (Buckley). In coll. O. Salvin.

This species is allied to H. hubnert, but differs considerably,
particularly in the size of the ocelli below.

E. MELCHIADES, un. sp. (PI. XII. fig. 9.)

Dark olive-brown, with two indistinct darker submarginal lines, mar-
ginal line black; fringe grey ; secondaries with two small black sub-
anal ocelii with silver pupil and ochreous iris, the upper one about
three times as large as the lower: body blackish: wings below paler,
mottled all over with dark brown; two submarginal dark brown lines,
the inner one irregular; margin black; fringe grey: primaries with
a nearly straight transverse discal line; five small discal ocelli, the
second largest : secondaries with two central, parallel, transverse, dark
brown lines, the outer one undulated; six discal ocelli, the second
and fifth largest, the third obliquely bifid, all black, with silver pupils
and ochreous irides: pectus grey, legs testaceous, palpi white, with
grey hair-scales: expanse of wings | inch 6 lines.

Cordova (Berg). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

Belongs to the #. hermes group.

HE. CaALIXTA, n. sp. (Pl. XII. fig. 8.)
Wings above deep olive-brown, darker towards the outer margin; body
lackish, below paler, with two central dark brown bands, two sub-

marginal lines, the inner one undulated (especially in the secondaries),
and the margin dark brown; fringe dark brown: primaries with the
upper discocellular dark brown; central bands slightly divergent
towards the costa; five discal ocelli, the third and fourth small and
brown, the others black, the second rather larger, all with silver pupils
and narrow ochreous irides: secondaries with the outer central band
bisinuated, and angulated at abdominal margin; six discal ocelli, the
third united to the second, it and the fourth small, brown; the first
and last also small, but black, the second largest; all with silver
pupils, ochreous irides, and brown zones: body below dark grey :
expanse of wings 1 inch 6 lines.

Bogota (Nolecken). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. ; 12

126 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON

KF. FABIANA, n. sp. (Pl. XII. fig. 5.)

Wings above reddish brown; body blackish: wings helow paler; two
central parallel transverse dark brown lines slightly imeurved, and
very slightly divergent at costa of primaries; a submarginal ill-
defined dark brown zigzag line’: pectus dark grey, venter pale brown :
expanse of wings | mch J] lines.

Macahé (Beske). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

Allied to #. rusticana, but without the white spot on under

surface of primaries; also allied to H. vastata.

E. EUSEBIA, n. sp. (PI. XII. fig. 13.)

Wings above olive-brown ; body dark grey : wings below with the discal
area paler, margin black, a dusky line close to the margin; prima-
ries with a transverse arched litura beyond the cell, an irregular
submarginal dark-brown line, a trace of a small subapical ocellus ;
secondaries with two transverse central lines, the outer one angulated,
and a zigzag submarginal line, dark brown, traces of five or six small
discal ocelli on a dusky nebulous band, basal area and pectus blackish ;
venter pale brown: expanse of wings 2 inches 3 lines.

Bogota (Nolcken). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

Allied to the preceding species.

E. cycLors, n.sp. (Pl. XII. fig. 2.)

¢. Wings above piceous brown ; body blackish: wings below with two

central lines, a submarginal undulated line, and two marginal lines
black-krown ; primaries with the central lines inarched, three sub-
apical white dots in an angulated series, the uppermost one largest ;
secondaries with the central lines slightly undulated and arched, the
outer one strongly angulated on the discoidal interspace; six white-
pupilled black spots, all extremely small excepting the fifth, which is
placed upon the first median interspace, and is large and well de-
fined: pectus blackish, legs and venter pale brown: expanse of wings
2 inches.

©. Rather paler and larger : expanse of wings 2 inches 3 lines.

6, Chiriqui (Ribbe): 9, Canchamayo (Thamm.), coll. Dr. O. Stau-
dinger; Costa Rica (Van Patten), coll. O. Salvin.

Allied to E. polyphemus. The female has four white dots on

the under surface of primaries.

E. &THERIALIS, n.sp. (Pl. XII. fig. 10.)

Above cobalt-blue, like E. egrota ¢, but with the inner transverse line
of primaries obsolete, and the outer one much more slender, black
subanal spot of secondaries smaller: wings below silvery blue, crossed
by two slender parallel central rust-red lines, angulated upon abdo-
winal margin; two submarginal lines, the inner one undulated, rust-
red on secondaries, the outer one dark brown, very slender, a slender

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA. 127

dark-brown marginal line; primaries with three small discal ocelli,

the uppermost one with yellow iris, the ceritral one smallest and in-

distinet ; secondaries with five ocelli, the first smallest, the first two

and the last with yellow irides and white pupils, the last two with two

pupils: body below bluish: expanse of wings 1 inch 7 lines.
Sarayaco, Ecuador (Buckley). In eoll. O. Salvin.

This species, although nearly allied to Z. egrota from the Lower
Amazons, seems to be distinct ; it 1s altogether less heavily marked,
with the ocelli below smaller and less pronounced.

E. TeLespHorA, n. sp. (Pl. XII. fig. 1.)

Wings above olive-brown, slightly darker towards the outer margins,
primaries with an ill-defined darker submarginal line; secondaries
with a greyish discal nebula enclosing an ill-defined dusky spot near
anal angle ; two submarginal lines and the fringe black-brown: wings
below much like those of EF. pagyris, but the wings narrower, outer
band of primaries much less strongly arched; area enclosed by the
central bands of secondaries white to the origin of the radial nervure;
outer band strongly angulated, the angle being formed at the apex of
the discoidal cell; outer margin of the yellow discal area much more
irregular; silver spots narrower, the second from costa forming a small
black ocelloid spot; the black patch on first median interspace double
the width, with one large quadrate silver pupil; subanal silver spots
placed obliquely to each other: expanse of wings 1 inch 8 lines.

Hab. - ? (Sommer’s collection). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

It is possible that this may be Stoll’s E. clorimena; but the
figure of that species is so very poor, that not knowing the
habitat of H. telesphora I cannot consider it identical with ZL.
clorimena.

E. HYGINA, n. sp. (PI. XII. fig. 6.)

Wings above pale olive-brown ; primaries with submarginal lines dimly

_ visible through the wing; secondaries with a large pale buff discal
patch, round which is a series of five blackish spots, the three smaller
ones forming a triangle at its upper extremity, the two larger ones
submarginal, upon the median interspaces; two zigzag submarginal
blackish lines coalescing towards apex; outer border pale; margin
brown: body greyish: wings below paler than above, whitish brown,
markings of primaries almost as in the preceding species, but of a
lighter ferruginous brown colour; secondaries with two central par-
allel lines, the outer one irregular, deeply excised where it crosses
the cell, and widened by a tapering slightly paler ferruginous border
below it; discal area whitish, as usual, with the ochreous area brightly
coloured, and spotted with silver as follows-~two small spots close
together near apex, four larger spots forming a diamond-shaped figure

12*

128 ON NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPTYCHIA.

beyond the cell, a transverse ©-shaped figure with silver centres
and three silver spots towards anal angle; outer border buff-coloured,
enclosed by the zigzag submarginal line as above: body greyish white:
expanse of wings l-inch 9 lines.

Hab. Brazil. In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

Also ‘allied to £. pagyris.

E. CLEMENTIA, n. sp. (PI. XII. fig. 3.)

S. Wings above pale olive-brown, crossed by an ill-defined central
darker line, beyond which there is a band of slightly paler colour not
well defined ; primaries with en indication of a submarginal line, and
the margin shghtly darker brown ; secondaries with four smoky-brown
diffused discal spots in an arched series, two zigzag submarginal dark-
brown lines on a whitish-brown ground; fringe greyish brown : body
dark grey, head and abdomen brownish : wings below paler, cressed
by two darker lines which diverge towards the costal margins of both.
wings; two submarginal lines and the outer margin dark brown ;
discal area of primaries whitish, crossed by a transverse olive-brown
band which encloses a series of ill-defined silver-dotted ocelloid spots ;
secondaries with the disk snow-white, crossed by a broad irregular
brown-edged ochreous band, enclosing two silver-centred black ocelli
towards apex (the second large) and one towards anal angle; between
and beyond the ocelli some elongate silver markings: body below
whitish : expanse of wings | inch 7 lines.

Chanchamayo (Thamm.). In coll. Dr. O. Staudinger.

This beautiful little species is allied to E. cosmophila. Itis very
distinct from any thing that I have seen.

PS. Since the foregoing was read and set up in type, I find that
H. B. Moeschler (Verhand. Zool. Bot. Gesellsch. Wien, 1876,
p. 823) describes as a new species Huptychia nana, from Surinam.
It seems to me to be one of the many slight variations of L. hermes.

Also (L.c. p. 824, tab. iii. fig. 11) E. thalessa, n. sp., from Suri-
nam ; this is probably an abnormal form of Z. batesii, which it
closely resembles on the underside.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Huptychia telesphora, p.127.| Fig. 8. Huptychia calixta, p. 125.
2 cyclops, p. 126. 9. —— melchiades, p. 125.
3. clementia, p. 128. 10. —— etherialis, p. 126.
4 anacleta, p. 123. ll. —— soter, p. 124.
5. fabiana, p. 126. 12. —— galesus, p. 119.
6. —— hygina, p. 127. 13. eusebia, p. 126.
7. urbana, p. 124. : 14. benedicta, p. 124.

In these figures the under surface of the specimen is shown, excepting fig. 10,
where the upper surface has been drawn.

- ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF BEETLES. 129

Description of some New Species of Beetles (Scarabeidee). from
Central America. By D. Sarr, Esq. (Communicated by
- H. W. Barus, Hsq., F.0.S.)

[Read November 2, 1876.]

Some little while ago, Mr. Belt placed in my hands for exami-
nation the collection of Scarabeide (7. e. Lamellicorn Coleoptera)
made by him during his residence in Nicaragua, the species being,
I believe, chiefly captured in the neighbourhood of Chontales.
Our collections are tolerably rich in the insects of this family
found in Columbia and Venezuela and the northern parts of tie
continent of South America, and in the Mexican species of the
family ; but the fauna of the imtervening district of Central
America is still very poorly represented in most of our British
collections of Coleoptera. Mr. Belt’s captures are therefore of
considerable interest. On examining the Lamellicorns, I found
(as was to be expected) that the species are allied to both the
South-American and Mexican forms of the family, but that a con-
siderable portion appear to be new or undescribed. The collec-.
‘tion intrusted to me consisted of 419 individuals, representing
apparently about one hundred and fifty species ; and of these I
consider that probably fifty or thereabouts are still undescribed.
As a large number of the novelties belong to groups of which the
study is attended with much difficulty (e. g. genera Ancylonycha,
Cyclocephala, Spheromorphus, Atenius), and are represented only
by one or two individuals of each species, it would perhaps be un-
desirable to attempt to describe them seriatim; but I have
selected a few species of which I think descriptions may be pub-
lished with advantage. I have added also three species from my
own collection from the same districts, two of which require special
notice ; they are the species I have called Phalangogonia sperata
and P. stipes. The genus Phalangogonia is of special interest,
owing to its differing greatly from the allied Rutelide found in
these parts of America, and to its approaching very closely to the
Australian Anoplognathi. The single species of which the genus
is hitherto composed, viz. the Phalangogonia obesa, Burmeister, is
extremely rare, and is, in fact, unknown in most even of the best
collections. Burmeister described the species, apparently on a
single individual, which he considered to be a male, but which, I
am pretty sure, from his description, was a female. Lacordaire
has figured a species in the Atlas to his ‘ Genera des Coléopteres,’
pl. xxxv. fig. 1, which he calls Phalangogonia obesa, Burm. ; this

1380 MR. D. SHARP ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF

figure certainly represents a female individual, and, I think,
very probably a species distinct from Burmeister’s P. obesa.
Of each of the two species I here describe, I have seen but a
single individual, one of which is male, the other female, the
sexual disparities being remarkable: had these two individuals
been found together, or in the same district, I should have con-
sidered it probable that they were the sexes of one and the same
species ; but as this was not the case, I have thought it better to
consider them at present as two distinct species. It would appear
probable, then, that Phalangogonia obesa, Burm., is a Mexican spe-
cies, of which the female only is described, that P. obesa, Lacor-
daire (7. ¢.), is a representation of a female of an allied Mexican
species, while P. sperata, Sharp, is a Central-American species
described from a single male individual, and P. stipes, Sharp, is
possibly only a female variety thereof.

Among the more interesting species represented in Mr. Belt’s
collection are:—egathopa candezei, of which an admirable
diagnosis has been recently given by Baron von Harold, but
which, I think, would have been better treated as a distinct
new genus, between Megathopa and Canthon; a beautiful
Plusiotis, which M. Boucard calls a variety of P. aurora; a
form allied to Pelidnota, and another to Chlorota, both perhaps
really new genera, but represented only by single individuals ;
Podischnus terisander, Burm., which I have never seen before, but
which undoubtedly is a distinct species from the common P.
agenor; the very remarkable Amblyodon nicarague, Westwood,
which is the male of Philewrus nasicornis, Burm., or at any rate
a closely allied species; a pair of the very rare Lycomedes reichei ;
a series of Allorhina anomala, Bates, showing that the species
varies in size from 19 to 26 millims., and greatly in the develop-
ment of the pale markings, the thorax being in one individual
entirely bordered with a pale yellow marking; a series of Gym-
netis ramulosa, Bates, in which the transverse pale mark of the
elytra is alike in no two individuals, and shows also a sexual dis-
parity ; and a pair of the elegant Dialithus magnificus, in one in-
dividual the elytra being black, while in the other they are red.

ONTHOPHAGUS TAPIRUS, n. sp. Thorace in utroque sexu mutico.

Subdepressus, nigro-zeneus, nitidus, capite et thorace magis zeneis,
pedibus piceis ; thorace sparsim, minus fortiter punctato, elytris evi-
denter striatis, interstitiis impunctatis; pygidio fortiter punctato.
Long 53-7 millim.

BEETLES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA. 131

Mas clypeo apice prolongato et recurvato, processu apice transversim

valde dilatato, genis dilatatis ; tibiis anterioribus sat elongatis.

Fem. clypeo apice acute bidentato, capite crebre sat fortiter punctato.

The antenne are reddish at the base, with the club infuscate. The

thorax is about 22 millims. in length, and about 32 broad, and is of
a brilliant and shining brassy colour ; it is distinctly punctured at the
front angles, and more indistinctly about the middle ; but on the basal
portion the punctures are nearly absent.. The elytra are smooth and
shining, and destitute of any punctuation or pubescence. The pygi-
dium is coarsely punctured, and bears scanty, short, stout, erect, pale
sete. The metasternum in the middle is brassy, and is only sparingly
punctured ; the punctures are rather coarse on its lateral parts, but in-
distinct elsewhere ; the under surface is destitute of pubescence, except
that the apical segments of the hind body bear a fewsetz. The front
tibize are distinctly quadridentate.

This is avery distinct species from any other I know; but Von
Harold has recently published, under the name of Onthophagus
sharpt, a species which appears to connect O. tapirus with the
O. nasicornis group. .

Two other specimens found by Mr. Belt are of a bluish-black
colour, and have the clypeus in front produced into a short, broad,
simple process, and are probably a distinctly allied new species.

IsonycHUs PIcTus,n,sp. Olivaceo-pubescens, elytris maculis magnis
nigris, anteanis rufis clava fusca, pygidio rufescente, pedibus nigris.
Long. 13 millim.

Clypeus black, with a faint brassy tinge, without pubescence, but with a
few erect hairs, and bearing rough elevated tubercles instead of pune-
tures. Thorax entirely clothed with a yellowish olive pubescence,
which quite conceals the sculpture. Elytra also clothed with a dense
olivaceous pubescence, but with some very large and distinct black
spots, three along the suture and three at the side, more or less con-
fluent : the sculpture is concealed by the pubescence; but they are
finely yet distinctly striated.

In the male the front tibize are slightly more slender, and the club of the
antennz more elongate, than in the female, the pygidium is rather
shorter and is more closely punctured, the apical ventral segment is
impressed in the middle, the impression being roughly punctured
and free from pubescence.

This striking species is probably allied to Lsonychus maculatus,

C. Waterhouse, from Medellin, in Columbia.
FAULA CENTRALIS,n. sp. Fusco-nigra,:sericeo-opaca, pallide griseo-

setosa, antennis pedibusque rufescentibus ; thorace elytrisque fortiter
punctatis, illo area longitudinali, his lineis duabus elevatis.

132 MR. D. SHARP ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF

Mas major, antennis pedibusque elongatis, clypeo anterius magis reflexo
et emarginato, tarsis omnibus cressioribus et subtus magis pilosis ;
pygidio elongato, abdominis apice deflexo-prominulo, medio late sub-
impresso ; corpore subtus fere opaco. Long. 125 millim.

Fem. minor, pedibus antennisque brevibus, clypeo anterius vix emargi-
nato, tarsis omnibus simplicibus; pygidio brevi, apice utrinque sinuato;
abdomine convexo ; corpore subtus nitido. Long. 95-11 millim.

In this species the thorax is coarsely punctured, but has a
central space along the middle a little elevated and free from
punctures; this space-is narrow and indistinct on the front part
of the thorax, but is very distinct on the hinder part. With the
exception of this there are no other distinct spaces on the thorax
free from punctures, though the punctures are unevenly distri-
buted: the base of the thorax is distinctly prominent on each
side of the scutellum, and is also slightly prominent in the middle.
The front edge of the scutellum is raised, and is emarginate in
the middle; but the scutellum bears no longi:udinal impression,
and is more densely covered with pale setz than are the other parts.

T have a closely allied but smaller species from Brazil, which
I believe is also undescribed.

PELIDNOTA BELTI,n. sp. Elongata, angustula, viridi-anea, supra ni-
tidissima, nuda, subtus parcius subtiliter grisee-pubescens, femoribus
nigro-viridibus, tibiis rufis apice nigricantibus, tarsis nigro-czeruleis.

Mas major, pedibus longioribus et crassioribus. Long. 2] millim,, lat.
10 millim.

Head rather coarsely and closely punctured, clypeus notched in front,
the noteh a little deeper in the female than in the male, the side-pro-
jections in the male very slightly, im the female more distinctly, re-
flexed. Thorax very smooth and shining, bearing evenly scattered,
distant, fine punctures. Scutellum almost impunctate. Elytra with
very fine and indistinct punctures, very shining. Pygidium densely
and finely rugose, opaque, clothed with a short and fine pale pubes-
eence. Under surface greenish, clothed at the sides with a fine and .
scanty pale pubescence, which is very indistinct on the sides of the
ventral segments. Postcoxal process of prosternum broad and short,
subhorizontal. Mesosternal process elongate.

This handsome insect is allied to Pelidnota cupripes, but is very
distinct from it or any other Pelidnota ; and I have much plea-
sure in naming it in honour of its discoverer.

Obs. One of the specimens brought back by Mr. Belt is of abrassy
instead of a brilliant green colour, but it otherwise does not differ.

PELIDNOTA PROLIXA, n. sp. Elongata, angusta, supra testacea, vel

BEETLES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA. 133

castanea, pedibus antennisque concoloribus; subtus fuscula; clypeo
antice obtuso; thorace margine basali argute elevato; elytris impun-
ctatis, sat nitidis. Long. 27 millim., lat. 133 millim.

Head densely punctured; clypeus slightly prolonged, quite obtuse in
front, and with its margin slightly reflexed. Thorax very transverse,
with the basal and lateral margins acutely defined, the front margin
obsolete in the middle; the surface is but little shining, and its punc-
tuation, though rather close, is indefinite, and at the sides becomes
dense, confluent, and still less distinct. he scutellum is finely but
distinctly punctured. The elytra are without sculpture, but are little
shining, their surface having the appearance of very delicate leather.

The pygidium is densely and finely rugose, and dull. The under sur-
face is much darker than the upper; the postcoxal process of the
prosternum is elongate, subperpendicular; the mesosternal process is
distinctly prominent and projects beyond the edge of the coxe.

This species may be readily distinguished amongst its allies by
its elongate form and its impunctate elytra and acutely elevated
basal margin of the thorax. I think the individuals I have seen
are females. The species appears best placed at present near the
North-American P. quadripunctata, from which (independently of
colour and form) it is readily distinguished by the more elongate
aud perpendicular postcoxal process of the prosternum.

ANTICHIRA GRATIOSA, n. sp. Supra lite viridis, haud metallica, sub-
tus viridi metallescens, epipleuris cupreis; scutello minore ; elytris fere
impunctatis, et estriatis ; pectore parcissime pubescente, lateribus for-
titer strigulosis ; mesosterni processu elongato, paullulum descendente,
sed apicem versus fortiter recurvato. Long. corp. 25-30 millim.

Clypeus rather elongate and narrow towards the front, its front margin
distinctly reflexed, obscurely truncate in the middle: the punctures
on the clypeus are dense near the front, become more sparing on the
posterior part, and are very fine and scatity on the vertex. Thorax
short and rather smail, the base im front of the scutellum truncate,
but not emarginate; the surface bears a few not very distinct punc-
tures, which towards the sides, however, are more numerous and
rather more distinct. Scutellum 4-5 millims. long, and about 4 mil-
lims. broad at the extreme base. Elytra without distinct sculpture, and
with only very obscure indications of striz. Pygidium rather coarsely
strigose. Underside more metallic than the upper, it being of a green
colour with a distinct golden or brassy tinge, appearing at first desti-
tute of pubescence, but bearing a few fine hairs on the sides of the
metasternum. ‘The legs are slender and concolcrous with the under
surface ; the basal portion of the epipleurz is of a coppery colour,
and shows, therefore, a distinct contrast with the rest of the surface.

134 MR. D. SHARP ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF

I see no indication of sexual character, except that in one in-
dividual (which is, I suppose, a male) the pygidium is rather longer
and narrower.

This species is allied to A. prasina and A. psittacina, Burm. ;
and I have also in my collection a species of Thyridium from Co-—
lumbia which so extremely resembles 4. gratiosa that, without
examination of its generic characters, it would be considered con-
specific with the Nicaraguan insect.

PHALANGOGONIA SPERATA, n. sp. Supra fulvo-testacea, nitida,
elytris pallidioribus, subtus cum pedibus chocolatina, pectore utrinque
densius pubescente ; elytris subtiliter punctatis ; mesosterni processu
sat elongato. Long. 27 millim.

Clypeus with the front margin a little rounded, densely and finely ru-
gose, so as to be dull; the vertex sparingly punctured. Thorax on the
middle very finely and very sparingly punctured, at the sides more
closely punctured, but the punctures very indistinct. Elytra finely
and sparingly punctured, but the punctures more distinct than those
on the thorax, the punctures are not arranged in rows, and there are
no striz; but on careful examination there are seen indications of
two longitudinal smooth spaces limited by fine punctures. The under
surface is of a uniform chocolate-colour.

Central America. A single specimen from W. W. Saunders’s col-
lection.

The individual described is, no doubt, a male; all the tarsi are

stout, and the three basal joints on the four posterior ones are

densely clothed beneath with sete ; the front tibie are very stout,
and their upper tooth obsolete, the two lower ones moderately
prominent: the hind tibie are stout, but are not broader at the
extremity than in the middle, and show outwardly only a few
coarse punctures.

P. sTIPES,n.sp. Supra fulvo-testacea, nitida, elytris pallidioribus, sub-
tus rufescens, abdomine nigricante, pectore utrinque densius pubes-
cente; elytris subtiliter punctatis, mesosterni processu sat elongato.
Long. 26 millim.

Nicaragua. A single individual from the collection of W. W. Saunders.

This species is very closely allied to the preceding, and, it is

possible, may prove a variety of its female; but it has the meso-
sternal process considerably more elongate, and the longitudinal -
spaces on the elytra are more distinct, the colour of the under
surface is darker and less unicolorous, the ventral segments being
black ; the hind femora, which, like the rest of the legs, are reddish,
have a black patch on the middle. ‘

BEETLES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA. 185

The individual described is no doubt a female; the front and
middle tarsi are rather slender; but the hind ones are stout, and
their basal joint is much thickened and produced at the extremity
on the upperside; the front tibize are rather stout, their two
lower teeth very large, and the upper one quite distinct. The
hind legs are short but thick, their tibize much broader at the ex-
tremity and very coarsely punctured externaily.

CyYCLOCEPHALA CoNnsPIcuA, n. sp. Rubra, fere nuda; capite, pectoris
lateribus pedibusque nigris; thorace vittis duabus, elytris lateribus,
fascia lata basali alteraque pone medium interrupta nigris. Long.
173 millim.

Head entirely black, rather coarsely punctured ; clypeus short and broad,
2} millims. broad in the middle, 13 millim. long, its front margin
nearly straight, being only very slightly emarginate in the middle.
Thorax bright red, with a black elongate mark on each side the
middle, rather sparingly but coarsely punctured, except on the
middle, where the punctures are finer. Scutellum red, with a few
indistinct punctures. Elytra broadly black at the base, also black at
the sides, and behind the middle with a very large transverse black
mark which does not reach the suture, but is joined to the lateral
black. They are moderately closely, but not deeply, punctured ; and
the punctures leave only very indistinct traces of longitudinal spaces.
Pygidium and hind body, as well as the middle of the metasternum,
red. Prosternal process closely applied to the coxz ; when its apex
is looked at, it appears to consist of two parts, viz. an anterior part,
and a posterior part, which is crescentic and fringed behind with long
hairs. In the male the front tarsi are a good deal thickened, the
punctuation of the elytra is much finer than in the female, the pygi-
dium is larger, and is nearly entirely rugose, while in the female its
sculpture is much less. The female has on the edge of each elytron,
behind the middle, a very small prominence.

This species is allied to the Mexican C. picta, Burm.; but the
markings on the elytraare very different, and the clypeus is rather
more developed.

C. pROBA,n. sp. Transversim convexa, picea, nitida, supra nuda ; tho-
race elytris angustiore, lateribus pone medium subsinuatis, parce
punctato; elytris fortiter punctato-striatis, punctis ocellatis: pygidio
nitido, fortiter punctato. Long. 17-20 millim.

Clypeus broad and short, 3 millims. broad across the middle, 13 millim.
long, its front margin very slightly emarginate in the middle, the front
angles greatly rounded, rather closely but indistinctly punctured, the
punctures obsolete towards the front. Thorax 53 millims. long, 73

136..

MR. D. SHARP ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF

'. miillims. broad, the sides not evenly rounded, but broadest in the

middle, and contracted and slightly sinuate towards. the hind angles,
which are obtuse but quite distinct; it is very shining, and bears.
sparing coarse punctures, which are largest and most distinct near the
front angles, and become quite fine onthe middle. Scutellum broad,
very sparingly and indistinctly punctured. Elytra with rows of
coarse punctures, each of which is seen cn examination to consist of.
an outer ring, and a central portion, which generally has a minute dot
in the middle. Pygidium not rugose, but coarsely punctured. Propy-
gidium partly exposed, and coarsely and very densely punctured.
Sides of the metasternaum closely punctured and bearing erect hairs.
Prosterna! process quite perpendicular, its extremity slender. and not
closely applied to the legs; last ventral segment very deeply de-
pressed at the base.

Tn the male the apical ventral segment is excessively short, being reduced

to a mere transverse band: there is no trace of tubercle on the sides
of the elytra in the female. I cannot speak of the front tarsi of the
male, as they are broken off in all the specimens I have seen.

This species is allied to C. variolosa, Burm.

CoTINIS ADSPERSA, n. sp. Supra olivacea, opaca, squamulis albidis

adspersa ; subtus cuprea squamulis adspersa, et fulvo-pubescens, ab-
domine medio levigato ; clypeo cupreo, concavo, anterius medio re-
flexo, parte reflexa apice angustata; vertice carina longitudinali de-
scendente, fulvo-pubescente, apice libero, minuto; coxis posteriori-
bus angulo externo obtuso. Long. 22 millim.

Head on the upperside coppery, hollow, the front margin reflexed, the

refiexed part short and narrow at its apex, the vertex with a strongly
elevated carina, the upper edge of which is not at all fiattened, and
its extremity free and projecting and depressed; the sides of this ca-
rina and the parts near it are clothed with coarse,-outstanding, yellow
hairs. Thorax of an obscure olivaceous colour, quite dull, with some
scattered rudimentary or incomplete punctures, each of which bears
a coarse white scale. The base is strongly lobed in the middle, but
leaves an elongate portion of the scutellum exposed. Elytra simi-
lar in colour to the thorax, with scarcely any traces of elevations (ex-
cept the apical protuberance of each wing-case), and appearing at first
impunctate, but really with fine scattered punctures, each of which
bears an elongate white scale; these scales, however, are very easily
removed. Pygidium rather densely clothed with erect narrow scales of
a pale yellowish colour. Underside brassy and shining, but the ground:
colour obscured by the plentiful hairs, these being particularly abun-
dant on the front and middle femora; there are also white scales on
the femora, as well as on the sides of the body; mesosternal process

BEETLES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA. 137

short and obtuse, very pubescent in front. The front tibie are slender,
and show only indistinct indications of teeth.

In the male the pygidium and last ventral segment are rather longer
than in the female, and the legs are rather longer and more slender.

There was only a single individual of this species in Mr. Belt’s
collection; but I have a fine specimen in my own collection from
Central America. The species is allied to Cotinis pulverulenta,
Burm. ; but that species is not half the size, and is said to have the
front tibie sharply three-toothed.

CoTINIS GRACILIS, n. sp. Supra opaca, olivacea, subtus sat nitida,
cuprea, undique squamulis parvis adspersa ; clypeo anterius sat reflexo,
medio vix prolongato, vertice obscure longitudinaliter elevato, elevatio-
nis apice distincto ; tibiis anterioribus gracilibus, muticis; coxis poste-
rioribus angulo externo obtuso. Long. 16 millim.

Clypeus with the front margin distinctly elevated, and with a broad short
prominence on the middle, vertex obscurely elevated along the middle,
the apex of this obscure elevation, however, is quite distinct and promi-
nent, owing to the depression of the clypeus in frout of it. Thorax
with scattered coarse punctures, in each of which is placed a round
pale scale. Elytra similar in colour to the thorax, each with two ub-
secure longitudinal elevations, and with distant fine punctures, which
are almost arranged in rows, and each of which is covered by a pale
scale. Pygidium rather closely clothed with whitish subdepressed
scales or coarse sete. Under surface brassy, with but little pubes-
cence, but with numerous coarse pale scales. Anterior tibize slender
and without teeth. .

The specimen described is, no doubt, a male, and was found in
Honduras by Mr. Dyson. The species is allied to C. adspersa, but
is much smaller, and has the carina of the vertex obsolete instead of
sharply elevated. It must also be allied to C. pulverulenta, Burm. ;
but, from the description, that species has the front tibie sharply
three-toothed, and the carina of the vertex more distinct.

EvupPHORIA BELTI, un. sp. Olivaceo-viridis, nitidissima, supra nuda,
tarsis nigris ; clypeo anterius angustato, margine anteriore refiexo et
emarginato, fronte late subbiimpressa ; elytris parce punctatis. Long.
20-23 millim.

Head small, the clypeus distinctly narrowed in front, and the front mar-
gin prolonged and reflexed, and emarginate m the middle, so as to be
almost bidentate ; the upper part of the head is a good deal depressed
in the middle and coarsely punctured ; and this impression is ob-

’ scurely divided into two by the middle being slightly elevated. The
thorax is very shining, and is short.m proportion to the width ; i¢ is

138 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

only sparingly punctured ; the middle part, indeed, is almost free from
punctures. Scutellum large, quite impunctate. Elytra only finely
and sparingly punctured, the punctures arranged almost in lines, the
sides towards the apex and the apex strigose. Pygidium strigose, but
shining. Under surface green; sides of the breast with scanty pale
hairs and coarsely strigose, the centre smooth and shining. The me-
sosternal process very short and broad, densely pubescent along its
front. Front tibize acutely tridendate.

This species is allied to Cetonia fulgida, Fab. (genus Hrirhipis,
Burm.), but is larger, without pale marks, and has the head
differently shaped.

Though I have examined a series of teu individuals of this spe-
cies, I see no indications of any external sexual distinctions.

Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes.—Part I.
The Acanthopterygii, Spiny-rayed Teleostean Fishes. By
Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e.

[Read December 7, 1876.]

Durine comparatively recent times much interest has been mani-
nifested regarding the geographical distribution of the fauna of
India, and arguments have been adduced to demonstrate the
predominance in it of the Malayan or African element. —

As a small contribution to the facts which are being accumu-
lated, I propose a consideration of the distribution of the fresh-
water fishes, believing they must afford evidence upon which some
conclusions may be based. My limits will be Hindustan proper,
including the Punjab and Sind, as well as Ceylon, Assam, Burma,
the Andamans, and the Nicobars.

The freshwater fishes consist :—

(1) Of those which reside entirely in fresh water.

(2) Of those which enter it from the sea for breeding or pre-
daceous purposes.

The second will be briefly considered, and only when the spe-
cies belongs to a genus which likewise inhabits fresh water. In
such instances it will be necessary to trace out every species of
which the genus is composed.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 139

The freshwater fishes, thus circumscribed, consist of :—

(a) Hill-residents, whether entirely or occasionally.

(6) Fishes of the plains, some of which are migratory, extend-
ing their range over vast regions, whilst others are more locally
distributed, such as being confined to Cutch, or Western or South-
ern India including Ceylon, or restricted to the deltas of large
rivers.

This investigation may, for convenience, be divided into :—

I. The distribution of Acanthopterygii.
Jul, a Anacanthini and Siluride.
III. Ss 5 Cyprinidz, Clupeide, and their allies.

Restricting myself in this paper to the Acanthopterygian or
spiny-rayed Teleostean fishes, we find nine families which possess
true freshwater representatives in India. They are as follows :—

1. Percrp#. Genus 1. Ambassis'!, Commerson.
a. Fresh waters throughout India, also in Malay archipelago.
b. Marine, both Malay archipelago and Africa.

2. Nanpipm. Genus 1. Badis2, Bleeker.
Fresh waters of India (excluding Sind and Ceylon*) and
Burma.
Genus 2. Nandus*, Cuv. & Val.
Fresh waters of India to the Malay archipelago.
Genus 3. Pristolepis >, Jerdon.
Malabar’, Burma, Siam, and Malay archipelago.

1 This genus includes :— Chanda, pt., Ham. Buch. ; Hamiltonia, Swainson ; Bo-
goda, Parambassis, and Pseudambassis, Bleeker.

2 Includes Bedula, Gray.

3 The fishes of Ceylon have been so little worked out, that none of this family
have been as yet recorded from that island ; but such is by no means conclusive
evidence that they do not live there. I suspect Nandus marmoratus will be
found in the waters of the plains, and some species of Pris¢olepis in those of the
hills. Whilst writing this paper I discovered in the Indian Museum a collec-
tion of Ceylon fishes made by Dr. Kelaart, amongst which are several common to
the continent of India.

* Includes Bedula, Gray.

5 Includes :—Catopra, Bleeker ; Paranandus, Day.

6 By Malabar I do not understand the districts so designated in Bloch’s time ;
TI only mean the western coast of India from below Mangalore. In former days
the lower portion of the Coromandel coast was so termed; and even now the
natives of Madras designate those residing to the south as Malabars.

140 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

3. Sctaxipm. Genus 1. Sciena'.
a. Fresh waters of India and Burma to the Malay arehi-
pelago.
b. Marine species found also in Africa and the Malay archi-
pelago. This family does not appear to be represented in
‘the Red Sea, doubtless due to the water being too clear,
and no large rivers opening along its coasts.

4. Goriipm. Genus 1. Gobius 2, Artedi.

a. Fresh waters of India, Ceylon, Malay archipelago, and
Africa.

b. Marine, in India, Ceylon, Malay archipelago, and Africa.
Genus 2. Sicydiwms, Cuv. & Val.
a. Fresh waters of Canara‘ and Jems to the Malay archi-
pelago and beyond.
Genus 38. Periophthalmus, Schn.
Larger rivers of Bengal and Burma to the Malay archipelago
and beyond, also West Africa.

1 Includes :—Johnius, Bloch; Corvina and Stellifer, Cuv. ; Bola, pt., H. B. ;
Leiostomus, Cuy. & Val. ; Onraetins Pall. ; Homoprion, Holb. ; Amblyodon (Raf.),
Gill; Chetlotrema, v. Tsch.; Genyonemus, Plagioscion, Scienops, Bairdiella,
Haploinodotus, Rhinoscion, and Ophioscion, Gill; Diplolepis, Steind.; Pseudo-
sciena, Bleeker.

2 For synonyms see ‘ Fishes of India,’ p. 282.

3 Includes :—Sicyopterus, Gill; Catylopus, Guich. ; Sicydiops and Microsicy-
dium, Bleeker.

4 The following species was obtained from the fresh water of Canara, but.
having been mislaid, was omitted from the ‘ Fishes of India.’ As, however, its
existence is of importance in the geographical distribution, I describe it here.

SICYDIUM GRISEUM, 0. sp.
B. iv. D. 6/5, P. 17, V. 6, A. 11, C. 13, L. 1. 80, L. tr. ca, 25.

Length of head 54, of caudal fin 63, height of body 6 in the total length. Eyes,
diameter 4 inthe length of the head, rather above 1 diameter from the
end of snout, and 14 apart. Body subcylindrical ; upper surface of the
head flat, and its greatest breadth equalling its width. Cleft of mouth ex-
tending to below the first third of the eye. Lower jaw horizontally placed.
Lips thick, the upper with a coarsely fringed edge: snout not overhanging
the mouth. No barbels. Zee¢h—in the upper jaw, small, closely set, and
implanted in the gums in a single row: in the lower jaw the outer row ho-
rizontal ; posterior to them, and above the symphysis, are two strong re-
curved canines. /%ins—dorsal spines filiform and projecting beyond the
membrane; caudal rounded. Scales strongly ctenoid, of irregular sizes and
shapes, and in irregular rows; they extend forwards to nearly as far as the
eyes; none on the head. Colowrs—brownish, with eight or nine rings of a

TNDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 141

Genus 4. Eleotris!, Gronovius.
Large rivers of India, Africa, and the Malay archipelago.

5. RHYNCHOBDELLIDA. Genus 1. Rhynchobdella, Cuv. & Val.
From Syria through Sind, India, Ceylon, Burma, to the Malay
archipelago.
Genus 2. Mastacembelus, Cuv. & Val.
From Syria through Sind, India, Ceylon, Burma, to the Malay
archipelago ; also West Africa.

6. Mucitips. Genus 1. MMugil, Artedi.
a. Fresh waters of Sind, N.W. provinces, Bengal, Assam,
Burma.

6. Marine, to the Malay archipelago and Africa.

7, OputocersaLipe®. Genus 1. Ophiocephalus, Bloch.
Fresh waters of Beluchistan, Afghanistan, throughout India
and Ceylon to the Malay archipelago.
Genus 2. Channa, Gronov,
Ceylon and China.

8. Lasyrintuicr. Genus 1. Anabas, Cuvier.
India and Ceylon to the Malay archipelago.
Genus 2. Polyacanthus, Cuv. & Val.
Canara, Southern India, Ceylon, to the Malay archipelago.
Genus 3. Osphromenus*, Lacép.
Eastern Bengal, Assam, to the Malay archipelago.
Genus 4. Trichogaster*, Bloch.
Sind, through India (c except Madras and south of the Kistna,
Malabar, and Ceylon) to Burma and Siam.

9. CuromipEs. Genus 1. Htroplus, Cuv. & Val.*
Western and Southern India, also Ceylon.

If we examine the foregoing 9 families and 19 genera, we

darker tint surrounding the body and wider than the ground-colour; fins
dark, most deeply so at their edges.

Hab. South Canara, where I procured two specimens in fresh water, the longest
being 3 inches.

1 For genera included see ‘ Fishes of India,’ p. 309.

2 Includes :—Trichopus, Lacép.; Ctenops, M‘Clell.; Trichopsis, Kner.

3 Includes Colisa, Cuy. & Val.
Includes Pseudetroplus, Bleeker.

LENN, JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XITT. 13

142 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

cannot help observing that they do not give one single instance
of a freshwater genus being restricted to India and Africa, whilst
the majority are common to the Indian and Malayan faune. In
short, they may be divided as follows:—Of the 19 freshwater
genera, 15 reach the Malay archipelago; of the remaining 4
genera, Badis exists in Burma, and may extend to Siam and
beyond, Trichogaster is found in Siam, whilst Channa is common
to Ceylon and China. The remaining genus, Ltroplus, is con-
fined to Western and Southern India, also Ceylon; whilst recently
Dr. Bleeker has discovered that a nearly allied genus (Paretrop-
lus, Bleeker) is present in Madagascar. This island, however,
may or may not originally have been joined on to Africa. It has
been observed that “ Madagascar, divided from Africa by a deep
channel 300 miles wide, possesses so many peculiar features as to
indicate separation at a very remote antiquity, or even to render
it doubtful whether the two countries have ever been absolutely
united ” (Wallace, ‘ Malay Archipelago,’ ii. p. 11).

Out of the foregoing 19 freshwater genera existing in India,
only 3 have as yet been recorded from Africa, but 15 from the
Malay archipelago, whilst all the marine genera common to Africa, _
and India extend to the Malay archipelago.

It may therefore be fairly assumed that amongst the freshwater
Acanthopterygian fishes of India and Ceylon a well-marked
Malayan character is present, whereas an African element is but .
slightly apparent.

Having thus briefly disposed of the families and genera, it be-
comes necessary to show where the various species reside, and the
range within which they are limited, in order to attempt to evolve
whether any, and, if so, what subregions exist.

Fam. Percin..
Genus AMBASSIS,
1. A. NANA}, Ham. Buch.

_ Sind, the entire plains of India (excluding the Malabar coast and Assam),
to Burma.

9. A. RANGA?, Ham. Buch.

1 Includes :—Chanda phula and C. bagoda, Ham. Buch.; Ambassis oblonga,

Cuv. & Val.; A. indica, M‘Clelland.
2 Includes:— Chanda lala, Ham. Buch. (young); C. ruconius, M‘Clelland ;
Ambassis Barlovi, Sykes; A. alta, Cuy. & Val.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 143

. Sind, the entire plains of India (excluding the Malabar coast and Assam),
to Burma. j

3. A. BACULIS, Ham. Buch.
From the Punjab to Bengal, Orissa, and Burma.

4. A. THomasst, Day. d
Western coast of India, from South Canara, certainly as low as
Cochin.

5. A. Dayt', Bleeker.
Malabar coast of India, especially its more southern portions.

The representatives of this genus in India are divisible into
three classes :—

A. Marine.—1. A. Commersonii, Cuv. & Val., from the Red
Sea and east coast of Africa, throughout the Indian Ocean. 2.
A, interrupta, Bleeker, from the Andamans to the Malay archi-
pelago. 3. A. gymnocephalus*, Lacép., from the east coast of
Africa, through the seas of India, to the Malay archipelago. 4.
A. urotenia*, Bleeker, from (? Red Sea,) Seychelles and Anda-
mans to the Malay archipelago.

Out of the foregoing 4 marine species, 3 appear to be common
to both the African and Malayan faunz, and 1 to the Andamans
as well as to the Malay archipelago.

B. Estuary.—This comprises species concerning which it is
very difficult to decide whether they mostly prefer brackish water
or extend their range downwards to the sea or upwards into
the rivers. Thus we have 4. nalua, H. B., which appears to fre-
quent the entire coast of India, the Andamans, and the Malay
archipelago.

C. Freshwater.—There are 5 species at present recognized: 2
are generally distributed throughout Sind, India, and Burma, ex-
cluding the Malabar coast; 1 appears to be absent from Sind
and Southern India, but is otherwise distributed as the other two
species. The remaining 2 species are found from Canara down
the western or Malabar coast of India.

The deduction from the foregoing must be that South Canara
and Malabar possess distinct species of this genus from those
distributed elsewhere throughout Sind, India, and Burma;

1 Includes ?.A. malabaricus, Jerdon.

2 Includes :—A. Dussumiert, C.& V.; Priopsis argyrozona, C.& V.; Ambassis

Vachelli, Peters.
3 Includes 7.4. denticulata, Klunzinger.

13*

144 “MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

whereas those in the latter wide extent of country appear to be
generally diffused. The Malabar’ are local races, whereas the
Hindustan forms are widely spread.

Family Nanpip ®.
Genus Bavts.

1. B. Bucuananl, Bleeker.

From the N.W. Provinces to Bengal, Orissa, and Western India ; also
found in Assam and Burma certainly as high as Mandalay.

2. B. pario, Ham. Buch.

Northern portions of Bengal, Behar, and along the wes tern ghauts of
India.

Genus Nanpvus.

N. MARMORATUS?, Cur. § Val.
Throughout the whole of India and Burma (excluding Ceylon and Sind)
to Siam.

Genus PrIstoerpts.

1. P. MARGINATUS *, Jerdon.
Western ghauts of India and rivers along their bases.

2. P. MALABARICUS, Giinther.
The same localities as the last, of which it may be merely a variety.

3. P. rascratus*+, Bleeker.
Fresh waters of Burma, Siam, and the Malay archipelago.

The species of the three Nandioid genera found in India give the
following results :—Wandus is generally distributed except in Sind
and elevated regions, extending eastward at least to Siam. It is
a widely diffused fish. Badzs shows species (perhaps the two are
varieties of one) extending from the plains on to moderately ele-
vated hills, and having a wide distribution to the east. Pristole-
pis is more confined to hilly regions or their bases in India proper,
or, rather, Malabar; and then a wide hiatus exists, as it has not
been discovered nearer than Burma, where it is found in the
plains. There is, however, a slight difference in these fishes, which

1 [T have omitted allusion to 4. thermalis, C. & V., from the warm springs of
Cania, in Ceylon, and which may be one of those mentioned as found in India,
Anyhow it proves the existence of this genus in the fresh waters of Ceylon,

2 Includes Bedula Hamiltonii, pt., Gray & Hardw,

3 Includes Catspra tetracanthus, Ginther,

4 Includes Cafopra siamensis, Giinther,

.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. j 145

should be remarked. The Malabar form or forms have villiform
teeth on the vomer; those in Burmaand to the east have globular
ones,

Fam. Scranivz.
Genus ScLzna.

S. co1ror', Ham. Buch.

Throughout the larger rivers of India and Burma, descending to the sea
at certain seasons. It has been taken in the Malayan peninsula by
Dr. Cantor.

Estuary and marine examples of this genus are found both
along the coasts of Africa, through the sea of India, to the Malay
archipelago and beyond.

The following species inhabit the seas and estuaries of India-:—

1. Sciena Bleekeri, Day, Beluchistan to Bombay. 2. S. miles?,
Lacép., seas of Africa to the Malay archipelago. 3. S. Vogleri,
Bleeker, seas of India to the Malay archipelago. 4. S. sina, Cuv.
& Val., from Beluchistan through the seas of India to the Malay
archipelago. 5. S. cuja%, Ham. Buch., estuaries of the Ganges
aud Japan. 6. S. axillaris, Cuv. & Val., seas of India. 7. 8.
albida*, Cuy. & Val., seas and estuaries of India and Burma. 8.
S. diacanthus°, Lacép., seas and estuaries of India to the Malay
archipelago and China. 9. S. aneus’, Bloch, seas of India to
the Malay archipelago. 10. S. maculata’, Bl. Schun., seas of India.
11. S. Belengeri”, Cuv. & Val., seas of India to the Malay archi-
pelago and beyond. 12. S. semiluctuosa, Cuy. & Val., from Be-

1 Sciena (Corvina) nasus, Steind., from Calcutta, is probably this species ;
also Johnius Dussumieri, Cantor, from Pinang, the Malayau peninsula, and
Singapore.

2 Includes :—Labrus tella khatchelee, Russell; Corvina soldado, Cantor; C.
Wolfti, sampitensis, and celcbica, Bleeker ; C. dorsalis, Peters, from the Mozain-
bique through the seas of India to the Malay archipelago.

3 Scienoides asper, Blyth (young).

4 Includes:—Bola coitor, Ham. Buch. ; Johnius anei, Blyth; Corvina Neilli,
Day.

° Includes:—Labrus nella hatchelee, Russell; Bola chaptis, H. B.; Johnius
cataleus and Corvina platycephala, Cuy. & Val.; Sciena maculata, Gray & .
Hardw. ; Johnius Valenciennei, Byd.

© Tneludes Ofolithus macrophthalmus, Bleeker.

7 Includes Perca sari-kullah, Russ.

® Includes :—Sparus, Russell, fig. exi.; ? Corvina lobata, Cuy, & Val.; ©.
Kuhiii, Cuy. & Val.

146 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

luchistan through the seas of India to China. 13. 8. glaucus,
Day, seas of India. 14. S. carutta', Cuv. & Val., seas of India to
the Malay archipelago. 15. S. ossews, Day, Malabar coast of
India.

The foregoing 15 species of marine and estuary Scienas can be
divided thus :—6 as yet recorded only from India; 8 India to the
Malay archipelago, or China, or Japan; 1 from India and Africa
to the Malay archipelago. But the fact must not be overlooked
that there has been no worker along the African coast as Bleeker
has worked the fish-fauna of the Malay archipelago.

Fam. GoBiips.

Genus Gosius.

G. ciuris*, Ham. Buch.

Fresh water throughout the plains of India, Sind, Ceylon, and Burma to
the Malay archipelago and east coast of Africa; also found along the
eoast.

The following species inhabit the seas and estuaries, some as-

cending up tidal rivers :—

1. G. bynoensis*, Richardson, sea at Andamans and Malay
archipelago. 2. G. sexfasciatus, Day, sea, Madras. 3. G. bre-
virostris, Ginther, sea at Kurrachee in Sind, also China. 4. G.
griseus, Day, estuaries, Madras. 5. G. polynema, Bleeker, seas of
India and Malay archipelago. 6. G. macrostoma, Steind., sea,
Bombay. 7. G. viridipunctatus*, Cuy..& Val., from Sind through
the seas of India to the Malay archipelago. 8. G. ocellatus,
Day, sea, Sind and Bombay. 9. G. Masoni, Day, sea, Bombay.
10. G. eyanomos *, Bleeker, seas of India to the Malay archipelago.
Ll. G. criniger >, Cuv. & Val., seas of east coast of Africa, India,
to the Malay archipelago. 12. G. puntang’, Bleeker, estuaries

1 Includes S. carouna, C. & V.

* Includes:—G. korah mottah, koku, and bullee kokah, Russell; G. kurpah,
Sykes; G. Aokius, catebus, and Kora, Cuv. & Val.; G. platycephalus, Peters ;
G. spectabilis, Giinther.

2 Includes G. sfethophihalmus, Bleeker, :

3 Tncludes:—G, nuna mottah, Russell; G, venenatus, Cuv. & Val.; G. chlo-
rostigind, Bleeker,

4 Includes G, setosws, Jerdon (not Cuy. & Val.).

5 Includes:—G. brevifilts, Cuv. & Val.; G. Kreffzz, Steind.; G. caninus,
Gimther and Playfair, Fish. Zanz. (not. Cuy & Val.),

® Includes G, andamanensis, Day.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 147

and the sea from the Andamans to the Malay archipelago. 13.
G. Bleekeri, Day, estuaries, Madras. 14. G. zonalternans, Day,
brackish water, Madras. 15. G. biocellatus’, Cuv. & Val., coasts
of Sind, India to the Malay archipelago. 16. G. madraspatensis,
Day, estuaries, Madras. 17. G. Weilli, Day, sea and estuaries,
Madras. 18. G. melanosticta, Day, estuaries of Madras. 19. G.
cristatus, Day, coasts of India. 20. G. tentacularis”, Cuv. & Val.,
seas of India to the Malay archipelago. 21. G. acutipennis’,
Cuv. & Val., seas of India to the Andamans. 22. G. striatus,
Day, estuaries of Madras and Canara, ascending rivers. 23. G.
personatus*, Bleeker, estuaries and seas of India to the Malay
archipelago. 24. G. malabaricus, Day, estuaries of Madras, and
ascending rivers in Malabar. 25. G. planifrons, Day, sea, Bom-
bay. 26. G. elegans, Cuv. & Val., sea, Bombay and Malay archi-
pelago. 27. G. ornatus’, Riipp., Red Sea, seas of India, to the
Malay archipelago. 28. G. gutwm, Ham. Buch., estuaries of the
Hooghly. 29. G. albo-punctatus*, Cuy. & Val., Red Sea, seas of
India, Andamans, to Feejee and beyond. 30. G. semidoliatus,
Cuy. & Val., Red Sea, Andamans. 31. G. magniloquus, Day, sea,
Madras. 32. G. planiceps, Day, sea, Madras. 33. G. sadanun-
dio, Ham. Buch., estuaries of Ganges and sea along the coast of
Burma. 34. G. melanosoma’, Bleeker, Andamans and Nicobars
to the Malay archipelago. 35. G. nunus, Ham. Buch., estuaries
of the Hooghly and Burma, ascending rivers.

The foregoing 35 species of marine and estuary Gobies (Gobius)
can be divided thus :—21 as yet only recorded from India; 11 com-
mon to India and the Malay archipelago; 2 common to India
and China or beyond; 1 common to Africa, India, and the Malay
archipelago.

1 Includes G. celebicus, Cuv. & Val.; G. sublitus, Cantor.

2 Includes G. macrurus, Bleeker.

3 Includes G, setosus, Cuy. & Val. 4

* Includes :—G. melanocephalus and grammepomus, Bleeker ; G. litturatus,
Steind.; G. Stoliczke, Day. he

5 Includes :—G. ventralis, Cuv. & Val.; G. interstinctus, Richardson ; G. pe-
riophthalmoides, Bleeker. 7

® G. punctillatus, Ripp.; G. Padangensis, Bleeker ; G. breviceps, Blyth.

7 Includes G. gobiodon, Day. _

148 MR. F, DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

Genus SIcYyDIUM.

1. S. Fascratum, Day.
Fresh water of Burma.

2. S. eriseuM, Day.
Fresh water of Canara.

Genus PERIOPHTHALMUS.

P. ScHuosseERi', Pallas.
This little fish is found in fresh water and alse in estuaries from Bengal
to the Malay archipelago.

The following species likewise habits the sea and estuaries -—
P. Koelreuteri*, Pallas. It extends from India to the Malay
archipelago.

Genus ELrorris.
E. rusca®, Bl. Schn.

This fish is found far inland in fresh water ; it also inhabits the
west coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay archipelago and
beyond.

The following species of this genus inhabit the seas and estua-
ries, some ascending tidal rivers :—1. EL. macrolepidota, Bloch, said
to have come from India. 2. EH. muralis, Cuv. & Val., seas of
India to the Malay archipelago. 3. L. sexguttata, Cuv. & Val.,
Ceylon to the Malay archipelago. 4. EH. feliceps, Blyth, Anda-
mans. 5. EH. macrodon, Bleeker, estuaries of Lower Bengal and
Burma. 6. ZH. porocephalus*, Cuv. & Val., seas and estuaries of
Burma, and the Andamans to the Malay archipelago. 7. Z.
ophiocephalus*, Cuv. & Val., coasts of Africa, Andamans, to the
Malay archipelago. 8. H. cavifrons, Blyth; Andamans. 9. #.
canarensis, Day, Canara. 10. £. lutea, Day, Andamans. 11. £.
seintillans, Blyth, Akyab and Andamans. 12. £. litoralis, Day,

1 Includes :—G. tredecem-radiatus, septem-radiatus, and novem-radiatus,
Ham. Buch.; Periophthalmus Freycineti, Cuv. & Val.

2 Includes :—Periophthalmus papilio, Bl. Schn.; P. argentilineatus, C.& V.;
P. kalolo, Less.; P. modestus,-Cantor ; P. dipus, Bleeker ; P. fuscatus, Blyth.

3 Includes :—Cobitis pacijica, Forst. ; Cheilodipterus culius, Ham. Buch. ; Hleo-
tris nigra, Quoy & Gaim.; E. mauritianus, Bennett ; EL. incerta, Blyth; EF. soaresi,
Playfair.

+ Includes Eleotris Cantorts, Giinther.

5 Includes :—£. margaritacea, Cuy. & Val. ; E. viridis, Bleeker.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 149

Andamans. 13. H. caperata’, Cantor, coasts of India, Andamans,
to the Malay archipelago. 14. H. butis?, Ham. Buch., seas and
estuaries of India to the Malay archipelago. 15. E. amboinen-
sis*, Bleeker, seas and estuaries of India to the Malay archipe-
lago. |

The foregoing 15 species of marine and estuary Eleotres can be
divided thus:—8 as yet only recorded from Indian localities ; 6
common to India and the Malay archipelago ; 1 common to India,
Africa, and the Malay archipelago.

Fam. RUYNCHOBDELLIDA.

Genus RHYNCHOBDELLA.

R. acuLteata‘, Bloch.
Estuaries, brackish waters, and deltas of large rivers throughout the
Indian (? Ceylon) district, and extending to Borneo and beyond.

Genus MasracreMBELUS.

1. M. unitcoLor, Cuv. § Val.
Fresh waters of Burma to Java.

2. M. zesrinus, Blyth.
Fresh waters of Burma.

3. M. pancaxus®, Ham. Buch.
Bombay Presidency (inland), deltas of large rivers (excluding those of the
Malabar coast and Madras south of the Kistna), also Assam.

4, M. armatus’, Lacép.
This freshwater fish is found throughout the Indian region re-
ferred to, both on the plains and even the hills; it extends to
China.

5. M. guenruert’, Day.
Fresh waters along the Malabar coast of India.

The 5 species show the following distribution :—2 throughout

1 Includes #. kotlomatodon, Bleeker.

2 Includes :—£. humeralis, Cuv. & Val.; EL. prismatica, Bleeker.

3 Includes H. buccata, Blyth.

* Includes :—Rhynchobdella orientalis and aral, Bl. Schn.; Lv. ocellata, Cuy. &
Val.; Mastacembelus pentophthalmus, Gronov.

5 Includes Mastacembelus punctatus, Cuy. & Val.

5 Includes:—M. ponticerianus and marmoratus, Cuy. & Val.; Macrognathus
caudatus, undulatus, and Hamiltonia, M‘Clelland.

7 Tneludes ?Mastacembelus malabaricus, Jerdon.

150 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

India to China; 1 India, excluding the west and south coasts,
also Assam; 1 locally in the Malabar coast ; 1 locally in Burma.

Family Mu @riip x.

Genus Mvuatt.

1. M. corsuLa, Ham. Buch.

Rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burma.

2. M. Hamittoni, Day.

Rivers of Burma.

3. M. cascasia, Ham. Buch.

Ganges and Jumna rivers ; also in the Brahmaputra, in Assani.

Of the foregoing three species of Mullets! from the fresh waters
of India and Burma, none has been recognized either in Africa or
the Malay archipelago.

Following out the sea and estuary species of this genus would
lead to no conclusions. Mallets extend their range through vast
regions ; and those found in India and Africa appear, with but
few exceptions, to be also present in the Malay archipelago. It
is curious, however, that the freshwater species in India have
strongly etenoid scales, such in the marine forms being usually
eycloid or feebly ctenoid.

Fam. OPHIOCEPHALID®.

Genus OPHIOCEPHALUS.

1. O. MARULIUS*, Ham. Buch.
Fresh waters throughout India and Ceylon to China.

2. O. LEUcoPUNeTATUS’*, Syfes.
Deccan, Coromandel and western coasts of India, China.

3. O. PSEUDOMARULIUS, Giinther.

? Mysore, probably a hybrid.

4. O. parca’, Ham. Buch.

Large rivers of Bengal, N.W. Provinces, and Assam.

1 Great errors occur m the distribution of Indian fishes, due to mistakes ori-
ginating with European museum-naturalists, who, transposing labels, still
adhere to their original statements. Thus M. xepalensis, Giinther, is evidently
a skin of M, dussumieri, Cuy. & Val., erroneously labelled Nepal instead of
Calcutta.

? Includes ? Ophiocephalus Theophrasti,Val., and O. aurelineatus, Day (young).

3 Includes Russell’s pl. 173, O. grandinosus, C. & V.

“ Includes ?0, nigricans, C. & V., and O. amphibius, M‘Clelland.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 151

5. O. micropreres', Cuv. & Val.

Canara and Malabar, also Siam to the Malay archipelago.

This fish is very peculiar in its colour; having obtained one
at Cochin of a bright scarlet with two black bands along the body,
in 1863, I naturally concluded it could not be the immature of
O. micropeltes, described in the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes of the British
Museum’ as “ brown with lighter longitudinal stripes.” Return-
ing to that coast ten years subsequently, I discovered the O. mi-
cropeltes at Trichoor, about 40 miles north of Cochin ; and a few
months subsequently I was enabled to collect in Canara adult
and young. At Berlin, and subsequently at Dr. Bleeker’s, I have
convinced myself of their identity. But it is very peculiar that
this fish has such a local distribution in India, reappearing in Siam.

6. O. srriatus’, Bloch.

Fresh waters of the plains in the Indian and Ceylon region, Burma, to
the Malay archipelago and beyond.

7. O. stEWARTII, Playfair.

Cachar and Assam.

8. O. Gacuua’, Ham. Buch.

Fresh waters of the plains, and also some of the hilly ranges of Belu-
chistan, Afghanistan, the Indian and Ceylon region, Burma, and the
fresh waters of the Andamans.

9. O. puncratus*, Bloch.

Fresh waters of the plains in the Indian and Ceylon region, Burma.

The 9 foregoing species show the following distribution :—2
throughout India to the Malay archipelago or China; 1 the
Indian region, including Ceylon, Burma, and the Andamans; 1
the Indian region, including Ceylon and Burma; 1 Deccan,
Western and Coromandel coast and China; 1 perhaps Mysore;
1 large rivers of Bengal, N.W. Provinces, and Assam; 1 Malabar
coast, then absent until Siam, whence it extends to the Malay
archipelago; 1 Cachar and Assam.

The distribution of the Ophiocephali desérves particular atten-
tion, one species, identical with O. gachua of India, being found
in the Andamans. Reasons will be subsequently adduced favour-

1 Includes O. serpentinus, C. & V., and O. diplogramme, Day (young).

2 Includes O. wrahl, Lacép., and O. chena, Ham. Buch.

3 Includes :—O. kora molta, Russell; O. awrantiacus, Ham. Buch.; O. fuscus,
marginatus, and limbatus, Cuv. & Val.; O. montanus, M‘Clelland ; O. Kelaartii,
Giuther.

* Includes :—O. karrouvei, Lacép.; O. latus, Ham. Buch. ; O. indicus, M‘Clel-
land; O. affints, Giinther. Fresh waters of the plains of the Indian region and
Ceylon.

152 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

ing the belief that the freshwater fishes of the Andamans and
Nicobars are identical with those of India. But as freshwater fishes
cannot live in the sea, they are unable to pass from the mainland
to distant islands; consequently there must at some anterior
period have been a land connexion to make the contmuity of the
fresh waters possible. Admit such to be a fact, there arises the
question, Are the aborigines to be considered African whilst the
freshwater fish are Indian? or are we to look to the remnants of
the aboriginal races of the hills of Hindustan to find the relatives
of these people? Does not the presence of these Indian fishes at
the Andamans afford another link in the evidence that those coral
islands are sinking ? for were they rising from the ocean, how could
we expect to find Ophiocephalus gachua, H. B., and Haplochilus
panchax, H. B., in existence in their fresh waters ? Introduced the
latter one could not have been; for it to cross the intervening seas
is an impossibility,—leaving us to believe either in a former land
connexion or a new creation, and that not of new species but of
fishes identical with those on the mainland of India. Again the O.
leucopunctatus appears in the Deccan and around the coasts, reap-
pearing in China. But the O. micropeltes is still more extraordi-
nary: it appears to be confined to Canara and Malabar nearly
as far south as Cochin; then it is entirely absent until Siam is
reached, whence it extends eastwards.

Genus CHANNA.
C. oRIENTALIS?, Bl. Schn.
This species has only been found in Ceylon. It is very similar
to Ophiocephalus gachua, which is frequently found with one of
its ventrals deficient.

Fam. LABYRINTHICI.

Genus ANABAS.
- A. SCANDENS? Dald.
Throughout Bengal, Assam, throughout Southern India, the Malabar
coast, and Ceylon; also Burma to the Malay archipelago and beyond.

Genus Poryacanruus.
1. P. cupanus, Cuv. & Val.
Southern India on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts.
' Includes Channa indica, Gronov. ed. Gray.
2 Includes :—Anthias testudineus, Bloch ; Cojus cobojius, Ham. Buch. ; Anabas
spinosus, Gray & Hardw. ; A. trifoliatus, Kaup; <A. oligolepis, Ginther.

INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 153

Oye Ve SIGNATUS, Giinther.
Ceylon and Java.

Genus OsPHROMENUS.

O. nosiuts, M‘Clelland.
Rivers of N.E. Bengal and Assam, extending to those of the hills.

Genus TRICHOGASTER.

1. T. couna’, Ham. Buch.
Deltas of the Ganges and its branches, and the Brahmaputra.

2. T. taBtosus, Day.
Irawaddi.

3. T. FAscratTus?’, BI. Schn.

Coromandel coast of India as far south as the river Kistna, Sind, Punjab,
N.W. Provinces, estuaries of the Ganges, Orissa and Assam, also
throughout Burma.

4. T. pauius’, Ham. Buch.

Sind, Jumna, and Ganges rivers as low as Calcutta.

Fam. Ci ROMIDES.

Genus Erroprus.

1. E. canarensis’, Day.
Fresh waters of South Canara, not erienine down Malabar.

2. E. MACULATUS’, Bloch.
From Canara down the Malabar coast, Madras, and Mysore.

3. E. suRATENSIS*, Bloch.

From Canara down the western coast, extending inland on to the Ghauts ;

along the Coromandel coast as high as the Kistna; also Ceylon.

Tt is now necessary to examine the foregoing species as a whole,
showing where they are found, and to where they extend, as only
by doing so can one ascertain the tendencies shown towards
either the African or Malayan fish-fauna.

1 Includes ?Zrichopodus sota, Ham. Buch.

* Includes 7. colisa, bejeus, and cotrd, Ham. Buch., and Colisa ponticeriana,
Cuy. & Val.

3 Includes ‘Colisa unicolor, Cuy. & Val.

15-1
*D22|/8 A 1.1.81, L. tr. 22. Yellowish buff, with about 8 vertical
bluish-black paras See ‘ Fishes of India,’ p, 414, pl. 89. fig. 5

> Includes Chetodon iakaitsel, Lacép., and Ktroplus aapucht Cuy. & Val.
* Includes Ktroplus meleagris, C. & V.

154 MR. F. DAY ON INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES.

Indian region* to Africa and the Malay archipelago...... 2
' to the Malay archipelago..................... 5
¥ (excluding Malabar and Assam) to Burma 2
3 (excluding Malabar, Assam, and ike, 1
Fi (excluding Ceylon and Sind) to Burma.. 1
Fe Ceylonvand (Burma saeco osteo eee tere 1
5 Ceylon, Burma, and Andamans ......... 1

Ss (excluding Southern India and Malabar
rSCOTEIS| nee ror Eee EReL Im ONE Is BEE 6 2

N.W. Provinces and regions to the south, Western India,
Assam Vandoburmea yt. a 0. ens wee Be!
Bengal, Burma, and Malay archipelago ..................... ch
Burma, Siam, and Malay archipelago ...................0e-+- 2
figl BUDS OT Wanner Missa upine RN area rte RIES ors Sd aca Yee 4
IBengalvand (Burmayy ee. aacesscs-se ete soe ee 1
Jodo Lereinver ll CHAE ISSENIN “oooasdaasusdosasscouiassuseadsodoce nse: 1
Cachar and Assam fice. nosegaaud asc come ee eee 1
Sind Jiumnavand"G aneesyscre--n.ce ose eee ee eee 1
Ganges: (dumma, anid sAtssamiyer sare ade eee eee ea ee ree eee 3
Deccan, coasts of India, China ......... WER a clecihebie ds eRe 1
Western coast of India, Siam, Malay archipelago ........ it

Western coastrol lindiate yee te eee eee 5°

(OB NEEIAE er llg MNe ile lec iainicio Ram RC HARNG Quid Antibes Badd 0 2
Southern India and Malabar eet oh okt ke so eae eee 3
Weylom Paras see.rse.c se Feed ac Peah beg NOI a RN ee 1
Ceylonandava © ee eins ESAS erate PE Mind: 1
WEST oo a onyee eotehdle Soe 28 ch tcloeed ind oid ee 1

It is remarkable that I am unable to find a single Acantho-
pterygian freshwater fish restricted to Africa and India: there are
two found in both regions; but they also extend to the Malay
archipelago.

Although out of the reencine 45 species only 2 are residents
of Africa, we find 9 of them in the Malay archipelago which are
also in India proper, and 2 coexistent in Burma and the Malay
archipelago. Another species is common to Ceylon and Java.
Or they may be thus divided :—

_ Restricted to the Indian region ..........................05. 30
Indian region to the Malay archipelago .................. 9
Burma to the Malay archipelago ................0..0.c00 00 2
Ceylon to the Malay archipelago .....................0.0... 1

* This is intended to mean India, Sind, and the Punjab only.

MR. R. B. SHARPE ON A NEW HORNBILL. 155

Of the marine and estuary species, I find :—common to India,
Africa, and the Malay Archipelago... 5

Abigieny onlin etc pitts. oen8 behest 1
Malay archipelago. ..................... 30
dindiay Gilly as ee acock “Gute ee ee 35

Acanthopterygian forms of freshwater fishes in India are most
numerous in maritime districts, next in the deltas of large rivers,
whilst they decrease as we proceed far inland. The Himalayas
appear to be their boundary ; but on some of the lower ranges the
ubiquitous Ophiocephalus gachwa manages to exist. It is remark-
able, however, that the family having the widest distribution is
that of the amphibious Ophiocephalide, whilst it also is the one in
which true spines are the least developed.

I propose deferring my general remarks until after the com-
pletion of my analysis of the remaining orders of the freshwater
fishes, which must be done by following out the range of each in-
dividual species. By such means only can we fairly consider it
proved whether the African or Malayan fish-fauna most predomi-
nates in India: it will show us distinctly the relationship of Ceylon
to Southern India; and lkewise by such the former continuity
between India and the Andamans and Nicobars may be proved
or disproved.

—__

Description of a new Hornbill from the Island of Panay. By
R. Bowpter Suarpe, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.8., &c., Senior Assistant,
Zoological Department, British Museum.

{Read December 21, 1876.]

In my paper on the birds of the Philippine Islands, which the
Society is about to publish in the ‘ Transactions,’ I have noticed an
apparently new species of Hornbill from the Island of Panay.; but
as Mr. Elliot is at the present time engaged on a Monograph
of this family of birds (Bucerotide), I have permitted him to
figure this interesting species; and as it is possible that the part
of his Monograph containing a description of the bird may appear
before my own memoir in the ‘ Linnean Transactions,’ I think it
but due to Professor Steere, myself, and the Society, herewith to
furnish a short description.
Professor Steere has given me the following notes respecting
its habits :—“ I shot this Hornbill on the highest ridge of the

156 DR. J. ANDERSON ON THE HABITS OF HORNBILLIS.

mountains west of Ilo-Ilo. This is the only place where any of
the virgin forest is left; and there alone I saw these birds. They
were not very rare; but I could only get a single specimen, as
they flew so high in the trees that my gun could ‘scarcely reach
them.”

Although closely allied to C. cassidix, it ditfers in several par-
ticulars, as will. be seen by the following description. General
colour above and below greenish black ; wings uniform with back ;
tail black for the basal third, fulvous or light chestnut for the re-
mainder, with a tolerably broad greenish band ; head and neck all
round dark chestnut, inclining to fulvous above the eye and on
the ear-coverts ; bill red, the casque deeply grooved.

This interesting bird I propose to call Craniorrhinus waldent,
after Lord Walden (The Marquis of Tweeddale), who has, by his
excellent memoir on the ornithology of the Philippine Islands,
rendered the study of these birds an easier task than could pos-
sibly have been the case three years ago.

On the Habits of Hornbills, being extract of a letter by Dr. Jonn
AnpeErson, F.L.S., Indian Museum, Calcutta, to Dr. J.
Morie.

[Read December 21, 1876.]
Indian Museum, Calcutta,
November 24, 1876.

In the Zoological Gardens here we have two Hornbills of generic

distinctness, Hydrocissa albirostris and Aceros subrujficollis, Blyth.

The other morning, on visiting the aviary in which these birds are

kept, I was astonished to find the Aceros subruficollis tossing

about and catching with its bill a specimen of the Little Lori-
keet; Loriculus vernalis, which it ultimately swallowed head
foremost. Since then I have had this bird regularly given one

Sparrow a day, which it takes with evident gusto. The way in

which it tosses the bird about, passing it through its bill from side

to side, from the head to the feet, seems to me to indicate that it
does so to break the bones. Iteven goes carefully over each leg
of the bird to be swallowed; and the dexterity with which it
pitches the bird about without letting it fall is truly remarkable.

The bird having undergone sufficient tossing and bill-crushing, is

then swallowed head foremost.

MB. W. D. CROTCH ON THE LEMMING. 157

Hydrocissa albirostris treats Sparrows in the same manner.
The day before yesterday {letter being dated Nov. 24, 1876] I
found Aceros subruficolls discussing a rare Lory. I don’t think
that the habit is abnormal; for both birds manifest it and try to
catch the smaller birds as they fly past. They are also very well
cared for; and particular attention is paid to their food.

I am also rather astonished to find that Hylobates hoolock [the
Gibbon] has a decided partiality for living birds, eating small
living birds with avidity in the same way that Nycticebus tardi-
gradus [the Slow Loris] does, seizing the bird by the body and
always commencing at the head.

But I could dilate to the extent of some pages on the food and
habits of Monkeys.

Further Remarks on the Lemming.
By W. Durpa Crorcu, Esq., F.L.S.

[Read November 2, 1876.]
(Pxate XIII.)

THERE are three questions in the natural history of the Lemming
which still require elucidation, viz.:—1. Whence do they come?
2. Whither do they go? and 38. Why do they migrate at all?
With regard to the first of these, no one has yet supplied an answer.
They certainly do not exist in my neighbourhood, which is the
most elevated region in Scandinavia, during the intervals of mi-
gration; and I suspect that the Kjolen range is assigned to them
merely because it is a comparatively unknown district. The answer
to question No. 2 is certain: they goto the sea; those on the east
of the backbone of Norway go to the Gulf of Bothnia, and those
on the west to the Atlantic Ocean. The question as to the cause
of these migrations remains ; and to this, one of three answers has
usually been given:—first, an unusual reproduction and conse-
quent deficiency of food in their usual quarters; secondly, the
foreknowledge of approaching severe weather, which is a very
popular belief in Norway; thirdly, a natural tendency to de-
scend the mountain-slopes both eastwards and westwards from
the watershed between Sweden and Norway.

Now with regard to the first theory, I have invariably noticed
during three migrations which I have witnessed, that, just as with
the Swallows, one or two individuals have preceded the main body,

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 14

158 MR. W. D. CROTCH ON THE LEMMING, =

and that during the autumn, when the Lemmings first reach my
neighbourhood, their number is never large; but after a winter
spent beneath the snow, they begin to breed with the first days
of summer, and thus develop the extraordinary multitude which
is, as it well may be, the astonishment and terror of the country.
T think, then, that excessive reproduction results from, and does
not cause migration.

The second theory is the mere expression of a populax supersti-
tion which has been conclusively falsified during the greater mi-
gration of 1876-1877 as well as previously, and may, I think,
be entirely omitted from our consideration.

The third theory, that these migrations follow the natural declivi-
ties of the country, will be best met by a reference to the diagrams
(Pl. XIII.). The chart (fig. 1) shows the general main declivities
of the Scandinavian peninsula. Fig. 2 is a plan of the district in
which I have observed three migrations in ten years; in this the ©
diagonal path of the Lemmings swimming across my lake in
Heimdalen is very remarkable, and was confirmed by almost
daily observation. Fig. 3 exhibits, in section, the foregoing plan. ~
Talso give a statement from the ‘Verdens Gang,’ No. 125, for
Oct. 23, 1875, Christiania, for what it may be worth. “The proper
home of the Lemen is the Norsk High-Fjeld, both the Lang-
fjelde and Kjélen, whence they migrate to the sea, either to the
North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, or the Gulf of Bothnia.”’ Then |
follows a list of remarkable migrations :—

By Throndhjem, west............... 1580
», Nordfjord SU eet ee oh nce mn LOS
» Lornea, Casta scm rntesce 1697
,», Lulea Sb AR aaa dei ciel 1737
», Umea, Paes Mae ae ia 34 1747
a Nitronadhyen\s west.crerscscne ee 1757
» Kongsberg, south............... 1770

ne tlermosand.) "easthec-thcteecc 1823
», Lyksele, i oral nestens ica 1831
MIBOSSEKOPs 2 WESLi cere. sees ans 1833
,, Karrasuanda, east..... ......... 1839

Now, assuming these facts to be accurate, which I confess
I think, considering the ridiculous and improbable statements
which accompany them, to be at least doubtful, there does cer-
tainly seem, at first sight, reason in the supposition that these

MR. W. D. CROTCH ON THE LEMMING. 159

migrations follow the watershed, since the backbone of mountains
in Norway runs nearly north and south. Thus reference to figs.
2 & 3, Pl. XIII., which gives the course of the Lemmings in 1867-
68, 1870-71, and 1875-76, clearly shows that the natural slopes were
not followed ; and, again, reference to fig. 1 likewise shows that the
main valleys in Norway run nearly north and south; whilst we
find but one so-called southerly migration, that “ by Kongsberg in
1770,” respecting which I should much like to know more.

At all events, all these migrations end in the sea, and the Lem-
mings do not retrace their steps. Again, though four or five gene-
rations occur in one summer, the richest grass and the quietest
quarters do not tempt the wanderers to remain and settle. I know
nothing more striking in natural history than to see the holes, the
well-marked runs, and the refuse of these restless creatures which
so strangely appear and vanish, while their congener, the Field-
Vole, remains in quiet possession of the quarters from which he
was temporarily ousted. Probably this same Field-Vole is the
only quadruped which does not wage successful war on the Lem-
mings; and the drawing given in the ‘ Verdens Gang’ /. ¢., only
fails from omitting their enemies ; in fact, if they were all depicted,
there would be no room for the victims.

I think it must be admitted that, whether instinct be inherited
reason or not, its primary object is for the benefit of the species.
Here, however, this definition seems to fail just when it need not
do so. By staying where they are, or by migrating southwards,
most of the emigrants might live in such peace as is allotted to a
Lemming; by migrating westward, or even eastward, they neces-
sarily are drowned ; but if in former ages land existed where the
sea now rolls, a motive is found for these marvellous migrations,
and collaterally a strong proof that what we call instincts are but
_ the blind and, sometimes, even prejudicial inheritance of previously
acquired experience.

The researches of the naturalists of the ‘Challenger’ Expedi-
tiou have disclosed the existence of at least three ridges of sub-
mer,,d land in the Atlantic Ocean, extending some thousands of
miles north and south of which the highest summits still remain
as islands; and although the intervening valleys are of enormous
depth, it may yet well be that lateral connecting ridges exist
between those already discovered. Of course it is most impro-
bable that the Lemmings ever journeyed so far south ; probably

14*

160 MR. W. D. CROTCH ON THE LEMMING.

they did not even reach the “sunken land of Buz,” to which 30°
W. long. and 55° 30’ N. lat. is assigned; but it is very remark-
able that the average depth from Norway to Iceland does not ex-
ceed 250 fathoms, with the exception of a deep and narrow chan-
nel of 682 fathoms at 14° W. This probably represented the old
gulf-stream ; and if this were so, the Lemmings did wisely to mi-
grate westwards in search of its genial influence. As little by
little the ocean encroached on the land, the same advantages
would remain, as in fact they do to this day. But, owing to the
rash confidence acquired by crossing with impunity so many lakes
and fjords, this singular result is arrived at, that none of the tra-
vellers return to teach a lesson of caution to the survivors.

The submerged continent of Lemuria is held to explain many
knotty points in the distribution of animals; and I think the ex-
istence of a Miocene Atlantis will be found to have a strongly
elucidative bearing on subjects of even more interest than the mi-
gration of the Lemming. It is difficult to ascertain with any cer-
tainty the duration of life in these animals, since very few meet
with a natural death. It is, however, clear that they survive the
winter; and one which I have in captivity, as well as those now in
the Zoological Gardens, are at least three months old. But the fact
that the young soon leave their common nest and join the genera]
band of migrants shows, I think, that they are actuated by a com-
mon impulse which is neither deficiency of food nor a mere gra-
vitating tendency to roll down hill. It is true that many other
animals share this tendency to westward migration ; but that fact
only intensifies the need of a satisfactory explanation, for which,
until a better is found, I am constrained to propose the Miocene
Atlantis*.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII.

Fig. 1. Chart of Scandinavia. The two main valleys, Gudbrandsdalen and
the valley of the Glommen, run nearly north and south. The course
of the Lemmings crosses these at right angles.

Fig. 2. In this plan of Heimdalen, drawn to scale, the course of the Lemmings
will be seen to cross the Lake Heimdalsvand and the swift river
Leirungen, both of which might be avoided by a slight detour.

Fig. 3. A section of the same, showing the Lemmings’ track, which does not
follow the watershed.

The river Leirungen is of glacier origin, very cold and very rapid. Dogs do
not like to face it ; and yet the Lemmings cross it in thousands.

* [ Vide Note “On the occurrence of the Lemming in Newfoundland,” Zoo-
logist, Feb. 1877, p. 47.—Ep.]

RESPIRATORY ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 161

Observations on the Respiratory Action of the Carnivorous
Water-Beetles (Dytiscide). By D. SHarp, Esq.,M.B. (Com-
municated by H. W. Barzs, Esq., F.L.S. &c.)

[Read November 2, 1876.]

THE observations here recorded were commenced by me some
time ago, to see if I could get any insight into the peculiarities of
the aeration or respiration of the carnivorous Water-beetles, or
Dytiscidz, at a time when I was hoping I should be able to make
some inquiries about the function of respiration in the Insecta ge-
nerally. I very soon found, however, that the subject was so vast,
and the difficulties of making accurate minute investigations as to
one of the functions of creatures so small as the insects I could
procure were so great, that I abandoned my intention. But as
the observations I made, though of a desultory character, are not
without suggestiveness on certain points, I have thought it worth
while they should be placed on record. I think that if such
observations were carried out very much more fully and systema-
tically, they would serve as material to enable us to fill up some
of the vast gaps which exist in our knowledge of the physiology
of this highly organized class of the Invertebrata.

The two most interesting species of all those I observed are
undoubtedly Pelobius Hermanni and Hydrovatus clypealis*.
These species are, in their structure, much less highly developed
for moving through the water than our other indigenous Water-
beetles, and are, in my opinion, to be considered (together with the
North-American Amphizoa) the most rudimehtary or primitive of
the existing forms of Dytiscide. Their habits quite accord with
their structural peculiarities. Pelobius Hermanni, though it is a
powerful swimmer, moves its limbs in such a rapid manner that it
must be incapable of any long-sustained efforts—and, in point of
fact, passes its life, in the perfect state, concealed in soft mud,
from which it suddenly rises to the surface to take air, and de-
scends again to its concealment with great rapidity. According
to my observations, the time it is concealed bears to the time it
is exposed for breathing a ratio of 375 to 1; whereas in one of

_* T have much pleasure here in acknowledging the kindness of Henry Mon-
creaff, Esq., who procured and forwarded to me living individuals of these two
species, neither of which occurs in Scotland.

162 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

the highly developed forms of the family, Dytiscus marginalis, the
corresponding ratio is about 12 to 1. The amount of food the
Pelobius takes is surprisingly small ; and I have kept the speci-
mens for weeks without giving them any food, and without, I
believe, their obtaining any in the water in which they were
placed; but they did not appear to suffer from the deprivation.
These habits afford a striking example of the truth of Herbert
Spencer’s generalization, that the grade of development of an or-
ganism bears a direct proportion to its activity.

Hydrovatus clypealis is a species that moves extremely little and
slowly ; and its motion is rather that of running or gliding than
of swimming. It glides over the surface at the bottom of the
water, and climbs up weeds for the purpose of breathing—and
was observed on one occasion, instead of ascending to the sur-
face, to make use of a bubble of gas adhering toa plant; the
gas, I suppose, would probably be pure oxygen.

Hyphydrus ovatus is one of the most specialized forms of the
Dytiscide, but of a form which is of a low type ecmpared with’
others of the family ; and its habits appear to’ correspond with -
- its structural peculiarities.

The species of Hydroporus were only very insufficiently ob-
served ; but it would appear from such observations as were made
that great diversity will probably be found to exist in the habits
of the extremely numerous species of this genus, and that such
observations may assist in the difficult task of classifying in a
natural manner the species of this extensive genus.

The observations on Dytiscus marginalis suggest that the male
of this species is more active and breathes more frequently than
the female—a fact which quite agrees with the structural peculi-
arities of the species; for the male is rather larger than the

female, and has the swimming-legs very much more developed.

This difference between the activity of the sexes is probably general
throughout the family. I think it possible that further observa-
tions with reference to this fact might'throw some light on what
has been hitherto an insoluble puzzle to entomologists, viz. the
existence in several species of Dytiscus of two forms of the female,
one of these two forms resembling the male in some of its peculi-
arities. The genus Dytiscus is remarkable in the family, from
the great development of the posterior breathing-orifices ; but I
have failed as yet to obtain any clue to the relation of this struc-
tural peculiarity with the habits of the species.

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 163

The observations on the two species of Acilius appear to show
a great difference in habits between the two closely allied spe-
cies observed; but I think that further and more extensive obser-

_ vations -would probably greatly reduce this discrepancy; for I
believe that the time of day, the season of the year, the condition
of sexual activity, the sex of the individual, the process of diges-
tion, and the condition of hunger, all modify the activity of the
Dytiscide.

It appears probable that most of the species are much more
active by night than by day.

I regret very much that I have not been able to make any ob-
servations on Cybister Foeselii; tor I consider the genus Cybister
to be, all points considered, the most highly developed form of
the family. It is known that some of the snecies of Cybister are
enormous devourers of animal food; and I think it probable
that observations would show these to be the most active by far
of all the members of the family. No species of the genus oc- ~
curs in Britain; so that it is not likely I shall be able myself to
make observations on any of the species.

I have reduced most of the observations made, by a system
of averages, so as to allow of their being easily compared with
one another, and have given the averages obtained of most of

the species.
I. Petosius HeRMANnnt.

No. 1. Breathing-observation made on four individuals, two
do, two 2, August 29th, 1875.—These specimens were completely
concealed in soft mud; this they left for breathing, rose rapidly
to the surface, and, after breathing, descended with great rapi-
dity and buried themselves in the mud.

Observation commenced at 11.46 a.m. :—

11.57, only very short timeup. | 12.86 remained up 8 secs.

12.9 remained up 2 secs. 12.383 3) Siar
MTOR es * 4, by: 12.42 i Bt
12.173 ”? 3 ” 12.50 ” : 3 ”
12.26 3 1 sec. 12.51 oe Devise

Observation ceased at 1 p.m. Thus each individual spent only
10 seconds out of 74 minutes at the surface in breathing.

No. 2. Aug. 29th, 1875.—The same four specimens were under
surveillance, commencing at 3.40 p.m. and ceasing at 4.30 p.m. :—

164 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

3.44, remaining up 3 secs. 4.11, remaining up 10 secs.
3.56 9 4 ” 4.16 7 6 ”
4.10 . Dihalen 4,21 12 ee

Thus each individual passed 9 seconds out of 50 minutes in
air-exposure.

No. 3. September 5th, 1875.—Observations on four beetles,
two males and two females. Watching commenced at 3.22 P.M.
when the following ascents were noticed :—

3.23, remained up 3 secs. 4,12, remained up 4 secs.
3.28 . 25, 4.36 ar she
3.37 s 4, 4.4.7 ‘3 De
3.38 5 Zee 4.56 e Ay 3
3.51 i Bills: 4.58 ‘ S00
3.08 be E49). 5.2, observation ceased.

The beetles were entirely concealed under the mud, which they
suddenly left and directly returned to.

No. 4. Same date and specimens asin preceding No. 3.—Began
to notice their movements at 7.42 p.v., by lamplight, daylight having
then gone :—

7.48, remained up 2 secs.. 8.22, remained up 2 secs.
7.48 s aN 8.24 “ BY a
7.50 a Bupa 6.27 i LS
7.58 5 Aten 8.29 3 ier
g. 2 is aver 8.30 y Ae
8. 5 : Wp 8.41 f ey
a © Me 2 ee 8.42, observation ceased.

That which came up at 7.50 swam round the vase. At 8.7,
a specimen left the mud and swam round the vase, but did not
rise to the surface. That which arose at 8.22 and remained
up 2 seconds made an excursion. These beetles generally kept
themselves concealed in the mud, but were not quite so inactive
as in the preceding set of observations.

No. 5. Sept. 19.—Kept watch on a female from 3.36 p.m.
until 4.36 p.m. It remained buried in the mud all the while
never being seen.

No. 6. Sept. 20th.—Same female as in last, and in the same
vase. By lamplight, 8.42 p.m., proceeded to keep a close look-
out. The beetle rose at 9.1, and disappeared almost instanta-

?

ACTION OF TITE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 165

neously. At 9.14 and again at 9.28 it acted in a similar way,
while at 9.42 I myself stopped short observing. The whole ope-
ration of rising, opening elytra at surface, diving and burying
itself again in the mud was performed in each case with such
rapidity as to yield merely sufficient time for its recognition.

No. 7. Oct. 17th.—This observation, on a female, commenced
at 2.1 p.m. It then lay concealed in the mud, but rose at 2.18,
resting for about 2 seconds for the purpose of aeration. My
observation ceased at 3.4 P.M.

No. 8. Renewed observation at 4.25 p.m., and kept watch until
5.25. During this hour the beetle remained concealed in the
mud and was not visible.

No. 9. Same night at 9.7, by lamplight.—The insect was con-
cealed in the mud and did not rise whilst notice was kept, viz.
until 10.7 P.u.

The following tabular statement gives the numerical results
of the foregoing series of observations.

Ob _| Number | Minutes Minutes Seconds
scr | of spe- | of ob- X __| Ascent

vations. | ©. 8P© iene specimens SEBENES | Bs
cimens. |servation. |SP° ; surface.

INorsla: 4. 63 252 10 37

pe reet 4 50 200 6 SY

a bens 4 100 400 11 66

Ae ae 4 60 240 13 78

i Owes 1 60 60

i Gee 1 60 60 3 3

ae OR 1 63 63 1 2

Ae Sis 1 60 60

Bees Qins 1 60 60

Totals. |. 21 576 | 1395 | 44 223

Summary.—From what has been stated, it may be inferred
that Pelobius Hermanni rises for the purpose of aeration on the
average once in every 21? minutes, but often goes one hour
without ascending to the air. In these observations the time it
remained at the surface to perform aeration or respiration varied
from a single second, or less, to 20 seconds, and was, on the ave-
rage, 5 seconds; and the time it was exposed bore to the time it
was concealed a ratio of 1: 375. The observations also suggest

166 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

that probably the female is even more sedentary than the male
and also that perhaps it is more active after dark than during
daylight.

The creature’s natural habit appears to be almost constant con-
cealment in the soft mud at the bottom of the water; from this it
rises to breathe and descends into the mud with great rapidity.

II. HypDROVATUS CLYPEALIS.

No. 1. Aug. 29th, 1875.—This observation commenced at 3.15
P.M. The individual, a female, at first was not to be seen, but
at about 4.45 was noticed to be walking on the sand at the bottom
of the water; and at 4.50 it ascended towards the surface by
crawling up the stem of a plant; but before reaching the surface
it found a bubble of gas adhering to the plant, when it turned
round and backed its posterior extremity into the bubble. The
observation ceased at 4.55, when it was still in this position. If
this observation be correct, the insect was 13 hour without breath-
ing; but it is possible that it may have breathed other gas-
bubbles on the plant without being noticed. I do not think,
however, such was the case. .

No. 2. Sept. 12th.—From 4.5 p.m. till 5.45 pu. (namely, in
all, 100 minutes) kept watch on a female specimen of H. clypealis,
which was concealed under a small stone, and did not emerge
during this interval of time.

No. 3. Same date.—At 9.19 P.u., by lamplight, began watching
the above-mentioned 9. At 9.24 it was gliding about the sand,
and rose for a scarcely appreciable instant, did not breathe, after-
wards glided about, and rose at 9.27 for about 3 seconds to take
in air ; also at 9.51 for about 3 seconds. The observation ceased
at 10.9.

It is possible that the artificial light interfered with its move-
ments; it was observed to pass over the surface of the sand with
a comparatively slow motion which appeared to be running rather
than swimming, and availed itself of the side of the glass or some
object rising to the surface to guide it up; it followed up the
course of such object with the running motion above alluded to.

No. 4. Sept. 26th.—No sight of the beetle, which lay concealed
under a small stone. Observation from 1.31 p.m. for an hour.

No. 5. Same date.—Observation commenced at 9.11 p.m, by
lamplight. At 9.50 it came out from under a stone, crawled up the

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 167

plants to the surface, breathed for 15 seconds, then descended and
remained quiet on the sand, but not concealed. At 9.56 again rose
and breathed for 2 secs., then descended and concealed itself, rose
again at 10.7 and breathed for 5 secs., after which it gently moved
about. The observation ceased at 10.11 p.m.

The data resultant from these 5 observations are as subjoined :—

Obs. No. of spec. Minutes of ob. Ascents Aerial exposure.
1 1 100 1 10 min.
2 1 100 - —_—
3 i. 50 3 6 secs.
4 1 60 = —=
5 1 60 3 22 secs.

Summary.—A female of Hydrovatus clypealis, as the result of
five observations extending over a period of 370 minutes, was
only observed to breathe seven times, or an average of about
once in 538 minutes; it has been observed to be 100 minutes
without breathing, while, on the other hand, it has been observed
that there is sometimes only an interval of 6 minutes between
two respirations ; the period it remained breathing at the surface
varies from 1 sec. or less to 15 secs.

It is probable that the species is more active at night than
during the day.

This species appears sometimes to take advantage of a bubble
of gas attached to a plant for its breathing, and has been observed
remaining for 10 minutes in a position enabling it to breathe such
a bubble. It walks or glides rapidly over the surface at the bottom
of the water rather than swims, and likes to rise by guiding
itself up the stem of a plant; when it swims freely through the
water it is only for a short distance.

Ill. Hypuypevs ovatus.

No. 1. Aug. 29th, 1875.—The female example I here watched
was quite quiescent at edge of stone with bubble of gas adhering
to its extremity ; observation commenced at 3.15 p.m. At 3.52
it moved and came up, but almost instantly descended and re-
newed its quiescent position ; it again ascended at 4.35, and
remained up 6 seconds. Observation ceased at 4.53. Thus only
about 6 seconds out of 98 minutes were passed in breathing at
the surface ; the bubble of gas was always present.

168 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

No. 2. Sept. 12th—At 4.5 p.m. took my station at the side of
the vase containing the female H. ovatus. It appeared at the
surface at

4.12, resting there 15 seconds. | 4.45, resting there 3 seconds.
4.21 ” ” 25 ” 5.17 ” ” 10 ”

Observation ceased at 5.45 p.m. The insect carries a bubble
at tip of body, which, by movements of the segments, is some-
times retracted under elytra and again exserted without being
detached.

No. 3. Commenced observation same night at 9.19 by arti-
ficial light. The beetle rose at

9.31, remained up 1. sec. 9.51, remained up 3 seconds.
3.38 Do. WD 20 ” 9.57 ” ) 20 ”
(9.44 rF) was Nee 9.58 ” 33 emaeeali
BOA Neo ei ary Tee i 10,3) 4.) lO seconde:
x ) 9-45 i Seeyaee fare 10. 9, observation ceased.
9.45 ” ” 5 ”
| 9.45 29 Shy 12 PP)

No. 4. Sept. 26th.—I watched for one hour from 1.31 P.M., but
the female in question did not issue from her hiding-place.

No. 5.—9 p.m. by lamplight. Beetle- concealed, and did not
emerge till 10.2. It then rose to the surface for the purpose of
aeration for 3 seconds, and rapidly repeated the process, thus :—

10.2, at surface 3 seconds. 10. 7, at surface an instant.
10.3 Bele a 10. 8 03 -

HOS ek. Lives 10. 9 . R

10.3 Aang ‘ 10. 9 » 10 seconds.
10.5 5 3 x 10.11, observation ended.

It is probable that its aeratory process was considerably inter-
rupted by the disturbance of the artificial light; and hence the
above rapid ascents and descents.

* Within the time mentioned in the bracket the Hyphydrus descended for
an instant—that is, darted down and up again.

t When it rose to the surface at the hour specified, it remained there motion-
less for a minute or more, but did not then seem to perform aeration. I pre-
sume that the insect was incommoded by the artificial light.

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 169

Minutes of Seconds at
Obs. Spec. observ. Ascents. surface.
1 1 98 2 6
2. 1 100 4 53
3.- 1 50 AL 106
4: 1 60 . = =
5 1 60 9 33
Totals... 5 368 26 198

Summary. Hyphydrus ovatus, female, conceals itself beneath
stone or weed; it rises to breathe on the average once in 144
minutes, but has been observed to be one hour without breathing ;
the time it remains at surface varies from an instant to 25 seconds,
and is to the time it is concealed in the ratio of 1 : 111°5.

This species is probably more active at night than during the
day. It is a rapid and energetic swimmer.

IV. Hypxroporus INZQUALIS.

No. 1. Oct. 10th, 1875.—Observation commenced at 3.41 P.M.,
the beetle concealed. It, however, rose at 4.10, and remained
under atmospheric influence for 5 seconds. Again, 4.39, for 2
seconds ; the observation closed at 4.41 p.m.

No. 2. Same evening, 9.14 p.m., by lamplight, H. inequalis
being then hidden ; but it rose to the surface at 9.27, remaining
5 seconds, and again at 10.8 for the interval of 5 seconds. At
10.14 left off watching.

Minutes of Seconds at
Obs. Spec. ‘ observ. Ascents. surface.
Ie 1 60 2 10
2. at 60 2 10
Totals 2 120 4, 20

Summary.—Only two observations made, from which it appears
that this insect rises once in 80 minutes, and remains at surface
about 5 seconds, and the time it is exposed bears to the time it is
concealed a ratio of 1: 360.

V. HypbRoporvs PICTUS.

No. 1. August 29th, 1875.—Obs. commenced 3.15 p.m. The
beetle was then quiescent under the edge of a stone; at 3.46 came
up to breathe, but rapidly descended and became quiescent.

170 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

Again ascended at 4.48, but only remained for about 2 seconds.
Observation ceased at 4.53.

No. 2. Sept. 12.—Began to watch at 45pm. At 4.8 the H.
pictus rose to the surface for an instant only, but did not not do
so again, although close attention was given until 5.45 P.M.

No. 3. The same night.—At 9.19 p.m., waited for ten minutes
before an ascent was witnessed. The journeys for air SEEAE HSS
as follows :— :

Rose at 9. 2 for 1 second. Rose at 9.54 for an instant.
soot 5, 2 seconds: ,, 10. 4 for 1 second.
9.45 ,,.1 second. 10. 9, obs. ceased.

39

These observations were made by lamplight. It is possible the
insect was incommoded by the light ; it was less quiescent than.
in the afternoon, making short excursions about the water when
it came for breath to surface.

Movements much quicker than those of Hydrovatus.

No. 4. Sept. 26th.— When first attention was drawn, viz. at
1.31 P.m., the beetle was under cover. It rose, however, to per-
form aeration at 2.3 p.m. for 1 second, then it descended and lay
concealed as long as the observation lasted, up to 2.31 P.m.

No. 5. Same night.— At 9.11 proceeded to watch by lamplight.
At 9.24 this H. pictus ascended for an instant, again at 9.44, and
again at 10.1, also for an instant. I stopped observing at 10.11
P.M.

Minutes Seconds
Obs. Spee. of obs. Ascents. at surface.

iE A 98 2 3
2. 1 — 100 1 1
3. 1 50 5 6
4 ie 60 1 il
5 1 60 3 3

Totals 5 368 12 14

Summary.—It appears that this very small species rises once in
302 minutes, and remains at surface about 3 seconds ; and the time
it is exposed bears to the time it is concealed a ratio of 1 : 1577.
It would seem that it takes in its breath very rapidly ; for it was
never observed to remain at the surface more than 2 seconds.

VI. Hyproports GYLLENHAILLI.

No. 1. October 10th.—Beetle of doubtful sex, concealed when
observation commenced, 3.41 p.m. But it rose at 3.59 for 1 second

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 171

for aeration ; again at 4.34, remaining up for 8 seconds. Ceased
watching at 4.41 P.M.

No. 2. By lamplight, same night at 9.14, when the beetle was
under cover. It afterwards made the following ascents :—

9.38, up for 32 seconds. 9.55, up for 2 seconds.

D8 Oph nes ee m 259 (6 bn 6 5

Ocal ue uaa 9.571) ay Oe

9.44. 5 8 ? br ces 8 ”

O52 2, a then concealed ; obs. ceased
OO 2A: Se at 10.14 p.m.

It hid itself between 9.44 and 9.52, but during the other in-
tervals continued active.

Minutes Seconds at
Obs. Spec. of obs. Ascents. susface,
No. 1. 1 60 2 4
iba. 1 60 10 70
Totals... 2 120 12 74,

Summary.—This species was only observed twice ; and it appears
to be much more active at night than during the day ; it rose on
the average once in 12 minutes, remaining at surface from 1 to 32
seconds, on an average rather more than 6 seconds on each occa-
sion; and the time it was exposed bears to the time it was con-
cealed a ratio of about 1 : 97.

VII. Hyprororvs ELEGANS.

No. 1. Oct. 12th.—Kept observation on a male of this species
for one hour’s duration, viz. between 3.41 P.M. and 4.41 p.m. The
beetle was active, and on three occasions during its rapid move-
ments came to the surface of the water,.but did not appear to rest
there or to take a fresh supply of air.

No. 2. The same night by lamplight.—9.14 p.m. began watch.
H. elegans was also then active, and rose for the purpose of aeration
at 9.49, only remaining up, however, for an instant ; again at 9.55
it came to the surface for an instant: 10.14, observation ceased.

Summary.—Only two observations were made on this species,
from which it would appear that the species is a very active one,
but breathes seldom and very rapidly.

VIII. Hypxroprorus 12-pusTuLatTus.

No. 1. Sept. 12th, 1875.—Observation commenced at 4.5 p.m.
The beetle rose at 4.58 p.m. for a short time; it was otherwise

172 . MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

concealed under a stone and quiescent. This observation ceased
at 6.45 P.M.

No. 2. Same date.—Observation commenced at 9.19 p.m. by
artificial ight. At 9.31, was swimming about with great activity,
but apparently did not rise for breath; and the same things
occurred at 9.40 and at 9.44, but apparently no breathing. Ob-
servation ceased at 10 p.m. I am sure the movements were
deranged by the light : the specimen was placed in the dark after-
wards, and on being visited was seen swimming about, but
speedily took refuge; these results were again repeated on a
second visit. :

This insect is a powerful swimmer; when placed on its back it
uses the front legs with a pawing motion, and strikes out with the
hind ones, the latter being generally used simultaneously, but
occasionally one after the other. Itruns ona dry surface rapidly,
trailing the hind legs.

No..8. Sept. 26th.—The same male beetle, concealed; obser-
vation continued for one hour, during which the beetle was quite
quiescent and never appeared.

No. 4. At night, by lamplight.—At 9.11 p.m. watch begun, when
the beetle came out from concealment at the subjoined times, but

did not rise.

9.24: 9.40 9.50 10. 4
9.35 9.45 9.53 10.10

Further observation ceased at 10.11 p.m. Thus the beetle did
not rise to breathe, though it kept coming out from concealment
as if to do so; its movements were perhaps disturbed by artificial
light. vil

Summary.—This species is closely allied to H. elegans; and it
would appear that, like it, it is often very active and breathes very
seldom, and very rapidly.

1X. NorEervus SPARSUS.

No. 1. Sept. 26th.—In this case my observation commenced at
1.31 p.m., beetle concealed at edge of a piece of wood; at 2.23 it
crawled up this wood to the surface, breathed for 8 seconds,
and returned to its original position. Observation ceased at
2.31 P.M.

No. 2. Resumed watching the same night, with the appended
results :-—

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 173

Rose at :—
9.12 to breathe for an instant. 9.39 to breathe for 17 seconds.
9.14 ,, » Ld seconds.| 9.44 ,, ie aie
ie > aminstant. | 9.47 ,, is Bae,
SQ0Rs 5 is seconds, | 9:50 ,, eT Sean
9.25: +3 eles PAG) - 9.53 ,, F Biers
$26.78 Af 8 F OR iaare cc 12 ee
9.30 ,, s 12 re S) fois he os ns 12 a
9.30 »b) ”? 5 a9 10. 4 9 39 5 ”
9.35 ,, 5p) A oe IONO x6 se Oa

Observation ceased at 10.11 p.m.

During this hour the insect was in constant activity, and glided
about in the water in a graceful manner, generally rather slowly,
and with a motion similar to that of Hydrovatus, the four front
legs being used in paddling, probably in combination with the hind
tarsi or the hind tibia and tarsi, the femora being probably flexed
and quiet ; it can, on being alarmed, shoot away with great velocity,
this probably being accomplished by the use of the hind leg in its
entirety.

No. 3. Oct, 17th, 1875.—Observations commenced at 2.1 P.M.,
beetle not having been fed for two days; beetle buried in mud;
rose at 2.13 for 5 seconds to breathe, and again at 2.55 for 5
seconds. Observation ceased at 3.4 p.m, beetle fed at 3.6.

No. 4. Observation resumed at 4.25; beetle rose at

4.27 for 2 seconds to breathe,| 4.57 for 8 seconds to breathe.

4.31 ,, 10 _ a 5.21 ,, 1 second to breathe.
Eating. 5.24 ,, 5 (?) secs. to breathe.
4.36 for 10 ra ss 5.24 ,, 1 second to breathe.

Observation ceased at 5.25.

No. 5. Later on observation recommenced at 9.7 p.m., by lamp-

light ; beetle appeared at 9.44 for 4. seconds to breathe. Obser-
vation ceased at 10.7.

Seconds
Obs. Minutes. Ascents. at surface,
INO: ees. 60 il
Baiiee acer 60 18 184
sh eaeaaen 63 2 10
Rand AI se 60 Ol 32
Say AG aA 60 1 4,
Totals ... 3038 29 238

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 15

174 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

Summary.—This species rose to breathe on the average once in
103 minutes, and remained on an average about 8} seconds for
each respiration, this period varying, however, from 1 second to
22 seconds; the time it was exposed for this purpose bearing to
the time it was concealed a ratio of about 1: 764. From one
observation it would seem that the species is more active by night,
but a second observation contradicted this; on this second occa-
sion the beetle had, however, fed largely a few hours before, and
this might possibly account for the discrepancy.

X. LaccoPHiLus onscurvs, Schawm.

No. 1. Sept. 19th, 1875.—A female example of this beetle was
quiescent at 3.36 p.m. near the surface in a tuft of weed, reaching
to the surface ; at 3.389 it quietly ascended the weed to the surface,
and, making a very small crack, remained breathing 80 seconds,
then quietly descended to its original position; as it descended, a
bubble of air was extended, but not detached, till about 3.48, when
it was detached, and the beetle rose to the surface as before, and
remained breathing just as before for 60 seconds. The above-
mentioned descent then reoccurred; at 4.8 the bubble was de-
tached, and at 4.9 the beetle breathed for 55 seconds, and at
4.33 again for 45 seconds. Except for the slight rises and descents,
quite quiescent all the time. Observation ceased at 4.36 P.M.

No. 2. Sept. 20th.—The same specimen examined by artificial
light at 8.42 p.m., when the following ascents and other move-
ments were taken cognisance of :— -

Rose at :—
8.48 for breathing for 2 secs. | 9. 8 for breathingfor 2 secs.

8.48 ” ” 2 ” 9. 9 ” ” 2 ”
8.48 ”? ” 15 ry) 9.13 ” ” 30 ”?
8.51 ”? ” 2 ”? 9.19 ” ” 102 ee
8.59 = » aninstant.| 9.23 5 Fé Dogg
9220 “et » 25 secs. | 9.28 “4 fs 200
9.5 ” ” 75 7 9.31 oe) ” 210 +)

Observation ceased at 9.42 p.m. The beetle moved about
pretty freely in water in a very graceful and perfect manner,
having two or three very different motions. In one it undulates”
slowly through the water (somewhat after the manner of Hydro-
vatus), this being done by paddling with the middle and front
legs, while the hind ones are flexed and motionless; a second

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 175

faster motion is performed by moving the hind tarsi rapidly (or
perhaps the hind tarsi and tibia), while the femora are kept flexed
on the breast. This motion may be at once changed into a
rapid violent shoot forwards, caused no doubt by the femora and
the whole of the hind leg being brought into use. When placed
on its back out of water it strikes out violently with both hind
legs simultaneously; the hopping motion is performed in this
way: when walking out of the water, it moves the hind legs al-

ternately. ee
nutes Oo

Obs. observation. Ascents. Seconds at surface.
IN| Ose ener enc) 4 24.0

a, SPAT 60 14 492,
otals ss) -e: 120 18 ae

Summary.—The beetle rose on the average once in 63 minutes
for breathing, and remained on an average 40% seconds at surface
for each respiration. The longest interval observed between two
respirations was 20 minutes, and the duration of a respiration
varied from 1 second to 210 seconds. The time it was exposed
for breathing bore to the time it was concealed a ratio of 1: 93.
Only two observations were made, one by night; and it is pro-
bable that the species is more active by night.

XI. CoLyMBETES EXOLETUS.

No. 1. Oct. 17th.—Observation commenced at 21pm. The
insect rose at

2.20 for 40 seconds to breathe. | 2.42 for 85 seconds to breathe.
2.29. ,, 65 ip BY 2.49 ,, 55 i

2?

At 2.51 it came out of the water and was put back at 2.56; it
rose at 2.59 to surface and stayed there 4 minutes. Observation
ceased at 3.4.
~ No.2. Same afternoon 4.25 p.m.—This 2 of C. exoletus rose

for purposes of aeration as follows :—

4.39 for 40 aeanndls to breathe.

5.11 for 30 seconds to breathe.
4.51 bP) 8 9? 3) 5.20 bP) 5 3? ?
ys hae 210) , es 5.25 observation ceased.

No. 3. From 9.7 p.m., by lamplight, the accompanying record
of its movements was kept.

176 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

Rose at :—
9.18 and remained up 15 seconds.| 9.56 and remained up 20 secs.
9.35 ” ” 75 ” 9.57 ” ” 10? ”
9.40 ” ” 25 F) 9.59 ” ”? 5 ”
9.43 eS » 2mins. | 10. 0 at surface. }
(breathing doubtful.) 10. 2 ys 3 seconds.

9.47 and remained up 15 seconds.| 10. 4 at surface.
9.52 Bs eVinSues gh 10. 5 at surface.
9.55 ea 5 OO ae 10. 7 observation ceased.

This individual appeared all day to be uncomfortable: it was
restless and active, and kept straining the apical segments of its hind
body, and discharging bubbles of gas. It was probably desirous
of ovipositing ; and I have therefore not compared its activity
with that of the other species.

XII. ILysivs FuLIGINosUs. *

No. 1. Aug. 22nd, 1875.—Began observing at noon; up at
12.14.
Again at 12.23; then was eating piece of a worm at 12.4.
. 12.6 remained up 30 seconds.
12.8 came up to surface with a piece of a worm, and remained at .
the surface eating for about 2 minutes.
12.12 remained up for 25 seconds, eating after descent.

*12.143 remained upfor 18 secs. | 12.36 remained up for 38 secs.
*12.152 — ,, io eo 19 37 i 210-98
12.19 fs ff Oona i «ton et
TROD hye 8288 6) 81) 1249 ‘ eee
12.25 Fee De Oak Hi o.G i ee
12.283 fae) or oreo : i Save
Psy) a one

At 12.503 it brought up a piece of a worm to the surface, there
remaining, eating it and breathing for 73 minutes. The Ilybius
again rose at 12.60 and stayed up for 20 seconds. I left of
watching at 1.1 p.m. On descending after the hours marked with
an asterisk (*), the insect began eating its food. It was observed
that after eating, the specimen only reached the surface with
difficulty to breathe, it beimg probable that the space containing
air was diminished by the distended alimentary canal, the quan-
rity of worm eaten being large; bubbles of gas were frequently

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 177

emitted by the specimen when under water. The same afternoon
this specimen, at 3.19, was observed to be suspended at the surface
of the water in an absolutely motionless condition, in which condi-
tion it continued till 3.59. Owing to its position, it was not for
certain ascertained whether any crack for breathing remained open
or not. At 3.59 it moved, and the aperture under the elytra was
widely opened ; and at 3.60 it descended, but speedily came up
again and resumed its former motionless position at the surface,
which it retained for nearly half an hour; during this half-hour
its position was such that it could be observed with a magnifying
lens; this was done several times, anda small breathing-aperture
was always observed to be present.

Only a single observation was made on this species, and during
that observation the insect was feeding. This beetle remained
for long periods suspended at the surface of the water: it was
in this exposed position on one occasion for 40 minutes without
moving.

XIII. AGABUS BIPUSTULATUS.

No. 1. Aug. 26th, 1875.—A female specimen observed from
1.51 p.m. till 2.31 put. Between these times it rose for purposes
of aeration at

1.54, remaining up 8 secs, | 2.18, remaining up 8 secs.
2. 6 cee EMI 3 2.25 ” 35,

No. 2. Sept. 5th.-The same insect again kept close scrutiny
upon; and the accompanying notes show the intervals of its
appearance at the surface :—

3.22, observation commenced.| 4.21, remained up 65 secs.

3.24, remained up 45 secs. 4.34 ms Pi), ee
3.35 é BOuek 4.38 Mi Wee
3.43 ‘ sp) 4.47 oie
3.55 cE OU 5, 5. 1 i eee
4. 6 3 LO” 55 5. 2, observation ceased.

The insect buried itself in the mud so that it could not be
seen; this it only left for breathing, and descended immedi-.
ately, except in the case of the small interval 4.34-4.388, when
it moved about the bottom instead of concealing itself. The
elytra are held very wide open for breathing.

178 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

No. 8. The A. bipustulatus was again watched at night, and its |
movements recorded, thus :—

7.42 p.m. observation commenced.

7.48 at surface for 25 secs. 8.22 at surface for 70 secs.
8. O ig BBV Gp 8.37 an 20
8.12 ‘ id tates 8.42 ceased observing.

This observation was made after dark by light of a lamp; the
beetle comported itself exactly as in the previous observation
made in daylight.

No. 4. Oct. 17th.—The beetle in this imstance was fasting ;
observation commenced at 2.1Pp.m. It roseat 2.12 for 25 seconds
to breathe, and again at 2.49 for 75 seconds. It otherwise was
concealed in the mud. Observation ceased at3.4p.m. The beetle
was fed at 3.6 P.M.

No. 5. Observation resumed at 4.25; beetle rose at 4.35 for
24 seconds to breathe ; again at 4.45 for 95 seconds ; and again at
5.6, remaining at the surface 150 seconds. The observation ceased
at 5.25. |

No. 6. Still later at night, 9.7 p.w., and by artificial light, in-
vestigation was renewed. The insect rose to draw in air at

9.14, and up for 15 secs. 9.47, and up for 15 secs.
9.26 : SO 9.59 ‘ eee
9.36 5 12.0 ae | 10. 7 left off inspection.

The six preceding observations may be thus reduced :—

Obs. Minutes obs. Ascents. Seconds at sur face
INTO Lees tees 40 4 106

eo eaiaie se ay, 100 10 274

SSA hPa ten 60 5 : 215

ee ee 63 2 100

ASR nO ene 60 3 269

soled ORM Loree 60 & 245
Totals......... 383 29 1209

Summary.—The beetle rose, on an average, about once in 134
minutes for breathing, and remained, on an average, about 412
seconds at surface for each respiration. The longest interval
observed between two respirations was 37 minutes; but this was
an exceptionally long interval. The duration of a respiration

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES. 179

varied from 8 seconds to 150 seconds. The time it was exposed
for breathing bore to the time it was not so exposed a ratio of
1:19;,. The species was observed twice at night, but appeared
to be scarcely more active than during the day.

XIV. AcILIUS sULCATUS, var.

No. 1. Sept. 19th, 1875.—A female specimen, rather immature,
fasting. Observation commenced at 3.36 P.M..

3.42, breathed for an instant. 4.15, breathed for an instant.
3.46 9 99 . ” 4.17 >] ” ”
3.48 a » 20 seconds. 4.18 hy Ee i
3.54 - ,, 5 ab instant. 4.20 i i =
S357 ;. ‘, i 4.22, rr » 00 seconds.
A. iL bp) y n 424: ” ”? 25 ”
4,4 °° ,, ae i 427 Pa EEO a

4. 7 i yy i 4.30 a4 i+ 20 at
4.10 ” ” > 4.33 ” 7) 20 ”
4.14

Observation ceased at 4.36. The instantaneous breathings
were performed by rising to the surface, opening wide the breath-
ing-crack and instantly descending ; bubbles of gas escaping from
the extremity during descent.

No. 2. Sept. 20th.—By lamplight ; observation commenced at
8.42 P.m., when the following times of ascent for aeration were
observed :—

8.46, breathing an instant. 9.16, breathing 5 secs.
8.48 ” ey) 9.17 ” 15 ”
8.53 3 i 9.20 EN
8.55 ee ” 9.22 ” ON
8.58 ” » 9.25 ye 80s,
8.59 f x 9.26 te) walt
9. 0 55 55 9.30 x an instant.
iS) IL “p 45 secs. 9.31 . 40 secs.
9. 4 i, sles 9.37 ae SONS
9. 5 MS Di 9.39 ay 20
Gey omen 9 40 een
9.10 a P40) 55 - 9.42, observation ceased.

9.13 ” 22 9

180 MR. D. SHARP ON THE RESPIRATORY

The beetle was not improbably disconcerted by the artificial
light. It occasionally progressed slowly by paddling with the
middle legs, the hind ones being extended, but almost motionless.

Minutes of Seconds at
Obs.* _— observation. Ascents. surface.
INO tees ee 60 19 175
Rae hag 60 24 B52
Totals ... 120 AS 527

Summary.—tThe beetle rose, on an average, about once in 232
minutes for breathing, and remained, on an average, about 124
seconds at surface for each respiration. The longest interval ob-
served between two respirations was 6 minutes; the duration of
a respiration varied from a second, or less, to 50 seconds. The
time it was exposed for breathing bore to the time it was not so
exposed a ratio of 1: 13%. Only two observations were made, one
of them at night, and it was then rather more active than during
the day-observation.

XV. ACILIUS FASCIATUS.

No. 1. Oct. 17th.—The two specimens, d and ¢, herein men-
tioned, were not fed for two days. My observations commenced
at 2.1 pm. At 2.46 the male rose, and was at the surface
for 5 seconds; whilst the female emerged at 2.49, remaining up
for 65 seconds. These beetles moved about but little, keep-
ing themselves much concealed. I left off further notice at
3.1 P.M. :

No. 2. The specimens were fed at 3.6 P.m., and observation
commenced at 4.25.

The male. _ he female.

Rose at 4.43 for 70 secs. Rose at 5.17 for 55 sees.
Fes 6 5 1 100s 5201 0ne,

The beetles were nearly always concealed, and moved about but
little. Observation ceased at 5.25.

No. 3. By lamplight, same evening. Observation commenced
at 9.7. |

ACTION OF THE CARNIVOROUS WATER-BEETLES, 181

The male. The female.
Rose at 9.21 for 4 minutes, Rose at 9.87 for 35 secs,
but only occasionally breathing. OVO | Ma; .
Rose at 9.35 for 15 secs. :
s O40, . 10% Observation ceased at 10.87.
i O53" TOON 5.
mal co OL OMe sO Oly as
sah OL Oi eel Ooms.
Minutes of Seconds at
Obs. observation. Ascents. surface.
Nowe) 120. 2 70
MO one ee LO 4, 255
ree 120 8 645
Motalstes- ae 860 14 970

Suwmmary.—The species rose, on an average, about once in 253
minutes for breathing, and remained, on an average, nearly 70
seconds at surface for each respiration. The longest interval
observed between two respirations was 52 minutes, and the du-
ration of a respiration varied from 5 to 105 seconds. The
time it was exposed for breathing bore to the time it was not so
exposed a ratio of 1: 227. It appears probable that the species
is more active by night than by day, and that the male is more
active than the female.

XVI. DytTIscus MARGINALIS.

No. 1. Aug. 2nd, 1874.—Observation commenced at 7 o’clock
P.M. on one ¢ individual of this species.
Rose at 7. 9 for ? secs. Rose at 7.56 for 70 secs.

; ele eee eae eB 2e Gi ADL
BV ELD ase aS Tyee St Oe ane anhinstants

a aa fer) Syaceasr vs Ol Sees » 8.9 ,,. 80 secs.

Ree Alone nant Lon Se il dite ay usonrrst U0 oa.

SOM BOE” Ge Gomes a. Giane

Observation ceased at 8.23 P.M.
No. 2. Aug. 9th, 1874.—Observation commenced at 3.40 P.m.,
on two males of D. marginalis.
Rose at 8.48 for 15 secs. Rose at 4.22 for 50 secs.
BUS mie 208 8 AOD. a. GO Ye.
Soler i gud uns pid Gee AR OAIS . Dieies
16

0

”

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII.

182 ON THE RESPIRATORY ACTION OF WATER-BEETLES.

Rose at 3.53 for 35 secs. | Rose at 4.27 for 30 secs.
_ Be 20, ialiog! O95 738
ie 8500 Ams af age pe eR I |
iy gig Ait Women Ong » 4.34 ,, an instant.
sy At AE 2 Oe » 4.385 4, 115 secs.
Me ee , 440% Mon.
AMO Oe

Observation ceased at 4.43 P.M.
No. 38. Aug. ?, 1874.—Observation commenced at 2.31 P.M.
on one d D. marginalis.

Rose at 2.50 for 2 secs. Rose at 3.26 for 5 secs.
5 ASD) gg SD gp BS: AN ABO ia.
”? 3. 9 +P) 60 29 9 3.57 ”? 97 ”
Observation ceased at 4.11 P.M.
Minutes of is Seconds at
Obs. observation. Ascents. surface.
Node ee 88 12 816
RAM Oe toteainenr J W(0) 19 881
ees ats ee OO, 6 296
Totals ... 3809 87 1993

Summary.—The male of D. marginalis rose, on an average,
once in about 83 minutes for breathing; and remained, on an
average, about 54 seconds at surface for each respiration. The
longest interval it was observed to pass without breathing was 19
minutes. The duration of a respiration varied from 5 seconds to-
300 seconds; and the time it was exposed bore to the time it was
quiescent a ratio of 1:93.

XVII. Dytiscus MARGINATIS, ©.

No. 1. Aug. 2nd, 1874—Observation commenced at 7 P.u. on
one female.

Rose at 7. 8 for 20 secs. ~ Rose at 7.50 for an instant.
. MOOD 4 SOR; Ways 7.54: «,,. 80 secs:
Lee 5 ONS te Sarah OO

Observation ceased at 8.23 P.M.

No. 2. Aug. 9th, 1874.—Observation commenced at 3.40 P.M.
on two females of D. marginalis :—

ON A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF CRUSTACEA. 183

Rose at 3.51 for 5 sees. Rose at 4.12 for 50 secs.
» 9305 ,, an instant. sion ARS ae BOO he,
5. eeOons, a » 4.28 ,, an instant.
» 309 ,, 65 secs. 420s 4. LS Sees:
weer 20... sir, AE OOL ee Ones
Sede se annstant, pat ool a wel Omee
» 4 4 ,, 80 secs. oth: Abo ey at ORES

Observation ceased at 4.43 P.M.

No. 3. Aug. ?, 1874.—Observation commenced on one indi-
vidual of D. marginalis, 9, at 2.81 P.m.

Rose at 2.56 for 35 secs. Rose at 3.42 for 38 secs.
em ROOTS WE ROO ui es Agel van Gone
Observation ceased at 4.11.
Minutes of Seconds at
Obs. observation. Ascents. surface.
INO awe tee} 6 561
phe ren Meee TAG 14 584
Abe 100 4, 193
Totals ... 809 24 1338

Summary.—The female of D. marginalis, rose, on the average,
once in about 123 minutes for breathing, and remained, on an
average, about 5543 seconds at surface for each respiration. The
_ longest interval it was observed to pass without breathing was
323 minutes. The duration of a respiration was from 3 seconds
to 280 seconds. And the time it was exposed bore to the time
it was quiescent a ratio of 1: 1384.

On Acteomorpha erosa, a new Genus and Species of Crustacea.
By Epwarp J. Minrs, F.L.S., Assistant in the Zoological
Department, British Museum.

[Read December 21, 1876.]
(Puarz XIV.)

Tue remarkable Crustacean here described was brought up by the
dredge from a depth of 7 fathoms with a number of other small
Crustacea, chiefly Cancroidea. On account of its small size and
external resemblance to certain species of Caneride, its true posi-

184 MR. E. J. MIERS ON A NEW GENUS

.tion among the Oxystomata was unsuspected’ until my paper on
the Oxystomatous Crustacea had been read before the Society.

ACTZOMORPHA, gen. nov.

Carapace convex, with the antero-lateral margins arcuate, as in the
Cancroidea; front broad, and slightly concave in front. External
antennz with the basal joint apparently fused with the inferior wall
of the orbit; the flagellum wanting; the orbital cavity large, and
filled with the peduncles of the eyes, the cornea being almost com-
pletely concealed by the external wall of the orbit. Buccal cavity
broader and less decidedly triangulate than is usual in the Oxystomata.
External maxillipeds with the meros-joint triangular, a little shorter
than the ischium-jomt; the exognath narrow, and with its outer
margin slightly curved. Abdomen of male narrow-ovate, 7-jointed,
the two last joints longer than the preceding, the terminal joint
triangular, acute.

ACTHOMORPHA EROSA, sp. nov.

Carapace everywhere granulated, the granules iterspersed with small
deep pits. There is a large rounded elevation behind each orbit, one
on the cardiac region, and one on each branchial region near the lateral
margin. Anterior legs obscurely granulated, robust ; arm very short ;
hand-bnt little longer than the wrist, fingers straight, closely meeting
along their inner edges when closed, acute at the tips. Ambulatory
legs short, nearly smooth, laterally compressed; tarsi very small,
slender, and acute. Length 4 lines; breadth 43 lines.

Hab. Australia, Port Curtis (F. M. Rayner, Esa.). .

This species, of which I have seen but a single example, is dis-

tinguished from all the Lewcosiide with which I am acquainted
by its form and the structure of the external antenne and of the
orbital region. In general appearance A. erosa bears a greater
resemblance to such a species as Actea granulata among the Can-
crid@é than to the Oxystomata (hence its name) ; and this resem-
blance is borne out by the form of the large orbits, and short
robust, anterior legs. That it really belongs to the Oxvystomata
is evident from the form of the buccal cavity and of the meros-
joint of the outer foot-jaws. The eyes, of which the cornea is
rudimentary (and nearly concealed, in the specimen I have exa-
mined, by the outer wall of the orbit), are perhaps useless as organs
of vision. Notwithstanding its small size, this example shows no
signs of immaturity.

It is perhaps most nearly allied to the genera Oreophorus* and

* Oreophorus, Riippell, Beschreib. 24 Krabben Rothen Meeres, p- 19 (1880) ;
Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. xxi. p. 306 (1855).

AND SPECIES OF CRUSTACEA. 185

Speleophorus*, which it resembles in the arcuate antero-lateral

margins of the carapace and well-defined orbits; but it differs in

the postero-lateral margins of the carapace not being produced

over the bases of the ambulatory legs, in the form of: the eye- .
peduncles and anterior legs, &c.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

Fig. 1. Actgomorpha erosa 3, nat. size (outline).

2. A dorsal view of the same animal, enlarged about four times.

3. An inferior view, also X 4diam., and with limbs extended.

4. The inferior aspect of fore parts, greatly enlarged, showing eyes (a),
inner antenne (0), and outer antenne (c).

5. The orbit viewed from above, showing the position of the eye-pedunclo
(a), enlarged.

6. The hand, exterior view, enlarged.

Morphology of the Mammalian Ossicula auditis. By Aupan H.
G. Doray, F.R.C.S. (Communicated by Professor Fiower,
FE.R.S., F.L.S.)

[Read December 21, 1876.]
(Abstract. )

THE complete memoir on the small ear-bones of the Mammals will
hereafter be published in the Society’s ‘ Transactions,’ with copious
illustrations, whereby an excellent comparison of the various forms
peculiar to and significant of groups may be instituted. Previously
elsewheret I have given a short résumé respecting the material
which has afforded the means of study of the series, with a brief
reference to what has already been published on the internal
auditory apparatus, and added a short notice concerning points
among certain of the higher groups of the Mammalia. For the
present abstract I shall therefore confine my remarks to the audi-
tory ossicles of the following orders, viz.:—the Insectivora, the
Chiroptera, the Cetacea, the Sirenia, the Edentata, the Marsu-
pialia, and the Monotremata.

* Speleophorus, Alph, M.-Edw. Ann. Soc. Ent. France (sér. 4), v. p. 148 (1865).
t Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xxv. pp. 101-109 (1876).
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 17

186 Mk. A. H. G. DORAN ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF

In the ossicula of the Insectivora no constant positive character
can be found. These bones are most specialized in Chrysochloris.
Careful examination shows that the singular malleus in this genus
is modified rather from the higher or anthropoid form than from
the more central laminated type. The ossicula of Galeopithecus
are very generalized; in its malleus it approaches the Macrosce-
lidee, in the incus it resembles Zupaia; in the latter the malleus
assumes the neckless character common among the Cebide, and
observed in some Lemurs and in Sezwrus. Taken as a whole, the
_ear-bones of Dupaia are higher in type than those of any other
animal in this order.

In the Macroscelide the extremely constricted neck of the
malleus with its narrow lamina and its processus gracilis running
straight forwards to the Glaserian fissure are highly characteris-
tic; but in Petrodromus the malleus more resembles that of Sorex
than the same ossicle in Macroscelides and Rhynchocyon.

In the Soricide, Myogalide, Talpide, Centetide, and Erina-
ceidz one common feature exists, a malleus with a wide lamina,
and a processus gracilis united to the tympanic ring after the
fashion of the Marsupials. The processus brevis of the incus is
always ill developed except in the Centetide and Gymnura; the
intercrural aperture of the stapes is wide. In the Shrews the
malleus bears both a processus muscularis and a peculiar orbicular
apophysis, as 1n Avs; this spherical process in Myogale appears
to replace functionally the processus muscularis, which is absent
in that genus.

In the Talpide the malleus of Condyluwra most resembles that
of Sores; but its orbicular process serves as a processus muscu-
laris, as in Myogale. The mallei in Zulpa and Scalops closely re-
semble each other; but the incus of Scalops has not the broad
channelled processus longus seen in Zalpa and Condylura. In
the Erinaceidee and Centetide the malleus has a broad processus
gracilis perforated to transmit the chorda tympani nerve. The
processus muscularis and an ill-developed orbicular apophysis
coexist.

The ossicula of the Chiroptera resemble those of the Soricide
and allied Insectivora very strongly, except in Péeropus, where
the malleus is of a rather lower type. A well-developed proces-
sus muscularis is always found in the insectivorous Bats; in
Phyllorhina and other genera there is another process accessory

THE MAMMALIAN OSSICULA AUDITUS. ; 187

to it; an orbicular apophysis, observed in Sores, is also con-
stant, but not pedunculated. The manubrium is quadrilateral,
the inner as well as the outer aspect being sharply bordered off
from each of the sides. The incus is very similar to that of the
Shrews and Marsupials: the stapes is of a rather higher type than
the other ossicula; its aperture is generally wide and occupied in
the recent skull by a small artery unsupported by any bony
canal.

In the Cetacea the malleus is constantly united to the tympanic
bone by firm bony ankylosis through the medium of the processus
gracilis. The manubrium is ill developed or completely sup-
pressed. The stapedial crus of the incus is greatly developed.
The crura of the stapes are thick and encroach upon or obliterate
the aperture. This ossicle always fits firmly into the fenestra
ovalis, to which it is in no species constantly ankylosed.

These bones are most generalized in type in the genus Balena,
particularly as regards the incus; the malleus, too, has the least-
modified form of manubrium. Next in order come Neobalena
and Megaptera ; but Balenoptera possesses a malleus and incus
as modified as in the Dolphins. In the Physeteride the malleus
is extremely modified, the manubrium and processus muscularis
are not borne upon a tubercle projecting from the front of the
head as in other Cetacea, but are reduced to two small spines.
That representing the manubrium is almost obsolete in Physeter,
Hyperoodon, and Mesoplodon, but fairly developed in Berardius.
The incus has characters intermediate between the same in Ba-
lena and Delphinus; the stapes assumes a tolerably distinctive
form.

- Inall the Dolphins the incus has a very large stapedial crus and
a stapes with stouter crura than in the Whale-bone and Sperm-
Whales. The malleus resembles considerably that of Baleno-
ptera; the manubrium may be represented by a spine bent down-
wards (Orca, Pseudorca) or depressed against the side of the os-
sicle (Globiocephalus, Lagenorhynchus, Phocena); or that spine
may be almost or quite obsolete (Delphinus, Delphinapterus) : part.
of the process from the membrana tympani is inserted along a
narrow groove in the tubercle. Monodon has a spine-like manu-
brium, but differs from the other Dolphins in the characters
of its articular surface and the length of the head and tubercle.
The head of the malleus is best developed in Orca.

MiGs

188 MR. A. H. G. DORAN ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF

Platanista is distinguished from the above delphinoid Cetaceans
by the great length of the process from the head of the malleus,
and by other less conspicuous modifications in that ossicle.
Such distinctions are hardly discernible in the genus Inia.

In the Sirenia the ossicula are modified more in texture, weight,
and outline than in the development or suppression of any of
their processes as in the Cetacea. Their singular general mo-
difications of form mask any points of resemblance to their re-
presentatives in any other order which otherwise might be ob-
servable, excepting that in Halicore and, apparently, in Halitheriwm
there is an approach to a quadrilateral form of stapes, which at
least reminds the anatomist of the form of that bone in the larger
Ruminants. In no respect do any of the ossicula resemble those
of the Whales and Dolphins. -Halicore differs distinctly from
Manatus in several particulars, most of which have been already
described by Hyrt]l. In Rhytina the malleus and incus, judging
from the description and figures given by Clausius, very closely
resemble those of the Manatee. In Halitherium the description of
the ossicula with which Dr. Krauss has favoured science leads me
to consider that the malleus is intermediate in type between those
of Manatus and Halicore, the incus more resembling that of the
former Sirenian. .

In the Bradypodide, among the Edentata, the characters of the
malleus and incus are fairly generalized, whilst the stapes assumes,
to a certain extent, Sauropsidan characters. Among the Arma-
dillos the genera Dasypus and Tatusia present much higher cha-
racters in the ossicula of adult specimens than can be found in
Priodon and Tolypeutes. The malleus in the adults of the two
latter genera resemble the same ossicles in the fully developed
foetus of Dasypus and Tatusia. This recalls an identical condition
in Bos and Ovis.

In the Manide the ossicula possess the most positive charac-
ters among all the Edentata. The malleus is more specialized
than in the other groups, and the stapes is more absolutely
columelliform than in any other placental mammal. Inthe Ant-
eaters the malleus may be known from that of other Edentata
by the form of its head ; in Cyclothurus it resembles that of Brady-

‘pus more than do the same bones in Myrmecophaga and Tamandua.

In Orycteropus the malleus is quite unlike that of any true.
Ant-eater, but resembles, to a certain extent, that of Priodon,
from which, however, it maintains very distinctive features.

THE MAMMALIAN OSSICULA AUDITUS. 189

The Marsupialia are distinguished for the uniformly low type
of their ossicula, although no single feature indicating inferior
grade in them is not to be found, in isolated cases, in higher
mammals. These bones are of the most ill-developed consistence
in the Peramelide, and of the highest form in the Didelphyide,
where the incus has a well-developed processus brevis, and the
stapes, alone among Marsupials, is perfectly bicrurate. In the
Kangaroos the ossicula are central in character, the malleus bears
a large foliaceous processus gracilis, as in the Wombat; but the
Stapes is always partially bicrurate. In the Phalangistide the
stapes is generally columelliform, or only slightly bicrurate, the
incus is of as high a type as in the American Opossum, the mal-
leus is of the form seen in a new-born Macropus; this ossicle
has distinctive features in Phascolarctos.

In the Wombats the malleus is not so much of high type as an
extreme form of the development of that bone in Macropus. The
incus has a stapedial crus somewhat like that of Perameles; the
stapes is always columelliform. In tae Dasyures, including
Phascogale and Myrmecobius, the incus is of low type, and the
stapes columelliform ; but all their ossicles are of more solid con-
sistence than in the Bandicoots.

The distinguishing features in the ossicula of the Monotremata
are a peculiar form of articulation between the malleus and incus
by means of a scale-like development from the head of the former,
and the presence of an absolutely columelliform stapes. Yet the
three ossicula are not much modified from their representatives in
the lower Marsupials. The incus is ankylosed to the malleus in

Echidna and generally in the adult Ornithorhynchus, but not in
the same manner as in certain Rodents. These bones are of more
solid consistence in Echidna than in the other Monotreme. In
all cases among mammals where the stapes is columelliform, it
clearly represents the entire bicrurate stapes of most animals in
that class, but, according to the most recent views of embryolo-
gists, only a part of the columella of birds and reptiles, the greater
part of that long ossicle in the latter classes probably represent-
ing the long process, or at least some other portion, of the incus.

190 MR. G. J. ROMANES ON SOME NEW SPECIES,

An Account of some new Species, Varieties, and Monstrous
Forms of Meduse.—II. By Gerorer J. Romanes, M.A.,
E.LS., &c.

[Read January 18, 1877.]

(Puatus XV. & XVI.)

In my previous communication on this subject (Journ. Linn.
Soc., Zool. vol. xii. pp. 525-531) I omitted to give any drawings
of the new species of Meduse which I described. On the pre-
sent occasion, therefore, I supply this omission by representing
in Plate XV. such of the previously described Medusz as are
undoubtedly entitled to rank as new species. These are the three
species of the genus Tiaropsis, viz. those represented in figs. 1, 3,
and4. The Plate also contains figures of the two species of Thau-
mantias (figs. 2 and 5) which I happened to meet with last sum-
mer. There can be no doubt that these are true species; and for
them I propose the name J. erucifera and T. helicobostrycha*.
Proceeding now to describe the monstrous forms of Medusz
which have this year fallen within my observation, I have, in the
’ first place, to reiterate the surprise which I expressed in my pre-
vious paper at the extreme rarity of such forms—so far, at least,
as the naked-eyed group are concerned. Looking to the lowly
type of organization which the Medusz present, remembering
how prone these animals are to exhibit the phenomenon of gem-
mation, and considering that even in much higher animals so-
called “vegetative reproduction of similar parts” is a process of
comparatively frequent occurrence, considering these points, I
think we should be prepared to expect the Medusz to present us
with numerous examples of monstrous or misshapen forms. Yet
so far is this from being the case that this year, as last year, I have
only met with one solitary instance of departure from the normal
type among the many thousands of naked-eyed Medusz which I
observed. This instance again occurred in the genus Sarsia; but,
unlike the monstrosity described in my former paper,in which there
were six complete segments, in the present instance there were

* In my former paper I assigned to a probably new species the name Bow-
guinvillea fruticosa, Having since ascertained that this name had already been
appropriated by Prof. Allman to designate another species of the same genus, I
will now substitute for it the name B. Al/manii.

VARIETIES, AND MONSTROUS FORMS OF MEDUS®. 191

only five segments. These, however, were all complete and exactly
equal to one another.

In the case of Aurelia aurita deviations from the normal type
are of frequent occurrence. It is remarkable, however, as pointed
out in my former paper, that such deviations nearly always take
place in the direction either of multiplication or of abortion of
entire segments. As Ihave this year paid particular attention to
this subject, I will here describe all the more noteworthy forms of
variation which I have observed: and to render my description
intelligible, it is necessary to begin by describing the normal
type.

Fig. 6 (Pl. XV.) represents Aurelia aurita in full diastole, with its
manubrium removed. It will be observed that the organism is con-
structed on what we may metaphorically term a very definite plan.
Tke ovaries are four in number, equal in size, and arranged sym-
metrically round the centre of the animal. The lithocysts, or
ganglia, are eight in number, and are disposed round the margin of
the animal at points equidistant from one another. These eight
organs thus bear a very precise geometrical relation to the four
central organs; and this relation is, as it were, mapped out by
the distribution of the radial tubes. For it may he observed by a
glance at the diagram that although most of the nutrient tubes
branch and anastomose as they proceed from the centre to the
circumference of the umbrella, there is a marked exception to
this mode of distribution in the case of some of these tubes—those,
namely, which proceed from the centre to the circumference in
perfectly straight or radial lines without branching. Moreover,
closer inspection will show that these radial or unbranching tubes
are disposed with perfect symmetry. or one such tube passes
radially to each of the eight marginal ganglia, and each of the
eight segments of the circle thus marked out is bisected by ano-
ther radial or unbranched tube. There are thus altogether sixteen
radial or unbranched tubes, which serve to mark out the whole
umbrella into as many equal segments. I+ must further be ob-
served that those straight tubes which proceed to the marginal
ganglia differ from those which alternate with them in being less
deeply coloured. Lastly, I may add that in the normal type of
Aurelia the manubrium (which is not represented in the figures)
presents four equal lobes.

Such being the normal type of Aurelia, the following are the
more important deviations from it which I have observed. The
most usual is that which I described in my former paper, and

192 MR. G. J. ROMANES ON SOME NEW SPECIES,

which is here represented in fig. 7 (Pl. XV.). It will be seen that all
parts of the organism have undergone multiplication in a common
ratio ; so that the effect is to “ increase the number whilst adhering
to the type of the natural segments above alluded to,” and this
without in the least degree destroying the general symmetry of the
animal. In such cases the manubrium is usually six-lobed.
In other cases, however, some one or more of the normal seg-
ments do not take part in the multiplication ; so that while the
number of segments are increased and their natural type con-
formed to, the animal nevertheless, as a whole, becomes asymme-
trical. Ofsuch a case fig. 8 (Pl. XV.) may be taken as an example.

lt will be observed that in the last figured specimen the ovaries
were not affected by the process of multiplication, although
_ this had affected both the manubrium and the segments of the um-
bella. Such an immunity from the abnormal process in question
is frequently presented, both by the ovaries and by the manubrium,
even in cases where it has affected the umbrella to a large extent.
This may be seen in fig. 9 (Pl. XV.), where it is also worth while to
observe the symmetrical manner in which the multiplying process
has affected the umbrella regarded asa whole. In fig.1(Pl. XVI.)
we have an exactly similar case, except that the multiplying process
has failed to extend to one of the quadrants of the umbrella.

In some cases the multiplication of parts takes place on one side
of the umbrella only, as may be seen in figs. 2 and3 (Pl. XVI.). In
the first of these specimens one of the ovarieshas become duplicated;
and all the other parts in its segment having done the same, the
manubrium presented five lobes, and the umbrella ten segments.
In fig. 8 one of the ovaries has become tripled ; and the other parts
of the umbrella being multiplied in the same manner, the total
number of segments is twelve. The manubrium, however, in this
case only presented the same number of lobes as in the last one.

Abortion of parts in Awrelia takes place in the same symme-
trical way as does multiplication of parts. For instance, in fig. 4
(Pl. XVI.) it is observable that one ovary is absent, while the
segments of the umbrella are reduced to six. Similarly, in fig. 5
(Pl. XVI.) the ovaries and segments of the umbrella are reduced
to one half of the normal number. In neither of these specimens,
however, was the manubrium affected by the reducing process.

I have now given a sufficient number of illustrations to render
an accurate idea of the various ways in which the normal type of
Aurelia is seen to be modified by the multiplication and the sup-
pression of parts. The most remarkable point with regard to

VARIETIES, AND MONSTROUS FORMS OF MEDUSH. 193

such cases is the strictly symmetrical manner in which the ab-
normal developments or abortions are usually found to occur. In
most cases these developments, or abortions, extend propor-
tionally to all parts of the organism. In other cases this is not
so; and of these cases the most numerous are those in which
the ovaries and manubrium are unaffected, while the seg-
ments of the umbrella are multiplied. In some cases, on the
other hand, a deficiency or absence of the ovaries entails no
corresponding deficiency or absence of any of the other organs.
Lastly, it may be added that in every case of multiplication of
segments which I have ever seen, the supernumerary lithocysts
always occurred at the end of a faintly coloured radial tube, and
never at the end of a strongly coloured one. Whether the marked
difference in the coloration of the two sets of radial tubes implies
any corresponding difference in their physiological functions, is a
point which I have not been able to ascertain; but if such is
the case, I should be inclined to suspect, from the uniform rule
just mentioned, that whatever peculiarity of function it is which
renders necessary the high coloration of the radial tubes that
alternate with the lithocysts, is a peculiarity which is incompatible
with the presence of a lithocyst at the end of the tube.

From the additional observations detailed in this paper, it will
be evident that no stress is to be laid on the fact of the most usual
form of multiplication of parts in Aurelia being proportionally the
same as that which appears to be the most usual form of multipli-
cation in Sarsia (see former paper, p. 529).

This year, as last year, I observed “ that towards the end of
August all the individuals of this species (i. e. Aurelia aurita)
began to undergo a marked diminution in size.”” In my previous
communication I expressed myself in favour of the view that this
progressive diminution in the size of individuals composing
the incoming generations of Awrelia was due to the increasing
numbers of a parasitical Crustacean (Hyperia galba),“ which ap-
peared to devour with avidity all the coloured parts of their hosts.”’
There can, I still think, be little doubt that such parasites, by im-
pairing or destroying the nutritive system of these Meduse, must
hinder, or entirely stop, the growth of the latter; but that the
small size of Aurelia towards the end of the season is not to be
attributed to this cause alone, I have during the present autumn
obtained satisfactory evidence. For this year the numbers of
Hyperia galba were not nearly so great as they were last
year; so that I am now better able to determine how much

194 MR. G. J. ROMANES ON MONSTROUS FORMS OF MEDUS.

of the effect which we are considering is to be attributed to their
influence. And forasmuch as I observed that towards the end of
the season the Medusz were of small size, whether or not they
were infested by the parasites in question, I conclude that causes
other than the one which I previously mentioned must be chiefly
concerned in producing this effect.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Puars XV.

. Tiaropsis indicans, n. sp. Natural size.

Thaumantias crucifera, n. sp. Natural size.

. Tiaropsis polydiademata, n. sp, Natural size and colour.

. Tiaropsis oligoplocama, n. sp. Natural size.

. Thawmantias helicobostrycha, n. sp. Natural size.

. Diagrammatic representation of the ovaries and nutrient tubes as they
occur in a normal specimen of Awrelia aurita. The manubrium,
which normally presents four lobes, has been removed.

7. Diagrammatic representation of a specimen of A. aurita, which pre-
sented an abnormal, though symmetrical, multiplication of parts—
there being twelve complete segments instead of eight (as in fig. 6),
and the manubrium, which is not shown, having presented six lobes
instead of four.

§. Diagrammatic representation of an asymmetrical multiplication of parts
in A. aurita, In this specimen the manubrium was bifid in the lobes
which faced one of the multiplied segments.

9. Diagrammatic representation of an abnormal, though symmetrical, mul-

tiplication of nutrient tubes in A. auwrita—those in every alternate

segment haying undergone duplication. In this instance the manu-
brium resembled the ovaries in not partaking of the duplication.

Fig.

GS OP Gb

Prats XVI.

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of a specimen of A. aurita, resembling
that figured in Pl. XV. fig. 9, except that one of the four normal
quadrants of the umbrella has escaped the process of duplication.

2. Diagrammatic representation of an asymmetrical multiplication of parts

n A. aurita, one of the four quadrants of the animal haying become
duplicated. In this instance, however, the manubrium was four-lobed.

3. Diagrammatic representation of another form of asymmetrical multipli-
cation of parts in A. aurita, one of the four quadrants of the animal
having become tripled. In this instance the lobe of the manubrium
which faced the tripled quadrant of the umbrella was doubled.

4, Diagrammatic representation of an abortion of parts in A. awrita, one of
the four quadrants of the animal having been suppressed. In this in-
stance, however, the manubrium presented its normal number of lobes,

5. Diagrammatic representation of a still further abortion of parts in A.
aurita, two of the four quadrants having been suppressed. In this
instance also, the manubrium presented its normal number of lobes.

DR. F, BUCHANAN WHITE ON THE EUROPEAN RHOPALOCERA. 195

On the Male Genital Armature in the European Rhopalocera.
By Dr. F. Bucnanan Waits, F.L.S. &e.

[Read December 21, 1876.]

(Abstract.)

In several orders of the Insecta the structure of the organs upon
which the perpetuation of the species depends has afforded, in
very many cases, the best and surest characters for the discrimina-
tion of species. But in the Lepidoptera, one of the largest of the
orders, and that on which perhaps the greatest amount of atten-
tion (scientific or otherwise) has been bestowed, the structure of
these parts has not received the consideration it deserves, but
has been almost entirely ignored.

The author in confining himself to the European forms is not
prepared to admit that his conclusions thereon will hold good with
the Lepidoptera in general, though there are certain indications
that it may.

He has selected Epinephele hyperantus, L., as a type or stan-
dard, and describes its apical segment, noting that in this and
all cases it is necessary to clear away the scales and hairs for a
clear and satisfactory view of the parts to be obtained. The appen-
dages are three, viz. a superior and two lateral ones. To the
latter he applies the name “ harpagones,”’ though possibly equi-
valents of the appendices inferiores in Trichoptera: The upper
appendage he designates “tegumen;’’ and he takes notice of
the relations of all three to the anal opening and intromittent
organ &c."

He has discussed the structure of the apical segment, and its
modifications in various families, the nature and varied character of
the tegumen and of the harpagones, comparing the resemblances
and differences in groups. From these data he then traces the
apparent affinities as derived from the said characters, and gives
it as his opinion that not only do they yield good generic dis-
tinctions, but that in many cases specific differentiation is very
appreciable. In his researches the author has made a great num-
ber of sketches, which illustrations render comparison relatively
easy. These and the complete paper will hereafter be published
in the Society’s ‘ Transactions.’

rs

196 MR. ARTHUR GARDINER BUTLER ON THE

The Butterflies of Malacca. By Agruur Gaxrpiner Buruus,
F.L.S., F.Z.S., Senior Assistant in the Zoological Department,
British Museum.

[Read December 21, 1876.]
(Abstract. )

Tue author has already, in a brief communication (Journ. Linn.
Soc. no. 67, vol. xiii. p. 115), given a preliminary notice of two
new species of Lepidoptera from Malacca, and mentioned the
donor and circumstances which have enabled him to draw up an
extended list, with annexed remarks on geographical distribution. ©
It is only necessary to add that the paper, with figures of the
new and more remarkable forms, will subsequently appear in the
Society’s ‘ Transactions.’

It would seem that of 280 species of determinable Lepidoptera
collected by Capt. Pinwill, 43 are new or hitherto unnamed spe-
cies, as follows :—

Euploea Pinwillii, male and female, allied to H. ménétriésii. -

Calliploea leucogonis, female, nearly allied to E. vestigiata.

Hestia linteata, male and fenale, nearly allied to H. belia.

Yphthima corticaria, male and female, allied to Y. nareda.

Thaumantis pseudaliris, male, with affinities to T. aliris.

Athyma nivifera, g and 9, bearing resemblances to A. nefte.

A. clerica, male, nearly allied to A. abiassa.

Neptis mamaja, male and female, nearly allied to N.eurynome.

N. leuconota, female, distinguishable from N. nata.

N. gononata, male, intermediate in character between N. nata
and N. soma.

N. dorelia, male and female, with differences from N. tiga.

N. peraka, male and female, somewhat resembling N. heliodora.

N. dindinga, female, a large and well-marked species.

Diadema incommoda, male, approaching to D. bolina and female

to D. nerina.

Cethosia methypsea, male, allied to C. hypsina and C. penthesilia.

Cirrochroa rotundata, male, nearly allied to C. mithila.

Cynthia erotella, ¢ and 9, smaller than, but allied to, C. erota.

Parthenos lilacinus, male and female, bears resemblances to
Minetra gambrisius.

Castalius ethion, female, not unlike C. roxus.

Lampides pseudelpis, male, nearly allied to L. elpis.

BUTTERFLIES OF MALACCA. 197

Catargyra elegans, male, allied to genera Lampides and Miletus.

Delias metarete, male and female, nearly allied to D. hyparete.

Appias plana, male, with constant differences from A. leptis.

Ornithoptera ruficollis, male, allied to O. flavicollis.

Papilio Esperi, male and female, having close affinities with
P. mestor and P. achates.

Cobalus ciliatus, female, expanse of wings 1 inch 7 lines.

Pamphila mesoides, male and female, resembling P. mesa.

Astictopterus gemmifer, male and female, several examples.

A. stellifer, male, much like a small A. jama.

Plesioneura asmara, male and female, similar to P. dan.

P. Pinwillii, male, most nearly allied to P. tabrica.

Tagiades calligana, male and female, closely allied to T. atticus.

T. lavata, male, allied to T. pralaya.

Callidula abisara, male, nearly allied to C. sakuni.

Amesia juvenis, male, most nearly allied to A. venusta.

A. pexifascia, female, the most striking species in the genus.

Laurion corculum, male, expanse of wings 1 inch 1 line.

Birnara nubila, female, allied to Pantana bicolor.

Kettelia Lowii, female, new genus allied to Penora.

Orgyia turbata, female, expanse of wings 113 lines.

Nyctalemon docile, male and female, a local representative of
N. hector.

Urapteryx marginipennis, male, approaches U. crocopterata.

Glyphodes amethysta, male, expanse of wings 1 inch 2 lines.

Of the 258 species now registered from Malacca, thirty-six
appear to be endemic; of the remainder rather more than a fourth
occur either at Assam or Nepal, more than a seventh at Moul-
mein, less than a seventh at Ceylon, nearly two fifths (appa-
rently) in the island of Penang, about two elevenths at Singapore,
about three sevenths in Borneo, about three sixteenths in Sumatra,
more than a third in Java, about two thirteenths in Siam, rather
more than a tenth in China, two species in the New Hebrides,
and six in Australia. Thus Malaccan Butterflies preponderate
towards those of the Indian region.

198 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND >

On Amphibious and Migratory Fishes of Asia.
By Francis Day, Esq., F.L.S.

[Read January 18, 1877.]

NEARLY nine years since (May 14th, 1868) I laid before the Zoo-
logical Society of London the results of some investigations which
I had made in Madras respecting the modes of respiration
amongst Indian freshwater fishes. Since that time, although
more facts have come to my notice, materials have scarcely been
sufficient to enable me positively to prove the amphibious nature
of some of these inhabitants of the waters of the plains of
Asia.

Now, however, mainly due to the assistance I have received
from several friends, more especially Dr. Hubrecht of Leyden,
I think that the period has arrived when I may venture again to
request attention to the facts which I have collected, in the hope
that comparative anatomists who have sufficient leisure will more
fully investigate the anatomical details.

The existence of fishes in Tropical Asia having amphibious
manuers has long been known; but that they are amphibious, in
the true sense of the word, appears to be doubted by a portion, at
least, of the scientific world. Professor Huxley has remarked
“that there are some fishes which, besides gills, possess an appa-
ratus for breathing air directly. This apparatus, represented by
the air-bladder of ordinary fishes, first takes on its new character
and becomes a lung in that remarkable genus Ceratodus, in which
it exists as a large cellular structure situated in the upper part
of the abdominal cavity just under the ‘vertebral column, and
connected with the gullet by a slit (the glottis), by means of
which the fish can pass air from the mouth into the lungs. It is
not, however, this peculiarity of opening into the cesophagus
which constitutes a lung; for the air-bladder of many fishes pos-
sesses an open duct of a similar nature: the great distinguishing
feature is, that the blood taken to this bladder does not pass into
the ordinary venous channels, but is returned immediately to
the heart in a purified condition by a special vein.” (‘ Nature,’
March 28, 1876, p. 411.)

The above extract would appear to advance the three following
propositions :—

First. That in fishes we first perceive the swim-bladder assum-

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASIA. 199

ing the functional character of a lung in the genus Ceratodus,
rendering it amphibious.

Secondly. That this respiratory sac, which has the functional
character of a lung, is the homologue of the air-bladder or swim-
bladder of ordinary fishes.

Thirdly. That the distinguishing character of an amphibious
fish is that the blood is purified at a respiratory organ distinct
from the gills, receiving venous but returning arterial blood into
the general circulation.

I propose in the present communication adverting more parti-
eularly to the following points :—

First. That there are fishes in Asia which normally respire at-
mospheric air direct.

Secondly. That these fishes possess respiratory organs having
a lung-like function, and which are distinct from the gills.

Thirdly. That they are essentially amphibious, as their accessory
respiratory organs receive venous and return arterial blood into
the general circulation without such passing through the branchiz
or gills.

Fourthly. That this accessory respiratory sae is certainly not
homologous with the swim-bladder of fishes, but may be with the
respiratory sac of amphibious reptiles.

Prior to discussing these points I propose briefly relating how
I have been led, step by step, to these conclusions.

Ten years since, having failed in my experiment of attempting
to introduce Trout by means of their ova into the waters of the
Neilgherry hills in Madras, I obtained the sanction of Govern-
ment to try whether fish from the plains would succeed. At first
Thad great difficulty in conveying them alive, when a native sug-
gested mixing mud with the water, and in this way many Ophio-
cephalide were carried in safety up the hills.

As it appeared to me that the existence of mud in largeequan-
tities in water would tend more to the destruction than preserva-
tion of the lives of fishes, by choking the gills and impeding circu-
Jation, I was at a loss for an explanation. The native reason
was that they could not beat themselves about so much, an argu-
ment which seemed hardly sufficient to explain the cireum-
stances.

During the monsoon months, when enormous quantities of rain-
water descend from the hills to the rivers of the plains, the fish
are often seen dead in large numbers, due either to the water

200 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

being poisoned from the vegetation, or simply to its being fouled,
preventing respiration by choking the gills. Ifthe dead fish are
examined, it will be found that poisoned water kills all kinds of
fish, fouled water only those which have no accessory means of
respiration, in fact all which are not amphibious.

The collector of Bustee reported, in answer to my inquiries,
“The Bela Tal at Jeitpur is formed by an embankment across a
low valley, and the course of a small hill-stream lies through it.
During the hot weather this stream becomes almost dry, only re-
taining water in holes in the midst of the jungle ; these holes
become full of dead leaves, and with the first burst of the rains
the putrid contents are swept down into the lake. The conse-
quence, I was told on the spot, is that numbers of fish are per-
fectly stupified and float on the top of the water, an easy prey to
any who will take them.” Mr. Hobart likewise observed, “I
have never heard of poisoning being used as a means to capture
fish there; but I remember seeing the stream poisoned naturally.
At the end of the cold season some rain had fallen and had washed
the fresh leaves into the water, which turned, from this and other
causes, to a dull red colour. ‘The fish sickened and died in thou-
sands. On the up-stream side of the arches of the bridges and traps
(weirs spanning the river) you could see millions of fish eager to
get down past the obstruction and escape from the poisoned
water. For a hundred yards or so the river was a mass of living
heads. ‘The fish died in a day or two, and birds of prey came from
all parts to devour them. ‘The dead fish were carted off as
manure.”

The Tehsildar of Buldana, in the assigned districts of the Dec-
can, observed that “ disturbing the water of a stream so as to cause
it to become muddy is said sometimes to cause the fish to die.”
The Collector of Tanna in Bombay remarked that when the
riverss become muddy at the commencement of the monsoon,
fish die in large numbers, also when they become nearly dry at
the close of the hot weather. In Oudh it was reported from
Faizabad that fish were captured by the water being first
mudded by gangs of fifty or sixty men. In fact, I saw the
same thing this last year in Ireland. The water was low; some
cattle went into a small pond formed by the stream above
having ceased to flow, and two Trout were thus destroyed.

On the other hand, in 1866, I was riding from Mettapolliam to
Wellington, and whilst crossing the Kullaar bridge, at 4.45 P.m.,

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASIA. 201

obtained a young Ophiocephalus gachua (an amphibious fish). I
wrapped it up in a wet pocket-handkerchief and carried it up an
ascent of 5000 feet, only moistening the handkerchief twice by the
way. In four hours I reached my destination ; and my companion
was none the worse for its journey. In Burma the fishermen are
practically acquainted with the fact that some fish, as these Ophio-
cephalids, are air-breathers. When they wish to fish some of
their ponds, they let out all the water they are able, when perhaps
the sole visible contents are five feet of slimy mud through which
their bamboo net (gya) has been drawn. Though no fish are
now to be seen, they are well aware that many fine ones remain ;
so they take a large sail or mat and spread it over the mud. After
a time this is removed ; amphibious fishes are seen stupefied, and
so are easily captured, their blood having become carbonized, due
to the impossibility of their obtaining access to the atmospheric
air for the purpose of respiration.

The dAnabas scandens, or Climbing Perch of India, and its smaller
relatives the Trichogasters, are kept four or five days alive by the
natives of Calcutta in earthen pots destitute of water, and from
which daily requirements are supplied, the remaining fish appear-
ing to be as lively as when first captured. The Osphromenus olfax
is reputed to be grown and fattened in similar pots by the residents
of Batavia, the water being occasionally changed.

I think the foregoing instances are sufficient to raise the pro-
bability that there may be two forms of respiration amongst
Asiatic freshwater fishes :—jirst, by employing at the gills the air
contained in the water; secondly, by respiring air direct.

When my attention, in 1866, was first attracted to these phe-
nomena, 1 was not aware that Mr. Boake had published the pre-
vious year, in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society, a paper full of interesting facts proving that
certain fish in that island were, as he termed them, “ air-breathers,”’
as distinguished from the usual “ water-breathers.”” He records
how he found men and cattle moving about over rank grass
growing in a certain locality, beneath which were fish inhabiting
a fluid muddy substance as thick as pea-soup. These fish rose
to the surface, their presence being detected by the emission of
bubbles of air. They, in fact, acted as Seals and other marine
Carnivora do in the Arctic regions when rising to breathe air at
their blow-holes in the ice. The sod covering the Ceylon tank or
muddy spot, as recorded by Mr. Boake, acted as efficiently to
prevent the fish obtaining atmospheric air as does the unbroken

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 18

202 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

ice in the Polar regions. Both adopt the same plan; both have
blow-holes; and it is at these places that man watches for and
captures his prey.

The generality of fish, as is well known, undoubtedly respire air
which is in solution in the water in which they reside, and find such
sufficient for respiratory purposes, except under some peculiar
circumstances, when they obtain it direct from the atmosphere.

On June 27th, last year, I accompanied Dr. Dobson to the
Dublin Zoological Gardens. In one of the tanks at the aquarium
were three common eels (Anguilla vulgaris), whose usual mode of
respiration appeared to be as follows:—Opening their mouths,
they took in the amount of water they required, transmitting it
backwards through the gill-opening. In this course it passed
the branchiz, and thus the blood was oxygenated. One, how-
ever, appeared indisposed ; for instead of taking in water like his
companions, he raised his head to the surface, and each time he
did so he opened his mouth and a current of bubbles was sent
backwards through his gill-openings. Here were three specimens
of the same species placed in identical situations, whilst they
showed different modes of oxygenating their blood; the air con-
tained in the water sufficed for two, whereas the third was obtain-
ing it direct from the atmosphere.

In 1871, at Calcutta, I procured some living specimens of eels
(Ophichthys boro). The gills of this fish are contained in large
cavities, one on either side of the head, those on one side being
divided from those on the other by an impervious septum. On
watching its movements, it was seen to distend this receptacle*
with air taken in at the mouth, or, if in water, to live equally
well by passing this fluid through the gill-cavity. On holding
its small gill-opening firmly closed, it took in air by its mouth in
distinct gasps: if its mouth were closed, it struggled until it was
released, as, of course, without its use it could not respire. On
exposing the gills by cutting away the gill-membranes, and then
placing it in water, it could be seen to slowly move its branchiz,
even when in such a situation that it could not obtain atmospheric
air direct. It appeared to be able to employ for respiration air
dissolved in water or air inspired directly from the atmosphere.

We see, when the water gets foul or warm in the summer, or
insufficient in quantity for the contained fish, they take in air

* In fishes having small external branchial openings the cavity containing

the gills is usually large ; and these fish, as a general rule, live some time after
their removal from water.

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASIA. 203

direct, which is said by some naturalists to be ejected per anum
after it has been used. Native fishermen assert that the midday
is the best time to net tanks, as the fishes are nearer the surface.

In order to prove the correctness or the reverse of Indian fresh-
water fishes having two normal modes of respiration, I instituted
a number of experiments, which I do not propose detailing in full
(see ‘ Proc. Zool. Soe.’ J. ¢.), but some of which I must advert to
for the purpose of illustrating my views.

Before, however, I commence this, I think the following propo-
sition will be admitted—that if fish aerate their respiratory organs
Jrom air contained in the water in which they reside, there cannot
normally be any necessity for their ati to the surface to take in
atmospheric air direct.

Of course, under certain abnormal conditions, all species rise to
the surface, as I have already pointed out; but the following ex-
periment will show that the freshwater fishes of India are divisible
into two distinct classes as regards respiration.

I took a glass globe which I nearly filled with fresh water and
into which I put a Barbel (Barbus) and a Walking fish ( Ophzoce-
phalus): the first used its gills freely, but did not come to the sur-
face. The second moved its gills sluggishly, but every now and
then ascended to the surface ; and each time it did so, it appeared
to blow out a bubble of air. These were normal conditions of
respiration as invariably observed in these examples of the two
classes under ordinary circumstances.

I then took a piece of net, which, by means of a ring of split
rattan, could be pushed into the globe of water, thus dividing the
interior as by a diaphragm. This J inserted about 2 inches below
the level of the water, so that it became impossible for the
contained fishes to rise to the surface and obtain atmospheric
air.
The result in allinstances was similar. The fishes which moved
their gills rapidly and did not normally rise to the surface remained
unaffected ; those which normally rose to the surface became
more and more sluggish, and died in a longer or shorter period,
apparently in a ratio corresponding with whether they had been
quiescent or excited, the quiescent ones living the longest.

Conclusive as the above results appeared to be, I tried another
series of experiments. I stitched a bandage round the gill-openings
of both these classes of fishes. Those which normally used their
gills rapidly and did not rise to the surface soon died; those

18*

204 VR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

which normally rose to the surface, apparently for the purpose
of respiring atmospheric air direct, were unaffected.

Tf, as has been and still is maintained, these accessory organs
or sacs are for the purpose of retaining water to moisten the gills*
whilst these fishes are wandering on the land, how comes it that
when placed in a situation where such a requirement is not
needed (as in a globe of water under a net) they die? On
the other hand, I have kept these fishes hours, have seen them
kept alive days, with merely the addition of a sprinkling now
and then of water. In this moist condition they are lively,
and the earthen pot in which they are contained has nume-
rous mucus-covered bubbles present and more being constantly
formed by the respiration of these fishes.

From the foregoing I came to the conclusion :—frst, that in
the fishes which died when deprived of direct access to atmospheric
air death was not occasioned by any deleterious properties either
in the water or apparatus employed, but simply because they were
unable to sufficiently decarbonize their blood on the air present
solely in the water; secondly, that they were able to live in mois-
ture (out of water) for lengthened periods ; lastly, that the cavity
or receptacle admitted to exist in such fishes (as are here termed
amphibious) is not for the purpose of retaining water for moist-
ening the gills, but that its walls have a highly vascular covering,
and air is passed there for the purpose of respiration, whilst it
seems probable that the air, having been so employed, is ejected
by the mouth and not swallowed.

Thad intended forming an artificial opening through the muscles
of the back into the respiratory air-sac of the Saccobranchus fos-
silis ; but injuries caused by its pectoral spine assume such a phleg-
_monous character that I desisted, after one of my native servants
had nearly lost his arm from a wound inflicted by one of those
fishes, which the fishermen had previously refused to handle.

However, in looking over a paper by Dr. Taylor (‘ Gleanings in
Science,’ 1880, p. 170), I found the following observations respect-
ing this fish:—“If a-quill, open at both ends, be introduced
through an incision at the side of the spine into one of these
canals (air-sacs), bubbles of air will arise from it ’””—thus show-
ing that this cavity is for the reception of air, not of water.
Likewise, amongst the Ophiocephalide, if they are held firmly
under water, then turned over on their backs and the gills opened,
bubbles of air arise.

* Tf the branchix become dry, respiration is precluded.

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASTA. 205

Thus far it is evident that we have fishes which breathe air,
die if they cannot obtain direct access to it, and whose respira-
tory cavities are found to contain gaseous substances, not water —
or proving my first proposition, that there are fishes in Asia which
normally respire atmospheric air direct. It now becomes neces-
sary to inquire what are these fishes? and how do they differ in
their circulation from what obtains in ordinary fish ?

The genera of fishes (excluding Clupeide) which exist in the
fresh waters of India and possess respiratory organs having a lung-
like function, and which are distinct from the gills, are as
follows :—

Amongst the Acanthopterygians we have genera of the Laby-
. rinthici, all of which possess a cavity above the upper portion of
the first branchial arch, which contains an elaborate apparatus
consisting of thin lamin of bone covered by a vascular mucous
membrane. Of these we have species of Anabas, Polyacanthus,
Osphromenus, Trichogaster. The Ophiocephalide have likewise a
cavity above and accessory to the true gill-cavity, and covered
with an extremely vascular mucous membrane. Amongst the
Siluridz, all of which possess an air-vessel in the abdomen con-
nected by a duct with the pharynx, we have in addition an acces-
sory air-breathing apparatus. The genus Clarias has a dendritic
accessory branchial apparatus attached to the convex surface of
the second, third, and fourth branchial arches ; and this is received —
into a recess behind the situation of the normal gill-cavity ; it ap-
pears like sticks of red coral. From the dissections of M. Geoffroy
in the Nile species it would appear that these arborescent-looking
organizations are composed of a semitransparent substance, their
external surface being densely covered by minute branches of the
branchial artery ; and here some at least of the blood appears to
be aerated. Cuvier assigns to this organ the double function, of
affording a surface for the oxygenation of blood, and as so many
hearts for propelling it into the aorta. Mr. Boake (Journal
Ceylon Branch Royal Asiatic Soc. 1865-66, p. 133) shows that
this genus of fishes is one which takes in air direct. The genus
Saccobranchus has an accessory respiratory sac to the gills, which
extends backwards along either side of the neural spines amongst
the dorsal muscles of the abdominal and part of the caudal regions.

Amongst the eel-like forms of the family Symbranchide, we
have the Cuchia eel (Amphipnous cuchia), which possesses three
branchial arches having rudimentary lamine and a respiratory air-
sac, which communicates with the gill-cavity.

206 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

In every fish of the fresh waters of India that I have perso-
nally observed respiring atmospheric air direct, or of which I have
been able to collect indisputable evidence that they do so, we find
an accessory respiratory organ to the -gills:—in Clarias an arbo-
rescent vascular one ; amongst Ophiocephalide a somewhat simple
cavity above the gill-opening also covered with a vascular mem-
brane; in the Labyrinthici an elaborate one of thin bony lamine.
In Amphipnous we see that “of all the arches the second alone
possesses amine for the purposes of breathing ; and these consist
merely of a few long fibrils attached to the middle of the arch and
occupying but a very small extent of its surface; the third sup-
ports in the place of laminz a thick and semitransparent tissue,
which in large individuals of the species presents a fringed or
denticulated appearance at its edge; whilst the third and fourth
are bare, having only the membrane that fills up the space be-
tween the arches reflected over them. The principal organs of
respiration are two small bladders, which the animal has the power
of filling with air, immediately derived from the atmosphere. They
are placed behind the head, one on each side of the neck, above
the superior or vertebral extremities of the branchial arches, and
are covered over by the common integuments, presenting exter-
nally, when distended with air, two protuberances of a round
SINGIOE oo 6 Es They present, when separated from their surrounding
_ attachments and inflated with air, thin, semitransparent, membra-
nous parietes, resembling the posterior portions of the lungs of a
gerpent..... Of the whole volume of blood contained in the
branchial artery, one third passes through the gills and respiratory
bladder, whilst the other two thirds are conveyed directly from
the heart to the aorta without being exposed to the action of
the air.”’—Taynor, /.e.

IT asked Dr. Hubrecht to be so good as to dissect a Saccobran-
chus for the purpose of tracing out its circulation. This he did,
remarking, however, that Hyrtl (Sitz. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Math.
Cl. Bd. xi. Heft 2, 1853, p. 8305) had already accomplished this,
and that bis present dissection went, as a whole, entirely to cor-
roborate what Hyrtl had published. From the exceedingly de-
veloped bulbus arteriosus (c) of the heart spring the four pairs of
branchial arteries. Of these the fourth pair on the left and the
first pair on the right* are more developed than their neighbours ;

* This distribution appears to be an exaggerated form of how the pseudo-
branchiz are supplied with blood,

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASTA. 207

and after traversing their corresponding branchial arch, they take
their way to the dorsal respiratory air-sacs (b), on the surface of
which numerous lateral branches spring from the principal longi-
tudinal vessel. This vessel at the respiratory sac is along the

A dissection showing the air-sacs and circulatory apparatus in Saccobranchus,
altered after Hyrtl.

a a, air-bladder; 6d, respiratory air-sacs; c, bulbus arteriosus; d, vessel of
right side, from anterior branchial pair; e, vessel of left side, from fourth bran-
chial pair ; f, vena arteriosa, communicating with branchial vein of fourth pair
of branchiz.

dorsal surface (d) of the right side, and on the ventral surface (e)
of the left; and each of them gives off a branch to the posterior
wall of the branchial cavity, the mucous surface of which is pro-
vided with a network of respiratory capillaries.

The blood having passed through the capillaries of the respira-
tory air-sac, is collected into a vena arteriosa (f), which commu-
nicates with the branchial vein of the fourth pair of branchiz, and
the blood is driven, together with that returning from the other
branchiz, to the common aorta. |

Some independent branches, going to muscles of the back &c.,
spring from the vena arteriosa of the respiratory air-sac even before
its contents have entered into the general circulation by the more

208 WR, FL DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

regular way of the aorta, some smaller veins coming from the
trunk likewise to enter into the capillary system of the respira-
tory airsac.

The respiratory air-sacs are direct continuations of the mucous
membrane of the branchial cavity. Two layers enter into the
composition of their walls—an external fibrous, and an internal
delicate one.

Here we see much the same process carried out as in the Cuchia
eel—blood oxygenated at a respiratory sac, and, conjoined with that
oxygenated at the lungs, returned purified direct to the aorta ;
whilst an air-bladder (@) with its pneumatic duct likewise exists.

Knowing this, we can now account in a mest satisfactory man-
ner for the experiments and their results. In these amphibious
fishes the great proportion of the blood which is oxygenated is
thus purified at the respiratory air-sac; this now arterialized
blood, joined with the smaller portion which has been oxygenated
at the gills, enters the aorta. In active life and continued mus-
cular movement it is necessary that a large amount of blood should
be decarbonized ; in fact the use of the respiratory airsacs is re-
quired, the access to atmospheric air a necessity. Failing access
to atmospheric air, the gills come into play; and they are able to
carry on a moderate amount of oxygenation, but insufficient for
much muscular action or active exertion.

Now the problem arises, Where are amphibious fishes found ?
why should they exist ?

The Labyrinthici are spread throughout Sind, India, Ceylon,
Burma, Siam, the Malay archipelago to the Philippines, and
China. Two genera are likewise found in Southern Africa. In
fact they are distinctly tropical forms, and mostly found in low-
lying localities but little removed from tidal reach, or in the deltas
of large rivers.

The Ophiocephalide are distributed thoughout the plains of
India, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay archipelago to the Phi-
lippines, and China : one species extends westward to Beloochistan
and Afghanistan; and I have taken it at the Andamans. These
fishes are very carnivorous ; and I have seen them pursuing the
little Haplochili up small streams where there would not be suffi-
cient water to oxygenate their gills ; but respiring atmospheric air,
this necessity becomes avoided. The favourite resort ofthe O phio-
cephalidee is amongst the grass at the margin of a tank, where
they can lie in such shallow water that their mouth is either

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASIA. 209

just out of, or immediately under, the surface. Here they respire
with ease, and are ready to capture any incautious frog that passes
that way.

It is the same with the amphibious Siluroids. It has appeared
to me that they are mostly found in irrigated fields, ditches, and
the like, that they push up these to deposit their ova, and are thus
coustantly running the risk of having the water-supply cut off.
This possibility of respiring air permits amphibious fishes to ascend
small streams and deposit their ova in situations where the young
may be hatched and remain in safety until large enough to take
care of themselves, but where their great enemies, especially carp,
are unable to attack them.

We now arrive at the consideration of my fourth proposition
—that the respiratory sac is certainly not homologous with the swim-
bladder of fishes, but 1s more probably with the respiratory sac of
amphibious reptiles.

Cuvier observed that “the gills are the lungs of animals abso-
Jutely aquatic.” Geoffroy St.-Hilaire regarded the branchial
arches of fishes as the modified tracheal rings of the air-breathing
classes. If this view is correct, these respiratory sacs, which are
merely formed by a continuation of the mucous membrane lining
the branchial cavity, are a part and portion or an addition to the
branchiz.

Professor Owen denies the homology of branchial apparatus
with the lungs, and tests his opinion by considering the homolo-
gies of the air- or swim-bladder in fishes. First pointing out that
the totality of the organization of Lepidosiren is ichthyic, he con-
trasts it with the Ganoid Polypterus. The Lepidosiren has a cel-
lular lung formed by the partition of the bladder into two elon-
gated sacs, with a supply of venous blood from a true pulmonary
artery, and also a pneumatic duct going to the ventral surface of
the esophagus. In the two forms compared, the arteries of the
swim-bladders are derived from the returning dorsal portions of
the branchial vascular arches before their union to form the aorta,
venous in Lepidosiren, partially arterialraed in Polypterus.

Without doubt this negative argument is good, and might be
considered conclusive, were it not that we have in Saccobranchus a
respiratory sac (b, 6) and also a swim-bladder (a). This swim-
bladder, although partially enclosed in bone, has its pneumatic duct
leading into the alimentary canal. This duct, of which so much
has been made as establishing a communication with the ventral

210 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND -

surface of the pharynx, is seenin the amphibious Lepidosiren ;
but it seems to have been overlooked that the respiratory sac of
Saccobranchus is likewise connected with the commencement of
the alimentary canal and at its dorsal surface.

The air-bladder, or swim-bladder, is found amongst the fresh-
water fishes of India in two distinct forms—(1) enclosed in a bony
case formed by a portion of the first or second vertebra or au-
ditory ossicles, (2) free in the abdominal cavity. There are inter-
mediate forms; and (3) it may even be absent. In the Physo-
stomi, as in the Siluroids and Carps, whether enclosed in bone or
free in the abdominal cavity, it possesses a duct opening into
the alimentary canal. Much stress has also been laid upon the
interior of this swim-bladder being occasionally found subdivided,
as in the respiratory sacs of reptiles; but the same has been ob-
served in the respiratory air-sac of the Cuchia eel.

The pneumatic duct, as already observed, has been looked upon
as the homologue of the trachea, permitting in the embryo an ex-
tension of the mucous membrane lining the alimentary canal to
the swim-bladder. There are some objections to this view. The
pneumatic duct, it must be admitted, does open into the alimentary
canal at a spot situated somewhere between the end of the stomach
(as in the herring) and the pharynx. But in the majority of
Teleostean fishes which possess swim-bladders, more especially in
the marine forms (excluding Clupeide), there is no pneumatic
duct and no connexion between the swim-bladder and alimentary
canal; in many there is no swim-bladder at all, the same as in
most fishes there is no respiratory sac.

I do not propose in this place to inquire into what is the homo-
logue of the swim-bladder, as I hope to do so at some future date;
but I will merely point out that in the carp, although it possesses
a pneumatic duct leading from the swim-bladder into the alimen-
tary canal,it has also a communication with the acoustic apparatus ;
in fact, such in many fishes is effected either by a tubular pro-
longation or by chains of ossicles, termed by Weber the malleus,
incus, and stapes, in which Owen observed he had mistaken a
relation of analogy for one of homology.

Lastly, I would observe that the artery to the swim-bladder
carries arterial blood from the abdominal aorta, cceliac artery, or
branchial vein, whereas that to the lungs or respiratory air-sacs
conveys venous but returns arterial blood.

In the genera Saccobranchus and Clarias we find a swim-

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASTA. 211

bladder as described, with its pneumatic duct leading to the ali-
mentary canal—and its supply of blood being arterial when re-
ceived, venous as returned into the general circulation. But we
have also the respiratory air-sacs, which are direct continuations of
the mucous membrane of the branchial cavity, and consequently in
the embryonic state were connected with the upper extremity of
the alimentary canal. That this respiratory air-sac with a lung-
like formation is, as a rule, absent in fishes, is no argument against
this view; for the swim-bladder is likewise often absent. This
respiratory air-sac, when existing, appears to be always in con-
nexion with the alimentary canal, the swim-bladder only some-
times, whilst the latter has also communication with the acoustic
apparatus. Lastly this respiratory air-sac receives venous and
returns arterial blood into the general circulation.

The Saccobranchus, in short, is a true amphibious fish, with
both a respiratory sac and swim-bladder, the former of which has
an analogous function with, and is, I believe, the homologue of,
the respiratory sac of amphibians; whereas its swim-bladder,
which cannot also be the homologue of the same organ, both
existing in the same species, I leave for future consideration.

Having thus briefly reviewed the amphibious fishes of India
and the Hast, we arrive at the question of the migrations of Indian
fishes. Before commencing this, a few explanatory remarks are
necessary. Thus marine fish very frequently migrate into the fresh
waters for breeding or predaceous purposes. Sometimes passing
over high banks with a flood tide, their return to the sea is frus-
trated by the waters falling; and it not uncommonly happens
that fish thus made prisoners of cannot reenter the sea until the
succeeding year. Many doubtless die; some do not ; in fact, Hyder
in the last century introduced the Chanos salmoneus from the sea
into a tank in Canara, and they are there to this day. On the
other hand, did one ever hear of a freshwater fish retiring to the
ocean to breed ? one has been said to have been captured out at
_sea. IT allude to the Gobius giuris. 1 do not question the fact ;
but I suppose the reason to have been as follows. During the
monsoon-season great volumes of water are carried down the
rivers, dry watercourses become impetuous torrents, rivers are
so full that nothing withstands their current. I have seen hill-
snakes washed down in Malabar, even so far as Cochin; and at
one of these periods I obtained a bottle of fresh water taken some
miles out at sea, but opposite the opening of the Cochin river.

212 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS AND

Freshwater fishes, so far as I know, cannot live in the sea; it is
entirely unsuited for them ; and this is one reason for believing
that as Indian freshwater fishes are found in Ceylon, the Anda-
mans, aud Nicobars, there must have been at one time a land con-
nexion, so that a freshwater continuity was possible.

Limiting my remarks to the migrations of strictly freshwater
fishes in India, I think there are two subjects for consideration : —

(1) Migrations as.observed at monsoon-seasons.

(2) Fishes fallig from the clouds.

The migrations of fishes at the commencement of monsoons
are due to two causes—breeding-purposes, and a search for food.
I do not propose entering upon the breeding of Indian freshwater
fishes here, as the subject would inordinately increase the length
of this paper ; I will therefore merely remark that certain marine
forms deposit their ova in the rivers of the plains, that many spe-
cies from the plains ascend hill- rivers and choose side-streams for
their offspring, whilst most of the amphibious forms pass up small
watercourses and there deposit their ova. In short, the direct
aerial respiration of certain amphibious fishes is a provision to
enable those forms to migrate through moist grass and muddy
channels. Numerous examples are given in Sir H. Tennent’s
‘Ceylon’ and elsewhere of migrations of these fishes.

It is evident that as soon as the rains set in we find nature reyi-
vified in the Hast ; and with the vegetation animal life wakens up.
Insects and Invertebrates appear; food that is suitable for fish
begins to abound. In tanks during the hot months the smaller
forms of fish have served for the nourishment of the large ones;
but as the bivalves, univalves, and frogs make their appearance the
fish evidently begin to change their diet. Thus it is that at the
commencement of the rains fish become very excited ; apparently
dissatisfied with the localities they inhabit, they restlessly seek a
change. This may be owing to the same instinct which causes
the migration of marine fishes to the fresh waters ; or a change in
the state of the waters augments their appetite, and with such .
arises the necessity of seeking a place where food more abounds.

The second form of migration of fishes, or their suddenly ap-
pearing where they have not been previously observed and could
scarcely have existed, is one which deserves attention; and of this
we have two forms—(1) falling from the clouds, (2) appearing in
the plains or elsewhere after heavy rains.

That fishes have been observed falling from the clouds has been

MIGRATORY FISHES OF ASIA. 213

shown von such conclusive evidence that a recapitulation of in-
stances appears to be superfluous.

Fishes have been observed in the East to fall from the clouds
in a fresh or in a decomposed condition. With reference to this, it
has been said that, sucked up by waterspouts, they may be carried
long distances. Last year, on October 5th, it was observed in
‘Nature’ that “a tornado of almost unexampled intensity and de-
structiveness swept over the Isle of Wight .. . and extended at least
16 miles to the N.H. of Cowes ... A gentleman in a small yacht,
which fortunately was out of the course of the tornado, suddenly
- heard sounds very much resembling the noise caused by the escape
of steam when at its highest pressure; and at the same time the
whole sky became clouded with articles of all forms and sizes,
which were carried through the air to a height of about 300 feet
and parallel with the shore... Turnips and other crops were
literally dragged out of the ground.” ‘This instance shows on a
small scale what exists in the East, how articles may be sucked
up, how little pools of water with the contained fish may be taken
up in a whirlwind ; and should the heat be excessive, one can easily
imagine how soon these masses of animal substance might decom-
pose. Every one in India has observed miniature whirlwinds
sucking up the dust in an hour-glass form, and with it pieces of
straw &c. which come within its influence.

The various accounts of fishes fallmg from the clouds may be
classified as follows :—jirst, those descending during violent
storms of winds and rain; secondly, appearing when no storm
occurred. Amongst the first of these classes they have been re-
corded as distributed over some considerable extent of country in
a continuous straight line, not more than a span in breadth, or
else as covering a moderate-sized spot.

Of the second form it has always seemed to me to be an open
question whether such were not fishes appearing suddenly in moist
places where they had not been previously observed, and in a
manuer which I now propose to enter into.

I have seen large fish suddenly appear after heavy rains in
most unlikely places—in fact, where but recently the locality had
been a dry open plain; and I have since seen them dug out of the
ground. I place these two instances together, as one may have
a considerable bearing on the other. During the dry months of
the year it is ceriain that almost every piece of water is stocked
with fish; and at these periods the minute forms play a most

214 MR. F. DAY ON AMPHIBIOUS FISHES OF ASIA.

important part in providing for the nourishment of the larger
kinds.

All species, amphibious or nat so, it is asserted, may be found
torpid ; and John Hunter’s hypothesis is probably correct. He
observes “that hibernation is apparently due to a suspension of
the faculties of animals by nature during such seasons and in
such situations that a supply of food is not obtainable.” Fish
sleep or estivate during the hot months at a period when nature
is generally torpid, reviving again with the monsoon-rains as
animal life resuscitates.

In Orissa the following instance occurred of the exhumation of
fishes from the earth.

I was fishing there in January 1869, in company with a very
intelligent native, to whom I expressed a wish to see fish exhumed
from the mud of tanks. He remarked that those which I have
termed amphibious, and also the spined eels, or Khynchobdellide
invariably retire into the mud of tanks as the water dries up ;
but he denied that carp ever did.

He suggested that we should at once make a trial at a neigh-
bouring tank, which was about an acre in extent and had not
more than four inches depth of water in its centre, whilst its
circumference was sufficiently hardened to walk upon. The soil
was a thick, consistent, bluish clay, and no excavation was made
within thirty paces of the water.

Within five minutes the coolies extracted, from at least 2 feet
below the mud, two Ophiocephalus punctatus and three Rhyncho-
bdella aculeata, all of which were lively and not in the least torpid.

There is a specimen of Amphipnous cuchia, or the amphibious
eel, in the Calcutta Museum, 13 inches long, presented by S. H.
Peal, Esq., with the following label :—“ This fish was hoed out of
stiff blue clay as I was standing overlooking men at work making
a bund, June 24th, 1865. No water had been seen near for some
time ”’*,

We could easily suppose that what occurs in the Lepidosiren
may likewise take place in these amphibious fishes. Lepzdosiren
are found inactive during the hot dry months, when their pulmo-
nary air-bladders are employed for respiration ; during this time
of the year they burrow in the mud, which becomes dried above,
them ; but they maintain a small communicating aperture with the
outer world, “and coiling themselves up in their cool chamber
clothe themselves by a layer of thick mucous secretion, and await

* The remainder of the label illegible.

DR. W. C. MSINTOSH ON THE PHYLLODOCIDA. 215

in a torpid state the return of the rains.’ Again in water, they
swim about, use their branchie ; and with an augmented arterial
circulation their activity returns, appetite increases, and propaga-
tion commences. :

Whether the Indian amphibious fishes likewise maintain an
outlet to the atmosphere, I have not been able to ascertain; but
that in some conditions eels do so is indisputable. Yarrell ob-
serves, respecting eels burying themselves, that the people of
Somersetshire know how to find the holes in the banks of the
rivers in which eels are laid up, by the hoar-frost not lying over
them as it does elsewhere, and dig them out in heaps*.

Note on a new Example of the Phyllodocide (Anaittis rosea).
By W. C. M‘Inrosu, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

[Read February 15, 1877.]

In the Catalogue of the Annelida in the British Museum the
precise habitats of the Phyllodocide are very slightly alluded to.
Thus, in regard to the common, though very beautiful, Phyllodoce
maculata, Johust., “ Berwick Bay ”’ is all the information afforded.
At St. Andrews and other parts this species (which corresponds
in colour and some other respects with the P. citrina of Malm-
gren) is very often found at the extreme margin of low water,
several inches in the fine sand; and last autumn a single example
of the new Anattis occurred with it at the former locality.

The family Phyllodocide is at present a somewhat difficult one
to study, because the bodies of the animals are both soft and
friable, and lose many of their characters soon after preservation
in spirit. Hence, in adopting Dr. Malmgren’s generic title
Anaitis, 1 concur with M. Claparéde in doing so simply to avoid
complication in synonymy.

The genus Anaitis is characterized by the fact that while the
first three pairs of tentacular cirri are borne by the buccal seg-
ment, the fourth pair occur on the succeeding one; but much
greater precision is yet required in this group.

Anaitis rosea is a small species, measuring about an inch and a
half; but the tailis absent in the specimen. The head is pale ante-

* Although I have not personally seen any Cyprinidz exhumed out of
dried-up mud, still that such does occur in the East appears to be proved by
sufficiently good authority. In fact, in Kurope carps bury themselves in the
mud, and pass months without eating, assembled in great numbers side by side.

216 DR. W. C. MINTOSH ON THE PHYLLODOCID®,.

riorly, with four pale terminal tentacles. In front of each eye is
a bright rose-red band slanting downward and backward, and then
turning round to join the larger rose-red area behind. Moreover
a pinkish band from the centre of the snout joins the latter
behind the eyes, which are thus encircled by a pale area. A
broad mass of rose-red occurs behind the eyes, the central part
being pale, while the lateral divisions assume a somewhat trian-
gular outline, as seen from the dorsum. The same rose-red hue
tints the bases of the tentacuiar cirri and passes some distance
along their columns. An ochre-yellow band proceeds from the
foregoing rose-red region backward along the median line of the
dorsum to the tip of the tail. Throughout the first three seg-
ments it is flecked with reddish grains, but thereafter the band is
bright yellow. Hach lateral region of the body is minutely flecked
with red, especially the anterior third ; and, further, the pigment
has a tendency to be arranged in transverse bars or streaks. The
general tone of the rest of the body and lamelle is pale buff.
Besides the latter hue on the ventral surface, a rose-red band oe-
eurs from the line of the first tentacular cirrus to that of the first
foot ; so that when the animal rests on the side of the glass, it
very closely resembles the abundant Nemertean Amphiporus lac-
tifloreus, Johnst., with its reddish ganglia.

There is nothing peculiar in the shape of the head, except that
it is hardly differentiated in the living animal from the succeeding
segments, the whole presenting a somewhat elongated appearance,
while the tip of the snout is blunt. The eyes are circular and
comparatively small. The proboscis is withdrawn in the specimen.

The body is somewhat broad in comparison with its length.
The superior lamelle are lanceolate, and are borne out from the
body on prominent pedicels. The bristle-bearing process is emar-
ginate ; and the bristles have rather slender shafts, with the usual
enlargement at the distal end, which is spinulose along the ter-
minal curves. The process at the tip is elongate and finely ser-
rated ; and the striz on its blade slope from the point and edge
downward and backward. The ventral lamelle are also lanceo-
late, but much more acutely pointed, and project beyond the tip
of the bristle-bearing processes.

The characters of the species are well defined, the small size of
the eyes at first sight distinguishing it from the majority of its
allies described by Malmgren and Claparede

—E

sIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 217

Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wasps.—Part IV.
By Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.8., D.C.L.,
Vice-Chancellor of the University of London.

+ [Read February 1, 1877.]

ad

(Puate XVII.)

ANTS.

In my last paper on this subject (Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool. vol. xi.
p. 445) I recorded some experiments showing the singular reluc-
tance of Ants to let themselves drop even for a very short distance,
and their want of ingenuity in bridging over chasms. Since then
IT have varied the experiments in the following manner.

Want of ingenuity in crossing Chasms.

I filled a saucer (woodcut, fig. 1, 8) with water and put in it a
block of wood (W), on the top of which I fastened a projecting
wooden rod (8B), on the end of which I placed a shallow glass cell
(A P) containing several hundred larve. From this cell I allowed
a slip of paper to hang down to within ;3, of an inch of the upper
surface of the artificial nest (N). At one side I put another block
of wood (C) with a lateral projection (D) which hung over the cell
containing the larve. Ithen made a connexion between D and
A, so that ants could ascend OC, and, passing over D, descend upon
the larve. I then put some specimens of Lasius niger to the larve,
and soon a large number of ants were engaged in carrying off
the larve. When this had continued for about three hours, I
raised D ;8, ofaninch above A. The ants kept on coming and tried
hard to reach down from D to A, which was only just out of their
reach. ‘Two or three, in leaning over, lost their foothold and
dropped into the larve ; but this was obviously an accident ; and
after a while they all gave up their efforts and went away, losing

their prize, in spite of most earnest efforts, because it did not occur
to them to drop ;%; of an inch.

Siege | to aneeee ate ne described in text.

LINN. JOUBN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 19

218 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

At the moment when the separation was made there were fifteen
ants on the larve. These could, of course, have returned if one
had stood still and allowed the others to get on its back. This,
however, did not occur to them; nor did they think of letting
themselves drop from the bottom of the paper on to the nest.
Two or three, indeed, fell down, I have no doubt, by accident; but
the remainder wandered about, until at length most of them got
into the water. After a time the others abandoned altogether as
hopeless the attempt to get at the larve.

I waited about six hours, and then again placed the glass (A)
containing the larve so as to touch the piece of wood (D), and
again put some ants to the larve. Soona regular string of ants
was established; when I again raised the wood (D) ;3, of an inch
above the glass (A), exactly the same result occurred. The ants
bent over and made every effort to reach the larve, but did not
drop themselves down, and after a while again abandoned all hope
of getting the larve.

Experiments testing Intelligence.

In order to test their intelligence, it seemed to me that there
was no better way than to ascertain some object which they would
clearly desire, and then to interpose some obstacle which a little
ingenuity would enable them to overcome. Following up, then,
the preceding observations, I placed some larve in a cup
which I put ona slip of glass surrounded by water, but acces-
sible to the ants by one pathway in which was a bridge consist-
ing of a strip of paper inch long and 3 imch wide. Having
then put a Formica nigra from one of my nests to these larve, she
began carrying them off, and by degrees a number of friends
came to help her. I then, when about twenty-five ants were so
engaged, moved the little paper bridge slightly, so as to leave a
chasm, just so wide that the ants could not reach across. They
came and tried hard to do so; but it did not occur to them to
push the paper bridge, though the distance was only about 3
inch, and they might easily have done so. After trying for about
a quarter of an hour, they gave up the attempt and returned home.
This I repeated several times.

Then, thinking that paper was a substance to which they were
not accustomed, I tried the same with a bit of straw 1 inch long
and 3 inch wide. The result was the same. I repeated this
twice.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 219

One day (Oct. 27th, 1876) I put some provisions in a shallow
box with a glass top and a single hole on one side; I then put
some specimens of Lasius niger to the food, and soon a stream of
ants was at work busily carrying supplies off to the nest. When
they had got to know the way thoroughly, and from thirty to forty
were so occupied, I poured some fine mould in front of the hole
so as to cover it up to a depth of about 3 aninch. J then took
out the ants which were actually in the box. As soon asthe ants
had recovered from the shock of this unexpected proceeding on
my part, they began to run all round and about the box, looking
for some other place of entrance. Finding none, however, they
began digging down into the earth just over the hole, carrying
off the grains of earth one by one and depositing them without
any order all round at a distance of from 3 to 6 inches, until they
had excavated down to the doorway, when they again began car-
rying off the food as before.

This experiment I repeated on the following days three or four
times, always with the same result.

Talso tried the same experiment with another species, viz. L.
flavus, and with the same result.

As to power of Communication.

In my previous paper I have recorded various experiments
made with the view of ascertaining whether, when ants have found
a store of food, they are able to describe the route to their com-
panions. The following also seems to me instructive. I put an
ant (L. niger) to some larvee as usual, and when she knew her
way, I allowed her to go home on her own legs; but as soon as
she emerged from the nest, if she had any friends with her, I took
her up and carried her to the larve. Under these circumstances
very few ants indeed found their way to them. Thus, June
22, at 5.80, an ant which had been previously under obser-
vation was put to some larve. She took one and returned as
usual to the nest. At 5.34 she came out with no less than 10
friends, and was then transferred to the larve. The others wan-
dered about a little, but by degrees returned to the nest, not one
of them finding their way to the larve. The single one above re-
ferred to picked up a larva, returned, and again came out of the
nest at 5.39 with eight friends, when exactly the same thing
happened. She again came out with companions at the under-

mentioned times :—
19*

220 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Number of Number of

Hour. friends. Hour. friends.
5.44 4 6.44, —
5.47 4 6.46 3
5.49 —= 6.49 2
5.52 — 6.56 =
5.04 5 6.59 —_
5.57 2 To 2 2
5.59 2 Tha Bh —
6. 1 5 7.6 3
6. 4 il oe S 3
6. 7 = 7.10 5
6.11 3 7.18 —_—
6.14 A esl 3
6.17 6 7.19 UF
6.20 — TDi 5
6.23 5 7.24 —
6.25 6 7.26 3
6.29 8 7.29 1
6.32 2 feo ey
6.35 — 7.35 —
6.42 4

Thus during these two hours more than 120 ants came out of
the nest in company with the one under observation. She knew
her way perfectly ; and itis clear that if they had been left alone,
all these ants would have accompanied her to the store of larvee.
Three of them were accidentally allowed to do so; but of the re-
mainder, only five found their way to the larve; all the others,
after wandering about a while, returned hopelessly to the nest.

One of the ants which I employed in my experiments was under
observation several days. I was, however, away from home most
of the day, and when I left in the morning and went to bed at night
I put her in a bottle; but the moment she was let out she began
to work again. On one occasion I was away for a week, and
on my return I let her out of the bottle, placing her on a little
heap of larvee about 3 feet from the nest. Under these circum-
stances I certainly did not expect her to return. However,
though she had thus been six days in confinement, the brave little
creature immediately picked up a larva, carried it off to the nest,
and, after half an hour’s rest, returned for another.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 221

Individual Influence or Character.

Another point of considerable interest is the difference in indi-
vidual character or influence which seems to be indicated by some
of the experiments.

For instance, on the 21st of June, at 6 minutes past noon, a
worker of F. nigra was put to some larve ; she carried off one as
usual and returned as follows, viz. at

12. 6 12.19 12.30 12.47
1 8) 12.21 12.33 12.51
12.10 12.23 12.36
12.15 12.26 12.40
12.17 12.28 12.44

During this time only two other ants came to the larvw. We
then imprisoned the ant and put another to the same larve at
2.56. This ant already knew her way well, and she returned as
follows, viz. :—

2.58 3.i1 3.25 8.52
3. 1 3.13 3.27 3.57
3. 4 3.15 3.30
3. 6 3.20 3.34
3. 9 8.22 3.05

During this time no other ant came. We then imprisoned
her again, and puta third ant to the same larve. She returned at

4,20 4.30 4.4.6 5. 6
4.23 4.36 4.56 5.10
4.26 4.40 5. 0
4.28 4.42 5. 2

when we left off watching her. Between 4.20 and 4.40 this ant
brought 10 friends with her ; but it is curious that from 4.40 to
the end of the observation no more came. I have often observed
that when an ant first begins to work, she brings many more
friends than afterwards.

Intelligence and Affection.

As evidence both of their intelligence and of their affection for
their friends, it has been said by various observers that when
ants have been accidentally buried they have been very soon dug
out and rescued by their companions. Without for one moment
doubting the facts as stated, we must remember the habit which

222 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

ants have of burrowing in loose fresh soil, and especially their
practice of digging out fresh galleries when their nests are dis-
turbed.

It seemed to me, however, that it would not be difficult to test
whether the excavations made by ants under the circumstances
were the result of this general habit, or really due to a desire to
extricate their friends.

With this view I tried the following experiments :—

(1) I placed (Aug. 20) some honey near a nest of Lasius niger
on a glass surrounded with water, and so arranged that in reach-
ing it the ants passed over another glass covered with a layer of
sifted earth, about one third of an inch in thickness. I then put
some ants to the honey, and by degrees a considerable number
collected round it. . Then at 1.30 p.nt. I buried an ant from the
same nest under the earth, and left her there till 5 p.m., when E
uncovered her. She was none the worse, but during the whole
time not one of her friends had taken the least notice of her.

(2) Sept. 1. I arranged some honey again in the same way.
At 5 p.m. about 50 ants were at the honey, and a considerable
number passing to and fro. I then buried an ant as before,
taking of course one from the same nest. At 7 p.m. the number of
ants at the honey had nearly doubled. At 10 p.m. they were still
more numerous, and had carried off about two thirds of the honey.
At 7 a.m, the next morning the honey was all gone, two or three
were still wandering about, but no notice had been taken of the
prisoner, whom I then let out. In this case I allowed the honey
to be finished, because I thought it might perhaps be alleged that~
the excitement produced by such a treasure distraeted their at-
tention, or even (on the principle of doing the greatest good to
the greatest number) that they were intelligently wise in securing a
treasure of food before they rescued their comrade, who, though in
confinement, was neither in pain nor danger. So far as the above
ants, however, are concerned, this cannot, I think, be urged.

(3) On the 8th Sept. I repeated the experiment, burying some
ants at 4pm. Up to 6.3 no attempt had been made to release
them. I let them outand buriedsome more. The next morning,
at 7 a.m., the honey was all gone, some ants were still wandering
about, but no notice had been taken of the captives, whom I then
hberated.

(4) I then (Aug. 21) made exactly the same experiment with
Myrmica rugimodis, as representing the other great family of

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 923

ants. At 2.30 I buried one as before under about 7 of an inch
of fine earth. A great many of her friends were passing con-
tinually over her head, but not one of them took any notice a
her till 7 p.m., when I let her out.

(5) Abouta month later, on Sept. 10, I again tried the same ex-
periment, imprisoning some at 10.15 a.m. Up to 4.30 they had
not been released. I then let them out, and buried some more.
The next morning the honey was all consumed, but some-of the
ants were still searching about. ‘The prisoners, however, were
still in durance.

But even if their friends who are in difficulty are actually in
sight, it by no means follows that their companions will assist
them.

Of this I could give almost any number of cases. Thus on one

occasion several specimens of Formica fusca belonging to one of
my nests were feeding on some honey spread on a slip of glass
(May 22). One of them had got thoroughly entangled init. I
took her and put her down just im front of another specimen
belonging to the same nest, and close by placed a drop of honey.
The ant devoted herself to the honey and entirely neglected her
friend, whom she left to perish.
_ Again, some specimens of Cremastogaster scutellaris were feed-
ing quietly (May 22) on some honey spread on a slip of glass,
and one of them had got thoroughly mixed in it. I took her out
and put her on the glass close by. She could not disentangle
herself; not one of her friends took the least notice of her, and
eventually she died. I then chloroformed one and put her on the
board among her friends. Several touched her, but from 12 to
2.30 p.m. none took any particular notice of her ™*.

I thought, however, that it would be desirable to make some
systematic observations on the subject. The results were as
follows.

Sept. 10, at 6 p.m.,a number of Lasius flavus from one of my
captive nests were out feeding on some honey. I chloroformed
four of them and also four from a nest in the park, at some dis-
tance from the place where the first had been originally procured,
and put them close to the honey. Up to 8.20 the ants had taken no
notice of their insensible fellow creatures. At 9.20 I found that

* Dead ants, I may add, are always brought out of the nest, and I have more

than once found a little heap on one spot, giving it almost the appearance of a
burial-ground.

224, SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

four friends were still lying as before, while the four strangers
had been removed. Two of them I found had been thrown over
the edge of the board on which the honey was placed. The other
two I could not see.

Again, on the 14th Sept., at 8.40, I put in the same way four
friends marked white, and four strangers marked red, close to
where my L. flavus were out feeding on honey placed on a slip
of glass over water. For some hours they took no notice of
them. Atlength one took a friend, and after carrying her about
some time, at 12.40, dropped her into the water. Some time
after another took up a stranger and carried her into the
nest at 2.35. A second stranger was similarly carried into the
nest at 2.55, a third at 3.45, while the fourth was thrown over
the edge of the board at 4.20. Shortly after this two of the
strangers were brought out of the nest again and thrown away.
A second friend was thrown away, like the first, at 4.58, the third
at 5.17, and the fourth at 5.46. I could not ascertain what hap-
pened to the last stranger, but have little doubt that she was
brought out of the nest and thrown away like the rest.

On the following day at 6.45 I tried the same experiment
again, only marking the friends red and the strangers white. At
7 one of the strangers was carried off and dropped over the edge
of the glass into the water, and at 8 asecond. At 8.45 a friend
was taken up and, after being carried about some time, was thrown
into the moat. At 9.45 a friend was picked up and carried into
the nest, but brought out again and thrown away about 3 in the
afternoon. The other four remained where they were placed
until 8 p.m., and though the other ants often came up and exa-
mined them, they did not carry them off.

Sept. 29. Again placed nine chloroformed ants, five friends
and four strangers, close to where a number were feeding. There
was a continual stream of ants to the honey, ten or fifteen beg
generally there at once.

A stranger was picked up at 10.20 and dropped at 10.32

35 “f Fr 10.22 Ks 10.35
A friend 55 a {LL " 11.42
A stranger i . 11.35 ‘ 11.50
aS E - 11.41 rep 11.45

Shortly after the others were picked up and carried away to
the edge of the board, where they were dropped, but none were
taken into the nest.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 225

Oct. 2. Again at 10 a.m. placed ten chloroformed ants, five
friends and five strangers, close to where some were feeding.
They were picked up and carried off as before in the following
order :—

At 11. 5 astranger was picked up and dropped at 11.15

11.12 a friend 3 Bi 11.50
11.25 a stranger BS s 11.36
12. 7 9 ” 9 12.45
12.10 a friend it 5 12.16
1.10 a stranger i 3 2. 6
1.42 a friend - 4 1.46
BS Dinvy se 5 33 1.56
Bs i i 3 3.10

Only one of them, and that one a stranger, was carried into the
nest at 12.45, but brought out again at 1.10.

Oct. 6. At 9 a.m. again tried the same experiment with four
strangers and five friends.

At 9.25 a friend was picked up and dropped at 9.31

9.32 - a 3 9.38
9.35 a stranger s 5 9.45
9.45 a friend PS Fa 9.52
10. 8 a stranger ee - LOL
10.17 a friend os Bs 10.20
10.22 a stranger re i 10.25
10.28 <5 3 v4 10.40
10.25 a friend * e 10.31

None of them were carried into the nest.

These experiments seem to prove that under such circumstances
ants, at least those belonging to this species, do not carry their
friends (when thus rendered insensible) off to a place of safety.

It may, however, be said that in this experiment, the ants being
to all intents and purposes dead, we could not expect that any
difference would be made between friends and strangers. I there-
fore repeated the same experiment, only instead of chloroforming
the ants I intoxicated them. This experiment is more difficult, as
it is not in all cases easy to hit off the requisite degree of intoxi-
cation. The numbers therefore of friends and strangers are not
quite the same, because in some cases the ants recovered too
quickly and bad to be removed. In such cases I have latterly
replaced the ant so removed by another, so as to keep the number
of friends and strangers about equal. I must make more obser-

226 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

vations ; but so far as they have gone they are as follows. The
sober ants seemed somewhat puzzled at finding their intoxicated
fellow creatures in such a condition, took them up, and carcied
them about for a time in a somewhat aimless manner.

Noy. 20. I experimented with six friends and six strangers,
beginning at 11.

At 11.30 a friend was carried to the nest.

11.50 a stranger was dropped into the water.

12.30 9 ” ”
12.31 a friend A a
1.10 a stranger - si
1.18 ” ” ”
1.27 -
1.30 a friend (partly Pocoveraa) was tanen to the nest.
2.30 »» was takeu up and carried about till 2.55; she

was then taken to the nest, but at the door the bearer met two
other ants, which seized the intoxicated one, carried her off, and
eventually dropped her into the water.

At 3.35 a friend was carried to the nest.

Out of these 12, 5 strangers and 2 friends were dropped into
the water; no stranger but 3 friends were taken to the nest.
None of the friends were brought out of the nest again.

Noy. 22. Experimented in the same way on four friends and
four strangers, beginning at 12.

At 12.16 a stranger was taken and dropped into the water.

12.21 ” » »
12.23 ” ”? ”
12.40 2» ” ”
I then put 4 more strangers.
3.10 a stranger was taken and dropped as before.
3. 35 i
3.44 a friend (partly recovered was alarm peer to the nest.
4.10 a stranger was taken and dropped into the water.
4.13 a friend (partly recovered) was taken back to the nest.

In this case 8 strangers were dropped into the water, and none
were taken to the nest; 2 friends, on the contrary, were taken to
the nest, and none were dropped into the water.

Dec. 1. Experimented with five friends and five strangers, begin-
ning at 2.15.

At 2.30 a stranger was dropped into the water.

3. 2 »” ” ”

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 227

At 3.20 a friend was taken into the nest.
. 8.35 a stranger
3.52 39 29 29
4. 5 I put out four more friends and as many strangers.
4.45 a stranger was dropped into the water.

9) cP)

5.10 . taken into the nest.
5.24 cy) 9 ”

5.55 a friend was thrown into the water.
6. 4 a stranger rs as

6. 4 ” ”? ”

6. 8 a friend was taken into the nest.
6.20 ” 2 ”

6.23 3 55 o

6.30 a stranger was dropped into the water.
6.50 a friend +5 Fe ie
8. 5 a friend was taken into the nest.

Tn this case 2 friends were thrown into the water and 7 taken
into the nest; while 6 strangers were thrown into the water and
3 were taken into the nest (all of these, however, were after-
wards brought out again and thrown away).

Dec. 8. Experimented with six friends and six strangers, begin-
ning at 11.30.

At 11.80 a friend was carried to nest.

11.47 ui -

11.50 fa
11.52 i hes

11.56 a friend was dropped into water.
11.58 a stranger

)

2) 39

11.58 9? 2) 39

12 a stranger was carried to nest.
12. 2 2) 92 Lb)
12. 3

” ” ”? i
I then put four more of each, replacing her by another as each
was carried off.

At 12.42 a friend to water. At 2.42 a stranger to water.
12.58 a stranger to water. 2.48 a *
1a friend to nest. 2.51 99 ”
Il 2 ” 2.52 ” cD)
1 » » 2.55 a friend to nest.
1.58 ” 9 2.55 a stranger to water.
1.59 55 io 2.55 x 9)
2.30 a stranger to water. 3. 2 a friend to water.
2.30 bs 5 3. 6 a stranger to water.

2.35 a stranger to nest. 3.12 a friend to water,

228 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

At 3.15 a friend to water. At 3.25 a friend to nest.
3.16 a friend to nest. 3.35 a stranger to water.
3.22 a stranger to water. 3.50 a friend to nest.
3.25 as ‘ 3.50

99 99

All these ants appeared quite insensible ; 16 friends were then
taken to the nest and 5 to the water, while of the strangers only
3 were taken to the nest, while 15 were thrown into the water.
Moreover, as in the preceding observation, even the three stran-
gers which were at first taken to the nest were soon brought out
again and thrown away ; while this was not the case with any of the
friends as far as we could ascertain, though we searched diligently
for them also. In this case also all the intoxicated ants were
motionless and apparently insensible.

Jan. 15. Repeated the same experiment, beginning at 12.20.
Up to 7 p.m. not one of the intoxicated ants had been moved. At
8.20 we found a stranger in the water, at 9.30 another, and at the
following morning a third. The others were untouched.

Jan. 17. Repeated the same experiment, beginning at 11.30.

At 12 a friend was carried to the nest.

12.20 a stranger was carried to the water.

12.34 a friend was carried to the nest.

12.40 a stranger was carried to the water.

12.45 a friend was carried to the nest.
1 a stranger
1

99 ”?
M4 3) water.
Cu observing till 2.)
2.30 a stranger was carried to the water.
2.30 e a nest.
4.10 9 9 9
4.30 a friend = 3
6.20 a stranger was carried to the water.
6.35 ” By) 2
Thus, then, the general results were that the ants removed
thirty-eight friends and forty strangers. Of the friends, twenty-
seven were carried into the nest and seven were thrown into the
water. Of the strangers, on the contrary, thirty were thrown
into the water; only nine were taken into the nest, and seven of
these were shortly afterwards brought out again and thrown away.
Indeed I fully believe that the other two were treated in the same
manner, though we could not satisfy ourselves of the fact. But
it was als by very close observation that the seven were detected,
and the other two may well have escaped observation.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 229

Labular View—Experiments on Ants under Chloroform
and Intoxicated.

Chloroformed Ants.
Friends. eee Strangers.
; To | Unre- ip Un-
To nest water. ered! bo most. Ape removed.
Dewi L OM ae oe Bh Ae Mees tee 4
eo Pa Be A, wh 2 2
and brought
out again.
ma ROP... 1 De assis ieee os Gili gt RES apne 2 2
and brought
out again.
ny en Debary gab ati ten es eee | 4
Oba ee 5 1 4:
and brought
out again.
* (2) 35 renee a Cate Nae ed in ones 4
1 20 4 3 20 2
Intoxicated Ants.
Noy. 20... 3 2 eget te | nleestes cee Be 5 a
yn PA 2 Divs eae ie toes 8

In these cases some of the Ants had partly recovered ; in the
following they were quite insensibie.

Mec. ok... a 2 a 3 6
none brought all these
out again. brought out
again.
Fg Ott 16 5 A: 3 15
none brought all these
out again. brought out
again.
Jan. 15... gah get aes ects 3 i
re Bsa ae 3 6
none brought one brought
out again. out again.

27 i 4 9 80 1

230 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Recollection of Friends.

In my previous paper* I recorded some facts tending to show
not only that ants belonging to the same nest know one another,
but also that they recollect one another after being separated
for some months.

This was made evident by separating a colony into halves, regis-
tered as Nests No. 4 and 5, and then from time to time introduc-
ing an ant from one division into the other. As the nests under
observation consisted of a thin stratum of earth between two glass
plates, I was able to see exactly how the ant thus introduced
behaved herself, and how she was treated by the others.

One of the colonies thus separated belonged to Formica fusca,
and was divided on the 4th Aug., 1875. The observations made in
the same year have been already recorded. On the 15th March
following, I put in a stranger and one of the old companions from
the other half of the nest at 7 a.m, and watched them longer than
those previously experimented on. The stranger was very soon
attacked ; the friend seemed quite at home.

4th June. 8 a.m. Put into the nest a stranger and an old
friend. The stranger was at once attacked, and dragged about by
one of her antennz. 9 a.m. The stranger was being attacked; the
friend, though not attacked, kept rather away from the other
ants. 10.30 a.m. The stranger was attacked, not the friend.
12.30 p.m. do., 1 pw. do., 1.80 p.u. do., 2 p.m. do., 2.30 p.m. do.
4 pM. do., 4.30 p.m. do. 5 p.m. The stranger was dead.

5th June. Put in a stranger and a friend at 9.80. At 10 the
stranger was being attacked, not the friend. 10 a.m. do., 10.80
A.M. do.

At 11 1 put in another stranger and another old friend, when
nearly the same thing was repeated. At 11.30 a.m. the stranger was
being dragged about by an antenna; the friend was not attacked.
12. The stranger was by herself in a corner of the nest. The
friend was almost cleaned from the paint by which she was marked.
I therefore put in another friend. At 2 the stranger was being
dragged about by an antenna, the friend was being cleaned. 2.80
do.,3do. At3.30 the friend was almost clean; the stranger is being
dragged about. 6 do.

10th June. Repeated the same observation at 10 a.m., but
transposed the colours by which they were distinguished, so that

* See vol. xii. p. 494, lines 17 and 18 from the top, and under the head of
Nov. 7, I unfortunately transposed the words “former” and “latter.”

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 231

there might be no question whether perhaps the difference of
treatment was due to the difference of colouring. At 11 a.m. the
friend was all right, the stranger was being dragged about by an
antenna. 11.30 4.M. the friend all right, the stranger being dragged
about by one leg. 12 do. 12.30 p.m. the friend all right, the
stranger being dragged about by an antenna. 1 P.M. do., 2 P.M.
do., 3 P.M. do.

ard July. Put in a friend and a stranger at 1l am. At 11.30
A.M. the stranger was being dragged about, the friend was being
cleaned. 12 do. 12.30 a.m. both were now being attacked. 1do.

This seems to show that some, at least, of the ants have for-
gotten their old friends.

16th July. Put in two friends at 7.45 a.m. At 8 a.m. each was
being dragged about by an antenna. 8.30 a.m. one was being
dragged about by both antenne, the other by both antenne and
one leg. 10 a.u. both were still attacked, but it is curious that
at the same time others were cleaning off the paint. 12.30, both
still attacked.

17th July. Putin a friend at 8.15 a.m. At 8.30 they were
cleaning her. At 9 a.m. she was almost clean. 9.30 she seemed
quite at home, and had only one spot of paint on her. 10.20 do.

20th July. Put in a friend and strangerat9 a.m. At9.304.m.
the friend seemed all right; the stranger was in a corner by her-
self. At 10 a.m. the friend was being cleaned; the stranger had
come out of her corner and was being fiercely attacked. At 11
A.M. the friend seemed quite at home and was almost cleaned ; the
stranger was being dragged about, but was almost cleaned. At
12 the same thing was going on, and also at 12.30. At 1.30 the
stranger was still being pulled about; but what struck me as re-
markable, the friend also had hold of one of the ants by an antenna.
At 2 p.m. the friend was by herself, the stranger was being at-
tacked. At 4 p.m. the friend again had hold of an ant by an
antenna ; the stranger was being pulled about. At 5 the friend
seemed quite at home in the nest; the stranger was killed. ‘The
following morning I was still able to distinguish the friend; she
seemed quite at home.

6th Aug. Putinastranger anda friend at8a.m. At 8.30 both
were attacked. 9 do., 9.80 do., 10 do., 11 do., 12.30 do.

6th Aug. Repeated the experiment at 2. Both ants hid them-
selves in corners. At 3.30 the stranger was being attacked; the
friend was in a corner by herself. At 4.30 both were attacked.
5.30 do.

232 SIR JOHN LUBBOOK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

7th Aug. Put in a stranger anda friend at 8.30 a.m. At 8.45
both were being attacked. 9.30 do., 10 do.

Aug. 8. Putinafriend at 7 a.m. At 8 she seemed quite at
home with the others. At 9 they had almost cleaned her. 9.30
she seemed quite at home with the others. 10 do.

12th Aug. Putin a friend anda stranger at 7 p.m. Both were —
immediately attacked. 7.15 they were being dragged about.
7.45 do, 8 do., 8.15 do.

13th Aug. Put in a friend at 6.30 a.m. At 7.50 two attacked
her. At 8 she was being attacked by one ant, but another was clean-
ing her. 8.15 do. 8.45. Two were attacking her, one dragging at
her by an antenna. 9 do., 9.30 do., 10 do., 10.80 do. Others
had almost entirely cleaned off the paint.

At 5 p.m. put a friend and a stranger into the other nest. At
5.15 the friend seemed quite at home, and had been nearly cleaned ;
the stranger was being attacked. 5.30 do., 8.15 do. 7.15. Two
of the ants were dragging the stranger out of the nest; the friend
had been quite cleaned.

14th Aug. At 8.15 a.m. I put an ant from each half of the nest
into the other. At 8.30 one was alone in the corner, the other
was being attacked. At 9 both were being attacked. 9.30 do.,
10.30 do.; 11.80 do., both, however, being almost cleaned.

Aug. 19. At 8 a.m. I put into each nest one from the other.
The one was received amivably and cleaned, so that I lost sight of
her. It was clear, however, that she was received in a friendly
manner, because no fighting was going on. At 11 I put into the
same nest another friend: at 11.30 she was all right, and, being
cleaned at 12, I could no longer distinguish her.

The ant put into the other nest was not so well received. At
9.30, 12.30, and 11.80 she was being dragged about, but she was
also being cleaned, and after 11.30 I lost sight of her.

Aug. 21. At 10.15 I again put into each nest an ant from the
other. One was at once cleaned, and I could not find her. I
should, however, certainly have seen her if she had been attacked.

The other was at first attacked by one of the ants; but this
soon ceased, and they began to clean her. By 11.30 she was quite
at her ease among the other ants and almost clean. After 12 I
could not see her any more. At 1.40 p.m. I again put into each
nest an ant from the other, accompanied, however, in both cases
by astranger. The contrast was most marked, and no one who
saw it could have doubted that the friends and strangers were re-

- SIR JOIN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 233.

spectively recognized as such, or that they themselves were fully
aware of their position.

In the first nest the friend it once joined the other ants, who
began to clean her. The stranger ran about in evident alarm,
was pursued by the others, and took refuge in a corner. At 2
the friend was with the other ants, the stranger alone in a
corner. At 2.25 the friend was almost cleaned, and after 2.30
we could no longer distinguish her: the stranger was still alone.
At 3.40 she came out of her hiding-place and was attacked ; after
a while she escaped from the nest. At 5.30 she met one of the
ants, and a battle at once began. I separated the combatants
and put the stranger back near her own nest, which she at once
entered, and where she was soon cleaned by her own friends.

I will now describe the adventures of the other couple. The
friend iramediately joined the other ants ; the stranger was hunted
about and soon seized. At 2 the friend was ail right, the stranger
being dragged about. At 2.30 ditto. The stranger was soon
killed. The friend, whom I watched at intervals till 6.30, eon-
tinued on the best terms with the others; it was auite clear,
therefore, that they did not regard her as a stranger. She herself
was not afraid of, and did not avoid them. Still for some time she
apparently wished to return home. She came out of the nest
and tried to find her way home to her own nest. I put her back
again, however, and by the evening she seemed to have accustomed
herself to the change. I opened the door of the nest soon after
5; but she showed no wish to leave her newly acquired friends.

Sept. 1. At 11 a.m. I again put into each nest an ant from the
other and a stranger. In the one nest the friend joined the other
ants, and seemed quite at home; the stranger, on the contrary,
endeavoured to conceal herself, and at length, at 4 in the after-
noon, escaped from the nest.

In the other division the friend also appeared quite at home.
The stranger, on the contrary, endeawoured to escape, but in the
course of the afternoon was attacked and killed.

Oct. 15. At 8 a.m. I repeated the same experiment. In the
first nest, up to 10 a.m., neither ant was attacked ; and it is curious
that the stranger was licked and, indeed, almost cleaned. Soon
afterwards, however, the ants began to attack her, and at 3 P.M.
she was dead, the friend, on the contrary, being quite at home.
Still the following day at midday I found her out of the nest (all
the rest being within). This almost looks as if, though safe, she

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 20

234 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

did not feel at home; and I accordingly put her back to the other
nest, which she at once entered.

In the other division the friend was soon nearly cleaned, and
Hie stranger partly so. The friend seemed quite at home. At
12.30 the stranger was being dragged about by three ants; but
after this I lost sight of her.

Noy. 10. At 11.30 put into one of the divisions a friend and a
stranger. At 12 the friend was all right, the stranger was being
dragged about by an antenna. From this time till 7 p.m. the
stranger was continually being dragged about or held a prisoner,
while the friend was quite at home.

_ Nov. 11. At 10.15 I put into the other division a friend and a
stranger. At 11 the friend was quite at home, and the colour
with which I had marked her had been almost cleaned off. The
stranger, on the contrary, was being dragged about by two of the
ants. After this, however, I could not find her. She had, i
think, escaped from the nest.

Nov. 12. I therefore, the following dai at 11.30, again put a
friend and a stranger into this division of the nest. The friend »
seemed quite athome. One of the ants at once seized the stranger
by an antenna and began dragging her about. I will give this
observation in detail out of my note-book.

At 11.45. The friend is quite at home with the rest; the
stranger is being dragged about.
~ At 12. The friend is all right. Three ants now have hold of
the stranger by her legs and an antenna.

At 12.15, 12.30, 12.45, and at 1 similarly occupied. _

- At 1.80 similarly engaged. One now took hold of the friend,
but soon seemed to find out her mistake and left go again.

At. 1.45. The friend is allright. The stranger is being attacked.
The friend also has been almost cleaned, while on the stranger the
colour has been scarcely touched.

At 2.15. Two ants are licking the friend, while another pair are
holding the stranger by her legs.

_ At 2.30. The friend is now almost clean; so that I could only
just perceive any colour. The stranger, on the contrary, is almost
as much colouredas ever. She is now near the door and, I think,
would have come out, but two ants met her and seized her. ma

At 3. Two ants are attacking the stranger. The friend was no
longer TOSSES from the rest.

At 3.30, 3. 40, and 5 engaged as above.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 2395

At 6.0, The stranger now escaped from the nest, and I put her
back among her own friends.
The difference of behaviour to these two ants was therefore

; most marked. ~~ z

The friend was gradually licked clean, and’ except for a few
moments, and that evidently by mistake, never attacked. "The
stranger, on the contrary, was not cleaned! was at once seized,
was dragged about for hours with only a few minutes’ interval,
by one, two, or three assailants, and at length made her escape
from the nest at the time when no other ant was out.

Dec. 11. At 10 a.m. I again put in a friend and a stranger.
The friend was not attacked, and consorted peaceably with the
rest, I found her again all right on the following morning-
The stranger, on the contrary, was soon attacked and killed.

Dec. 22. Repeated the same experiment. The stranger was
attacked and driven out of the nest. The friend was received
quite amicably. | beat

Dee. 26. Ditto. The friend was received as usual. I lost sight
of the stranger, who probably escaped.

Dee. 31. Ditto. In this case the stranger, after being diapoed
about some time in the nest, made her escape. But even outside,
having met with an ant accidentally, she was eo attacked.

Jan. 15. Ditto.

Jan. 16. I put in two friends; but sialene ae preceding ex- |
periments sufficient, I did not on this occasion add a stranger.
Neither of the friends was attacked.

Jan. 19. Put in two friends at 11 a.w. Neither was ee
and the following morning they were all right amongst the rest.

Jan. 22. Put in three friends, with the same result,

Jan. 24. ” two ry) ”

Jare26).) 0,0. taree - sR

These details are, I fear, tedious, but they may be worth giving, .
because a mere statement of the general facts-without particulars
would not convey so clear an idea of the result. .The following
table shows it in a condensed form :—

* Since this paper was read, I have continued these observations, viz. :—
On Feb. 11 put in two friends, on Feb. 12 three, on Feb. 13, 15, and 19, and on

Merch 11 and 12, one friend, on March 18 two, on April 21 one, and on April oe

2 and 23 two friends ; but in none of these instances were the friends attacked

20%

236

8 Aug.
is
16 ,,
20 ,,
22,

3 Sept
17 bP)

3 Oct.
15 Mar

4 June

D 5

5
10;

3 July
NOs =
Ne 3
Gi ie.
gic
igus
20%,

6 Aug

6 33

ts

8 33
2 es
Sie,
NS) tee
14 ee
1A es
19s
2 Me
2 oe
2 ee
2 ome ee:

1 Sept...

1;

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Experiments with Ants of different Nests.
Separation of Nest, Aug. 4, 1875.

F. fusca. Myrmica ruginodis.

om Sse Ta = — SS
Friend. Enemy. Friend. Stranger.
Soa Attacked.

w2ccce 39

.. Not attacked.

rege Waa Attacked.
... Not attacked.
ef Not attacked. ) Not much
- bs } watched.
rh) bP)
i Attacked. 3 Oct. ...... Not attacked.Attacked.
A, Killed. Sake Peet cs Killed.
os Xt haekwed.m Ul Ol Wee teenie is a
: ” © 20 Dos aNeeiiciete ” 9
3 Attacked: 24 1. 0 <n A a
and killed. - ss
Attacked. Avtackeds eines ace ee s is
had Gatun Mah, pee PRON OWS pene 5 5
.. Not attacked.
99
A Attacked and killed.
Attacked. Attacked.
9 39
... Not attacked.
Attacked. Ps
B0¢ ”
... Not attacked. Ks
... Attacked P
” Bs
. Not attacked.

ie A@iaeren! waded?

99
Not attacked. Ran away.
ss Attacked.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 237

F. fusca.

om —“* — —

Friend. Enemy,
15 Oct. ... Not attacked. ay
1s. ,, »” cD)
10 Nov si
11 ” ” ”
12 39 » ”
11 Dee. ... a5 i
O23 i)! ne ehe 4 Escaped from the nest.
2Gi Fe ey 5 Not attacked.
SL M10 33 Attacked.

Some further observations on F. fusca, viz. on January 15th,
when a stranger was attacked, whereas twice on the 16th, twice
on the 19th, thrice on the 22nd, twice on the 24th, and thrice
on the 26th of the same month, all resulted in a friend not being
attacked*. .

I must, however, point out one thing which must be taken into
consideration. As I sometimes transposed ants from one division
of the nest to the other, it might be said that some of the friends
were among those which had been brought more recently from
the other half of the nest.

Of the ants thus transposed, there were, however, altogether, in
nest No. 5, only thirteen,in nest No. 4 twenty-three, some of which,
moreover, must certainly have been among those that died. After
the beginning of November all the transfers were made from No. 4
into No. 5. Since December last thirty-one ants have been so
transferred ; even assuming then that I had unluckily hit upon all
the transferred ants (which is of course little short of an impossibi-
lity), eight of them, at any rate, had not been in nest No. 5 since
August 1875.

Thus, then, for more than a year these ants remembered their old
companions, as 1s shown by the fact that they received them ami-
eably while they attacked strangers. It is surprising that the
ants of a nest should all know one another ; but that this should
be still the case after more than a year’s separation seems to me
not the least marvellous point connected with them.

* The following cases have been added since the reading of this paper :—
Feb. 11 two friends, Feb. 12 three, Feb. 13, 15, and 19, and March 11 and 12,
one friend, March 18 two friends, April 21 one, and April 22 and 28 two friends,
none of which when introduced were attacked.

x

238 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Contrast in Behaviour of different kinds of Ants.

The behaviour of Lastus flavus offers a surprising contrast to
that.of F. fusea. I was anxious to see whether the colonies
of this species, which are very numerous round my house, were
in friendly relations with one another. With this view, I kept
a nest of Z. flavus for a day or two without food. and then
gave them some honey, to which they soon found their way in
numbers. J then put in the midst of them an ant of the same
species from a neighbouring nest ; the others did not attack, but,
on the contrary, cleaned her—though, from the attention she
excited and the numerous communications which took place be-
tween her and them, I am satisfied that they knew she was not
one of themselves. After a few minutes she accompanied some
of the returning ants to the nest. They did not drag nor appa-
rently guide her; but she went with them quite freely. This I
repeated several tides: with the same result.

I then took four ants, two from a nest about 500 yards from the
first in one direction, the other from an equal distance im another.
In all cases the result was the same. I then got a few from a
colony about half a mile off. These also were most amicably re-
ceived, and in every case the stranger went of her own accord to
the nest. One of the strangers was, indeed, dragged about half
way to the entrance of the nest, but was then left free and might
have run away if she had liked. She, however, after wandering
about for about half a minute, voluntarily entered the nest. In
one or two cases the stranger ran as quickly and straight to
the nest as if she had been there over and over again. This, I
suppose, can only have been by scent; and certainly no hounds in
full cry could have pursued their game more directly or with less
hesitation. In other cases, however, they were much longer
before they went in. To satisfy myself that these facts were not
owing to the nest having been taken from that of colonies or

allies, ] subsequently procured some ants of the same species

from a nest in Hertfordshire ; and they also behaved in a similar
manner. In one or two cases they seemed to be attacked, though
so feebly that I could not feel sure about it; but in no case were
the ants killed.

The following fact surprised me still more. I put anant (Aug.
31) at 9 a.m. on a spot where a number of F. flava (belonging to
one of my nests of domesticated ants) had been feeding some hours"
previously, though none were there, or, indeed, out at all, at the

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 239.

moment. The entrance to the nest was about 8 inches off; but
she walked straight to it and into the nest. A second wandered
about for four or five minutes and then went in; a third, on the
contrary, took a wrong direction, and, at any rate for three quar-
ters of an hour, did not find the entrance.

Very different is the behaviour of Z. niger under similar cir-
cumstances. I tried the same experiment withthem. There were
no communications with the antenne, there was no cleaning; but
every ant which the stranger approached flew at her like a little
tigress. I tried this experiment four times; each stranger was
killed and borne off to the nest.

Suspected Cannibalism.

Ants have even been suspected of cannibalism by some writers *,
because those which are found dead are generally more or less shri-
velled, and the large females even are reduced almost to an empty
shell. Huber’s statement that their affection for their queens
induces them to brush and lick them for days after death, has even
been regarded as evidence of cannibalism rather than of affection.
On this point, however, further evidence is required.

Experiments Testing the Senses... Sight.

In order to test how far they are guided by sight, I made
various observations.and experiments, the accompanying woodcuts
being reduced copies of tracings of some of the tracks made by
the ants during the course of the observations. I shall commence
with experiment No. 2.

Exp. 2.—Feb. On the parade-ground (Gee fig. 2) I placed
upright a common cylindrical lead-peneil 7 inch in diameter
and 7 inches long, fastened with sealing-wax to a penny-piece.
Close to the base of the pencil (A) I brought the end ofa paper
bridge (B) leading to the nest, and then placed a shallow glass with
larve at C, 4 inches from the base of the pencil. Ithen put an ant
to the larve ; when she had become acquainted with the road, she
went very straight, as is shown in the woodcut (fig. 2). Inone
case, at the point E, she dropped her larva and returned for ano-
ther. When she returned on the next journey and was on the
glass, I moved it 3 inches, to D, so that the end of the glass was
6 inches from the base of the pencil. If she were much guided by
sight, then she would have little or no difficulty in finding her way

* See, for instance, an interesting communication by Mr. Elwin, Sci, Gossip,

Nov. 1870, p. 243.

240 SsIk JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Fig. 2.

ee
ys

\ \

i

Routes followed in experiment No. 2, as detailed above.

A, position of pencil. B, paper bridge. Cand D, glass with larve. , point
where larva dropped, the opposite arrow and loop marking return route.
1, 2, 3, 4, comparatively straight paths to the glass. 5, 5, circuitous route on
shifting of glass. x different access to nest.

back. Her pathway, however, which is traced on the paper, shows
that she was completely abroad ; and, after at she got back to the
nest by a different route (5).

I then varied the experiment as subjoined, and as shown in the
woodcut (fig. 3).

Exp.3.—I connected the parade-ground with the nest by a paper
bridge, the end of which is shown at B (fig. 3), and which came
down about an inch from the pole supporting the nest. This pole
rises 18 inches above the parade-ground. I then put the glass
tray (C) with larve as before, 12 inches from the base of the pole,
and put an ant to the larve. When she had learnt her way I
traced four of her routes, as shown in the thin lines 1, 2, 3,4. I
then on her next journey (5, thick white line), when she was on the
tray (C), moved it three inches to D, as shown in the figure, and
again traced her routes. The contrast is very striking between
the relatively straight thin white lines 1, 2, 3, 4 of the four
journeys when familiar with the road ; whereas in the broad white
line No. 5 the zigzag twistings show how much difficulty the ant

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS: 241

Fig. 3.-;

Routes followed in experiment No.3, as mentioned in text.

B, paper bridge. C, glass tray with larve, its first position ; and D its posi-
tion when shifted. 1, 2, 3, 4, thin white lines indicating the comparatively
straight routes. 5, thick white line, and 6, dotted line showmg tortuous paths:
when glass had been altered in position. The arrows indicate directions.
travelled,
experienced in finding her way. Again the dotted sinuous white:
line (6) shows the course adopted on a subsequent journey.

Exp. 4—I then again varied the experiment as follows :—E
placed the larve in a small china cup on the top of the pencil,
which thus formed a column 74 inches high. ‘The cross line close
to the arrows (fig. 4) is as before, the base of the paper bridge
going to the nest. © shows the position of the penny on which
the pencil is supported. The dotted white lines 1, 2, 3, 4 show
the routes of a marked ant on four successive journeys from
the nest to the base of the pencil. I then moved the pencil
6 inches to D, and the two following routes are marked 5 and
6. In one of them, 5 (thick white line), the ant found a stray

Routes followed in experiment No. 4, as described in text,

Cross line at the six arrows represents paper bridge going to nest, C, china
cup on top of pencil. D, pencil moved. E, where stray larvee were found. 1, 2,
3, 4, dotted lines show the nearly direct journeys. 5, thick white line (crossing
C in black) of route returning to nest E, being position of larva in the course.
6, very circuitous thin white line of track from nest to pencil. D.

larva at E, with which she returned to the nest, without finding the
pencil at all. On the following journey, shown in fine white zigzag
line (6), she found the pencil at last, but, as will be seen, only after
many. meanderings.

Hxp.5.—I then repeated the observation on three other ants (see
figs. 5-7) with the same result: the second was 7 minutes before
she found the pencil, and at last seemed to do so accidentally ; the
third actually wandered about for no less than half an hour, re-
turning up the paper bridge several times.

Other experiments somewhat similar to the preceding, the
results of which are shown in the figures 6 and 7, seem to prove
that this species of ant, at any rate, guides itself but little by
sight. This, which I had not at all anticipated, seems to follow
from the fact that after the pencil and tray of larve had been

STR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 243

Fig. 5.

Diagram of complex path traversed in experiment 5,

A, first position of pencil. B, second position of pencil. 1, 2, straight lines
of two tracks of the observed ant. 3, winding narrow white line, showing course
pursued by the same ant before arriving at B, when the position of the pencil
was unchanged.
removed but a short distance to the right or left, the ants on
their journey tothe shifted object travelled very often backwards
and forwards and around the spot where the coveted object first
stood. Then they would retrace their steps towards the nest,
wander hither and thither from side to side between the nest
and the point A, and only after very repeated efforts around the
original site of the larve reach, as it were, accidentally the object
desired at B.

Another evidence of this consists in the fact that if when ZL.
niger were carrying off larve placed in a cup on a piece of board,
I turned the board round so that the side which had been turned
towards the nest was away from it, and vice versa, the ants always
returned over the same track on the board, and, in consequence,
diréctly away from home.

If I moved the board to the other side of my artificial nest, the

244 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

Diagram representing three tracks of an ant in another experiment.

A, the first position of pencil and the food, towards which and from the base-
line of nest 1 and 2 lead by nearly direct broadish white lines to A. When the
Jatter was removed to B the ant, in its effort to reach this, pursued the narrow
white winding line ending in 8==—>

result was the same. Evidently they followed the road, not the
direction. —

I may here note that the diagrams figs. 2-7 are careful reduc-
tions of large tracings made during the experiments. Though
not absolutely correct in every minute detail of contour, they are
exact for all practical purposes. As the ants pursued their
way, pencil-markings in certain instances, and coloured lines
in others, were made so as to follow consecutively the paths
pursued.

Hearing.

As regards their sense of hearing, I have in my previous paper
recorded my unsuccessful experiments in this direction. Approach-
ing an ant which was standing quietly, 1 have over and over again
made the loudest and most shrill noises I could—using a penny
pipe, a dog-whistle, a violin, as well as the most piercing and
startling sounds I could produce with my own voice, but without
effect. At the same time I by no means would infer from this
that they are really deaf, though it certainly seems that their range
of sounds is very different from ours. We know that certain

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HAPITS OF ANTS. IAD

allied insects produce a noise by rubbing one of their abdominal
rings against another. Landois is of opinion that ants also make
sounds in the same way, though these sounds are inaudible to us.
Our range is, however, after all very limited, and the universe is
probably full of sounds which we cannot perceive. There are,
moreover, in the antenne of ants certain curious organs which
may be of an auditory character.

These consist of three parts, a small spherical cup, cpening
to the outside, a long narrow tube, and a hollow body, shaped

Another tracing showing a similar Experiment. 1, 2, 3, the directbroad
lines towards A; and 4, the complicated track made when reservoir of larvx
was removed to B.

like an elongated clock-weight. They are about 10 in number,
and may serve to increase the resonance of sounds, acting, in fact,
to use the words of Prof. Tyndall, who was good enough to look
at them with me, like microscopic stethoscopes. Several of the
other segments of the antenna also contain one of these curious
organs.

Dependence on Slaves.

Huber mentions that the Amazon ants (Polyergus rufescens) are

246 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

so dependent on their slaves as to perish in two or three days if
separated from them. That this is the case, has been shown by
subsequent observers. It is no use giving them food—say honey ;
they will not touch it. Or rather, they walk carelessly over it, -
smear their legs, and die, if a slave is not put in to clean and
dry them. I found, however, that I could keep even a single Poly-
ergus alive for more than three months by giving her a slave for
about an hour a day to attend on and feed her. I have one at
this moment which has been so treated since November, and
which is still alive and well*.

Division of Labour.

I mentioned in my last paper that in the autumn of 1875 I
noticed an ant belonging to one of my nests of #. fusca out feed-
ing alone. The next day the same ant was again out by herself,
and for some weeks no other ant, so far as I observed, came out
to the food. I did not, however, watch her with sufficient regu-
larity. This winter, therefore, I have kept two nests under close
observation, haying arranged with my daughters and their gover-
ness, Miss Wendland (most conscientious observers), that one of
us should look at them once an hour during the day. One of the
nests contained about 200 individuals, the other, a nest of P. ru-
Jescens with the usual slaves, about 400. The mistresses them-
selves never come out for food, leaving all this to the slaves.

We began watching on the first of November, but did not keep
an hourly register till the 20th, after which date the results are
given in the following tables. Table No. 1 relates to the nest of
F. fusca, and the ants are denoted by numbers. The hours at which
we omitted to record an observation are left blank ; when no ant_
was at the honey, the square is marked with an 0. An ant, marked
in my register as No. 3, was at this time acting as feeder to the
community. |

The only cases in which other ants came to the honey were at
2 p.m. on the 22nd Noy., when another ant came out, whom we
registered as No. 4, another on the 28th, registered as No.5. Other
ants came out occasionally, but not one came to the honey (except
the above mentioned) from the 28th Nov. till the 3rd Jan., when
another (whom we registered as No. 6) began feeding. After
this a friend visited the honey once on the 4th, once on the 11th,
and again on the 15th, when she was registered as No. 7.

* April 15. She is still well.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON TITE HABITS OF ANTS. 247

Table No. 2 is constructed in the same way, but refers to the
nest of Polyergus and Ff. fusca. The feeders in this case were, at
the beginning of the experiment, those known to us as Nos. 5, 6,
and 7. On the 22nd Nov. a friend, registered as No. 8, came to the
honey, and again on the 11th Dec. ; but with these two exceptions
the whole of the supplies were carried in by Nos. 5 and 6; with a
little help from No. 7.

Thinking now it might be alleged that possibly these were
merely unusually active or greedy individuals, I imprisoned
No. 6 when she came out to feed on the 5th. As will be seen
from the table, no other ant had been out to the honey for some
days ; and it could therefore hardly be accidental that on that very
evening another ant (then registered as No. 9) came out for food.
This ant, as will be seen from the table, then took the place of
No. 6, and (No. 5 being imprisoned on the 11th Jan.) took im all the
supplies, again with a little help from No.7. So matters continued
till the 17th, when I imprisoned No.9, and then again, 2. e. on the
19th, another ant (No. 10) came out for the food, aided on and after
the 22nd by another, No. 11. This seems to me very curious. From
the 1st Nov.to the 5th Jan., with two or three casual exceptions, the
whole of the supplies were carried in by three ants, one of whom,
however, did comparatively little. The other two are imprisoned,
and then, but not till then, afresh ant appears on the scene. She
carries in the food for a week, and then, she being imprisoned,
two others undertake the task. On the other hand, in Nest 1,
where the first foragers were not imprisoned, they continued
during the whole time to carry in the necessary supplies.

The facts therefore certainly seem to indicate that certain ants
are told off as foragers, and that during winter, when little food is
required, two or three are sufficient to provide it.

248

of Labour. ©

weston o

Tables illustrating Experiments on D

Nest No. 1.

Tape I.—Slaves of Formica fusca.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS,

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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

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three months.

256 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS.

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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON THE HABITS OF ANTS. 257

Parthenogenesis in Ants.

Although the workers rarely lay eggs, still they do so occasion-
ally, among ants as well as among bees and wasps. In the two latter
groups these virgin eggs always produce drones ; and the same will
probably be found to be the case with ants also. I have a nest of
Formica cinerea which I brought from Castellamare in December
1875, and which has no queen: nevertheless eggs were laid in it
last spring, and these eggs produced winged individuals only, all,
I believe, males; but unfortunately they emerged one day when
I was away from home, and I lost the opportunity of examining
them carefully. None of the eggs, however, produced workers.

Parasites of, and on, Anis.

The curious blind Woodlouse (Platyarthrus Hoffmanseggit) is
very common in ants’ nests in my neighbourhood. I have, how-
ever, never seen the ants take the slightest notice of them. More-
oyer, when my ants migrate from one nest to another, if the nests
are ata little distance apart, the Platyarthri remain behind. I
am disposed to think that they are mere scavengers.

On the 14th of October I observed that one of my ants had a
mite attached to the underside of its head. The mite was almost
as large as the head, and must have been very inconvenient. The
ant could not remove it herself. She never came out of the nest,
so that I could not doit for her; and none of her own companions
from that day to this (1 Feb.) have thought of performing this
kind office. I have also observed specimens of a minute red Mite,
which I believe to be new, in nests of Lasius flavus.

Certain species of Diptera, belonging to the family Phoride,
are also parasitic on ants. Ihave forwarded them to Mr. Verral,
who finds that some of them area new species of the genus Phora
and that among them is also the type of a new genus, which he
proposes to call Platyphora, doing me the honour of naming the
species after me. I subjoin his descriptions as a separate paper
or appendix to my own.

Tn conclusion I wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance
which I have received from my wife and daughters and their
governess, Miss Wendland. Without their aid I could not have
carried out the continuous observations above recorded.

Having had some enlarged drawings made, for my own conve-
nience, of several specimens of the ants which I had been

LINN. JOUBN.—ZOOLOGY, VOM. XIII. 22

258 MR. G. I. VERRAL ON A NEW GENUS

watching, it was suggested to me that figures of these same,
though not new to entomologists, might nevertheless be desira-
ble to those interested in the subject. In the Plate each figure
is considerably enlarged, but the actual dimension is expressed
by scale alongside.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Fig. 1. Polyergus rufescens. Fig. 4. Atta barbara (worker major).
2. Formica sanguinea. 5. Do. (worker minor)
3. Susca. 6. Strongylognathus testaceus.

Description of a new Genus and Species of Phoride parasitic on
Ants. By G. H. Verrat, Esq., Memb. Entom.Soc. Commu-
nicated by Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart., F.L.S., &e.

[Read February 1,.1877.]

TurovucH my friend Mr. Frederick Smith, of the British Museum,
Sir John Lubbock has kindly forwarded for my examination and
determination certain specimens of Dipterous insects said to
have been found parasitic on species of ants, which latter he
has been studying with care as to their habits. Having given
considerable attention to the family Phoride, I was agreeably
surprised to find the parasitic specimens to be forms new to
science. One of these is a new species of the genus Phora; the
other I regard as possessing characters sui generis, and hence
define it under the generic title Platyphora, at the same time
bestowing on the species the name of the discoverer, who worthily
pursues entomological researches, spite of many pressing public
engagements.

The subjoined descriptions embrace the diagnostic peculiarities
of the insects in question.

PHORA FORMICARUM, n. sp. Nigro-cinerea, fronte setosa, caniculata ;
antennis mediocribus, cinereis; palpis magnis, flavis ; halteribus fla-
vidis; pedibus totis pallide flavis, ermibus, tibiis intermedius unical-
caratis, posticis modice dilatatis; alis subhyalinis, nervo secundo
simplici, nervulis vix undulatis. Long. vix 3 lin.

Frons broad, grey, bristly, two large bristles being close to the eye-mar-
gin; down the centre is a deep impressed channel, which at its lower

AND SPECIES OF PHORIDA. 259

end joins a channel above the antennz, and at its upper end a channel
round the raised vertical triangle; the space between these two
latter channels (comprising the true frons) is about once and a half
broader than deep; on the vertical triangle are two bristles; the third.
joint of the antennz is mederately large, ovate, grey; the arista short,
somewhat yellowish, almost naked; the palpi conspicuous, all pale
yellow, with a few short black bristles at the tip; on the cheeks are
some short black bristles.

The thorax is grey or brownish grey, broad, not much arched, the disk
being nearly flat, and on the hinder part absolutely concave; on the
disk there are no long bristles, but a dense clothing of rather short,
black bristles ; along the side of the thorax between the humeri, the
base of the wing, and the scutellum are some long black bristles, and
two on the thorax just before the scutellum ; on each side of the scu-
tellum are two long bristles ; halteres dirty pale yellow ; abdomen bare,
dull black, with slightly yellowish incisures ; ovipositor polished black,
long, slightly incurved and grooved.

Legs pale yellow, including the coxz, clothed with minute black bristles ;
all the cox with two or three black bristles at the tips, the legs
otherwise bare excepting the spurs; femora flattened and widened,
especially the hind pair, the hind tibiz also slightly flattened and
widened on the apical half; middle tibize with a long spur inside at
the tip, and hind tibice with a small one inside and a very minute one
outside; tarsi longer than the tibiz, joints gradually diminishing in
length.

Wings very slightly smoky, broad; second thick vein not extending half
the length of the wing, thickened, but not forked at its tip; first
veinlet with a steady curve; second very slightly curved at base,
otherwise straight; third very slightly undnlated; fourth hardly
visible at base, evident towards tip, very slightly undulated ; costa
bristly up to end of second thick vein.

This species is readily distinguished by its simple second thick
vein, channelled frons, small size, and by the absence of bristles
on the tibie.

It is parasitic on Lasvus niger.

PLATYPHORA, n. gen.

Lata, plana, tota absque setis. Frons latissima. Thorax transversus.
Abdomen parvus. Alarum vena cubitalis simplex, subcostali pa-
rallela; venule undulatz ; costa ad basin subciliata.

Distinguished from all the existing genera of Phoride by its
flat and broad shape, which resembles that of the small species of
Spherocera. The absence of strong bristles on the frons, thorax,

260 MR. G. H. VERRAL ON NEW PHORIDS.

and legs also distinguishes it from all the genera except Gymno-
phora, which, however, is of the usual arched Phora-shape and
has the cubital vein forked, costa bare, &e.

PLatTyPHORA LussBockil. Nigra, nitida; abdomine triangulari, seg-.
mento tertio parvo; femoribus posticis basi flavidis ; alis apice latis,
flavido-hyalinis, costa ad basin subciliata, vena cubitali ad medium
costz extensa subcostali parallela, venulis undulatis. Long. } ln.

Broad, flat, shining ; frons very broad, the eyes scarcely oceupyimg each
one sixth the width of the head ; itis moderately shining, gently arched,
and pretty densely clothed with minute bristles; the three ocelli
visible slightly luteous ; antennze with the third jomt rather large,
somewhat rounded; thorax broad, flat, rather broader than the head,
angles tolerably rounded, disk shining (in appearance suggesting a
small Spherocera), beset with very minute bristles, which become
rather scarcer towards the hinder part; scutellum rather dull, mar-
gined, nearly four times as broad as long: abdomen black, narrower
and shorter than the thorax (again suggestive of Spherocera) ; each
segment after the second successively narrower, the last one being
almost triangular; the third segment is very short, contracted under
the second; the hind margins form a curve convex towards the thorax,
the first segment being slightly emarginate in the middle; the sixth
(last) is much the longest. Legs stoutish, blackish, basal two thirds
of hind femora yellowish; middle tibize with two small spines at the
tip. Wings considerably overlapping the abdomen, yellowish hya-
line, darker about the basal half of the costa, blunt at the tip, cubital
vein extending about half the length of the wing, and the costa slightly
ciliate up to its end, subcostal vein running parallel to it and ending
just before it ; both veins a little thickened at their ends; first veinlet
curved S-like, considerably at its base, slightly at its end, vanishing
distinctly before the tip of the wing; second veinlet also S-like, di-
verging at its end from the first, and ending distinctly below the-tip
of the wing; third veinlet slightly undulated, ending very wide from
the second; fourth faint, not reaching the end of the wing. :

This description having been made from a specimen gummed

down on card, though in very good condition, I am unable to
decide on the sex, or to examine the face, palpi, base of antenne,
or COXe.

RECENT RESEARCHES ON SARCODE ORGANISMS. 261

THe ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT,
Professor AttMaNn, M.D., LU.D., F.R.S.

[Read May 24, 1876.]

Recent Researches among some of the more simple
Sarcode Organisms.

Wuew addressing you last year in fulfilment of the duty which
annually devolves on your President, I believed that the object
intended to be gained by this custom would be best carried out
by making the Address as nearly as possible an exponent of
recent progress in some special field of biological research.

I tlien selected for our subject the group of the true or ciliate
Tnfusoria, and endeavoured to lay before you the principal steps by
which our knowledge of these minute organisms had been recently
advanced.

Guided on the present occasion ae the same principle, I shall
endeavour to treat in a similar way certain other groups in whose
investigation much activity has shown itself within the last few
years —simple sarcodic organisms, among which are, indeed, the
simplest which it is possible to conceive—beings whose very sim-
plicity give them a significance which can scarcely be overesti-
mated in our investigations of the phenomena of life.

The limits, however, which must of necessity be imposed on the
length of such an address render it impossible to treat the subject
in all the details which an exhaustive exposition would involve.
Much therefore, especially such as belongs to the description of
special forms, must be omitted from our review ; and I shall con-
fine myself mainly to the results of observations which have made
us acquainted with such forms and phenomena as have a more or
less direct significance in their relation to mor wheter types and
their bearing on physiological laws.

Most of the organisms which I propose to bring under review
have probably their nearest relations with the animal rather than
with the plant; but it must not be forgotten that the distinction
isin many eases arbitrary, and that we have often no reliable cha-
racter which will enable us to assert that the scarcely differen-
tiated particle of protoplasm before us belongs to the animal
kingdom rather than to the vegetable, or to the yes) rather
than to the animal.

This difficulty has been fully recognized by Haeckel, who has
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 23

262 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

included the whole of the organisms we are here about to consider
in his group of Prorista, which he regards as composed of
beings which are neither animals nor plants, and which thus form
a third organic kingdom equivalent tothe animal kingdom on one
side, and to the vegetable on the other.

The advances which have of late years been made in our know-
ledge of the lowest forms of living beings are largely due to the
important reform introduced by Max Schultze into the theory of
the cell, when, by his researches on the Monothalamian Rhizopod
Cornuspira*, the old conception of the cell as a membranous sac
with contents gave place to the doctrine that in its original con-
dition the cell represents only a naked lump of protoplasm with
an imbedded nucleus ; and this doctrine gained further signifi-
cance when he insisted on the fact, of fundamental importance in
Biology, that the soft substance of the Rhizopoda, to which Du-
jardin had given the name of sarcode, was identical with the cell
protoplasm of all higher animals and plants.

It was further shown by Haeckel} that there exists a great
number of the lowest organisms whose structure is even simpler
than had been imagined by Max Schultze; for in their naked
protoplasmic bodies there is never to be found at any period of
their lives a trace of a nucleus. He regards the nucleus as an
essential constituent of the genuine “ cell,’’ which he views as the
more highly developed elementary organism, and which ought
to be carefully distinguished from the lower homogeneous, non-
nucleated protoplasm mass, for which he proposes the name of
* Cytode.”

_ Both these forms of elementary organisms (the cell and the
cytode) he embraces under the name of “ Plastid,” as being the
builders-up of all complex organisms.

He regards this distinction of the two kinds of plastids as of
the greatest importance in its bearing on the phylogenetic or
genealogical history of organisms, since it is only such absolutely
simple organisms as cytodes that can originate by spontaneous .
generation (Urzeugungq), while it is only later on in the course of
the development that cells become evolved from the cytodes by
_ differentiation of an inner nucleus and an outer protoplasm.

In the greatest number of organisms the individuals take their
* “Ueber Cornuspira,” Archiv fir Naturg. 1860.

t ‘Generelle Morphologie ;’ and “ Beitrage zur Plastidentheorie,” Jenaische
Zeitschr. yol. y.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS, 263

origin from nucleated cells, whether eggs or spores; and in these,
as insisted on by Haeckel, genuine cytodes cannot occur. Here
all the later plastids which compose them must have arisen from
the genuine cell and, like this, must have been originally nucleated.
If non-nucleated plastids, such as the red blood-corpuscles of
Mammalia, should show themselves, these must have been produced
by retrogradation—a loss of the nucleus in what was originally
a genuine nucleated cell. In order to distinguish them from
the true non-nucleated cytode, he gives them the designation of
“ Dyscytodes.”’

Among the forms which I am now about to bring before you,
many examples of both true cells and cytodes will have to be
adduced.

Hertwig and Lesser* have described a number of low Ameba-
like organisms and of other rhizopodous forms of fresh water.
They have worked out with much care their structure and affi-
nities, and have attempted a general exposition of their organiza-
tion and systematic position.

They all consist of masses of protoplasm in which a nucleus
with nucleolus are almost always developed, and which, besides
these, include a greater or smaller number of vacuoles, which may
be either contractile or non-contractile. In the more purely
amoeboid forms their bodies have no definite shape, and are, for
the most part, absolutely naked ; but they are occasionally enve-
loped for a greater or less extent in a thin pellicle, which is ex-
creted from the surface of the protoplasm, and follows all its
changes of form, while, in rare cases, they are covered by foreign
particles agglutinated together. In others, however (Monothala-
mia, Hert. & Less., and Heliozoa), there exist more definite protec-
tive structures either in the form of external hard shells or of firm
membranous cases, or of variously arranged spines and spicules.

In morphological value none of them pass beyond the stage of
asimple cell, or, at most, of two or more cells fused together into
a single protoplasm-mass without any tendency to the formation
of tissues or the differentiation of organs. In the protoplasm,
however, may frequently be distinguished two layers or zones-—an
external layer (ectosare), clearer and more homogeneous, and an
internal layer (endosarc), less transparent and more loaded with
granules. These two layers, for the most part, pass gradually
into one another.

* “Ueber Rhizopoden und denselben nahestehende Organismen,” Arch. f.

mikr. Anat. vol. x, Suppl. 1874.
23*

264 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Hertwig and Lesser have paid especial attention to the struc-
ture of the nucleus, and have shown that in it and its contained
nucleolus there is a remarkable constancy of character. The
nucleus presents the appearance of a clear vesicle whose contents
are either sparingly or not at all coagulable by acetic acid; white
the nucleolus which it encloses is either a simple oval pale bluish
body, or appears to have been broken up into several such bodies ;
it becomes granular in weak acetic acid, and in stronger acid
swells up without becoming dissolved. In some cases the nucleus
is seen to be bounded by a delicate structureless membrane-like
layer (nucleus membrane), though in others no definite boundary
layer can be demonstrated.

The same authors have distinguished in these organisms two
kinds of locomotion. In one the contractility of the protoplasm
affects equally the whole mass; the body changes but slightly its
contour, and glides over the supporting object by a constant rota-
tion of its whole surface, as is seen in Hyalodiscus, Hert. & Les.
In the other, which is by far the more frequent condition, locomo-
tion is effected by the contractility of limited portions of the sur-
face, either causing the protrusion and retraction of blunt or
pointed pseudopodia by means of which the organism is pushed
or drawn forwards, or giving rise to a streaming forth of the pro-
toplasm by which the whole body seems, as it were, to flow forward
in a definite direction.

There is no definite orifice for the ingestion of nutriment, which
gains access to the interior of the body solely by transmission
through the surface of any part of the protoplasm which may be
exposed to the surrounding medium. Solid nutritious matter
thus becomes pressed into the deeper parts of the body, where
during assimilation it may generally be seen accumulated in
pellets surrounded by a clear liquid and included in a simple
vacuole, from which the effete residue becomes afterwards ex-
pelled, and is finally ejected through any part of the exposed
surface of the protoplasm. The attempt to confine the process
of assimilation to the endosare and of contractility to the ectosare
is not supported by careful observation. Indeed the absence of
specialization in this most generalized phase of nutrition is further
apparent from the fact that the whole process may take place even
in a pseudopodium.

In almost every case, as already said, vacuoles occur distributed
through the protoplasm. These are filled with a clear liquid, and
are either variable in number and indefinite in position, or they

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 265.

occupy a definite position and are then also definite in number.
They mostly appear and disappear at intervals; and in those
vacuoles which have a definite number and fixed position the ap-
pearance and disappearance follow one another at equal intervals,
having thusa regularly rhythmical sequence. It is not easy, how-
ever, by any hard and fast line to separate these two classes of
. vacuoles from one another; even those with indefinite position
and number sometimes show a rhythmical contraction, while they
all pass by intermediate conditions into those irregular liquid-
holding spaces so obvious in the protoplasm of plant-cells. It is
these conditions which have induced Hertwig and Lesser, in
Opposition to the views of other zoologists, to assign little or no
systematic value to the contractility of the vacuoles.

As may be expected in organisms of such extremely simple
structure and with the functions of nutrition and irritability
showing such little tendency to specialization, there is a corre-
sponding simplicity in the function of reproduction. This, indeed,
is probably limited to a simple division of the body referable to
the established laws of cell-multiplication ; for the assumption
that the nucleus exercises a sexual function, though insisted on
by some observers, does not rest on a sufficient number of conti-
nuous and connected observations.

In many cases, however, an encysting process becomes intro-
duced into this simple form of reproduction. The organism with-
draws its pseudopodia, secretes around it a membranous cyst, and
passes into a resting state. Within the cyst the protoplasm di-
vides into two or more portions, and these finally break through
the walls of the cyst and become free.

Hertwig and Lesser regard this intercalation of an encysting
process into the development-cycle of the organism as conditioned
by the laws of adaptation with inheritance. Many observed phe-
nomena tend to show that the encysting at first arose from an
adaptation to external conditions, and only at a subsequent period
became subservient to reproduction. They suggest that it may
have served originally either in maintaining the vitality of the
organism during the drying up of the pools of water inhabited by
it, or in affording a protection from its enemies when, after abun-
dant ingestion of nutriment, it passes for the purposes of diges-
tion into a quiescent state.

The organisms distinguished by the characters here enumerated,
together with certain marine forms—the so-valled Foraminifera—
to which the present review is not intended to extend, correspond

266 PROF. ALLMAN ON TILE RECENT RESEARCHES .

very nearly to the Rhizopoda with the limits assigned to this group
by Max Schultze. Hertwig and Lesser, however, substitute for
the designation Rhizopoda in the Schultzian sense that of Sar-
codina, and confine the former to one of the sections into whieh
they have divided their group of the Monothalamia.

From these general remarks we may now pass to the more im-
portant special forms to which the attention of zoologists has been
recently directed.

Dactylospherium vitreum. a, pseudopodium in the act of withdrawal; 0b, food-
pellets; ¢c, non-contractile vacuoles, (After Hertwig and Lesser.)

Under the name of Dactylospheriwm vitreum (fig. 1), Hertwig and
Lesser describe a freshwater rhizopod which but slightly differs
from Ameba. It has a roundish body composed of homogeneous
hyaline protoplasm with a multitude of yellow or green strongly
refringent granules, which fill the whole of the interior of the body
as far as a narrow hyaline margin. The pseudopodia are blunt
~ finger-shaped processes which radiate in all directions from the sur-.
face, and consist of a perfectly homogeneous hyaline protoplasm.

The mode in which the pseudopodia are withdrawn is peculiar.
When one of these is about to disappear, it seems suddenly to
change its form ; its smooth surface becomes nodular and irregu-
larly sinuous, it conveys the impression of having suddenly lost
its turgescence, and then it rapidly flows back into the body.

Numerous non-contractile vacuoles exist; but the multitude
of coloured.corpuscies so interfered with the transparency of the
protoplasm, that it was impossible to decide with certainty as to
the presence of a nucleus.

In a variety in which the yellow corpuscles are replaced by

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 267

green, the whole, or part, of the surface is seen to be in most
cases covered with fine villi-like processes, a condition very similar
to one which has been frequently described as occurring in
Ameba.

Towards the centre of the protoplasm were numerous pellets
composed of foreign matter, evidently the remains of nutriment
derived from plants and ingested as in other ameceboid or-
ganisms.

Hyalodiseus rubicundus (fig. 2) is another form described by
Hertwig and Lesser. It differs from all known sarcode animals in
its peculiar mode of locomotion ; for while, in all other Rhizopoda,
locomotion is effected by variously formed pseudopodia, by which
the organism is pushed or pulled forwards, or by means of an appa-
rent pouring forth of a stream of protoplasm, by which it, as it
were, flows over the subjacent objects, in Hyalodiscus all parts
of the surface contribute equally to the locomotion, and it is only
the direction in which all the individual parts of the surface move
that determines the line in which the organism glides forwards.

Hyalodiscus rubicundus. The animal in the act of creeping, viewed laterally.
(After Hertwig and Lesser.)

The form of Hyalodiscus rubicundus is that of a disk flattened
on one side, convex on the opposite. Its body consists of a homo-
geneous, colourless, and hyaline external layer (ectosarc), and a
granular central mass (endosare), which is loaded with brownish
red corpuscles. In the middle of the endosare is a nucleus, and
towards its periphery numerous vacuoles; but whether these are
or are not contractile could not be determined.

Though the Hyalodiscus moves with considerable velocity over
the stage of the microscope, scarcely any change of shape can be ob-
served in it—a feature in which it strongly contrasts with the pro-
_tean changes ofan Ameba. During the progression of Hyalodiscus

268 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

every point of the surface may, under the microscope, be seen to
be in a constant rotation; so that on the dorsal side of the animal:
(that turned away from the supporting surface) each point travels
from behind forwards, while on the ventral side it travels from
before backwards, thus causing, by friction against the surface of
support, a rolling forwards of the entire animal. ‘This rotation of
the superficial particles of the sarcode body is rendered apparent
by watching the movements of minute foreign bodies which happen
to be adherent at the surface.

Tt is not, however, in the external layer alone, but in ‘te whole
body, that motion of rotation exists. The coloured corpuscles
and granules of the endosare may be seen to be constantly moving
ina forward direction on the dorsal side, and in the opposite direc-
tion on the ventral side, so that every one of them describes a com-
plete circle. Even the nucleus participates in the general rota-
tion of the particles, though from its nearly central position the
circle in which it rotates is a small one.

This interesting form of protoplasm motion can be explained,
as Hertwig and Lesser remark, only by attributing to every point
of the body, as well as of the endosare as of the ectosare, a nearly
uniform contractility, such as Max Schultze assumes in order to
explain protoplasm-currents in general.

Hertwig and Lesser have not witnessed the actual ingestion of
nutriment, though abundant nutriment-masses were seen imbedded
in the endosare, where they lay without being surrounded by any
distinet vacuole.

A remarkable amceboid organism, which forms in some respects a
transition form between the dmebe and the Flagellata, has, under
the name of Mastigameba aspera (fig. 3), been described by Franz
Hilhard Schulze*, who discovered it in a pond of the Botanic Garden
at Gritz. Like other ameeboids it is very changeable in shape;
but its usual form is that of an appressed oval, from whose sides
simple, blunt, finger-shaped pseudopodia are given off. One
end is more pointed than the opposite, and from the pointed
end, which during locomotion is always turned forward, there
projects a long, very fine, non-retractile, cylindrical filament of
sarcode, in all respects resembling a flagellum of the true
Flagellata. The regularly disposed lateral pseudopodia, and the
position of the flagellum at the end of the long axis, give
to the creature a superficial resemblance to a bilateral animal,

* FB. E. Schulze, “ Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch, f. mikr, Anat. vol. xi. p. 583.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. ~ 269°

creeping by means of the appendages situated along the sides of
its body. .
d Fig. 3.

Mastigameba aspera, as seen when creeping over the field of the microscope.
(After F. E. Schulze.)

In the body may be distinguished a strongly refringent, hyaline,
colourless ectosare, from which the pseudopodia directly proceed;
and a softer endosare loaded with clear ‘reddish yellow spherules
and colourless granules, and usually containing also the masses of
ingested nutriment. The greater part of the external surface is
beset with very minute, refringent, rod-like structures, compared
by the author to certain Bacteria (Bacteria termo). These usually
lie tangentially to the surface, to which they give a peculiar rough-
ness, which has suggested the specific name. During the act of
creeping the posterior pseudopodia are usually reduced to the
condition of short thick -processes, from -which may be seen
radiating extremely fine sarcode projections, quite like the fine
processes observed on the hinder end of certain Amebe (Ameba
princeps), where they give a kind of flocculent appearance to the
surface. The endosarc at the boundary between it and the ecto-
sare contains one or two vacuoles, which always lie at the hinder
eud and alternately appear and disappear, without, however, show-
ing any distinctly rhythmical pulsation.

270 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

At the anterior end of the animal, just below the root of
the flagellum, and at the boundary between endosare and ec-
tosarc, there is imbedded in the endosare a roundish, smooth,
rather strongly refringent body, whose significance has not
been determined. It projects beyond the boundary of the
endosare, and appears to be surrounded by a clear area, which
separates it by a considerable space from the ectosarc, and by a
much narrower space from the endosare in which it is imbedded.
This area is extended forward in a point reaching the surface
of the body close to the root of the flagellum; but whether
it communicates here with the exterior could not be determined.
The body thus enclosed within the clear area shows in its interior
a great number of sharply defined, spherical, clear corpuscles ; and.
it can slowly but distinctly change its shape, appearing at one
time oval, then quite spherical, then more irregular with rounded
angles— characters which the author considers incompatible with
the supposition of its being either a nucleus or a nucleolus, in
the latter case with the surrounding clear area representing the
body of the nucleus.

The liability, however, of the nelene or nucleolus to changes of
form ought not to surprise us. Hanstein has shown the occur-
rence of ameeboid changes of form in the nucleus of a great num-
ber of plant-cells* ; Alexander Brandt has demonstrated similar
changes in the nucleolus of the egg in Blattat; and Eimer has
shown that the germinal spot (nucleolus) in the egg of the Szlw-
rus glanis and that of the Carp exhibits amoeboid changes like
those of the colourless blood-corpuscles ¢.

Under the name of Plakopus ruber (fig. 4), F. E. Schulze § de-
seribes an amceboid rhizopod, which is rendered very remarkable by
the peculiar condition of its pseudopodia. These are in the form
of thin membranes, which may extend themselves over the surface
of other bodies or project free into the surrounding water. They
form either a single very thin plate which spreads over the sup-
porting body, or they consist of several lamelle which unite with

* Botanische Zeitung, 1872.

+ “Weber active Formveranderungen des Kernkorperchens,” Arch. fir mikr.
Anat. vol. x. p. 505.

t “Ueber amoboide Bewegungen des Kernkorperchens,” Arch. fiir mikr. Anat.
vol. xi. 1875. ;

§ Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. xi. 1875.

AMONG SIMPLE sARCODE ORGANISMS. 27a

one another at different angles so as to enclose funnel-shaped
eavities with their mouths turned outwards.

Fig. 4.

Plakopus ruber, with its membranous pseudopodia enclosing cup-shaped cavi-
ties; multitudes of vermilion-coloured corpuscles scattered through its proto-

plasm. (After F. E, Schulze.)

The body is differentiated into a hyaline, refringent, cortical
layer, from which the pseudopodia are formed, and an internal
parenchyma in which granules, usually of a cinnabar or brick-red
colour, though occasionally green, are imbedded.

The parenchyma contains also one or more nuclei, whose posi-
tion changes, as in the true Ameba, with the movements of the
animal. The nucleus encloses a relatively large nucleolus.

Finally round vacuoles in variable number and of different
sizes are scattered through the parenchyma, and may sometimes
be seen to have passed into the pseudopodia. Their pulsation is
not always manifest.

Schulze has not succeeded in demonstrating any decided fact
regarding the reproduction of this curious rhizopod.

Greeff gives the name of Pelomyxa palustris (fig. 5) to an ame-
boid organism which he discovered spreading over the bottom of
stagnant pools, first in the neighbourhood of Bonn and afterwards
at Marburg*. It isusually in the condition of little, slimy, blackish
sarcode masses, which may attain a diameter of even two milli-
metres. It is capable of great change of shape during its active
amoeboid movements, which are effected by the extension of its
periphery into thick lobes or hemispherical projections, or by con-
tinued undulations of its surface.

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. x. 1874. The name of Pelodius, which he had first
assigned to it, had been already given to an aquatic beetle, and was therefore
changed by Greeff into Pelomyra. *

TR PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

The substance of its body is differentiated into an outer cortical
layer of homogeneous hyaline sarcode and an inner parenchyma
loaded with spherical vacuoles, which give it a vesicular or frothy
appearance. Its dark colour is due to foreign matter taken in as
nutriment ; and specimens from Rostock, since described by Fr.
Eil. Schulze*, were colourless.

Besides the vacuoles there occur in the parenchyma a great
number of nucleus-like bodies, as well as of peculiar globular,
hyaline, and brilliant bodies, to which Greeff gives the name of
“‘ Glanzkorper,” and of minute rod-like structures.

The nucleus-like bodies are very numerous, some hundreds
being visible in a single specimen of ordinary size. They enclose
hyaline contents with minute dark granules, which he against
their walls. In some of them, instead of the minute granules,
several larger bodies like nucleoli make their appearance. These
increase in size, become excavated by a cavity, and finally oceupy
the whole interior of the apparent nucleus, which now bursts and
sets them free into the surrounding parenchyma. Greeff believes
that after becoming free they are transformed into the hyaline
homogeneous bodies (Glanzkérper).

These last exist in great numbers, and give to Pelomysca ¢ a very
characteristic appearance. They are for the most part of a glo-
bular form, and consist of a firm glistening capsule with mostly
hyaline and homogeneous contents. They multiply by division
in the interior of the Pelomyxa. Sometimes the contents were
seen to have become retracted from the wall of the capsule and
to assume an ameceboid outline; but Greeff was unable to follow
them through further changes.

He, however, records an observation which, if it be not referanle
to a case of parasitism, would seem to throw light on the repro-
. duction of Pelomyxa. While watching under the microscope an
old and apparently dead specimen of Pelomywxa, he saw suddenly
break forth from its surface a multitude of minute ameebiform
bodies, each with a nucleus and contractile vacuole. After ex-
hibiting for some time active amceboid movements, they became
more sluggish, withdrew their pseudopodia, assumed the form of
spherical or pyriform bodies, and passed into a resting state.
From these a long vibratile filament was subsequently developed,
and the Amebe became thus changed into active swimming Fla-
gellates. Their further destiny Greeff did not succeed in disco-

* « Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch f. miky. Anat. vol. xi.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 273

vering ; but he believes that the amceboid brood is directly derived
from the hyaline bodies, which he regards as the germs or spores
of the Pelomyxa.

The only form of reproduction observed by F. E. Schulze in
Pelomyxa was a division of the whole body*.

The rods are scattered in great numbers in the parenchyma.
They are composed of an organic substance; but Greeff was
not able to determine any thing as to their origin or~signi-
ficance.

Fig. 5.

Pelomyxa palustris. A, the entire rhizopod as it appears when in active ame-
boid motion. 3B, a portion more highly magnified: a a, the hyaline ectosare
thrown into prominent undulations; 0, one of the vacuoles of the endosarc;
d, protruded mass of the hyaline ectosarc; ee, nuclei; ff, globular hyaline

~ homogeneous bodies (Glanzkérper). Numerous rod-like bodies (c) are seen scat-
tered through the endosare. (After Greeff.)

We owe to Greeff some very interesting observations showing
that the Amebe, a group of organisms which had been hitherto sup-

* FB. H. Schulze, loc. cit.

274 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

posed to be exclusively aquatic, have terrestrial representatives*.
The Ameba terricola of Greeff occurs mm earth and dry sand. It
has an irregularly spherical form, with blunt nodular projections
anda dull glassy appearance. It looks like an irregularly shaped
fragment of silica, and might be easily passed by as a grain of sand.

A more careful examination shows within it yellow granules,
which are in lively motion, streaming here and there through the
soft protoplasm.

Its body is composed of two substances, an outer hyaline layer
of firmer, consistence, and an inner granular, softer, and more fluid
parenchyma. Nowhere among the aquatic Amebe isthe differ-
ence between these two constituents so strongly defined as here.
The hyaline outer layer is the chief source of the contractility.

The motions of the animal are peculiar and different from those
of the aquatic Amebe. It does not, like these, appear to flow over
the surface on which it lies, but raises itself on the projections
from its body, which, unlike the pseudopodia of the aquatic
Amebe, are firm and strong enough to support it. While thus
balanced, the influx of the granular parenchyma towards certain
parts of the periphery disturbs the equilibrium and causes the
whole toroll over. Its motion is thus a rolling instead of a creep-
ing one. In some cases the peculiar villous condition first noticed
by Wallich and Carter in certain aquatic dmebe was present on
the posterior end of the body.

No special membrane is to be found on the outer layer; and
Greeff, in opposition to Auerbach, denies the presence of such a
membrane, not merely on his terrestrial Ameba, but on the aquatic
ones.
A uumber of clear vacuoles of different sizes may be seen float-
ing in the soft parenchyma. These are very variable in size and
number. They are carried about by the currents, and may be
seen in one and the same individual to change from minute to
minute. When two vacuoles come in contact they frequently
run together into a single one, which may still further combine
with others. Occasionally one of the large vacuoles may be seen
to approach the periphery of the parenchyma and then suddenly
disappear asif it had been emptied outwards. After afew seconds,
however, we find in its place a great number of very small vacuoles,
which again gradually unite with one another until, instead of a

* “Ueber einige in der Erde lebenden Ameben” &c., Arch. f. mikr. Anat.
vol, ii, 1866.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 275

multitude of small vacuoles, we have once more a single large
one.

Small alg, diatoms, and other foreign bodies are also found
imbedded in the parenchyma. These have been taken in as nu-
triment, and are frequently found enveloped by the yellow bodies
already referred to. Greeff regards these yellow bodies, which
are also frequently present in the aquatic dAmebe, as intended
to promote the digestion of the ingested nutriment ; and he com-
pares them with the so-called liver-cells, also of a yellowish
~ colour, which clothe the digestive canal in many of the lower
animals—an analogy which at best may be regarded as very
remote.

Among the contents of the body occur also minute crystal-
line-looking structures, which, however, are without any definite
form. Greeff has no doubt that they are a product of the
Ameba itself, and not introduced from without. Similar bodies
are known to occur in aquatic Amebe and other Rhizopoda,
where they have been described by Auerbach, Wallich, Carter,
and others.

But the most important structure found in the inner paren-
chyma is the nucleus. Like many of the other bodies which are
found there, it is carried about by the sarcode currents, and is so
soft that it changes its shape when it meets with any obstruction
in its course. It is enveloped in a double membrane. It is
viewed by Greeff as an organ of reproduction. It consists at first
of a homogeneous protoplasm with some dark glistening granules ;
but after a time the entire nucleus becomes filled with solid round
corpuscles, which he regards as the young progeny of the Amaba.
The outer covering then disappears, and he believes that the
solid corpuscles escape into the surrounding parenchyma. The
whole of the nucleus thus becomes broken up into the young
brood which fills the body of the Ameba, The Ameba now
ceases to take in food, its motions become less active, and its
functions seem to be entirely confined to the protection and
development of the young. These are soon ejected, and become
developed externally into the form of the parent. Greeff has
found such young Amebe in the surrounding sand.

In two instances Greeff observed in the interior of the body elon-
gated soft masses apparently composed of bundles of sinuous hair-
like filaments, which recalled the supposed spermatic filaments
described by Balbiani in the so-called nucleolus of the Infusoria ;

276 PROF, ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

but his observations were not sufficiently complete to jase © him
in maintaining their actual analogy with these bodies.

In connexion with Greeff’s observations on the relations of the

nucleus to reproduction in Ameba terricola, may be here mentioned
those of Fr. Eil. Schulze on the behaviour of this body in the
multiplication of A. polypodia, Max Schultze. F. BE. Schulze* has
seen the nucleus with its nucleolus in this rhizopod divide by a
transverse constriction ; the two halves recede from one another,
and the body of the Ameba then, by asimilar constriction, divides
between the two segments of the original nucleus. The process
in this case thus differs essentially from that described by Greeff,
and corresponds to a well-known form of cell-multiplication.
- The Ameba terricola occurs, according to Greeff, very frequently
in sand and in the earth on the root-fibres of mosses,- grasses, and
other plants when they do not form too thick a layer on the sur-
face of rocks, walls, house-tops, trunks of trees, and the like. It
is almost always found in company with terrestrial Arctiscoida
( bear animaleules”’), Rotifers, Anguillule, &c.

The shallow layer of earth in which it lives frequently ex-
poses it to desiccation, when its vital activity is arrested. In
this condition the firm hyaline outer layer contracts more and
more with the increasing dryness, and thus affords to the soft gra~
mular parenchyma a protection against absolute desiccation.
When. moistened, however, with water, it once more awakens
to complete activity even ee a dormancy of many months.

Among the terrestrial amebiform organisms discovered by
‘Greeti is one. which he assigns to a new geuus under the
name of Amphizonella. He distinguishes three species, of which
one, A. violacea, has been especially observed by him. The Am-
phizonelle are distinguished from the Amabe by being provided
with an external soft capsule, which is quite distinct from the
proper cortical layer. They have a large round nucleus; and
pseudopodia, which rapidly appear and disappear, are emitted
from the interior and bore their way through the external cap-
sule, which again, on their withdrawal, becomes so completely
closed as to lose all trace of having been perforated. In A. vz0-
lacea the internal protoplasm is of a beautiful violet colour. Greeff
has witnessed a partial fusion of two individuals. He regards
this as a case of conjugation, and believes that it is followed by
the formation of a young brood within the body of the parents.

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. xi. p. 592.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 277.

Some other forms have been described by Archer* as species
of Amphizonella, but which, unlike the terrestrial species disco-
vered by Greeff, are inhabitants of fresh water. The A. vestita of
Archer, however, is, as shown by Hertwig and Lesser, not refer-
able to Greeff’s Amphizonella, and is regarded by these observers
as identical with their own Cochliopodium pellucidum. They rec-
tify Archer’s description, and point out the causes of error by
which be was deceived in his attempts at identification.

The complete disappearance in the different species of Am-
phizonella of the apertures caused by the pseudopodia in boring
their way through the outer coat reminds us vividly of the
phenomena which have been proved to accompany the migra-
tion of the blood-corpuscles through the coats of the eapillaries
in the higher animals.

Fig. 6.

Cochliopodium pellucidum, viewed from the side, with widely open test-orifice,
through which numerous pseudopodia are projected. (After F. E. Schulze.)

Hertwig and Lesserf describe, under the name of Cochliopodium
pellucidum (fig. 6), a very interesting Rhizopod which they found in
great quantity in ditches at Reinhardsbrunnen and in a pond in the
Botanic Gardens at Bonn. They have identified it with Archer’s
spineless variety of Amphizonella vestita, which they regard. as
having nothing which would justify a subordination of it to Greeft’s
genus Amphizonella.

It consists of a nucleus-bearing protoplasm body which, not-

* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. vol. xi. 1871. t Loe. cit.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOU, XITT. 24

278 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

withstanding its being enveloped in a closely applied test, is sub-
jected to-all the protean changes of form which are so character-
istic of the naked sarcode animals.

The test is quite colourless, and possesses an areolar structure
like that of the shell of Arcella, from which, however, it differs
in its much greater delicacy and in its flexibility and want of
definite form. It possesses great extensibility and elasticity, and
becomes dilated or contracted in accordance with the form assumed
by thecontained protoplasm. It has a single opening through which
the pseudopodia are protruded, and whose diameter varies with
the condition of the protoplasm ; but whose position is constant
with regard to the nucleus, which always les opposite to it in the
fundus of the test. Besides this opening , the test is quite imper-
forate; and Archer was deceived in supposing that pseudopodia
were emitted through orifices in its sides.

The contractile vesicles which occur along with simple, fre-
quently very numerous, non-contractile vacuoles, lie quite in the
periphery of the sarcode, and when ina state of diastole carry
outward for a slight distance the part of the test which lies im-
mediately over them.

The pseudopodia are conical and hyaline. During progression
the pseudopodial opening is dilated, and the body extends itself
more or less over the subjacent surface, forming with its shortened
pseudopodia a kind of flattened foot on which the whole organism
glides forward. It is this mode of progression, compared by the
authors to that of a gasteropod, which has suggested the name
of Cochliopodium.

The relations of Cochliopodium to the Monothalamia of Hertwig
and Lesser cannot be overlooked, while among these the structure
of its test point out Arcella as its nearest ally. Perhaps, as
Hertwig and Lesser remark, a continued study will render pos-
sible a union of Cochliopodium with Arcella ; but in the mean time
it is better to regard the two genera as distinct, and to abstain
from placing Cochliopodium among the Monothalamia, from which
it is separated by its great inconstancy of body-form.

Cochliopodium pellucidum has also been examined by F. EB.
Schulze *, who confirms in all essential points the description
given by Hertwig and Lesser.

A terrestrial Arce//a, which bears a considerable resemblance to

* FF. E. Schulze, “ Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch. fiir mikr. Anat. yol. xi.
p. 337, 1875.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 279

the aquatic A. vulgaris, to be referred to in the sequel, has aiso
been discovered by Greeff. He names it A. arenaria.

To Cienkowski we are indebted for the discovery and inves-
tigation of another very simple sarcodic organism to which he has
given the name of Labyrinthulea*.

He found it among the lower alge which cover the piles in the
harbour of Odessa, where it is represented by two species, which
he names L. vitellina (fig. 7 A) and ZL. macrocystis (fig. 7 B, C).

Fig. 7.

Labyrinthulea vitellina. A. The entire organism, with the fusiform bodies
wandering over the filamentary network. B. One of the fusiform bodies of L.
macrocystis still further magnified, showing its nucleus with nucleolus. C. The
same, entering into the resting stage. (After Cienkowski.)

Tt consists of a central mass of sarcode from which are given
off tnread-like prolongations which divide and subdivide and
inosculate with one another, forming a net-like or dendritic ex-

* “Ueber den Bau und die Entwickl. der Labyrinthulen,” Arch. f. mikr.
Anat. yol. iii. 1867.

24%

280 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

pansion, which in its ultimate ramifications consists of filaments
of extreme tenuity. On this complicated plexus may be noticed
in constant motion peculiar spindle-shaped bodies which, in L.
vitellina, are of an orange-red coluur, and which glide in 1 all di-
rections along the course of the filaments.

The central mass consists of a multitude of little sarcode
spherules, the whole being held together by a soft, finely gra-
nular substance, which at the periphery forms a thin enveloping
layer. Small aggregates of a similar sarcode occur also on
various parts of the filamentary network, where, however, they
are not held together by a cortical layer, as in the great central
mass. From these smaller aggregates there also run in various
directions branching and anastomosing filaments, along which
the orange-red spindles glide.

Cienkowski has shown the identity of the moving spindles
with the spherules of the central mass. He has seen these
spherules become fusiform at the periphery of this mass and
then leave it in order to wander along the course of the filaments.

After several hours it will be seen that the greater part of
the spherules have assumed the spindle shape, and, abandoning
the central sarcode, have entered the filaments and wandered to
the margin of the plexus.

The spindles are little -masses of protoplasm destitute of a
membrane and very mutable in form. Each encloses a nucleus
with nucleolus, and multiplies by division. They are therefore true
membraneless cells. They exhibit no motion, except in the paths
formed for them by the branching filaments.

Cienkowski describes the filamentary tracts along which the
spindles wander as destitute of contractility, showing no motion,
and never projecting pseudopodia. He regards the whole plexus
as a rigid non-mobile structure, and believes that its component
filaments never become fused together, but only touch one ano-
ther and adhere. He has, moreover, followed its formation, and
from a piece of the central protoplasm showing at first no trace
of the filaments, he has seen a complicated plexus developed in
the course of a few hours. He regards it as a gelatino-fibrous
excretion of the spindles.

If this be a correct view of the nature of the plexus, it. is
obvious that the cause of the motion is to be sought for in the
spindles themselves, and not in the paths over which they wander.
This, however, is scarcely in accordance with the known pheno-

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 281

mena presented by protoplasmic organisms in general; and we
should be more disposed to believe that the filaments are truly
sarcodic and contractile, and that the spindles travel along them
as foreign particles travel along the pseudopodia of other species.
This is certainly the case in the closely allied Chlamidomyxis
labyrinthuloides of Archer ; and in our efforts to discover the true
nature of the phenomenon in Labyrinthulea, the analogy of this
curious organism can scarcely be ignored.

In Labyrinthulea macrocystis Cienkowski has observed the
passing of the organism into the resting state. The first indica-
tion of this consists in the fact that the cells, whether those which
are contained in the central mass or those which wander along
the filaments, attain a considerable size and become richer in gra-
nules and darker in colour. The spindle-shaped cells gradually
assume an oyal shape, while each has its surface hardened into a
membrane, and the whole becomes surrounded by a common,
smooth, thick investment. In this way all the cells of the colony,
cemented by a common cortical substance into a globular or vermi-
form mass, remain for many weeks unchanged.

After these aggregations of cysts had remained in sea-water
for about six weeks, the contents of each cyst were observed to
have become divided into four parts, the cyst-envelope at the
same time becoming very soft and finally disappearing, so as
to allow the four divisions to escape as free moving spherules.
Soon after this the Labyrinthulea-cells with their accompanying
filaments had made their appearance. He has not actually seen
the change of the liberated spherules into the Labyrinthulea-cells,
but he has no doubt of its reality.

Mr. Archer, of Dublin, has described, with excellent figures,
avery remarkable organism which in many respects possesses
intimate relations with Cienkowski’s Labyrinthulea. He found
it in fresh water, and named it Chlamidomyxis labyrinthuloides*
(fig. 8).

It has a soft sarcodic body surrounded by an outer tough cyst,
which is of a very irregular outline, is composed of many layers,
and shows distinct cellulose reaction.

The sarcode contents are composed of a basic hyaline substance,
in which are immersed various kinds of granules. Among these
are certain homogeneous rounded corpuscles of a pale bluish tint,
which, as we shall presently see, take an important part in the

* «On Chlamidomyais labyrinthuloides,” Quart. Journ. Mier. Soe. vol. xv.

282 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

vital phenomena of the organism. Notwithstanding the tough-
ness of the cyst, the contents can burst their way through it, and
the protoplasm then pours forth, carrying with it its imbedded
granules, and spreading itself out over the field of the microscope.
it now shows a beautiful play of very numerous globular pulsa-
tile vacuoles.

The first part of the protoplasm which issues from the cyst

Fig. 8.

Chlamidomyxis labyrinthuloides. The protoplasm pouring itself out of the
cyst, and the fusiform bodies travelling in all directions over the filamentary
plexus. @da, isolated masses of protoplasm showing themselves in the fila-
mentary plexus; 6, a navicula seized for ingestion and about to be carried into
the main mass of protoplasm. (After Archer.)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 283

forms a main trunk, which soon subdivides into branches from
which others are emitted; and in a short time we see a complex
system of ramifications extending far and wide, and formed by
hyaline, quite colourless threads of extreme tenuity.

At the same time there appear in these threads minute fusi-
form bodies of a pale bluish colour, which may be seen to be in
constant motion along them. They are identical with the round
bluish granules of the central mass; and it is only on-leaving
this to wander along the filaments that they assume the fusiform
shape.

Archer has found no nuclei in any part of his Chlamidomyxis,
either in the central protoplasm or in the moving spindles. Foreign
bodies which had been ingested as nutriment werenot unfrequent
in the protoplasm of even the completely encysted organism. The
whole of the protruded protoplasm can again withdraw itself into
the cyst, and then, by the excretion of a wall, shut itself com-
pletely in.

The only thing which he has seen bearing any evidence of a re-
productive process is a subdivision of the contents of the cyst
into globular masses, which, at first naked, become afterwards in-
vested by a special membrane.

From Archer’s observations it would seem that Chlamidomyxis
originates parasitically in the cells of Sphagnum and other water-
plants, and that it afterwards quits the cavity of the cell and be-
comes external.

It is plain that in Chlamidomyxis we have a form very closely
allied to Labyrinthulea. From this it differs in possessing an exter-
nal, laminated, cellulose cyst, which appears to be constant, and not,
as in many other low sarcoid organisms, confined to a resting-period
in the eycle of development. The absence of nuclei in the fusi-
form bodies is another difference of importance. But the most
important point in which Chlamidomysis differs from Labyrinthulea,
as described by Cienkowski, is found in the nature of the fila-
mentary plexus which forms the paths along which the fusiform
bodies perform their strange wanderings. This, instead of being
formed of a rigid non-vitalized excretion, as is maintained by
Cienkowskito be the case in Labyrinthulea, is shown by the ob-
servations of Archer to form in Chlamidomyzis a contractile net of
living protoplasm ; and the motions of the fusiform bodies along
the filaments, which was so difficult to explain in Labyrinthulea,
will be easily understood in Chlamidomyais, wheve it is obviously

284: PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

referable to the contraction of the protoplasmic network. It is
here comparable to the well-known granule-currents in sarcode
filaments. One can hardly help believing, however, that the real
nature of the filamentary network in Labyrinthulea has been
misunderstood by Cienkowski, and that in this, as well as in
Chlamidomyzis, it constitutes a true protoplasm-net.

The long-known “sun animalcule,” Actinophrys sol, has recently
been studied by Hertwig and Lesser *. These excellent observers
have especially attended to that part of its structure which was
maintained by Grenacher to correspond to the central capsule of
the Radiolaria, and have shown it to be a large nucleus with nu-
cleolus, as, indeed, Stein had already maintained to be the true
import of this body in A. oculata, a closely allied marine form.

The researches of Hertwig and Lesser have now left no un-
certainty regarding the structure of this most interesting little
Rhizopod, so that a definition more exact than any hitherto
attempted can be given of it. The true conception of A. sol
would be thus, according to these observers, that of a spherical
Rhizopod with the protoplasm forming its central part homogene-
ous and that of its peripheral part vesicular. In its peripheral por-
tion is a single contractile vacuole, which projects far beyond the
surface. In the centre of the body is the nucleus with a distinct
membrane and large nucleolus. The pseudopodia, which radiate
in all directions from the surface, are provided with an axis-
filament ; ‘they are loaded with granules, seldom anastomose, and
never branch.

The union of numerous individuals of A. sol into a single mass
has often been observed. The number thus fused together is
variable and has been estimated at from two to nine; and the
fusion is so intimate that it is impossible to demonstrate the
boundaries of the component individuals, the compound mass
appearing as a single Aetinophrys. The nuclei, however, remain
distinct, and give evidence of the composition. The tendency to
combine shows itself also i the pseudopodia, which, in the com-
pound masses, exhibit numerous anastomoses with one another.

The individuals which have thus become amalgamated may sepa-
rate from one another and then become once more united into a
common mass.

It is not at all likely that this phenomenon of conjugation has any
thing to do with a truly sexual differentiation ; nor can we, indeed,

* Loc. cit.

4

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 285

discover in it any important bearing on the life-history of the
animal: ag a manifestation, however, of the properties of living
protoplasm it is full of significance.

Fig. 9. -

Actinospherium Hichhorniit. General view of the entire Rhizopod. m, me-
dullary region (endosare) ; 7, cortical region (ectosarc) ; ¢c, contractile vacuoles.
After Hertwig and Lesser.)

Franz Hilhard Schulze* has made some interesting observations
on the structure and development of Actinospherium Hichhorni ~
(figs. 9 and 10), which had been generaily confounded with Acéz-
nophrys sol, until Stein T insisted on the value of the differences
between them, and separated the two as distinct genera.

The most important steps, however, in our knowledge of this
fine Rhizopod had already been made by Kollikert and by Max
Schultze$. Kolliker had drawn attention to the peculiar vesicular
or “alveolar” structure of its sarcode, and to the differentiation
of this into two regions—a more opaque central or medullary
region (endosarc), and a clearer peripheral or cortical region (ec-
tosare) ; while he showed that numerous nuclei were included in

* “ Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. x. 1874.

t+ Abhandl. der bohmischen Akademie der Wissensch. 1857.

+ Zeitsehr. f. wissensch, Zool. vol. i. 1849.

§ Das Protoplasma der Rhizopoden u. der Pflanzenzellen, 1863.

286 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES -

the central mass. Max Schultze had further made the important
discovery that the pseudopodia of Actinospherium possess a more
complex structure than had been imagined—that they consist
of a firmer hyaline strongly refringent ‘axis, surrounded by a soft,
granular, mobile layer, in which alone the protoplasmic granule-
streams exist. The axis was followed by him through the clear
cortical zone of the Rhizopod, as far as the boundary of the
darker medullary region, while the soft sarcode by which the axis
is surrounded was shown to be a continuation of the cortical zone
of the body. .

F. E. Schulze now gives his support to the essential points of
an observation made by Greeff, and maintains with that author
that the axis filament of the pseudopodia is not simply a continua-
tion of the central sarcode, but that it consists of a firm albuminous
“spine,” which, passing through the superficial zone, rests upon the
periphery of the central sphere by a wedge-shaped extremity.

In his observations on the development of Actinospherium,
Schulze has been preceded and, to some extent anticipated, by
Cienkowski* and by Schneidert. Schulze records the following
phenomena as characterizing the reproductive process in this
Rhizopod. The medullary region becomes darker, more condensed,
and more sharply separated from the cortical region ; the axes of
the pseudopodia become indistinct and finally disappear, and the
whole of the pseudopodia are withdrawn. ‘The entire animal
becomes now enveloped in a clear gelatinous excretion, and within
this the body, by a process of binary segmentation, becomes
broken up into a multitude of spherical masses, each with its
medullary and cortical regions, but in which no distinct alveolar
condition is any longer apparent. In each there is a single central
nucleus, and the cortical layer, as had been already shown by
Schneider, now becomes converted into a firm investment by the
deposit of siliceous particles.

After remaining in this state unchanged during the whole of
the winter months, the germs were observed at the beginning of
spring to have lost their siliceous covering and to have become
converted into minute Actinospherie, most of which contained as
yet only a single nucleus. With the growth of the young Acti-
nospheria the nuclei became multiplied and arranged themselves
towards the periphery of the medullary region as in the adult
animal, thus closing the cycle of development.

* Archivf. mikr, Anat. vol. i. p. 229.
+ “Zur Kenntniss der Radiolarien,” Zeit. f. w. Zool. Bd. xxi. p. 007.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS, 287

Fig. 10.

Actinospherium Eichhornii. Optical section through a part of the margin.
m, endosare ; 7, ectosare ; a a a, pseudopodia, the axis filament passing through
the ectosare into the endosarc; » », nucleus with nucleolus; f, an ingested
food-mass. (After Hertwig and Lesser.)

The fusion of two or more fully developed individuals, as in
Actinophrys, has also been frequently observed in Actinospherium.
Actinophrys and Actinospherium had been united by Haeckel
into a small group, to which he assigns the name of Helzozoa.
Since then, however, their structure has been found to be far more
widely represented than had been imagined by Haeckel; and the
Heliozoa have received large additions from certain rhizopodal
forms occurring chiefly in fresh water. These have been mostly
referred by their discoverers to the Radiolaria, which many of
them resemble in external form. Their affinities, however, are
undoubtedly with Actinophrys and Actinospherium, and their sys-
tematic place is among the Heliozoa. The establishment of this
group thus constitutes an important step in the systematic zoo-
logy of sarcodic organisms.

We are indebted to several recent observers, and more especially
to Greeff, Archer, F. E. Schulze, Focke, and Hertwig and Lesser,
for a long series of interesting researches on these Radiolaria-lke
organisms of fresh water. The discovery of freshwater forms
resembling the true Radiolaria, which have been hitherto known

288 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

only as inhabitants of the sea, has for some years been reward-
ing the researches of several investigators of the lower forms of life. .

It is to be regretted, however, that their descriptions are in
many instances very contradictory, and often differ from one
another so much as to render it difficult to findin them grounds
for a satisfactory conclusion regarding the true structure of the
organism which forms the subject of investigation *.

There can be no doubt, as has just been said, that the affinities
between these freshwater organisms and the true Radiolaria have
been exaggerated. Hertwig and Lesser, in their valuable me-
moirf, already frequently referred to, enter fully into the question
of the relation between these Radiolaria-like organisms and the
true Radiolaria, and arrive at the conviction that there is no
close affinity between them, and that the proper allies of the fresh-
water forms are the long-known ‘ sun-animalecules ”’ Actinophrys
and Actinospherium, with which they accordingly associate them
in the natural group of the Heliozoa.

In order to aid us in forming an accurate judgment on this
question, it may be well to bring together here the more important
characters of the true Radiolaria. From the researches of Huxley,
and more especially of Johannes Miller and of Haeckel,we are now
well acquainted with the structure of certain minute organisms
known to the popular observer chiefly by the beautiful little silice-
ous shells which Ehrenberg had described under the name of Poly-
cystina, and which, with their allied forms, constitute a well-defined
zoological group. To this group Miller has assigned the name
of Radiolaria. It consists of minute, sarcodic, more or less sphe-
roidal organisms, which are usually provided with beautifully
symmetrical siliceous skeletons, either in the form of perforated
cases or of radiating spines, and whose body presents two concen-
tric zones, the inner separated from the outer by a chitinous capsule
(“central capsule ’’), and composed of numerous true nucleated
cells. In almost every instance peculiar cells are also found im-
bedded in the sarcode which forms the outer or extracapsular
zone. These cells contain a yellow pigment, and constitute the

so-called “yellow cells.”

* Since the reading of the present Address an excellent résumé of recent re-
searches among the Heliozoa and other rhizopodal forms, with valuable critical
remarks, has been published by Mr. Archer. See ‘Quart. Journ. of Mier. Sci.’
for July and October 1876 and January 1877.

+t «Ueber Rhizopoden u. denselben nahestehende Organismen,” Archiy f.
mikr. Anat., Band x. Suppl. Heft 1874.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 289

If these characters be borne in mind, we shall have no diffi-
culty in determining how far the freshwater organisms now about
to be mentioned admit of a comparison with the true Radiolaria.

Among these freshwater Rhizopods the form which comes nearest
to Actinophrys and Actinospherium, and hence to the typical He-
liozoa, is that of Ciliophrys (fig. 11). Under this name Cienkowski
has described a new genus of heliozoal Rhizopods, represented
by a single species, C. infusionum, which he finds common in the
scum of long-standing infusions, and on which he made some
important observations, showing that the swarm-spore enters into
its development-cycle*. It is thus, if we except a fragmentary
observation by Archer on what he regards as a large green variety

Cilioaphrys infusionum. A, the Ciliophrys in its developed condition; v, con-
tractile vacuoles; 7, nucleus. B, the swarm-spore into which the Ciliophrys has
become converted. OC, the Ciliophrys in the act of self-division; each half
has become converted into a swarm-spore. D, the two swarm-spores of C
becoming fused into one another, BH, the fusion further advanced. (After
Cienkowski.)

* “Ueber eimige Rhizopoden und verwandte Organismen,” Arch. fur mikr.
Anat. vol. x1. 1876.

290 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

of Actinophrys sol, the only naked heliozoan in which swarm-spore
formation has been seen.

Tt has quite the habit of Actinophrys sol, except in being much
smaller; and it also agrees with it in most points of structure.
Tt has, however, one to three very small contractile vacuoles in-
stead of the single large vacuole which in Actinophrys becomes,
during the diastole, protruded lke a bubble from the surface of
the body.

Its reproduction has been observed by Cienkowski, who finds
this to be connected with a true swarm-spore formation; but in-
stead of the locomotive germs being, as in other cases, thrown
off in large numbers, it is a remarkable fact that the whole
body changes into an oviform swarm-spore, with one or two cilia.

This change is preceded by the originally coarsely granular
protoplasm becoming gradually homogeneous and the nucleus
more conspicuous. In the meantime the pseudopodia disappear,
the body assumes an oval form, and the nucleus changes its posi-
tion, passing from the centre towards one end. On this end we
soon perceive one or two cilia, by whose vibration the swarm-
spore, now completed, is carried away through the surrounding
water. Cienkowski, however, has not been able to follow the
swarm-spore through any further phases.

Ciliophrys, like Actinophrys sol, also multiplies by constricting
off portions of its body ; and, like Actimophrys, two or more indivi-
duals may unite*and fuse together into a simple mass. It is not
only the fully developed Ciliophrys which possesses this property ;
for two swarm-spores may also fuse with one another. He observed
a Ciliophrys dividing by constriction, when each half became
ehanged into a swarm-spore. These had already retracted their
pseudopodia and had developed cilia on their free ends, but still
remained at the opposite ends united to one another by a narrow
bridge. The connecting bridge now became suddenly bent so as
to bring the sides of the two swarm-spores into contact and allow
them to fuse together, forming a single two-lobed body, each lobe
carrying its cilium and containing within it a nucleus. The fusion
became more intimate, and the bilobed body gave place to one of
a triangular form, on whose flattened base were still to be seen the ©
cilia and, in its interior, the two cell-nuclei. Its rapid motion pre-
vented his following its further changes ; and he is unable to form
any conclusions as to the real significance of the conjugation or the
ultimate destiny of the swarm-spores.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 291

Besides the truly naked Heliozoa, represented by Actinophrys,
Ciliophrys, and Actinospherium, a large number of others have
been discovered, which, as shown by Archer, are enveloped in a
soft outer investment, which he describes as an outer sarcode
zone, and which may be either entirely destitute of hard parts,
or which may have immersed in it hard skeletal parts, chiefly in
the form of spines or spicula. The chlorophy] and other coloured
granules which are frequently present in the inner body mass
are never developed in this outer zone ; and it is in the inner body
that the pseudopodia always have their origin, merely passing
through the outer zone on their way to the surrounding water.
Whether this zone, however, is to be regarded as a true sarcode
layer is extremely doubtful. It is, at all events, quite distinct
from the proper ectosare which it surrounds, and is probably only
an excretion from this, comparable to the gelatinous excretion
which is poured out on the surface of many of the lower Alge.
Hertwig and Lesser go so far as to deny its existence, and refer
the appearance of an outer sarcode-like zone to an entanglement
of needles and spines, even in those eases where Archer refuses to

Fig. 12.

Heterophrys spinifera. cc, contractile vacuoles ; 7, central dark body
(endosare or nucleus). (After Hertwig and Lesser.)

292 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

admit the presence of hard skeletal structures. The evidence,
however, appears to me to be against the view thus taken by the
German microscopists.

Among the forms described by Archer as developing no hard
parts in the outer zone is the genus Heterophrys, Archer (fig. 12).
In this there is a central spherical body-mass differentiated into en-
dosare and ectosare, having in the endosare a single nucleus, and in
the ectosare contractile vacuoles. The investing zone is traversed
by long, granular, unbranched and non-anastomosing pseudopodia,
and its periphery is extended into radiating processes of various
length and fineness in the different species. These processes are re-
garded by Archer as simple extensions of the surface of the invest-
ing layer, which he believes to be entirely destitute of hard parts,
while Hertwig and Lesser regard them as spines, and accordingly
place the genus Heterophrys among their Heliozoa skeletophora.

Between such able observers it is difficulé to decide; but it
appears to me that the weight of evidence is in favour of Archer’s
interpretation, and that Heferopkrys has no hard parts which can
be regarded as constituting a skeleton like that in the true ske-
letophorous Heliozoa.

The enveloping zone has the appearance of being separated
from the proper body by a narrow clear interval. This, as main-
tained by Archer, is probably only an inner layer of the zone more
homogeneous and pellucid than the rest. -

In H. myriopoda, Archer, the ectosare of the spherical body-
mass contains a dense layer of chlorophy! granules which lies just
beneath its surface.

Among Heliozoa with well-developed skeleton must be men-
tioned the species of Acanthocystis. The genus Acenthocystis had
been founded by Carter on the Actinophrys viridis of Ehrenberg ;
and what he regards as a second species of this genus has been de-
scribed by him under the name of Acanthoecystis turfacea (fig. 13).
This is 2 beautiful little green rhizopod, which occurs m moor-
pools ; and Greeff now gives us the results of some further careful
observations he had made on it*.

From the surface of its spherical body, which is filled with green
granules, and contains a great number of vacuoles and certain

= «Qeber Radiolarien &e. des siissen Wassers,” Archiy f. mikr. Anaf. vy.
1869. Both Greeffand Grenacher regard 4. ferfacea, Carier, as identical with
the Acfinopkrys viridis of Ehrenberg ; but the correctness of this determmation
is not admitted by Archer or by Hertwig and Lesser.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 293

pale glistening homogeneous spherules, there radiate needle-
shaped processes like the spines of an Echinus ; and between these
are emitted long slender pseudopodia. The spines are composed
of silica; and each forms at its proximal end a disk-like foot.
These basal disks constitute by their approximation a nearly
closed siliceous capsule, by which the body is surrounded. ‘I'he
bases of the spines appear to be immersed in a soft sarcode-

=

Acanthocystis turfacea, as seen in optical section through the centre. ¢, vesicle-
like space, from whose central corpuscle fine filaments are seen radiating;
b, pseudopodium ; e, proper body-mass, consisting of a granular protoplasm with
green and pale corpuscles and enclosing numerous vacuoles; f, external narrow
clear zone; @, one of the long radiating spines; d, one of the short spines.
(After Greeff.)
hke substance, which would seem also to intervene between the
basal plates and the proper body of the Acanthocystis, which be-
comes thus surrounded by an external clear zone. The pseudo-
podia possess a firmer axis-filament and a more mobile cortical
layer. Greeff states that he has seen the surface open here
and there and allow the exit of strong protoplasm-streams, and
again completely close, leaving no evidence of any breach of
continuity. Some of these streams surround the spines, and run
up and down them like the mobile cortical layer on the axis-fila-

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 25

294 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

ment of the pseudopodia. Grenacher has described a central
rather large stellate space containing a clear liquid, and having
in its centre a little spherical corpuscle, from which radiate a
multitude of very fine lines which he believes to represent the
continuation of the axis-filaments of the pseudopodia. This obser-
vation has been accepted in its essential points by Greeff, though
neither Archer nor Hertwig and Lesser have as yet succeeded in
satisfying themselves of its correctness.

Reproduction takes place by a direct division of the entire
animal into two parts. Greeff has also observed a peculiar en-
cysting process in which the sarcode body withdraws itself from
the outer walls, contracts into an internal globe, and becomes sur-
rounded by a hyaline organic membrane. The spines still re-
main on the outer walls; but the pseudopodia have disappeared,
and the surface becomes covered by a delicate hyaline, but strong
and impenetrable, siliceous investment. The pale glistening
homogeneous spherules which accompany the green granules
now undergo a rapid increase, and are probably the spores of the

' Acanthocystis; but Greeff has not succeeded in following the
process further, and its true import remains undetermined.

Notwithstanding the fact that Acanthocystis is destitute of
the essential points of Radiolarian structure enumerated above,
Greeff maintains its close affinity to the Radiolaria. The outer
siliceous skeleton, with pseudopodia emitted between the spines,
and having their firm axis coming from the interior of the proto-
plasm, and apparently from a central capsule-like structure, are all
points on which he insists as affording evidence of close Radiolarian
relations ; and he accordingly assigns to Acanthocystis a position
in the neighbourhood of the Acanthometride of Haeckel.

Some other species of Acanthocystis have also been described.
Of these, 4. spinifera,Greeff, has been well studied by Hertwig and
Lesser, who have pointed out a very decided differentiation between
ectosare and endosare. They describe contractile vesicles in the
ectosare, and in the endosare an eccentric nucleus with nucleolus.

Among other forms which are characterized by the presence of
certain hard or skeletal structures must probably be placed the
genus Astrodisculus of Greeff.

Greeff gives the generic name of Astrodisculus to certain
freshwater Rhizopoda, among which he has distinguished several
Species, which are all rendered striking by the central sarcode
-body being surrounded by a broad clear zone. This outer

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 295

zone is composed of a soft hyaline substance, and, according to
Greeff, is bounded externally by a very delicate siliceous capsule,
perforated by minute openings, through which the pseudopodia
are emitted, and through which Greef believes he has seen nu-
tritive corpuscles pass. The existence of a perforated siliceous
capsule, however, has not been accepted by other observers; and
Hertwig and Lesser think it probable that all the species referred
by Greeff to his genus Astrodiscewlus would with more justice go
into Greeff’s genus Hyalolampe, identical with the Pompholyxo-
phrys of Archer.

Fig. 14.

Hyalolampe fenestrata—the protoplasm body, with its nearly central nucleus,
surrounded by its siliceous test, between whose component spherules the pseu-
dopodia are emitted. (After Greeff.)

Greeff describes*, under the name of Hyalolampe fenestrata (fig.
14),a most interesting and characteristic form, in which the sarcode
body is surrounded by a very elegant siliceous shell, which has
the appearance of being formed of little glass spheres laid one on
the other. He believes the shell to be perforated for the emission
of the pseudopodia.

Nearly simultaneously with Greeff, but claiming the priority
by some days, Archer had described, under the name of Pompho-
lyxophrys punicea, the same rhizopod, which he found not unfre-
quently in moor-pools in various parts of Ireland. It has been
more recently examined by Hertwig and Lessert, who have supple-
mented and corrected the descriptions given by Greeff and Archer.

* Loc. cit. t Loc, cit,
25*

296 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

They have verified Greeff’s description of the skeleton as com-
posed of layers of hyaline siliceous globules ; but, like Archer, they
tail to discover perforations in it, and find that the globules are
out loosely connected with one another and are easily detached
during the passage between them of nutritive matter. There is
a single nucleus, and also contractile vacuoles. The pseudopodia
which pass out between the siliceous globules are destitute of gra-
nules, and rarely show any tendency to branch.

Another beautiful genus of skeletophorous Heliozoa is Raphi-
diophrys, Archer. In the species referable to this genus the sphe-
rical body-mass is probably in every case differentiated into en-

Fig. 15.

Raphidiophrys elegans. A colony of eight individuals united to oue another by
bridges of protoplasm, the whole surrounded by a soft granular investment, in
which areimmersed minute curved spicula, and through which the pseudopodia
are seen passing from the inner spheres to the surrounding water. 2, nucleus,
with its nucleolus visible in one of the component spheres. (After Hertwig and
Lesser. )

dosare and ectosare, and contains in the endosarea single nucleus,
while from the periphery radiate in all directions very long un-
branched granular pseudopodia.

External to the proper protoplasm-sphere is a soft granular

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 297

investment, in which is immersed an immense number of tangen-
tially or irregularly disposed, curved siliceous spicula, and through
which the pseudopodia pass from the surface of the inner sphere
to the surrounding water. The species of Raphidiophrys, however,
are usually found in the condition of colonies. One of these colony-
forming species, 2. elegans (fig. 15), has been described and figured
by Hertwig and Lesser as a cluster of globes united rather loosely
to one another by thin bridges of protoplasm, across which the
sarcode currents may be seen passing from one globe to the other,
while the whole cluster is surrounded by the common soft invest-
ment in which the spicula are immersed, and which allows the
passage across it of the long fine pseudopodia from the periphery
of the included globes.

R. viridis, one of the finest of all the freshwater Rhizopoda, is
described by Archer*, who has taken it as the type of the genus.
It is also a colony-forming species, and is distinguished by its
bright green colour, caused by a dense stratum of chlorophyll gra-
nules which lie just within the periphery of each of its component
spheres.

Under the name of Pinacocystis rubicunda (fig. 16), Hertwig and
Lesser have described an interesting skeleton-bearing heliozoan
which they found in sea-water. Its spherical body is surrounded
by a case which consists of isolated round tablets lying close to
one another, and thus forming a completely closed capsule. They
compare this capsular skeleton to that of an Acanthocystis, in
which the whole of the spines, with the exception of their basal
plates, had disappeared.

The protoplasm body is separated from the capsule-walls by an -
interval which would seem to correspond to the similar interval
between the body and the basal plates of the spines in Acanthocystis.
The protoplasm shows a very decided differentiation of ectosare
and endosare. The ectosarc is loaded with brownish-red granules ;
and the endosare contains a single nucleus. Contractile vacuoles
could not be demonstrated. The pseudopodia are emitted through
the intervals of the capsule-tablets.

A closely allied form is that of Pinaciophora fluviatilis, Greeff.
This heliozoan was found by Greeff in freshwater streams. It
resembles Pinacocystis, Hert. & Les.,in being surrounded by a
globular capsule composed of separate though closely approxi-
mated plates, but differs from it in the oval form of these plates.

* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. vol. xi. 1871.

298 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

and in the fact, according to Greeff, that they are traversed by
minute canals for the transmission of the pseudopodia. There is
a large central nucleus with nucleolus.

Fig. 16.

Pinacocystis rubicunda. k, endosare; r, ectosarc ; 2, nucleus.
(After Hertwig and Lesser.)

Acanthocystis and the other skeletophorous Heliozoa whose
hard parts are in the condition of detached pieces such as spines,
spicula, tablets, and the like, have been united by Hertwig and
Lesser into a group to which they give the name of CHALARo-
THORACA, while those whose skeleton is in the form of a connected
shell have been combined into a separate group under the name
DeEsMOTHORACA.

Among the Desmothoraca the most interesting is Clathrulina
elegans (fig.17), originally described by Cienkowski,who discovered
it near St. Petersburg*. Greeff now gives a very full description
of this beautiful little Rhizopod, which he obtained in the neigh-
bourhood of Bonn. It had also been found by Haeckel near Jena,
while a closely allied, if not identical form had nearly simulta-
neously with Cienkowski’s BISEa ay been observed by Archer in
Ireland and in Wales.

* Cienkowski, “ Die Clathrulina,” Archiv f. micr. Anat. 1867.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 299

It occurs chiefly in dark ponds shaded by trees and contain-
ing decaying leaves. Its soft sarcode body is included in a
siliceous capsule of a spherical form regularly perforated in the
manner of latticework, and supported on a long siliceous pe-
duncle.

Pseudopodia are projected through the latticework of the cap-
sule; and these, as in the Actinophryide, are composed of an
axis-substance, and a cortical substance. The axis has been fol-
lowed into the interior of the protoplasm. Vacuoles which hold
no stable position are scattered through the protoplasm; and
there is a vesicle-like nucleus, which is rendered evident by the
application of acetic acid.

Cienkowski had already shown the occurrence in Clathrulina

Fig. 17.

Clathrulina elegans. A. The completely developed rhizopod (after Greeff)
B. A swarm-spore of Clathrulina elegans (after Hertwig and Lesser): 7, nu-
cleus; c, contractile vacuoles.

300 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

of two kinds of reproduction, by division and by cyst-formation.
The former takes place within the capsule, and consists in the di-
vision of the contents by a transverse constriction. One of the
two portions thus formed soon forces its way out through the per-
forated capsule, and then lives for some hours in the surrounding
water asa free naked sarcodic body resembling an Actinophrys. It
ultimately secretes a capsule and stem, and becomes a perfect Cla-
thrulina.

In the second kind of reproduction there are formed within
the capsule, by a process apparently of budding, numerous rounded
sarcode-masses, each of which becomes enveloped by a firm cover-
ing; and they thus remain for months as spherical cysts withiv.
the common capsule. Greeff has further examined these bodies,
and has shown that they contain within them a large pale nucleus,
and that the walls of the cyst are set round au short spines,
and are probably siliceous.

‘When the time has arrived for their further development, the
sarcode contents slip out of their cysts and eseape into the sur-
rounding water through the latticework of the capsule. Here
they swarm about for some hours in the form of ciliated oviform
embryos, then become transformed into free Actenophrys-lhke
organisms, which finally acquire the stem and siliceous lattice-lke
capsule of the perfect animal.

The resemblance of the siliceous perforated capsule of Clathru-
lina to the latticed shells of the Polycystina is sufficiently obvious ;
and we must admit, with Greeff, that, if we met with these little
capsules free in the open sea, we should not hesitate to refer them
to the true Polycystina, and place them in Haeckel’s Radiolarian
family of the Ethmospheride. In the more essential points of
structure, however, Clathrulina has no close affinity with the
Radiolaria, from which it is widely separated by the absence of a
central capsule with its multicellular contents. The absence of
yellow cells is another, though less important, point which opposes
itself to the association of Clathrulina with the true Radiolaria.
Notwithstanding these differences, however, Greeff does not hesi-
tate to refer it to the Radiolaria, and place it there, in the family
of the Ethmospheridx.

Another Desmothoracous genus has been described by Hertwig
and Lesser under the name of Hedriocystis. Like Clathrulina;
the body is enclosed in a single-chambered stalked test perforated
for the passage of pseudopodia; but instead of being hard and

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 301

Fie. 18.
Microcometes paludosa.

A. An individual, shown in the act of obtaining
its food; p, p, pseudopodia ; p*, a greatly extended
pseudopodium with food-masses passing along it
to the body; 0, one of the orifices of the test.
D. Distal extremity of a pseudopodium with food-
particles engaged in it. B. Reproduction by fission
of the protoplasm within the test. C. Encysted
condition.

(After Cienkowski.)

302 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

rigid as in Clathrulina, it is soft, thin, and flexible, and at the
perforation is continued as a very short tubular prolongation
round the pseudopodia. The round protoplasm-body does not fill
the cavity of the shell, but swings in it free as if hung on the pseu-
dopodia which perforate the shell-walls. It contains an oval
nucleus with nucleolus; and close to its margin are situated one
or more actively pulsating vacuoles.

Reproduction by division of the body into two segments was
observed with great distinctness.

Only a single species, H. pellucida, has as yet been discovered.
It is found attached by its stalk to the filaments of Algw and
other foreign bodies.

To the Heliozoa rather than to any other group must probably
be referred another interesting form which has been assigned by
Cienkowski to a new genus*. He gives it the name of Micro-
cometes paludosa (fig. 18). He found it in Russia among gelati-
nous alge. The protoplasm-body lies free in the interior of a loose
membranous capsule, whose wall, perforated in a few places, affords
passage to the very long pseudopodia. The histological differen-
tiation of its body is that of most Heliozoa, having a nucleus with a
nucleolus, while two or three contractile vesicles exist in the peri-
pheral layer. The pseudopodia, which are thrust out through the
perforations in the shell, are but little branched, and are sometimes
extended to a great length, in order to reach the food at a distance.
The end of the pseudopodium may then be seen to flow round
the nutritive particle such as an alga-spore, which, when thus
captured, will move along the path of the protoplasm filament
until it reaches the interior through one of the openings in the
shell. During this transport the pseudopodial filament lies im-
movable, while new nutriment-particles move along it into the
capsule.

Besides the reception of food being thus effected by the pseudo-
podium enveloping the nutritious particle, the Microcometes has
also the power of perforating alga-cells with the extremity of a
pseudopodium, and then sucking out their contents in the man-
ner of a Vampyrella.

Multiplication takes place by the division of the protoplasm-
body into two parts, which are pressed out through the narrow
apertures in the capsule. In the development-cycle there has also
been observed a resting-state, in which, without leaving its capsule,

* Arch. f. micr. Anat. vol. xi.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 303

the body assumes a spherical shape, and, after expelling the un-
digested remains of the nutriment, envelops itself in a thick
membrane.

As an aberrant form of the Heliozoa, from the typical members
of which it departs chiefly in the want of the permanent spherical
(homaxial) form, may here be included the Actinolophus peduncu-
latus (fig. 19) of Fr. Hilhard Schulze. Under this name Schulze de-
scribed a remarkable pedunculated Rhizopod which attaches itself
to marine Algz and to Gonothyrea Loveni and other Hydroids. It
presents itself in two different states. In one the body is quite
destitute of hard parts ; in the other it is invested by a siliceous
covering.

,

Fig. 19.

Actinolophus pedunculatus. A. State in which the body is destitute of hard
parts. B. State in which the body is invested by a siliceous scaly covering
through which the pseudopodia pass outwards to the surrounding water.

(After Schulze.)

304 PROF. ALLMAN ON SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS.

_ In the first state the body has usually the form of a pear, attached

by its narrow end to a. long cylindrical stem. It is very con-
tractile, however, and may assume a spherical or an egg-shaped
form. No external membrane or definite cortical layer can be
detected. In its interior there is always avery excentric nucleus
enclosing a very large nucleolus. In the centre of the wide part
of the animal lies a dark spherical body, whose true nature has
not been ascertained. Its position generally corresponds to the
point in which the pseudopodia if prolonged inwardly would meet ;
and Schulze thinks that in some cases he could trace fine lines —
from it to the pseudopodia. In some specimens there occurred,
besides the ordinary granules, numerous orange-red corpuscles,
which, along with large nutriment-pellets, lay near the periphery.
No pulsatory vacuole was found*.

The pseudopodia occur only on the more distal part of the body,
from which they radiate in all directions. The appearances are in
favour of the pseudopodia being composed of a central firm axis and
an investing cortical layer; but on this point the author cannot
speak decidedly. A complete withdrawal of the pseudopodia was
never seen, the contraction of these processes being at a definite —
distance from the surface of the body suddenly stopped, as if by the
presence of a thick perfectly hyaline investment, which the author
thinks is really present in the form of a gelatinous excretion from
the body, but which, from its extreme transparency, is all but
invisible. In this state the pseudopodia present the appearance
of fine lines tipped each with a little granular mass of sarcode, and
the Actinolophus closely resembles a Podophrya.

The stem is cylindrical, hyaline, and appears to be encased in a
delicate sheath. In its interior may be seen several parallel,
straight, longitudinal lines.

Besides the individuals so formed, others occur with a manifest
outer envelope. This shows itself at first as a gelatinous invest-
ment, so transparent as to be recognized only by its boundary
contour. It is traversed by the pseudopodia and by the fine
parallel lines from the interior of the stem. In a stage further
advanced, a layer of very delicate strongly refringent plates has
formed on the surface of the gelatinous mantle, and is continued
downwards over the stem. The plates appear to be composed of
silica, and ultimately acquire a tolerably regular hexagonal form,
but never come so close as to touch one another by their edges.

* F. E, Schulze, ‘‘ Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch. f. micr. Anat. vol. x. 1874.

MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 305

Simultaneously with the formation of the siliceous investment
certain changes are going on in the interior. The nucleus divides
into two; and each half, surrounded by a peculiar clear area,recedes
more and more from the other. The pseudopodia remain at first
quite unchanged and fully extended; but by the time that the
siliceous case is completed they have become entirely withdrawn,
while the dark central body has at the same time disappeared.

The condition thus attained is probably a true encysted or
resting-state, to be succeeded by a division of the contents; but
Schulze was unable to follow it to its ultimate destination.

The various organisms which I have now passed before you in
review are confined to certain more purely Ameeboid forms and
to the recently established group of the Heliozoa. We are in-
debted, however, to recent investigations for our knowledge of
many other sarcodic beings, which, whether regarded in their
completed forms or in their developmental history, are of great
interest. Their introduction here, however, would extend the
present address to a length far beyond its legitimate limits; and
their consideration must therefore be deferred to a future occa-
sion,

Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By R.
Bownp.ter Suarpr, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &. Part 11.-—On the Or-
nithological collections formed by the late Dr. James in South-
eastern New Guinea and Yule Island.

{Read March 15, 1877.]

Tue localities where the collection now about to be described was
formed, are well known to naturalists as the hunting-grounds of
the Italian traveller D’Albertis, who has made us acquainted with
the features of the ornithology of Yule Island and the opposite
coast of New Guinea. A melancholy interest attaches to the
present collection of Dr. James ; for it is at once the first, and last,
that we shall receive from him. This young naturalist, whose
career as a traveller commenced so favourably, and whose energy
trampled on so many difficulties, was murdered by natives, as
mentioned in a communication of the Rev. S. Macfarlane in
‘Nature’ for Nov. 16, 1876:—“ We have just heard of the
massacre of Dr. James and his partner, a Swede, at Yule Island

305 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE ORNITHOLOGY OF

by the natives of New Guinea. They had gone in their large
boat to the east side of Hall Sound to shoot Birds of Paradise,
when they were attacked by three canoes, and both white men were
killed. The native crew managed to get away in the boat, and
brought the sad news here (Somerset).’’ His collection of birds
was placed in my hands by his friend, Dr. Alfred Roberts, of
Sydney, to whom they had been consigned by the deceased tra-
veller; and the present paper is an account of this collection. All
the skins were very well prepared, and the particulars of locality,
date, and sex marked in most instances. The following is an
account of the places where the collection was formed, furnished
by Dr. James to Dr. Roberts :—

“ Aleyais the native name for a ‘ salt arm’ which is situated on
the opposite side of the mainland south-east of Yule Island, and
distant about six or seven miles. This salt arm passes through
an extensive mangrove swamp, and, after winding about for more
than a mile in extreme length, terminates at the base of. a slight
rising ground, the latter being covered with dense “scrub.” To
the west, not over two miles distant, loom up several hills forming
a short mountain-range, which runs about S.E-and N.W. Two
of these hills, I fancy, are not less than six or eight hundred feet
high. So this locality embodies both low swampy country and
dry scrubby land.”

“ Nicura. This is a village of fifteen houses, and about seventy-
five inhabitants, situated a little north of east from Yule Island,
and about ten or twelve miles distant. It is not more than
three miles distant from the coast-line. The village is situated
on a Kucalyptus-range of hills, I fancy not over 150 feet above
the level; about half a mile to the north of Nicura this range
of hills is broken by the valley down which the Nicura river
wends its tortuous way. To the south and south-east, how-
ever, this gravelly Hucalyptus-range extends for many miles. It
is not very wide, is bounded on the west by Hall’s Sound for part
of its distance, and by a thick marginal belt of mangrove swamp—
on the east by the valley of the Nicura, which is a low swampy
country, in the main, supporting a very heavy growth of scrub and
forest trees. It is in the latter locality that birds abound, wth a
few of the Paradiseide; along the range of hills kangaroos and
birds of prey are to be found in great numbers.

“ Selena is another salt arm, extending into the ‘Tiovgeneniared!
belt of mangroves and terminating at its inland margin. It is

§. E. NEW GUINEA AND YULE ISLAND. 307

north of east from here, and about seven or eight miles distant.
It is a great native kangaroo hunting-ground.

“ Paiton is a large village situated almost due north of Yule
Island, and not less than fifteen miles distant. It is approached
by a very small tortuous creek, which derives its water from the
Anama river, I think. I fancy that Paiton cannot be less than
six miles inland. It is located on a slightly elevated table-
land and entirely surrounded by a low swampy country, through
which runs the largest river in this section of country, and in
which occur many lagoons and creeks. ‘There are a few slightly
elevated points, which are open and covered with tall grass instead
of scrub. It is a fine locality for Kingfishers, waterfowl, and nu-
merous small birds. I only made a short trip to this village in
January ; when I visit it again I shall take more extensive notes.

“ Yule Island is about four or five miles long and two and a half
or three miles wide at the widest point. On the north side, or
N.E. side, a small chain of hills extends along the water-line nearly
the entire length of the island. On the N.E. side of the chain
dense scrub occurs, whilst on the S.W. side is only found a few
clumps of scrub and abundance of grass. Then a small valley
occurs dividing this chain from another of nearly equal propor-
tions and possessing the same character. From the foot of the
latter to the water-line, for a distance of nearly a mile, the island
is low, slightly rolling, broken by ravines, and where not covered
by banana plantations, presents a thick growth of tall grass finally
terminating in a narrow marginal belt of scrub. A dense serub
occurs in the N.W. extremity, which is almost altogether low.
From this latter locality nearly all my beetles have been collected.
The Lepidoptera were obtained from low Yule Island in thick
serub. Not having parchment for labelling specimens in spirits,
I have simply placed a general label on the outside.”

The following appear to be the most important papers which
have as yet been published on the ornithology of south-eastern
New Guinea, with the exception of a few monographic essays by
Count Salvadori on Goura, &c., and certain Accipitres, which
will be found in the ‘ Annali’ of the Civic Museum of Genoa :—

1. T. Salvadori e L. M. D’Albertis. Catalogo di una collezione

di Uccelli dell’ Isola Yule e della vicina costa meridionale

della penisola oriertale della Nuova Guinea, raccolti da
L. M. D’Albertis. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. vii. pp. 797-839.

2. Sharpe, R. Bowdler. ‘Contributions to the Ornithology of

308 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE ORNITHOLOGY OF

New Guinea. Part I.—Notes on a Small Collection of
Birds from South-eastern New Guinea. Journ. Linn.
Soe. Zool. xii. pp. 79-83.

3. Salvadori, T. Catalogo diuna seconda collezione di Uccelli
raccolti dal Sig. L. M. D’Albertis nell’ Isola Yule e sulla
vicina costa della Nuova Guinea e di una piccola collezione
della regione bagnata dal Fiume Fly. Ann. Mus. Civ.
Genoy. ix. pp. 7-49.

These papers are referred to in the accompanying observations.
The particulars attached to the specimens are from Dr. James’s
MSS. labels.

Order ACCIPITRES.
Fam. Fanconip 2.

1. HatiaeTus LEUCoGASTER.—H. leucogaster (Gi.), Sharpe,
Cat. B.i. p. 307.—Cuncuma leucogaster, Salvad. & D’ Albert, t. c.
p. 804; Salvad. t. ce. p. 10.

a. Ynile Island, Jan. 1876.

The specimen sent is quite adult, in full grey and white plu-
mage. It measures as follows—total length 33 inches, culmen
30, wing 23-2, tail 11, tarsus 4. The dimensions of this bird,
which is marked a male, are larger than those given by me in my
‘ Catalogue’ for the female; and it is probable that some mistake
has occurred in the last-mentioned work.

2. HALIASTUR GIRRENERA.—H. girrenera (V.) ; Sharpe, Cat. B.
1. p. 315: Salvad. §& D’ Albert. t. c. p. 804; Salvad. t. ec. p. 10.

a. Adult. Mainland of New Guinea, east of Yule Island,
Feb. 1876. Beach scrub.

3. Macu#RyampPuus atcrnus, Westerm.; Sharpe, Oat. B.p. 342.

a. Low Nicura, April 1st, 1876, in very dense forest. Eyes
very convex, projecting; iris bright yellow, very narrow; feet
lead-colour ; bill black.

This is, im my opinion, the most interesting bird discovered by
Dr. James ; for although not new to science, it is a remarkable fact
to find a Macherhamphus in New Guinea, especially when one
cannot find the slightest specific distinction between it and an
example from Malacca. The British Museum possesses a Malaccan
specimen, presented to that institution by Captain Stackhouse
Pinwill; and on comparing the Nicura skin with this, | cannot
perceive the slightest difference, unless it be in the“slightly less
amount of white on the fore neck of the latter. In size the New-
Guinea bird is smaller and may be a male.

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 309

Total
length. Culmen. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
in. in. in. in. in.
a. Nicura (James) ... 19°5 1:3 145 75 2°15
b. Malacca (Pinwill) 19°5 1-4 15°6 74: 2°6
The above measurements of the tarsus are probably more correct
than that given of the tarsus in my ‘ Catalogue,’ the difficulty of
measuring the type correctly being very great, owing to the spe-
cimen haying been mounted.

4, Baza rurtnwarpri.—B. reinwardti (Mull. § Schl.) ; Sharpe,
Cat. B. i. p. 358.

a, 2. Mainland of South-east Papua, eight miles from Yule
Island, Noy. 1875. ‘

A bird in very fine plumage. Total length 16-8 inches, culmen
1:25, wing 12°5, tail 7°8, tarsus 1°35.

5. PANDION LEUCOCEPHALUS, Gould; Sharpe, Cat. B.i. p. 451.

a, 3. Yule Island, Dec. 1875. Total length 19 inches, culmen
1-8, wing 17:1, tail 8, tarsus 2°15.

b, S. Yule Island, Dee. 1875. Total length 24 inches, culmen
1:1, wing 17°8, tail 5°7, tarsus 2°35.

Order PICARIA.

Fam. Psirracrp a.

6. TRIcHOGLOSSUS MASSENA, Bp. ; Sharpe, antea, p. 80; Salvad.
tc. p. 16.

a,b, 6 2. Mainland of S.E. Papua, Jan. 1876.

e. Hucalyptus range, mainland of S.E. Papua, east of Yule
Island, Feb. 1876.

IT can perceive no differences in the plumage of the pair above
mentioned. They measure as follows :~—

a, 6. Total length 10 t., culmen 1:1, wing 4°45, tail 4°35,
tarsus 0°6.

6, 2. Total length 9°8 in., culmen 1, wing 5-2, tail 41, tarsus 0°6.

7. GEuOFFROYIUS ARUENSIS.—G. aruensis (G. R. Gray) ; Salvad.
&§ D Albert. t. ec. p.810; Salvad. t. c. p. 12.—G. pucherani, Sharpe,
antea, p. 80.

a, 6. Mainland of New Guinea, Jan. 1876.

1 have no doubt that the female bird referred by me to G. puche-
vani (antea, p. 80) should really belong to this species. I have com-
pared the male sent by Dr. James with the typical examples from
the Aru Islands, and I find them to be of the same species, though

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 26

810 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

the Papuan bird is rather larger and has got a more orange tint
in the face, this being not so deep rosy red.

8. CYCLOPSITTACUS CERVICALIS.—C. cervicalis, Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 811; Salvad. t. c. p. 12.

a. Eucalyptus range, mainland, east of Yule Island, Feb. 1876.

The following is a description of this Parrot, which has been,
apparently with good reason, separated by Count Salvadori :—

General colour above grass-green, rather deeper on the mantle;
head vermilion, rather more orange on the crown, the nape and
hinder neck cobalt, continued in a band down the sides of the neck,
whicharealso slightly washed with blue; sides of face and ear-coverts
bright vermilion, as also the throat and fore neck, the latter mixed
with orange-yellow, the bases to the feathers being of the same
colour; across the chest a band of bright ultramarine continuous
with the band down the side of the neck ; some of the feathers of
the breast below this blue band orange, with bluish green bases ;
remainder of under surface yellowish green, darker green on the
lower flanks ; the sides of the breast and under wing-coverts bright
verditer-blue, the greater series yellowish; the under surface of
the quills blackish, yellow along the inner webs; upper wing-
coverts grass-green like the back, those near the edge of the wing
blue; primary-coverts and quills blackish, externally greenish
blue, with a narrow edging of yellow towards the tip of the outer
web; the secondaries darker green and more like the back ; tail
grass-green, narrowly edged with brighter green. Total length
7-8 inches, culmen 1, wing 4°6, tail 2:1, tarsus 0°5.

Fam. CvcuLips.
9. Lamprococcyx Lucipus.—L. lucidus (Gm.); Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 818.
a. Aleya, April 1876.
10. EupYNAMIS CYANOCEPHALA.—E. cyanocehala (Lath.) ;

Salvad. t. c. ix. p.17.
a, 6 ad. Yule Island. 0,c, ¢ juv. Yule Island, Dec. 1876.

11. CENTROPUS SPILOPTERUS, Gray; Sharpe, antea, p. 81.—
Polophilus nigricans, Salvad. t. ce. p. 17.

a-c, 6. Yule Island, Nov. & Dec. 1876. d. Nicura, Dec. 1876.

These specimens belong to the same species as the Port- Moresby
bird referred to above (anfed, p. 81), and I have no doubt that
Polophilus nigricans of Salvadori (J. c.) is the same species.

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 811

12. CeNTROPUS MENEBEKI.—Nesocentor menebeki ( Less.) ;
Salvad. t. ¢. p. 17.

a. Aleya, April 1876. Iris bright brick-red; bill black at the
base, horn-coloured at the tip; feet black.

Fam. ALCEDINIDA.

13 Atcyone pustitta.—A. pusilla, Gould; Sharpe, Monogr.
, Alced. pi. xvi.

a, 6. Aleya, S.E. New Guinea, April1875. Eyes dark hazel ;
bill black; feet and tarsi lead-colour.

An adult bird in full moult. Total length 4°5 inches, culmen
1, wing 2, tail 0°95, tarsus 0°3.

14, AncyonE LEssoni.—A. lessoni, Cass. ; Salvad. t. c. p. 19.
a, 6. Maimmland of New Guinea, eight miles from Yule Island,
November 1875.

This specimen agrees very well indeed with other Papuan skins
of A. lessoni, resembling them in the large size of the bill and also
in the purple shade on the flanks. In the specimen obtained by
Mr. Stone the blue was confined to the sides of the breast.

15. Hatoyon sanctus.—Sauropatis sancta (V. & H.); Salvad.
§ D Albert. t. c. p. 814; Salvad. t. c. p. 19.
a, 2. Yule Island, April 1876.

16. TANYSIPTERA MICRORHYNCHA, sp. n.—Tanysiptera galatea,
Gray (var. minor), Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 815; Salvad. t. ce.
p: 2k.

Q@ ad. Similis 7. galatee, sed multo minor, dorso nigro, minus
ceruleo lavato, rostro parvo precipue distinguendus. Long. tot.
15:3, culm. 1°3, ale 4:05, caude 10°2, tarsi O°6.

Adult female. Crown of head and nape cobalt-blue, a little
brighter round the edge of the crown and on the nape, and slightly
dashed with silvery cobalt over the eye, the forehead rather duller
blue ; lores, feathers below the eye, and the ear-coverts black,
slightly washed with deep blue, as also are the sides of neck, mantle,
back, and scapulars, on which, however, the blue shade is not so
apparent ; wings black, the wing-coverts and secondaries exter-
nally deep purplish blue, the innermost of the greater and median
coverts bright cobalt, forming a shoulder-patch ; lower back, rump,
and upper tail-coverts pure white, the latter with an indistinct
narrow fringe of dark blue; tail white, the outer feathers more

26*

812 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

or less edged with blue towards the tip, the two long centre fea-
thers blue with a long white spatula, the base of these two plumes
irregularly white in the centre and along the inner edge, the next
two feathers with remains of blue near the base of the shaft;
moustache and entire under surface of body pure white, the sides
of the upper breast black; under wing-coverts white, the lesser
plumes on the upper band of the wing blue-black, shading into
brighter blue on the edge of the wing itself; bill red ; feet dusky.
Total length 15°5 inches, culmen 1°38, wing 4, tail 3-9, centre fea-
thers 9°7, tarsus 0°6.

a, 2 ad. Mainland of 8.E. New Guinea, about eight miles from
Yule Island, Nov. 1875.

6, 2 juv. inchange. ec, pull. Iris dark brown ; upper mandible
black, the lower one dirty white ; feet pale lead-colour. d. Main-
land of South-east Papua, Feb. 1876.

Count Salvadori has already alluded to the smaller size of the
Lanysiptera of south-eastern New Guinea; and this character
seems so well marked in the numerous specimens which I
have examined that I think the bird may well be specifically
separated. For comparison with the dimensions above re-
corded, I now give those of some skins of Tanysiptera galatea
in the Museum collected by Mr. Wallace.

Centre
Total tail-fea-
length. Culm. Wing. Tail. thers. Tarsus.

Tea ey elas: in. in. in. in,
a, 9 ad. Waigiou( Wallace) 13°7 155 40 46 83 O-7
b, gd ad. Waigiou (Wallace) 175 155 435 52 11:5 0-7

17. DacELo IntERMEDIUS.—D. intermedius, Salvad. Ann. Mus.
Cw. Genov. ix. p. 15.

a, 6. Mainland, South-eastern Papua, Jan. 1876. Total length
16 inches, culmen 2°8, wing 7-75, tail 5-3, tarsus 0°9.

6, 9. Mainland, S.E. Papua, Jan. 1876. Total length 18 inches,
culmen 2°9, wing 8°1, tail 5°85, tarsus 0°95.

e, 9. Port Moresby, November 1876. Total length 17-5 inches,
culmen 3°25, wing 8:2, tail 5°9, tarsus 1.

Adult male. Back and scapulars brown; the least wing-coverts
brown, slightly washed with blue; median wing-coverts cobalt,
the greater series blackish brown, washed with blue at their ends;
primary-coverts blackish on the inner webs, blue on the outer
quills, blackish externally ; the secondaries ultramarine blue, edged

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 313

with white at the tips; the primaries white for half the inner web
and at the base of the outer one ; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts
cobalt, the feathers of the upper back white washed with lilac, the
tips only being blue; tail blue, tipped with white, the outer fea-
thers broadly notched with white for their entire extent, the ends
of these feathers being white barred across with blue; crown of
head and nape white, broadly streaked with dark brown; lores
white, with narrow brown shaft-streaks ; round the hind neck a
collar of pure white ; cheeks, sides of neck, and entire under sur-
face of the body pure white, the flanks and under wing-coverts
with a few obscure zigzag lines of brown; thighs thickly barred
with brown. Total length 17 inches, culmen 3:2, wing 8:05, tail
3°25, tarsus 1°05.

Another bird, marked by Dr. James as a male, but which I
should take to be a young female, is more buff underneath, with
remains of dusky edgings to the feathers, the throat whiter; on
the upper surface the brown colour of the back is paler, with re-
mains of dusky brown darker bars across the feathers; the white
collar has also remains of brown edgings ; upper tail-coverts and
tail deep tawny red, barred across with blue, the ends of the tail-
feathers white, much broader on the outer ones. Total length
17-7 inches, culmen 2°75, wing 8-2, tail 5°75, tarsus 1.

This species seems to be very fairly distinguishable from the
other Laughing Kingfishers, being uniform below. The other
characters mentioned by Count Salvadori in his original description
are not of great value, the size being very variable, and the breadth
of the stripes on the head depending upon age.

18. DacELo gaupicHauDI.—Sauromarptis gaudichaudi, Salvad.
& D Albert. t. c. p.816; Salvad. t. c. p. 15.

a, 6. Nicura, December 1875.

A male with blue tail. Total length 11:2 inches, culmen 1:95,
wing 5°15, tail 3°95, tarsus 0°55.

19. MELIDORA COLLARIS, sp. n.

M. similis M. macrorhine, sed torque collari postico albo dis-
tinguendus. Long. tot. 10°3, culmen 1°85, ale 4°7, caude 36,
tarsi 0°8.

a, 6. Adult, no label. 6, 9. Low Aleya, Feb. 1876. Iris dark
hazel ; bill black ; feet and tarsi pale yellow. c, 2. Mainland of
S.E. Papua, Feb. 29, 1876.

General colour above black; the feathers of the forehead mi-

314 MR. RB. B. SHARPE ON THE

nutely tipped with ochre-yellow, some of the plumes on the crown
with verditer-blue, those of the nape with tiny spots of ochre; a
line from the base of the nostril to above the fore part of the eye
whitish, with a bluish tinge ; feathers round the eye black; ear-
coverts fulvous, the feathers edged with black, a broad streak of
which runs along the cheeks; sides of neck and a collar round
the hind neck white; back brownish black, largely spotted with
ochre, somewhat shaded with greenish, the feathers being all
tipped with this colour ; wing-coverts coloured like the back, the
greater series rich ochre at their tips ; quills brown, the seconda-
ries edged with rufous brown; lower back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts dark brown, tipped with ochre ; tail-feathers brown, ob-
scurely edged with greenish and tipped with dull ochre; entire
under surface of body buffy white, including the under wing-
coverts ; sides of body brown, tipped with reddish ochre.

Fam. BUcEROTID.

20. RaytIpocEROS RUFICOLLIs.—R. ruficollis (V.); Salwad.
io Gas lush

a, b. Aleya, March 1876.

A pair of young birds in fully adult plumage.

Fam. CaPRIMULGIDZ.

21. CaPpRIMULGUS MacRURUS.—C. macrurus, Horsf. ; Salvad.
t. ¢. p. 23.

a. Yule Island, April 1876. Iris very dark, cornea very convex
and projecting ; bill black; feet and tarsi dark lead-colour.

22. AAGOTHELES BENNETTI.—ZL. bennetti, Salvad. & D’ Albert.
Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. vii. p. 817; Salvad. loc. cit. ix. p. 23.

a,b. Aleya, April 1876. Eyes dark hazel; feet and tarsi
almost white.

General colour above grisly brown, minutely vermiculated with
greyish white; the head blacker than the back, a few feathers here
and there vermiculated in the same manner with white, the mark-
ings on the hinder neck somewhat more coarsely indicated and
marking a faint collar; wing-coverts exactly resembling the back ;
quills nearly uniform dark brown, faintly notched with greyish
white on the outer web, the secondaries minutely vermiculated
and resembling the rest of the back ; tail blackish, with remains
of ten faintly indicated bars of greyish white, the bars vermicu-
lated and of unequal width; rictal bristles black, greyish white at

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 815

base ; ear-coverts and cheeks black, obscurely barred across with
brown ; under surface of body blackish brown, coarsely vermicu-
lated with white in transverse bars, these white bars becoming
broader on the breast; the abdomen pure white, with a few re-
mains of brown zigzag bars; sides of body and thighs blackish,
vermiculated with white bars like the breast ; under tail-coverts
white, with narrow dusky brown transverse bars; under wing-
coverts blackish, the innermost and the axillaries barred with
white. Total length 9°5 inches, culmen 0:55, wing 4°65, tail 4:3,
tarsus 0:7.

This seems to be a very well-pronounced species. It differs
from all the other species that I have seen in its blackish colour,
especially about the cheeks, which are black, with only a few
transverse light bars; the bands on the tail also are very few in
number, being only néne.

In examining the species of 44gotheles in the British Museum,
I must say that they seem to be at present imperfectly charac-
terized. Mr. Gould’s figure of &. leucogaster, for instance, is
figured with nine bands, whereas all our specimens have at least
twelve or even thirteen bands. In South Australia there appears
to be a species, not well discriminated, with dark brown ear-coverts,
minutely barred with dull white. This form seems not to have
been represented in Mr. Gould’s work.

Order PASSERES.
Fam. Pirrip2.

23. PirTa NOVH GUINEH.—P. nove guinee, Mill. & Schil.;
Salvad. t. ec. p. 37.

a, 6. Aleya, April 1875. Total length 6°3 inches, culmen 0:9,
wing 4:1, tail 1:3, tarsus 1:45.

b. Aleya, April 1875. Eyes dark brown; bill entirely black ;
feet and tarsi dark slate-colour.

Fam. Turpip 2.
24. CisTIcoOLaA RUFICEPS.—Cisticola, sp., Salvad. t. c. p. 35.
a,b, &. Yule Island, November 1875.
c,d, 2. Yule Island, December 1875.

25. MaLuRus aLBoscapuLatus.—M. alboscapulatus, Meyer ;
Salvadori, t. c. p. 36; Gould, B. N. Guin. pt. iv—M. naimii,
Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 827.

316 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

a, d. Nicura, Dec. 1875. Total length 4°3 inches, culmen
0°55, wing 1°8, tail 1°6, tarsus 0°8.

Fam. CINNYRID2.

26. CINNYRIS FRENATUS.—Cyrtostomus frenatus (S. Mill.) ;
Salvad. § D’ Albert. t. c. p. 825; Salvad. t. c. p. 30.—Cinnyris
frenatus, Shelley, Monogr. Cinnyr. pt. i.

a, 2. S.E. New Guinea.

Fam. MELIPHAGIDS.

27. Guycreatia MopEsta, Gray, P. Z. S. 1858, p. 174.

a, ¢. Mainland of South-east Papua, Dec. 1875.

I have compared the specimen sent with the type from Aru
Islands in the British Museum, and can find no specific differ-
ence.

Fam. Muscrcapip2.

28. Toporsis BoNAPARTII.—Todopsis, sp., Salvad. Ann. Mus.
Civic. Genov. 1x. p. 19.

a. Mainland of New Guinea; east of Yule Island, Feb. 1876.
Inhabits clumps of trees and shrubs in the midst of scrub.

b, g. Mainland of New Guinea, eight miles from Yule Island,
Nov. 1875.

The specimens above named so closely resemble 2. bonapartu
of the Aru Islands that they seem to be specifically identical ;
the shade of blue above is the least bit more purple; but beyond
that I can see no differences whatever.

99, PIEZORHYNCHUS NITIDUS.
a, 2 gd. Yule Island, Nov. 1874, April 1876.

30. ARSES TELESCOPHTHALMUsS.—A. telescophthalmus (Garn.);
Salvad. § D’ Albert. t. c. p. 819; Salvad. t. c. p. 18.

a, 6. Nicura, Dee. 1876.

b. Nicura. Eyes very dark brown, surrounded by a disk of
light blue; bill pale blue at base, lighter at tip; feet and tarsi
dark leaden colour.

c, 9. Mainland, S.E. Papua, Feb. 29, 1875.

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 317

Fam. Lanipz.

31. PACHYCEPHALA, sp.

a, Aleya, April 1876. Eyes very dark; bill entirely black ;
feet and tarsi lead-colour.

A single skin of a Pachycephala close to P. griseiceps, with the
same dark head, and probably identical with the latter, though it
differs slightly in the coloration of the buff breast.

32. CractTicus oassicus.—C. cassicus (Bodd.); Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 823; Salvad. t. c. p. 830; Sharpe, antea, p. 82.
a,b. Aleya, April 1876.

33. CracTicus MENTALIs.—C. mentalis, Salvad. & D’ Albert.
t.c. p. 28.

a, &.juv. Nicura, Dec. 1875.

This species is a perfectly distinct one. The specimen sent
by Dr. James is in intermediate plumage, just putting on the
adult black-and-white dress.

‘ Fam. CAMPEPHAGID.

34, EpoLiosoma MELAS.—E. melas (8. Mill.); Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 821; Salvad. t. c. p. 27.

a. Aleya, April 1876. Iris dark brown, almost black; bill,
feet, and tarsi black.

Fam. PrionopPip#.
35. RECTES FERRUGINEA.—R. ferruginea, Bp.; Salvad. t. ec.
p. 30.
a. Aleya, April 1876. Iris white; bill black; feet pale lead-
colour.
6, 2. Nicura, Dec. 1875.

Fam. ParaDIsiiD.&.

36. Manvucopia atra.—M. atra (Less.); Salvad. & D’ Albert.
t. c. p. 828; Salvad. t. c. p. 40.

a, 6. Yule Island, April 1876. Total length 15°5 inches, cul-
men 1°65, wing 7°35, tail 6°5, tarsus 1°65.

b, d. Aleya, April 1876. Total length 15-7 inches, culmen
1°6, wing 7°7, tail 7:0, tarsus 1°65.

ce, . Mainland of S.E. Papua, Jan. 1876. Total length 16
inches, culmen 1°55, wing 7°7, tail 6°9, tarsus 1°65.

318 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

37. ParapIsfa RAGGIANA.—P. raggiana, Sel.; Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 829; Salvad. t. c. p. 38.

a, 3 juv. Aleya, April 1876.

b, 9 ad. Aleya, April 1876.

Fam. Corvip2.

38. Corone orrv, Mill. ; Sharpe, Cat. B. ui. p. 45.
a, d. Yule Island, Nov. 1875. Total length 18:5 inches,
culmen 2°5, wing 12°35, tail 7-3, tarsus 2°3.

Fam. OrrIoLipz.

39. ORIOLUS stRIATUS.—Mimeta striata (Q. f& G.); Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 828 ; Salvad. t. c. p.89.—Oriolus striatus, Sharpe,
antea, p. 82.

a, 2. Port Moresby, Nov. 1876.

Fam. STURNID2.

40. CaLORNIS VIRIDESCENS, Gray; Sharpe, Ibis, 1876, p. 47.—
C. metallica, Salvad. § D’ Albert. t. c. p. 827; Salvad. t. c. p. 38.

a, &- Yule Island, Nov. 1874.

Count Salvadori identifies the Yule-Island bird with C. metal-
lica; but it agrees better with C. viridescens, with a Dorey speci-
men of which I have compared it ; and it agrees with the latter in
wanting the purple shade upon the flank so conspicuous in the
true C. metallica.

4i. Eunases pumonti.—Mino dumonti, Less.; Salvad.
D Albert. t. c. p. 828; Salvad. t. c. p. 89.—Eulabes dumonti,
Sharpe, antea, p. 82.

a, 2. Aleya.

Order COLUMB..
Fam. CoLUMBID2.

42, GoURA ALBERTISII.—G. scheepmakeri, Salvad. d: D’ Albert.
Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. vii. p. 797 (nec Finsch).—G. albertisii,
Salvad. Att. R. Acc. Torino, xi. pp. 627, 680, var. vil.

a-e. Mainland of South-east Papua, Feb. 1873.

Five specimens of this fine Pigeon were sent. I give a detailed
description of the species, which has not been sent to England
before, and I add an account of a fine individual.

Adult. General colour above greyish blue, rather lighter on

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 319

the upper tail-coverts; tail blue, with a broad terminal band of
bluish white ; wing-coverts greyish blue like the back, the greater
series milky white tipped with maroon, forming a large alar spe-
culum, the outermost and innermost of the greater series blue
tipped with maroon; quills dark greyish blue, deeper on the
outer web; head with the usual enormous crest, many of the long
crest-plumes being bluish white at their tips, imparting a silvery
appearance ; crown of head and sides of face rather clearer blue
than the back, the feathers in front of and round the eye, as well
as the fore part of the cheeks, black; throat and fore neck blue,
the latter somewhat purplish; rest of under surface of body rich
maroon ; the lower abdomen, vent, and under tail-coverts greyish
blue, as also the under wing-coverts and lower surface of the
quills. Total length 31 inches, wing 15-6, tail 11-0, tarsus
3°55.

Count Salvadori is, in my opinion, quite right in keeping this
fine Pigeon distinct from G. scheepmakeri of Finsch, as the whitish
tips to the crest-feathers, the maroon tips to the specular coverts
of the wing, and the absence of a black band along the upper edge
of the alar speculum present characters which differ so strikingly
from G. scheepmakeri, that it is impossible to believe that they
can be identical.

43. PHLOG@NAS JOBIENSIS.—Chalcophaps jobiensis, Meyer.—
C. margarethe, Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 836; Salvad. t.c. p. 44.

a. Adult without label.

6. Mainland of S.E. Papua, Feb. 29, 1876.

44, CHALCOPHAPS CHRYSOCHLORA.—C. chrysochlora ( Wagler);
Salvad. § D Albert. t. c. p. 886; Salvad. t. c. p. 43.

a. Aleya, April 1875. Eyes dark brown; feet and tarsi colour
of recent muscular tissue. Total length 10 inches, culmen 0°85,
wing 59, tail 3°75, tarsus 0°9.

b. Mainland of 8.H. Papua, Feb. 29, 1876. ‘Total length 10°5
inches, culmen 0°85, wing 6'1, tail 3°6, tarsus 0°85.

Fam. CARPOPHAGID2.

45. Canpopuaca prnon.—C. pinon (Q. & G.); Salvad. t. c. p. 41.
a. Mainland to the east of Yule Island, Feb. 1876.

46. CaARPOPHAGA MUELLERI.—C. muelleri, Temm.; Salvad. t. ec.
p. 41.

320 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE ~

a, 3. Mainland of 8.E. New Guinea, about eight miles from
Yule Island, Nov. 1875.

Found also by D’Albertis on the Fly river. The present spe-
cimen measures—total length 17 inches, culmen 1:1, wing 8°85,
tail 6°5, tarsus 1:15.

47. Prinonopus coronvLatus.—P. coronulatus, Gray ; Salvad.
§ D Albert. t. c. p. 833; Salvad. t. c. p. 42.

a. South-east Papua. Total length 85 inches, culmen 0°55,
wing 4°4, tail 2°65, tarsus 0°8.

6. Aleya, April 1876. Iris deep red; bill light brown; feet
and tarsi colour of recent muscle. Total length 8:3 inches, cul-
men 0°55, wing 4:6, tail 2°61, tarsus 0°8.

ec. Aleya, April 1876.

Order GRALLZ.
Fam. CHARADRIIDZ.
48. SquaTaroLa HELVETICA (L.); Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 13.

a, . Yule Island, Nov. 1875.

The specimen is apparently an old bird in full winter plumage;
at ali events, it has no trace of the golden speckling which is cha-
racteristic of the young bird of the year.

49. AcTITIs HYPOLEUCUS (L.); Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 46.

a, dS. Yule Island, Dec. 1865.

The specimen sent is a male in nearly adult winter plumage,
some few remains of immaturity being apparent in the mottlings
on the wing-coverts.

50. Numentus cyanopus, V.; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 42.

a,3. Yule Island, Dec. 1875.
Total length 21 inches, culmen 6°38, wing 9°4, tail 5-9, tarsus 44.

Fam. Rauuip sz.

51. PorPHYRIO MELANOPTERUS.—P. melanopterus (Zemm.);
Salvad. t. c. p. 48.

A specimen without indication of exact locality.

Fam. ARDEIDS.
562. BuroripEs savanica, Horsf, ; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 31.
a,3. Yule Island, Dec. 1875.

Total length 18 inches, culmen 2°7, wing 7:25, tail 2°6,
tarsus 1:9.

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 821

53. TiagRIsoMA HELIOSYLos.—Botaurus heliosylos, Less. Voy.
Cog. pl. 44; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 32.

Adult. General colour above black, transversely banded with
deep ochre ; crown of head entirely black, the nape also less di-
stinctly banded with ochre; wing-coverts resembling the back ;
the edge of the wing white, forming a conspicuous patch ; quills
black, the primaries with a slaty-grey gloss, the ochreous cross
bands being more broken and forming mottlings, paler and inclin-
ing to white on the inner web; lower portion of the back and
rump creamy white, tinged with ochre on the upper tail-coverts,
the longest of the latter being slaty black towards their tips, with
oval spots and transverse bars of ochre; tail blackish, tipped
with a narrow band of ochraceous, and crossed with seven other
bands of the same colour, increasing to nine in number on the
outer feather; cheeks and ear-coverts white, transversely barred
with black ; throat pure white, the lower part with a few wavy
lines of dusky black ; the fore neck and chest and ruff deep ochre,
broadly banded across with black ; rest of under surface of body
uniform pale fawn-colour, shading off into white on the abdomen
and under tail-coverts ; under wing-coverts creamy white. Total
length 30 inches, culmen 41, wing 13°8, tail 5-8, tarsus 4:2.

a. Mangroves of Aleya, March 1876.

The figure in the Atlas to the Voyage of the ‘ Coquille’ is very
bad, and does not do justice to this fine Bittern, being much too
dull in colour and not showing the ochraceous colour of the under-
parts.

Order ANSERES.

Kam. ANATID2.

54, Taporna rapsau, Garn; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 80.
a, b, ec. Nicura, Dee. 1875, March and April 1876.

322 DR. A. GUNTILER ON TWO LARGE EXTINCT

Notice of two large Extinct Lizards, formerly inhabiting the
Mascarene Islands. By Dr. A. Gtwrner, F.B.S., F.LS.,
Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum.

[Read March 15, 1877.]

I.—Dvnrineé an examination of remains of Birds and Chelonians
from the Mauritius, especially the Mare aux Songes, the locality
famous for its yield of Dodo-bones, I recognized in some frag-
ments parts of the skeleton of a Lizard. They were not nume-
rous, and consisted of a short fragment (with three teeth) of the
maxilla, five fragments of the mandible, seven more or less perfect
femurs, and portions of three humeri. Some had been collected
by Mr. Edward Newton, to whom science is so much indebted for
the better acquaintance with the extinct fauna of the Mascarenes,
others by Mr. H. H. Slater, one of the naturalists accompanying
the “ Transit-of- Venus”? Expedition.

Imperfect mandible of Didosaurus mauritianus, Gunther, of natural size.
A, the internal, and B, the external surface.

The mandible is an extremely solid and thick bone, with Pleu-
rodont dentition, and with the alveolar edges far apart. In the
least fragmentary example the entire dentary and part of the
articular have been preserved ; but the articulary surface has been
broken away, so that we remain ignorant as to the form of the
joint and the part behindit. The dentary is 37 millims. long, 12
millims. high behind, and 7 millims. thick in its middle. Its outer
surface is very convex, smooth, perforated in its anterior half by a
series of five foramina mentalia. It rapidly tapers in front, and
is moderately deeply cleft behind for the reception of the articular

LIZARDS FROM THE MASOARENE ISLANDS. 823

bone. The junction between the two bones is very close, without
vacuity or foramen on the outer surface. The splenial consists
of two pieces, the anterior fitting into the deep inner notch of the
dentary, participating in the formation of the inner foramen; the
posterior piece is small, and, barely touching the dentary, lies along
the lower side of the articular; it terminates anteriorly in the
perpendicular from the coronoid process. The coronoid is small,
its process not quite vertical to the longitudinal axis of the man-
dible.

The teeth were closely set, small, about 24 in number; the an-
terior were probably conical and pointed, but the posterior, of which
several are preserved, have very obtuse summits.

Shafts of three humeri have been preserved, one with the distal
end complete, and another with a portion of the proximal extre-
mity. This bone does not appear to differ from the type of other
Pleurodont lizards. It is about 39 millims. long, with a thin
and slightly compressed shaft, with the ulnar tuberosity dilated
and much projecting, and with the radial margin compressed into

Fig. 2.

Different aspects of (A, B, c) the imperfect humerus and (0, 5, F) a perfect
femur of Didosawrus mauritianus. All of natural dimensions.

a sharp edge above the condyle ; the supracondylar foramen per-
forates this sharp edge, just above the condyle. The distal extre-
mity is 133 millims. broad.

The specimens of femur are nearly of the same length (46 mil-
lims.), but some have a somewhat stouter shaft than others. The

324 DR. A. GUNTHER ON TWO LARGE EXTINOT

is much stouter than that of the humerus. Also this bone shows
no deviation from the ordinary Lacertian type.

The bones before us are sufficient to give an idea of the size of
this Lizard ; by comparing them with the skeletons of a Monitor
and of a large Scincoid, I infer that the Lizard of Mauritius must
have had a body of between 14 and 15 inches in length, the tail
not included.

The question as to its affinities is much less easily answered,
the peculiarities of the mandible being apparently rather generic,
and not indicative of a family type, and the leg-bones being of too
general a type to be of much use in the solution of the problem.
The Pleurodont families which can come under our consideration
are :—

1. The Monitoride, which are distinguished by a much smaller
number of powerful teeth than we find in the Mauritian Lizard.

2. The Teide and Lacertide may be excluded, the former as
being confined to the New World, the latter as being composed
of species of small size.

3. Among the Jguanide all the genera approaching the Mau-
ritian species in size are provided with notched teeth.

4. Thus, then, remain the families of Zonuride and Scincide,
both of which are well represented in the tropical parts of Africa,
Madagascar, and even the Mascarene Islands. The dentition of
many of them closely resembles that of our Lizard, especially in
the obtuse form of the crown of the tooth. Some, like Zonurus,
Gerrhosaurus, and Cyclodus, approach the Mauritian form in size.
In members of both these families there is a similar disproportion
of thickness between humerus and femur, as in our Lizard. Thus
it seems very probable that it will ultimately prove to belong to one
of these families; but so much appears to be certain, from a com-
parison of its mandible with those of the other principal generic
types, that it. is sufficiently distinct to deserve being placed in
a separate genus, for which I propose the name Didosaurus mau-
ritianus.

IJ.—-Mr. Slater collected in Rodriguez, with remains of the
Solitaire and Tortoise, several bones which he recognized as the
remains of a Lizard, possibly belonging to the family of Skinks.
In my opinion it is a Geckoid Lizard, which, as far as the evidence
before us goes, cannot be separated from the genus Gecko; but
the species from Rodriguez appears to have attained a much larger
size than Gecko verus (to which it is very similar), or than any

LIZARDS FROM THE MASCARENE ISLANDS. 825

other Geckoid known. Referring, then, this Lizard to the genus
mentioned, I concur in Mr. Slater’s proposal of naming it after
Mr. E. Newton,— Gecko newtonit.

The bones collected consist of two parietals, posterior half of
right ramus of lower jaw, right humerus, right half of pelvis, five
left and two right femurs, and therefore must have belonged to
at least five individuals, of which the one indicated by the pelvis
was the largest. In the following description these bones: have
been compared with the skeleton of a Gecko verus, the vertebral
column of which is 100 millims. long (exclusive of the caudal-ver-
tebre), and the skull 45 millims.

The parietal agrees in size and shape entirely
with that of G. verus, in which the two long pro-
cesses into which this bone bifurcates behind are
separated by a large vacuity from the parocci-
pital. In Phelswma (which genus is so well repre-
sented in these islands and on the coasts of this

0 é : ya Parietal bone of
geographical region, and which might have been “Gyr, mewtonii,
expected to occur in Rodriguez) the parietal has Upper aspect,

. . . and of natural
quite a different shape (P. seychellense) and its pos- Sn
terior processes are adpressed to the paroccipital.

The articulary piece of the mandible differs nowise from that of
G. verus; like the latter it is produced behind the condyle into a
hamate grooved process, which, however, is much more concave on
its upper surface in the Rodriguez species than in G. verus.

Fig. 4.

Humerus of Gecko newtonii, nat. size. A, anterior, B, posterior, O, ulnar,
and D, radial aspects of bone.

The humerus offers a more striking difference from G. verus than
the preceding bones; it is much stronger, and especially its ex-
tremities are comparatively much more dilated. Its head is
transversely elongated, passing into a curved and projecting pro-
minence, which answers to the ulnar tuberosity. The radial

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOW. XIII. 27

3826 DR. A. GUNTHER ON TWO LARGE EXTINCT LIZARDS.

crest is strongly developed, and does not extend beyond the proxi-
mal third of the length of the bone. The transverse diameter of
the distal extremity is nearly rectangular to that of the proximal.
The whole of this part of the bone is much dilated, particularly by
a broad trenchant crest running along tke radial border of the
bone. Of the two condyles the radial one is much the more pro-
minent one and projects towards the anterior side of the bone.
In all these particulars G. newtonii resembles G. verus, all the
ridges and prominences being, however, much more developed.

G. verus. G. newtonie.

millims. millims.
Length of the humerus ............... Bes, 225, 25
east awidtheothersiaitees: seen ee ee 2 3
Transverse diameter of proximal end......... 5s 9
Transverse diameter of distal end ............ 65 10
Fig. 5.

A. Inferior surface of the pelvis of Gecko verus. B. The outer aspect of the
right os innominatum of the same animal. C. Lower surface of the right
half of the pelvis of G. newtonii, and D, its exterior surface. All the figures
are of natural size.

The pelvis and femur are so similar to those of G. verus that
the accompanying figures and statements of measurements will

suffice to give a perfect idea of those bones.
G.verus. G. newtonii.

millims. millims.
Length of the os ilium (from acetabulum)... 11 13
Greatest width of osilium(from acetabulum) 4 aa
Length of os pubis (from acetabulum) ...... 11 (injured)
Width of os pubis at its base .................. 3 53
Length of os ischii (from acetabulum) ...... ez 11

MR. R. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWAY. 327

G. newtontt. G. verus.
millims. millims.

Weast widthiorosischi see e ee 24 JL
iene thy otete murat ree ee ene 26 30
Whdthvingchemmiddiem 4.99.05 yee 1} 3

53 e

The femur of Gecko newtonii in four different aspects and of natural dimension.

On Myodes lemmusin Norway. By Roserr Coutuert, Conservator
University Museum, Christiania, C.M.Z.S., &. (Communi-
cated by Dr. J. Muniz.)

[Read April 5, 1877.]

In the previous year’s publications of this Society are some articles

by Mr. Duppa Crotch on the Norwegian Lemming (Myodes

lemmus)*. As the habits and the economy of this mysterious
little animal must always have considerable interest for any one

who has the opportunity of observing it in the state of nature, I

have considered that a few remarks on the same subject, being the

result of personal experience, may be deemed worthy of notice,
more especially as my personal observations in some respects differ
from the statements made by Mr. Crotch. The following notes
with some additions and abbreviations may be considered in the
light of a partial translation of an article of mine in a memoir on
the mammals of Norway, published in Christiania, March 1876+,
and are here communicated by the desire of my friend Dr. Murie.

* 1. “On the Migration and Habits of the Nerwegian Lemming,” vol. xiii.

p- 27 (Sept. 19, 1876). 2. “ Additional Note relative to the Norwegian Lem-

ming,” vol. xiii. p.83 (Dec. 15, 1876). 3. ‘‘ Further Remarks on the Lemming,”

vol. xiii. p. 157 (Feb. 28, 1877).

+ “Bemerkninger til Norges Pattedyrfauna,” p. 18 (Nyt Magazin for Natur-

videnskaberne, 22 B., Kristiania, 1876).

328 MR. BR. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORW AY.

Myodes lemmus inhabits all the high fells of Norway from the
southern branches of the Lemegfjeldene in Christiansand Stift to
the North Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of the Arctic
Circle its habitat is exclusively confined to the plateaux above the
conifer region; in Tromso Amt and in Finmarken it occurs on
all suitable localities down to the level of the sea, and here, too, it
is resident on the larger islands on the coast.

None of the eastern species and no constant race of the Lem-
ming are found in Norway, and accidental varieties are exceedingly
scarce. A few specimens of albinos are known. .

Under ordinary circumstances it inhabits portions of the birch-
regions on the fells, intermixed with dry juniper-covered ground
and wet soil covered with the Dwarf Birch (Betula nana); in
the daytime it remains hidden and is seldom observed, but is, how-
ever, never wanting on places of any extent with the above-
mentioned natural qualifications.

The nest is found under a tussock, constructed of dry short
straws, and is often, but not always, lined with hairs cast off by
the animals themselves. The number of the young ones (except-
ing in years of migration) is generally five, sometimes only three,
seldom seven to eight; and at least two sets are annually pro-
duced.

It feeds entirely on vegetable matter, especially grass-roots and
straws, in winter bark of different species of Willow (Salia) and
Birch (Betula); and it forms the staple food of the Snowy Owl
(Wyctea scandiaca), the Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo lagopus),
the Short-eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus), the Arctic Fox (Vulpes
lagopus), the Glutton ( Gwlo borealis), the Stoat (Mustela erminea),
and, to some extent, Buffon’s Skua (Lestris parasitica).

The wandering of the Lemmings, is a necessary consequence of
their temporarily strong vitality together with an extreme mi-
gratory instinct, which is chiefly developed when they are in
numbers. This tendency to appear in large numbers at irregular
intervals of years is common to all the species of the subfamily
Arvicoline ; but in the present species (AZyodes lemmus) it is pro-
bably more developed than in any other mammal.

During some years more families are produced than in others,
without a migration consequently arising. Should the cireumstances
be favourable, and the families still more numerous, the increase in
number causes smaller migrations,which eyery year take place here

MR. R. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWAY. 329

and there, and is shown in the sporadic appearance of individuals
down into the nearest valleys; and between these smaller and
the true migrations every gradation is to be found.

This is a point that ought not be overlooked.

In some years the reproduction is still stronger, and the sudden
collection of individuals of an animal that under ordinary circum-
stances seems to be nowhere very numerously distributed, but
always keep themselves scattered on the larger plateaux, will
naturally cause a movement of the masses towards the sides, so
as again to make the balance even; and by the natural desire to
wander possessed by this species (which is also to a certain
extent shown by the allied species of Lemming, MW. schisticolor,
Lilljjeb., and also in some of the other species of Arvicoline),
these migrations very soon reach the borders of the plateaux,
and subsequently spread over an area that is considerably larger
than obtains in any other of the species under similar circum-
stances.

Tn cases where in two succeeding years the production of young
has been excessive, the masses are incessantly pushed towards the
sides of the fells; and the migration becomes an overrunuing of
the lower and far remote portions of the country, as the indivi-
duals gradually penetrate further in search of localities suitable
to their habits (and which are capable of giving them a perma-
nent subsistence), until they are stopped by the sea or destroyed
in some other manner.

In the years of the great migrations the first families reared in
the spring reproduce in the autuinn of the same year, causing an
over-population. This drives the individuals to wander down to
the plains, often before they are full-grown. The next year the

“masses mnay increase in number to such an extent, that myriads
continually move from the central plateaux and overrun the low-
lands, where they join those that have previously arrived. Many
pairs breed during the journey ; they are therefore more numerous
in the late summer, become less so in the autumn, die in immense
masses in the winter, are seen, though sparingly, the next
spring, and disappear gradually during the summer (the second
year of their wandering). This stage of increasing and disappear-
ing is the rule in many instances; but, as previously said, the
migrations may be shorter as well as longer, and then not be
finished hefore the third year from their starting from the
fells.

330 MR. R. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWay.

In the years of migration the families follow each other quickly,
and the set consists sometimes of nine, and not unusually of ten,
young.

The greater number of those individuals that wander are young
and born in one of the last two years; and I have observed that
they chiefly consist of males, the number of females being regu-
larly very small.

The migration is brought to a close by the death of the swarms,
which is generally caused by an epizootic disease, the necessary
consequence of over-population. As this disease develops itself on
the high fells as well as on the lowlands, it cannot be caused by
the unusual mode of living of the wanderers; for directly after
these migrations the high fells seem almost devoid of inhabitants.
The iarger the masses, the higher is the mortality ; and this is in-
creased by the heat and want of drinking-water. During the
great migrations one can easily witness the sudden deaths amongst
the horde, many of their bodies appearing to be quite uninjured ;
thovgh most of the specimens examined show the lower part of
the back almost denuded of hairs, and the skin covered with small
tubercles. These abrasions and pustules, in my opinion, are the
result of a disease of the skin, and not due to the habit of back-
ing up against a stone, or caused by their running into their
underground holes, as has been commonly affirmed. No individual
returns of its own will to the fells after it has once descended and
moved any distance from the plateaux.

During the migrations they are devoured (besides by the mam-
mals and birds of prey of the above-mentioned species that fol-
low them down to the lowlands) chiefly by the Common Kestrel
(Falco tinnunculus), the Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), all the
Owls (Sérigide), and the other birds of prey, the Weasel (Zustela
nivalis) and Fox (Vulpes vulgaris); farther by Crows (Corvide)
of different kinds, and in the northern parts of the country by
species of Gulls and Skuas (Larus and Lestris); and it must be
reckoned amongst the anomalies in the habits of the tame Rumi-
nants that they (chiefly the cattle and goats) sometimes betake
themselves to killing and eating the Lemmings. Thisis the case,
too, with the wild Reindeer on the southern fells, and the same
in Finmarken. Numbers are killed by dogs and cats; and men
everywhere try with all their power to diminish their numbers.

The immediate reason for the large increase of Lemmings is
doubtless owing to exceptional circumstances repeated for some

MR. R. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN- NORWAY. 331

years, and consequently favouring their pairing and bringing up
of their young; the result of which is far greater numbers of
families and larger numbers of young in each set than in ordinary
years. Parallel mstances of these circumstances are clearly exhi-
bited in the enormous increase in number of the larve of Lepi-
doptera in certain years ; but I may add that it is apparently im-
possible to bring any direct proof of the true reason of that fact,
and one can only form theories about the point. It is one of the
many questions in the economy of nature that probably never
will be solved; we only know that it is a fact.

It is, however, worthy of remark that these circumstances
are always at the same time equally favourable to the increase of
nearly allied species which are quite independent of one another.
Thus in the years when J. lemmus migrates I have observed
there is certain to be an increase above the normal number of
one or more species of rats and mice (Muride),—in the southern
parts of Norway chiefly the following Voles, Arvicola gregarius,
A. amphibius, and A.fratticeps; in Finmark, A. rufocanus, A. rat-
ticeps, and A. rutilus ; further the Harvest-Mouse, Mus sylvaticus,
and possibly other small Rodents. The increase, however, in
these species never attains the magnitude that it does in MWyodes
lemmus ; and none of these, as mentioned above, possess the mi-
gratory instinct in the same degree as the Lemming.

Furthermore, almost every “year of migration” and “ breed-
ing’ that has taken place in the tracts below the Dovrefjeld and
bordering the Trondhjemsfjord the Shrews (Soride), the Hare,
and most of the Grouse tribe (Tetraonide) have at the same time
been unusually numerous. Besides there are different other
animals that are generally considered to a certain extent to de-
pend upon JZ. lemmus, as they are found in larger numbers just
in the years when the Lemmings are migrating, as it is supposed,
in consequence of the superfluity of food; for mstance, the
two species of Mustela, Vulpes lagopus, Nyctea scandiaca, Asio
accipitrinus, Buteo lagopus, and others. In my opinion this
facility in obtaining superfluity of food is not the only or true
reason for the increase of numbers of these animals.

I have elsewhere stated *, Nyctea scandiaca increased very nu-
merously during the summer of 1872 in many districts where there

* “ Remarks on the Ornithology of Northern Norway” (Forh. Vidensk.
Selsk. Christiania, 1872, p. 223).

332 MR. R. COLLETT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWAY.

was no migration or hyperpopulation of the Lemming, just as
much as it did in those districts which were full of them.

Tt will, I think, be rather difficult to state in what degree the
climate or the seasons have to do with this increase of animals in
certain years. Thus in 1862 the Blackcocks &c. (Tetraonide)
jn the southern parts of Norway were numerous to an extent
that probably has not been the case in any year since; and a
great migration of the Lemming took place in the autumn in
the same localities : still it is a fact that the sammer was propor-
tionally cold and rainy, and therefore, as may be suggested, not
particularly suitable to the bringing up of their young. The true
ground for the periodical increase in numbers is doubtless a phy-
siological necessity for the existence of the species, the reasons
for which at present it is beyond our power to explain.

The wanderings take place in the direction of the valleys, and
therefore can branch out from the plateaux in any direction.
During migrations from the Dovre district the swarms wander
northwards through the vaileys of Sondre Trondhjems Ant, as
much as southwards through Gudbrandsdalen and Osterdalen ;
from the district of Jotinsfjeldene and Langfjeldene the wander-
ings take the western direction to the innermost parts of Bergen
Stift, or an eastern course, and push their way down the valleys of
Valders, Hallingdal, and Nennedal. The most western valleys of
Norway, as in Bergen Stift, are proportionally !ess frequently visited
by them than the lowlands east of the high fells. From the High
fells towards the Swedish frontier, under 62° to 63° N. lat., the
wanderings branch out as much towards the districts bordering
the Trondhjems fjord as the Swedish provinces Jemteland and
Herjedalen, which in some years are covered with myriads of these
animals that all penetrate towards the Baltic. It is seldom that
the wandering flocks will cross a valley to reach a neighbouring
fell; but sometimes they do: generally their course is somewhat
irregular, but, on the whole, in the direction of the valley itself.
They wander almost entirely in the night, and move quickly for-
wards. During the daytime they are, for the most part, resting
or hidden amongst stones or the tussocks, though considerable
numbers may be seen everywhere. Their temper and general
habits are so well known that I may here omit to mention them.

During the seasons when they breed plentifully, the increase
takes place abundantly on the islands, which are sometimes very
small in extent; as is the case with many of the mountainous.

M&. R. COLLET’ ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWAY. 333

islands of Lofoden and along the coast of Finmarken. On the
islands the migrations soon cease when the sea is reached ; during
fine weather the animals will easily swim over fjords or lakes at
least two English miles broad *.

Amongst the localities in Norway which are furthest distant
from the summer dwellings of the Lemmings are Smaalenene
(south-west of the Christianiafjord), the lowlands of Jadera (south
of Stavanger), and the tracts bordering on the southern part of
the lake Mjésen and on both sides of the Christianiafjord. But
during certain years of migration these parts of the country are
also covered with their swarms, and, on the whole, there perhaps is
no attainable point of the country which has not during one or
other year been visited by them. Each migration covers but acertain
district, but never spreads simultaneously over the whole country.

The greatest migrations have generally taken place from some
of the following great complex systems of fells :—

No. 1. From the plateaux of Langfjeldene and Jotinsfjeldene,
sending swarms to the western portions of Christiania Stift,
Christiansand Stift, and the adjacent valleys of Bergen Stift.

No. 2. From the plateaux of Dovre and the fells of Gidbrands-
dalen and Osterdalen to the northern districts of Christiania
Stift and the adjacent valleys of Trondhjem Stift.

No. 3. From the fells in Trondhjem Stift towards the Swedish
frontier to the tracts bordering on the Trondhjemsfjord (and
Swedish Nordland).

No. 4. From the fells in Nordland to greater or smaller portions
of Nordland (and the neighbouring parts of Swedish Lapland).

No. 5. From the plateaux in the interior of Finmark to different
parts of Finmark.

The smaller migrations, as above stated, may only include the
neighbouring valleys which are adjacent to the plateaux. As
districts which in later years have been particularly visited by
their swarms, may be named (No. 3), for instance, the lowlands of
Inderéen and other of the innermost parts of the Trondhjemsfjord,

* Here I may add acorrection to a quotation by Mr. Crotch in one of his
papers (p. 382). Mr. Crotch writes that “in November 1868 [quoted by Lillje-
jeborg, infra] a ship sailed for fifteen hours through a swarm of Lemmings
which extended as far over the Trondhjemsfjord as the eye could reach.” The
notice I gave Dr. Lilljeborg, and which is quite correctly quoted in his ‘ Fauna,’
i. p. 827 (Upsala, 1874), does not state fifteen hours, but a quarter of an hour ;
and it was not a sailing ship, but a steamer.

LINN. JOURN.

.

ZOOLOGY, VOU, XIII. 28

334 MR. R. COLLENT ON MYODES LEMMUS IN NORWAY.

where, during the last ten years, often smaller or greater migra-
tions have taken place, and where sometimes their visits have been
of the most destructive nature.

I do not think it will be of any service for me to enter into
detail in describing the different ways of each wandering, as
far as it is known; for this would necessitate a somewhat exten-
sive knowledge in the reader of the local topography of the
country. I only here shortly mention the years of the greater
migrations of which I have any information, this being, as will
be seen, very incomplete until within the last twenty years.

1739-40. Hallingdal (from the plateau of No. 1).

1757. Trondhjemsfjorden (from No. 8).

1769-70. Osterdalen (from No.2); at Kongsberg (from No. 1)
Mr. Crotch mentions (p. 158) a wandering the same year.

1772. Sdndmor, in Bergen Stift (from No. 1).

1774. Nordmér, in Bergen Stift, south to Satersdalen in Chris-
tiansand Stift (from No. 1). Most likely-this and the migration
of 1772 have been connected.

1780-81. Thelemarken, Eker, Hadeladed, and Christiansand
Stift (from the south portions of No. 1).

1789-90. Christians Amt and about the same parts as the pre-
ceding wandering (from No. 1).

1816. Nordland (from No. 4).

1526. Bergen Stift (from No. 1).

1833-34. Thelemarken and Christiansand Stift (from No. 1).
Mr. Crotch mentions (p. 158) a wandering the same year at
Bosekop in Finmark (from Ne. 5).

In the last decades, I know of the following great migrations,
all, except the first, from personal observation in the places
themselves :—

1852-53. In the south of Finmark and the tracts of Tromsé
(from No. 5).

1862-64. Southern parts of Christiania Stift (from No. 1).

1868-69, Trondhjem Stift and the northern portions of Chris-
tiania Stift (from Nos. 2 and 8).

1871. Hastern parts of Christiania Stift (from No. 1).

1872. Trondhjem Stift and the northern parts of Christiania
Stift (from Nos. 2 and 8).

1875-76. Eastern and northern parts of Christiania Stift,
Christiansand Stift, and north to Romsdalen (from Nos. 1 and 2).

1876. East Finmarken (from No. 5).

MR. E. A. SMITH ON A NEW FORM OF OPHIURIDE. 35

Cr

Description of Acantharachna mirabilis, a new Form of Ophiuride.
By Enea A. Suirra, F.Z.8., Zoological Department, British
Museum. (Communicated by Dr. Murte, F.L.S.)

{Read March 1, 1877.]
(Prats XVIII.)

Tux specimen upon which the following new subgenus is founded
was obtained by the British Museum many years ago (about the
year 1840) from Mr. Cuming, by whom it was collected at the Phi-
lippine Islands. Toit is attached his label, which runs thus, “ Isle
of Corregidor, Bay of Manilla, 7 fathoms—coarse sand and gravel.”’

This very remarkable species apparently partakes more of the
character of the genus Ophiomastix than of any other. The soft
skin covered with minute scales, the mouth-organs, and the cha-
racter of the arm-plates and upper series of spines agree precisely
with those of that genus; but the absence of tentacle-scales is per-
haps sufficient to separate it subgenerically therefrom.

Genus Opntomastix, Muller & Troschel.

Subgen. nov. AoanTHARACHNA*.

Discus cute molli, minute squamata, spinas paucas supra et
infra gerente, indutus; scuta radialia nuda; dentes, papille den-
tales oralesque ut in Ophiocomidis ; squame ambulacrales nulle ;
rime genitales due; spine brachiales supreme maxime irregu-
lariter posite.

ACANTHARACHNA MIRABILIS, sp. noy.

Discus subpentagonalis, in medio inter brachia sinuatus, cute
molli minute squamulata indutus; squame ad marginem inter
scuta radialia imbricantes ceteris majores; superficies supra et
infra spinis gracilibus paucis hic illic munita ; scuta radialia parva,
cuneiformia, longe distantia ; brachia quinque inferne plana, supra
convexa, diametrum disci octies paulo superantia ; scutella oralia
longiora quam latiora, ovalia, intus leviter acuminata; adoralia
triangularia lateribus concayis, margines oralium amplectentia,
intus inter se tangentia ; papille orales crassx, octo ad quemque oris
angulum ; papillee dentales seriebus tribus, oralibus intimis similes ;
dentes —— ?; scuta brachialia inferiora fere eque longa ac lata,
heptagonalia, marginibus aboralibus medio in angulum levem pro-

* deav@a, a thorn, apaxvys, a spider. The name was suggested from the
general appearance of a long thorny-legged spider.

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 29

336 MR. E. A. SMITH ON A NEW FORM OF OPHIURID&.

ductis; scuta superiora hexagonalia, frequenter hic illic fracta,
latiora quam longiora, ad latera acute angulata ; scuta lateralia nec
supra nec infra tangentia, extravalde prominentia; spine brachiales
2-3, duze inferiores subzequales, longitudinem scuti inferioris paulo
superantes, supreme maxime, crasse, apice sepe lobate, aliquanto
scabre, latitudinem brachii longitudine circiter eequantes, inter-
vallisirregularibus posite ; color ubique lacteus. Diam. disci 16
mill., brachii 3.

Disk subpentagonal, sinuated in the middle of the margins
between the rays, covered above and beneath with a soft minutely
sealed skin, which is produced a little way up the arms; the scales
along the lateral margins between the radial shields overlap one
another and are much larger than those on the rest of the disk ;
on the upper and under surface are a number of small slender
mobile spines widely and irregularly distributed. The radial shields
are small, wedge-shaped, and very far apart, being separated by a
Space as wide as the arms; arms five, very long, flat beneath, and
arched above and gradually tapering, eight or nine times as
long as the diameter of the disk; oral shields longer than broad,
oval, faintly pointed within; lateral mouth-shields triangular,
with concave sides, embracing the sides of the oral shields and
just meeting at their base; mouth-papille stout, four on each side
of every angle, the outermost by far the largest, triangular and
contiguous to the side mouth-shields and appearing like a supple-
mentary lateral oral shield; the other three are in rotation
smaller ; tooth-papille in three rows, stout and like the inner
mouth-papille ; teeth — ?; tentacle-scale none ; lower arm-plates
about as long as broad, heptagonal, the two aboral margins sloping
to a roundish angle, the two sides are rectilinear, the two inner
lateral margins bounded by the side arm-plates, and the oral side
concave, through the overlapping of the roundish angle or peiné ~
of the preceding shield; upper arm-plates normally hexagonal,
but frequently broken irregularly in one or more places, broader
than long, the outer and inner sides equal and almost straight, the
side margins almost equal and forming an acute angle between
the lateral arm-plates.

The side arm-plates do not meet above or beneath, and are very
prominent on the side remotest from the disk. The number of
arm-spines is not constant on all the plates, some bearing two and
others three. The two lower ones are subequal, not very acumi-

MR. E. A. SMITH ON A NEW FORM OF OPHIURIDS. 337

nate, and a trifle longer than a lower arm-plate. Uppermost
spines placed at irregular intervals of two to five or even more
plates ; they are very large and stout compared with the others,
frequently lobed at the end, somewhat scabrous, and about as long
as the width of the arm. The colour is everywhere of a uniform
eream-tint ; the specimen perhaps is faded.

I cannot give the exact number of teeth, as there is but a single
specimen, which would have to be mutilated too much in order to
ascertain it ; however, as far as can be seen, they appear te be few
in number, stoutish, and truncate at the ends.

Under the microscope the arm-plates and spines are seen to be
delicately granulous ; and the apices of the largest spines are beset
with most minute prickles.

Both the upper and lower arm-shields gradually become pro-
portionally longer towards the end of the arms.

Ophiomastia flaccida, of Lyman, in many respects closely re-
sembles this species ; and since it has no tentacle-scale, it will come
in this subgenus Acantharachna. The chief difference in the two
species is in the covering of the disk. In A. flaccida it is “ wholly
covered by a smooth skin,” whilst in A. mirabilis the covering is mi-
nutely squamose and displays small naked radial shields, and the
margins of it are clothed with larger scales than those on the
dorsal surface. The form of the lower arm-plates is different in
the two species; the side mouth-shields and the colour also show
certain differences.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVIII.

]

Fig. 1. Ophiomastix (Acantharachna) mirabilis. View of upper surface, of

natural size.

2. View of the lower surface, also of natural size.

3. The disk, seen from below, enlarged about twice nat. size, and showing
the oral orifice with papille and also form of oral and anal shields.

4. Part of anarm seen from above, showing the form of the plates and
the spines. About 3 diam.

5. Magnified view of a bifid brachial spine.

§. Apex of a terminally trifid brachial spine, also enlarged.

29%

338 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes. —
Fart II. The Siluride. By Francts Day, Esq., F.L.S.

[Read April 19, 1877.]

In the first part of this paper’ I gave an outline of the geogra-
phical distribution of the Acanthopterygian Freshwater fishes as
existing in Sind, India, Burma, Ceylon, and the Andaman Islands.
I now propose giving a similar sketch of the Sheat-fishes or Silu-
ride’, which form a large family amongst the Physostomi of Asia.
Mostly scaleless, their mouths are provided with sensitive feelers,
which, serving as organs of touch, assist them when seeking for
their prey in turbid waters. Vision in such localities would be
but of slight service; and, as might be anticipated, their eyes are
comparativ ely small, whilst with advancing age these organs
atrophy, not increasing so rapidly as the remainder of the body.

In addition to augmented facilities for feeling about in muddy
water, they have a considerable development of the auditory
organs, which doubtless must be of essential service.

The air-vessel or swim-bladder in fishes is found possessing two
distinct functional offices. In the Acanthopterygians, destitute of
a pneumatic duct, its use (excluding the question of its connexion
with the internal ear) appears primarily to be a mechanical one,
viz. for the purpose of maintaining a required level in the water
and permitting the fish to rise or fall as desired.

In the majority of Carps (Cyprinina), in addition to the fore-
going function, a pneumatic tube connects it with the pharynx,
or upper portion of the alimentary canal, and also a chain of ossi-
cles with the internal ear. In fact, it is employed both for hear-
ing and flotation.

But in the Sheat-fishes (Siluride) the power of employing the
air-vessel as a float appears to be subservient to that of hearing.
Living, as they do,a life of ground feeders, this organ is more use-
fully restricted to acoustic purposes.

If we briefly consider where these fishes are found in Asia, it
assists us in understanding this. Almost absent from the clear
waters of the Red Sea’*, they commence being numerous at the

1 Journal Linnean Society, Zoology, vol. xiii. p. 138.

2 The Anacanthini, having no solely freshwater representatives, do not call for
remark.

3 Arius thalassinus and Plotosus arab are the only two species of Siluroids
- that haye been recorded from the Red Sea.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 339

more turbulent coasts of Beloochistan, at the mouths of the
larger rivers and marine mud-flats off Sind and India, more espe-
cially Bengal and Burma. They are comparatively rare in the

‘ open sea; in fact at the Andamans they become scarce, except such

species as reside where small streams empty themselves into muddy
ereeks. On the other hand, in the turbid sea near Moulmein
and amongst the islands of the Mergui archipelago they abound.

In short, they resort to muddy waters ; and in such places their
feelers permit them to move about with ease, whilst their organs
of hearing enable them to ascertain the vicinity of any enemy or
the approach of some incautious prey.

We perceive the same thing amongst those inhabiting the
fresh ; the larger and- muddier the rivers the more are they
resorted to by Siluroids. Siluroids are found from the sea-coast
to the base of the Himalayas; but as they generally deposit
their ova in the waters of the plains, and not (like many
Carps) in the rivers of the Subhimalayan range, they very sen-
sibly diminish on nearing the hills. Still one or two species of
Callichrous and a Macrones find their way into the hill-waters,
where an Amblyceps and Silurus, as well as the mountain-torrent
genera of Pseudecheneis, Glyptosternum, Huglyptosternum, and
Ezostoma find a congenial home. Those genera which are almost
exclusively found in hill-streams are provided with an adhesive
apparatus on the thorax, which, enabling them to adhere to stones,
prevents their being carried away by the stream. As might be
anticipated, their barbels are short, whilst in all the air-vessel is
more or less enclosed in bone.

Reverting again to the air-vessel, we find it in Siluroids in twa
ways. In the marine forms it has an outer thick fibrous layer,
and is attached to the lower surface of the bodies and transverse
processes of some of the anterior vertebra, whilst from it a chain
of ossicles passes to the internal ear. As, however, we proceed
inland or towards mountains a difference occurs, and in many
genera the air-vessel becomes partially or entirely surrounded by
bone. This may be effected by a trumpet-shaped extension of
the lateral processes of the first or second vertebra, or else by an
expansion of the most posterior of the auditory ossicles; but in
either case the chain of bones 1s continued to the internal ear.

The majority of those forms which have the air-vessels enclosed

in a bony capsule being adapted to a mountain-torrent life leads
me to conjecture that such may have some connexion with sound ;

840 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

certainly such an organ, being almost incapable of expansion, would
scarcely be of much service as a compressible float.

These fishes are generally well provided with weapons of offence*
or defence; they have mostly strong dorsal and pectoral spines,
often serrated and with which they ean inflict dangerous wounds.
This spinal armature is invariable in the marine and estuary
forms, as there they are most called upon to resort to offensive or
defensive measures. The auditory apparatus is more developed -
in the inland genera, where, instead of having to battle for
their existence, they become the tyrants of the waters they in-
habit.

Whether any East-Indian genera of Siluroids possess a distinct
poison-apparatus or gland connected by a duct to a wound-in-
flicting-spine has not as yet been proved. But that most dangerous
symptoms are occasioned by their dorsal and pectoral spines, is
known not only to men but even to the lower animals.

On June 18th, 1869, I was present in Burma when the famous
Een-gay-gyee lake was fished, which is done by placing a stationary
weir across the water (which is a sort of river encircling an island) ;
and a movable one is with great labour dragged up to it by large
gangs of men, whose labours are continued for months. The final
point had now been reached; and all round this enclosure nets
were reared to about ten feet above the water to prevent the fish
escaping”, and which the captives, wild with alarm, were trying to

1 Laws haye been enacted in several countries rendering it penal to bring
these fishes to the markets for sale with their spines intact. Omitting any con-
sideration of the state of the health of the individual wounded, we find fishes
occasion three distinct varieties of wounds :—

a. Punctured wounds inflicted by a spine destitute of a poison-gland or duct,
as seen in the European Weevils (Zrachinus) or the East-Indian Polyacanthus.
But as distinct irritating effects extend for some distance from the wounded
spot, and remain for a considerable period, it seems questionable whether some
mucous or other substance causing these symptoms may not be present on the
spine.

B. Lacerated wounds, such as may be caused by the dorsal or pectoral spines
of Siluroids or the serrated spine on the tail of the Skates. In these cases also
irritation may be occasioned by some mucous secretion.

y. Poisoned wounds. 'The Siluroid Thalassophryne has heen shown to have a
distinct poison-gland leading up a canal existing in a serrated spine by which
the wound is inflicted (Gunther, P. Z. 8. 1864, p. 155). The Synanceia verrucosa
has also been shown to have a tube at each of its dorsal spines and a poison-gland
at its base. The wounds, as might be anticipated, are yery yenomous.

? Salt for preserving them had not arrived.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES, B41

_jump over. Pelicans and cormorants were numerous and con-
stantly devouring the spoil; but it was very curious to see how
when fish sprang out of the water the birds opened their mouths,
but sheered off to a respectful distance, evidently dreading the fall
of the spined Siluroids on themselves. I have taken the sea-
snake (EHnhydrina) with the pectoral spine of an Arius projecting
through its integuments from the intestinal canal.

There is also a difference perceptible in the manner in which
some at least of Siluroids deposit their eggs.. The marine and
estuary Arius and its allies have large eggs; and as they are fre-
quently found in the mouths of the males, whilst their intestines
are destitute of food, it appears probable that they either carry
them about in that manner for protection until hatched, or else
remove them from what they consider to be a dangerous locality’.
In the freshwater species, on the contrary, we find the eggs very
small; and the difference between those of the marine Arius and
freshwater Macrones is very striking.

Regarding their respiration, I have already pointed out’ that
some, as Saccobranchus and Clarias, are truly amphibious, whereas
I have no reason for believing that any of the other genera of
Siluroids in India are so.

Amongst the Siluride, we know of thirty-one genera repre-
sented in India, Burma, and Ceylon ; and of these we have twenty-
six wholly or entirely confined to fresh water.

1. Macronzs*, Dumeril. The fishes of which this extensive genus
is comprised extend through most parts of Asia, more especially
in the tropics. They are numerous in the fresh waters of Sind,
the whole of Hindustan, Ceylon, and Burma, and are common
through Siam to the Malay archipelago.

2. Liocassis’, Bleeker. Hastern Bengal and Assam to the
Malay archipelago.

3. Ereruistes’, Miller § Henle. These small fishes are found
from Orissa and Bengal, through Assam and Burma. M‘Clelland
also records a species from Chusan.

4, Riva*, Bleeker. These fishes are found in the Indus and

1 See paper by Prof. Turner, Camb. Jour. of Anat. and Zool. vol. i. p. 78.

? Journal Linn. Soe, Zool. vol. xiii. No. 68, p. 198.

3 Includes :—Bagrus, pt., Cuvier & Valenciennes ; Hypselobagrus, Hemibagrus,
Pseudobagrus, and Aspidobagrus, Bleeker.

* Includes fama, Bleeker; and see note to species.

5 Includes Hara, Blyth. 5 Includes Gogrius, Day.

342 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

its affluents, in the Jumna and Ganges, also in the Irawaddi in
Burma to far above Mandalay.

5. Panaasrus', Cuvier § Valenciennes. Larger rivers and
estuaries of India and Burma to the Malay archipelago.

6. PsrupEutTRorius,, Bleeker. These fishes are common in the
waters of Sind, India, Ceylon, and Burma, but at the Malay
archipelago appear to be represented by a single species.

There is a very similar genus (Hutropius) separated from the
foregoing owing to the position of its two pairs of mandibular
barbels, the pair on either side being anterior to the inner ones,
whereas in Psewdeutropius they arise on a transverse line.

All authenticated specimens of Hutropius are African; but one
species, said to have come from India, was purchased in Liverpool
and is in the British Museum. There is no other record of this
one having been found in Africa, neither has it been brought from
India by any other party ; and, until rediscovered, the land which
gaye it birth may fairly be considered an open question. _

Pseudeutropius, on the contrary, has not been found in Africa ;
and I believe that our present knowledge only warrants our con-
sidering the one genus African, the other Asiatic. I should
mention here that a fossil fish has been discovered in the tertiary
formation at Sumatra (deficient of its head), and has been assigned
to this genus (Giinther, Geol. Mag., Oct. 1876).

7. Oryra’, M‘Clelland. These small fishes appear to be re-
stricted, so far as we know, to the hills in Upper Assam and Pegu.

8. Catiicnrovus’, Hamilton Buchanan. Sind, India, Ceylon,
Burma to the Malay archipelago and China.

9. Wattaco, Bleeker. Sind, India, Ceylon, Burma to the
Malay archipelago.

10. Sinurus®, Artedi. From Eastern Europe and Turkestan,
along the Himalayas to Akyab, Tenasserim, Cochin China, the
Malay archipelago, and China ; also along the hills of the Malabar
coast of India.

1 Includes Psewdopangasius and: Helicophagus, Bleeker.

2 Includes Clupisoma, Swainson, Schilbeichthys, Bleeker.

3 Includes Branchiosteus, Gill.

4 Includes:—Ompok, Lacépéde ; Kryptopterus, Kryptopterichthys, Micronema,
Phalacronotus, Hemisilurus, Silurodes, Pseudosilurus, and Stlurichthys, Bleeker ;
Pterocryptes, Peters.

Parasilurus, pt., Bleeker.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 343

11. Cuaca, Cuvier § Valenciennes. Bengal, Assam, and Burma
to the Malay archipelago.

12. Crartas’, Gronovius. These amphibious fishes are found
throughout Africa and Western Asia to India, Ceylon, Burma,
Siam, the Malay archipelago, Hongkong, the Philippines, and
beyond.

A nearly allied genus (Heterobranchus) is found in Africa; and
Bleeker has discovered a species of it in the Malay archipelago.

13. Saccoprancuus,, Cuvier & Valenciennes. These are like-
wise amphibious fishes, but not found in Africa. They frequent
the fresh waters of India, Ceylon, Burmah, to Cochin China, but
have not been recorded from the Malay archipelago.

14. Srnunp1a, Cuvier 5 Valenciennes. These fishes frequent
the large rivers of India and Burma.

15. Arita, Gray. Sind, the larger rivers of the Punjab, N.W.
_ Provinces, Bengal, Orissa, and Assam.

16. Arnircuruys, Day. Indus and Punjab rivers, also Ganges
and Jumna.

17. HEurropricuruys, Bleeker. Large rivers of India and
Burma.

18. Ampiycrps, Blyth. Himalayas, valley of the Ganges,
astern Bengal, to Burma. _

19. Stsor, Hamilton Buchanan. Indus, Jumna, and Ganges
rivers.

20. Gacata®, Bleeker. Sind, India (except its northern por-
tion), Assam, and Burma.

21. Nanura, Day. Sind, Deccan, N.W. Provinees, and Bengal.

22. Bagarius, Cuv. & Valenciennes. Larger rivers of India
and Burma to Java.

23. GryprosternuM4, MW‘Clelland. Hill-streams and rapid
rivers of the plains of the Himalayan region, and India, to
the Malay archipelago. Fishes of this genus are provided with
an adhesive apparatus consisting of longitudinal folds of skin and
placed between the bases of the pectoral fins on the thorax.

24. HuetyprosterNuM®, Bleeker. “Syria, upper portions of

1 Includes :—Macropteronotus,Lacépétde; Cossyphusand Phagorus, M‘Clelland.
2 Includes Heteropneustes, Miller.

3 Includes :—Batassio, pt., Blyth; Callomystax, Ginther.

4 Ineludes Glyptothorax, Blyth.

® Includes Aglyptosternon, Bleeker.

34.4, MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

the Jumna,and Upper Assam. This genus possesses an adhesive
thoracic sucker, as in the last.

25. PsruDECHENE!S, J‘Clelland. Head waters of the Ganges
and on the Himalayas, also the Khasya hills. Fishes of this
genus have a very well-developed adhesive sucker on the chest,
composed of transverse folds of skin.

26. Exosroma’, Blyth. Head waters of Indus, along the Hima-
layas and hilly districts to Assam, Pegu, Tenasserim, and the
confines of China. Although these fishes have no adhesive sucker
on their tuberculated chest, it is flattened, while the pectoral and
ventral fins are evidently adapted for adhesion.

Examining the foregoing genera composing the freshwater
Siluroids of India, we find that, of the 26 genera, 10 reach the
Malay archipelago, 6 are restricted to India on the west, 6 to
India and Burma, whilst Erethistes extends to China, Saccobran-
chus to Cochin China; and Clarias ranges from Africa, through
Syria and India, to the Malay archipelago and beyond.

In short, out of 26 genera, 11 have Malayan and Chinese repre-
sentatives, whilst only 1 has African ; and this genus is common to
the Malay archipelago.

I will now follow out the geographical distribution of each
Species, so far as such have been as yet recorded or have fallen
under my own observation.

Genus Macrones.

1. Macrones curysrus, Day. Rivers in Canara and Ma-
labar.

2. M. aor?, Hamilton Buchanan. Throughout the fresh waters
of Sind, India, Assam, and Burma.

3. M. sEEnenata’®, Sykes. Sind, Salt range of Punjaub, the
Jumna and Ganges rivers, certainly as low as Delhi; the Deccan
and Kistna river to its termination.

4, M. Buyrnit*, Day. Tenasserim.

5. M. eur10°, Hamilton Buchanan. This is the only Indian
species of this genus recorded as from the sea; it frequents estu-

? Includes Chimarrichthys, Sauvage.

? Includes :—? Bagrus aorinus, Val.; B. aorides, Jerdon.

° Includes :—Bagrus Lamarrii, Cuv. & Val.; B. aorellus, Blyth.

* Includes Batasio affinis, Blyth.

° Includes :—Bagrus albilabrus, fuscus, Birmarnus, and abbreviatus, Cuy. &
Val.; B. gulioides, melas, Schlegelit, and rhodopterygius, Bleeker.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 345

aries and tidal pieces of water as far as the Malay archipelago.
Its ova are small, and like what obtain in the rest of the genus,
and not similar to the large ova of the marine Arius and its
allies.

6. M. puncrarus, Jerdon. Bowany river at base of the Neil-
gherries in Madras.

7. M. corsuxa’, Hamilton Buchanan. From Orissa, through
Bengal and Assam.

8. M. microrpuTHatmus, Day. Burma, along the course of
the Irrawaddi.

9. M. cavastus?, Hamilton Buchanan. From Sind, throughout
India, Assam, and Burma.

10. M. renegana*®, Hamilton Buchanan. Northern India, Pun-
jaub, and Assam.

11. M. ocunatus, Jerdon. Malabar coast and Coimbatore
district.

12. M. virratus‘, Bloch. Sind, Indian Assam, Burma, Siam,
and also Ceylon.

18. M. revcopHasis, Blyth. Rivers of Burma.

14. M. montanus®, Jerdon. Wynaad range of hills in Madras.

15. M. xevetivs, Cuv. § Val. Madras and inland to Mysore
and Coimbatore; also Ceylon.

16. M. matapartcts, Day. Malabar coast of India.

17. M. armatus, Day. Malabar coast and western Ghauts.

18. M. Burrxeri’, Day. Sind, Jumna, Ganges, and Burma.

Of the foregoing 18 species of Macrones, 2 have barbels not
longer than the head, one (No. 1) is restricted to the Malabar
coast, the second (No. 4) to Tenasserim. In all of the others
the feelers reach at least to the ventral fin.

The following shows their distribution :—3 Malabar and west-

1 Includes :—Pimelodus menoda, Ham. Buch.; Bagrus trachacanthus, Cuv.
& Val.

2 Includes Pimelodus seengtee, Sykes.

3 Inecludes:— Pimelodus batasius, Ham. Buch, (figure, not description) ; ? P.
anisurus, M‘Clelland.

4 Includes :—Pimelodus carcio, Ham. Buch. ; ? P. indicus, M‘Clelland ; Bagrus
afjinis, Jerdon.

5 Includes? Bagrus agricolus, Jerdon.

® Includes :—Bagrus keletius, Bleeker ; ? B. tengara, var., Blyth.

346 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

ern Ghauts; 4 western Ghauts or their bases, or through Mysore
to Madras; 3 Sind, India, Assam, and Burma (1 also in Ceylon) ;
1 Deccan, Jumna, and Ganges rivers; 1 Sind, Jumna, Ganges,
and Burma; 1 Northern India and Assam; 1 Bengal, Orissa, and
Assam; 2 Burma; 1 Tenasserim ; 1 coasts of Sind, India, Ceylon,
and Burma.

Thus, if we exclude the half-marine Wacrones gulio, we find 7
restricted to Malabar and Madras; 1 to the Deccan, Jumna, and
Indus; 4 Indus, Ganges, Jumna. Brahmaputra, and Burma
rivers; 2 locally in Bengal and Assam ; 3 Burma.

Genus LEIocassts.

1. L. rama’, Hamilton Buchanan. Eastern Bengal and Assam.

Genus ERETHISTES.

1. E. nara’, Hamilton Buchanan. Orissa, Bengal, Assam, end
Burma.

2. E. conta’, Hamilton Buchanan. THastern Bengal, Assam,
and Burma.

3. E. Jerpontt, Day. Sylhet.

4, EK. ELoneata, Day. Naga hills.

These four species have a somewhat confined distribution, 2 ex-
tending from Orissa throughout Bengal, Assam, and Burma,
and 2 being confined to the hills in the vicinity of Assam.

Genus Rita.

1. R. Bucwanant‘, Bleeker. Indus, Jumna, and Ganges
rivers and their affluents, Burma.

2. R. pavrmentatas, Val. Deccan and Kistna river to its ter-
mination.

3. R. curysea, Day. Orissa.

4. R. wastata®, Val. Deccan and Kistna river to its termi-
nation.

1 Includes :—? Pimelodus chandramara, Ham. Buch, ; Silonia diaphina,Swain-
son; Rama Buchanani, Bleeker.

2 Includes :—LErethistes pusillus, Miller & Troschel; Hara Buchanani, Blyth.

3 Includes Hara jfilamentosa, Blyth.

4 Includes :—Pimelodus rita, Ham. Buch. ; Arius ritoides, Ouy. & Val.; Rita
crucigera (Owen), Giinther.

* Includes :—Phractocephalus gogra, Sykes; Gogrius Sykesii, Day.

® Includes :—Ariuvs pumilus, Val. (young); Phractocephalus kuternee, Sykes.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 347

1 species is spread through the region of the Indus, Jumna,
and Ganges rivers to Burma, 2 through the Deccan and Kistna
river, and 1 appears to be restricted to Orissa.

Genus Paneastus.
1, P. Bucwanant’, Cuvier & Valenciennes. Large rivers of
India, Assam, Burma, and perhaps the Malay archipelago.

Genus PsEUDEUTROPIUS.

1, P. GoonewaREE’, Sykes. Deccan, upper waters of Ganges
and Jumna, Burma.

2. P. raakreE’, Sykes. Rivers of the Deccan and the Jumna.
3. P. acurirostrris, Day. Rivers of Burma.

4, P. murtus*, Hamilton Buchanan. Rivers of Sind, Jumna,
and rivers of Bengal and Orissa; also Assam.

5. P. Syxesir®, Jerdon. Malabar coast of India.

6. P. arHertnorpEs*®, Bloch. Sind, India (excluding the
western coast and Assam).

7. P. garua’, Hamilton Buchanan. Throughout the larger
rivers of Sind, India (except its most southern portion and the
western coast), Assam, and Burma.

Of the foregoing seven species, 1 is spread through the Indus,
Jumna, and Ganges to Bengal, Orissa, and Assam; 1 the same,
but continued to Burma; 1 Sind, India (excluding the western
coast), and Assam ; 1 Deccan, Ganges, and Jumna, also Burma;
1 locally in Malabar ; 1 restricted to Burma; and 1 restricted to
the Malabar coast.

Thus 2 Indian forms are found in Burma; 1 Burman form ap-
pears to be restricted to that country, but to be a representative
of an Indian form which does not extend to Burma.

Genus OLyra.
1. O. tonercauDa, M‘Clelland. Khasya hills.

1 Includes :—Pimelodus pangasius, Ouv. & Val.; ? P. djambal, Bleeker.

2 Includes Eutropius macrophthalmus, Blyth.

3 Includes Pseudeutropius longimanus, Ginther.

4 Includes:—Pachypterns melanurus, Swainson ; ? Pseudeutropius megalops,
Giinther.

5 Includes Pseudeutropius Mitchelli, Giinther.

6 Includes :—Pimelodus anguis and urua, Ham. Buch. ; Pachypterus trifasci-
atus, Swainson ; Bagrus exodon, Bleeker.

7 Includes Clupisoma argentata, Swainson.

348 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHIOAL

2. O. Burmantca, Day. Pegu hills.
3. O. taticers, Clelland. Khasya hills.
2, of these species are locally restricted to Assam and 1 to Pegu.

- Genus CALLICHROUS.
1. C. aanceticus, Peters. Ganges.
2. C. sinpENSIS, Day. River Indus.

3. C. BrmacuLatus’, Bloch. Fresh waters of Sind, India,
Ceylon, Assam, and Burma, to the Malay archipelago and beyond.

4. C. pABo?, Hamilton Buchanan, Jumna and Ganges rivers,
and Burma.

5. O. MACROPHTHALMUS, Blyth. Madras, Assam, and Burma.

6. O. mataBaRtcus, Cuvier & Valenciennes. Malabar coast of
India.

7. O. paspat, Hamilton Buchanan. Indus and its affluents,
Ganges, Jumna, Brahmaputra, and also Orissa.

These 7 species have a peculiar distribution: 1 is found from
Sind through India and Ceylon to the Malay archipelago and
beyond; 1 Indus, Ganges, Jumna, and Brahmaputra to Burma;
1 Ganges and Jumna and to Burma; 1 Madras, Assam, and
Burma; 1 locally to Sind; 1 Malabar; 1 Ganges.

Genus WaLLAGo.

1. W. arru®, Bloch. Throughout Sind, India, Ceylon, Assam,
~ and Burma.
Genus SILURUS.

1. S. WynaapeEnsis, Day. Western Ghauts of India.

2. 8. arenana’®, Giinther. From Afghanistan along the Hima-
layas to Darjeeling.

1 Includes :—Ompok siluroides, Lacépéde ; Silurus checkra, canius, and duda,
Ham. Buch.; S. microcephalus and mysoricus, Cuv. & Val.; Callichrus imma-
culatus, nebulosus, and affinis, Swainson; Silurus indicus, M‘Clelland ; Schilbe
pabo, Sykes; Phalacronotus siluroides, Bleeker ; Callichrous ceylonensis, Ginther.

2 Includes Callichrous nigrescens, Day. * Includes Callichrous notatus, Day.

4 Includes :—Silurus anastomus, Cuv. & Val. ; 8. damghur, Heckel ; Callichrus
vittatus, Swainson; Cryptopterus latovittatus, Playfair; Callichrous Egertontt,
Day.

5 Includes :-—Stlurus boalis, Hamilton Buchanan ; S. wallago and asotus, Cuv.
& Val. ; Callichrus macrostomus, Swainson ; Silurus Miilleri, Bleeker ; Wallagoo
Russellii, Bleeker.

® Includes Szlurus Dukai, Day.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 349

3. S. cocHIncHINENSIS , Cuv. § Val. Hills above Akyab, also
Tenasserim to Cochin China.

Of these three species, 1 appears to be found along the Hima-
layas from Afghanistan to at least Darjeeling; 1 is spread from
the hills above Akyab to Tenasserim and Cochin China; whilst
the third is confined to the western Ghauts on the Malabar coast
up to about 2500 feet elevation.

Genus CHAoA.

2 ° .
1. C. LopHiorEs , Cuvier 5 Valenciennes. Ganges, Brahma-
putra, and Irrawaddi rivers.

Genus CLARIAS.

1. C. Tevsmannr3, Bleeker. Ceylon, Java.

2. OC. Dussumrert*, Cuv. § Val. Coasts of India and the Malay
archipelago.

3. C. macur’, Hamilton Buchanan. Throughout India and
Burma to the Malay archipelago. |

4,, OU, ASSAMENSIS, Day. Assam.

Of the 4 species of Clarias, 1 is generally distributed through
India and Burma to the Malay archipelago; 1 Malabar and
Madras to the Malay archipelago; 1 Ceylon and the Malay
archipelago; 1 restricted to Assam.

Genus SACCOBRANCHUS.
1. 8. microps, Giinther. Ceylon.

2. 8. rosstits®, Bloch. Fresh waters of Sind, India, Ceylon,
Assam, Burma, and Cochin China.

Genus SILUNDIA.

1. 8. Syxusi’, Day. Rivers of Deccan and throughout the
Kistna and Bodanen.

1 Includes Silurichthys Berdmorei, Blyth.

2 Includes:—Platystacus chaca, Hamilton Buchanan ; Chaca Buchanant,
Ginther.

3 Includes ? Clarias brachysoma, Gimther.

4 Includes Clarias melanosoma, Bleeker.

° Includes:—Silurus batrachus, Bloch; S.anguillaris, Russell ; Clarias marpus
and punctatus, Cuy. & Val.

6 Tncludes:—Silurus singio, Ham. Buch. ; S. laticeps and biserratus, Swain-
son ; Saccobranchus microcephalus, Giinther.

7 Includes ? Ageneiosus childrent, Sykes.

350 DR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL

2. 8. aancetica', Cuv. & Val. -Larger rivers of India and

Burma.
Of these two species, 1 appears to be restricted to the Deccan

rivers, the other is spread through the larger rivers of India and
Burma.
Genus AInIA.
1. A. corus?, Hamilton Buchanan. Sind, the large rivers of
the Punjab, N.W. Provinces, Bengal, Orissa, and Assam.

Genus AILIICHTHYS.

1. A. punotata, Day. Indus, rivers of the Punjab, and upper
portions of the Ganges and Jumna.

Genus EvTROPIICHTHYS.

1. E. vacwa3, Hamilton Buchanan. From the Punjaub, through

the iarge rivers vf Sind, Bengal, and Orissa; whilst a variety
(Z. Burmanicus) is found in Burma.

Genus AMBLYCEPS.

1. A. Maneots', Hamilton Buchanan. Along the Himalayas
commencing at the Punjaub, in the Jumna for some considerable
distance from the hills, also through Burma to Moulmein.

Genus SIsor.

1. 8. RHABDoPHORUS, Hamilton Buchanan. Indus, Ganges,
and Jumna rivers, as low as Bengal and Behar.

Genus GAGATA.

5 g z
Ge CENIA®, Hamilton Buchanan. Indus, Ganges, and Jumna
rivers ; also rivers of Orissa and Burma.

2. G. 1roHKEEA, Sykes. Rivers of the Deccan.
3. G. BATASIO, Ham. Buch. River Testa.
4. G.tEencana, Ham. Buch. Assam.

1 Includes ;—Pimelodus silondia, Ham. Buch. ; Stlonia lurida, Swainson.
* Includes :—Silurus Cuviert, Gray; Malapterus bengalensis, Gray ; Acan-
thonotus Hardwickit, Gray ; Ailia afinis, Giinther.
3 Includes Pachypterus punctatus, Swainson.
- 4 Includes :—Amblyceps cecutiens and A. tenuispinus, Blyth ; Akysis Kurzii
ay.
° Includes:—Pimelodus gagata, Ham, Buch.; Gagatatypus, Bleeker.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 30k

me

Genus Nanera.
1. N. Bucuanant', Day. Indus, Ganges, and Jumna rivers.

2. N. punerata, Day. Sone river.

3. N. rrrmpEscens, Ham. Buch. North Bengal and Deccan.

Genus Bacarivs.

1. B. Yarrenui2, Sykes. Large rivers of Sind, India, and
Burma to the Malay archipelago.

Genus GLYPTOSTERNUM.
1. G. onan’, Sykes. Poona and rivers of Deccan, also the
Jumna near its upper portion.

2. G. TRILINEATUM 4, Blyth. Nepaul, Burma, and Tenasserim.

3. G. conrRosTRE, Steindachner. Himalayas from affluents of
the Indus and Jumna, as at Kangra and Simla.

4. G. Botta, Hamilton Buchanan. From the Jumna after it
leaves the Himalayas ; common about Delhi.

5. G. vercouirra, Hamilton Buchanan. Ganges and Jumna
rivers from the Himalayas as low as Bengal and Behar.

6. G. striatum, M‘Clelland. Khasya hills in Assam.

7. G. mapRaspaTanum ’, Day. Bowany river at the foot of
the Neilgherry hills.

8. G. pectinopTERUM’, W‘Clelland. Himalayan region from
affluents of the Indus, Jumna, and Ganges; found from Nangra
and Simla to certainly as far as Darjeeling.

9. G. cavia, Hamilton Buchanan. Rivers of northern Bengal.

These fishes appear to have asomewhat local distribution, 1 spe-
cies being restricted to the Jumna and Deccan, one to southern
Madras, 3 to the Himalayas (one of which is lkewise found in
Burma), 1 to the Khasyas in Assam, and 38 to the Jumna, Ganges
and rivers of northern Bengal.

2 Includes Pimelodus nangra, Ham. Buch.

2 Includes:—Pimelodus bagarius, Ham. Buch. ; P. platespogon, Val.; P. car-
naticus, Jerdou; Bagarius Buchanani, Bleeker.

3 Includes G. dekkanense, Gimther. £ Includes G. gracile, Gunther.

5 T cannot detect any air-vessel in this species.

6 G, Stoliceke, Steindachner (adult ;) G. modestum, Day (young)
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIIT. 30

352 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEIAN FISHES.

Genus HUGLYPTOSTERNUM.
1. E. niveatum, Day. Head waters of the Jumna. Upper
Assam, from the neighbourhood of the Himalayas.

Genus PsrvDECHENEIS.
1. P. suncarus, M‘Clelland. Darjeeling and Khasya hills.

Genus Exostoma.

I. E. nasratum, M‘Clelland. Mishmee Mountains in Hast
Assam. ;

2. E. Buyruit, Day. Darjeeling.

3. E. BerpMorel, Blyth. Tenasserim.

4. E. Sroriczkz, Day. Head waters of Indus.

The foregoing 85 species of Indian freshwater Siluroid fishee
are thus distributed.

Mngitam/ ee eton Bit ean. sass aaa ote ie ahaa ieee eee eee I
= to Malay archipelago ...... PERE AR &
“ €excluding Sind) to Burma ............ &
is Ceylontand#Bimremaecrr ss) eee 1
Le (excluding Southern India and Malabar)
fo) Burilauiohr soc tepals spanner
= (excluding Southern India and Malabar)

COGASSAIIE bcs ha ciicin was viele ee eee I

& (excluding Southern India and the Deeean)
to Assamg 3 3. us one eee a ee 3

5 (excluding Southern India and the Deccan)
to Burmany ek detain eaichaet 5 aaaeeraean 2
% toy Cochim=@ himeieass ser as oe 1
Indus, Ganges, and Jumma rivers .......-..--..-. 2-0: 3
linha eee ithe ate, EMER arama WSs TESS aia sy GRAS ee oe ee 1
Ganges; Jumnasand themDeccans.. Jo - ss ree 4,
a re fo Burma ule eae eee 1
Deccan aes teh aa tae ven ree Pee Rg Bowe 4,
NS cima alsin wasn Ne ce Wie atcte a oh awd PALS a iS Sec thea ee 6
Bengal@rissaandAssam)c9. 1.006922 oo ee eas 1
- ae i cosBurmar iy eee iE
iBenvaleuaidl Atssarinb@\ DU Ela ecto. eerie eee 3
: % ny Mere grea ee a 1
PMeoli nays el 5 ud ate meen ae EMER IE Ce Cemcee mtr Stic Og Able os 2
Efimalayan Me ct Ome (oleate). eek tina ot eine eee 6
- Fe and. Bitmihadcckoers ar selec a eee 1

* This includes India, Sind, and the Punjaub only.

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 353

BOUT. Sf IP eee Nd Oe ak ee RR Re eh 1
a andl oemime@ hina, 427: oe oe eee ane ® 1
ENSSaTIOY TM, Beg Oey cic ed ci Ly) oth a 8
Orissa) prey yt ee ence sid, SE ae 2 ee eas ik
Madras, “Aissamand Burman’, i025. 25\ by, ee 1
Base of Neilgherry hillsin Madras .................. 2
South India and Malabar ....2gmM 00 0 1
2 ‘ Ceylon Esl © shale aois a r Cn a 1
Ceylon SES Sia eal «fase o Neeeo ny wale Fntedtevas SOUL Ticari cecMPa CRANE ete erin ts 1
# FROME) ANE) A Sol ye ci ictal Se apa POR ee A
West coast of India and Malay archipelago ............ it
- Mata en g Weree eeees tenis Vora Cah 6

and Coimbatore <........ Atte A aly

99

The faeooine shows that the 78 species are restricted to the
Indian region (including Burma and Ceylon); 6 are distributed
from the Indian region (excluding Ceylon) to the Malay archi-
pelago, and 1 extends from Ceylon to the Malay archipelago.

Consequently we find no species of Indian freshwater Siluroid
extending its range to Africa, whereas 6 do to the Malay archi-
pelago.

Of the genera, as I have already remarked, only 1is common to
India and Africa, whilst that is also found in the Malay archi-
pelago, which possesses 10 more Indian genera.

So far, results would appear to shew us that the present race of
freshwater fishes of India is much more closely related to a
Malayan than it is to an African fish-fauna.

Notes on the Genus Alveolites, Lamarck, and on some allied
Forms of Paleozoic Corals. By Prof. H. Atteynr Nicyor-
son, M.D., D.Sc., F.B.S.E., F.L.S.,and Roperr Erusrmes,
Jun., F.G.8.

[Read May 3, 1877.]
(Puates XIX. & XX.)

We have recently had occasion to examine a large series of sp-

cimens of that group of corals to which the name of “Alveolites”

is generally given, as well as of various allied forms, from the

Carboniferous rocks of the north of England and south of Scot-

land, the Devonian rocks of Devonshire and North America, and
30*

Bysy MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

the Upper Silurian rocks of England, Sweden, and the United
States; and we have found our progress greatly impeded by the
very unsatisfactory condition in which Alveolites stands at pre-
sent. Not only does it appear to be evident that the name Alveo-
lites covers a number of forms which are not always united by
relations of genuine affinity, but even those forms which may

be regarded as the types of Alveolites are only separable from cer-
, + aucu groups by characters dimv.]¢ to define or discover, and
sometimes of dubious value and uncertain inve.;,retation. Under

these circumstances, it may not be useless that we should lay
before our fellow workers the results of our researches so far as
_ they have gone at present, more by way of discussion and sug-
gestion than of dogmatizing or of laying down positive conclusions
or formulating final definitions.

The genus Alveolites was originally founded by Lamarck in the
first edition of the ‘Systéme des Animaux sans Vertébres’ (pub-
lished in 1801), p. 874, for the reception of a single Devonian spe-
cies which he described under the names of A. swborbicularis and
\A. escharoides, and for which the former title has been subse-
quently retained. ‘The original definition is, “ Polypary stony,
thick, globular or hemispherical, formed of numerous concen-
tric layers, which are superimposed one upon the other, each
layer formed by the union of alveolar, subtubular, prismatic, con-
tiguous cellules [or tubes], forming a network on the surface.”
In the ‘ Hist. Nat. des Anim. sans Vertéb.’ (published in 1816),
vol. ii. p. 184, the same definition is given with very slight alte-
rations, the principal change being that the genus is now made
to include incrusting forms. In the second edition of Lamarck’s
‘Hist. Nat. des Anim, sans Vertebr.’ (published in 1836), the
portion relating to the corals was revised by Milne-Edwards, and
the genus Alveolites is defined as follows (vol. 11. p. 285) :—

‘“‘ Corallum stony, sometimes incrusting, sometimes free and
massive, formed of numerous layers which are concentrically su--
perimposed upon one another, each layer composed of tubular,
alveolar, prismatic cellules, which are somewhat short, and form a
network on the surface.’ Four species of the genus were recog-
nized by Lamarck, of which A. suborbicularis and A escharoides
have been subsequently united with one another. A. madreporaces
is stated by Milne-Edwards to be a Pocillopora; and A. tnerustans
appears to be a Polyzoén. To the above four species Milne-
Edwards added, in the work just quoted, four others, of which

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. By595)

A. tubiporacea and A. milleporacea appear to be referable to Favo-
sites; A. clavata may perhaps be a Chetetes; and A. infundibuli-
formis was afterwards placed by Edwards and Haime in a new
genus under the name of Remeria.

Without taking up time by discussing the views entertained as
to the characters of the genus Alveolites and the different forms
referable to it by Goldfuss, De Blainville, Michelin, Steininger,
D’Orbigny, and other well-known palzontologists, we may pass
on to consider those expressed by Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime
in their great works on the fossil corals. In the Introduction to
the ‘Monograph of the British Fossil Corals’ (Paleontographical
Society, 1850, p. 1x), these distinguished authorities place the
genus Alveolites in the group of the Favositide proper, character-
ized by the presence of well-developed tabule, the existence of
mural pores, and the rudimentary condition of the septa. They
define the genus as possessing a “corallum composed of super-
posed strata of corallites very similar to those of Fuvosites, but
much shorter, and terminated by an oblique semicircular or sub-
triangular calice, the edge of which projects on one side.” The
type species of the genus is A. spongites, Steininger (=A. subor-
bicularis, Lamarck). In their ‘ Polypiers Fossiles des Terrains
Paléozoiques ’ (p. 254), the same authors in the succeeding year
redefine Alveolites as follows :—‘“ Corallum forming a convex or
dendroid mass. Calices oblique, subtriangular or semicircular,
presenting interiorly a longitudinal protuberance which is opposed
to two other smaller protuberances. These eminences appear to
represent the primary septa; and no other traces of the septal
apparatus can be detected. The walls are simple, well deve-
loped, pierced with a small number of mural pores. The tabule
are complete and horizontal.” After giving a history of the
genus, the authors just quoted remark that the elongated teeth
or eminences above alluded to constitute the most remarkable
feature of the genus Alveolites, and that they are to be regarded
as so many primary septa, the other three which form the normal
eyele of six being aborted. They further add that one of these
three septal teeth is always more pronounced than the other two,
and that these latter may be wholly wanting.

In the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires’ (vol. ili. p. 263,
1860). Milne-Edwards makes the following remarks as to Alveo-
lites :—‘ The most striking character of Alveolites is furnished by
the septal system, which is represented by three teeth or vertical

306 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

projections—one situated on the inside face of the outer lip of the
ealice, the others opposite the preceding, upon the inner lip of the
corallite, and sometimes rudimentary. The calices are oblique,
subtriangular or subhemispherical. Walls simple, well developed,
and pierced by a small number of pores. Tabule complete and
horizontal.”.... “The elongated teeth or vertical projections
which we see in the interior of the visceral chambers of the coral-
lites form the most peculiar character of Alveolites, and recall the
three principal septa which characterize the genus Heterocenia
amongst the Astraide. ... It is also worthy of note that one of
the septal projections is more developed than the other two, and
often it alone may exist.

In briefly analyzing the above, it will be obvious, in the first
place, that Lamarck’s definition of the genus Alveolites does not
contain a single character which would at the present day be re-
garded as of generic importance at all; so that the ultimate exist-
ence of the genus will depend upon whether the type species, A.
suborbicularis, Lam., can be shown to possess characters which
separate it generically from allied forms. In the second place,
the various definitions given by Milne-Edwards and Haime yield,
upon collation, the following characters as essentially distinctive
of the genus Alveolites as understood by them :-—(1) The coral-
hites are furnished with lamellar walls, and are not united by any
coeenenchyma. (2) The visceral chamber is traversed by well-
developed horizontal tabule. (8) Mural pores, comparatively
large and few in number, are present. (4) The corallites are ob-
lique, shorter than in Favosites, and terminated by oblique semi-
lunar or subtriangular ealices. (5) There exist in the interior of
each corallite three elongated teeth, which represent the primary
septa, and of which one is always larger than the others, and may
be the only one present. (6) The corallites are arranged in the
massive and incrusting forms in superimposed layers.

Alveolites suborbicularis, Lam., the type species, possesses all
the above-mentioned characters, and is therefore, to begin with,
elearly a member of the Favositide proper. In order, however,
to establish the validity of the genus Alveolites, it is further ne-
cessary to prove that A. suborbicularis is generically separable
from Favosites; and there are only two of the above-mentioned
characters, namely the obliquity of the calices and the presence
of septal teeth, which require special consideration in this con-
nexion. Moreover, even if the generic distinctness of A. suborbi-

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 357

cularis and its immediate allies be satisfactorily established,
there still remain various forms more or less resembling A. swb-
orbicularis, which differ considerably from it in minute structure,
and which must therefore be referred to different groups. In
what follows we shall briefly state the results of our examination
of a large number of such forms, which we may provisionally ar-
range in groups according to their affinities. We need only add
that our observations, when practicable, have been conducted by
means of transparent microscopic sections, as well as by the exa-
mination ef the actual specimens themselves.

Group A. ALVEOLITES SUBORBICULARIS, Lamarck.

The characteristic Devonian coral known under the above name
is thus described by Milne-Edwards and Haime (‘ Brit. Foss.
Cor.’ p. 219).

“Corallum composite, forming irregular incrustated masses
which are in general fixed on ramose Favosites or on a Cyathophyl-
dum, and are composed of superposed layers terminated by an
irregular or subgibbose surface. Calices very oblique, closely set
(but unequally so), elongated transversely, subtriangular, and
turned towards the edge of the corallum. The outer or under
side of these calices bears interiorly a small elongated ridge which
appears to represent a septum, and is placed opposite to a small
notch. Transverse diameter of the calices about 2 of a line; small
diameter about half that length.”

As this is the type species of the genus, it will be advisable to
somewhat minutely examine its characters as set forth in the
above description, together with some others not mentioned
therein, with the view of determining, if possible, which of them
possess a more than merely specific value.

In the first place, one of the most conspicuous external charac-
ters of Alveolites suborbicularis is that the corallites are oblique,
with the result that the calices are correspondingly oblique, one
lip being shorter than the other, and the aperture being more or
less elongated transversely, and subtriangular or semilunar in
shape. Though this presents a superficially conspicuous feature
whereby to separate Alveolites from Favosites, it is quite evident
that this character is by no means one of generic value. Not
only is it possessed by forms otherwise different, but it is absent
in some corals which are usually placed in Alveolites (e. g. in A.
septosa, Flem.). It has, moreover, been pointed out by Dr. Lind-

308 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

strom (‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 4, vol. xviii. p. 12) that the well-
known coral described by Milne-Edwards and Haime under the
name of A. Fougti is in reality only provided with oblique coral-
lites when young, and that in its adult state the tubes lose much
of their previous inclination, and the calives become simply irre-
gular in form. As A. Fougtit shows, in addition, the numerous
regularly arranged mural pores and the obscure septal strie of
Favosites, Lindstrom has removed it from Alveolites to the latter
genus ; and the specimens which the Swedish paleontologist has
kindly supplied to us would appear to fully warrant this step.

In the second place, A. suborbicularis has the walls of the coral-
lites perforated by mural pores, which are admirably displayed in
polished sections. The pores are of large size, placed at irregular
but moderate intervals (from 1 to 4a line or more) apart, and
arranged in single rows on the sides of the tubes. Though the
mural pores are few, irregular, and comparatively of large size,
and thus differ from the numerous, regularly placed pores of
Favosites, it is quite clear that this feature cannot possibly be
made one of generic value. Indeed, though excellently seen in
the present species, many of the forms with small tubes can hardly
be proved to possess these openings at all, save by some chance
specimen in some special state of preservation. The presence or
absence of mural pores is thus a feature upon which great classifi-
catory value cannot be set in practice, though theoretically the
point is one of high value and deserving of all attention. In many
instances, however, even where the specimens are excellently pre-
served, it is impossible to determine whether mural pores exist or
not ; and this is particularly the case in Alveolites, where the tubes
are comparatively minute and the mural pores few and scattered.
In these cases one has hardly any thing to rely upon except the
chance that a transparent longitudinal section may lay bare the
wall of one of the tubes, and may thus bring to light the mural
pores. Very often, however, longitudinal slices fail to reveal any
pores, even in forms which are with certainty known to possess
them ; so that the mere fact oftheir apparent absence can only be
allowed to count for very little. Moreover we have found that
numerous specimens of Favosites, in all other respects in a state
of the most admirable preservation, fail to exhibit the smallest
traces of mural pores, though these openings are both numerous
and close-set in this genus. It is therefore clear that the visibi-
lity of the mural pores depends greatly upon the condition of

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 359

fossilization, though it is very difficult to say why some specimens
should show them conspicuously whilst others, apparently in an
absolutely identical state of preservation and taken from the same
bed, show no traces of them.

In the third place A. suborbicularis possesses numerous com-
plete tabule; but these structures present nothing to distinguish
them from the tabule of Favosites.

Fourthly, the corallites of 4. swborbicularis are short, and are
superimposed on one another in successive concentric layers.
These characters, though sufficient to superficially distinguish spe-
cimens from examples of the more typical forms of Fuvosites, are
obviously of nothing more than specific value. Similar features
are found in some species. of Havosites, while such forms of Alveo-
lites as A. septosa, Flem., have comparatively long corallites.

Lastly, A. suborbicularis exhibits the curious feature that there
occurs on the outer lip of the calices a single elongated ridge, which
is believed to represent a single primary septum. Our specimens
of this species, being wholly polished slices from the Devonian of
Devonshire, fail to show this character ; but it has been fully de-
scribed by Milne-Edwards and Haime, and it is excellently figured
by Goldfuss (Petref. Germ. Taf. xxviii. fig.1, h). That this tooth-
like ridge is, in the case of this species, truly arudimentary septum
seems highly probable. It is apparently constant in position, and
in its development, and it appears to be present in all the calices
in well-preserved specimens. What may be its classificatory
value we shall discuss immediately, merely stating now that it is
evidently quite different in its nature from the so-called “septal
teeth” of such corals as A. septosa, Flem., and A. depressa, Flem.

A, Labechei, Edw. & H., is in many respects closely allied to A.
suborbicularis, Lam.; but Milne-Edwards and Haime state that it
has a septal ridge resembling that of the latter species, but only
“slightly developed,” or “ very indistinct.” A. Grayi, Edw. & H.,
is also closely related to the preceding, the septal ridge in the in-
terior of each corallite being “in general distinct, but not very
prominent.”” We have not been able to examine this last-named
species fully ; but we have not succeeded in detecting the septal
ridge in such examples of A. Labechei as have come under our
notice (from the Upper Silurian of Dudley and of Sweden).

A. compressa, E. & H., is another massive form allied to A. sub-
orbicularis. It is stated by Milne-Edwards and Haime to possess
three septal teeth, which do not differ in size. So far as our ob-

360 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETITERIDGE

servations go, the calices certainly do exhibit tooth-like processes
extending into the interior of the visceral chamber ; but we have
not been able to make out that the number of these is constant;
nor are we satisfied that they are identical in their nature with
the septal ridge of A. suborbicularis.

A. Battersbyi, Hdw. & H., unquestionably possesses spiniform
septa, several of these being placed in general round the circum-
ference of a single calice. Not only are these septal spines more
numerous than the ridges or teeth of A. suborbicularis or A. com-
pressa, but A. Battersbyi seems in all essential respects to be a
genuine Havosites,various species of the latter genus having distinct
though rudimentary septa.

Various other forms of Alveolites have been stated to possess
from one to three septal teeth (such as A. denticulata, Edw. & H.,
A. repens, Fougt, and A. cryptodens, Billings); but we are not suffi-
ciently acquainted with these to pronounce any opinion as to their
structure. A. septosa, Flem., and A. depressa, Flem., are also pro-
vided with structures which have been generally regarded as septal
teeth ; but we shall discuss the nature of these subsequently.

In the meanwhile it is evident that the question as to the validity
of the genus Alveolites will turn wholly upon the view which may
be taken as to the structure of A. suborbicularis, Lam., the original
type of the genus; and it seems tolerably certain that with this we
may place A. compressa, EH. & H., A. Labechei, EH. & H., and A.
Grayt, BH. & H., at any rate provisionally. We have seen that the
genus Alveolites, as thus typified, agrees with Fuvosites in the pos-
session of corallites with lamellar walls not united by a ccenen-
chyma, in the existence of mural pores, and in the possession of
complete and well-developed tabule. We have further seen that
the obliquity of the calices, the shortness of the corallites, the
size and number of the mural pores, and the fact that the coral-
lum is composed of superimposed layers cannot be regarded as
points of more than specific value. There remains, then, only to
consider whether the presence of from one to.three septal ridges
(accepting this interpretation of their nature) in the forms just
mentioned can be regarded as sufficient to separate them generi-
eally from Favosites. We have satisfied ourselves that no other
character can be brought forward which is sufficiently important
to elevate Alveolhtes to the rank of a genus distinct from Favosites ;
and this view seems in the main to be precisely that held by Milne-
Edwards and Haime. With our present knowledge it seems unwise
to abandon the genus Alveolites altogether ; but it is at the same

“ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 361

time perhaps improbable that future investigations will justify its
permanent retention. Rudimentary septa are by no means un-
known in Favosites, though not so regularly disposed or so striking
by their isolation as in A. suborbicularis; and genera founded
upon single characters may be at any moment overthrown by the
discovery of intermediate forms.

Group B. Canyrrss, Hichwald.

With regard to the genus Canites, Hichw., we wish merely to
suggest the possibility that it may ultimately have to be suppressed
if the genus Alveolites be retained for A. suborbicularis and its”
immediate allies. The genus was originally founded by Hichwald
in 1829 (Zool. Spec. i. p. 197), and was defined by him in the
* Lethza Rossica’ (vol. i. p. 457) as comprising dendroid or lamel-
lar and incrusting corals, with semicircular or triangular calices,
provided with a single rudimentary septal ridge on their lower lips,
the corallites being united by an abundant ccenenchyma. In all
the above-mentioned characters, except the alleged presence of a
ccenenchyma, the genus cannot be separated from Alveolites as re-
presented by A. swborbicularis. The presence of a ccenenchyma
would doubtless be sufficient ground for generic distinction ; but
the few observations we have been able to make on this point lead
us to doubt if a true coenenchyma exists at all in Canites. More
especially, we have examined specimens of C. orientalis, Hichwald
(supplied to us from the Upper Silurian of Gotland through the
kindness of Dr. Lindstrém), by means of thin sections prepared for
the microscope ; and in this form we find the apparent ceenenchyma
to be due to a secondary thickening of the walls of the corallites,
more particularly in the neighbourhood of their mouths, the ex-
ternal boundaries of the tubes remaining quite distinct.

Group C. Pacuypora, Lindstrom.

In 1873 Lindstrém (“* Nagra Anteckningar om Anthozoa Tabu-
lata,” Ofversigt af. K. Vetensk.-Akad. Forhandl.) gave the name of
Pachypora to a new genus of corals, to which he assigned the fol-
lowing characters :—‘“ Calices annular, at the extremities of the
branches obliquely semilunar, with sparse spiniform septa. The
calices surrounded by dense, delicate, concentric lamin, so as to
be superficially remote. Walls perforated with canals.’ The only
species described is P. lamellicornis, which is stated to possess
flattened branches, often coalescent and forming broad lamine, the
tabule being extremely few or inconspicuous.

Dr, Lindstrom has kindly furnished us with specimens of P.

362 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

lamellicornis from the Upper Silurian of Wisby; and after a careful
microscopic examination of its characters, we are enabled to en-
tirely confirm his description. We have also fully examined two
‘corals from the Devonian of North America, which were originally
referred to Alveolites, but which we find to be essentially identical
with Pachypora, and therefore to be properly referable to this
genus. The corals in question are Alveolites Fischeri, Billings,
and A. frondosa, Nich.

A. Fischeri, Bill., agrees in all important points with Pachypora
lamellicornis, Lindstrém, though specifically distinct. It forms
flattened expansions or fronds, rarely incrusting foreign bodies,
from one to four lies in thickness, and often of considerable size.
The corallites are disposed obliquely to the surfeccs, diverging in
opposite directions from a central plane, and opening by distinct
calices on both aspects of the frond. The walls of the corallites
are thickened as they approach the surface, and are formed of
numerous delicate concentric laminze where they surround the
calices. The calices are oval or rounded, often semilunar, remote,
and neither exhibiting a single septal tooth nor rudimentary spi-
niform septa. The walls of the corallites are perforated with a
few remote mural pores of large size; and the tabule are either
absent or are few and remote.

In all the above characters A. Fischeri agrees with Pachypora
lamellicornis, save in wanting the comparatively numerous rudi-
mentary septa which can be observed in well-preserved examples
of the latter. We have no hesitation, therefore in referring the
two to the same generic group; and A. Fschert must in future
stand as Pachypora Fischer.

Alveolites frondosa, Nich., also from the Devonian of North
America, agrees in all the essential features of its organization with
the preceding, and must therefore be removed to the genus Pa-
chypora. It differs from P. Fischeri, however, in the compara-
tively small size of the corallites, and the fact that the calices are
distinctly semilunar or subtriangular, often curved and fissure-like.
In well-preserved examples also there are indications of the
existence of two small tooth-like inward projections of the lower
lip of the calice, thus establishing a passage between Pachypora
and the forms generally referred to Cenites, Kichw. The mural
pores appear to be few and remote; and we have been unable to
detect tabule in longitudinal sections of this species.

Group D. Atveonires seprosa, Fleming. -
Our specimens of this species form hemispherical or pyriform

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 863

masses, sometimes of great size (reaching occasionally a foot and
a half in diameter and five or six inches in height), and have been
derived from the Carboniferous Limestone series of Scotland.
The composition of these masses varies in different cases. In
some examples from Heclefechan the corallum is composed of nu-
merous concentric layers, each layer being of comparatively small
thickness. In other examples, as in some huge masses from the
Carboniferous Limestone series of Dunbar, the corallites are long
and basaltiform, extending the whole height of the corallum. In
both cases the corallites may fairly be gaid to be erect, in the
same sense that this term is applied to the position of the coral-
lites in a similarly shaped mass of Favosites or Chetetes ; that is
to say, the corallites in a hemispherical corallum are vertical in
the centre of the mass, and curve gently outwards as the margins
are approached, thus haying their terminal portions always directed
at right angles to the surface upon which they open. Hence the
calices entirely want the obliquity which is so characteristic of
Alveolites suborbicularis and its allies. A reference to the figures
of A. septosa given by Milne-Edwards and Haime in the Mono-
graph of the British Corals (pl. xlv. fig. 5 6) will at once show that
the calices of this species, instead of being like those of Alveolites
suborbicularis, entirely resemble in this respect the calices of any
massive Havosites or Ohetetes.

The calices in our specimens of A. septosa are from three to four
in a line, generally the former, their shape being somewhat irre-
eular, but on the whole five- or six-sided, or at any rate more or
less prismatic. In places the calices become transversely elon-
gated ; but they never assume the characteristic semilunar or sub-
triangular appearance of those of A. suborbicularis and its conge-
ners. The walls of the corallites are thin; and the margins of the
calices, as noticed by M‘Coy (‘ Brit. Foss.’ p. 82), are sometimes
tuberculated or coarsely granulated.

After a careful examination of well-preserved specimens, both
on fractured surfaces and in polished sections, we have entirely
failed to detect any mural pores. Jor reasons previously stated,
we do not regard the apparent absence of pores in our specimens
as absolutely conclusive as to their non-existence, though we are
inclined to believe that the walls of the corallites are really im-
perforate.

The corallites of our examples of A. septosa are crossed by well-
developed complete horizontal tabule, generally dispersed with

364 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

ereat regularity ; but the most remarkable feature is the presence
in many of the corallites of a longitudinal or vertical ridge, par-
tially dividing the visceral chamber into two portions. Sometimes
this ridge is barely perceptible, or even wholly absent; at other
times it extends halfway across the visceral cavity ; and some-
times it nearly touches the opposite wall. In some parts of a
large corallum almost every corallite may possess one of these
ridges, whilst in other parts not a single structure of the kind is
to be detected. Nor is there always but one of these ridges
within the cavity of a single corallite, but there may be two or
three, in which case one is generally much larger than the others.
The significance and nature of these vertical ridges will be con-
sidered immediately; but it is in the meanwhile necessary to
briefly glance at two corals which are very closely allied to A. sep-
tesa, and which undoubtedly belong to the same group.

One of the corals in question has been found by us in consi-
derable abundance in the Carboniferous Limestone of the north
of England. It occurs in the form of hemispherical, subglobose,
or irreeular masses, with a convex surface, often of considerable
size, composed of prismatic corallites, which may or may not be
arranged in successive superimposed layers half an inch or more
in thickness. In other instances, the corallites are tall and basal-
tiform; but in either case they are “ erect,” in the sense in which
this term has been previously used. The calices, therefore, are
not oblique, but are like those of A. septosa. There are gener-
ally about five calices in one line; and though irregular in shape |
and size, they are essentially subhexagonal in shape. The walls
of the corallites are thick ; but we have wholly failed to discover
any mural pores. In transverse sections, certain of the corallites
show a strong tooth-like process on one side, sometimes opposed
to two smaller teeth ; and these ridges may be short, or they may
extend halfway or more across the visceral chamber, whilst they
are wanting altogether in a large number of the corallites. In
longitudinal sections the corallites are seen to be crossed by re-
mote horizontal tabule, which are not uncommonly placed at the
same level in contiguous tubes, and which may be wanting alto-
gether in certain layers. ’

The corals we have just described present a very close resem-
blance to A. septosa, Flem., from which they can only be distin-
guished by the smaller size of the corallites, the somewhat thicker
walls of the tubes, and the slightly more remote tabule. Whether

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. Bist)

they may not be simply a variety of A. septosa we are not prepared
to say ; but we think little doubt can be entertained as to their
substantial identity with the Chetetes radians of Fischer, a coral
originally described from Russian specimens (‘ Oryet. de Moscou,’
p- 160, pl. 33. fig. 3), but which is also quoted by Milne-Edwards
and Haime from the Carboniferous Limestone of Kendal—on
precisely the same horizon as some of our own specimens. We
have unfortunately been unable to examine any authentic Russian
examples of Chetetes radians ; but our specimens agree so perfectly
and in such minute particulars with those described and figured
by Lonsdale (‘ Russ. and Ural,’ Appendix, vol. i. p. 595, pl. A,
fig. 9), that we are unable to hesitate as to their identity.
Lastly, in Alveolites depressa, Flem., we have a third coral which
is obviously referable to the same group as the preceding two
forms. The specimens which we possess of this species are large
massive examples, agreeing in all essential points with the de-
scription given by Milne-Edwards and Haime, except that we can-
not say that we have satisfactorily determined the presence of
vertical ridges in the interior of any of the corallites. These,
however, are both described and figured by the authors just men-
tioned. The species differs almost solely in the minute size of
its tubes from the two preceding, the corallites being from eight
to ten in the space of a line. The corallites are erect ; the calices
are subhexagonal and not oblique; the tabule are complete,
remote, singularly regular, and often placed on the same level; no
mural pores can be detected ; and a rough fracture (as in the case
of the two previously mentioned forms) exposes the interior of the
corallites.

We have, then, arrived at the conviction that Alveolites septosa,
Flem., Chetetes radians, Fischer, and Alveolites depressa, Flem.,
form a very natural group of corals, which chiefly differ from one
another in the very trivial character that the corallites are of dif-
ferent dimensions. It still remains, however, for consideration to
what generic group these forms can be properly referred ; and on
this question we have the following observations to make, the
only points requiring special discussion being the presence or
absence of mural pores, the nature of the so-called “ septal tooth,”
and the relations of the corallites to one another.

As regards the first of these points, our specimens have only
yielded the negative result that we have been unable to detect any
signs of mural pores. In this particular instance, however, we

366 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

are perhaps warranted in attaching great weight to this negative
evidence, seeing that we have examined a large series of speci-
mens from different localities, and from different beds, in different
states of preservation, and by means of polished sections and thin
transparent slices as wellas by broken surfaces. We are disposed,
then, to believe that mural pores are really wanting in A. septosa,
Flem., A. depressa, Flem., and Chetetes radians, Fischer ; and we
may add that Milne-Edwards and Haime expressly affirm the
absence of pores in the latter. If this view be correct, it is clear
that the two first-mentioned of these forms can no longer be re-
tained in Alveolites, from which they further differ in their com-
paratively erect corallites and their non-oblique calices.

As regards the second point, namely the nature of the so-called
“septal tooth,” this process is very conspicuous in A. septosa and
in Ohetetes radians, and can be most readily examined by means
of thin sections cut at right angles to the course of the tubes. In
A, depressa the same processes exist, though not so conspicuous ;
and we entertain no doubt as to their being of precisely the same
nature in all these forms. By Milne-Edwards and Haime this
tooth in A. septosa and A. depressa was regarded as representing
asingle primary septum; and they compared it with the elongated
septal ridge of A. swborbicwlaris—an analogy which is increased
by the fact that the process has sometimes one or two smaller
teeth opposed to it, as in A. denticulata, H.& H. Against this
view, however, it must be urged that the tooth-like process of A.
septosa and A. depressa is by no means universal in its occurrence,
nor constant in its development. It is only present occasionally,
in certain of the calices, and is often absent over considerable
areas, whilst it varies in size from a hardly perceptible protuber-
ance up to a vertical lamina extending halfway or more across the
visceral chamber. These facts militate strongly against the com-
parison of these processes to the septal ridges of A. suborbicu-
laris ; whilst several of our specimens of 4. septosa show in addi-
tion numerous obscure longitudinal striz, which we believe to be
the true representatives of the septa. On the other hand, Lons-
dale regarded the tooth-like processes of Chetetes radians, Fischer,
as being of the nature of inflections of the walls of the corallite
preliminary to its fission into two tubes. ‘This view is supported
by the easily observed fact that the mode of increase in C. radians,
as well as in A. septosa and A. depressa, is clearly by fissiparity ;
and it is further supported by the very variable length of the

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 367

process in different tubes, by its often extending half way, or
almost quite, across the visceral chamber, and by its absence in all
but a comparatively small number of corallites, and those the
largest ones. Upon the whole, therefore, we.are inclined to be-
lieve that the tooth-like processes of A. septosa, A. depressa, and
Chetetes radians are not of a septal nature at all, but that they owe
their existence to fission taking place in the older corallites.

In the third place, all the three corals in question exhibit the
peculiarity that the walls of the corallites are firmly amalgamated
in contiguous tubes, so that a fracture does not expose the walls
of the tubes, but lays open the cavities of the visceral chambers.
Mr. Lonsdale probably attached too great a value to this character
in regarding it as one of the leading peculiarities of Chetetes as a
genus ; but there can be no doubt that it is a feature of importance.

Upon reviewing all the above evidence, it seems to us to be clear
that A. depressa, Flem., and A. septosa *, Flem., can no longer be
retained in the genus Alveolites as typified by A. suborbicularis
and its allies. On the other hand, if more extensive investiga-
tions confirm, as we believe they will, the absence of mural pores,
these species must be placed in the genus Chetetes, side by side
with C. radians, Fischer, and they will stand as C. depressus, Flem.,
and C. septosus, Flem.

Group E. Cumrerss, Fischer.

The groups known as Chetetes, Fischer, Monticulipora, D’Orb.,
and Stenopora, Lonsd., differ from Favosites and Alveolites mainly
in the imperforate condition of the walls of the corallites ; and this
undoubtedly constitutes a character of great structural importance.
Owing, however, to the very small size of the tubes of many spe-
cies of these groups, the absence of mural pores is often a matter
more of inference than of actual observation. Without, however,
entering at the present moment further into the structure and
affinities of these groups, we wish to describe a species of Che-
tetes from the Carboniferous rocks of Scotland, which is in many
respects allied to the forms we have just been considering :-—

Chetetes hyperboreus, Nich. & Eth.

Corallum forming thin, flattened, or undulating expansions, from
one to five lines in thickness, not composed of superposed layers,
and often half a foot or more in diameter. The corallum is not

* It should be noted that this species was long ago described by M‘Ooy under
the name Chetetes septosus (Pal. Foss. p. 82).

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIITI. Ail

368 MESSRS. H. A. NICHOLSON AND R. ETHERIDGE

incrusting, but is attached to foreign bodies at one point ; and the
rest of the lower surface is covered with a strong wrinkled epitheca.
Corallites erect, from an eighth to a tenth of a line in diameter.
Calices opening upon the upper surface of the corallum, irregular
in shape and size, but upon the whole more or less hexagonal,
with thin walls, and wholly devoid of any trace of a septal appa-
ratus or of septal teeth. Mural pores apparently absent. Tabule
numerous, complete.

Most of our specimens of this form present the appearance
believed by Mr. Lonsdale to be characteristic of Chetetes—that a
rough fracture lays open the cavities of the corallites without ex-
posing their walls. In some cases, however, the fractured surface
shows the walls of the tubes ; and in these, as well as in longitu-
dinal sections, we have failed to detect any traces of mural pores.
We were at first sight disposed to regard the present species as a
variety of C. (Alveolites) depressus, Flem., with which it agrees in
the size of the tubes. It is, however, sufficiently distinguished
by its constantly different form and mode of growth, as well as by
the fact, conelusively shown by thin transverse sections, that there
are no traces whatever of ridges or teeth-like processes within the
corallites. On the surface, the calices show a certain irregularity
in form and size, which is not characteristic of the typical forms
of Chetetes, whilst they are often transversely elongated, as in C.
septosus and C. depressus. Horizontal sections, however, taken a
little below the surface, prove that the corallites are essentially
hexagonal in form.

Formation and Locality—Carboniferous Limestone series,
Charleston, Fife (abundant); Bathgate; Ecclefechan (Calcife-
rous Sandstone).

Group F. Atvrotrres Goxprusst, Billings.

There still remain a number of forms which have been referred
to Alveolites, and the true aftinities of which are still doubtful.
Many of these forms we have had no opportunity of sufficiently
examining; and we merely wish to draw attention now to one or
two corals which offer some troublesome difficulties. If we take
A. suborbicularis, Liam.,as the type of the genus Alveolites, we have
already seen that the only essential point by which it can be sepa-
rated from Favosites is the presence of a vertical septal ridge—
three of these ridges existing in other allied forms. We have,
however, some corals (such as Alveolites Goldfussi, Bill., and A,

ON THE GENUS ALVEOLITES ETC. 369

Remeri, Bill., from the Devonian) which agree entirely with
Alveolites, as generally understood, both in form and in the
possession of a few irregular mural pores, but which differ
from A. suborbicularis and its allies in possessing no traces
whatever of septal ridges. In most characters these forms agree
entirely with A. Fougti, E. & H., which has already been
removed by Lindstrom to the genus Havosites. This would
perhaps be the best course to pursue, provisionally at any rate,
with forms such as A. Goldfussi, Bill.; but this would necessitate
a further enlargement of the characters assigned to Havosites, since
the corals in question differ both from the typical Favosites and
from the aberrant F (Alveolites) Fougti, in possessing few and
remote mural pores. Further investigatiou will therefore be re-
quired before a final conclusion on this point can be arrived at.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XIX. & XX.

Fig. 1. A vertical section of the polished surface of a portion of Chetetes ( Alveo-
lites) septosus, Flem., from the “‘ Vaults” Limestone, Lower Carboni-
ferous group, Dunbar. Drawn from a specimen in the collection of
the Geological Survey of Scotland (Edinburgh). Of natural size.

2. A portion of a horizontal section of the same specimen. At @ is shown
a portion of the matrix in which it was imbedded. Also of nat. size.
3. A small portion of the surface of fig. 2, considerably enlarged, showing
the transverse sections of the corallites.
4, Applies to an outline of a flask-shaped specimen of the preceding coral,
Chetetes (Alveolites) septosus, Flem. This was obtained from the
Lower Carboniferous or Calciferous Sandstone series, Blackwood
Ridge, New Quarry, Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire. From the collection
of the Geological Survey of Scotland (Hdinb.). Outline reduced less
than 4 nat. size.

. The appearance of th weathered surface of the preceding, of nat. size.

. Part of the same area as fig. 5, but considerably enlarged.

. A partially longitudinal and somewhat obliquely fractured section of
Chetetes ? radians, Fischer. From the Carboniferous Limestone,
Hardendale, Nab, Shap, Westmoreland. Of nat. size, from a specimen
in the cabinet of Prof. Nicholson.

8. A small portion of the weathered surface of the preceding specimen.
9. A horizontal section of the preceding as viewed under the microscope,
and magnified about 6 diameters.

10. A vertical section of the same, also enlarged 6 diameters.

11. A portion of the exposed and slightly weathered surface of a mass of
Chetetes hyperboreus, Nicholson and Etheridge. From the Lower
Carboniferous Limestone group, Charleston, Fife. Drawn of nat.
size from a specimen in the cabinet of Prof. Nicholson.

31*

“IS Or

370 MESSRS. ST. G. MIVART AND R. CLARKE

12. Hxhibits a vertical view of part of the edge of the above slab of Chetetes
hyperboreus, showing the comparative tenuity of theexpansion. About
nat. size.

13. A transparent vertical section of Chetetes hyperboreus, magnified 7
diameters. .

14. A horizontal section of the same coral, x 7 diam.

15, The surface, slightly weathered, of a piece of Pachypora lamellicornis,
Lindstrém. From the Wenlock (Upper Silurian), Gotland. Drawn
of nat. size from a specimen in the cabinet of Prof. Nicholson.

16. A section in the plane of the frond of part of the same specimen of P.
lamellicornis, rubbed down and viewed by transmitted light, x 4 diam.
Owing to the undulations of the specimen, the section cuts across the
corallites obliquely.

17. A section at right angles to the plane of the frond of the same, mag-
nified 4 diam.

18. A superficial view of the surface of a fragment of Pachypora (Alveolites)
Fischeri, Billings. From the Hamilton group, Middle Devonian,
Arkona, Ontario. Encrinital joints are adherent to the surface of the
specimen. Of nat. size and sketched from a specimen in Prof.
Nicholson’s cabinet.

19. A microscopical vertical section of fig. 18, x 7 diam.

20. A segment of a transparent horizontal section of the same, also magnified
7 diameters.

21. Pachypora (Alveolites) frondosa, Nicholson. Vertical transparent section,
X 6 diam. Specimen obtained from the Hamilton group, Middle De-
yonian, Arkona, Ontario, and now in Prof, Nicholson’s cabinet.

22. A vertical section of the same specimen of P. frondosa, also X 6 diameters.

On the Sacral Plexus and Sacral Vertebre of Lizards. By Sr.
Gxorge Mrvart, Sec. L.S., and the Rev. Ropert Crarxg,

E.L.S.
[Read May 3, 1877.|

(Abstract.)

Tne authors mention that of late it has been recognized that, in
any attempt to answer the question as to which vertebra of any
lower animal answers to the first sacral vertebra of Man, the ner-
vous no less than the osteological relations of the parts should be
carefully investigated. And it has been considered that the
nervous rather than the osteological relations should be deemed
the more important: in fact it has been sometimes asserted that
the nerves must be taken as the fixed points, and that the bones
must rather have their homology decided by the nerves, than vice

versa.
Should it be possible to show that in any group of reptiles, both

. ON THE SACRAL VERTEBR# OF LIZARDS. — 371

the nervous and osteological relations of any vertebra constantly
agree with the nervous and osteological relation of Man’s first
sacral vertebra, the homology between such two parts may well be
taken as thereby established ; but if either of these sets of rela-
tions exhibit discrepancy, hes of course such homology cannot be
considered satisfactorily determined.

Nor can we justly set aside osteological in favour of nervous
resemblances if it should turn out that the nerves themselves ex-
hibit notable variations of conditions as we pass from one allied
form to another—a fortiori if there should be variations in this
respect even within the limits of a species. It might surely be anti-
cipated that more or less variation would be found to exist inner-
vous as well as in skeletal structures ; and in the event of such anti-
cipations being justified, the determination of sacral homology must
depend upon a comparison of the values of the conflicting claims
of different degrees of resemblance in both the osseous and nervous
systems—unless we prefer to consider the osteological sacrum and
the nervous sacrum as two distinct structures, which may or may
not completely coincide, and may or may not widely diverge.

The authors afterwards discuss the opinions held by Professor
Gegenbaur with regard to the pelvic relations in birds and some
reptiles, also those of Professor Hoffmann concerning the lumbar
and sacral plexuses of Batrachians and Reptiles.

Then follows an account of dissections of the Chameleon (Cha-
meleo vulgaris), the Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), the common
Teguexin (Levws teguexin), the Bearded Lizard (Grammatophora
barbata), the Agama colonorum, the Tuberculated Lizard (iguane
tuberculata), and of the Monitor (J. arenaria).

On these dissections are based some remarks on the general
condition of the nervous and osseous structures of the sacral region
in Lizards, according to their views and as compared with those
held by Gegenbaur and Hoffmann. To this succeed other chap-
ters devoted to a consideration of the sacral region of Batrachians,
to the sacral region of Mammals, and to the sacral region of Birds,
each discussed in a similar spirit.

Their generalizations to the foregoing may be thus summa-
nized

It appears, then, that in Lizards generally, the lumbar plexus
may be formed by from two to three roots, and that the most pre-
axial of these is here in advance of the fourth presacral nerve,
while the most postaxial root is never more postaxial than the first

372 ON THE SACRAL VERTEBRAE OF LIZARDS.

presacral nerve. But Monitor and Chameleo present a slight ex-
ception in certain respects.

In all the Reptilia examined and enumerated by the authors,
the transverse processes which abut against the ilium are wholly
or in part parapophysial, and are in serial relation (serial homo-
logues) with the capitular processes (or the capitular parts of the
transverse processes) of the more preaxial vertebrae. The junction
of the sacral vertebre with the ilium is much postacetabular in
Saurians ; but in Crocodilia and Tortoises (some at least) it is about
opposite the acetabulum.

In Batrachians the transverse processes abutting against the
ilium are parapophysial, but diapophysial in nature like those of
Reptiles.

In Mammals as compared with Lizards, it would seem, with
respect to nerves, that the first and second sacral vertebre (say, for
instance, of the Cat), answer very well to the two vertebre with
enlarged transverse processes of Lizards, while osteologically they
of course also answer very well to them. There can be little
doubt, however, that the first two sacral vertebre of the Cat
are to be considered homologous with the anterior human sacral
vertebre; and therefore it would seem that the two ilium-joining
vertebree of Lizards should be considered homologous with the
anterior human sacral vertebre.

In Man, the Cat, and also in other Mammals down to the
Kchidna, the transverse processes abutting against the ilium are
parapophysial, like those of Reptiles and Batrachians. In all the
Mammals examined by the authors, however, the junction of the
sacral transverse processes with the ilia is preacetabular, although
that junction is much less preacetabular in position in Man than
it is in most Mammals.

Altogether, from the osseous and nervous conditions evinced
together in the groups hitherto referred to, the authors propose
the following definition of a “Sacral Vertebra’’? in Mammals,
Reptiles, and Batrachians :—“ vertebra with parapophysial trans-
verse processes which abut against the ilium, preaxial or post-
axial or opposite to the acetabulum, and having a root of the sciatic
plexus coming forth either immediately preaxiad or postaxiad of it.”

This definition will exclude from the sacrum, as not abutting
against the ilium, of Man, the more posterior vertebre called
“sacral”? in anthropotomy. But in the lower mammals (even
already in Apes) the number of so-called “ sacral”’ vertebre aug-

MR. R. M‘LACHLAN ON THE NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDA. 373

ments more or less with age by the ankylosis of the sacral vertebre,
so as not to render the extent of the “sacrum” very variable. It
would surely be well, then, to distinguish the human sacral ver-
tebre, like the ribs, into true and false, those being the true
sacral vertebree which abut‘against the ilium.

In Birds the determination of the homological relations of the
different parts of the postdorsal part of the spinal column is a
matter of much difficulty. On the whole, and seeing-on the
one hand the manifest homology between the sacral vertebra of |
Man and Lizards by the help of Crocodiles and Tortoises, and on
the other hand the manifest homology between the sacral vertebra
of Lizards and the posterior parapophysial vertebre of most Birds,
the authors think it better to regard the latter vertebre in Birds
as alone truly sacral, and to regard such forms as Buceros, Pica,
and certain Parrots as differing from the rule of the Class in the
suppression of their parapophysial processes, and Fregatia as differ-
ing from the same rule by the development of parapophyses in all
the vertebre of this region.

The sacral vertebre in Birds may be defined, then, as “ ver-
tebre having one of the more postaxial roots of the sciatic plexus
coming forth either immediately preaxiad or postaxiad, and having
parapophysial transverse processes abutting against the tlium, such
vertebre being placed immediately postaxiad to vertebre which are
devoid of such parapophyses, or else being the homologues of a ver-
tebra so conditioned in most birds.

By the combination of these two definitions, as given above
(the one for Mammals, Reptiles, and Batrachians, and the other
for Birds), it seems to the authors that the sacral vertebre may
be defined in all Vertebrata above Fishes which have pelvic limbs.

On the Nymph-stage of the Embide, with notes on the Habits of
the Family, &e. By R. M‘Lacuuan, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., &e.
[Read June 7, 1877.]
(Puatz XX.)
Introductory Remarks.
In the year 1837 Prof. Westwood published in the ‘Transactions’
of this Society (vol. xvii. pp. 369-375, pl. xi.) a memoir entitled
“ Characters of Embia,a Genus of Insects allied to the White’
Ants; with descriptions of the species of which it is composed,”
wherein he gave a résumé of the little hitherto known concerning

374 MR. R. M‘LACHLAN ON-THE

these singular insects, and subdivided the genus Hmbza (instituted
by Latreille in 1825) into three, viz. Hmbia, Oligotoma, and
Olyntha, each containing a single species, all that were known at
that time. Forty years have elapsed since the publication of that
paper ; yet even at the present time the number of known species is
very small. In 1837, only the larval (or absolutely wingless) form,
and the fully developed. insect had been observed; there remained
a gap to be filed up. The analogy of the group with the Termites
made it evident that the metamorphoses (or, rather, the partial
absence of metamorphoses) were the same in both; yet the penul-
timate stage, in which the creatures should have abbreviated wings,
remained to be discovered this has only just been done, and under
very singular circumstances.

Quite at the end of last year Mr. W. H. Michael, of High-
gate, an extensive grower of exotic orchids, discovered that a
large mass of Saccolobium retusum, purchased from a London nur-
seryman, was apparently being damaged by some insect; and ex-
amination revealed the presence of numerous Embide on the
roots concealed in silken tunnels. He visited the nursery whence
they were obtained, and found there more examples, including a
winged insect which was unfortunately lost. In the ‘Gardener’s
Chronicle,’ for Dec. 30,1876, Mr. Michael gave an account of the
discovery, illustrated by magnified figures (of which I shall pre-
sently have more to say), and accompanied by notes by Prof.
Westwood in which a doubt was implied as to the damage to the
orchids being occasioned by the Embide. In a subsequent num-
ber of the same periodical I gave a few notes in which I stated
that Prof. Westwood’s doubt appeared to be well founded. How-
ever, the sequel proved, tolerably to my satisfaction, that the
insects had eaten the roots to some extent; but I still think that
some old wounds on the plants, attributed by Mr. Michael’s gar-
dener to them, had resulted from other causes. About the same
time I received from a mutual friend (Mr. W. A. Forbes) a well-
grown larva, but showing no traces whatever of rudimentary
wings. But the figure puzzled me much. It showed what ap-
appeared to be short rudimentary metathoracic wings, but no
trace of the mesothoracic pair. Iam of opinion that this pair had
been accidentally destroyed, and that the figure give the first
indication of the “ nymph” stage in the group. Onth 24th of
January of this year I received a note from Mr. Michael’s son
with the information that “we have just discovered three Hmbia

NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDZ. 375

nymphs,” and inviting me to examine them. This I almost im-
mediately did ; but there were then only two, one having escaped.
Of these, “one was kindly presented to me; but it soon died
(after having considerably decreased in size) owing to my inabi-
lity to furnish it with the moist warm atmosphere no doubt neces-
sary ; the other was retained in the hothouse, and subsequently
developed intoa perfect insect, an undescribed species of Oligotoma.

The nymph that died with me I placed in alcohol. It is now only
9 millimétres long, but was at least one third longer when I first
had it. The rudimentary wings are elongate-oval in form, and
show evident traces of neuration. The mesothoracic pair extend
to the posterior margin of the second abdominal segment. The
general characters are but slightly modified ; but the legs (espe-
cially the anterior) more resemble those of the perfect insect than
those of the wingless larval condition, and the eyes are consider-
ably larger than in the latter. The antenne (in this species) ap-
pear to be 24-jointed in all the stages (but young larve have not
been examined); but the joints are more elongate in the perfect
insect, and those at’ the base undergo considerable changes in
Jength from the larval to the mature condition.

Habits §c. of the Embide.

Probably the first notice (at any rate the first of any import-
ance) appeared in the great French work on the “ Exploration
scientifique de |’ Algérie, Histoire naturelle des Animaux articulés,
Insectes,” pp. 113-114 (1849), from the pen of M. Lucas, who
says he found Embia mauritanica “ vivant en famille dans les lieux
sablonneux, et se tenant sur les tiges des grandes herbes; j’en
rencontrai ‘une douzaine d’individus, qui parcouraient de haut
en bas une tige desséchée de Scilla maritima ; elle est trés-agile,
et se laisse saisir sans se servir de ses ailes pour prendre la fuite.”
bhaytgleghen “La larve que j’ai trouvée dans les environs d’ Alger, se
tient sous les pierres humides, et habite de petits fourreaux de
soie, dans lesquels elle se retire lorsqu’on cherche 4 semparer
delle. Elle est trés-agile, carnassiére, et n’est pas trés-rare pen-
dant la saison d’hiver. Ayant été obligé de partir pour Constan-
tine dans les premiers jours de Mars, je n’ai pu suivre d’une
manicre bien detaillée les transformations de cette larve, et, 4 ce
sujet, voici ce que j’ai remarqué: avant de quitter la province
d’Alger, j’avais enfermé séparément, dans plusieurs boites,

376 MR. R. MSLACHLAN ON THE

quelques-unes de ces larves avec des insectes, afin qu’elles pussent
Se nourrir. A mon retour de la province de Constantine en
Octobre, ow je fis un séjour de huit mois, j’ouvris les boites dans
lesquelles j’avais enfermé mes larves des Hmbia, et sur six de ces
larves je n’en trouvai qu’ une seule qui se fit transformée en insecte
parfait. Quant aux autres, elles étaient mortes, et n’avaient pu
résister 4 une si longue captivité.”’

Later on, in the ‘Annales de la Société Entomologique de
France’ for 1859, pp. 441-444, M. Lucas returned to the subject.
The greater part of his paper is only an extension of the notes
above quoted; but there is some additional matter, and of import-
ance. He says, “Quant 4 la matiére soyeuse sécrétée par les
larves de ’ Hmbia mauritanica, elle est fournie pendant toute
Pexistence de ces larves, et cette matiére n’est pas seulement
destinée 4 leur servir d’abri, mais elle est encore employée a
prendre les insectes qui servent 4 la nourriture de ces larves car-
nassi¢res. Hn effect, si l’on observe ces fourreaux placés sous
les pierres, on remarque que, dans les environs de ces habitations
les larves de ce singulier Névroptére ont le soin de disposer ca et
ja des fils de soie qui sont autant de piéges destinés soit 4 prendre
les insectes, soit 4 les avertir de leur présence.’ This statement
was copied in M. Maurice Girard’s excellent ‘Traité élémentaire
d’Entomologie,’ tome ii. (fase. 1) p. 295, published in 1876.

Dr. Hagen, writing in the ‘Stettiner entomologische Zeitung’
for 1849, p. 56, said that nothing had then been recorded as to
the habits; but in the Verhandlungen des zool.-botanischen
Gesellschaft in Wien’ for 1866, p. 222, he alludes to M. Lucas’s
statement (in ‘Ann. Soe. Fr.’), and he says he possesses a larva
(probably of E. Savignyiz) found under a stone at Athens. Ihave
a larva of H.Solert found by Mr. Pascoe at Hyéres under a stone;
-so that this habit is evidently general, but decidedly not exclusive.

From the above-given extracts it will be noticed that M. Lucas
states distinctly that the larve are carnivorous, and also that the
webs serve the double purpose of entangling the insects that are
used for food and of warning the Embia of the presence of insect
enemies ; but I fail to understand any direct or implied assertion
that he had seen insects actually caught in the webs or being
devoured by the Hmbia. Both the larve and nymphs of the spe-
cies found on the orchids spun silken tunnels, not at all of the
nature of spiders’ webs, but similar to those formed by many
Lepidopterous larve, and which serve them as a protection from

NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDZ. Sit

their enemies; and the analogy is the more complete because the
silken galleries are not perfect tubes, but more of the nature of
coverings, the larva being protected above and able to feed on
the surface of the vegetable matters on which it rests at the same
time. Having inmind M. Lucas’s assertions, I certainly doubted
if the Hmbia larve caused any injury to the orchids; but having
seen pieces of roots, placed in a box with the larve, freshly
gnawed, I now suspect that a mistake has been made as to the
supposed carnivorous habits of the species of the group. and that
in reality they are vegetable feeders, as are the Termitide; for
the latter will sometimes attack growing vegetable materials.
There still, however, remains a difficulty in the common habit in
most of the species of living wnder stones, in which localities
almost the only vegetable matters that could serve them for food
are the mycelia of fungi or ordinary fibrous roots.

Systematie Position, Structure, &c.

It is possible that there is no more difficult, unsatisfactory,
and (I might add) thankless task than that of having to suggest
the sequential position of any group in the so-called Pseudo-Neu-
roptera. Latreille, the founder ofthe genus Hmbvza, placed it as a
second genus in the subfamily Termitine. But I think Westwood
happily seized upon its position as between the Termitide and
Perlide. Burmeister, who justly erected these insects into a
family (Embide), separated the White Ants from the Stone-
flies by (tnter alia) the highly specialized Dragonflies*. I do
not think the relationship between Termes and Embia is so close
as has generally been accepted. Hmbia evidently is not sub-
ject to those polymorphic conditions so characteristic of Termes,
and wants its quadrifid labium (it is bifid in Hmbza). It has
also much of the external form of the Perlide, especially of the
genus Leuctra (which it resembles also in its extreme agility);
and external form is not always to be disregarded in searching for
affinities. But there are other and wide discrepancies; and the
only object of these remarks is to suggest that Termes and Hmbia
have less in common than is generally supposed.

* It is scarcely worth while to seriously notice Rambur’s extraordinary ar-
rangement. The Embide follow the Termitide ; but the Perlidx, with utter
disregard of all affinities (excepting aquatic habits), are placed between the
Sialidse and Phryganide, with all the true Neuroptera Planipennia intervening
between Termes and Stalis.

378 MR. R. MSLACHLAN ON THE

In Gerstacker’s system Termes precedes Blatta, and is sepa-
rated from Hmbia by the whole of the true Orthoptera. This is
a radical change ; but I am disposed to agree with this author in
considering Termes more nearly related to Blatta than the former
is to Hmbia.

With regard to the sexual differences in the Embide, West-
wood, forty years ago, remarked, “ sexus differentia latet.”” This
obtains almost equally now; and I am not able to throw much
light upon the subject. M. Lucas dissected several examples of his
Hi. mauritanica; and all were apparently females. He speaks
(Expl. d’ Algérie) of asymmetry in the caudal processes iu all the
examples examined, the basal joint of the left process being much
broader and more flattened than the right, and asks if this be a
sexual character. I think not, and believe the asymmetry is
almost (if not quite) universal in the family. All species exa-
mined by me possess it in a more or less marked degree. In some
examples there is a slender spiniform process between these arti-
culated side processes ; but the materials at hand are too limited
to enable me to decide if it represents the intromittent organ, or
is common to both sexes*,

Respecting the genera of Embide, Westwood (as before stated)
divided Hmbia into two sections and three subgenera, of which I
reproduce the diagnoses : —

Sectio 1. Palpi maxillares 5-articulati. Antenne thorace bre-

viores, articulis subtus 20.

Subgenus 1. Antenne 15-articulate ; ale nervo 3tio interno
cum 4to nervis transversis connexo, hoc trifido. Esta,
Lat.

Subgenus 2. Antennez 11-articulate, articulo ultimo apice
submammillato ; ale nervo 3tio interno cum 4to ‘nervis
transversis haud connexo, hoc bifido. Oxteoroma, W.

Sectio 2 (subgenus 3). Palpi maxillares 4-articulati. Antenne

corporis fere longitudine, articulis 32. Ale nervo 4ito interno
trifido. Oxtyntsa, Gray.

For my part I am disposed to consider the genera Embia and
Olyntha identical, at any rate on the characters above given; for
the maxillary palpi of Olyntha are 5- (not 4-) jointed (I have exa-

* In Oligotoma Saundersii this spiniform process has a small tooth before

the apex on itslower side. I do not see the process in all the examples; hence
it may perhaps be sexual, and possibly is the intromittent organ.

NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDZ. 379

mined the type), and the length of the antenne is scarcely more
than a specific character. Oligotoma I regard as distinct on
account of the different neural characters. I feel sure that the
characters given for the antenne of O. Saundersit, viz. “ antenne
ll-articulate, articulo ultimo submamillato,’ are incorrect, and
that these organs were broken in the example which served for
type. I have six individuals of O. Sawndersii: the antenne are
mostly broken; but in one I see clearly nineteen joints, and think
that is the normal number; in others the submamillate apical
structure is apparent, but this results from the organs having been
broken, the small apical projection being in fact the basal portion
of the succeeding joint. Rambur (‘ Hist. Névrop.’ p. 311) states
that his Hmbia Latreillit is evidently allied to O. Saundersii, but has
eighteen joints to the antenne: there can, I think, be no doubt
that the two are absolutely identical.

Putting on one side, then, the characters given by Westwood
for the palpi and antenne, it appears to me that only two genera
can be defined with certainty at present, as follows :—

1. Alarum sector (“ nervus 3tius ’’) trifidus, cum cubito (“ nervo
4to’’) per venulas transversales plus minus connexus. Emepra

(cwm Olyntha).

2. Alarum sector bifidus, cum cubito per venulas transversales
haud connexus. OLigoToma.

Distribution of the Family.

Distribution in time may be dismissed with the remark that
the larva of a species (Hmbia antiqua, Pict.) has been noticed
fossil in amber.

As regards existing distribution, the species mostly inhabit the
warm regions of both hemispheres. One (or more) inhabits the
Mediterranean region of Europe. Ihave one from North Persia.
India has one or more species. The group occurs in North
Africa, also in Mauritius and Madagascar, and, no doubt, also in
East Africa; for forms have been found enclosed in copal. Several -
are found in Central and Tropical South America; but nothing
has been noticed from Australia.

Number of Species.

Three only were noticed by Westwood in 1837 ; and at present
probably not more than a dozen species are in collections ; for it

380 MR. R. M‘LACHLAN ON THE

is practically certain that several supposed species should rank

only as synonyms.
T add the descriptions of several species that appear to be new:—

Empia Baresi, sp.n. Nigra vel nigro-picea. Prothorax flavo-
ferrugineus. Antenne nigre, 20-articulate, articulis quinis
ultimis flavidis, pallide pilosis. Ale breves, late, nigro-fusce,
albido 5-striate. Long. corp. 7 millim. Expans. alar, 41 millim.

Hab. Brasilia (Bates).

Black or blackish fuscous with a piceous tinge, the prothorax
above and beneath, and the head beneath (excepting at the sides)
pale reddish yellow. Antennz with 20 joints, black, clothed with
grey hairs; but the apical 5 joints are pale yellowish clothed with
pale hairs, the tip of the terminal joint fuscescent; the 3rd
joint almost as long as the Ist and 2nd united; the 4th and oth
short, submoniliform ; the succeeding jomts more or less clongate-
oval. Maxillary palpi black, short, the 8rd to 5th joints some-
what ovate. Legs blackish, with a piceous tinge, clothed with
greyish hairs; coxe yellowish. Abdomen also with a piceous
tinge, the hairs blackish ; caudal appendages long, especially the
2nd joint, which is strongly flattened,obtuse, and obscure yellowish,
with black hairs. Wings short and very broad, especially the
posterior pair, in which the apex is almost semicircular ; they are
dark fuscous ; the membrane set with minute blackish tubercles ;
five very narrow whitish longitudinal les; neuration fuscous,
but the subcosta and radius distinctly dark claret-colour; four
nervules between the radius and the upper branch of the sector,
discoidal cell broad, closed; and there is a transverse nervule
below this cell connecting it with the upper cubitus; in the poste-
rior wings the discoidal area has two nervules.

I have one example collected by Mr. Bates on the Amazons.
T do not think it can be identical with Olyntha ruficapilla, Burm.
(of which Embia Klugi, Ramb., is thought to be a synonym); for
the latter has the head, as well as the prothorax, wholly reddish.
It is the broadest-winged species known to me.

E. Savini, sp. n. Atra, subopaca. Antenne (mutilate) cas-
tanee, fusco hirsute; cuticulo basali fusco-nigro. Ale angus-
tate, nigro-fuliginose, albido 5-striate; venis fuscescentibus.
Long. corp. circa 7 millim. Exp. alar. cire. 13 millim.

Hab. Amer. Centr.

Body deep black, subopaque, very sparingly clothed with black

NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDA. esl

hairs. Head with a large shallow depression on the middle of
the disk above; labrum slightly castaneous. Maxillary palpi
having the four basal joints short, nearly equal (or the 4th slightly
longer than the 3rd), not much longer than broad; 5th as long
as the 1st to 8rd united, subacute: the colour of these palpi
is blackish ; but the sutures are paler, and they are clothed with
paler hairs. Labial palpi having the 3rd joint as long as the Ist
and 2nd united. Mentum very large, the sides rounded, apical
margin shallowly concave ; the edges are slightly thickened and
raised, the median portion somewhat elevated; but otherwise the
organis shallowly concave. Antenne (mutilated in the type, all
lost beyond the 10th joint) with a stout black basal joint, 2nd small,
3rd more than twice the length of the 4th, those succeeding long,
elongate-pyriform ; the colour (excepting the basal joint) is cas-
taneous, becoming gradually darker (hence probably blackish
towards the apex, but with the usual pale apical portion); they
are clothed with long fuscous hairs. Pronotum raised, much
narrowed anteriorly, the side margins slightly flattened; and there
is a faint median longitudinal impressed line; before the anterior
margin is a very deep transverse sulcus. Mesonotum rather
longer than broad. Metanotum nearly quadrate. Caudal appen-
dages very long, brownish, clothed (as is the apical portion of the
abdomen) with yellow hairs; between them is a stout, yellowish,
simple, spiniform process. Legs shining blackish, clothed with
yellowish hairs, the tarsi somewhat castaneous. Wings narrow
and elongate, smoky blackish, with five longitudinal, narrow,
whitish lines, whereof the 4th becomes confluent with the 5th
before its apex in the anterior wings; neuration fuscescent ;
radius and subcosta blackish with pale margins; two transverse
nervules between the radius and sector ; discoidal cell very long,
closed ; and there is a second transverse nervule in the discoi-
dal area before the apex; two transverse nervules between the
discoidal cell and cubitus, somewhat toward the base.

One example (¢?) from Central America, taken by Mr. Salvin
at Chinautta, at an elevation of 4100 feet.

Dr. Hagen, in his ‘ Neuroptera of N. America,’ p. 7, indicated
a larva from Cuba. Later on, in his ‘Synopsis Embidinorum
Synonymica, he applied the name of Olyntha cubana to this, and
says he then possessed the imago; but no description is given,
Supposing the larva to be full-grown, the size given (length 4 mil-
lims.) wouid appear to indicate a smaller species than EH. Salvinc.

382 MR. R. M‘SLACHLAN ON THE

E. persica, sp. n. Nigra subnitida. Caput vix in medio
piceo tinctum. Pronotum brunneum. Antenne nigra, basin
versus pallido cinct#, 24-articulate ; articulis duobus ultimis fla-
vidis. Ale anguste, fuliginose, albido 5-striate ; venis fuscis.
Long. corp. cirea 93-103 millim. Exp. alar. 134-15 millim.

Hab. Persia septentrionalis.

Black. Head somewhat shining, sparingly clothed with greyish
hairs; in form broad, subquadrate, almost truncate posteriorly,
with the hinder angles rounded ; on the middle of the disk is a
large, nearly circular depression tinged with piceous. Maxillary
palpi having the 1st jomt longer than the 2nd and 3rd, the 4th
and 5th very stout, the 5th obtusely oval, scarcely longer than
the 1st. Labial palpi very short and stout, the terminal point
very obtuse. Mentum small, transversely subquadrate with
straight sides and truncate anterior margin. Antenne scarcely
longer than the head and pronotum, 24-jointed ; basal joint short
and thick, 2nd, 4th, and 5th scarcely longer than broad, the
3rd somewhat longer (the 2nd to 6th each with a narrow yel-
lowish ring at the apex); afterwards they become longer, but
scarcely one half longer than broad; the terminal two joints
dingy yellowish ; otherwise the colour is black, clothed with
greyish hairs. Mandibles testaceous. Pronotum short, consi-
derably narrowed anteriorly, with a transverse impressed line ;
colour brown, clothed with greyish hairs: prosternum distinctly
pale yellow. Meso- and metanota shining black, the former ob-
long, the latter nearly quadrate. Legs dark piceous, clothed with
greyish hairs. Abdomen blackish piceous, paler beneath, clothed
with yellowish-grey hairs ; caudal appendages short, the second
joint brownish, clothed with yellowish hairs. Wings narrow,
dark fuliginous; neuration fuscescent, the space between the
subcosta and radius dark fuscous ; and these veins are somewhat
vinous in colour, and the radius is narrowly margined with
whitish on its lower edge; five narrow whitish longitudinal lines :
discoidal cell very long, closed, and then an additional trans-
verse nervule in its area nearer the apex; two or three transverse
nervules between the radius and upper branch of the sector, and
one between the lower branch of the sector and the cubitus.

I have three examples (all $9?) from Shahrud, North Persia,
collected by Herr Christoph.

Hi. Soliert, Rambur (from the south of Europe), of which, I
think, only the larval form has been observed, appears to have

NYMPH-STAGE OF THE EMBIDZ. 383

twenty-one joints to the antenne; it can hardly be identical
with this Persian species. Hagen indicates another species as
. nigra (but without description), from Egypt, which he consi-
ders distinct both from H. Savignyii and EH. Soliert.

Obs.—The figure of EH. Savignyi, given by Savigny (‘ Desc. de
Egypte’), appears to have been taken from an individual with
partially aberrant neuration. It will be noticed that in the right
anterior wing (copied by Westwood) the lower forked branch of
the sector has the upper prong of the fork again furcate; this is
not indicated in the left wing.

Oxieotoma Micuarti. Atra, subnitida; capiteinfrain medio
paulo rufescente. Antenne 24-articulate, nigre; articulis 5-6
ultimis flavidis, ultimo parvulo. Pedes nigri, fusco-pilosi, tarsis
subtestaceis. Ale nigro-fusce, albido 4-striate ; venis plerumque
nigris. Long. corp. 103 millim. Expans. alar. 18 millim.

Hab. in India orientali.

Deep black, somewhat shining. Head elongate, with a large,
nearly circular, shallow depression on the disk above ; eyes large ;
_ beneath, the portion below the labium, joining on to the neck, is
reddish. Antenne black, with black hairs, 24-jointed, the 1st
joint large but short, 2nd very small, 3rd nearly as long as the
lst and 2nd united, the succeeding two or three joints rather
short ; but afterwards they became elongate; gradually decreasing
in length near the apex, the apical five joints yellowish, and the
6th from the apex also tinged with yellow, the terminal joint
small and obtuse: in length the antenne nearly equal the head
and thorax united. Maxillary palpi stout, the last two joints
longer than the others. Pronotum much narrowed in front,
nearly twice as long as broad. Meso-and metanota nearly equal.
Legs black, with blackish hairs; knees and tarsi somewhat testa-
ceous. Abdomen black, with black hairs ; caudal processes long,
but very asymmetrical, black, with black hairs; the right has the
basal joint very broad, nearly quadrate; whereas in the left it is
slender and fully twice as long; a slender process with piceous
apex projects from the base of the right; ventrally is a large trian-
gular projection of the last segment, concave above. Wings
narrow, dark smoky fuscous, the membrane transversely rugose
{but not visibly tuberculate); the costal margin appears darker
in consequence of the thick, black, coalescent subcosta and radius ;
the oblique postcostal vein also thickened and deep black; the

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. B2

384 MR. R. M‘SLACHLAN ON THE NYMPH-STAGA OF THE EMBIDR.

sector deep black and strong, the other veins fine and inconspi-
cuous ; 4-5 evident pale costal veinlets, and three veinlets in both
pairs between the radius and the upper branch of the sector; but
there are no other transverse veinlets; hence the discoidal cell is
open ; four very narrow whitish longitudinal lines.

A well-grown larva is 12 millims. long. The antenne much
shorter than in the imago. The colours generally lurid-fuscous
rather than blackish, with the posterior portion of the head, the
whole prothorax, and the legs more or less testaceous ; and the
whole underside is pale; the abdominal segments above with a
brownish tinge, clothed with sparse yellowish hairs; the caudal
appendages present ; just the same asymmetry as in the imago.

A starved “nymph”’ is only 9 millims. long. The colours simi-
lar to those of the larva: and the form also generally similar; but
the legs are more slender (as in the imago), the asymmetry in the
caudal appendages less striking (is it of the same sex ?). The ru-
dimentary wings elongate-oval, with evident neuration, character-
istic of the genus ; the anterior extending to the posterior margin
of the metanotum, the posterior to the posterior margin of the
second dorsal abdominal segment.

This is the species alluded to at the commencement of this
paper, found by Mr. Michael in one of his hothouses among plants
of Saccolobiwm retusum imported from India. In its wing-struc-
ture it agrees generically with O. Sauwndersw, which is also an
Indian species.

?

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1. Oligotoma Michaeli, a full-grown larva shown about six times its natural
size.

2. The nymph-stage of the same insect (possibly in a starved condition),
also enlarged six times nat. size. The dotted lines on the right hand
of the figure denote wing-outline as when expanded.

3. The perfect insect of O, Michaeli, magnified six times nat. size.

RESEARCHES AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 3885

THe ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT,
Professor AtumMAN, M.D., LU.D., F.R.S.

Recent Researches among some of the more simple
Sarcode Organisms.

[Read May 24, 1877. |
(Second Notice.)

In my last year’s Address I attempted an exposition of researches
among certain lower sarcode organisms to which within the last
few years the attention of zoologists had been directed. The
subject, however, proved to be so large, and the activity which had
prevailed in it so great, that I found it impossible to do justice to
it within the limits of a singleaddress. Iwas therefore compelled
to leave untouched much of what was necessary for a complete
exposition, and I purpose on the present occasion to take up the
subject where I was then obliged to leave it.

Fig. 1.

Heliaphrys variabilis, Greeff (Nuclearia simplex, Cienkowski), under slight
compression. a, outer layer; b, pseudopodia; ¢, nucleus; @, vacuole. (After

Greeff.)

Cienkowski* has given the name of Nuclearia simples to a re-

* “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Monaden,” Arch. f. mikr. Anat. 1865.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 33

3886 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

markable sarcode organism which lives on the contents of Alga-
cells, which it sucks out in the manner of a Vampyrella. It would
seem to be identical with the rhizopod to which Greeff gave the
name of Heliophrys variabilis (figs. 1 & 2)*, and F. H. Schulze
that of Heterophrys varianst. It has certain obvious relations
with the Heliozoa, from which, however, it differs in its great
variability of form, the spherical or homaxial shape so characte-
ristic of the Heliozoa being only occasionally assumed by it.

It is described by Cienkowski as an Ameba with fine, pointed,
instead of lobose, pseudopodia, and with numerous nuclei in its
protoplasm. The protoplasm is very transparent, and besides the
nuclei encloses a multitude of vacuoles, which slowly appear and
disappear without showing the sudden collapse which is characte-
ristic of the true pulsating vacuoles.

Some of the specimens studied were observed by Cienkowski to
have become surrounded by a granular spherical envelope, and to
have thus passed into what he regards as probably a resting-stage.

Cienkowski places Vuclearia, along with Vampyrella &c.,in his
group of “ Monadine ;”’ but its structure, and especially the pre-
sence of nuclei in its protoplasm, will not justify its association
with organisms which are essentially cytodes. —

Greeff describes his Heliophrys variabilis, which he finds abun-
dant in both stagnant and running water during spring and early
summer, as varying from a sphere or circular disk (fig. 1) to an
irregular more or less elongated and compressed form (fig. 2).
He further describes it as surrounded by a hyaline and homo-
geneous layer, whose surface is set with short rod-like granules,
and which is traversed by the long pointed pseudopodia on their
way from the proper body in which they originate to the external
water. The numerous nuclei which are brought into view by
moderate compression consist of a delicate hyaline capsule with a
darker homogeneous central spherule.

A closely allied, if not identical, organism has been described by
Hertwig and Lesser under the name of Leptophrys. It isa multi-
nucleated greatly vacuolated protoplasm mass of very variable
outline, but usually in the form of a delicate veil, which spreads
over the stage of the microscope, and is so thin and transparent
as to allow objects which lie under it to be distinctly seen. Its
edges usually flow out into lobes, from which the fine pointed
pseudopodia radiate. _

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. xi. + ‘ Rhizopodenstudien,” Arch. f, mikr. Anat. xi.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 387

Fig. 2.

Heliophrys variabilis in the act of creeping. It has passed from a globular
form to that of an irregular disk. The pseudopodia have become divided.

é, rod-like granules of the outer hyaline layer. Other lettering as in preceding
fig. 1. (After Greeff.)

Hertwig and Lesser, Hilhard Schulze, and Archer have made
us acquainted with a large number of monothalamian Rhizopods of
fresh water.

In almost all the freshwater forms the presence of a nucleus
can be demonstrated without difficulty ; and resting on the belief
universally entertained that the marine forms known in general
by the name of Foraminifera, whether monothalamian or polytha-
lamian, are, with one or two incompletely established exceptions,
destitute of a nucleus, Hertwig and Lesser saw in this difference
grounds for the association of the freshwater monothalamice Rhi-
zopods into a special group, to which they limited the name of
Monothalamia.

The quite recent discovery, however, by Hertwig himself * and
by F. E. Schulze, of a nucleus in several genera of Foraminifera,
and the great probability of its occurrence throughout the whole,
take away the only important structural difference between the
two groups, and render it necessary to embrace both in a single

* “ Bemerkungen zur Organisation und systematischen Stellung der Forami-
niferen,” Jenaische Zeitschrift, 1876.
t “ Ueber den Kern der Foraminiferen,” Archiv fiir mikr. Anat. 1876.

33*

388 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESHARCHES

class. To this class Hertwig, in his most recent memoir*, has
assigned the name of Thalamophora.

The researches which have thus from various quarters been
brought to bear on these organisms have made known to us many
new facts, and enable us to give a more complete picture of them
than had been hitherto possible.

The Thalamophora are organisms whose soft bodies are formed of
sarcode or protoplasm which envelopes one or more nuclei, and which
for the purposes of locomotion and the prehension of nutriment has
the power of emitting pseudopodia. Receptacles of lquidin the
form either of contractile or of non-contractile vacuoles are almost
always present. All Thalamophora are enveloped by a shell or
test, which is either purely chitinous or is hardened by calcareous
deposits, or incrusted by siliceous fragments. In its shape it
belongs to the “ monaxial fundamental form”’ of Haeckel, having
a main axis, at one extremity of which is the oral orifice of the
test. In the simplest cases this main axis is straight (Gromia,
Microgromia, Euglypha, Nodosaria, &c.), but in most of the marine
forms it is regularly curved in a spiral (MMhola, Rotalia, Poly-
stomella, &c.), while in some the regular curvature is masked by a
subsequent irregularity of growth.

In this monaxial shape and in the constant position of the oral
orifice of the test in relation to the main axis we find the essential
character by which the Thalamophora are distinguished from the
Heliozoa. These, instead of being monaxial, are “ homaxial”’
(Haeckel) ; that is, all their axes being of equal value, their proper
form is that of the sphere. Further, when a test is present in
the Heliozoa, this has either no constant opening, or the openings
are numerous and placed without any definite relation to an axis.

By consecutive constrictions of the test at right angles to the
main axis polythalamic forms are preduced. Carpenter had already
shown that the characters derived from the polythalamic or mono-
thalamic condition of the shell are of but slight systematic value ;
and this view is fully borne out by the most recent researches,
which make it evident that the number of the nuclei in the Fora-
minifera do not stand in any direct relation to the number of the
chambers—in other words, that each newly formed chamber does
not necessarily contain a newly formed nucleus. The polythalamic
forms therefore are not be regarded as colonies of monothalamic

forms.
* Op. cit. Jenaische Zeitschrift, 1876.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 389

A much more important character available for the definition of
the higher groups had been shown by Carpenter to be derivable
from the structure of the shell. In some this is throughout per-
forated by minute canais, in others provided only with the single
comparatively large terminal orifice, or occasionally with a termi-
nal group of orifices, or in rare cases with two large orifices, one
at each end of the main axis. The Thalamophora thus admit of
a primary division into the Lmperforata and the Perforata, as in-
sisted on by Carpenter.

It may be questioned whether the presence of a test affords a
character of sufficient importance to justify its beimg made the
basis of such higher groups ; whether, for example, Arcel/a should
be far separated from Amba on the grounds that in one case the
sarcode is naked, in the other enveloped by a test.

To this character Carpenter assigns a very subordinate value.
We must not, however, lose sight of the fact that the formation ofa
test,—of a true test, at least, as distinguished from a mere pellicle
which yields to such changes of form as the sarcode may undergo,
—brings with it modifications in sume of the most striking cha-
racters of the naked protoplasm ; for not only are the pseudopodia,
even in the Perforata, necessarily limited by it to definite points
of the body, but it substitutes a definite outline for the indefinite
and constantly changing outline of such naked organisms. The
importance of this definiteness of outline is shown by the great
symmetry which is in almost every case presented by it, while the
shell itself often possesses an elaborate structure, as seen in the
hexagonal areole between the inner and outer tables of the shell
in Arcella and the beautiful tessellated structure in Quadrula and
Euglypha.

Hertwig and Lesser have discovered many new freshwater re-
presentatives of the Zhalamophora, and have made known to us
many important facts in their structure and life-history. All the
freshwater Thalamophora hitherto met with are nionothalamic
(figs. 4, 5, &c.), and, if we except Archer’s genus Diaphoropodon,
are also imperforate. Their test is of a conical or elliptical shape,
and is for the most part of a firm and solid consistence, though
occasionally membranous and flexible. Itis either a pure product
of excretion, or in addition to this it may become more or less in-
corporated with foreign bodies, such as minute fragments of silica
or shells of Diatomacea. When it consists of a pure excretion
from the protoplasm-body it may be either perfectly smooth and

390 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

structureless (fig. 4), or it may present various kinds of structure
or sculpture, often very elegant and characteristic (figs. 5, 7).

The soft protoplasmic contents of the test are in the freshwater
Thalamophora almost always differentiated into a more granular
portion and a more homogeneous portion. In those with a single
orifice the granular protoplasm lies towards the anterior or oral
end, the more homogeneous towards the posterior or aboral end.
The posterior homogeneous protoplasm includes the nucleus,
while in the anterior granular portion, or on the boundary between
the two, lie numerous vacuoles. These are almost always rhythmi-
cally contractile, and are constant in number and position in each
species. When there are two shell-orifices the nucleus lies in the
middle point between them. In the Arcelie, which present the
condition very exceptional among freshwater Thalamophora of
being multinucleate, the nuclei lie in the marginal part of the
nearly disk-shaped protoplasm.

The characteristic form of the nucleus is that of a clear vesicle,
which almost always includes a pale bluish nucleolus.

The pseudopodia present two important modifications. In one
(figs. 4 & 5) they are cylindrical, blunt, unbranched, non-confluent,
and usually destitute of granule-currents. In the other (fig. 6)
they are very contractile delicate pointed threads, which repeatedly
ramify and flow together, and present currents of granules in their
interior. Between these two, however, there are numerous inter-
mediate conditions, but the two main forms, the blunt and the
pointed, may always be distinguished ; and Hertwig and Lesser
accordingly employ these characters in the definitions of some of
their higher groups, adopting from Carpenter the name of Lobosa,
which they assign to the forms with blunt pseudopodia, and assigning
that of Rhizopoda to those in which the pseudopodia are pointed.

The name of “ Rhizopoda,” in the special sense in which it is
here employed by Hertwig and Lesser, is certainly objectionable,
aud from its being very generally used with a different significance
would tend to introduce confusion into our definitions. F. E.
Schulze uses in the same sense the more appropriate designation
of “ Filifera ;’’ but Carpenter had long ago employed that of “ Re-
ticularia’’ to indicate those forms whose pseudopodia are long and
filiform and tend to unite with one another into a network (Gro-
mia and the so-called Foraminifera). As forms occur, however,
with filiform pseudopodia which show no tendency to anastomose,
the designation “ Filifera”’ is of more general application.

AMONG STMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 391

Another important systematic character is derived from the
number. of terminal or oral orifices in the test, though this, in
consequence of the great inequality of the two groups based upon
it, loses much of the practical value which it would otherwise
possess in classification. In almost every case there is but a single
such orifice (figs. 4, 5,6, &c.). In some rare cases, however, there
are two, one situated at each end of the main axis (fig. 8). It is
these conditions which Hertwig and Lesser designate respectively
by the names of Monostomatous and Amphistomatous.

Among the freshwater Thalamophora with blunt pseudopodia
(Lobosa) Hertwig and Lesser* have made some interesting obser-
vations on the long-known and widely distributed Arcella vulgaris,
one of the largest and best fitted for observation of the freshwater
Rhizopoda. They have corrected the descriptions of the structure
of its shell given by previous observers, and have brought together
its essential characters in a more exact generic diagnosis than had
been hitherto attempted.

Tts shell, which is a pure excretion from the contained proto-
plasm, has its main axis very short in proportion to the lateral
axes ; and the elongate form so characteristic of the freshwater Tha-
lamophora becomes thus shield-shaped with the orifice for the
pseudopodia in the centre of the flat side, which, during locomotion,
is turned towards the supporting surface. Its walls, as now shown
by Hertwig and Lesser, are composed of two parallel plates, an
outer and an inner, which are united to one another by an interven-
ing structure with hexagonal chambers like those of a honeycomb.

Besides containing contractile vesicles the protoplasm is very
exceptional in containing numerous nuclei. The body does not
entirely fill the shell, but forms a disk-shaped mass of protoplasm
lying on the lower wall and having the contractile vesicles and
nuclei immersed in its peripheral parts. It is connected with the
upper wall of the shell by filiform processes, which in young spe-
cimens are richly developed, repeatedly branch and anastomose,
and form a sort of pseudopodial net over which the protoplasm-
granules travel to and fro.

An encysting process, apparently connected with reproduction,
has been observed by them. In this the protoplasm becomes
surrounded by a globular cyst which lies within the shell close to
the orifice. The coarsely granular and opaque condition of the
protoplasm rendered it impossible for them to discover any thing

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. Band x. Suppl.-Helft.

3892 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

regarding the condition of the nuclei ; nor were they able to follow
the process through any further stages.

They have also studied a phenomenon which has been regarded
by other observers as a conjugation of two individuals, but which
Hertwig and Lesser interpret as a case of reproduction by spon-
taneous division. In this the appearance presented is that of two
individuals in union with one another by their pseudopodial sur-
faces, where they are connected by a broad bridge of protoplasm,
which stretches from the soft body of one animal to that of the
other. One of these connected individuals has always the usual
dark brown shell, while in the other the sheil is clear and colour-
less. Across the connecting bridge the protoplasmic contents of
one shell pass over into the other until the former is nearly
emptied. Then the direction of the stream is reversed and the
nearly emptied shell becomes filled at the expense of the other.
This interchange of the contents now repeats itself, and thus goes
on rhythmically for some time, when a period of rest sets in, the
protoplasm bridge becomes gradually thinner, and finally breaks
across, and the two hitherto united Arcelle become detached from
one another, each composed of nearly an equal part of the origi-
ually single protoplasm mass, which, according to the interpre-
tation of Hertwig and Lesser, has thus become divided into two
independent segments.

Biitschli has described in Arcella a somewhat different pheno-
menon, which he regards as a true conjugation*. In this three
individuals, all with dark brown shells, were observed to be in union
with each other by means of bridges of protoplasm which pro-
ceeded from the shell-orifices. On the day following the separa-
tion of the conjugating Arcelle he noticed that in one of the in-
dividuals the protoplasm-body had withdrawn itself for a consi-
derable space from the shell-wall, and that in the liquid which
filled the interval a multitude of Vzbr20-like bodies swarmed, while
in close contact with the dorsal surface of the protoplasm there
lay numerous flat disk-shaped masses of protoplasm. After some
time these showed lively amceboid movements, and crept about be-
tween the body of the parent animal and the shell-walls. These
amoeboid bodies ultimately crept out through the shell-orifice.
They contained a contractile vacuole and a clear nucleus, and moved
by the protrusion of short very blunt processes. Biitschli was
not able to follow their further development ; but he does not hesi-

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. xi. (1875) p. 459, pl. xxv.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 393

tate to regard them as the proper brood of the Arcella, and com-
pares their formation with that of the budding of zoospores from
the surface of the body in Woctiluca as described by Cienkowski*.

We owe to Hertwig and Lesser} and to Franz Hil. Schulzet two
papers on Pseudochlamys patella (fig. 3), in which they supplement
and correct the description of this rhizopod as given by Claparéde
and Lachmann. Its shell is of a brownish-yellow colour, shaped
like a watchglass, so as to be widely open on the inferior surface.
Here, according to Hertwig and Lesser, a delicate structureless
membrane stretches across the opening, which it closes, except in

Fig. 3.

Pseudochlamys patella.

Viewed from below, with opposite margins of the test
folded in, and with a protruded finger-shaped pseudo-

podium.

(After F. E. Schulze.)

a small central space which remains open for the passage of the
pseudopodia. Schulze, who makes no mention of this membrane,
describes indications of structure in the shell towards its summit
which recalls that of Arcella.

The animal possesses the remarkable power of bringing into
juxtaposition the opposite margins of the wide shell-opening, thus
completely changing the form of the shell and making it resemble
the bivalve shell of a Lamellibranchiate mollusk or of a Cypris.
This approximation of the margins is evidently brought about by
the contractility of the contained protoplasm, while the return to
the previous condition would seem to result from the elasticity of
the shell. Schulze has noticed in some cases special bands of
protoplasm passing from the circumference of the body to the
margin of the sheil to which they are attached. He believed they
act in a way analogous to that of muscles in regulating the form
of the orifice.

The protoplasni-body is finely granular, and contains in its
periphery a great number of contractile vesicles, while there is a

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. ix. p. 47. t Jd. vol. x. Suppl. t Zd. vol. xi.

394 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

single more central nucleus. Besides a single (seldom more)
thick finger-shaped pseudopodium like those of Arcella, Schulze
describes numerous rounded tubercle-like processes, which do not
seem to project beyond the orifice.

As in Arcelia, an encysting process has been observed, but has
not been followed to its results.

The authors believe that Greeff has incorrectly assigned to the
genus Amphizonella the form which he names Amphizonella flava,
and which they regard as identical with Pseudochlamys patella.

The Pyxidicula operculata of Ehrenberg is another nearly
allied form. Claparéde and Lachmann, followed by Carter, had
placed this rhizopod in the genus Arcella; but Hertwig and Lesser,
relying on the fact of the shell being destitute of the character-
istic structure of that of Arcella, restore Ehrenberg’s name.

Fig. 4.

Hyalosphenia lata.
Viewed from the broad side, with
a slightly divided finger-shaped pseu-
dopodium.

(After F. E. Schulze.)

Hyalosphenia lata, F. E. Schulze (fig. 4)*, is another freshwater
representative of the Thalamophora. It has a compressed pyriform
test and thick finger-shaped pseudopodia. The test isa simple
hyaline case without any trace of structure. Included in the broad
aboral portion of the protoplasm is a large spherical nucleus con-
taining numerous nucleoli, and just in front of it lie the pulsating
vacuoles, which are usually two in number. There is usually only
a single finger-shaped pseudopodium emitted from the orifice of
the test. The pseudopodium, though belonging to the lobose
type, encloses fine granules, whose flowing movements are easily
seen in the axis of the pseudopodium.

* HW. E. Schulze, oc. cit.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 395

Among the Thalamophora with thick, blunt, non-anastomosing
pseudopodia, must also be included a beautiful freshwater rhizo-
pod originally described by Wallich* under the name of Difflugia
symmetrica, and more recently studied by Fr. Hil. Schulze, who
has made it the type of an independent genus to which he assigns
the name of Quadrula (fig. 5)v.

The test is pear-shaped, laterally compressed so as to be ellip-
tical in transverse section, and presents a definite sculpture
caused by its being composed of a great number of hyaline
square plates which touch one another by their edges. Qua-
drula is nearly allied to Hyalosphenia, from which it differs mainly
in possessing a definitely sculptured test. The granular pro-

Fig. 5.

Quadrula symmetrica. Viewed from the broad side. (After F. E. Schulze.)

toplasm-body does not in general completely fill the test; and

the space which intervenes between it and the test-walls is occu-

pied by a clear liquid and traversed by thin bands of protoplasm.
In the centre of the more voluminous posterior or aboral portion

of the body lies the large clear spherical nucleus with a very distinct

dark nucleolus; and in front of this are the pulsating vacuoles,

generally two in number. The pseudopodia are few, and are
* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. viii. 1864. + Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. xi. 1875.

396 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

thick and finger-shaped and, like those of Hyalosphenia, enclose
fine granules.

In the fact of its shell being composed of numerous juxtaposed
plates Quadrula presents an obvious affinity with Euglypha, from
which, however, its compressed form and, above all, its thick finger-
shaped pseudopedia clearly separate it. In tests from which the
protoplasm has disappeared detached plates similar to those com-
posing the walls are frequently found either lying free or associated
in bundles. A fact of quite a similar kind has been noticed in
Euglypha.

Hertwig and Lesser have studied the Difflugie and have de-
scribed a new species (D. acropodia) remarkable for the peculiar
form of its pseudopodia, while they bring together the essential
characters of the genus more exactly than had been hitherto done.
The genus Difflugia was founded by Leclerc for freshwater Tha-
lamophora with blunt pseudopodia, and whose test provided with
a single opening is not a pure excretion of the protoplasm, but is
formed of agglutinated foreign corpuscles—fragments of silica and
shells of Diatomacea. The shell so constructed, however, hag, as
the new species examined by Hertwig and Lesser clearly shows,
a membranous basis excreted by the contained protoplasm.

The Diflugie have a nucleus immersed in the posterior part of
the protoplasm ; but no contractile vesicles have as yet been dis-
covered. Like the Heliozoa they contain also in their protoplasm
chlorophyl-granules, a fact of extremely rare occurrence among
the Thalamophora.

In D. acropodia the pseudopodia differ from the finger-shaped
processes of other Difflugie in consisting of broad plates of homo-
geneous protoplasm, which at some distance from the pseudopodial
opening end in irregularly-shaped lobes with their contours cut
into sharp segments. They owe their origin to the confluence of
what were at first narrow lancet-shaped pseudopodia very like
those of Actinospherium, except in being destitute of granules.
They form an obvious transition between the blunt pseudopodia
of the Lobosa, and the pointed pseudopodia of those forms to
which Hertwig and Lesser would confine the name of Rhizopoda,
the Filifera of F. E. Schulze.

The siliceous fragments with which the test is set are usually
so sparingly scattered as to reveal the thin basal membrane on
which they are fixed.

The Thalamophora with pointed filiform pseudopodia (Filifera)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS, oo

are much richer in genera and species than the Zobosa; and we
have here, as in the Lobosa, forms in which the shell is a pure ex-
cretion from the protoplasm, and others in which it is strengthened
by the incorporation of foreign bodies. The first group may be
further subdivided into those whose shell is structureless, and
those in which it is characterized by the possession of definite
sculpture.

To those in which the test is a simple structureless excretion
without the agglutination of foreign particles must be referred
the genus Gromia, founded by Dujardin.

Its more or less spherical or oval test lies close upon the sur-
face of the protoplasm-body ; it is membranous, flexible, and in-
elastic, and through an opening at one end of its main axis the
pseudopodia are emitted and form by their repeated branching
and anastomoses a widely extended protoplasm-network. No
contractile vacuoles have yet been found.

Gromia oviformis, on which Dujardin founded his genus, is a
marine form. It has been made the subject of a careful study
by Max Schultze, who, instead of the single nucleus which almost
universally characterizes the freshwater Thalamophora, has found
in the posterior part of its body numerous clear spherical vesicles
filled with granules and regarded by him as nuclei.

A new species of Gromia, G. granulata, F. EK. Schulze, has been
studied by F. EK. Schulze, who found it in fresh water attached to
Ceratophyllwm and other water-plants. It is a transparent and
colourless species, with its clear protoplasm containing a multitude
of strongly refringent granules, which at the periphery are dis-
posed at nearly equal intervals, so that when seen through the
transparent shell they give to this the appearance of being mi-
nutely punctate. Schulze describes a single nucleus lying in the
posterior part of the protoplasm. It is a large, clear, spherical
body, surrounded by a membrane, and having within it either a
moderately large, spherical, strongly refringent nucleolus, or many
less distinct dark corpuscles. This is pretty nearly the normal
condition of the nucleus in the freshwater Thalamophora, and is
so very different from the numerous vesicle-like bodies described
by Max Schultze as nuclei in Gromia oviformis as to lead us to
doubt the correctness of attributing to these last the significance
of true nuclei.

The genus Zrinema, founded by Dujardin for a freshwater Tha-
lamophorous Rhizopod, to which he gave the name of Z. acinus,

398 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

and which, under that of Difflugia enchelys, was subsequently de-
scribed by Ehrenberg, has been recently studied by Hertwig and
Lesser. Itis provided with a firm structureless shell which does
not closely invest the protoplasm. It has an elongate oval form,
becoming wider towards the aboral pole. The shell-orifice instead
of lying at the end of the main axis, lies laterally and oblique to
it, and has its margins inflected inwards. The protoplasm-body
consists of a posterior homogeneous portion and an anterior more
granular portion. In the posterior is the nucleus with its nucleo-
lus, and on the boundary between the posterior and middle third,
lying in an equatorial plane, are the contractile vacuoles, which
are always three in number. The filiform and pointed pseudo-
podia are destitute of granules and form no anastomoses.

Hertwig and Lesser describe a peculiar mode of cyst-formation
in Trinema, They have frequently found specimens of 7. acinus
which contained in the posterior part of the shell a spherical cyst-
like body filled with uniform strongly refringent granules. A nu-
cleus with nucleolus were also generally visible in it. In some
cases the cyst was seen to be invested by a double membrane, appa-
rently analogous to the double investment observed by Hertwig
and Lesser in the cysts of Huglypha alveolata (see the description
of this rhizopod given below).

They have also found examples of Trinema in which the poste-
rior part of the shell was no longer occupied by the protoplasm-
body, which had the appearance of being truncated posteriorly.
In one of these the otherwise empty space was nearly filled by a
constantly rotating sphere. Whether the rotation was caused by
cilia or flagella, they could not ascertain; but they believe that
here, as in Microgromia, the detached body was formed by a self-
division of the protoplasm, and is destined to become liberated as
a swarm-spore.

Like many other freshwater Thalamophora, two individuals
of Trinema acinus are often found united to one another by their
pseudopodial orifices. No change has been noticed as the result
of this union, which has probably nothing to do with reproduction.

Claparede and Lachmann consider the Huglypha pleurostoma
of Carter as identical with Dujardin’s Trinema acinus; and this
view is accepted by F. E. Schulze, who attributes to Trinema a
sculptured shell like that of Huglypha. With this identification
Hertwig and Lesser do not agree. They believe that Carter has
rightly referred his rhizopod to the Huglyphe.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. © 399

To the same group of freshwater filiferous Thalamophora belong
the species referable to Claparéde and Lachmann’s genus Plagio-
phrys. Hertwig and Lesser correct and supplement the descrip-
tion of this genus given by Claparéde and Lachmann, who, re-
garding it as destitute of shell, place it in their family of the Acti-
nophryide. It is really provided with a delicate membranous
flexible test, which is thrown into folds by the various movements
of the body. According to Hertwig and Lesser’s amended
description, the Plagiophryses are monothalamic Thalamophora
with definite and but slightly varying body-forms and with
branched filiform pseudopodia which seldom or never anas-
tomose. They have a delicate test, which lies close upon the
body, participates in the slight changes of shape of the included
protoplasm by becoming thrown into folds, and is provided with
a single orifice for the passage of the pseudopodia. Two new
species are described.

Hertwig and Lesser* have raised the Arcella hyalina of Khren-
berg into a new genus under the name of Lecythium. This rhizo-
pod has been further examined by Cienkowski f.

Its nearly spherical membranous shell is of a crystal clearness,
and is closely applied to the protoplasm. The pseudopodial orifice,
which is borne by a very short neck, is situated a little to one side,
so that the shell possesses a slightly bilateral symmetry. The pro-
toplasm presents a posterior almost perfectly homogeneous divi-
sion in which is imbedded the large spherical nucleus with its
nucleolus, and an anterior granular division rich in vacuoles,
which show no pulsation. It is especially distinguished by its
greatly developed pseudopodia-emitting mass of protoplasm (Psew-
dopodienplatte) which pours itself out of the shell-orifice in order
to send forth strong radiating and rarely anastomosing pseudo-
podia, and which either forms an amorphous mass or envelopes the
entire body with a pseudopodial manile.

Lecythiwm usually forms colonies in grape-like clusters with a
common pseudopodial plate ; the colonies result from a longitu-
dinal division of the rhizopod.

Nearly allied to Lecythiwm is a monothalamic rhizopod to
which Cienkowski gives the name Chlamydophrys stercorea, and
which he frequently met with during his researches among fungi

* “ Ueber Rhizopoden,” &c, Arch. f. mikr. Anat. Band x. Supplement-Heft.
t “Ueber einige Rhizopoden und verwandte Organismen,” Arch. f. mikr.
Anat. 1875.

400 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

which inhabit the excreta of animals. He regards it as iden-
tical with the Difflugia enchelys of Schneider. It has a clear
glassy shell destitute of sculpture.

Its reproduction takes place by the protrusion from the shell-
orifice of a mass of protoplasm in which a nucleus makes its
appearance independently of that of the parent. The protruded
protoplasm soon becomes invested by a delicate shell, and the whole
might now be easily mistaken for two individuals in conjugation.
At the same time pseudopodia radiate from the common bridge of
protoplasm, and finally the two parts separate from one another.

But Chlamydophrys is, like Lecythiwm, a colony-forming rhizo-
pod; and in this case the zooids formed by successive constrictions
of the protruded protoplasm remain united to one another so as
to form the grape-like clusters with the shell-openings directed
towards the common point of union originally observed by
Schneider.

Cienkowski frequently found individuals with two, three, or
more nuclei. A similar multinucleate condition occurs in Ar-
cella, Actinospheria, and Nuclearia. The real significance of this
character, which has an obvious bearing on the unicellular theory
of the Protozoa, is not very evident. It is possibly, as suggested
by Cienkowski, the beginning of a zoospore-formation or of
fission.

To the development-cycle of Chlamydophrys belongs also a rest-
ing-state which, as in other cases, appears to be conditioned by the
drying up of the locality. When passing into the resting-state,
the entire body escapes from the shell, assumes a spherical shape,
and clothes itself with a thick membrane. In the grape-like
clusters the resting-state is introduced by all the members of the
colony with their common protoplasmic basis becoming fused
together and enveloped in a single cyst.

In the same group of single-chambered Thalamophorais an ele-
gant little rhizopod to which Archer, who first described it, gives
the name of Gromia socialis, and which possesses, like Lecythium
and Chlamydophrys, the curious habit of becoming united with
neighbouring individuals into a common colony by the mutual
fusion of the pseudopodia.

Archer’s G. socialis has been further investigated by Hertwig,
who has raised it into anew genus under the name of Microgromia*.

In a highly interesting and important memoir he has given us

* “Ueber Microgromia,” Schultze’s Archiv, Band x. Supplement- Heft.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 401

the results of a careful study of this remarkable little rhizopod
(fig. 6). Thenearly globular shell is prolonged into a short neck,
which carries the pseudopodial orifice. It thus allows an oral and
aboral pole to be distinguished, while the orifice being a little to
one side gives to the shell a slightly bilateral symmetry.

Fig. 6.

Microgromia socialis.

A, a colony in its extended state; some of the individuals seen in longitudinal
fission. B, a colony in its compact or cystophrys state ; some of the individuals
at a distance from the main heap. OC, formation of a swarm-spore; the portion
which is to become a swarm-spore has advanced towards the anterior end of the
shell. D, further stage in the formation of a swarm-spore; the portion which
is to become a swarm-spore escaping through the orifice of the shell. H, one of
the swarm-spores now complete and free. (After Hertwig.)

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOU. XIII. 34

402 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

The protoplasm passes outwards through the neck, and expands
fungus-like over the margin, where it attaches the body to the
shell. From this fungus-like expansion the pseudopodia radiate
in all directions.

The body consists of a pale bluish protoplasm with its anterior
half granular and its posterior half almost perfectly homogeneous.
In the posterior is imbedded the nucleus. This possesses the
form common to the nuclei of almost all the freshwater Rhizopoda
—that of a clear, perfectly colourless, spherical body containing
concentrically within it a spherical pale-bluish nucleolus. The
membranous investment which, in some Rhizopods, surrounds the
nucleus is here wanting. In the anterior granular portion of the
protoplasm lies the contractile vacuole. |

Hertwig and Lesser find the individuals not only united by their
pseudopodia into the loose colonies described by Archer (fig. 6, A),
but also, by a close union, constituting botrylliform clusters (B).
He regards these botrylliform clusters as identical with a form
described by Archer as an independent organism under the name
of Cystophrys Haeckeliana, which is thus, according to Hertwig,

nothing more than a heap of Microgromia socialis..

- Hertwig has further found that IZ. socialis multiplies itself
by means of locomotive germs, a discovery of importance in
its bearing on the development-history of the Monothalamia.
He has seen the protoplasm of the various members of the
colony divide by a transverse constriction into two halves,
each with its nucleus and its contractile vacuole. The posterior
segment remains for some time free in the bottom of the shell
and then presses forward (C), and, by means of amceboid move-
ments, escapes through the pseudopodial orifice (D). After its
escape from the shell the amceboid movements continue, and the
germ now stretches itself out into the form of a worm, or con-
tracts into a globe, or forms alobed mass of protoplasm spreading
over the pseudopodia of the mother colony. It then gathers
itself together, acquires an oval form, develops from one end a
pair of flagella, and forsakes the colony as.a free-swimming swarm-
spore (E); or, in other cases, instead of becoming a flagellate
swarm-spore, assumes anActinophrys-like form and moves about by
the aid of three or four more or less branched pointed pseudopodia.
Hertwig was not able to trace them to their ultimate destiny ; but
there can be little doubt that both kinds of locomotive germs
come, after a time, to rest, excrete a shell, and lay the foundations
of new colonies.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 403

The observations of Hertwig render it probable that the
simple extension of the colony without separation of the newly
formed zooids takes place by a longitudinal instead of a transverse
division of the body. Two or, in some cases, three segments
are thus formed. Of these, one remains in the old shell, the others
forsake it and excrete for themselves a new one, while all continue
in union by their common pseudopodial end.

Cienkowski* has, in all important points, confirmed these obser-
vations.. He finds further that the second cell-nucleus which
appears during the division of the shell-contents arises indepen-
dently, and not by the division of the mother nucleus.

Among the genera of Thalamophora in which the shell possesses
a definite structure, Euglypha (fig. 7) may be regarded as the most
typical. This genus was founded by Dujardin, and Hertwig and
Lesser retain in its essential points the definition given by the
French observer. The Huglyphe are Rhizopoda with pointed fili-
form pseudopodia which show no granule-currents, and do not
anastomose with one another, but for the most part ramify dicho-
- tomously. The oval or flask-shaped shell isa pure secretion from
the surface of the protoplasm, and remains unchanged under the
action of concentrated mineral acids and of alkalies. The termi-
nal orifice is, for the most part, finely dentate, and the solid and
inflexible walls of the shell have a sculpture which, as was first
pointed out by Carter and by Wallich, is caused by spirally dis-
posed plates which, in all the forms examined by Hertwig and
Lesser, are hexagonal and in contact by their edges.

Tn the protoplasm may be distinguished an anterior and a pos-
terior region. The former occupies nearly two thirds of the
whole. The protoplasm of the anterior region is finely granu-
lar; it alone contains the foreign matter ingested for nutriment.
The protoplasm of the posterior third is homogeneous, but fre-
quently contains some darkly coloured granules of nearly uniform
size. In all cases it contains the cell-nucleus first observed by
Carter. This has the form so well known in the nucleus of the
Rhizopoda, that of a roundish or oval vesicle with a central homo-
geneous pale blue oval nucleolus. Included in the protoplasm,
at the boundary between the anterior and posterior regions, are
the contractile vacuoles, generally two or three in number.

F. E. Schulze has studied these vacuoles in Euglypha alveolata,

* «Ueber einige Rhizopoden und verwandte Organismen,” Arch. fiir mikr.
Anat. 1875. ‘

34%

404 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Dujardin (fig. 7), one of the finest of the freshwater Monothalamia,
and has determined the time which intervenes between each
systole. He has found that, at a temperature of 16° Réaumur, this
was almost exactly 90 seconds. The pulsation was of that kind
which is general among the Rhizopoda, a rapid contraction fol-
lowed by a gradual accumulation of a clear liquid in the same
place until the vacuole becomes once more completely filled, then
another sudden collapse, and so on.

Hertwig and Lesser have made some further interesting obser-
vations on Euglypha alveolata. They have observed in it the
structures which Carter calls “granuliferous cells,” and which
he believes to be produced by the division of the nucleolus, and
to be connected with the formation of spermatozoids. Hertwig
and Lesser, however, have been unable to assert any thing re-
garding the economy of these ‘‘granuliferous cells.” They are
roundish yesicle-like bodies irregularly scattered through the pro-
toplasm outside of the nucleus, and more or less filled with small
round bluish granules, which mostly appear arranged in regular
concentric circles. They show agreat resistance to concentrated
acetic acid, a fact which is scarcely consistent with their deriva-
tion from the nucleolus ; and when present they are usually in
considerable number, without either the nucleus or the nucleolus
having disappeared. .

Euglypha alveolata is remarkable for the rich development of its
pseudopodia, and for the frequency of their subdivision. They
mostly spring from broad-lobed homogeneous processes of the
protoplasm.

Within the shell of Buglypha alveolata may often be seen de-
tached plates resembling in size and form those of the shell itself.
They have been noticed by different observers, but more especi-
ally by Hertwig and Lesser and by F. E. Schulze. In individuals
in which the living protoplasm is still included, they lie upon its
surface in a layer parallel to the shell-walls. They are probably
destined for the building up of a new shell after the shedding of
the old one, or, as Hertwig and Lesser suggest, may be connected
with the formation of the inner shell in the peculiar encysting
process which they have studied in this rhizopod. Similar
plates have also been found by Hertwig and Lesser in the #. am-
pulacea, Dujardin.

The encysting process (fig. 7) which Hertwig and Lesser have
studied in Z. alveolata, and which had been previously noticed by

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 405

Carter, is very remarkable. Its peculiarity consists in the fact
that the cyst is not immediately surrounded by the outer shell of
the rhizopod, but by a second shell which lies within this and is

Fig. 7.

Euglypha alveolata.
Encystation with the formation ofa double cyst-covering.

a, the colourless shell formed of hexagonal plates and closed at d by aggluti-
nated foreign bodies; 0, the outer brown egg-shaped eyst-shell ; ¢, the inner
spherical colourless cyst-shell; f, the homogeneous colourless cord which ex-
tends through the space between the inner and outer cyst-shell; 7, the clear
inner portion of the contents of the cyst, apparently corresponding to a nucleus.
(After Hertwig and Lesser.)

completely closed. This inner shell is oviform, with the narrow
end turned towards the pseudopodial orifice of the outer shell,
within which it lies free and movable. Its structure resembles
that of the outer shell; but it is of a light brown colour, which is
intensified by the application of sulphuric acid and iodine, while
these reagents cause no change in the colour of the outer
shell.

Within the inner shell hes the proper cyst. This is of a

406 PROF. ALEMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

spherical form; and in all the specimens examined its contents
consist of minute granules which by their strong refringency
render the whole dark and opaque, and make an exact know-
ledge of the contents of the cyst impossible, though a lighter
central portion, probably a nucleus, can be distinguished from a
darker cortical portion. The cyst consists of a nitrogenous mem-
brane, and has a finely punctured structure; it is connected -
with the narrow end of its closed investing shell by a thin solid
homogeneous cord. The formation of the cyst and its investing
shell is accompanied by the closure of the outer shell-orifice by a
temporary plug formed by foreign bodies, such as filaments of
Alge and shells of Diatoms.

Hertwig and Lesser regard all this as nothing more than an
example of the encysting process so widely distributed among the
Rhizopoda, and whose original object consisted most probably in
protection against the evil consequences of the drying up of the
surrounding water, but which in many cases has become further
subservient to a multiplication by self-division of the protoplasm.

The genus Cyphoderia was founded by Schumberger for a beau-
tiful little monothalamian rhizopod which he obtained from fresh
water in the Vosges and in the Jura, and described under the
name of C. margaritacea. This is the same rhizopod which Max
Schultze found in the Baltic, and to which he assigned the name
of Lagynis baltica. Ithas been most recently studied by Hertwig
and Lesser and by F. E. Schulze. It is remarkable for the ele-
gant form of its shell, which, instead of being oval, as in Zugly-
pha, has its anterior end produced into a short curved neck so as
to give to the shell somewhat the form ofa retort. The shell-
structure resembles that of Huglypha except in the smallness of
its component plates and the absence of distinct serration at the
orifice. The contractile vacuoles are in the anterior region of
the protoplasm, instead of lying, as in Euglypha, on an equatorial
plane between the anterior and posterior.

F. E. Schulze has obtained this rhizopod from very different
localities, and from both fresh, salt, and brackish water. He
finds the posterior part of the shell often containing only water,
through which bands of protoplasm pass from the soft body to the
shell-walls. In the midst of the thick posterior part of the body
is always a large, clear, spherical nucleus in which one or more
dark roundish nucleoli can be demonstrated. The pseudopodia
are destitute of granules, divide at acute angles, run out into fine

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 407

points, and seldom anastomose. He describes a narrow membra-
nous margin surrounding the orifice and overlooked by other ob-
servers.

Among specimens obtained from the Baltic, Schulze has occa-
sionally met with two individuals united to one another by the
pseudopodial extremities; but he has not followed this phenome-
non further.

Under the name of Cyphoderia truncata Schulze has described
a species in which the main axis is not curved, and has the shell-
orifice transverse to it; but it is difficult to see how such a form
can be referred to the genus Cyphoderia.

The genus Pleurophrys was founded by Claparéde and Lach-
mann for a freshwater monothalamian rhizopod which resem-
bles Difflugia in the fact of its test beg composed of foreign
particles united by a cement excreted from the surface, while
it differs from this genus in its pseudopodia being filiform and
pointed instead of being finger-shaped and blunt. The P. sphe-
rica, Clap. & Lach., has been further studied by Archer and by
Hertwig and Lesser and F. E. Schulze, all of whom have de-
scribed new species. It appears to be an abundant form, though
it has been rarely noticed, a fact which Archer explains by calling
attention to the peculiar appearance of its test, which resembles
the exereta of Rotifers and other microscopic animals, and which
would thus easily cause it to be overlooked. The foreign par-
ticles incorporated in its test resist the action of concentrated
acids, and are probably siliceous.

The pseudopodia issue from a rather large roundish orifice situ-
ated on one end of the longer axis. They are hyaline, very fine,
and pointed, divide frequently at acute angles, and anastomose
with one another. Hertwig and Lesser differ from Archer in
describing them as enclosing granules. Archer has demonstrated
the presence of a nucleus.

Archer has noticed in Pleuwrophrys amphitrematoides, Arch., the
presence of chlorophyl granules, a fact also observed in Diflugia,
but not elsewhere met with among the freshwater Thalamophora.
In examples of P. amphitrematoides, however, examined by F. E.
Schulze, this observer has found the chlorophyl granules replaced
by round colourless refringent granules quite like them except in
the absence of colour.

Hertwig and Lesser have frequently met with two individuals
in apposition by their pseudopodial openings, and with the pseu-

408 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

dopodia of one confluent with those of the other. Archer has
noticed a similar conjugation in another species, with streams of
the granular protoplasm passing to and fro from one into the
other.

Diaphoropodon mobile, Archer, which is one of the largest of ©
the encased freshwater Rhizopoda, has a rude test formed of hete-
rogeneous foreign particles loosely aggregated round its elliptical
body. From an aperture in one end of the test the sarcode mass
protrudes in the form of a hemispherical projection, and from this
are emitted numerous hyaline branching pseudopodia, which fre-
quently attain an enormous length. But the most singular cha-
racter of the genus is found in the fact that from the whole of
the included surface of the sarcode body are emitted very nume-
rous, short, simple, hyaline pseudopodia which traverse the outer
case, giving to its surface the appearance of a dense floceulent
clothing. The animal is further remarkable in the possession of a
marginal pulsatile vesicle like that of Actinophrys. <A large glo-
bular nucleus is immersed in the body.

In none of the Monothalamia now described have more than
one definite orifice been detected. In Diaphoropodon alone, be-
sides the definite single orifice, there would appear to exist in the
membranous basis of the test a vast multitude of minute pores
through which delicate pseudopodial filaments are emitted, and
which eall to mind the condition of the true Perforata. All these
constitute the Monothalamia monostomata of Hertwig and Lesser.
There exist, however, forms in which two definite pseudopodial
orifices are PSEA, these are the WZ. amphistomata of the same
authors.

One of these has been recorded by Barker* under the name of
Diplophrys Archeri (fig. 8),and has more recently been madethe sub-
ject of some very interesting observations by Hertwig and Lessert.
It has a simple elliptical membranous test and, notwithstanding
its minuteness, is rendered conspicuous by a bright yellow fat-
globule enclosed in its sarcode.. The two orifices from which the
brushes of pseudopodia radiate are nearly, but not exactly, at oppo-
site ends of the longer diameter of its oval test. Each brush
springs from the extremity of a short stem-like process of the sar-
code. The conspicuous large yellow globule in the interior con-
sists apparently of a solid fatty matter. Near to this isa nucleus

* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. vol. xvi.
t “Ueber Rhizopoden ” &e., Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol, x.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 409

Diplophrys Archeri.

A, lateral view: a, brilliant yellow fatty body; ¢, ¢, ¢, contractile vacuoles ;
n, nucleus; 0, 0, the two opposite pseudopodial orifices. B, a group composed
of four segments showing the mode in which the so-called cystophrys-heaps ~
are formed. (After Hertwig and Lesser.)

with its nucleolus, while several contractile vacuoles are distri-
buted through the sarcode. |

The observations of Hertwig and Lesser have led them to the
conclusion that the Diplophrys is multiplied by a process of con-
tinuous binary fission, the resulting brood remaining for some
time united to one another in little heaps (fig.8,B). They think
that the individuals which thus become divided are destitute of
shells. They have further convinced themselves that what Archer
describes as an independent organism under the name of “Cystophrys
oculea”’ is nothing more than one of these heaps of young Diplo-
phrys, whilst they also show that Greeff was equally in error
when he supposed that the Diplophrys was a development stage
of the heliozoan Acanthocystis spinifera.

On fresh horsedung kept under a bell-glass in summer Cien-
kowski has seen minute yellow globules of the size and appearance
of a mucor sporangium. When these little globules are touched
under the microscope, they may be seen to break up into a
multitude of oval or lenticular corpuscles, which scatter them-
selves over the field. These are cells containing a nucleus, one
or two contractile vesicles, and a yellow pigment-globule. We
may perceive in them a slight jerking motion, while on each
end one or two long pseudopodia have become apparent. After a
time the cells become united to one another in chains by their

410 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

pseudopodia, or are aggregated in heaps. The chains of cells
remind us strongly of the Labyrinthulea. They move about,
creep over the surfaces, and finally unite into the little yellow glo-
bules in which they were first noticed.

Cienkowski places this curious little organism in the genus
Diplophrys; though, from its minuteness, it is not easy to say
whether it is naked or furnished with a shell. He assigns to it
the specific name of stercorea.

The only form of multiplication observed in it is by fission, as
in Diplophrys Archeri. During the fission the yellow pigment-
globule in its interior participates in the division.

Another amphistomatous freshwater rhizopod nearly allied to
Diplophrys, from which it differs mainly in its elliptical test
being strengthened by the incorporation of foreign particles, is
Archer’s genus Amphitrema*. At each end of the longer diameter
of the test is a round orifice through which is emitted a dense tuft
of branching pseudopodia.

Among the most important results derived from recent study
of the Rhizopoda is the discovery of a nucleus in the so-called
Foraminifera. The failure of all previous attempts to demon-
strate the presence of a nucleus in the calcareous-shelled marine
Rhizopoda, whether monothalamian or polythalamian, led to the
belief that they possessed the morphological value of a cytode or
non-nucleated protoplasm mass, and they were accordingly rele-
gated to the lowest stage in the systematic arrangement of the
Rhizopoda.

This view must now be abandoned; for the independent and
nearly simultaneous researches of Hertwig} and of Franz Hilhard
Schulzet have demonstrated the presence of a nucleus in repre-
sentatives of all the principal divisions of the Foraminifera, and
justify us in the general conclusion that their protoplasm is in
every case nucleated.

By the aid of dilute chromic acid and subsequent tinging
with carmine, Hertwig succeeded in demonstrating a nucleus in
young specimens of Mtliola, which as yet consisted of but a single
chamber, as well as in older ones where additional chambers had
been formed. In the latter case the number of the nuclei was

* Archer, loc. cit.
+ Jenaische Zeitsch. vol. x. (1876).
{ Arch. f. mikr, Anat. vol. xii. (1876).

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 441

also generally increased, but not necessarily in the same ratio as
that of the chambers. In some of the chambers there occurred
only one nucleus, while others contained several.

The nucleus appears to enclose a nucleolus and to be invested
by a membrane, thus corresponding in its structure with that
of the freshwater Monothalamian Rhizopods.

Similar results followed the employment of the same method of
investigation in Rotalia and in Textillaria, in both of which
genera Hertwig succeeded in demonstrating the presence of
nuclei.

Schulze had already seen what he regarded as a nucleus with
nucleolus in one of the Foraminifera, Quinguweloculina fusca,
Brady* ; and he now finds an undoubted nucleus lying near the
posterior end of the shell in Hntosolenia globosa, one of the marine
monothalamian rhizopods belonging to the family of the Lagenide.

In the very abundant polythalamian rhizopod Polystomella
striatopunctata he has also demonstrated the presence of a nu-
cleus, and has carefully followed out its relations.

The nucleus here has a manifest thick outer membrane with
clear contents in which were several strongly refringent roundish
bodies. Usually only one such nucleus was to be found in each
Polystomella, and then always near the middle of the series of
chambers; but occasionally two or three occurred each in aseparate
chamber.

From the dependence of the position ofthe nucleus on the en-
tire number of the chambers, it is obvious that it must be conti-
nually migrating from one chamber to another through the canals
of communication. Indeed the nucleus may frequently be seen
still engaged in one of the canals between two neighbouring
chambers, so as to be partly in one and partly in the other.

From the fact of the many-chambered Polystomella containing,
as a rule, only one nucleus, we should be justified in assigning to
it the morphological value of a single cell; and even in those
cases in which in this and other Foraminifera several nuclei have
been seen, this multinucleate condition cannot be regarded as
indicating a multicellular structure of the organism. It is pro-
bably connected with reproduction ; and an observation of Hertwig
on Rotalia contributes some additional facts to our knowledge of
the reproduction of the Foraminifera, hitherto observed in but
very few instances.

* Arch. f. mikr. Anat. vol. xi.

412 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Hertwig noticed on the walls of the jars containing living speci-
mens of Rotalia little heaps of from twenty to forty small 3-
chambered individuals which were united to one another by their
protoplasm, and in each of which he succeeded in demonstrating a
single nucleus. Max Schultze had shown that in some other
genera the young are not only developed within the shell of the
maternal animal, but become invested with their own shell before
leaving the parent ; and it is highly probable that these little colo-
nies of young Aotalia have a similar origin.

From what is thus known ofthe reproduction of the Forami-
nifera, we may conclude that the protoplasmic body of the parent
breaks up into segments, conditioned by the nuclei which had been
developed in it, while each of these segments forms for itself
within the maternal shell its own investment. In fotalia they
would seem to become free by the destruction of the parent shell
and then to live for a time in union with one another.

The discovery of a nucleus in the Foraminifera will now deter-
mine the place which we must assign to them among sarcode
organisms; and F. E. Schulze has accordingly attempted by
means of a hypothetical genealogical tree to express the descent
and mutual affinity of all the leading groups of the Rhizopoda. He
employs this designation in a wider sense than has been accepted
by many recent zoologists, and embraces under it all those low
organisms which, during the greater part of their lives, and espe-
cially during the period of their highest development, are brought
into relation with the external world by means of pseudopodia,
which they employ for locomotion and for the prehension of nu-
triment. All these organisms agree essentially with one another
and constitute a definite group, whether a nucleus be differentiated
or not, whether pulsatile vacuoles or hard parts be present or absent,
or whether the pseudopodia present the condition of broad lobes, of
fine filaments, of a complex network, or of any other modification.

The base of the tree where its stem is as yet undivided con-
sists of the primitive forms—mere non-nucleated cytodes—repre-
sented by Haeckel’s Monera (Protameba, Protogenes, Protomyxa,
Myxodictium, &e.). From these, by the differentiation of a nucleus
in their protoplasm, are evolved the nucleated forms (Ameba,
freshwater Monothalamia, Foraminifera, Heliozoa, &c.) which
constitute the subdivisions into which the stem branches off.
These repeat the various modifications of pseudopodia (lobose,

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 413

filiform, &c.) which had already existed in the earlier forms, and
which they thus derive by inheritance from their non-nucleated
progenitors. Finally, through the branch of the Heliozoa we are
conducted to the ultimate twigs formed by the families of the
Radiolaria, in which we find not only nuclei, but a “ central cap-
sule,”’ indicating the highest grade of differentiation attained by
any members of the group.

In 1863 Cienkowski published the results of a series of careful
observations on the development of the Myxomycete*, a group of
very low organisms which had been unhesitatingly assigned to
the fungi, until De Bary had a few years previously called atten-
tion to their real nature, and in a very important memoir + pointed
out the predominance in them of characters which had been
generally regarded as the proper attribute of animals. De Bary
believed that the facts which he had demonstrated in the struc-
ture and life-history of the Myxomycete would render necessary
their removal from the vegetable and their relegation to the
animal kingdom.

Shortly after the appearance of De Bary’s memoir, some
further important observations on the D/yromycete had been made
by Currey{, who fully confirmed the production by them of free
locomotive bodies resembling the zoospores of an Alga.

The researches of De Bary, of Currey, and of Cienkowski have
now made us well acquainted with the structure and development
of these extraordinary organisms. A typical Myxomycete (fig. 9)
consists of a network of ramifying and anastomosing threads of a
slimy or creamy consistence, which spreads over the surface of
decayed leaves and stems (A).

From various parts of this slimy network there arise oval
vesicles (sporangia) (B) with membranous walls, within which the
reproductive bodies or spores are developed.

De Bary was the first to show that the basal network is com-
posed of a substance possessing all the characters of animal sar-
code, and his observations have been fully confirmed and further
extended by subsequent observers, more especially by Cienkowski.
Under the microscope the threads composing the network ex-
hibit active spontaneous movements, which in the larger branches
are visible under an ordinary lens or even by the naked eye. A

* “Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten,” Prings. Jahrb. 1863.

+ “Die Mycetozoen,” Zeitschr. f. w. Zool. 1860, vol. x.
+ Natural History Review, No. viii., Oct. 1862.

414A PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

succession of undulations may be then noticed passing along the
course of the threads ; and under higher magnifying-powers the
characteristic sarcode currents show themselves in constant
streams of granules flowing along the threads and streaming from
branch to branch of this wonderful network. Here and there

Development of the Myxomycete.

A, the plasmodium of Didymium serpula (natural size). B, sporosacs of Arcy-
ria flava: a, young sporosac; @*, sporosac in the act of bursting ; 4, capillitium
exposed after the bursting of the sporosac and the diffusion of the spores. C,
ripe, spore of Physarum album. D, the same, with its contents escaping. HH,
the contents become free, and showing nucleus and contractile vacuoles.
F, the same, after having developed a flagellum and assumed the condition of
a swarm-spore. G, the swarm-spore become Ameeboid. H, two Amceboid
swarm-spores in close juxtaposition. I, the two Amebe fused together into a
young plasmodium. J, the plasmodium more advanced ; it has already begun
to ramify and to take in nutriment: two nutriment-pellets are seen imbedded
in its protoplasm. (After Greville and Cienkowski.)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 415

sarcode offshoots are projected and again withdrawn in the manner
of the pseudopodia of an Ameba, while the whole organism has
been occasionally seen to abandon the support over which it had
grown, and to creep over neighbouring surfaces, thus far resem-
bling in all respects a colossal ramified Ameba.

From the surface of this sarcode-net there arise, as has just
been said, the reproductive capsules or sporangia. In the soft
plasma with which these are filled appear a multitude of nuclei, and
the plasma then divides into a great number of roundish masses,
in each of which a nucleus is enclosed. These are the young
spores; they are accompanied in most species by a fibrous network,
the “capillitium” (fig. 9, B, 6), which fills up the intervals between
the spores. When mature the sporangium bursts and allows the
spores to escape(C). These are each enclosedin a thick membrane,
which, after a time, becomes ruptured, and the little soft round
mass of protopiasm which it had confined is set at liberty (D).

This little protoplasm lump encloses a nucleus with a minute
central nucleolus, and contains one or two pulsating vacuoles (E) ;
and soon after its escape it begins to show spontaneous move-
ments, and to exhibit constant changes of form, while one end is
drawn out into a long vibratile flagellum, by means of which, when
placed in a drop of water under the microscope, it may be seen

swimming about in the manner ofthe swarm-spore of an Alga (F).
After a time it may be observed to withdraw its flagellum, emit
and retract pseudopodia, and creep about like an Ameba over the
stage of the microscope (G). It now takes in foreign bodies as nu-
triment, enveloping them in its substance ; it multiplies by self-
division, and in all respects conducts itself like a genuine Ameba.

In the next place, a certain number of these ameebiform bodies
approach one another, come into close contact (H), and ultimately
become completely fused together into a common mass of pro-
toplasm (I). To the body thus formed by the fusion of the Amebe,
Cienkowski has given the name of “ plasmodium.”

The plasmodium continues, like the simple ameebiform bodies
of which it is composed, to grow by the ingestion of solid nutri-
ment which it envelopes in its substance (J); it throws out ramify-
ing and inosculating processes, and finally becomes converted into a
protoplasmic network, which, in its turn, gives rise to sporangia
with their contained spores, and thus completes the cycle of its
development.

Under certain conditions not yet perfectly understood the

416 PROF, ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Myxomycete have been observed to pass from an active motile
state into a resting state; and this may occur in both swarm-
spores and plasmodium. In the case of the swarm-spores, these
bodies, when passing into the resting state, assume a spherical
form, and become surrounded by a delicate membrane or by a firm
external layer of thin protoplasm. In this condition, in which
they constitute the “ microcysts’’ of Cienkowski, they may
remain, after complete desiccation, in a dormant state for more
than two months; and on being again placed in water they soon
resume their original activity.

But the plasmodium itself, as well as the swarm-spore, may pass
into a resting state. After withdrawing its finer branches, and
expelling such solid ingesta as may be included in it, its motions
gradually cease, it breaks up into a multitude of polyhedral cells,
and the whole body dries into a horny brittle mass, to which the
term “sclerotium”’ has been given.

Ji sometimes happens that the plasmodium, instead of forming
a continuous sclerotium, breaks up into separate pieces of very
unequal size, which withdraw their projecting branches and assume
the form of smooth spheres, round which a thick membrane is
excreted. Within this outer membrane the protoplasm contracts
and forms on its surface a second membrane. To these cell-like
bodies Cienkowski has given the name of “ thick-walled cysts.”

Both these resting states of the plasmodium may, like that of
the swarm-spores, undergo complete desiccation, and thus con-
tinue for many months in an inactive state without losing their
vitality. When the dry sclerotium is placed in water, it imme-
diately swells up, and after a time its cells again flow together into
an ameeboid protoplasm. So also when the thick-walled cysts, after
remaining long desiccated, are similarly treated, their membrane
will become ruptured, and the contained protoplasm will escape
and begin to throw out pseudopodia and glide about like an Ameba,
and engulf within its substance foreign bodies for nutriment,
while several may unite by fusion into larger amcebiform masses
and thus give rise in their turn to new plasmodia.

In a subsequent paper* Cienkowski describes the plasmodium
of an unknown Myxomycetewhich occurs in fresh water in the form
of a sarcode network, and which has enabled him to add some in-
teresting facts to our knowledge of the plasmodium.

* Cienkowski, “Ueber einige Rhizopoden und yerwandte Organismen,”
Archiv f. mikr. Anat. 1875.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 417

He found that a fragment broken off from this plasmodial net-
work moves about independently, and he saw it throw out a long
pointed pseudopodium which attached itself to an Alga, penetrated
its walls and sucked out its contents in the manner of a Vampy-
rella, another simple sarcode organism to which we shall pre-
sently refer.

Whether the Myxomycete should take their place in the animal
or vegetable kingdom is a question which in the present state of
our knowledge it is impossible to answer. Haeckel has evaded
the difficulty by placing them, along with a number of other doubt-
ful organisms, in his kingdom of the Protista, which he regards
as holding an intermediate place between animals and plants.

Cienkowski has followed his researches on the Myxomycete by
another important memoir on a group of minute sarcode organ-
isms to which he has assigned the name of Monadine*. During
certain phases of their development they resemble in many re-
spects the well-known zoospores of the Algz, and might, indeed,
be so regarded, were it not that, like the swarm-spores of the
Myxomycete, they have been proved to pass through a special and
peculiar cycle of development which entitles them to be viewed as
an independent group.

Cienkowski has given us the life-history of five forms which
he refers to his Monadine. Two or three of them may be here
adduced with the view of giving an adequate conception of these
remarkable organisms.

In the cells of decaying Witella there may be found certain mi-
nute spindle-shaped very contractile bodies, which move about by
the aid of cilia, and which closely resemble the swarm-spores of
the Myxomycete or of the Algz. Cienkowski has assigned to
them the name of Monas amyli. After a time they lose their
cilia, emit pseudopodia, and, assuming the form of an Ameba,
creep about and take in foreign matter as nutriment by enveloping
it in their soft protoplasm. Further, two or more of these amebi-
form bodies may unite and become fused together into a plasmo-
dium like that of the Myxomycete.

After enjoying for a time its free locomotive condition, Monas
amylc passes into a resting state. The amcebiform body begins to
harden itself on its surface into a continuous membrane, and thus
becomes enclosed in a capsular covering. After continuing thus

* Cienkowski, ‘‘Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Monaden,” Arch. f. mikros.
Anat. 1865.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 35

418 PROF, ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

encysted for a certain time, the contents of the capsule become
broken up into numerous separate masses of protoplasm, which
finally eseape in the form of the spindle-shaped zoospores found
in the Witella.

Fig. 10.

Protomonas Hucleyt.

A, fragment of a cylindrical diatom (Rhizosolenia) to which the Protomonas,
B, in its encysted state, is attached. , the cyst with its contents broken up into
spherical non-nucleated protoplasm masses. H, the spherical masses, after haying
developed a flagellum, have become free swarm-spores by the rupture of the cyst.
D, ameboid condition assumed by the swarm-spore. F, the ameeboid swarm-
spore haying assumed the form of an Actinophrys by the emission of numerous

fine pseudopodia. (After Haeckel.)

The generic name of Monas, under which Cienkowski has de-
scribed this singular organism, has been changed by Haeckel *
«nto that of Protomonas, on the very tenable ground that the name
of Monas had been long applied to’ a group of microscopic orga-
nisms which we should not be justified in confounding with the
monads of Cienkowski. Haeckel has, moreover, described another
representative of the genus, which he found in the Canary Islands
attached to the surface of a floating diatom, and which he names
Protomonas Huxleyi. He gives a very complete account of its
life-history, which is in all essential points like that of P. amylt.

* Monographie der Moneren.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 419

I have taken Haeckel’s figures (fig. 10) as affording an excellent
illustration of the life-history of this remarkable group of orga-
nisms*.

A still more remarkable genus of Monadine is Vampyrella,
Cienkowski. Perhaps the most interesting of the three species
of Vampyreila described by Cienkowski is the /. spiregyre (fig. 11).
This has long been known to algologists in the form of spherical
brick-red capsules (B), which are often found attached to tue fila-
ments of the confervoid alga Spirogyra. It is, however, the merit of
Cienkowski to have discovered the real nature of these capsules
and to have satisfactorily traced their life-history.

The walls of the capsule are composed of twomembranes. The
inner gives the characteristic cellulose reaction, becoming blue
when treated with sulphuric acid and iodine. The outer mem-
brane, which in the older capsules is often absent, forms a soft
nitrogenous layer. The contents of the capsule consist of a
brick-red protoplasm with, usually, large dark irregular granules
towards the centre caused by foreign matter which had been taken
inas nutriment. By carefully continued observations the contents
may be seen to divide into two or four portions (tetraspores) (C),
and then to escape in the form of red Ameba-like bodies through
round openings in different parts of the capsule. The dark bodies
which remain behind in the capsule are the undigested remains of
the nutriment.

The bodies which have thus become liberated appear to be desti-
tute of nucleus and contractile vesicle. When released they assume
the form of spherical masses of a red-coloured protoplasm (D), from
the surface of which are emitted pointed pseudopodial rays like
those of an Actinophrys. They are, however, very contractile
and undergo constant change of form, drawing themselves out
into strings and fine filaments, which tear asunder and again unite
and send off branches and form fan-like expansions; while these
ramified creeping masses of protoplasm can again contract them-
selves into a sphere.

When the Vampyrella in this condition is watched in water
containing some plants of Spirogyra, it may be seen wandering
about slowly until it strikes against one of the filaments of the
alga. After gliding for some time over the surface of the filament
it attaches itself to it if the filament be healthy and loaded with
_ * Haeckel, “ Nachtrage zur Monographie der Moneren,” Jenaische Zeitschr.

1871.
35*

420 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Vampyrella spirogyre.

A, the Vampyrella in the act of sucking out the contents of a Spirogyra-cell.
B, the Vampyrella in its encysted state: a, nitrogenous covering : 4, interior con-
tents. C, the contents of the Vampyrella-cyst have become divided into tetraspores,
and one of these is seen escaping as an Ameba-like Vampyrella. D, the free
ameeboid Vampyrella. (After Cienkowski.)

chlorophyl. We next find that it has begun to perforate the walls
of the filament ; and no sooner has it thus gained access to the
interior than the protoplasmic lining (“ primordial utricle ”’)
detaches itself from the cell-wall of the Spirogyra, and along
with its adherent chlorophyl granules passes slowly into the body
of the Vampyrella (A). As soon as the Vampyrella has thus gained
possession of the contents of one cell it passes to another, and
there repeats the process. In this way cell after cell is plundered
of its contents; and now the Vampyrella, gorged with food, seats
itself on some part of the alga, rolls itself into a ball, and quietly
digests its prey.

The chlorophyl granules which had thus made their way into
the interior of the Vampyrella now become gradually distributed
through its entire body, and it then passes into the resting state
(B), withdrawing its pseudopodia and excreting a soft nitrogenous

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 427

covering, under which is formed a weak cellulose membrane.
During this time the contents assume a red colour, and the en-
cysted Vampyrella finally appears in the form of the red capsule
with which the description of its life-history was commenced.

The only other species of Vampyrella which it will be necessary
to refer to is one more recently described by Haeckel*, who dis-
covered it on the coast of Norway, and has assigned to it the
name of Vampyrella gomphonematis (fig. 12), It appears to live
exclusively on a species of Gomphonema, whose cells it envelopes
and then sucks out their contents.

On the branches of the Gomphonema (A) are occasionally found,
in place of the proper terminal cells of silica, a great abundance
of clear red spherical capsules (a). These are the cysts of the
Vumpyrella.

The free-creeping V. gomphonematis (B) always appears as an
irregular lump of protoplasm without nucleus or contractile
vesicle, while from its surface there are emitted a great number
of extremely fine pseudopodia.

In this condition it creeps over the stems and branches of the
Gomphonema, adapting itself t6 the form of its support; and as
soon as it has reached one of the terminal siliceous cells of the
diatom, it extends itself over the entire cell so as completely to
envelope it in a thin layer of protoplasm.

The plundering of the Gomphonema-cell now begins, and while
a number of fine pseudopodia radiate from the body of the
Vampyrella into the surrounding water, another portion of its pro-
toplasm forces its way between the siliceous plates of the cell into
the interior, and here appropriates the contents.

The empty siliceous cell (A, g, 2) of the Gomphonema is now
broken off from its stem and, as foreign indigestible matter, is cast
out of the body of the Vampyrella, which continues to sit in the
place of the cell and there digests its food in quiet. In this way it
passes from cell to cell of the Gomphonema ; and when it has thus
plundered many cells, and by abundant nutriment has attained its
full size, it begins gradually to withdraw its pseudopodia to round
itself into a smooth. sphere of protoplasm, to encyst itself by the
exudation of a capsule, and pass into a resting state (a).

The encysted Vampyrella continues now to sit on the summit
of the stem in the place of its last victim, and after remaining for
some time in this condition of repose, the contents of the capsule

* ‘Nachtrage zur Monographie der Moneren,” Jenaische Zeitschr. 1871.

422 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

Fig. 12.

Vampyrella gomphonematis.

A, a colony of Gomphonema attacked by numerous Vampyrelle: a, an en-
cysted Vampyrella ; b, 6, the cyst with its contents broken up into four tetra-
spores ; ¢, ¢, a tetraspore transformed into the Vampyrelle, which is escaping
from the cyst, and has already begun to creep along a neighbouring branch ;
d, d, tetraspores still included in the cyst; f, a Vampyrella in the act of de-
vouring the contents of a Gomphonema-cell; g, h, empty cells of the Gompho-
nema being cast out of the body of the Vampyrella. B, an isolated Vampyrefla
moving about by means of its extended pseudopodia. (After Haeckel.)

become divided into four similar parts (4, 6). These are the tetra-
spores, which Cienkowski had already shown to constitute part
of the developmental cycle of Vampyrelia. In one spot of the
capsule a small opening now appears, and through this the tetra-
spores slowly press themselves out (e), immediately emit pseudo-
podia, and assume the form of the creeping Actinophrys-like proto-

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 4.23

plasm lump which, as we have already seen, constitutes the fully
developed state of the active and voracious Vampyrella.
Cienkowski divides his group of the Monadina into two sub-
ordinate ones :—
I. Monaprina zoosporea.—Reproduction effected by the for-
mation of numerous mobile spores.
1. Monas (Protomonas, Haeckel).
2. Pseudospora.
3. Colpodella.

UT. Monapina TETRAPLASTA.—Reproduction effected by the
formation of two or four Actinophrys-like bodies.
4. Vampyrella.
5. Nuclearia*.

Among the most important researches on the lowest forms of
life which must be brought under this review are those of Messrs.
Dallinger and Drysdale on a group of minute flagellate organisms
obtained from putrifying infusions of fish, and described by
these investigators under the general name of “ Monads’’+.

By the aid of very high powers (5 of an inch object-glass),
and by employing an ingeniously constructed “ moist chamber,”
Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale have followed up the life-history
of these organisms, and have discovered, common to them all,
certain phenomena which are full of significance in the history of
development. .

Among several forms whose development has been carefully
traced by them, we may take, as a sufficiently illustrative example,
one to which they refer under the name of “the calycine monad {”
(fig. 13). It has a conical shape (A), 55 to 3hp Of an inch in
length ; the broad end carries four flagella, which spring from a
common root, while the opposite end tapers away to a point. A
shallow longitudinal depression extends backwards along each
side, giving to the broad end an hourglass-shaped outline. It con-
tains a large nucleus and two rhythmically contracting vacuoles.

The first phenomenon observed in its life-history is a multipli-

* Nuclearia has been described above, and reasons given why it ought not to
be associated with the Monadina of Cienkowski (see p. 386).

+ Rey. W. H. Dallinger and J. Drysdale, M.D., “ Researches on the Life-
History of the Monads,” Monthly Microse. Journ. vols. x.—xiii. 1873-75.

t In no instance do the authors give a systematic name to the organisms
which form the subject of their investigations, and to which they always refer
under vernacular designations.

424, PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

cation by transverse fission. When this is about to take place
the posterior or non-flagellate end becomes blunt and rounded,
and the monad assumes a semiamceboid condition, the sarcode be-
coming irregular in outline (B). The common root of the flagella
now splits, so that the four flagella are separated into two pairs,
which recede more and more from one another until finally we
find them situated on two diametrically opposite points of the

Fig. 13.

Development of ‘‘ Calycine Monad.”

A, fully developed monad, with nucleus and contractile vacuoles and four
flagella. B, the monad in the semiameceboid state which precedes fission. C, the
monad in the act of spontaneous fission. D, one of the two segments resulting
from fission, each of the two flagella becoming doubled by longitudinal split-
ting. EH, the ameboid condition which precedes fusion. F, two ameeboid
monads in the act of becoming fused into one another. H, the two blended bodies
enclosed in a sac which is pouring out a cloud of sporules. J, I, G, thesporules
becoming developed into the parent form. (After Dallinger and Drysdale.)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 425

body (C). Inthe mean time the nucleus has become divided into
two, and between its halves the fission of the body proceeds
until completed, and the two segments are set free. Each of
these (D) is as yet provided with only two flagella, which imme-
diately begin to split from the free end to the base, and the
complete form of the parent monad with its four flagella is thus
acquired. The two flagella during this act of splitting are attached
to some fixed object by their distal ends and then thrown into a
state of rapid vibration.

Besides the multitude of free-swimming, semiamceboid indivi-
duals thus noticed in the act of self-division, some (EF) may be seen
in which the ameeboid condition is much more decided on the pos-
terior end of the body from which pseudopodia are being constantly
protruded, while the anterior end with its four flagella continues
with but little change. The nucleus has become much larger.

In this condition the monad swims more and more slowly until,
in some cases, it ceases entirely to swim, and moves about solely
by the aid of pseudopodia, exactly like an Ameba.

If it now meet another in a similar condition, the amceboid parts
unite and instantly blend into one another (F). This blending
together of the two bodies becomes more and more intimate; the
two sets of flagella unite and become fused into the general sar-
code, the contractile vacuoles flow together and become inactive,
the two nuclei also flow together, and, finally, the blending has
become complete ; all trace of the original form is lost, and all
that remains is a distended roundish sac (H) which, after the lapse
of some hours, will be seen to pour out in all directions, without
evident rupture, clouds of excessively minute points which can
be clearly defined as oval refringent corpuscles only by means
of a magnifying-power of 2500 diameters. These were followed
by the aid of a »y of an inch object-glass, and their development
traced into the form of the original conical monad with its four
flagella.

The life-history thus traced in the “calycine monad”’ corre-
sponds in all essential points with what the authors observed in
the other species which formed the subject of their investigations.
Multiplication by fission took place in every species, while a fusion
together of two individuals would seem to be in every case a ne-
cessary phenomenon in the developmental cycle of the monad.
In one form only, instead of inactive sporules of immeasurable
minuteness following asa product of this fusion, the blended

426 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

mass broke up intoa multitude of minute flagellate young resem-
bling the original parents in all points but size.

Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale have further made a series of
well-conducted observations on the capacity possessed by these
“monads”’ of resisting high temperatures, and have arrived at
results of great importance in their bearing on the evidence
adduced by the advocates of the doctrine of spontaneous genera-
tion. They have thus shown that while the adult form is destroyed
by a temperature comparatively low, the minute inactive sporules
which result from the fusion of two monads may survive and be-
come developed into the complete organism after exposure to a
temperature of from 121° C. (258° Fahr.) to 140°88 C. (800°
Fahr.). This, however, occurs only in the case of the inactive
sporules; the young active brood into which, in one of the spe-
cies, the blended mass of sarcode breaks up only feebly survived a
temperature of 82°-22 C. (180° Fahr.).

The capacity of resisting heat possessed by the inactive sporules
has been estimated by the authors as bearing to that of the deve-
loped monad an average ratio of 11:6.

Haeckel records some additional observations on the structure
of the Radiolaria*. He had already + made it probable that the
protoplasm of these is formed by the union of many true cells.
As undoubted cells of the Radiolaria he had indicated the remark-
able “ yellow cells” and the intracapsular cells and alveolar cells.
Recent observations have convinced him that the spherical clear
vesicles which form the most important and constant constituent
of the central capsule are genuine cells. He finds in them a true
nucleus, and he regards it as very probable that they are repro-
ductive cells. .

This suspicion has been since confirmed by the observations of
Cienkowski, who has seen the contents of the central capsule
in Oollosphera break up into monadiform masses, which developed
on one end a pair of cilia and escaped in the form of zoospores f.
The ultimate destiny, however, of these bodies remains unknown.

It is well known that in Actinospherium Hichornit (which with
Actinophrys sol and most of the so-called freshwater Radiolarians
constitute the group of the Heliozoa) numerous nuclei exist in the

* “ Beitrage zur Plastidentheorie,” Jen. Zeitschr. vol. vy.

+ Die Radiolarien, 1862.

+ Cienkowski, “Ueber Schwarmebildung bei Radiolarien,’ Archiv f. mikr.
Anat. vol. vii. 1871.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 427

endosarc. These are regarded by Haeckel as indicating a true mul-
ticellular structure, which he compares with the multicellular con-
tents of the central capsule in the Radiolaria. He has further shown
that in the young state of various families of Radiolaria, though
the central capsule is absent, the central part of the proto-
plasm-body includes a number of cells. He hence concludes that
the young Radiolaria whose central capsule is as yet absent are
morphologically equivalent to Actinospheria. It should be borne
in mind, however, that even though we adopt Haeckel’s view of
the multicellularity of Actinospheria, the cells of this rhizopod
would be indicated solely by nuclei without any differentiated
territories of the surrounding protoplasm.

Haeckel has made the very interesting discovery that the so-
called “ yellow cells’ of the Radiolaria contain a substance which
cannot be distinguished from the starch of plants*. Acted on by
iodine the granular contents of these cells acquire an intense blue
colour. The quantity of starch which is thus contained in the
“ yellow cells’? of the Radiolaria is very great. In some cases
more than half of the entire body of the Radiolarian consists of
starch.

Among the most interesting and important contributions to
our knowledge of the lowest sarcode organisms is Haeckel’s
‘Monograph of the Monera’+. Haeckel had already, in his
‘Generelle Morphologie,’ grouped together under the name of
Monera certain organisms of the lowest conceivable kind. They
consist of an absolutely homogeneous and structureless mass of
sarcode, destitute in their fully developed and free-moving state
of external investing membrane and of internal nucleus and con-
tractile vacuole, and multiplying themselves by a self-division of
their substance. They are the simplest of all organisms ; indeed
it is impossible to conceive of a living being reduced to an ex-
pression more simple.

No character has yet been discovered in them which would
justify us in assigning them to the animal kingdom rather than to
the vegetable, or to the vegetable rather than to the animal: and
Haeckel unites them with the Rhizopoda, Flagellata, Diatomacez,
and some other organisms slightly higher than these, in order to
form an assemblage of low sarcodic forms which he regards as
neither plants nor animals, but as holding an intermediate posi-

* Beitrage zur Plastidentheorie.
+ ‘Monogr. der Moneren,” Jenais. Zeitschr. 1868.

4.28 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES.

tion between the two. ‘To this assemblage he assigns the rank of
a separate kingdom, to which he gives the name of Prorista.
Haeckel had founded his group of the Monera on an organism
which he had observed in the Mediterranean off Nice, and which
he named Protogenes primordialis. It consists of a homogeneous
ball of protoplasm, from whose surface thousands of fine thread-
like pseudopodia, which frequently branch and become confluent

Fig. 14.

Protomyxa aurantiaca.

A, the Protomyzxa in its encysted or resting state. B, the protoplasmic con-
tents of the cyst have become broken up into a multitude of spherical segments,
C, the protoplasm-spheres escaping from the cyst as flagellate swarm-spores.
D, the free swarm-spores actively swimming about by means of their flagelliform
processes. H, the swarm-spores after the withdrawal of the flagellum creeping
about by means of pseudopodia in the manner of an Ame@ba. F, the fully deve-
loped Protomyaa : in the interior are seen numerous vacuoles (a) and an ingested
diatom and infusorium (4, e); from the central protoplasm radiate a multitude
ol dendritically branched and anastomosing pseudopodia. (After Haeckel.)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 429

with one another, radiate inall directions. Nutriment is ingested
in the same manner as by the true Rhizopoda, and reproduction
is effected by a simple spontaneous division of the body into two
halves without this phenomenon being preceded, as in other cases,
by a motionless or encysted state.

In the present memoir Haeckel describes several genera of
Monera. The Protomyxa, of which we know only one species,
P. awrantiaca (fig. 14), was found on an empty Spirula-shell in the
Canary Islands. In its developed state (¥) it forms minute stellar
and arborescent figures of an orange-red colour, which spread over
the surface of the shell and vividly remind us of the ramified con-
tractile pigment-cells common in the skin of Amphibia and
Fishes. Each star-like body presents a central mass of sarcode
from which radiate numerous branches, which subdivide and in-
osculate and form a beautiful moving and changeable net of pro-
toplasm not unlike that of the Myxomycete. Orange-red gra-
nules, to which the colour of ‘the plasma is due, streamed in all
directions through the sarcode-net. Foreign bodies also, such as
pelagic Infusoria and Diatomacee, were seized by the protoplasm
and engulfed as food in its substance, where they might be seen,
along with the red granules, to be carried away in its currents.

No nucleus or definite contractile vesicle was present, though
numerous floating and inconstant vacuoles were dispersed through
its substance.

After a time an important change begins to take place. The
currents become slower, the ramified processes become gradually
withdrawn ; and after the siliceous and other indigestible remains
of the food are ejected, the whole body becomes rounded into a
spherical mass. Round this a transparent cyst now becomes
excreted, and the Protomyxa passes into a state of complete qui-
escence (A). These motionless encysted balls of orange-red proto-
plasm were also observed by Haeckel attached to the surface of
the Spirula-shell, and their subsequent history was followed by
him.

He found that after a time the contents of the cyst became
slightly retracted from the walls, and then became broken up
into a multitude of small, round, structureless, naked balls (B).
After remaining in this condition unchanged for several days,
the contained balls began to move within the cyst; and as the
motion became more lively, the balls assumed a pyriform shape,
in which one end was drawn out into a fine point. Soon after this

430 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

the cyst burst (C), and a multitude of the red pear-shaped bodies
issued from it and moved about in the surrounding water. It was
soon seen that one end had become attenuated into a very fine
tail or flagellum (D), so that the free sporules resembled the Fla-
gellate, or the zoospores of an Alga. They were without a trace
of nucleus, or of contractile vesicle, or of investing membrane, and
consisted solely of minute naked masses of homogeneous proto-
plasm.

This swarming-period lasted about one day, and then the spo-
rules lay’ quiet on the bottom of the vessel. The tail was drawn
in, and the pear-shaped form was changed into that of an irregular
roundish disk, from whose circumference pseudopodial processes
began to be emitted. The sporule had now passed into the con-
dition of an Ameba (BH), and began, like an Ameba, to take in
nutriment by engulfing it in its substance ; and then vacuoles of
inconstant size and position made their appearance within it.

Two or more of these Amebe were seen to unite and form a
plasmodium. The pseudopodia became more and more branched
and reticulated, and the condition of the orange-red dendritic
patches, which crept over the Spirwia-shell, and with which our
history commenced, was finally attained.

It is thus seen that Protomyxa passes in the course of its de-
velopment through an encysted or sedentary stage, and a free or
mobile stage. The latter shows itself in three different succes-
sive forms :—1, that of a free-swimming flagellate; 2, that of a
creeping Ameba; and 3, that of a contractile protoplasm-net.

The genus Myxastrum, represented by MW. radians (fig. 15), was
also found by Haeckel in the Canary Islands. It consists of a small
globular mass of homogeneous protoplasm (G), from whose whole
periphery radiate a multitude of fine pseudopodia. It thus bears
a close resemblance to the well-known Actinophrys sol, from which,
however, it is separated by the absence of vacuole and by its
remarkable mode of reproduction.

When the time for its reproduction approaches, Myaastrum
radians retracts its pseudopodia, assumes the form of a smooth
ball, encysts itself in the manner of Protomyxa, and becomes
motionless (A). After atime the plasma mass within the cyst be-
comes divided by radiating furrows into numerous segments, which
gradually assume a spindle-shape and become clothed with a thin
siliceous membrane (B, C), These spindle-shaped bodies resemble
Navicule, and if isolated might easily be taken for small Diatoms.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 431

They want, however, the nucleus of the Diatomacex. They are
simple non-nucleated masses of protoplasm invested by their

siliceous membrane.
Fig. 15.

Myxastrum radians.

A, the Myxastrum in its encysted resting state. B, the homogeneous contents
of the cyst have become broken up by radial cleavage into numerous conical
masses whose points touch one another in the centre of the sphere, and whose
rounded bases are visible at the periphery. C, the conical segments of B have
become fusiform, and each has excreted for itself a siliceous shell. The focus of
the microscope is here directed upon a meridional plane so as to show the radial
disposition of the fusiform spores. D, the free fusiform spore with its siliceous
shell, H, the protoplasmic contents of the spore escaping from its siliceous
shell. F, the homogeneous protoplasm of the spore which has entirely freed
itself from its siliceous shell, and assumed a spherical form. G, the same pro-
toplasm mass become the fully developed Myzastrwm, with a multitude of fine
pseudopodia radiating in all directions from its periphery. (After Haeckel.)

In this condition they remain for some time within the cyst, and
then, by the rupture of this, escape and become dispersed in the
surrounding water (D). Soon after this the homogeneous proto-

432 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

plasm issues through an aperture in one end of its siliceous
covering (E), contracts itself into a ball (F), begins to emit
radiating processes from its surface and to take in nourishment
from without, and then by a process of simple growth acquires
the condition of the adult Myxastrum.

Under the name of Myxodictywm sociale, Haeckel describes
another representative of the Monera, which he obtained from
the surface of the sea in the Bay of Algesiras. When taken it
consisted of a group of roundish masses of homogeneous proto-
plasm, resembling small Actinophryses, from each of which ra-
diated numerous fine branching and anastomosing filaments, which
became confluent with those of the neighbouring masses, uniting
the whole into a simple large plasma-net.

The uniting filaments resembled in all respects the pseudopodia
of the true Rhizopoda, and the characteristic sarcode-currents
might be seen in them passing from mass to mass. Mysodictywm
would thus appear to represent a colony of Moners rather than a
single individual; and Haeckel compares it in this respect with
the polycytarian or social Radiolaria.

Nothing decided has been discovered regarding the reproduc-
tion of Myxodictyum, but it is probable that some of the masses
detach themselves from the margin of the old colony and form
new ones.

Those independent Ameba-like organisms which have neither
nucleus nor contractile vesicle, and whose body consists ¢” a per-
fectly structureless mass of protoplasm, have been, under the name
of Protameba, separated by Haeckel from the true Amebe, which
always possess a nucleus and generally a vacuole, or even a true
contractile vesicle.

Haeckel here describes his Protameba primitiva (fig. 16),which he
found among decaying leaves in the fine mud of a pond near Jena.
Tt consists of a mass of absolutely homogeneous protoplasm, which
emits from its periphery short blunt pseudopodia, and shows no
differentiation of a more firm outer and a softer inner portion,
as is seen in some other species of Protameba and in most, pro-
bably all, of the true dmebe. Ittakes in nutriment by envelop-
ing solid matter in its substance in the manner of the true Amaebe
and the Ameba-like blood-cells of animals : and it multiplies by the
simplest form of non-sexual reproduction—the spontaneous divi-
sion of its body without previously passing into a resting state.

Bodies entirely similar to these Protamebe occur as transi-

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 433

tional stages in the development of some other Monera (Proto-
myx@) as well as in that of the Gregarine. But the Protamebe
of Haeckel are independent organisms directly reproducing them-
selves by spontaneous fission. The forms constituting the genus
Protameba are thus distinguished from the other Monera by their
simple pseudopodia, which never anastomose with one another so
as to form net-like expansions, and also by the fact that their
reproduction is by simple self-division without this being pre-
ceded by an encysted or resting state. A similar form of repro-
duction exists in Protogenes, another genus of Monera; but here
the pseudopodia are long thin branching processes which anasto-
mose with one another and form protoplasm-nets.

Fig. 16.

Protameba primitiva.

A, the Protameba with short lobe-like pseudopodia. B, the same, with a
longer pseudopodium. C, the same, in the act of self-division into two segments
(a, 6). (After Haeckel.)

Besides Protameba primitiva, several other species of Protameba
have been since described by Haeckel.

A peculiar slimy substance dredged from depths of from 5000
to 25,000 feet in the Atlantic Ocean, during the exploring expe-
dition of the ‘ Porcupine,’ had been examined by Huxley, who
concluded that it consists of living protoplasm, vast masses of
which extend over wide areas of the sea-bottom. He assigned to
this remarkable substance the name of Bathybius.

Associated with it and imbedded irregularly in the slime are
certain calcareous concretions of a very definite shape. These
have been named Coccoliths by Huxley. They are in the form
either of simple disks (Discoliths), or of two such disks united to
one another so as to form a body (Cyatholith) whose shape has
been very aptly compared by Huxley to a shirt-stud. Besides

* “Nachtrage zur Monographie der Moneren,” Jen. Zeit. 1871.

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 36

434 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

these, but occurring much more sparingly, have also been found
small globular concretions resembling little heaps of Coccoliths.
These have been named by Wallich, who first drew attention to
them, Coccospheres. Both Coccoliths and Coccospheres are
believed by Huxley to be proper parts of the Bathybius and
formed by excretion from the protoplasm.

The Bathybius has been since subjected to a very exhaustive
examination by Haeckel*, who believes that he is able to confirm
in all points the conclusions of Huxley, and arrives at the con-
viction that the bottom of the open ocean at depths below 5000
feet is covered with an enormous mass of free living protoplasm,
which lingers there in the simplest and most primitive condition,
having as yet acquired no definite form. He refers it to his group
of Monera, and suggests that it may have originated by spon-
taneous generation (Urzeugung), a question, however, which he
leaves for future investigations to decide.

The determination of Bathybius as an independent organism
has not been confirmed by observations since made during the
expedition of the ‘Challenger.’ What has been regarded as the
same slimy material which had been examined by Huxley and
Haeckel, in specimens preserved in alcohol, has been again exa-
mined on the spot, and the ‘ Challenger’ explorers have declared
their conviction that it is only an inorganic precipitate due to
the action of the alcohol. With the views of able observers thus
differing from one another, it will be wise to reserve judgment.

~ The origin of the Coccoliths and Coceospheres still remains un-
determined. Haeckel has described under the name of Myxo-
brachiat a remarkable genus of Radiolaria characterized by the
possession of one or several thick fleshy arms, which terminate
each in a capitulum. These terminal capitula enclose numerous
calcareous concretions exactly resembling the single-disk cocco-
liths and the coccospheres of Bathybius. Notwithstanding,
however, the impossibility of distinguishing the concretions of the
one from those of the other, Haeckel cannot consider Myxobrachia
as the proper: source of the multitudes of coccoliths which cover
the bottom of the sea.

* “ Beitrage zur Plastidentheorie,” Jena. Zeitschr. vol. v.
t Lbid.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 435

In a subsequent memoir*, Haeckel gives the following syste-
matic arrangement of all hitherto known Monera :—

I. Genera.
GYMNOMONERA. i Protamosbay....:.-+.cc- 5 species.
Monera without rest-) 2. Protogenes............ 1 species.
ing state or encys- | 3. Bathybius ........:... 1 species.
tation. (4. Myxodictyum ...... 1 species.

IT. Genera.
Leromonera. {5. Protomonas ......... 2 species,
Monera with resting } 6. Protomyxa............ 1 species.
state and encysta- | 7. Vampyrella............ 4 species.
tion. (8. Myxastrum ......... 1 species.

Of all these sixteen species, seven live in fresh water, the remain-
ing nine in the sea.

One of the most extraordinary of all those very low organisms
whose recent study has been rewarded by the discovery of new
and significant facts is one to which Haeckel} has given the name
of Magosphera (fig. 17).

Attached to the filaments of a species of the confervoid genus
Cladophora were noticed small spherical cells (A) of a pale yellow
colour, surrounded by a thick membrane, and showing in the
middle of their transparent protoplasm a large spherical nucleus
with a nucleolus. The structure of these bodies was thus undis-
tinguishable from that of a true animal egg, with its vitelline
membrane, vitellus, germinal vesicle, and germinal spot.

This egg-like form constitutes the first stage of Magosphera.
In attaining the second (B), a phenomenon in all respects like that
of the total cleavage of the yelk sets in. The nucleus of the cell
breaks up by self-division into two nuclei, and the protoplasm of
the cell has now become divided into two segments, each envelop-
ing one of the nuclei. Thus are formed the first two cleavage-
spheres, each of which in its turn, dividing into two, exactly
repeats the phenomenon (C). And the process is continued (D)
precisely as in ordinary yelk-cleavage, until with the fifth seg-
mentation thirty-two cleavage-spheres or daughter cells are pro-
duced, and the process of segmentation is completed.

* «“Nachtrage zur Monographie der Moneren,” Jena. Zeitschr. 1871.
+ Haeckel, “‘ Die Catallacten, eine neue Protisten-Gruppe,” Jena. Zeitschr.
Band vi. 1871.

436 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

The thirty-two daughter cells into which the egg-like cell has
thus broken up now begin to show amceboid movements within
their common investing membrane. At the same time they emit

Fig. 17.

Magosphera planula.

A, unicellular encysted condition. B, the cyst containing two cells; the
single cell divided into two by the first act of segmentation. C, the contents of
the cyst divided into four cells by continued segmentation. D, the contents of the
cyst divided into sixteen cells by still further segmentation. , the multicellular
sphere resulting from repeated segmentation has forsaken the cyst, and now
swims about by means of vibratile cilia. (Viewed from the surface.) TF, the
ciliated sphere viewed in optical section through its centre, so that ten of its
component cells are seen in a meridional plane. G, an isolated ciliated cell with
long tail. H, the cell having lost its cilia and assumed an ameboid form.
(After Haeckel.)

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 437

from their surface small, blunt, irregular, pseudopodial projections.
These gradually become more pointed, thinner, and longer; their
motions become more lively, and the amceboid pseudopodia pass
into vibratile cilia.

The change of pseudopodia into vibratile cilia had been already
shown by Haeckel* to occur in other instances, and has been re-
garded by him as proving the identity of amceboid protoplasm-
motion with ciliary motion. J am enabled to bring forward a
confirmation of this view in the apparent passing of pseudopodia
into cilia on the gastric surface of Myriothelat.

The spherical cell-heap whose surface has in this way clothed
itself with vibratile cilia begins by the aid of these to rotate slowly
within the egg-membrane. This is at last ruptured, and the
ciliated sphere escapes and swims about by means of its cilia in
the surrounding water (E).

The Magosphera is now in the condition of a multicellular
ciliated sphere so closely resembling one of Ehrenberg’s Volvo-
cinee, that if its history were not known it would, without hesi-
tation, be placed in this group as a genus closely allied to if not
identical with the Synwra of Ehrenberg.

The celis, which have a spherical form, or are more or less poly-
hedral from mutual pressure, now become regularly pyriform, and
are seen to be united in the centre of the sphere by their elongated
ends (F), while the peripheral end is rounded off and furnished with
cilia, which appear to sit upon the margin of this end in a circle
interrupted at one side by a spiral arrangement, as in the peri-
stome of Vorticella, &c.

The cells have no membrane, and the intervals between them
are filled with a watery, structureless, jelly-like secretion from
their surface, as in the Volvocinee. Every cell encloses in its
protoplasm a nucleolated nucleus surrounded by granules, and
possesses also a contractile vesicle.

After the Magosphera has thus continued for some time swim-
ming about in the sea as a ciliated sphere, it begins to resolve
itself into its constituent elements. The single ciliated cells now
separate from one another and swim about independently (G). In
this state they might be easily taken for peritrichal ciliate In-
fusoria, or for isolated cilia-cells of the epithelium of the higher
animals. These separate cells are very contractile, and are con-

* Beitrage zur Plastidentheorie.

+ “On the Structure and Development of Myriothela,” Phil. Trans. 1875,

438 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE RECENT RESEARCHES

stantly changing their shape from fusiform to spherical. They
take in coloured food through the cilia-disk, though no constant
mouth could be detected.

From the stage represented by the isolated cilia-cell, Magosphera
next passes into the condition of a genuine Ameba (H). In this
stage it appears as a simple naked nucleated cell, like all genuine
Amebe. The pseudopodia are thin, conical, and pointed, like
those of Auerbach’s Ameba actinophora or his A. bilimbosa. The
nucleus and contractile vesicle are still present, as in the isolated —
cilia-cell, and we can distinguish, as in most of the true Amebe,
an external firmer layer and an internal softer one. Solid food
is taken in as in the isolated cilia-cell. The ingestion, however,
is not, as in the latter, confined to a definite spot, but may take
place indifferently from any part of the surface.

The Ameba-stage would seem to close the cycle of development ;
and though Haeckel has not succeeded in actually following up
its life-history, it seems pretty certain that after the Ameba has
increased in size by the reception of nutriment, it once more
encysts itself and returns to the egg-stage with which our exami-
nation began.

In this most remarkable life-history, Magosphera has passed
successively through the following stages :—

1. A unicellular resting stage, indistinguishable morphologi-
cally from a genuine egg (A).

By a process of cleavage which in all respects resembles a true
vitellary segmentation this passes into

2. The condition of a multicellular ciliated sphere, in which it
resembles a form of the Volvocinee (B).

3. A simple isolated cilia-cell, representing the condition of a
peritrichal ciliate Infusorium (F).

4. An ameeboid cell indistinguishable from a genuine Ameba (H).

The characters thus presented by Magospheraappear to Haeckel
to justify him in regarding it asa member of his group of the
Protista; and from the fact of its representing in the cycle of its
development so many different independent forms, he makes it
the type of a distinct section of this group, to which he assigns
the name of CaTaLLActa.

Magosphera, however, would seem to be related to the Infusoria
at least as nearly as to the Rhizopoda. It is plainly a transition-
form by which the one group passes into the other.

AMONG SIMPLE SARCODE ORGANISMS. 439

I have thus attempted, in the present Address and in that of
last year, to bring before you in rapid review a large number of
organisms with whose true structure and life-history biologists have
only quite recently become acquainted. They are among the most
interesting of those simple beings which, standing on the confines
of organization, constitute the group of the Rhizopoda in the
wider signification of this word. The marine forms represented
by the Radiolaria and Foraminifera have been only incidentally
touched on; but the freshwater forms, with such dwellers in the
sea as most directly represent them, have been here examined in
all their most important features.

Notwithstanding, however, the excellent work which we owe to
numerous continental observers, and in our own country to W.
Archer, much still remains to be known of the structure and life-
history of the freshwater Rhizopoda, and a rich field for explora-
tion lies open to the microscopic observer—a field, too, of easy
access ; for, unlike the objects which form the study of the marine
zoologist, these Rhizopods of fresh water may be found in almost
every inland locality wherever there are undisturbed pools, or
weedy ditches, or slowly running streams, in the shallow pools
which collect upon the wild moors where there is nothing to
intercept the heat and light of the summer sun, and even in
. gloomy ponds shaded from sunlight by overhanging trees and
half-filled with decaying leaves.

While thus bringing before you the results of recent researches,
my exposition has necessarily assumed the character of a general
survey of the freshwater Rhizopoda and of the Monera and other
nearly allied organisms; for almost all the knowledge we possess
of these simple forms of life has been derived from investigations
carried on within the last few years.

T have hopes, therefore, that the exposition which I have en-
deavoured to give you in last year’s Anniversary Address and in
that of the present year may be of some value in affording aid to
the worker in one of the most interesting fields of microscopical
research.

440 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

On the Genus Actinometra, Miull., with a morphological account
of a new Species (A. polymorpha) from the Philippine Islands.
By P. Herpert Carpenter, B.A., Biological Master at Eton
College. Communicated by Dr. Witiiam B. Carpenter,
F.BS., F.LS., &e.

[Read June 21, 1877.]
(Abstract *.)

THE name Actinometra was given by Johannes Millert to those spe-
cies of the genus Comatula (Lamarck) in which the tentacular
furrows of the arms unite on the disk into less than five principal
trunks or ambulacra converging towards the peristom. Until the
time of Miller, Leach’s genus Alecto was used as equivalent to the
Comatula of Lamarck ; but the application of this name was limited
by Miller, who used it in contradistinction to Actinometra, to de-
scribe the more common species of Comatula, in which five prin-
cipal groove-trunks or ambulacra radiate outwards from the pe-
ristom, and subdivide symmetrically into more or fewer branches
proceeding to the different groups of arms.

The position of the mouth in Alecto might be either subcentral
(in no Comatula is it absolutely central), or more or less excentric,
sometimes even marginal; but any Comatula in which five ambu-
lacra reached the peristom, whatever the position of the mouth,
was referred by Miiller to this genus, the sole distinction between
it and Actinometra being the presence of five or fewer principal
ambulacral trunks.

From the time of Miller until now, the genus Actinometra has
remained as he left it, though more than one author has remarked
upon the unsatisfactory nature of its distinctive characters.
Leach’s name Alecto, however, has gradually passed. into disuse,
having been partially replaced by De Freminville’s name Antedon,
a precise definition of which has been given by Mr. Normanf.

Antedon, like Alecto, was originally equivalent to Comatula ; but,
according to Mr. Norman’s definition (which has been universally
adopted), it is now used to designate those forms only in which

* [The memoir in full, with illustrations, will subsequently appear in the
Society's Transactions.—Ep. |

+ “Ueber die Gattung Comatula, Lam., und ihre Arten,” Abhandlungen der
Berlin. Akademie, 1849.

t “On the Genera and Species of the British Echinodermata,” Ann. & Mag.
Nat. Hist. ser, 3, vol. xv. p. 98.

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 441

the mouth is subcentral. All these, as for example the British
Antedon rosacea, have the five centripetal ambulacra characteristic
of Alecto ; but there are many species of Alecto, as for example C.
(Alecto) multiradiata, in which the five primary ambulacra converge
to an excentric or even marginal peristomial area, the mouth being
nowhere near the centre of the disk. Such forms as these clearly
have no place in the genus Anéedon, while they are excluded from
Actinometra, as defined by Miller, although agreeing with it in the
excentric position of the mouth. In many Comatule also, the mouth
is excentric, and six, eight, or even ten groove-trunks reach the
peristom; these, again, have no place either in Antedon, Alecto, or
Actinometra (as defined by Miller).

After a careful examination of a large number of Comatule,
including the valuable collection in the Paris Museum, and
also a number of new species brought by Professor Semper
from the Philippine Islands, the author has been led to the con-
clusion that Miiller’s mode of classification of the Comatule is
purely artificial, and leads to the separation of individuals which
really belong to oneand the same species: on the other hand, the
position of the mouth, either subcentral or excentric, affords a very
natural means of classification, being readily visible externally,
and being also accompanied by important differences in the ana-
tomy and relative positions of the internal organs.

The author has examined eleven specimens of Comatula poly-
morpha, in all of which the mouth is excentric, and the composi-
tion of their skeleton and other parts so similar that they evi-
dently belong to one species. One of them, however, would have
been referred to Alecto by Miller, having five primary groove-
trunks, and another, with only four, to Actinometra; but there is
no place in his system for the remainder, which have six, seven,
or eight groove-trunks reaching the excentric peristom. Miller
himself affords us similar examples of the artificial nature of his
classification ; for in one place he describes a specimen as Actino-
metra, while a little further on he classes it as Alecto, on account
of the similarities it presents to A. multiradiata in the characters
of the skeleton.

Again, Muller, who examined the Paris collection of Comatule,
does not describe the C. trichoptera which he found there, either
as Alecto or as Actinometra, the reason probably being that there
are only four primary groove-trunks in one of the two specimens,

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. an

449 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

while in the other there are five, the mouth being excentric in both
cases.

These and many similar instances have led the author to the con-
clusion that the real distinction between Antedon and Actinometra
lies in the subcentral or excentric position of the mouth, and that
the number of groove-trunks reacbing the peristom is a character of
very minor importance. The definition of Actinometra, therefore,
will have to be extended so as to include those forms in which
there are five or more primary groove-trunks, as well as those
forms with less than five, for which the name was originally in-
troduced by Miiller.

After arriving at the above conclusion, the author learnt from
Dr. Litken, of Copenhagen, that he had held similar views for some
time past. Dr. Liitken further informed the author that Antedon
and Actinometra also differ from one another in the character
of their oral pinnules. In the former genus, with the mouth sub-
central, the oral pinnules are but slightly differentiated from those
of the rest of the arm, while in Actinometra they are always very
different from the others, being more or less flagelliform with
small lateral shield-shaped processes on their terminal joints, which
thus have a comb-like appearance.

Although, like Dr. Liitken, the author has found that in all the
Comatule he has examined the terminal comb on the oral pin-
nules invariably coexists with an excentric mouth, and is absent
in those forms with a subcentral mouth, yet this does not seem
always to be the case; for Lovén* has described a new Comatula
under the name of Phanogenia, in which the mouth is central, but
the oral pinnules have a terminal comb.

This form is perhaps generically distinct from Antedon and
Actinometra, as it presents some peculiarities in the structure of
the skeleton ; but in a new American species described by Pour-
tales} this is not the case, and the mouth is excentric, while the
oral pinnules are not specially distinguished: the same appears
to be the case in the Comatula rosea of Miller; and the author ig
therefore not disposed to attach very much importance to the pre-
sence or absence of a terminal comb on the oral pinnules as a

.* Phanogenia, ett hittills okaindt slagte af fria Crinoideer. Ofversigt af
Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar, 1866, No. 9, pp. 223-233.

t “List of the Crinoids obtained on the coasts of Florida and Cuba, by the
United-States Coast-Survey Gulf-Stream Expeditions, in 1867, 1868, 1869”
(‘ Bulletins of the Museum of Comparative Zoology,’ Cambridge, U.S., No. 11),

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 443

distinctive character between Antedon and Actinometra. The dif-
ferences in the position of the mouth, however, afford a distinctive
character of much value, especially as they are accompanied by
marked variations in the anatomy and mutual relations of impor-
tant internal organs.

Out of the numerous species of Comatula at present known, the
author has been able to refer seventeen to the genus Actinometra
as above defined. Fourteen of these were known to Miller; and
out of the remaining twenty-three species described by him, the
author has determined sixteen as true Antedons with a subcentral
mouth, together with nine species described by various authors
since the publication of Miller’s memoir. Seven of Miiller’s spe-
cies remain as yet undetermined, together with one described by
Pourtales, as there is no mention of the position of the mouth in
the specific diagnoses, and the author has been unable to make a
personal examination of the specimens in question.

Taking, therefore, the genus Actinometra as including all those
Comaiule in which the mouth is excentric, the author finds that
it may be divided into two principal groups according to the
position of the mouth with respect to the radial or ambulacral
planes. In Antedon, where the mouth is subcentral, the interradial
area containing the anal tube may be considered as posterior; and
a plane passing through the mouth and anus so as to divide the
disk into two symmetrical halves, will traverse the odd ambulacrum
in front of the mouth, which may therefore be regarded as radial
in position.

In Actinometra solaris the odd ambulacrum is also in front of
the mouth, which, though excentric in position, lies in the radial
half of a plane passing through the mouth and anus, so as to divide
the disk into two symmetrical halves, the interradial half of this
plane passing through the anus.

In Act. multiradiata, however, and in many other species, the case
is different, as the mouth is interradial in position, and the odd
ambulacrum lies behind it; for a plane cutting the mouth and
anus is radial behind the mouth, in front of which it passes along
the interval between two ambulacra or radii.

This type of Actenometra, in which the mouth is interradial and
the odd ambulacrum lies behind it, is considerably more frequent,
so far as the author’s experience goes, than the simpler type, in
which the mouth is radial and the odd ambulacrum anterior, as in

37*

444, MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

Antedon: he has only met with this last in A. solaris and its
varieties, in A. fimbriata, and in three new species of Actinometra
from the West Indies ; all the other species known to him belong,
like A. multiradiata and A. polymorpha, to the type in which the
mouth is interradial and the odd ambulacrum posterior.

The median line of the ventral perisom of all the arms of
Antedon is occupied by an open ambulacral groove bounded by an
elevated fold of perisom, the edge of which is not straight, but cut
out into a series of minute valvules, the crescentic or respiratory
leaves. At the base of each leaf, and to some extent protected by
it, is a group of three tentacles, one of which, the more distal, is
larger than the other two. This trifid group of tentacles and the
cavity of the respiratory leaf in connexion with them, are in com-
munication with the cavity of the radial water-vessel by a common
lateral branch: the tentacular groups alternate on the opposite
sides of the ambulacral groove, from the base to the tip of each
arm, and are distributed in the same manner at the sides of the
ambulacra of the disk. The floor of each groove consists of a layer
of ciliated epithelium, beneath which lie the radial water-vascular
and blood-vascular trunks, but separated from it by a fibrillar
structure (the subepithelial band), to which a nervous character
has been attributed by the author and by all the other observers

“who have described it.

In Act. polymorpha and in many other Actinometre the above
description only applies to the more anterior arms; for the arms
of the posterior radii are usually entirely devoid of tentacles, and
in many of them the ventral perisom not only exhibits no am-
bulacral groove, but is convex as in the oral pinnules of Antedon.

In neither of the two large aboral groove-trunks which form a
horseshoe-shaped curve enclosing the anal area of Act. polymorpha,
are the tentacular groups so well developed as in the two anterior
ambulacra. The bases of these trunks, where they start from the
peristom, are of the usual character; but sooner or later the ten-
tacles become more and more insignificant, and finally disappear
altogether, while the position of the crescentic leaves is only in-
dicated by a very faint wavy line at the edge of each groove. In
small specimens with but few arms, the grooves of the posterior
and posterolateral arms may remain in this condition; but in
larger specimens with many arms all trace of the respiratory leaves
disappears, and the two edges of the groove gradually approach
one another and finally unite, so that the ventral surface of the

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 445,

arm and pinnules becomes convex, and does not show the least
trace of a groove of any description.

The position of the point at which the two folds of perisom
bounding the original ambulacral groove meet and unite, varies
extremely: the union may, though rarely, take place on the disk ;
sometimes it is at the base of the arms, and sometimes not till near
their middle or terminal portions. In any case, however, the fusion
where it occurs is so complete that all trace of the original ambu-
lacral groove is entirely obliterated.

This fact has a very important bearing upon the two opposite
views which have been recently advanced regarding the nervous
system of Comatula.

According to the one view, held by Dr. Carpenter and by the
author, the axial cords traversing the centre of the calcareous seg-
ments of the skeleton, together with the fibrillar envelope of the
quinquelocular organ from which they all radiate, constitute the
principal and, as the author is disposed to think, the only nervous
system of Comatula.

In the centre of every segment of the skeleton, from the first
radials to the tips of the arms and pinnules, and also in the cirrus-
segments, these axial cords increase considerably in size and give
off four main branches. Two run towards the ventral side and in
the calyx disappear in the neighbourhood of the muscles connecting
the segments ; but in the arms they continue their course towards
the ventral perisom and break up into numerous small branches,
some of which may be traced as far as the tips of the crescentic
leaves. The two inferior or dorsal trunks run towards the dorsal
surface of the skeleton ; and while some of their branches are lost
in the plexus of tissue forming its organic basis, others seem to
become connected with epidermic structures. In the arms of
Antedon celtica Dr. Carpenter bas found branches of the axial
cords ramifying upon the ends of the muscular bundles connect-
ing the segments ; and the results of his experiments have shown
that the power of motion in any arm depends upon the connexion
between its axial cord and the fibrillar envelope of the chambered
organ,while the power of coordinating the regular swimming move-
ments of all the arms depends upon the integrity of this envelope,
which there is thus good reason to believe to be of a nervous nature.

The chief objection to this view is that it places the nervous
system of the Crinoids on the dorsal side of the body, and not on
the ventral side immediately superior to the water-vessel as in

446 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

all the other Echinoderms. This objection has been strongly
urged by various German authors, who all assign a nervous cha-
racter to the fibrillar subepithelial band above mentioned, since it
occupies the same relative position as a very similar structure that
has been hitherto generally regarded as representing the nervous
system of the Asterids. It extends along the ventral surface of the
arms and pinnules beneath the ambulacral grooves, and forms a
ring round the mouth beneath the ciliated epithelium of the pe-
ristomial area, just above the water-vascular and blood-vascular
rings. This band was discovered independently and nearly si-
multaneously by the author and by three German observers, all
of whom regard it as representing the nervous system of Comatula,
and deny the nervous nature of the axial cords. Dr. Carpenter’s
experiments at Naples*, however, have fully proved that the co-
ordinated swimming-movements of the arms are entirely inde-
pendent of this subepithelial band, and are carried on even when
the visceral mass containing the oral ring is entirely removed from
the calyx; so that this structure, if a nerve at all, cannot be re-
garded as motor in function. It gives off no branches, except an
extremely minute one beneath the epithelium of each respiratory
leaf and tentacular group.

If, however, the axial cords are not nerves, and if these ventral
subepithelial bands are to be regarded as the only nervous struc-
tures in the whole Crinoid organization, the difficulty presents
itself that the oral pinnules of the European Crinoids, and more
than half the arms, with the majority of the pinnules of some
forms of Actinometra, are entirely devoid of a nervous supply.

The oral pinnules of Antedon have been shown by Dr. Carpenter
to be extremely susceptible of irritation. When they are touched in
the living animal, the whole circlet of arms is suddenly and simul-
taneously coiled up over the disk, while irritation of one of the ordi-
nary pinnulesis simply followed by flexion of the arm which bears it.

The structure of these oral pinnules, which are borne in Antedon
rosacea by the second brachials, differs very considerably from that
of the pinnules borne by the other brachial segments ; for not only
are they sterile, but they have neither tentacular apparatus nor
ambulacral groove, their ventral surface being slightly convex,
while the ordinary ciliated epithelium of the groove with the sub-
jacent subepithelial band, the so-called “ambulacral nerve,” are

* Supplemental Note to a paper “On the Structure, Physiology, and Deve-
lopment of Antedon rosaceus,” Proceedings R. 8., No. 169, 1876.

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 4.47

entirely absent. This condition, which is limited in A. rosacea to
the oral pinnules, sometimes exists in whole arms, and in all the
pinnules borne by them in some species of Actinometra: even in
the arms which come off from the anterior or oral side of the disk,
the ambulacral groove does not give off regular branches to the
pinnules borne by the third and successive brachial segments ;
but a variable number of these first pinnules, sometimes only three
or four, sometimes as many as forty, resemble the oral pinnules in
this respect, their ventral surface being convex and devoid of any
ciliated epithelium or subepithelial band, while their water-vessel
is simple without any lateral extensions to respiratory leaves and
tentacles. In these oral arms, however, branches of the ambula-
eral grooves enter the pinnules sooner or later, so that the termi-
nal ones are always provided with a distinct tentacular apparatus,
while the floor of their median groove is of the usual character,
consisting of a ciliated epithelium and a subepithelial fibrillar
band. We have already seen that in many cases the ambulacral
grooves going to the aboral arms become less and less distinct as
they get further and further from the peristom, and that their
tentacles diminish and finally disappear: at the same time the
floor of the groove becomes very much reduced, its epithelial
layer thinner and thinner, and the subepithelial band almost in-
visible, until, in those cases in which the sides of the groove meet
and unite, the ciliated epithelium and subepithelial band or am-
bulacral nerve disappear altogether, as in the oral pinnules. Con-
sequently, when this union takes place on the disk, whole arms
must be entirely devoid of any nervous supply, unless we admit
the nervous nature of the antiambulacral axial cords.

In such cases it would naturally be expected that these poste-
rior arms would not perform the regular swimming-movements,
like those anterior arms which have an open tentacular groove
and a subjacent “ ambulacral nerve ;’ but Professor Semper, who
has kept Actinometre in his aquaria for weeks together, has in-
formed the anthor that he never saw the least trace of any irregula-
rity in the alternating movements of their arms when swimming.

If we suppose, with Ludwig*, that the subepithelial band is the
sole structure of a nervous nature in the whole Crinoid organiza-
tion, it is difficult to understand the fact (which Ludwig himself

* ‘Morphologische Studien an Echinodermen. I. Beitrage zur Anatomie der
Crinoideen, Leipzig, 1877, p. 81 (Separat-Abdruck aus der Zeitschrift fir
wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Bd. xxviii.).

448 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

admits) that it gives off no branches except the very small ones
which go to the tentacles. It is true that in the Ophiuwride the
radial ventrally-placed nerve does give off branches which go to
the muscles, besides those proceeding to the tentacles, as described
by Lange*, Teuschery, and Simroth{; but the researches of the
first-mentioned observer render it very doubtful whether the re-
presentative in the Ophiuride of the subepithelial band of Comatula
takes any part in the formation of these branches.

That the subepithelial band is of the same nature in the Crinoids
and Asterids there can, it seems, be little doubt ; and it is there-
fore somewhat interesting that its nervous nature in the As-
terids has recently been disputed by Lange §, who regards
as nervous only two cellular masses separated from the subepi-
thelial fibrillar band by a connective-tissue: membrane, and pro-
jecting into the lumen of the nerve-canal, which swell under the
pigment-spot into a large ganglionic mass; while the subepithe-
lial band, together with the ciliated epithelium and the cuticula,
constitutes a protecting integumentary layer.

Lange finds a corresponding condition in Ophiura texturata, in
which the radial nervous system is better developed than in the
Asterids, and consists of a series of paired ganglionic masses
connected with one another by transverse and longitudinal
commissures. On the ventral side of this ganglionated cord is
a longitudinal band, which Lange regards as the homologue of
the protecting integumentary layer forming the floor of the
ambulacral groove of the Asterids, and which, as universally ad-
mitted, corresponds to the subepithelial band, epithelium, and
cuticula of the ambulacral grooves of the Crinoids.

Lange’s views have been partially accepted by Simroth ||; but
they have been altogether denied by Teuscher§, who regards
Lange’s nervous cell-masses in the Asterids simply as an epithe-
lial layer several cells deep on the inner wail of the nerve-canal,
while the terminal ganglionic mass under the eye-spot is repre-
sented by Teuscher as a cushion of connective tissue.

* “ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Histiologie der Asterien und Ophiuren,”
Morphologisches Jahrbuch, Band ii. 1876, p. 241.

t “ Beitrage zur Anatomie der Hchinodermen.—IJI. Ophiuride,” Jenaische
Zeitschrift, Band x. 1876, p. 274.

{ ‘Anatomie und Schizogonie der Ophiactis virens, Sars,” Theil I., Zeitschrift
fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Band xxvii. p. 473.

§ Loc, cit. p. 274. || Loc. cit. pp. 556, 560.

{ ‘Beitrage,’ &c. IIL. ‘“‘Asteriden,” Jen. Zeitschr. x, p. 513.

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 449

Still less do Teuscher and Lange agree about the nervous system
of the Ophiurids. Lange’s ganglionic masses are described as
artificial by Teuscher, who, as in the case of the Asterids, regards
as the nerve only the fibrillar structure representing the subepi-
thelial band of Comatula.

The question is still an open one: and it is therefore of no
small interest to find that this subepithelial band, the so called
ambulacral nerve, is not always present in the arms of Comatula,
and that even. when it exists it is certainly not motor in
function.

It has been stated above that in certain of the arms of Actz-
nometra the water-vessels are simple tubes like the integumentary
water-vessels of the Molpadide, and not in connexion with any
tentacular apparatus. Whether the mouth be radial or interradial,
the non-tentaculiferous arms are the aboral ones ; so that in the
latter case they belong to the trivium, as in A. polymorpha, and
in the former to the bivium, as in 4A. solaris.

In only one out of twelve specimens of A. polymorpha has the
author founda non-tentaculiferous arm in the bivium : it wasin one
of the two anteriorradii. But this specimen was very remarkable ;
for out of 31 arms 19 were entirely devoid of a tentacular appa-
ratus, and in 15 of these the union of the two sides of the ambu-
lacral grooves had taken place either on the disk or in the basal
arm-segments; so that an “ambulacral nerve” was wanting in
nearly half the total number of arms. In the other four of these
non-tentaculiferous arms the groove remained open for a short
distance, and then closed in the manner already described. Three
of these four arms belonged to the trivium; but the fourth was
an anterior arm belonging to the bivium, and was borne upon the
same palmar axillary as a well-developed ordinary tentaculiferous
arm.

With this exception, the author has invariably found the non-
tentaculiferous arms on the aboral side of the disk: their number
and distribution, however, vary extremely, not only in different

species, but in different individuals of the same species. Thus in
A. polymorpha the author has found the proportion of non-tenta-
culiferous arms to the total number to vary from ,§ to 47. Even
in two individuals with the same number of arms it may not be
the same: thus in two specimens with 20 arms the proportion
was 6 and 44 respectively, and again $2 and 33; while in one
specimen all the arms were normal and tentaculiferous as in
Antedon.

450 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

The same variation occurs in Actinometra solaris, in which spe-
cies the number of arms is limited to 10: they may be all tenta-
culiferous ; or from one to four of the posterior arms may have no
tentacular apparatus. This abnormal condition does not seem,
however, to be very common ; for out of all the Actinometre in the
Paris collection the author found but one in which he could say
with any certainty, without cutting sections, that some of the pos-
terior arms were non-tentaculiferous ; and this was a large many-
armed specimen of 4. Bennetti, Miller.

The condition of the ambulacral groove and of the tentacular ap-
paratus is not the only point in which the anterior or oral arms of
Actinometra may differ from the posterior or aboral arms. The
former taper very slowly, contain far more segments, and are
much longer than the latter, while the form of their terminal
portions, and ofthe pinnules which these bear, is altogether
different.

In A. polymorpha the centre of the dorsal half of each of the
segments of the terminal pinnules of the posterior arms is often
occupied by a dark brown ovoid body of a peculiar cellular nature,
which the author has reasons for believing to be a sense-organ.
These bodies may also, though rarely, occur in one or more of the
anterior tentaculiferous arms; but they do not exist in all the
specimens of A. polymorpha which the author has examined, for
in 7 out of 12 specimens they are entirely wanting.

The arms of A. polymorpha may therefore be roughly classified
as follows :—

1. Anterior.—120-150 segments: pinnules increasing in length
to the terminal ones, which are very long and slender. Tentacu-
liferous.

2. Anterolateral—Also tentaculiferous: 100-120 segments :
terminal pinnules long and slender.

3. Posterolateral—80-100 segments: terminal pinnules stout,
but rather longer than the median ones. Ventral perisom with
narrow ambulacral grooves, but non-tentaculiferous.

Posterior—Only 60-80 segments: terminal pinnules stout,
but decreasing slightly in length from the middle of the arm
onwards. No ambulacral grooves nor tentaculiferous apparatus.

Another difference between the anterior and posterior arms is
that the genital glands of the latter are far more developed than
in the former. Not only is their number greater, although the
total number of pinnules on a posterior arm may not be much

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 451

more than half that on an anterior arm, but they also attain a very
much greater size, the basal and median pinnules of an anterior
arm being very much less swollen than the corresponding pin-
nules of a posterior arm. A similar inequality in the develop-
ment of the genital glands has been noted by Agassiz as occur-
ring in the Hchini*.

The external appearance of the centrodorsal piece of Actinome-
tra is very characteristic: like the cirri which it bears, it is far
more constant throughout a considerable range of species from
very various localities than it appears to be in the individual
members of a single species both of the Kuropean and of some of
the foreign Antedons even when collected in the same locality.

In Actinometra the centrodorsal piece is almost invariably a
flattened, circular or rudely pentagonal disk, somewhat hollowed
in the centre, and with low sloping sides marked out into distinct
sockets for the articulation of the cirri, which are limited to its
margin, the central portion of the plate being entirely free from
them. There is usually only one row of cirrus-sockets at the
margin of the plate; but in the large A. robusta there may be
two, and even traces of a third. Inthe typical forms of A. poly-
morpha the number of cirri existing at any one time seems to vary
between 15 and 25; and the size and number of their segments
are tolerably constant, which is by no means the case in Antedon.
Further, the individual segments do not acquire the characters of
maturity at any thing like such an early date as they usually doin
Antedon, but even after the cirrus has attained a considerable
size and has the normal number of segments the latter remain of
a very rudimentary character, which is a somewhat exceptional
mode of development in Antedon.

Another very marked difference between Antedon and Actino-
metra consists in the fact that in the latter genus the planes of the
external or distal faces of the first radials are parallel to the ver-
tical axis of the calyx, and not inclined to it at a considerable
angle as is the case in Antedon ; so that the whole of the ventral
surface of the calyx is in one horizontal plane, while in Antedon
the second and third radials and the bases of the arms are at a
much higher level than the pentagon of the first radials, owing
to the inclination of the distal articular faces of the latter.

The most interesting point in the skeleton of Actinometra is
the condition of the rosette or metamorphosed basals, which re-

* ‘Reyision of the Hchini,’ pt. iv. pp. 680, 681.

452, MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

tain far more of an embryonic character than is usually the case
in Antedon ; but the author has met with specimens of Ant. rosacea
in which the metamorphosis is far less complete than usual, and
which present in this respect an approximation to Actinometra.
A normal rosette of Antedon rosacea consists of a disk perforated
in the centre, with ten rays proceeding from it. Five of these rays
are short, triangular in form, and nearly flat; and their position
is interradial, as they are directed to the sutures between the five
radials, their apices joining the contiguous pairs of these just
between the two adjacent apertures of the central canals. Alter-
nating with these five interradial processes of the rosette are five
radial spout-like processes, each of which has parallel margins in-
flected on its ventral aspect in such a manner as to form a groove,
while the process itself is so curved towards its dorsal aspect that
this groove reaches the periphery: of the rosette and then termi-
nates abruptly as if truncated.

The inflected margins of each of these five radial processes of
the rosette are applied to the similarly inflected margins of the
dorsal half of an axial furrow lying between the two apertures of
the central canal on the internal face of each first radial, so that
the two grooves are united into a complete canal. Each of the
five canals thus formed contains a diverticulum of the body-cavity;
and they terminate blindly in shallow depressions upon the ven-
tral surface of the centrodorsal piece on which the first radials
rest.

The rosette is essentially formed out of a secondary calcareous
reticulation formed upon the ventral surface of the original basals.
The primary or dorsal layer originally constituting them becomes
almost entirely absorbed, the ends of the spout-like processes being
all that remains of them in the adult Comatula; for the salient
angle of each basal plate which is received between two first radials
and the greater part of the centre of its dorsal surface is usually
entirely removed.

Sometimes, however, the removal of the primary or dorsal layer
at the salient angle of one or more of the five embryonic basals
may be incomplete, so that the ends of the curved rays of the
rosette exhibit lateral processes which are the remains of the
upper margins of the primitive basal plates on which the first
radials rested. Occasionally the apex of the original basal is left
unabsorbed, so that the two lateral curved processes which
persist after the removal of the primary external layer along the

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 453

median line of each plate remain in connexion with one another.
Not unfrequently the triangular interradial process, which is deve-
loped from a secondary calcareous deposit on the ventral side of
the original basal, becomes more or less completely united with
these primary bars connecting the lateral portions of the basal.
The latter retain their primitive relation to the first radials ;
for they remain united with them along the inner margins of their
dorsal surfaces; and as they partially cover in the dorsal aspect
of the bifureating nerve-cords which enter the central canals of
the first radials, the author has called them the basal bridge.
The interradial processes of the rosette of A. rosacea may also ex-
hibit departures from their normal triangular shape: not unfre-
quently they become long and spout-like, with inflected parailel
margins, which are so applied to the projecting and similarly in-
flected outer edges of the adjacent openings of the central canals
in two contiguous radials as to convert the interradial furrow
lying between them into a complete axial interradial canal, pre-
cisely similar in character to the axial radial canals already
described.

This occasional spout-like condition of the interradial processes
of the rosette of A. rosacea is of considerable interest, as it is
normal in Aetinometra, in which genus also the ends of the alter-
nating radial and interradial processes are always connected by a
basal bridge, the unabsorbed remains of the outer margins of
the embryonic basal plate.

From the outer ends of each of the interradial processes of the
rosette of Actinometra, where it unites with the two bars of the
basal bridge proceeding from the radial process on either side,
there extends, for a longer or shorter distance towards the peri-
phery of the calyx, a prismatic or cylindrical rod, which is received
in an interradial furrow on the ventral surface of the centrodorsal
piece. These five rods, to which, taken together, the author has
given the name of the basal star, vary very greatly in the degree
of their development, not only in different species, but in different
individuals of the same species, and to some extent also in the
same individual.

The reason of this is that these rods are not like the other
pieces of the skeleton, calcifications in a nucleated protoplasmic
network, but they are simply formed by a more or less complete
deposition of calcareous matter in the five interradial planes around
the fibres of connective tissue which effect the synostosis of the

AD A: MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

centrodorsal piece with the pentagonal base of the calyx. In
one specimen of A. polymorpha the author has found them to be
almost entirely absent, while in others they are very large and
stout. Lovén has found something of the same kind in Antedon
Eschrichtit; but in both the specimens of this species which the
author has been able to examine, they were scarcely developed
at all.

These tertiary elements in the basals of Actinometra are of ex-
treme interest ; for they are precisely similar in shape and position
to.the basals of two species of the fossil genus Solanocrinus, viz.
S. costatus and S. scrobiculatus.

In both these species there seems to be no rosette; but the
basals consist of five prismatic rods in contact by their central
ends, and occupying five deep grooves on the ventral surface of
the centrodorsal piece. They extend beyond its margin, however,
and so become visible on the exterior of the calyx, which is not the
case with the rays of the basal star of Actinometra. Hence this
would seem to preclude the possibility of their being formed like
the latter, by ossification in the connective tissue of the synostosis
between the radial pentagon and the subjacent centrodorsal
piece; so that they are probably the remains of the original em-
bryonic basal plates, which are represented in Actinometra ouly
by the rosette : and the rays of the basal star of Actinometra would
therefore not be strictly homologous with the rod-like basals of
Solanocrinus costatus, although the analogy in their position is
complete.

The calyx of S. Jaegeri presents a great advance upon that of
S. costatus with respect to the development of the basals, which
led Pictet* to propose the erection of this species into a separate
genus. Instead of being long and narrow, and in contact only
by their central ends, as in S. costatus, they are broad and
wedge-shaped, and in contact along their whole sides, so as to
form a complete calcareous disk entirely separating the radial pen-
tagon from the centrodorsal piece.

This is precisely their position in Pentacrinus, though there are
but few species of that genus in which the basals are relatively so
large and complete as in S. Jaegeri. In P. asteria and in the two
fossil species P. briareus and P. subangularis they are small and
cuneiform, and only in contact by their central ends, just as in
S. costatus ; so that the greater portion of the radial pentagon is

* «Traité de Paléontologie,’ tom. iy. p. 288.

MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA. 455

in contact with the top stem-segment: in P. Milleri they are in
contact for about half their length and then diverge, while in P.
Wyville-Thomsoni they are completely united with one another
along the whole length of their sides, so as entirely to cut off the
radial pentagon from the top stem-segment, just as in S. Jaegeri.
There can therefore be little doubt that the basals of Penta-
crinus are homologous with those of Solanocrinus, and therefore
analogous, as a whole, to the compound basals of Acéinometra,
which are not entirely developed out of the embryonic basal plates.
Only their central part, the rosette, has the same origin as the
basals of Pentacrinus, with the inner or central ends of which it is
strictly homologous ; for the bifurcating nerve-cords proceeding
from the angles of the chambered organ have the same relation to
the rosette and basal bridge of Actinometra as to the united central
ends of the basals of Pentacrinus, which are perforated by bifur-
cating canals in which these cords are lodged.

It would seem, in fact, as if in Pentacrinus and Solanocrinus the
embryonic basal plates became directly transformed into the basals
of the adult ; while in Comatula they undergo metamorphosis into
the central rosette by the absorption of the greater portion of
their dorsal or primary tissue, and the development of a secon-
dary ossification on the ventral side of the original plates.

In Antedon rosacea the metamorphosis is much more complete
than in A. Eschrichtii and in Actinometra, in which last new ske-
letal elements are developed by a more or less complete tertiary
ossification in masses of connective tissue, that correspond pre-
cisely in position and also, to a certain extent, in shape with the
basals of Solanocrinus and Pentacrinus. These, being most pro-
bably direct products of the growth of the embryonic basals, are
therefore strictly homologous only tothe rosette of Actinometra,
although analogous in position to the whole circlet of compound
basals in this genus, namely to the rosette and basal star taken
together.

The recent genus Comaster, or Comatula multiradiata of Gold-
fuss*, from the Indian Ocean, has been considered by most authors
generically identical with the fossil Solanocrinus, on account of
the appearance of the basals upon the exterior of the calyx.

The condition of the central ends of the basals, however, and,
in fact, of the whole calyx, is very remarkable and very unlike that
presented by any other Comatula with which we are acquainted,

* Petrefacta Germanie, i. p. 202.

46 MR. P. H. CARPENTER ON THE GENUS ACTINOMETRA.

while the differences between it and Solanocrinus are so very great
that it is difficult to understand how they can ever have been re-
garded as belonging to one and the same genus.

The centrodorsal piece of Comaster is hemispherical: but its
margin is not infolded as a broad lip, forming a wide superior ven-
tral surface on which the first radials rest. These last bear the
axillaries directly without the intervention of any second radials,
which are always present in Comatula, and have very narrow in-
ferior faces that simply rest upon the thick rim of the hemisphe-
rical centrodorsal basin. The infero-lateral angles of every pair
of contiguous radials are truncated; and the spaces left between
them when they are in their natural condition of apposition by
their lateral faces, are occupied by the five small triangular basals
which rest on the rim of the centrodorsal basin, and are visible on
the exterior of the calyx alternating with the first radials, just like
the peripheral ends of the basals of Solanocrinus costatus. In this
species, however, the basals are longish rods of considerable rela-
tive width and in contact by their central ends, while in Comaster
they are small triangular pieces, from the middle of the inner and
lower edge of each of which there arises a tooth-like process in
the shape of a small cartilaginous rod extending to the centre of
the centrodorsal piece which is grooved to receive it.

Goldfuss does not describe any thing that could be regarded as
a rosette in Comaster ; and the small triangular basals would seem
to be the ultimate condition of the embryonic basal plates, with
which they exactly agree in their relative position; but the re-
lations of their central processes are somewhat difficult to under-
stand. They can hardly be regarded as comparable, except in
their interradial position, to the rays of the basal star of Actino-
metra; for they lie in grooves on the floor of the cavity of the
centrodorsal basin, and are apparently independent of the first
radials, which have no extensive area of synostosis with the centro-
dorsal piece as in Comatula —while from Goldfuss’s account of
them they do not seem to be calcified, but to be more of a car-
tilaginous nature.

It is possible that the calyx of Antedon Dubenii, as described
by Béhlsche*, may present some points of resemblance to that of
Comaster ; for,asin this genus, only two rows of radials are visible
externally, and between every two radials of the first row isa

* «Ueber Actinometra Bennettii und eine neue Comatula-Art (Antedon Du-
denii),” Wiegmann’s Archiy fir Naturgeschichte, 1866, p. 94.

MR. R. B. SHARPE ON A NEW SPECIES OF GOSHAWK. 457

small caleareous ossicle. Béhlsche did not separate the pieces of
the calyx, and was therefore unable to determine whether there
are reaily three rows of radials, as in the ordinary Comatule, or
not: but if, as in Comaster, there are only two rows, then the
small ossicles appearing externally between every two pieces of
the first row would represent the basals of Comaster. The-condi-
tion of their central ends is unfortunately still unknown to us.

Comaster further differs from all the Comatule with which we
are acquainted, and also from Solanocrinus, in the fact that the ner-
vous cords are not lodged in canals which perforate the pieces of
the calyx, but lie freely on the superior surfaces of the segments,
the opposed terminal faces of which lie flatly against one another.
The muscles and ligaments lie along their concave inner sides and
cover in the freely exposed nerve-cords: from the palmar axilla-
ries onwards, however, all the segments have articular surfaces of
the usual character, and are perforated by central canals in which
the nerve-cords lie. This condition ofthe segments of the calyx
of Comaster is of great interest; for, besides being the normal
permanent condition in the tessellate Crinoids, it is the embryonic
condition, so far as the position of the nerve-cords is concerned, in
Comatula.

These facts will suffice to show the very great differences that
exist, in the skeleton alone, between Comaster and the other mem-
bers of the family Comatulide, including Solanocrinus—with which
genus it has been united, on account of the appearance of the
basals on the exterior of the calyx. In Solanocrinus, however, as in
the other Comatulide, the first radials are perforated by central
canals for the nerve-cords ; and the absence of this character in
Comaster would alone justify our referring these two forms to
separate genera, even were this the only difference between them,
which, as shown above, is by no means the case.

Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By R.
Bowpter SHarpr, F.L.S,, F.Z.S., &c.—Part III. On anew
Species of Goshawk from the Island of Jobi.

[Read June 21, 1877. ]
(Prats XXITL)

Ty the collection of Accipitres submitted to me by Dr. Meyer,

and obtained by him during his voyage to Papuasia, there was a
LINN, JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOU, XIII. 38

A458 MR. J. 8S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

specimen of a Goshawk which is undoubtedly new to science,
and which I propose to name as undermentioned.

Astur MEYERTANUS, sp.u. (Plate XXIT.)

a. Niger, subtus albus; similis 4. albigulari, sed major et genis
albis nigro striolatis distinguendus.

This species, which is from Ansus on the Island of Jobi, is very
closely allied to A. albigularis of the Solomon Islands; but is a
larger bird, as will be seen by the following measurements :—

Total

length. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

millim. millim. millim. millim.,
a, A. albigularis (type)... 460 254 203 67
b. A. Meyerianus (type).. 510 315 205 72

Tn addition to the larger size and white cheeks, the Jobi bird is
slightly varied with black shaft-streaks and wavy cross bars of
blackish ; but whether these are signs of youth or indications of
specific characters, I am unable to determine.

Descriptions of Genera and Species of Australian Phytophagous
Beetles. By Josupn 8. Bary, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.LS.

[Read June 21, 1877. ]

List of Genera and Species.

Idiocephula nigripennis. Ditropidus serenus.

Ehombosternus sulphuripennis., Terillus foveolatus.

antennatus. Squamosus.
- gracilicornis. perplexus.
Bucharis Chapuisia. —— Duboulayt.
—— granulosus. vittatus.
martius. Geloptera igneo-nitens.

Polyachus marginicollis.
Ditropidus phalacroides.

—— letus.
costupennis.
facialis.
—— Jansont.

semicircularis.

ornatus.
pulehellus.

vestita.

Rhyparida maculicollis.
Cyclonoda, nu. g

Paralepta, n. g., foveicollis.
Platycepha, vu. g., eximia.
Arsipoda piceipes.
Cdionychis Howitti.
Spherophyma, n. g., Sunont.

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 4.59
Family CRYPTOCEPHALIDA.

Genus IprocrePHaa, Saunders.

IDIOCEPHALA NIGRIPENNIS. Subquadrato-oblonga, valde con-
vexa, rufo-fulva, nitida ; antennis (basi exceptis) elytrisque nigris ;
thorace basi utrinque oblique impresso, mediocriter et remote
punctato ; elytris fortiter seriatim punctatis, interspatiis ante me-
dium et ad latera transversim elevato-strigosis. @. Long. 2 lin.

Hab. Queensland, Rockhampton.

Head scarcely broader than long, subrotundate, closely punc-
tured, interspaces finely rugose-strigose ; vertex and front with
an ill-defined raised longitudinal line; eyes moderately distant,
deeply notched; antennz more than half the length of the body,
slightly thickened towards the apex, black, four lower joints rufo-
fulvous, more or less stained with piceous. Thorax twice as
broad as long; sides broadly margined, subparallel at the base,
thence obliquely converging to the apex, more quickly converging
and slightly rounded near the latter ; above convex, broadly and
gbliquely depressed on either side, smooth and shining, remotely
punctured; the broadly reflexed lateral margin paler than the
disk. Scutellum wedge-shaped, its apex truncate. LElytra not
broader than the base of the thorax ; sides strongly lobed, con-
stricted behind the middle; above convex, rather strongly punc-
tate-striate, interspaces on the anterior disk and on the sides
transversely wrinkled. Body beneath closely punctured. Pro-
sternum oblong, its hinder apex truncate, its surface plane, the
anterior border scarcely deflexed.

Genus RHomBosTERNvs, Suffr.

RHOMBOSTERNUS SULPHURIPENNIS, Sufr. MS. Hlongatus 3,
magis oblongus 2, subcylindricus, flavus, nitidus; vertice, tho-
racis margine basali, scutello, tibiis apice tarsisque nigris ; thorace
hic illic fortiter punctato; elytris fortiter punctatis, punctis apicem
versus striatim dispositis; interspatiis transversim elevato-reti-
culatis, inter strias longitudinaliter convexiusculis; sutura, fascia
basali alterAque pone medium undata, nigris.

Mas abdominis segmento ultimo apice trilobato, dorso fovea
magna subrotundata leviter impresso, et utrinque prope apicem
spina compressa acuta, deorsum spectante, instructo.

Var. A. scutello flavo, nigro-limbato. Long. 3-3% lin.

HAlab, South Australia, Adelaide.

38*

460 MR. J. 8S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

Head rotundate; vertex and front coarsely punctured, the
former, together with the upper portion of the latter, rugose ;
antenne longer than the body in both sexes, slender, filiform,
piceo-fulvous, the basal joint stained above with piceous, the
third and fourth equal in length, the fifth and following joints
each rather longer than the fourth, nearly equal ; eyes deeply and
narrowly notched. Thorax twice as broad as long at the base;
sides rather broadly margined, subparallel and slightly rounded at
the base, obliquely converging from behind the middle to the
apex, all the angles acute; basal margin slightly bisinuate on
either side, the median lobe broadly truncate; upper surface
convex, subcylindrical in front, impressed here and there with
rather coarse punctures. Scutellum wedge-shaped, its apex
broadly truncate. Elytra not broader than the base of the
thorax, oblong; sides parallel, moderately lobed at the base ;
above convex, abruptly elevated round the scutellum, coarsely
punctured, the punctures piceous, placed irregularly on the
anterior half of the disk, irregularly arranged in longitudinal rows
on the hinder half; interspaces coarsely transversely wrinkled,
those between the longitudinal striz slightly convex.

RHOMBOSTERNUS ANTENNATUS. Elongatus, angustatus, sub-
cylindricus, piceo-fulvus, nitidus, subtus (pedibus epipleurisque
exceptis) flavus; thorace sat fortiter, suberebre punctato ; elytris
subfortiter, confuse punctatis, punctis ad apicem striatim dis-
positis ; interspatiis leviter transversim rugulosis, apicem versus
prope suturam longitudinaliter convexiusculis. 9. , Long. 24 lin.

Hab. North-western Australia.

Head rotundate ; vertex and front rather closely punctured ;
the latter impressed between the upper portion of the eyes with a
faint longitudinal groove; antenne very slender, filiform, longer
than the body, third and following joints elongate, the fourth
shorter than either the third or fifth; eyes deeply notched.
Thorax twice as broad as long; sides distinctly margined, roinded
and ernverging from base to apex; hinder angles acute, the
anterior armed with a small lateral tooth ; basal margin slightly
concave on either side, its median lobe biemarginate; upper
surface convex, not obliquely depressed on either side, coarsely
but not very deeply punctured, interspaces very smooth and
shining ; basal margin narrowly edged with piceous. Scutellum

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 461

subquadrate, its apex obtusely rounded. Elytra not broader
than the thorax, parallel, sides slightly lobed at the base; above
convex, slightly thickened near the scutellum, rather strongly
punctured, the punctures arranged towards the apex in ill-defined
longitudinal rows; interspaces transversely wrinkled, those near
the apex longitudinally thickened. Prosternum narrow in front,
concave on the sides, dilated posteriorly, the hinder apex obtusely

angled.

RHOMBOSTERNUS GRACILICORNIS. Elongatus, subcylindricus,
flavus, nitidus; supra pallide piceus, thoracis marginibus scutello-
que flavis ; antennis gracillimis, corpore multo longioribus; thorace
rugoso-punctato, disco plaga nigra, antice bifurcata, ornato ;
elytris rude punctatis, punctis pone medium striatim dispositis ;
interspatiis crasse transversim reticulatis, inter strias longitu-
dinaliter costatis. @. Long. 8 lin.

Fem. thoracis plaga nigra obsoleta.

Hab. Western Australia. —

Head rotundate, rugose ; eyes deeply notched; antenne very
slender, much longer than the body, the basal joint thickened,
the second very short, the third and following ones elongate, the
fourth rather shorter than either the third or fifth, these latter
equal. Thorax more than twice as broad as long; sides broadly
margined, rounded, converging towards the apex, the anterior
angle armed with a short subacute lateral tooth; basal margin
slightly oblique and faintly bisinuate on either side, median lobe
broad, slightly concave; above convex, obliquely depressed on
either side behind the middle; the surface in front of the median
lobe, together with the lobe itself, also depressed ; surface coarsely
rugose-punctate ; the reflexed lateral border, a narrow line on
the apical margin, and another less defined bordering the base
pale yellow; at the base, just in front of the median lobe, is a
small piceous patch. Scutellum broadly wedge-shaped (rather
narrower in the male), its apex broadly and obtusely rounded, its
basal margin narrowly edged with black ; surface plane, impunc-
tate. Elytra scarcely broader than the thorax, oblong, the sides
parailel, moderately lobed, the lateral margin reflexed; above
convex, thickened near the scutellum, very coarsely punctured ;
interspaces strongly and transversely reticulate, longitudinally
costate near the apex and on the extreme lateral margin. Pro-
sternum much longer than broad in the male, rather broader in the

462 MR. J. S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

female, concavely excavated on the sides, dilated posteriorly, its
hinder apex obtusely angulate, its surface transversely convex.

Genus Bucuaris, Baly.

Bucuaris Cuapuisu. Breviter ovatus, pube adpressa grisea
vestitus, supra cupreus, subtus obscure eneo-niger ; labro, anten-
narum articulis quinque basalibus, femoribus anticis, tibiis anticis
(basi exceptis) femoribusque intermediis basi et subtus fulvis;
thorace sat fortiter punctato, interstitiis minute granulosis ; ely-
tris glabris, distincte punctato-striatis; interspatiis minute et
irreculariter strigosis planis, externis convexis. Long. 1-1} lin.’

Hab. South Australia (Gawler Town, collected by Mr. Odewahn).

Hyes large, deeply notched, moderately distant m the female,
more closely approximating in the male, front between the eyes
longitudinally sulcate; five outer joints of antennz black or
nigro-piceous. Thorax twice as broad as long at the base, sides
rounded and converging from base to apex; basal margin bi-
sinuate on either side, basal lobe entire, subacute, covering the
base of the scutellum ; upper surface sparingly clothed with ad-
pressed griseous hairs; distinctly but not very closely punctured,
the punctures oblong; interspaces (seen under a lens) very
finely granulose-punctate. Scutellum oblong, its apex subacute.
Elytra glabrous, finely but distinctly punctate-striate ; inter-
spaces finely and irregularly strigose, plane, two outer ones
convex. Pygidium rugose, densely clothed with adpressed hairs.

BUCHARIS GRANULOSUS. Oblongus, supra cupreus, subopacus;
labro, mandibulis antennisque basi fulvis, his extrorsum nigro-
piceis; subtus nigro-zneus, nitidus, pedibus cupreis; thorace
eranuloso, sat crebre punctato, pube adpressa grisea vestito ;
elytris granuloso-strigosis, distincte punctato-striatis, interspatiis
planis, externis convexiusculis. Long. 13 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Champion Bay.

Head clothed with adpressed whitish hairs, granulose, finely
punctured, face impressed with a longitudinal groove between
the eyes, the latter moderately distant; seven lower joints of
antenne fulvous, the rest pitehy black. Thorax twice as broad
as long at the base; sides obliquely converging and moderately
rounded from base to apex; basal lobe slightly reflexed, its apex
obtuse ; upper surface sparingly clothed with adpressed hairs,
minutely granulose, rather closely covered with deeply-impressed

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 463

oblong punctures. Scutellum oblong, its apex obtuse; surface
shining, impunctate. Elytra as broad at the base as the thorax,
slightly narrowed towards the apex ; above convex, closely granu-
lose-strigose, opake, the suture and the lateral margin smooth
and shining ; surface regularly and distinctly punctate-striate ;
interspaces plane, those on the outer disk moderately convex.
Under surface nitidous, clothed with adpressed white hairs, front
surface of anterior thighs rufo-piceous.

Bucwaris Martius. Ditropidus martius, Suffr. MS. Oblongus,
niger, nitidus ; pedibus, capite (antennis extrorsum oculisque ex-
ceptis) thoraceque rufis, hoc convexo, fere impunctato ; elytris
tenuiter punctato-striatis, striis prope marginem exteriorem magis
fortiter impressis, interspatiis planis, externis convexis. Long.
1 lin.

Hab. Moreton Bay.

Face faintly rugose-punctate; eyes black, remote; clypeus
short, transverse, separated from the face by an indistinct trans-
verse groove; labrum large, its anterior border obsoletely emar-
ginate ; jaws prominent, stained with piceous ; five lower joints of
antenne obscure fulvous, the rest nigro-piceous. Thorax very
convex, smooth and shining, nearly impunctate, only a few fine
punctures being visible under a strong lens; basal lobe strongly
produced, its apex entire, obtuse, covering the base of the scutel-
lum. Hlytra regularly punctate-striate, interspaces plane, those
on the outer border convex. Metasternum, together with the
apex of the abdomen, stained with rufo-piceous, lateral margin of
prosternum piceous.

Genus Potyacuus, Chapwis.

POLYACHUS MARGINICOLLIS. Anguste oblongus, obscure fulvus;
nitidus ; supra cupreo-zneus ; clypeo, labro antennisque basi fulvis,
his extrorsum nigris; thorace fortiter punctato, utrinque ante
basin oblique excavato, lateribus fulvis; elytris sordide fulvis,
punctato-striatis, interspatiis fere planis, ad apicem et prope
marginem exteriorem conyexiusculis ; subtus niger, tibiis, tarsis
femoribusque anticis quatuor fulvis. Long. 1 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Swan River.

Head minutely granulose; eyes distant; antenne with the
four lower joints obscure fulvous, the following three nigro-
piceous, the four upper ones black. Thorax twice as broad at

464 MR. J. 8S. BALY ON GHNERA AND SPHCIES

the base as long, sides rounded, moderately converging from base
to apex; basal lobe obtuse, its extreme apex recurved; upper
surface obliquely depressed on outer side just before the base,
strongly and rather closely punctured, interspaces minutely
granulose-punctate; lateral margin broadly edged with obscure
fulvous. Elytra oblong, scarcely broader than the thorax, fulvous,
suture narrowly edged with piceous ; surface distinctly punctate-
striate, interspaces faintly wrinkled, nearly plane, slightly convex
towards the apex and on the outer side. Beneath black, clothed
with coarse, adpressed white hairs ; tibie, tarsi, and four anterior
thighs, together with the apices of the hinder pair, obscure
fulvous.
Genus Drrropripus, Hrichs.

DirRoPIDuS PHALACROIDES. Rotundato-ovatus, postice paulo
attenuatus, valde convexus, niger, nitidus, supra (antennis excep-
tis) obscure nigro-sneus ; capite thoraceque granulosis, hoc paree
tenuiter aciculato-punctato; elytris tenuiter punctato-striatis,
punctis aciculatis, interspatiis planis, iis ad latera convexiusculis.
Long. 3-3 lin.

Hab. South Australia, Gawler on,

Vertex and front plane, sparingly clothed with short silvery
hairs, very finely granulose, impressed with a few minute punc-
tures, visible only under a strong lens; eyes moderately distant,
angularly notched; antennee shorter than the head and thorax,
the basal joint obscure rufous, the rest shining black; five outer
joints broader than long, forming a distinct club; third to the
sixth short, cylindrical. Thorax nearly three times as broad as long
at the base; sides quickly converging and slightly rounded from
base to apex, the hinder angle produced posteriorly, acute ; upper
surface minutely granulose, rather sparingly impressed with very
fine aciculate punctures. Scutellum narrowly wedge-shaped.
Elytra very finely punctate-striate, the punctures aciculate ; inter-
spaces plane, each impressed with an irregular row of very minute
punctures, two outer interspaces slightiy convex.

Dirroripus Latus. Anguste oblongo-ovatus, convexus, cu-
preus, nitidus, subtus obscure nigro-zneus ; labro, pedibus anten-
nisque fulvis, his extrorsum nigris; thorace subremote punctato ;
elytris sat fortiter punctato-striatis, punctis oblongis; interspatiis
ad apicem convexiusculis, externis convexis. Long. 3 lin.

Hab. South Australia.

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 4.65

Vertex and front clothed witb scattered whitish hairs, sparingly
but distinctly punctured, the latter impressed with a longitudi-
nal groove; clypeus transverse, semilunate, its anterior margin
concave, its surface irregular, deeply but remotely punctured ;
eyes moderately distant, slightly notched ; antenne rather longer
than the head and thorax, five outer joints moderately dilated, not
longer than broad, black, the six lower ones obscure fulvous.
Thorax about twice as broad as long at the base; sides rounded
and converging from base to apex, more quickly converging in
front; surface subremotely punctured, the punctures oblong,
coarse and strongly impressed on the sides, finer on the disk ; in-
terspaces near the lateral margin faintly strigose. Scutellum
ovate, its apex acute. Elytra oblong, strongly punctate-striate,
punctures oblong; interspaces plane, slightly convex towards the
apex, those on the outer side convex for their whole length. Body
beneath clothed with whitish hairs. .

DirRopipus COsTIPENNIS. Breviter ovatus, niger, nitidus ;
labro antennarumque basi piceis; thorace fortiter punctato,
interstitiis strigosis; elytris infra basin transversim excavatis, sat
profunde punctato-striatis, interspatiis nitidis, pone medium obso-
lete transversim striolatis, convexis, ad apicem et ad marginem
exteriorem costatis. Long. 2 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Champion Bay.

Head finely punctured, subopake, space between the eyes broad,
faintly impressed in the middle with a longitudinal groove; six
lower joints of antenne obscure piceo-fulvous, the upper surface
of the basal joint, together with nearly the whole of the sixth,
stained with piceous, seventh to the eleventh black ; labrum and
mandibles piceous, base of the latter rufous. Thorax convex ;
sides rounded and converging from base to apex; basal border
bisinuate on either side, basal lobe slightly reflexed, its extreme
apex narrowly but distinctly notched; upper surface convex,
impressed just in front of the basal lobe with a short transverse
excavation; strengly and rather closely punctured, punctures
oblong, interspaces strigose; strigz crowded at the sides, less
visible and sometimes nearly obsolete on the middle disk. Hlytra
transversely excavated below the basilar space (the latter slightly
elevated), strongly and deeply punciate-striate, the striz sulcate ;
interspaces thickened, convex, costate towards the apex and on
the outer disk.

466 MR. J. S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

Dirroripus Facrauis. Breviter ovatus, niger, nitidus; labro,
pedibus antennisque fulvis, his apice fuscis, femoribus posticis
piceis ; thorace tenuiter, subremote punctato; elytris tenuiter
sed distincte punctato-striatis, interspatiis impunctatis, planis,
lis ad marginem exteriorem leviter convexiuseulis.

Mas facie testacea, vertice nigro-piceo.

Fem facie nigro-piceé, clypeo maculaque frontali testaceis.
Long. 1 lin.

Hab. South Australia, Gawler Town.

Head slightly convex, smooth,impressed with shallow punctures,
sparingly clothed with fine adpressed hairs; eyes large, widely
separated in the female, rather more approximate in the male;
four outer joints of antenne more or iess stained with fuscous.
Thorax twice as broad as long ; sides rounded and converging from
base to apex; upper surface minutely and subremotely punctured.
Elytra finely punctate-striate, interspaces plane, smooth and im-
punctate, those on the outer margin very faintly convex.
Beneath black, sparingly clothed with adpressed hairs; a patch
on either side of the anterior margin of the mesosternum fulvous.
Legs im the female stained with piceous.

Dirroripus Jansoni. Breviter ovatus, niger, nitidus; labro
antennarumgue basi fulvis, pedibus elytrisque chalybeis, his sat
fortiter punctato-striatis, interspatiis planis, externis convexis ;
capite eneo, thorace nigro-zeneo, sat crebre punctato.

Mas oculis approximatis, fronte angustissimo. Long. 13 lin.
| Hab. Queensland, Rockhampton.

Head clothed with adpressed whitish hairs, brassy green; labrum
and four lower joints of antennz fulvous, the remaining joints
black; eyes large, occupying nearly tbe whole front in the male,
the space between them in that sex being almost lmear; more
distantly placed in the female; clypeus rugose-punctate. Thorax
convex, nigro-zneous, rather coarsely and rather closely punc-
tured. Scutellum hastate. LElytra rather strongly punctate-
striate, interspaces plane, remotely impressed with fine punctures,
those on the outer margin convex.

DITROPIDUS SEMICIRCULARIS, Suffr. MS. Breviter ovatus,
ceruleo-niger, nitidus, griseo-sericeus ; labro fulvo, clypei margine
antico antennisque rufo-piceis, his apice infuscatis ; thorace aneo
Vix micante, subcrebre punctato; elytris distincte punctato-striatis

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYLTOPHAGOUS BERTLUS. 467

interspatiis suberebre punctatis, internis ad apicem, externis totis
convexiusculis ; chalybeis, utrinque fascié lat& curvati prope
medium posit, antrorsum ramulos duos emittente, fulvé; femor-
ibus anticis basi tarsisque piceis. Long. 2 lin.

Hab. Australia.

Head finely but not closely punctured, front broad, longitu-
dinally depressed between the eyes, the latter widely separated ;
antenne shorter than the head and thorax, rufo-piccous, stained
on the outer half with fuscous ; clypeus obliquely deflexed, faintly
rugose, the anterior margin rufo-piceous. Thorax clothed with
adpressed whitish-coloured silky hairs, distinctly and rather
closely punctured; basal lobe obliquely depressed on either side
along the basal margin, the space between the two depressions
forming a narrow longitudinal ridge, which extends posteriorly to
the apex of the lobe. Scutellum glabrous. Elytra clothed with
sericeous hairs, rather finer and less abundant than those on the
thorax, firmly but distinctly punctate-striate.

Drrroripus ornatus. SBreviter ovatus, niger, nitidus ; labro
antennisque basi obscure fulvis; thorace fortiter punctato; elytris
tenuiter punctato-striatis, flavis, utrinque vitté suturali, margine
exterior, antice obsoleta, plaga transversi basi ad fixd alteraque
trigonata pone medium posita, seepe ad suturam connexa, nigris.
Long. 13-24 lin.

Hab. Western Australia.

Head clothed with adpressed whitish hairs, strongly punctured,
face between the eyes concave, impressed with a faint longitudinal
groove ; eyes moderately distant in the male, more widely separated
in the female; five lower joints obscure fulvous, more or less stained
above with piceous, sixth joint entirely piceous, the rest black.
Thorax convex ; sides rounded and converging from base to apex,
anterior angles slightly produced, acute; basal margin bisinuate
on either side, basal lobe very slightly deflexed ; surface smooth
and shining, coarsely but not very closely punctured, punctures
oblong. Scutellum ovate, its apex acute. Hlytra very finely
punctate-striate, punctures piceous, those on the stria near the
outer margin more strongly impressed ; interspaces plane, smooth,
impunctate, very slightly convex on the outer disk; bright fla-
vous, a sutural vitta, dilated in the middle, the outer border from
below the lateral lobe to the apex, a transverse patch on the
middle of the basal margin, the margin itself between the patch

468 MR. J. §S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

and the suture, and lastly a triangular patch just below the middle
of the disk, usually attached to the sutural vitta, black. Front
anterior thighs in the male with a piceous patch.

DitTropipus PULCHELLUS. Breviter ovatus, niger, nitidus ;
capite thoraceque rufo-fulvis, illo oculis, vertice utrinque anten-
nisque extrorsum nigris; hoc sat fortiter punctato, margine basali
nigro; elytris distincte punctato-striatis, interspatiis planis, ex-
ternis vix convexiusculis ; utrinque fascié transversd ante medium
intus abbreviata, extus ramulum fere ad basin emittente maculaque
semilunata ante apicem positis, lete fulvis ornatis. Long. 2 lin.

Hab. South Australia, Adelaide.

Head distinctly punctured ; jaws, eyes, and an oblique patch on
either side of the vertex black; face excavated between the eyes,
the latter widely separated; five lower joints of antenne fulvous,
the rest piceous. Thorax nitidous, bright ruto-fulvous, the basal
margin edged with black; surface rather coarsely but not closely
punctured. LElytra distinctly but not strongly punctate-striate ;
interspaces plane, impunctate, very faintly wrinkled, those on
the outer margin very slightly convex ; third stria from the suture
sulcate towards the apex ; extreme apex of elytra coarsely punc-
tured; each elytron with a transverse band, abbreviated at
the suture, irregularly sinuate on both its anterior and posterior
borders, the outer portion of the former dilated and produced
upwards along the outer border of the elytron nearly to the base,
and lastly a semilunate subapical patch, fulvous. Beneath black,
the prothorax, together with the basal portion of the anterior
pair of thighs, fulvous.

DiTROPIDUS SERENUS. Breviter ovatus, postice attenuatus,
convexus, fulvo-piceus, nitidus, antennis pedibusque pallidioribus ;
pectore, abdomine, scutello, thoracis margine basali elytrorumque
lmea suturali nigris; thorace levi; elytris tenuiter punctato-
striatis, striis ad marginem lateralem magis fortiter punctatis,
leviter sulcatis; interspatiis planis, levibus, iis ad latera con-
vexiusculis. Long. 13 lin.

Hab. South Australia.

Vertex and front smooth, subremotely but not deeply punc-
tured ; eyes large, black, broadly separated in the female, less
distant in the other sex: antenne slender, rather longer than the
head and thorax, five outer joints compressed and slightly dilated,
third, fourth, and fifth equal in length. Thorax twice as broad at

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 469

the base as long; sides rounded and converging from base to
apex, hinder angles produced posteriorly, acute; basal margin
bisinuate on either side, median lobe acute, its apex finely notched ;
above convex, smooth and shining, rather remotely impressed
with minute punctures only visible under a lens. Scutellum
ovate, acuminate at base and apex. Elytra finely punctate-striate,
the striz on the outer margin rather more strongly punctured
and slightly suleate; interspaces plane, impunctate, those on
the outer margin convex. Pygidium rugose-punctate, sparingly
clothed with adpressed hairs. Prosternum rather longer than
broad in the male; in the female slightly transverse.

Family EUMOLPIDZ.

Genus Tertius, Chap.

TERILLUS FOVEOLATUS. Hlongatus, convexus, cupreus, nitidus ;
pedibus antennisque fulvis, harum articulo ultimo nigro, labro
flavo ; capite thoraceque crebre punctatis; elytris oblongis, con-
vexis, foveis magnis numerosis, seriatim dispositis, leviter impres-
sis, fundo rugoso-punctatis et parce sericeis, instructis ; interspatiis
nitidis, hie illic inter se reticulatis, ad apicem costatis. Long. 33
lin.

Hab. Western Australia; a single specimen in my cabinet,
collected by Mr. Duboulay.

Head closely rugose-punctate ; clypeus not separated from the
upper face, its anterior border narrowly edged with metallic
green, bidentate ; labrum and jaws pale yellow; antenne nearly
three fourths the length of the body, slender, filiform, fulvous, the
apical joint black. Thorax twice as broad aslong; sides rounded
and converging from base to apex; above subcylindrical, closely
rugose-punctate. Scutellum broader than long, sides diverging
from the base towards the apex, the latter obtusely angulate ;
surface closely punctured. Elytra oblong, slightly attenuated at
the apex, convex, covered with large shallow foves, arranged on
each elytron in ten longitudinal rows; surfaces of these fovew
rugose-punctate and sparingly clothed with scale-like sericeous
hairs; towards the apex of the elytra and on the extreme lateral
border the fover forming each row are more or less confluent,
and run into distinct longitudinal grooves; interspaces nitidous,
coarsely wrinkled and irregularly reticulating on the anterior two
thirds of the disk; on the hinder third and on the outer border
they form longitudinal coste.

470 MR. J. 8S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES |

TERILLUS squamMosus. Hlongatus, cylindricus, niger, nitidus,
dense albido squamosus; labro antennisque piceo-fulvis, his ex-
trorsum, tibiis tarsisque anticis piceis; thorace subremote punc-
tato; elytris sat fortiter punctatis, interspatiis transversim rugu-
losis. Long. 33 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Nichol Bay.

Body densely clothed with adpressed white scales. Head
rather strongly but not very closely punctured, clothed with long
slender adpressed white scales ; eyes prominent, rotundate-ovate,
slightly sinuate; antennz slender, more than half the length of
the body, second joint short, obovate, the third and fourth each
twice as long as the second, equal, the fifth and sixth rather
longer, also equal. Thorax twice as broad as long; sides rounded
and diverging at the base, thence obliquely converging to the
apex, slightly sinuate just behind the middle; above subcylindrical,
excavated on the basal margin just in front of the scutellum,
impressed, but not very closely, with deep round punctures,
clothed with similar scales to those on the head. Scutellum
broader than long, its apex broadly rounded. Elytra broader
than the thorax, parallel, subacutely rounded at the apex, dehis-
cent at the sutural angle; above cylindrical, coarsely punctured,
the interspaces transversely rugulose ; surface clothed with elon-
gate-ovate, very acuminate scales ; besides these, scattered here
and there, are a few very long, slender, thread-like, erect hairs.
Body beneath and legs densely clothed with linear scales.

TERILLUS PERPLEXUS. Hlongatus,subeylindricus, pube adpressa
squameiformi albida dense vestitus ; subtus piceus, pedibus abdo-
mineque pallidioribus; supra cupreus, labro antennisque fulvis,
harum articulis ultimis apice infuscatis; thorace tenuiter, sub-
remote punctato; elytris subcrebre punctatis, interspatiis trans-,
versim rugulosis. Long. 23 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Nichol Bay.

Body densely clothed with linear, adpressed, scale-like hairs.
Head exserted, vertex and front remotely and finely punctured,
impressed in the middle with a shallow longitudimal groove;
clypeus rather more strongly punctured than the upper face;
antenne more than half the length of the body, slender, entirely
filiform, fulvous, the apices of the five or six outer joints stained
with fuscous; eyes ovate-rotundate, entire. Thorax twice as
broad as long; sides regularly rounded; above convex, nitidous,

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. AT)

finely and remotely punctured. Scutellum transverse its apex
broadly and obtusely rounded. Elytra broader than the thorax,
oblong, parallel; above convex, rather closely punctured, inter-
spaces transversely rugulose.

TERILLUS Duzovunayt. Subelongatus, subcylindricus, obscure
zeneus, dense albido-squamosus; labro, antennis pedibusque rufo-
piceis; thorace subcylindrico, sat remote, mediocriter punctato ;
elytris tenuiter punctatis, interspatiis ante medium transversim
rugulosis. Long. 3 lin.

Hab. Western Australia.

Body densely clothed with adpressed scales. Head exserted,
broad, distinctly but not strongly punctured, surface closely
covered with long, white, adpressed scales; clypeus broader than
long, sides converging towards the apex, the apical border obsolete;
eyes large, remote, prominent, subrotundate, their inner border
slightly sinuate; antenne not half the length of the body,
slender; jaws black. Thorax nearly twice as broad as long; sides
nearly parallel behind the middle, slightly converging in front;
above subcylindrical, subremotely punctured, densely clothed
with adpressed scales, a longitudinal space down the centre of the
disk, and another, less defined, on either side, nearly glabrous.
Seutellum much broader than long, its sides diverging from the
base towards the apex, the latter broadly and obtusely rounded.
Elytra scarcely broader than the thorax, their sides parallel, their
apices conjointly, subacutely rounded; above subcylindrical,

‘irregularly punctured; interspaces on the anterior disk trans-
versely rugulose; surface closely covered with white and pale
fuscous scales, arranged in broad, ill-defined vitte, leaving on each
elytron three or four nearly glabrous longitudinal spaces.

TERILLUS vitTaTus. Hlongatus, convexus, cupreus, nitidus,
pube subdepressa grisea vestitus ; antennis, tibiis tarsisque piceis;
thorace rugoso-punctato, utrinque excavato, disci medio macula
trifida, et ante medium serie transversa punctorum nitidorum in-
structo; elytris rude punctatis, utrinque infra basin fovea magna
excavatis, interspatiis transversim elevato-strigosis, vittis non-
nullis interruptis, prope apicem magis elevatis, instructis. Long.
2+ lin.

Hab. Queensland, Rockhampton.

Head rugose-punctate, clothed with long, subdepressed, silky
hairs; clypeus wedge-shaped, less closely punctured than the

472 MR. J. S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

upper part of the face; eyes prominent, subrotundate, distinctly
notched ; antenne half the length of the body, filiform, six lower
joints pale piceous, the five outer ones nigro-piceous. Thorax
about one half broader than long; sides rounded, converging in
front; above convex, coarsely punctured, rugose, impressed on
either side with a large deep fovea; on the middle of the disk is
a slightly raised, ill-defined, smooth and shining trifid patch,
and in front of this are six small, shining, impunctate spots,
arranged in a transverse curve. Scutellum broader than long,
its apex broadly rounded, its surface glabrous, finely but not
closely punctured. Elytra broader than the thorax, oblong, at-
tenuated at the apex, the latter conjointly subangulate; above
convex, coarsely and closely punctured; interspaces irregularly
thickened, transversely strigose on the anterior disk; on each
elytron are four or five raised, smooth and shining vitte, only
slightly elevated and ill-defined on the anterior disk, interrupted
towards the apex and forming short, strongly-raised ridges; on
each elytron below the basilar space is a large deeply-excavated
fovea.

Genus Getoprera, Baly.

GELOPTERA IGNEO-NITENS. Oblonga, convexa, subtus picea,
eneo-tincta; supra «nea, rufo-aureo tincta, antennis nigris, basi
piceis ; thorace crasse, irregulariter punctato, lateribus tridentatis ;
elytris sat profunde confuse punctatis, punctis ad apicem minus
fortiter impressis ; interspatiis transversim rugosis, apicem versus _
magis elevatis et longitudinaliter subcostatis. Long. 33-5 lin.

Hab. Western Australia.

Head cupreo-igneous, rugose-punctate, front impressed with
a fine longitudinal groove; clypeus wedge-shaped, well defined,
its surface less closely and less coarsely punctured than the rest
of the head; antennz equal to the body in length in the male,
shorter in the female, filiform, not thickened towards the apex,
third and fourth joints each twice the length of the second, equal ;
four lower joints piceous, the rest black. Thorax more than twice
as broad as long; sides rounded, tridentate, the anterior border
narrowly, the hinder one broadly margined; above convex, coarsely
and irregularly punctured, the punctures less crowded on the
disk ; whole surface deeply tinted with coppery red. Scutellum
semioblong-ovate. Elytra broadly oblong, much broader than
the thorax, coarsely and irregularly punctured, the punctures

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 473

towards the apex finer and much less strongly impressed ; inter-
spaces transversely wrinkled, more strongly thickened near the
apex, and there forming raised longitudinal rows.

GELOPTERA VESTITA. Ovata,valde convexa, picea, nitida, pube
adpressa grisea vestita, pedibus antennisque pallidis harum articulo
ultimo nigro; thorace transverso, inde punctato, lateribus triden-
tatis ; elytris crasse punctatis, punctis ad apicem striatim disposi-
tis, interstitiis subcostatis. Long. 3 lin.

Hab. Port Bowen.

Head closely and coarsely punctured; front concave between
the eyes; clypeus trigonate ; antenne slender, three fourths the
length of the body, third joint three times the length of the
second, the eleventh joint black. Thorax twice as broad as long;
sides rounded, armed with three stout acute teeth; above trans-
versely convex, coarsely punctured. Elytra much broader than the
thorax, convex, coarsely punctured, the punctures towards the
apex arranged in longitudinal rows; interspaces between these
rows subcostate ; on the anterior disk are also several slightly
raised costez.

Genus Ruyparipa, Baly.

RHYPARIDA MACULICOLLIS. Oblongo-ovata, convexa, piceo-
nigra, nitida, supra rufo-castanea, antennis (basi excepta), thoracis
maculis duabus, transversim positis, elytrorumque plaga magna
communi a basi fere ad apicem extensa, postice attenuata, nigra.
Long. 23 lin.

Hab. Queensland, Rockhampton.

Clypeus coarsely punctured, not distinctly separated from
the face, its anterior border deeply concave-emarginate ; vertex
nearly impunctate; front faintly impressed with a longitudinal
groove ; antenne with the three lower joints rufo-fulvous, the
fourth piceous, the rest black; third joint one third longer
than the second. Thorax nearly twice as broad as long; sides
rounded, converging in front; anterior angles armed with a
small obtuse tooth; above convex, smooth and shining, remotely
impressed with minute punctures, only visible under a lens;
placed transversely on the disk, but rather nearer the anterior
border than the base, are two large black patches. Scutellum
semirotundate-ovate, piceous. Hlytra broader than the thorax,
oblong, convex, faintly excavated below the basilar space, regu-
larly punctate-striate, the punctures coarser and more deeply

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 39

474, MR. J. S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

impressed on the anterior disk, finer behind the middle; inter-
spaces plane, very remotely impressed with minute punctures,
only seen under a lens. Body beneath shining nigro-piceous, the
claws pale piceous. Hinder thighs armed beneath with a minute
tooth.

Family CHRYSOMELIDA.

Genus CyrcLonoDa.

Corpus late ovato-rotundatum, valde convexum, apterum. Caput
in thoracem insertum; ocuwlis angustatis, elongatis, remotis ; an-
tennis corporis dimidio brevioribus, ad apicem vix incrassatis ;
clypeo 3 profunde et oblique incisa, 2 semper transversim
truncato; palporwm maxillarium articulo ultimo ovato. Thorax
transversus. Scutellum trigonatum. Hlytra convexa, regula-
riter punctato-striata, lateribus ante medium modice lobatis,
limbo inflexo horizontali, plano. Pedes robusti; wnguiculis in-
ermibus. Prosternum canaliculatum, antice in processum obtu-
sum breviter productum ; acetabulis anticis apertis.

Type Cyclonoda pilula, Clark (Chalcomela).

The present genus is separated from Chalcomela by its apterous
body, closely united elytra, and by the distant, narrow, and
elongate eyes. The males are distinguished by the remarkable
forms of the clypeus: in C. pilula and subpunctata of Clark (the
only species in which the male is known to me) the anterior border
of the clypeus is obliquely incised by a broad angular notch,
commencing close to the insertion of the right antenna, and
extending more than halfway across the segment; the lower
margin of the notch is developed into an obtuse lobe, thickened
at the base, and produced obliquely forward, concealing (when
viewed from above) the greater portion of the labrum.

Genus PARALEPTA.

Corpus elongatum, parallelum, convexum. Caput exsertum ;
oculis remotis, prominulis, elongato-ovalibus ; antennis filiformi- —
bus, corporis dimidio equalibus; palpis maxillaribus articulo
ultimo trigonato, apice late truncato. Thorax transversus, late-
ribus irregulariter crenulatis. Scwtellwm irigonatum. Llytra
thoraci equilata, parallela, confuse striatim punctata. Pedes
mediocres; wnguiculis acute appendiculatis. Prosternwm meso-
sterno equilatum, apice vix ampliatum, dorso canaliculatum ; acefa-

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 475

bulis anticis apertis. Mesosternum transversum. Metasternum
apice immarginato, lateribus linea impressa instructis.

Type Paralepta foveicollis.

This genus is intermediate between Calomela, Hope (Australica,
Chevr.), and Carystea, mihi: in the toothed claw it agrees with
the former; in the narrow elongate form and in the emarginate
apex of the metasternum with the latter; it differs from both in
the crenulate lateral border of the thorax.

PARALEPTA FOVEICOLLIS. LHlongata, parallela, subcylindrica,
nitida, subtus obscure nigro-wenea; supra obscure viridi-snea,
cupreo-violaceo nitens, antennis (basi piceo excepto) nigris;
thorace modice convexo, ad latera dense, disco minus crebre,
foveolato-punctato, interspatiis rude elevato-reticulatis ; lateribus
irregulariter sed leviter crenulatis; elytris sat crebre striatim
punctatis, interspatiis leviter rugulosis, ad apicem leviter vittatis.
Long. 4-5 lin.

Hab. New South Wales.

Head closely rugose-punctate; ahtenne slender, four lower
joints obscure piceous, the rest black. Thorax twice as broad as
long ; sides straight and nearly parallel from their base to beyond
the middle, thence rounded and converging to the apex, the
anterior angle slightly produced, acute ; lateral margin irregularly
crenulate * ; upper surface moderately convex, closely covered on
the sides, more distantly so on the middle disk, with large, deep,
foveolate punctures ; interspaces nitidous, elevate-reticulate; disk
with several distinctly raised, irregular, impunctate patches.
Elytra scarcely broader than the thorax, parallel; above convex,
very slightly excavated below the base, aciculate-punctate, the
punctures closely arranged in longitudinal rows, those on the
inner disk geminate ; interspaces rugulose, transversely strigose
before the middle, elevated into faint vitte towards the apex.

Family GALLERUCIDA.

Subfamily HaLDICIN z.
Genus PLATYcCEPHA.

Corpus elongato-ovatum, convexum. Caput subtrigonatum,
inter oculos planum ; antennis ad caput cum thorace vix xqui-
* These crenulations vary in degree, and are occasionally almost. entirely

wanting.

39*

>

476 MR. J. S. BALY ON GENERA AND SPECIES

longis, extrorsum paulo incrassatis, articulis 8°-10° subturbi-
natis, ultimo rotundato-ovato ; ocwlis remotis, ovalibus, integris ;
carina et encarpis obsoletis. Thorax transversus, transversim
convexus. lytra anguste oblongis, parallelis, thorace vix latiora,
modice convexa, punctato-striata. Pedes breves, robusti; coxis
anticis prosterno squialtis; femoribus anticis quatuor modice,
posticis valde incrassatis ; ¢2bzs a basi ad apicem incrassatis, apice
spina acuta armatis ; dorso profunde canaliculatis, sulci margini-
bus vix ante apicem dente acuto armatis. Tursis posticis apici
tibiarum insertis; waguiculis appendiculatis. Prosternwm planum,
apice dilatatum ; acetabulis anticis integris.

The extremely short antennex, the short robust legs, the flat-
tened face between the eyes, together with the absence of any
thoracic grooves, will separate Platycepha from any allied
genus.

PuaTYCEPHA EXIMIA. Elongato-ovata, convexa, flava, nitida,
scutello, antennis extrorsum femoribusque posticis apice fusco-
piceis ; capite (antennis exceptis) pallide rufo-piceo; thorace
fulvo, tenuiter punctato; elytris nigris, margine laterali ante
medium anguste rufo; sat fortiter punctato-striatis, interspatiis
planis, leviter ruguloso-punctatis.

Var. A. elytris fusco-piceis, margine externo late flavo. Long.
2 lin.

Hab. Western Australia, Nichol Bay.

Head smooth, nearly free from punctures; surface flat, carina
and encarpe entirely obsolete, the interocular spaces being only
indicated by a faint line on the upper margin; labrum flavous ;
antenne with the six lower joints flavous, the rest fuscous ; basal
joint moderately, the second slightly thickened, second and five
following joints nearly equal in length, the fifth to the seventh
gradually increasing in width, slightly flattened, trigonate, the
eighth to the tenth very slightly compressed, subturbinate, the
eleventh rotundate-ovate ; eyes remote, shining black. Thorax
nearly twice as broad at the base as long; sides rounded and
diverging at the extreme base, thence obliquely converging to the
apex, anterior angles slightly produced, very obtuse, the hinder
ones nearly obsolete; upper surface minutely and distinctly
punctured, the puncturing only visible under a lens. Scutellum
broader than long, its apex broadly rounded. LElytra oblong,
moderately convex, distinctly punctate-striate, interspaces finely

OF AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES. 477

rugulose and finely punctured. Tibiz stout, increasing in thickness
from base to apex, their outer surfaces broadly grooved, margins
of the groove in the four hinder tibiz each armed just before the
_ apex with an acute tooth; outer border of the groove on the
front pair armed with a similar tooth; hinder tibia equal in
length to the femur.

Genus Arstpopa, EHrichs.

ARSIPODA PICEIPES. Elongato-ovata, convexa, cuprea, nitida,
pedibus piceis; antennis corporis dimidio vix brevioribus, ad
apicem incrassatis, nigris, basi piceis; thorace crebre punctato,
basi utrinque sulco brevi perpendiculari impresso ; elytris tenuiter
punctato-striatis, interspatiis planis, tenuissime punctatis. Long.
2 lin.

Hab. Western Australia (Duboulay).

Head trigonate, rugose; carina slightly raised, ill-defined,
acuminate at base and apex; encarpe ill-defined, transverse, not
contiguous ; front impressed on either side with a deep groove,
which runs obliquely upwards along the inner border of the eye;
antenne nearly half the length of the body, six outer joints
thickened and forming an indistinct elongated club; six lower
joints piceous, the rest black. Thorax rather more than
twice as broad as long at the base; sides straight and parallel
behind the middle, thence rounded and converging to the
apex, anterior angles oblique, thickened, obtuse; basal margin
faintly sinuate on either side the median lobe, the latter scarcely
produced, broadly truncate ; upper surface rather strongly and
somewhat closely punctured; base impressed on either side, at
some distance from the lateral margin, with a deep, slightly
curved, perpendicular groove ; in the middle between these grooves
is a faint indication of a transverse groove. Scutellum trigonate.
Elytra rather broader than the thorax, ovate, attenuated towards
the apex, convex, finely punctate-striate, the punctures rather
stronger on the basal half of the surface; interspaces plane,
minutely but not closely punctured. Legs piceous; hinder thighs
moderately curved, lower half of upper surface only slightly
grooved.

Very similar in form to A. consuta, Germ.: more robust and
less elongate than that insect. the antenne shorter and much
more incrassated towards their apices.

478 MR. J. 8. BALY ON AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPHAGOUS BEETLES.

Genus Giptonycuis, Latr.

(ipronycuts Howrrrit. Ovata, convexa, nitida, subtus picea,
pectore abdomineque piceo-fulvis; supra nigra, elytris metallico-
purpureis. Long. 2 lin.

Hab. New South Wales, Sydney.

Head short; carina plane, its surface impressed with a faint
longitudinal groove ; clypeus abruptly inflexed, shortly semi-
lunate, its surface concave ; encarpe contiguous ; antenne mode-
rately robust, much less than half the length of the body.
Thorax nearly three times as broad as long; sides reflexed, con-
verging and slightly rounded from base to apex, the hinder angles
acute, the anterior curved slightly outwards and forming an
obtuse tooth; disk smooth, impunctate. Elytra broader than the
thorax, very finely but not closely punctured ; interspaces smooth
and shining, faintly wrinkled below the base; reflexed lateral
margin narrow, impressed with a single row of coarse punctures.
Hinder tibia short, its outer surface armed just before the apex
with a short tooth; basal joint of hinder tarsus shorter than the
two following united, claw strongly inflated.

Genus SPHHROPHYMA.

Corpus rotundatum, valde convexum. Caput parvum, thoraci ad
oculos insertum ; ocwlis magnis, elongatis, intus leviter sinuatis ;
antennis proxime insertis, thorace paulo longioribus, filiformibus,
modice robustis; articulo basali elongato, paulo incrassato, leviter
curvato, secundo brevi, ovato; encarpis subtrigonatis, contiguis ;
carina \ineariformi. Thorax transversus. Sewtellwm parvum.
Elytra thorace multo latiora, punctato-striata, limbo inflexo dila-
tato, margine exteriore deorsum producto. Pedes breves; coxis
anticis prosterno xquialtis ; femoribus posticis valde incrassatis ;
tibiis anticis quatuor apice muticis; ibis posticis crassis, paulo
recurvatis, apice in processum acutum prolongatis, dorso plano,
ante apicem spina valida subclaviformi, apice subacuta, armato ;
tarsis posticis tibiarum dorso, vix ante apicem, insertis, articulo
basali ceteris longiore ; wnguiculis appendiculatis. Prosternwm
planum, postice ad metasternum productum, acetabulis anticis
integris. Mesosternum occultum.

Spherophyma, which I have established on a remarkable insect
collected at Rockhampton by Mr. Simon, is nearly allied to
Argopistes, Motsch.: it may be known from that genus by the
punctate-striate elytra.

MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA. 479

SpH#RoPpHYMa Srmonr. Rotundata, valde convexa, flava, nitida,
oculis nigris, femoribus posticis piceis ; thorace sat crebre tenuiter
punctato; elytris tenuiter punctato-striatis, punctis in striis
confuse dispositis, interspatiis planis. Long. 13 lin.

Hab. Queensland, Rockhampton.

Hyes large, black, occupying a considerable portion of the
face; antenne nearly contiguous at their insertion, being only
separated by the linear carina, which extends downwards across
the large triangular clypeus, and nearly reaches the anterior
border of the latter; encarpe slightly raised, ill-defined. Thorax
nearly three times as broad as long; sides very obliquely con-
verging from base to apex, anterior angles thickened, slightly
produced, very obtuse, hinder angles rounded; basal margin
oblique and bisinuate on either side, the median lobe slightly
produced, broadly and obtusely rounded; surface rather closely
but finely punctured. Elytra much broader than the thorax, the
shoulders broadly rounded; upper surface very finely punctate-
striate, the punctures (in some specimens) piceous ; interspaces
plane, impressed with punctures equal in size to those on the
strie themselves; outer margin broadly dilated, irregularly pune-
tured.

This insect, like the species belonging to Motschulsky’s genus
Argopistes, has quite the facies of a Coccinella.

Observations on British Polyzoa. By Cuannrs Winuram
Pracu, Hsq., A.L.8. &e.

[Read June 7, 1877.]
(Puate XXIII.)

SCRUPOCELLARIA scruposa.—Although this is common and well
known, I am able to add a little to its history. On the 10th of
June, 1876, I got a nice specimen at Newhaven, on a sponge (Ha-
lichondria panicea) from the Firth of Forth. From a desire to know
how it moored itself to this soft body, I carefully examined it,
and cut open the sponge, and found, as I thought, curious sponge-
spicules, differing from all I had previously seen. On tearing the
Scrupocellaria from the sponge, I at once saw what I took for spi-
cules were actually the “tubulous root-fibres”’ of the Serupocellaria ;
here, then, was anew fact tome. Hitherto I had always considered
these “ tubulous root-fibres ’’ as smooth, with a disk, for adhesion to

480 MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZO,.

any thing, at the lowest end; in this case they were armed with
stout hooked spines where they were buried in the sponge, the
points of the hooks bent towards the zoophyte, like the flukes of
an anchor pointing towards the bow of a ship when the cable
is stretched tight. These hooked spines are shaped like the thorn
of a rose-tree, and surround the “ root-fibres”’ in a rather irregu-
lar manner, and when dragged out of the sponge they hold in
their grasp numbers of the sponge-spicules; this at once explained
why these “root-fibres’”’ were armed with hooks, and the points
bent towards the zoophyte (see Pl. XXIII. fig. 1).

In March of the present year (1877) I got another specimen from
the same locality, and found that the spines &c. were constant under
similar circumstances. Feeling much interested in the discovery I
resolved to follow it up, and fortunately turned up from my hoards
a specimen of Canda reptans, collected in Cornwall before 1849 ;
it is also attached to a sponge. On examination it shows similar
hooked spines on the “ tubular root-fibres ” (fig.2). In the hope of
confirming this with a Scotch speeimen I got Canda reptans from
Newhaven, unfortunately not on a sponge, but on Flustra Soliacea:
here the hooks are absent; but the tips of the “root-fibres ”
are furnished with short radiating processes spread out at right
angles, and from these, short disk-like processes are inserted into
the openings and body of the cells of the Flustra, thus giving
afirm grip on this larger fan-shaped and firmer support, and
enabling the zoophyte to ride safely in a storm (see fig. 3).

Here, then, we have curious instances of things low (but are
they low? of course I hope that you will take this by comparison
only) in the scale so weil adapting themselves to changed cir-
cumstances as to secure their safety and preservation. In no
work on British Zoophytes can I find any notice of these hooks.
Prof. Busk has figured, in the ‘ British Museum Catalogue of
Marine Polyzoa,’ part 1, pl. xxiv., a Serupocellaria Macandrei,
from the coast of Spain, and described it at page 24 as having
Radical tubes hooked ;” and at page 25 he mentions Scrupocellaria
JSerox, from Bass’s Straits, as “hooked like S. Macandrei.’ These
instances, however, are not British. I hope to follow out this
discovery when the weather becomes settled and warmer.

Eschara Skenei, var. tridens, Busk.—Although I have known
this variety for many years, it is only a short time ago that I was
aware of Professor Busk’s paper in the ‘Magazine of Natural

MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA. 481

History,’ 1856, in which he has figured and described the above
named from Norway and Finmark, collected by the late Mr.
McAndrew. In 1860 I obtained at Wick, N.B., a specimen from a
fisherman’s line hooked up from deep water off the Caithness coast
in30 fathoms. In the same year J got a second specimen at Lath-
eron Wheel, from the same locality, also from a fisherman’s line.
I procured a few more (three or four) specimens during my resi-
dence at Wick ; however, they are very rare. A]l of them answered
to Mr. Busk’s description, with one exception; this, I fancy, he sus-
pected, for he writes “wnarmed?’’ in his description. Mine are
armed with two delicate spines on the distal lip, and when viewed
Srom the front show as if there were one on each side of the central
rostrum (see Pl. XXITI. fig. 4) ; and thus his note of interrogation
was warranted. These spines are gencrally seen on the last-
formed cells, rarely on the central ones; they are so very delicate,
and thus easily knocked off. The common form occurs off Caith-
ness; in fact at every part of the east coast of Scotland where I
have resided. I have one much worn specimen of the variety
from the Out Haaf of Shetland, dredged by Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys in
1864. This, then, is now added (for the first time I believe) to the
British list.

Eschara rosacea.—This is another species described in the same
paper as the above from Norway, by Prof. Busk, and was first
added to the British list by the Rev. A. M. Norman, and described
by him im vol. viti. of the ‘ Microscopical Journal,’ pl. vi. figs. 10-21
(“ On Stones and Shells from Loch Fyne”). Ihave the pleasure of
recording it from a new locality, dredged off Shetland by Dr.
Jeffreys in 1864, in from 80 to 100 fathoms, and recognized by
myself as new. The first specimen I found I sent to the late Mr.
Alder, who could make nothing of it, from its being nearly covered
by two species of well-known Lepralia; very little of the original
could be seen. Not being able to get out last year (winter of
1876-77), l amused myself by looking over sand and broken organ-
isms, and found two more small, well-worn, but characteristic
specimens, showing the cells &c. sufficiently well for identifica-
tion. The specimens are all unattached. This, then, is an addi-
tion to the fauna of the east coast of Scotland.

Escharastellata, Peach, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII. fig.5).—This is another
specimen dredged by Dr. Jeffreys in 1864 off Shetland; I noticed
it at the time we were there, and fixed it ona ticket, with locality

482 MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA.

and date; it occurred in sand amongst many fragments of Eschara
of various kinds. Up to December last it had quite escaped my
memory, when it turned up again, and was instantly recognized.
So far, it is the only specimen of it I have seen, nor can I find
any thing like it noticed in any work I have access to, or gain any
information about it from other naturalists. Iam, however, most
anxious to learn all I can about it. I have provisionally named
it; it is evidently a piece of an Hschara. It is flattened on the
sides, with cells on both sides. In section the cells may be seen
at the ends in two rows in the centre, separated by a thin division,
the side walls of the cells resting on the centre of the body of
each opposing cell; these cells are surrounded by a border of
striped coral matter, as in a section of Eschara Skenei, &c. The
cells are arranged in an irregular quincuncial manner, running
obliquely all round the stem. The mouth of the ceil is slightly
raised, and slopes gently downwards; the border thick, with a
slit-like opening in front extending a short way down the cell;
it is also surrounded by buttress-like projections, and in the spaces
between them are perforations, apparently open; the whole of the
cells are thus surrounded, giving the specimen a stellate appear-
ance, and thus the specific name (see sketch modified by Mr.
Busk from specimen, fig. 5, forwarded him). It has a fresh
appearance, like that of the other well-known Hschara found with
it, a little abraded, but has not a semifossil look*.

Discopora meandrina, Peach, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII. figs. 6-8).—This
is also from the Out Haaf, Shetland, dredged by Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys
in 1864. Itis generally attached to Hschara, especially L. cervi-
cornis, rarely on stones or shells, never in an adnate manner ; for
when first fixed it forms a thin plane platform; this is thickened
and extended as the polypidom increases, and its edge is turned
upwards or downwards, spreading and accommodating itself to the
rounded stem and all the sinuosities of its support, even to bend-
ing round so as almost to conceal it, leaving, however, a space
between it and its support (see fig. 6,dm). The upper face is
waved and undulating, and reminds me of a contoured map,
showing the hills and valleys. It is traversed by ridges of cells,
surrounding in a meandering way depressed smooth spaces like
little fields; these ridges and cells and spaces give a meandering
look to the whole, like the brain-coral. These little fields are

* [This is probably a variety of one of the different species confounded with
the name E£. cervicornis.—G, B.]

MR, C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA. 483

pitted with small hexagonal depressions. The other parts of the
specimen, where the ridges run, have also these hexagonal de-
pressions, but larger, with basin-lke depressions, and at the
bottom are perforated with a central opening; the ridges are
also larger and higher: the mouths of the cells are much raised,
with a long pointed mucro, the point often hollow and bending
over alittle, like the tip of the beak ofa bird (fig. 7); these cells are
in the centre of the ridges, and when denuded of the mucro form a
chain of elongated cells (fig. 8); they are not in straight lines, but
meander over the face of the specimen, accommodating themselves
to the irregularities of the elevations and depressions by longer
or shorter ridges.

It is pale cream-colour on the ridges, nearly white in the de-
pressed spaces. I may remark that the mucro on the raised cells
is never bifid or trifid, the rows of cells always meandering from
its earliest state; nor does it rise into a dome shape, nor are the
pores at the bottom stellate as in D. hispida. There is another
peculiarity in it—that of repairmg injuries and of laying a new
layer of cells over the lowest series (specimen exhibited at the
Society’s Meeting). I have carefully examined the works of John-
ston, Busk, Alder, Couch, Hincks, Smith, &c., and find nothing
altogether like it; in fact the difference between it and D. hispida
is so great that I feel justified in making it a new species. After
all, should it be thought that I am wrong, I shall still consider ita
good variety, and thus then it will be D. hispida, var. meandrina.

Domopora truncata, Jameson.—This is, I believe, the true D.
truncata of Jameson and Forbes, but not of Fleming nor Busk.
My specimens were brought up by the fisher’s lines from about
80 to 100 fathoms, in the Out Haaf, Shetland, in 1864; they are
on rather large rounded stones, and from the same locality as
those got by Jameson and Forbes. Fleming describes his as
‘about 1 inch in height... the head stellate.” Busk says, “ Zoa-
rium simple or lebed (proliferous) ; cells disposed in twelve to
fourteen elevated biserial rays on the rounded extremity of the
trunk or lobes,” and in his pl. xxxi. of the ‘ Catalogue of Marine
Polyzoa,’ part iii. 1875, in several figures has shown the “ proli-
ferous”’ state and elevated truncate biserial rays. The figure of
Forbes’s specimen given in vol. 11. of the second edition of John-
ston’s ‘ British Zoophytes,’ plate xxxiu. figs. 1, 2, and the descrip-
tion given in vol. i. p. 271, of the same work, help to confirm my

4.84 MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA.

opinion; I quote only the following :—“ Tubularia truncata has
been described as being branched, which it never truly is; but
two or three individuals may grow on a primary polypidum so
closely together that they coalesce at the base, and dying, new
corals rise from the dead individuals, and thus give the polypidum
a branched or nodulous aspect... It is a solid coral.”

Forbes’s specimens were about two tenths of an inch in height,
mine never more than five tenths of an inch.

The cells are all nearly of the same shape and radiate in the
same manner as seen in JD. stellata, are more polished, and alto-
gether the walls are much thicker; in fact the polypidom is alto-
gether so, it never rises into branch-like forms, nor do the largest
cells on the upper part of the ridges become truncated. I have
seen four low rounded tips side by side on the earliest base: the
base is thin, and at first slightly pitted and firmly attached to the
stone; it soon becomes strongly reticulated and met by a raised
step-like ridge, in the vertical front of which are groups of rather
large and tall cells, three or four in a group, forming a lace-like
border, crenulated on the upper part, and from these crenulations
spring the thirteen or fourteen rounded rib-like rows of cells
which run up to near the top, where they die out and leave a
slight depression. From the broad thin base and the pretty
sweep the ribs take, with the rounded top, I am reminded of the
round-polled hat so fashionable ever since the late Prince Albert
wore a miner’s “hat-cap”’ when with the Queen in the under-
ground workings of the Royal Restormal Iron-Mine, at Lost-
withiel, Cornwall. I may mention that this species is much rarer
than the next and, as far as I have seen, found only on stones. The
one figured by Forbes was also on a stone. It occurs to me that
some may think that the dwarfed state, thick walls, rounded ribs,
and total absence of the truncated crown of vertical cells of this
species might be caused by the stones being rolled about in storms
or by tides. Such, I am convinced, could not be; for in addition
to the Domopora, I got from the same stones my finest and best
examples of Hschara cervicornis, and most beautiful examples of
Hornera borealis, allin a most perfect state, with every branch
intact, proving tranquillity in their home.

Domopora (Defranceia) stellata (Goldf.).—This beautiful species
has been confounded with the true Domopora truncata of Jameson,
Forbes, and Fleming. Itis certainly nearest to Fleming’s description,

MR. C. W. PEACH ON BRITISH POLYZOA. 485

“about an inch in height ... stem round, branched, ending with
enlarged globular heads, radiated with plates of united vertical
cells.” Busk has well figured and described it in the ‘ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,’ 2nd series, vol. xviii. p. 36, pl. 1.
fig. 9, from the coast of Norway, and in his ‘ Catalogue of Marine
Polyzoa,’ part iil. page 39, pl. xxxi. figs. 1, 2, from Shetland, as Do-
mopora ( Defranceia) stellata. His description is, “ Zoarium simple
or lobed (proliferous) ; cells disposed in twelve to fourteen elevated
biserial rays on the rounded extremity of the trunk or lobes.”

It is a variable species, at times rising as a single lobe, crowned
with radiating cells on the upper part of the rounded extre-
mity ; when this crown is broken off, a funnel-shaped depression
is often left, and this then forms the Corymbipora fungiformis of
Smitt.

From this simple state it by successive growths often becomes
“‘proliferous,” and thus in appearance branched; the crowns of
erect truncated cells are often destroyed, and at times side by side
one tip is shorn of its crown of biserial ridges, whilst the other
has its decoration perfect. To show how protean it is, I have
sent a series of specimens (exhibited at the Meeting) with from
one to thirteen of these star-crowned parts, and from which it so
well takes its specific affix. On one of the specimens marked there
is amongst the raised cells what I believe to be an ovarian vesicle.
T have never before seen such noticed on this genus.

I also send a specimen (likewise exhibited at the Meeting)
showing the internal structure, and another rubbed down and
placed on glass for that purpose.

Tt will also be seen that some of my specimens are splendid ones,
better than any I have seen figured; they give an excellent idea of
the size and variety of forms it assumes, and as well how greatly
it differs from the real Domopora truncata.

Defranceia lucernaria.—This pretty cup-shaped Polyzoon I first
obtained from sand dredged by Dr. Jeffreys in the Out Haaf of
Shetland in 1864. I found but one or two specimens. In 1866
I got three or four more in sand, dredged by the same gentleman
on the west coast of Scotland. From the fishermen’s lines at
Wick, N.B., I met with one or two from about 30 fathoms. Un-
fortunately all are more or less rubbed, and they do not show so
distinctly as could be wished the characteristic markings, so as to
render it positive that they agree altogether with those figured by

486 MR. BR. B. SHARPE ON THE

Mr. Busk in part iii. of the British-Museum ‘ Catalogue,’ pl. xxxiii.
If they prove to be Sars’s species they are an addition to the
British list.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1. Scrupocellarta scruposa, obtained from the Firth of Forth, 10th June,
1876, attached with hooks to the sponge Halichondria panicea, Johust.
8, sponge-spicules ; 4, hooks of the root-fibres of S. seruposa. Mag-
nified.

Fig. 2. Canda reptans. A small portion collected in Cornwall in 1848, and in
which I detected the hooks attaching it toa sponge, 14th March, 1877.
Also considerably enlarged.

Fig. 3. A fragment of C. reptans on Flustra foliacea (f), Firth of Forth, March
1877. Hooks absent, but grappling-roots (yr) present. Magnified.

Fig. 4. A small portion of Hschara Skene, var. tridens, Busk, obtained off Wick
(N.B.), Ist March, 1864. Greatly magnified.

Fig. 5. Eschara stellata, Peach, n. sp. Specimen dredged by Dr. J. Gwyn
Jeffreys at Shetland, 1864. Sketch partly from specimen, a drawing
of my own, and from an old original one by Mr. Busk.

Fig. 6. Discopora meandrina, Peach, n. sp. Obtained from fishermen’s lines in
Shetland, 1864, from a depth of 80 to 100 fathoms. The examples
(dm) of this species shown in the specimen are attached to a piece of
dead coral, and are enlarged about 3 times nat. size.

Fig. 7. A highly magnified profile view of some of the cells of D. meandrina,
showing the elongated beak-like mucro.

Fig. 8. A view from above of a chain of the open-mouthed cells of the foregoing
specimen, also much enlarged.

Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By R.
Bowpier Suarpet, F.L.S. &c.—Part. 1V. On the Collec-
tion of Birds brought by Mr. Octavius C. Stone from South-
eastern New Guinea.

[Read June 21, 1877.]

THE collection which Mr. Stone brought with him from New Guinea

is probably one of the largest that has yet been made in the southern

part of that great island ; but, as in the case of the late Dr. James’s
consignments, the novelties found in it are very few in number;
and it becomes more and more evident that South-eastern New

Guinea cannot compare with the northern portion of the island

as regards the richness of its avifauna.

Mr. Stone informs me that the collection now about to be de-
scribed was formed by Messrs. Broadbent and Petterd, two well-
known and experienced naturalists, and it is to this circumstance
that the excellent preservation of the skins is due; but one misses

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 487

‘greatly the particulars of sex, locality, and date which were ap-
pended to Dr. James’s specimens, and which are always of the
greatest importance in the preparation of a collection of birds. .
Mr. Petterd supplied Mr. Stone with a MS. list of birds, giving
the localities where they were collected ; and it is from this list
that the places have been inserted in the present paper. In
some few instances the names of birds occur in Mr. Petterd’s list
which were not in the collection ; but where there can be no doubt
as to the species, I have inserted them, but between brackets. Mr.
Petterd is, however, such an experienced observer, and the species
have been so well identified by him, as a rule, that full confidence
may be placed in his determinations of the species noticed.

The following brief account of the expedition is extracted from
an article of mine in ‘ Nature’ for August 17th, 1876 :-—“ Mr.
Stone started from Somerset, Australia, on October 21st, 1875,
and after remaining a few days at Yule Island, where Signor
D’Albertis was then collecting, he reached Port Moresby, New
Guinea, about sixty miles further to the south-east, on the 29th
of the same month. Although his principal object in visiting the
island was to gain ethnological and geographical information, he
took with him two taxidermists. Anuapata, where he erected his
tent, is situated upon the shores of Moresby Harbour, in long.
147° 7' B., and lat. 9° 28’ 8.; and from here several preliminary
excursions were made. At first the natives showed some fear;
but on seeing that the object of the visitors was peaceable, they
soon gained confidence, and the younger members of the commu-
nity frequently assisted in carrying back the game shot. During
the months of December and January rain fell in considerable
quantities, and both the collectors were laid up for many days
with fever and ague, which retarded collecting ; but altogether
about 450 skins of birds were obtained from a radius of about
thirty miles inland from Port Moresby. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Port Moresby birds were plentiful; but the beautiful
Bird of Paradise (P. raggiana) is only found in the thick forests on
the mountains of the interior. Parrakeets, Parrots, and Cocka-
toos, Pigeons, and Doves were numerous among the jungle and
the belts of tall trees along the rivers Laroki* and Vetura. The
furthest point reached inland was Munikaihila, situated about
thirty miles tothe north-east, the difficulty in procuring natives

* Mr. Ramsay, /. c. p. 387, spells this ‘‘ Laloki,” but ‘‘ Laroki” was insisted
on by Mr, Stone as the correct orthography.

488 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

as carriers preventing Mr. Stone from proceeding further. At
this point he madea camp for several days; but the wet season
and consequent unkealthiness of the place precluded further ex-
ploration.”

The papers written by Count Salvadori onthe Ornithology of
South-eastern New Guinea have again been referred to in the pre-
paration of the present article ; and just as I was going to press,
I saw the fourth Part of vol. i. of the ‘ Proceedings of the Lin-
nean Society of New South Wales, in which occurs the follow-
ing paper of Mr. Ramsay’s :—

“Notes on a Collection of Birds from Port Moresby; with De-
scriptions of some new Species. By E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S.”
Proe. Linn. Soc. N.S. W. i. pp. 386-395.

Some of the species described had here received new names
from me, which I am happy to suppress in time, and so avoid an
increase of synonyms.

Order ACCIPITRES.

Fam. FALcConrIpD 2.

1. AccrIPITER CIRRHOCEPHALUS ?—A. cirrhocephalus (V.),
Sharpe, Cat. B. 1. p. 141.

Loc. Port Moresby.

A young Sparrow-Hawk which Mr. Petterd believes to be the
same as the common Australian species, with which he is well
acquainted. It appears to me, from a comparison of skins, that
it is of this species, although an examination of zal birds would -
be required to decide the question.

2. Astur cruENTUS, Gould, P. Z. 8S. 1842, p. 118 (nec Sharpe,
Cat.i. p. 127); Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. vii. p. 806.—
Urospizus cruentus, éd. op. cit. ix. p. 11.

Loe. a, ad. “ Plentiful on the coast.”

General colour above ashy brown (worn plumage), the new
feathers appearing being of a dark grey colour; head deep slaty
grey, rather clearer on the nape ; hind neck tawny rufous, form-
ing a distinct collar; wing-coverts and quills slaty grey, the latter
rufous buff on the inner webs, with indistinct bars of dusky
brown; tail-feathers ashy brown, covered with about sixteen
dusky bars, more distinct on the inner webs, which are lighter ;
sides of head ashy grey, slightly clearer than the crown; throat

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 489

grey, mottled with irregular whitish cross bars; rest of under
surface of body light tawny red, transversely barred with greyish
white, these white bars much broader on the abdomen and under
tail-coverts, which are white barred with rufous; the sides of the
breast nearly uniform rufous: under wing-coverts and axillaries
pale tawny like the breast, and narrowly barred with white,
the outer coverts and the edge of the wing white with a few
rufous bars ; quills brown below, pale creamy rufous towards the
base of the feathers, and narrowly barred with dusky brown on
the inner webs. Total length 16 inches, culmen 1:1, wing 10:4,
tail 7°7, tarsus 2°7.

This Goshawk is not A. approximans, as it is so much clearer
grey, so much lighter below, and, moreover, haga broad red collar
round the hind neck. The latter feature separates it from A.
wallacti, which, moreover, has the throat and thighs reddish.
Its nearest ally proves, therefore, to be A. torquatus of Timor,
with which Count Salvadori now identifies it ; but in addition to
the larger proportion of rufous on the under parts, the New-
Guinea bird has the under tail-coverts barred with rufous, whereas
in A. torguatus they are entirely white, the thighs also being nearly
all white. These may, however, be merely individual differences.

Count Salvadori has recorded a Goshawk from Yule Island,
which he is inclined to refer to A. erwentus (Gould). I think
he makes out a good case against my A. cruentus of the ‘ Cata-
logue of Birds’ (p. 127); for I fancy the bird described by me
must be only A. approximans: this I have thought for some time,
as I have watched a specimen living in the Zoological Gardens
which got whiter below as it grew older till it much resem-
bled the specimen described. At the same time the Yule-Island
Goshawk, if it is the same as the bird now brought by Mr. Stone,
can hardly be the true 4. cruentus of Gould, according to the
figure of the hind neck; but the description agrees in stating
that there is a chestnut collar round the latter, It is a great
drawback that Mr. Gould gives no measurements ; but sooner
than create a new species on certain slender differences, I shall
follow Count Salvadori in considering this to be the true A. cru-
entus until such time as an examination of the typical bird from
West Australia proves us right or wrong. The measurements of
the present bird approach very closely to those given by Count
Salvadori.

Dr. James procured a young Goshawk in South-east New
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 40

e

490 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Guinea, which I could not identify from an immature specimen ;
but it is certainly the young of 4. eruentus as determined above.
It bears the following label :— Mainland, east of Yule Island.
Eucalyptus range of hills, Sept. 1875.”” Mr. Ramsay (¢. ¢. p. 387)
mentions a Goshawk allied to A. muelleri or A. etorques.

8, Hatiaitus revcocaster (Gm); Sharpe, antea, p. 308 ; Ram-
say, t. c. p. 387.
Loe. “ Obtained on the coast.”’

4. HALIASTUR GIRRENERA (V.); Sharpe, antea, p. 308.
Loc. One specimen shot near Port Moresby.

5. Minvvs arrinis, Gould; Sharpe, Cat. B. 1. p. 823; Salvad.
& D Albert. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. vii. p. 805; Ramsay, t. e.
p, 387.

A young specimen, with no exact locality indicated.

6, Baza REINWaRDTI, Mull. & Schl.; Sharpe, antea, p. 309.—
B. stenozoa, Ramsay, t. c. p. 387.

Loc. “ Inland and on the coast.”

Mr, Ramsay notices how closely B. reinwardti resembles B.

subcristata of Australia, of which it is little more than a small
race.

7, PANDION LEUCOCEPHALUS (Gould) ; Sharpe, antea, p. 309.
Loc. Port Moresby.

Fam. STRIGID A.

8. Srrix rnamMEa, L.; Sharpe, Cat. B. ii. p. 291.—Strix deli- .

catulus, Ramsay, t. c. p. 388.
Loc. Port Moresby.

Two specimens, of the usual pale Australian type (Série delica-
tulus of Gould).

Order PICARIA.

Fam. Pstrracipz£.

9. PuycroLopnus TRITON (Lemm.); Finsch, Papag.i.p. 291.—
Cacatua triton, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. ix. p. 11, x.
p. 24.

Agrees with a specimen from Dorey (Wallace) in the British
Museum. The species is identified in Mr. Petterd’s list, where
it is stated to be generally distributed. A second species is men-
tioned as being seen some distance inland.

s

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 491

[10. Mrcroerossum atTERRIMuM. — M. aterrimum (Gi.);
Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. x. p. 24; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loe. Port Moresby. |

11. GEOFFROYIUS ARUENSIS (Gray); Sharpe, anted, p. 309;
Salvad. op. cit. x. p. 29.

Loc. Laroki River.

An adult male, agreeing with Aru examples.

12. Cycnopsirra suavisstma, Selater, P. Z. 8S. 1876,-p. 520,
pl. liv.; Gould, B. New Guinea, part iv.—Cyclopsittacus suavis-
sima, Salvad. t.c.p. 12; id. op. cit. x. p.29; Ramsay, t. ¢. p.393.

Loc. Laroki River.

The single specimen obtained seems to be a young male, as it is
intermediate between the two specimens figured by Dr. Sclater
(l.¢.). It resembles the female bird in the plate, but has the orange
neck-patch mixed with blue on its lower part, and the breast,
though dull as in the female, has a few bright orange feathers inter-
mixed.

13. TRIcHOGLOSsUS MASSENA, Bp.; Sharpe, antea, pp. 80 &
309; Salvad. t.c. p. 35; Ramsay, t. c. p. 393.

Loc. Several specimens from Port Moresby.

14. CHALCOPSITTACUS CHLOROPTERUS, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civie.
Genov. 1x. p. 15; 2d. op. cit. x. p. 34.—Chaleopsitta rubrifrons,
Ramsay, t. c. p. 393.

Loc. Port Moresby.

A very doubtful species. All the three specimens examined by °
me have a varying amount of red on the under wing-coverts, while
two of them have quite as much yellow on the inner face of the
quills as in Dorey and Aru examples.

15. EcnEectus Potycunorus (Scop.); Salvad. op. cit. x. p. 31;
Ramsay, t. c. p. 393.

Loc. “ Generally distributed.”

Fam. CucuLip2#.

16. CENTROPUS SPILOPTERUS, Gray; Sharpe, antea, pp. 81 &
310.—Centropus melanurus, Ramsay, ft. ¢. p. 394.

Loc. Several specimens from Port Moresby.

17. C. MENEBEKI (Less.); Sharpe, antea, pp. 81 & 311.

Loc. Port Moresby.

18. EupYNAMIS CYANOCEPHALA (Lath.); Salvad. op. cit. 1x.
pe 17:

Loc. Barune.
. 40*

492 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

19. CACOMANTIS ASSIMILIS, Gray; id. Hand-l. B. ii. p. 217.

Loc. Port Moresby.

This specimen agrees with a specimen of C. assimilis from
Mysol in nearly every particular.

[20. ScyrHrops Nov#z-HOLLANDIA, Lath.; Salvad. § D Albert.
t. c. p. 813; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loc. Generally distributed. |

Fam. ALCEDINIDS.

21. Cryx soniTaria, Zemm.; Sharpe, Monogr. Alced. pl. 38.

Loe. “Island brushes near Port Moresby.”

An adult specimen. The dimensions are as follows :—Total
length 4°7 inches, culmen 1:4, wing 2°15, tail 1:05, tarsus 0°3.
D’Albertis has not met with this species in South-eastern New
Guinea.

22. ALCYONE LESSONI, Cass.; Sharpe, antea, p. 311.

Loc. Laroki River.

Count Salvadori refers D’Albertis’s specimens from 8.E. New
Guinea to this species ; and on comparison I find Mr. Stone’s bird
agrees better with it than with A. pulchra. Total length 6°5 inches,
culmen 1°75, wing 3°05, tail 1°7, tarsus 0-45. Asis the case with
the bird mentioned by Count Salvadori, the blue spot is confined
to the sides of the breast, and does not extend on to the flanks.

23. A. pustnLa, Gould; Sharpe, antea, p. 311.

Loe. Laroki River.
An adult bird, agreeing with specimens from Gilolo (Wallace)

and Aru Islands (Wallace). Total length 4°2 inches, culmen
1:2, wing 2:1, tail 0°95, tarsus 0°3.

[24. Hatcyon sanctus, V. § H.; Ramsay, t. c. p. 390.—Sau-
ropatis sancta, Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c. p. 814.

Loc. Port Moresby. ]

[25. H. mactzart, J. gf S.; Ramsay, t. ec. p. 890.—Cyanaleyon
macleayi, Salvad. § D’ Albert. t.c. p. 815.

Loc. Momile. |

26. Syma Torororo, Less.; Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 20; Ramsay,

t. c. p. 890.

Loe. “ Inland brushes.”

Agrees best with an Aru-Island skin. The bill is perfectly
yellow, of the same deep tinge as is usual in Papuan skins. Total
length 7°5 inches, culmen 1°45, wing 3°05, tail 2°85, tarsus 0°5.

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 493

27. 'TANYSIPTERA MICRORHYNCHA, ane antea, p. 311.—T.
galatea, Ramsay, t. c. p. 390.
Loc. ‘ Inland brushes.”

[28. T. syuvra, Gould; Sharpe, Monogr. Alced. pl. 100.
Loc. “ Oko Creek.’” No specimens were in the collection. |

29. Daceto intERMEDIvS, Salvad.; Sharpe, antea, p. 312.—D.
leach, Ramsay, t. ¢. p. 389.

Loc. Port Moresby ; very plentiful.

30. D. eavpicuaunt (Less.); Sharpe, antea, p. 318 ; Ramsay,

t. ¢. p. 389.
Loc. Laroki River.

Fam. BucEROTIDz.

31. RuyrTIpocEROs RUFICOLLIS (V.); Sharpe, antea, p. 314.—
B. flavicollis, Ramsay, t. c. p. 398.
Loc. Generally distributed.

Fam. Cogaciipz£.

32. Eurystomus crasstrostris, Selater; Salvad. § D’ Albert.
Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. vii. p. 814; Salvad. op. cit.ix.p.19; Ram-
say, t. c. p. 389.

Loc. Momile.
I follow Count Salvadori in referring the Roller of 8.E. New

Guinea to ZH. erassirostris. It is similar in colour, but has not
quite so stout a bill as the Solomon-Island species, which also has
no black tip to the culmen. Mr. Ramsay also includes #. paci-

Jicus in his list.
Fam. CapRIMULGID#.

33. Popareus PAruEnsis, Q. & G.; Salvad. § D’ Albert. t. c.
p. 816; Salvad. op. cit. x. p. 22; Ramsay, t. c. p. 388.

Loc. “Abundant at Port Moresby.”

Mr. Stone has brought back a large series of this Goatsucker,
showing every shade between the dark and the light forms.

34. CaprimuLeus MAcRuURUS, Horsf.; Salvad. f D’ Albert. t.c.

p. 817; Salvad. op. cit. 1x. p. 23.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Identical with Australian examples in coloration. Total length
10°5 inches, wing 7:15, tail 5°7, tarsus 0°55.

494, MR.-R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Fam. CypsreLip®.

35. Cypsetus paciricus (Lath.), Sclater, P. Z. S. 1865, p. 599.
Loc. Port Moresby. One adult specimen obtained. —

[86. CoLLocaLIaA TERRH-REGIND, Ramsay, P.Z. S. 1874, p. 601 ;
Gould, Birds of New Guinea, part 1.

Observed, according to Mr. Petterd; but no eae were
sent. |

Order PASSERES.

Fam. Pirripa.
37. Prrra NovH-GUINER, Mull. & Schl.; Sharpe, antea, p. 315.
oc. “ Generally distributed in the brushes.”

Fam. TurpDip2.

38. Marurus atposcarutatus, Meyer; Sharpe, antea, p. 315.

Loc. Plentiful at Port Moresby.

Dr. Meyer’s type specimen having been sent by him to Mr.
Gould, I have had an opportunity of comparing Mr. Stone’s
specimens with it. I find them identical in plumage; but the
bird from 8.E. New Guinea is smaller. Total length 4:1 inches,
culmen 0'5, wing 1°8, tail 1°65, tarsus 0°85. Probably twenty
specimens were in Mr. Stone’s collection, but unfortunately the
sexes were not indicated. I could, however, perceive no differ-
ence in colour beyond a less glossy appearance in some. These
were probably females, as D’ Albertis’s specimens seem to resemble
the males exactly.

39. CISTICOLA RUFICEPS, Gould; Sharpe, antea, p. 315.

Loc. Port Moresby.

All Mr. Stone’s examples are similar and agree with Ce York
specimens of C. rujficeps.

40. GERYGONE CINERASCENS, sp. 0.

General colour above ashy brown, with a faint tinge of olive on
the rump ; wing-coverts brown, narrowly edged with whity brown;
quills brown, edged externally with whity brown,these edges broader
and paler on the secondaries ; two centre tail-feathers ashy brown,
subterminally darker brown ; rest of the tail-feathers ashy brown,
with a large white spot on the tip of the inner web, before which is
a broad subterminal bar of black, the inner web below this having
another white notch ; at the base of the bill a line of white feathers ;
region of the eye and ear-coverts light brown ; cheeks and entire

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 495

throat pure white; rest of under surface of body bright yellow,
paling on the thighs and under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts
white, the quills greyish brown, with white edgings along the
inner webs. ‘otal length 3-4 inches, culmen 0-45, wing 2°15, tail
1:45, tarsus 0°7.

This species is allied to G. palpebrosa, but is ashy above instead
of green, and has not a black ring round the eye; the quills are
margined with whitish instead of olive, and the white markings
on the tail are a very peculiar characteristic. A specimen from
N.W. Australia (Z/sey) appears to belong to the same species.

4]. GERYGONE CHRYsoGAsTRA, Gray; Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c.
p- 820; Salvad. ¢. c. p. 26.

Agrees with a specimen from the Aru Islands. ‘otal length
42 inches, culmen 0°5, wing 2°1, tail 1°75, tarsus 0°65.

42. ALurepves ston, Sharpe, Nature, Aug. 17, 1876, p. 339 ;
Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. ix. p. 193.

Adult. General colour above bright green, some of the feathers
tinged with blue; wings green like the back, the inner webs dusky
brown, the primaries externally washed with yellow, the secon-
daries tipped with the latter colour; tail green, blackish on the
inner webs of the outermost rectrices, which are tipped with
white ; head dark brown, slightly washed with olive; hind neck
yellowish buff, mottled with black centres to the feathers, those
adjoining the mantle spotted with green ; sides of face and throat
pure white, with a few tiny spots of black on the ear-coverts,
larger on the sides of the neck; rest of under surface of body
ochraceous buff, the fore neck and chest minutely spotted with
green, the flanks also with a few tiny spots of the latter colour ;
under wing-coverts yellowish buff, the edge of the wing washed
with green. Total length 9°3 inches, culmen 1:15, wing 5:05,
tail 3°5, tarsus 1°55.

This new species is the southern representative of 4. buccoides
of the north-west of New Guinea, from which it differs in its much
darker head and in the nearly uniform under surface, the abdomen
and under tail-coverts being quite unspotted, and the breast having
only a few scattered green spots, whereas in 4. buccoides the
whole under surface is thickly spotted with large drops of black.

43, CHLAMYDODERA CERVINIVENTRIS.—C. cerviniventris, Gould ;
Sharpe, antea, p. 82 ; Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 193 ; Ramsay, t. ¢. p. 898.

Loe. Port Moresby.

496 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Quite a number of specimens were brought back by Mr. Stone,
showing the abundance of the species near Port Moresby.

Fam. Dicz1pz.

44. DicmuM ruBROcoRoNnATUM, Sharpe, Nature, August 17,
1876, p. 839; Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. ix. p. 31 ; Ramsay,
t. c. p. 890.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Adult. Above deep purple, the crown and the upper tail-coverts
scarlet, forming a coronal patch on the former ; sides of head and
neck dusky, with a slight olivaceous gloss; wing-coverts purple
like the back, the quilis black, glossed with purple, the primaries
slightly edged with olivaceous ; tail purplish black ; under surface
of body yellowish buff, the under tail-coverts slightly tinged with
red; the sides of the body ashy grey, washed with olive on the
lower flanks ; across the fore neck a band of scarlet ; under wing-
coverts pure white, the edge of the wing purplish black; quills
biackish below, edged with white along the inner web. Total
length 3:15 inches, culmen 0:4, wing 2°05, tail 1:1, tarsus 0°5.

The female differs from the male in being duller in colour and
in wanting the scarlet throat-patch ; the upper surface is more
shaded with olive, and there is a more decided olivaceous tinge on
the flanks.

Fam. CINNYRIDS.
45. CINNYRIS FRENATUS (S. Mill.) ; Sharpe, antea, p. 316;
Ramsay, t. c. p. 390.
Loc. Port Moresby.

Fam. MELIPHAGID®.

46. GLyYcIPHILA MODESTA, Gray; Sharpe, antea, p. 316.—G.
subfasciata, Ramsay, P. Z, S. 1868, p. 385.

Loe. Port Moresby.

Mr. Petterd in his list enters both G. modesta and G. subfas-
ciata, Ramsay ; but these two species appear to be identical on
comparing Australian examples of the latter in Mr. Gould’s col-
lection with the New-Guinea bird.

47. Myzometa opscuka, Gould; Salvad. t. c. p. 32.

Loc. Port Moresby.

I have compared the single specimen sent with another in the
Museum from N.W. Australia, and can find no difference.

ORNITHOLOGY OF 8.E. NEW GUINEA. 497

48. TROPIDORHYNCHUS NoVH @uINEs, S. Miull.; Salvad. &
D Albert. t.c. p. 826; Salvad. t.c. p. 34.—Philemon nove guinez,
Ramsay, t.c. p. 390.

Loc. Port Moresby. Abundant.

49. PritotTis anaLoGa, Reichenb.; Salvad. t. c. p. 82.
The single specimen collected seems to be rather small. Total
length 5°3 inches, culmen 0°75, wing 2°75, tail 2°4, tarsus 0°8.

50. MELITHREPTUS ALBIGULARIS, Gould; Ramsay, t.c. p. 391.
Loc. Port Moresby. ~
Two specimens identical with one from the Australian continent.

Fam. MuscicaPip2.

51. ARSES TELESCOPHTHALMUS (Garn.); Sharpe, antea, p. 316 ;
Ramsay, t. ¢. p. 891.

Loe. Laroki River.

Mr. Petterd also gives A. kaupi as a distinct species, from the
same river.

3. Total length 6 inches, culmen 0°65, wing 3°15, tail 2°95, tar-
sus 0°75. 9. Total length 5:9 inches, culmen 0°6, wing 3, tail 2°7,
tarsus 0°75.

52. Monarcua arueEnsis, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov.
vol. vi. p. 809.—M. melanonotus, Sclater, P. Z. 8. 1877, p. 100.

Loc. Momile. “ Only one specimen shot.”

Dr. Sclater has shown clearly that the true M. chrysomelas from
New Ireland is a distinct bird from the New-Guinea species,
which he calls If. melanonotus ; but I cannot find any difference be-
tween New Guinea and Aru examples, in which case the name to
be employed is MZ. aruensis.

53. M. eurrunatus (Garn.); Salvad. § D Albert. t. ¢. p. 818.
Loc. Momile. One specimen.

54. M. carntnara.—M. carinatus(V. & H.) ; Salvad. § D Albert.
t.c. p. 818; Salvad. t.c. p. 24; Ramsay, t.c. p. 391.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Two specimens of a grey and tawny Monarcha, doubtless of
the same species which Count Salvadori calls M. carinata. They
have not such a broad frontal band as the latter, and in fact have
only a dusky indication of blackish on the forehead and chin.
M. wnornata, however, has none at all; and although the New-

498 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Guinea bird seems to be intermediate, I propose to keep it under
MM. carinata.

55. MonarcHa TRICOLOR.—Sauloprocta tricolor (V.); Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 819 ; Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 24; Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.
Loc. Laroki River.

56. Rurprpura euraris, Mill. ; Salvad. § D’ Albert. t. c. p.820;
Salwad. op. cit. ix. p. 24.—R. isura, Gould; Ramsay, t. c. p. 391.
Loc. Uaroki River.

57. Micra@ca FLAVIGASTER.—M. flavigaster, Gould; Salvad. &
D Albert. t. c. p. 817; Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 23.

Loc. Port Moresby. —

When compared with M. flavigaster of N.E. Australia, the Port-
Moresby skin seems to be a little larger, and to have a narrow
yellow eyebrow. ‘Total length 4°6 inches, culmen 0°45, wing 3:1,
tail 2:1, targus 0°55.

58. Topopsis BONAPARTII, Gray; Sharpe, antea, p. 316.

Loc. Momile. A pair of birds sent.

The male is scarcely distinguishable in any way from 7’ bona-
parti of the Aru Islands, and has the mantle dark purple, but
so nearly the colour of the mantle in 7. bonapartii that there can
be no reason for separating the birds specifically, as far as I can
see at present. Certainly the species is not 7. cyanocephala. The
female agrees apparently with that of the Aru-Island bird, but
has the blue throat perhaps not quite so far extended.

59. Myracra concinna, Gould; Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. ec.
p- 819; Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 24.
Loc. Laroki River.

60. M. narrrosrris, Gould, B. Austr. 11. pl. 92.

Loc. Laroki River.

61. PrezoRHYNcHUS NITIDUS, Gould; Sharpe, antea, p. 316;
Ramsay, t. c. p. 391.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Fam. HiruNDINIDs.
62. Hirunpo savanica, Sparrm.; Salvad. t.c. p. 23.—H. fre-
tensis, Ramsay, t. c. p. 388.
Loc. Port Moresby.
Rather lighter on the under surface than typical Javan and
Sumatran specimens, but evidently of the same species. It agrees
best with a Dorey skin obtained by Wallace.

ORNITHOLOGY OF 8.E. NEW GUINEA. 499

Fam. LAntp2.

63. Cracricus MENTALIS, Salvad. ¢ D’ Albert, ; Sharpe, autea,
p. 317.—Vanga mentalis, Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.
Loc. Port Moresby.

64. C. cassicus (Bodd.); Sharpe, antea, p. 317.
Loc. Port Moresby.

65. C. quoyi, Less.; Gould, Handb. B. Austr. 1. p. 183.—
Vanga quoyi, Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.

Loc. Port Moresby.

a. Total length 18 inches, culmen 1°95, wing 6°75, tail 5°65,
tarsus 1°5.

Fam. CAMPEPHAGIDA.

66. GRAaUCALUS ANGUSTIFRONS, Sharpe, antea, p. 81.
Loc. Port Moresby.
Agrees with the type specimen before described.

67. Latace Karu (Less. § Garn.); Salvad. op. cit. ix. p. 28.

Loc. Port Moresby.

A young bird, answering to the description given by Count
Salvadori.

_ 68. L. nHumERaALts, Gould; Gray, Hand-l. B.1. p. 339. no. 5116.
An adult specimen agreeing with others from Australia.

Fam. PRIONOPIDE.

69. Rectrs rErRUGINEA, Bp.; Sharpe, antea, p. 317.
Loc. Munikaihila.

70. CoLLURICINCLA BRUNNEA, Gould; Salvad. t. ¢. p. 29;
Ramsay, t. c. p. 891; Sharpe, Cat. B. iii. p. 291.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Agrees with a specimen from Cape York in the British Museum.
The species from the westward (Port Essington and Nicholson
River) seems to be distinct; and I have called it C. pallidirostris
(Cat. B. iii. p. 298). The Port-Moresby skin measures as fol-
lows :—Total length 8°5 inches, culmen 1:05, wing 4°65, tail 4°7,
tarsus 1°3.

Fam. Dicruripa.

71. Cupra cARBONARIA (Miull.); Sharpe, Cat. B. ui. p. 239.

500 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

—Dicrurus carbonarius, Salvad. §& D’ Albert. t. c. p. 821; Salvad.
t. €. p. 28; Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.

Loe. Port Moresby.

The specimen agrees with other Papuan skins, and measures
as follows :—Total length 11:5 inches, culmen 1:3, wing 6:0,
tail 4°8, tail-feather 5:55, tarsus 0°9. Mr. Petterd also records
a second species from the Laroki River, which, he says, was
allied to C. assimilis. Only one species was in the collection.

Fam. Or1IoLiIp#.

72. ORIOLUS sTRIATUS, Q. J G.; Sharpe, antea, pp. 82 &318, et
Cat. B. ili. p. 210; Ramsay, t. ¢. p. 391.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Several specimens of this bird, which appears to be common in
the neighbourhood.

73. SPHECOTHERES SALVADORII, Sharpe, Cat. B. iii. p. 224,
roll, sate

This new species, fully described and figured by me in the
‘Catalogue of Birds, is much smaller than 8. maaillaris, and is
distinguished by its yellower under parts and by its whiter
abdomen. Mr. Ramsay does not seem to have seen this bird,
though he has 8. flaviventris from Port Moresby. Signor
D’Albertis also has not yet recorded it, which is curious, as Mr.
Stone brought back four examples, and Canon Tristram has also
received it from 8.E. New Guinea.

Fam. ParapiIsiip az.
74, PARADISEA RaGeIANA, Sclater; Sharpe, anted, p. 318;
Ramsay, t.c. p. 3938.
Loc. Munikaihila.
A series of specimens in all stages of plumage.

75. Manvucopra arra (Less.); Sharpe, antea, p. 317.
Loc. Port Moresby.

76. PHonyeaMa JAMESII, Sharpe, antead, p. 318; Cat. B. iii.
p. 181.

Loc. Laroki River.

Notwithstanding Count Salvadori’s opinion that P. keraudreni
is the species of South-eastern New Guinea, I believe that P.
james is a good and distinct species.

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 501

77. Prttoruis maenirica (V.); Sharpe, Cat. B. ui. p. 157.
Loe. Munikaihila.

A female in rufous plumage, which shows that the species is
_ true P. magnifica and not P. alberti of N.E. Australia.

Fam. Corvin 2.

78. Gymnocorax sENEX, Less.; Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 50.—
Gymnocorus senex, Ramsay, t.c. p. 392.

Loe. Munikaihila.

An apparently adult specimen in worn plumage. Total length
20 inches, culmen 2°65, wing 12°9, tail 9°7, tarsus 2°35.

[79. Corvus orgv, Mull.—Corone orru, Sharpe, antea, p. 318.
—Corvus orru, Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.
Loc. Port Moresby. ]

Fam. STurRNID.

80. Eutasrs pumonti (Less.); Sharpe, antea, p. 318.—Gra-
cula dumontii, Ramsay, t. ce. p. 392.
Loc. Port Moresby.

81. CALORNIS CANTOROIDES, Gray; Salvad. t.c. p. 38.—C.
cantor, Ramsay, t. c. p. 393.

Loc. Port Moresby.

Count Salvadori disputes my conclusion that C. cantoroides is
only the young of C. mysolensis; and after re-examining the
question by the light of Mr. Stone’s specimens, I believe him to
be right, and that my determination was a mistake.

82. C. VIRIDESCENS, Gray; Sharpe, antea, p. 318.
Loe. “Inthe brushes near Port Moresby.”

Fam. ARTAMIDA.

[83. ARTAMUS LEUCOPYGIALIS, Gould; Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.
Loe. Port Moresby. |

84. DonacoLa nrieRricers, Ramsay, t. c. p. 392.

Loc. Laroki River.

Adult. General colour above delicate burnt sienna, with ashy
shading to the feathers of the back; the rump and upper tail-
coverts orange, with dusky bases to the feathers; tail-feathers
pointed, dark brown, with straw-yellow margins, the two centre
feathers almost entirely straw-yellow ; head and nape chocolate-

502 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

brown, veined with streaks and spots of ashy whitish, the nape-
feathers edged with the latter colour; lores, feathers above the
eye, entire sides of face, and throat uniform black ; fore neck and
chest entirely pinkish fawn-colour, forming a large plastron, suc-
ceeded by a band of black across the lower breast ; centre of the
body and abdomen pure white, the flanks regularly barred with
black and white; thighs and under tail-coverts black; under
wing-coverts buffy white, the edge of the wing minutely barred
with black and white: wing-coverts above sienna-brown ; quills
light brown, externally washed with sienna-brown, ashy brown
below, edged with buff along the inner web. Total leneth 3:8
inches, culmen 0:4, wing 2, tail 1°55, tarsus 0-6.

This species is a representative of the Australian Donacola cas-
taneothorax, to which it is closely allied, but from which it is dis-
tinguished by its entirely black face, without any brown streaks
on the ear-coverts, and by its dark head, which, instead of being
entirely ashy, is blackish, only spotted with ash-colour. I had
already discriminated this species and described it in full when I
got Mr. Ramsay’s paper with a name for it, and am glad that he
also considers it distinct.

Order COLUMB£.. :
Fam. CoLuMBID&.

85. CHALCOPHAPS STEPHANI, Pucher. & Jacg.; Salvad. Ann.
Mus. Civic. Genov. ix. p. 206; Salvad. t.c. x. p. 44.
Loc. Momile.

86. C. cHrysocHtora (Wagl.) ; Sharpe, antea, p. 319; Salvad.
t. c. p. 206.
Loe. Oko Creek, &e.

Fam. CaRPopHAGID®.
87. CARPOPHAGA MUELLERI, Zemm.; Sharpe, antea, p. 819 ;
Salvad. t. ec. p. 202; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.
Loe. Uaroki River.

88. C. Pinon (Q. F G.); Sharpe, antead, p. 319; palvad, Eve!
p- 202; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.
Loc. Uaroki River.

89. C. zorm (Less.) ; Salvad. t. e. p. 201.
Loc. Laroki River.

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E. NEW GUINEA. 503

90. CarpopHaca PuELLA (Less.) ; Ramsay, t. c. 394.—Megalo-
prepia puella, Salvad. t. c. p. 199.
Loc. Laroki River.

91. lanrHa@nas aLpieuLaris, Bp. ; Salvad. t. c. p. 203.—lan-
thoenas rawlinsoni, Sharpe, Nature, Aug. 17, 1876.

Adult. General colour above metallic green with coppery-violet
reflexions, the appearance of the back being grey when seen away
from the light ; head, mantle, and under surface of body coppery
violet, the bases of the feathers leaden grey on the under parts ;
cheeks, ear-coverts, and throat creamy white ; under tail-coverts
leaden black, with narrower margins of coppery violet; under
wing-coverts and axillaries leaden grey; wings above black,
washed with leaden grey, the coverts narrowly edged with the
same colour as the back, the margins also very narrow on the
inner secondaries, scapulars, and long upper tail-coverts ; tail
black. Total length 14°5 inches, culmen 0°8, wing 9°85, tail 5:9,
tarsus 1:2.

On comparing more closely the Pigeon described by me as J.
rawlinsont, I have come to the conclusion that it must not be se-
parated from J. albigularis, Bp.; there are some slight differences
between it and the Mysore skin in the Museum, but not sufficient
to warrant me in sustaining the species.

92. Prinonorus tozonus, Gray; Salvad. § D Albert. l.c. p.
8384 ; Salvad. t.c. p. 42; id. op. cit. ix. p. 198; Ramsay, ft. c. p. 394.

Loc. Laroki River.

Agrees with specimens from the Aru Islands.

93. P. auraNTIIFRONS, Gray; Salvad. t. c. p. 197.
Loc. Laroki River.

94. P. coronuLatus, Gray ; Sharpe, antea, p. 320 ; Salvad. t. c.
p- 198; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loc. Uaroki River.

a. Total length 8-1 inches, culmen 0°55, wing 4°65, tail 3°05,
tarsus 0°8.

95. GEOPELIA HUMERALIS (Lemm.); Salvad. §& D Albert. t. ec.
p. 8386; Salvad. t. c. p. 205.
Loc. Laroki River.

96. Goura aLBerRtist, Salvad. ; Sharpe, antea, p. 318 ; Ramsay,
ft. ¢. p. 394.

504 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE

Order GALLIN A.

Fam. MrGaproDip&.

97. Mrecapopius DUPERREYI, Less.; Salvad. & D’ Albert. t. c.
p-. 8388; Salvad. t. c. p. 48; Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loc. “ Generally distributed.”

Identical in coloration with Aru examples, but having rather a
larger foot ; middle toe and claw 2°6 inches.

98. TaLEGALLuS FUSCIROSTRIS, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov.
ix. p. 834.—Megapodius cuvieri, Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loc. “ Brushes in the interior.”

Mr. Ramsay observes :—‘“ This is undoubtedly a Megapodius,
and not a Zalegalla. The egg resembles that of M. tumulus, but
is much larger, being 3°9 inches in length, 2°48 in breadth, and of
a rich salmon-ochre colour.”

Fam. PERDICIDs.
99. Synecus cERvinus, Gouwld—Synoicus cervinus, Ramsay,

t. e. p. 394.
Loc. Widely distributed.

Order GRALLA.

Fam. CHARADRIIDS.

100. LoprvanELLus minEes.—Chettusia miles (Bodd.); Gray,
Hand-l. B. iii. p. 12.

Loc. Port Moresby.

101. Cuaraprivs FuLVUS, Gin. ; Sharpe § Dresser,B. Eur. partix.

Loc. Port Moresby. Two specimens in winter plumage.

[102. Numentus vropreratis, Gould; Salvad. t. c. ix. p. 48;
Ramsay, t. c. p. 394.

Loc. Port Moresby. |

103. Toranus BREVIPES, Cuv.; Gray, Hand-l. B. ii. p. 45.

Loc. Port Moresby.

[104. Actrtts HypoLEucus (L.).—A. empusa, Jtamsay, t. c.
p: 394..

Loc. Port Moresby. |

Fam. ARDEID#.

105. ArprEa sacra, Gm.; Gray, Hand-l. B. iu. p. 28.
Loc. Port Moresby.

106. A. FLavicoxiis, Lath.; Gray, Hand-l. B. iu. p. 30.
One specimen.

ORNITHOLOGY OF S.E, NEW GUINEA. 505

Fam. Raturip #.

107. Ratuina pLUMBEIVENTRIS, Wall. ; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. 58.

Loe. Momile.

I have compared Mr. Stone’s specimen with the type from Morty
Island, and find the two birds identical.

108. GALLINULA RUFICRISSA, Gould; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii.
p. 67; Ramsay, t. c. p. 395.

Loc. Port Moresby.

109. PoRPHYRIO MELANOPTERUS (Zemm.); Sharpe, antea, p. 320;
Ramsay, t. ce. p. 393.

Loe. Port Moresby.

This specimen bears out what Count Salvadori writes respect-
ing this bird. It has the fore part of the breast, the lesser wing-
coverts, and the edge of the wing brighter blue than in P. mela-
nonotus. I therefore follow Count Salvadori in referring it to
P. melanopterus.

[110. Parra cristata, V.; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 70.

Loe. Laroki River. |

Order ANSERES.
Fam. ANATIDS.
[111. Anas supERcrILIOsA, Gm.; Gray, Hand-l. B. iii. p. 82.
Loc. “ Generally distributed.’’]
[112. Denpbrocyena vacans, Hyton; Sulvad. op. cit. ix. p. 49 ;
Gray, Hand-l. B. ii. p. 79.
Loe. “ Water-holes near Larcki River, &c.]
113. D. eurrata (Forsten); Salvad. & D? Albert. t. c. p. 839 ;
Salvad. t. ¢. p. 49.—D. guttulata, Ramsay, t. c. p. 895.
Loe. “In water-holes and creeks at the back of the coast-range.”’
114. Taporna RADJAH, Garn.; Sharpe, antea, p. 321; Ramsay,
t.¢. p. 895.
Loe. Laroki River.
Fam. Larips.
[115. Srerna MELANAUCHEN, Temm.; Saunders, P. Z. S. 1876,
p. 661.
Loc. Port Moresby. |

Fam. PELecanip”.
[116. PHanacrocorax LEUCOGASTER, Gould ; Gray, Hand-l. B.
i. p. 128.
Loc. Port Moresby. |
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 41

506 MR. E. J. MIERS ON CRUSTACEA

On Species of Crustacea living within the Venus’s Flower-basket
(Euplectella) and in Meyerina claviformis. By Enwarp J.
Miers, F.LS., F.Z.S., Assistant in the Zoological Depart-
ment, British Museum.

[Read June 7, 1877.}
(Plate XXIV.)

Wiru the late Dr. Bowerbank’s collection of Sponges recently
purchased by the Trustees of the British Museum, a bottle was
received containing Crustacea preserved in spirit and labelled as
follows :— Crustacea from within Aleyoncellum speciosum, off
Zebu, Philippine Islands, 95 fathoms, from ‘ Challenger.’’’ These
Specimens were in excellent condition, and, upon examination,
proved to belong to two species, one belonging to the Peneide,
the other being an Isopod of the genus Aga.

The existence of Crustacea within the cavities of the beautiful
and well-known Vitreous Sponges, which have been variously de-
scribed under the generic names of Alcyoncellum and Huplectella,
has long been known to naturalists. De Haan, in his account of
the Crustacea in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ of v. Siebold (p. 194,
pl. xlvi. fig. 9), describes and figures a new genus and species of
the family Peneide, to which he assigns the name Spongicola
venusta, and habitat “in Alcyoncellis,’ without definite locality,
and which is characterized by the non-palpigerous outer maxilli-
peds, and the very great development of the third pair of legs,
which is analogous to the enlargement of the second pair in many
genera of Palemonide. Dr. J. HE. Gray (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.
Xvili. p. 489, 1866) briefly notices the occurrence of “a crab”
in the Huplectella speciosa, which is regarded by the Spaniards in
Manilla as formed by the animal for its protection, observing that
the animal must lake its place in the tube before the network at
the upper end is formed, as when that part is added it becomes
imprisoned. Ina further notice of the same species of sponge in the
following year (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xix. p. 44, 1867), he quotes
the opinion of the fishermen of Zebu, and of M. Trimoulet, fils, of
Bordeaux, that the sponge is the nest of the crustacean that in-
habits it, which, in the case .of the specimens examined by M.
Trimoulet, belonged to the “section des Isopodes nageurs.”’

Dr. Semper, ‘Archiv f. Naturgeschichte, 1867, p. 84, in an
interesting memoir “On Huplectella aspergillum, Owen, and its
Inhabitants” (translated in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. i. p. 26,1868),

LIVING IN THE VENUS’S FLOWER-BASKET. 507

after justly repudiating the theories of the Spanish fishermen and
French naturalist regarding the origin of the sponge, describes
the Isopod from specimens in his collection under the name of
Miga spongiophila, stating that it is always associated with a pretty
species of Palemonide, which, on account of the damaged condition
of the specimens, he was unable to determine generically, but
which I have little doubt is the Spongicola venusta of De Haan.
This Adiga spongiophila, although the description leaves some im-
portant particulars unnoticed, agrees, as far as it goes, with the
specimens from Zebu recently acquired by the Trustees. Mr. T.
J. Moore (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ii. p. 196, 1869) gives, upon the
authority of Captain Robert Morgan, Zebu as the true habitat of
Huplectella aspergillum, and appends a rough sketch by Capt.
Morgan of the sponge zm sitw and its inhabitant (by which latter
is presumably intended the Spongicola venusta) ; but the figure is
evidently a mere sketch from memory. Finally, the late Dr. R.
v. Willemdes Suhm, in his fifth letter to Prof. C. v. Siebold on
the results of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition (Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.
xxvi. Append. p. lxxiv, 1876), mentions that, of the parasites of
the Huplectella, the Aga spongiophila occurs most commonly,
next to it the Palemon (probably the Spongicola venusta), whose
zoéa he was able to hatch, also a white Aphrodita, and, lastly,
in less abundance, a small Pecten.

Dr. Semper, in the paper above referred to, announced his in-
tention of shortly publishing more accurate descriptions of the
Crustacea observed by him, accompanied by figures, but does not
appear ever to have carried his purpose into effect. I have there-
fore thought it desirable to append to this notice full descriptions
and accurate illustrations of the specimens I have before me, by
which the question of their identity with the Spongicola venusta
and Aiya spongiophila may be determined with certainty.

Sponercona veNusta, De Haan, Crust. in Fauna Japonica,
p. 194, pl. xlvi. fig. 9 (1850), g. Pl. XXIV. figs. 1 & 2.

Body nearly smooth. Rostrum trigonous, about reaching
to the apex of the peduncle of the antennules, with eight to
ten small teeth on its upper margin, and one on the lower
margin near the apex. One or two of the teeth of the upper
margin are posterior to the anterior margin of the cephalo-
thorax. On the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax, a short
distance behind the origin of the rostrum, are two small spines.

508 MR. E. J. MIERS ON CRUSTACEA

On the anterior margin of the carapace, between the points of
insertion of the eye-peduncles and antennz, is a small spine, pos-
terior to this upon the hepatic region a second spine, and beneath
the hepatic spine, upon the antennal region, a series of 2-4 spines
in an oblique series. The posterior margin of the cephalothorax
is deeply sinuated above ; the terminal half of the postabdomen
is inflexed and usually more or less adpressed to the ventral sur-
face of the body. The first segment of the postabdomen is the
shortest; the lateral lobes of the second to sixth segments are tri-
angular and acute in the male, broader and more rounded in the
female ; the terminal segment is elongate-oval, ciliated on the
posterior margin, with two longitudinal keels, each of which
is trispinose, on the upper surface, and with three spines on
the lateral margins. The eyes are short and subcylindrical.
The anteunules are about as long as the cephalothorax, the
two flagella of equal length. The peduncles of the antenne
are short, not half as long as the outer scale; the flagella
broken, but evidently much longer than those of the anten-
nules, and thickly clothed with long hairs; the outer lamina
with the outer margin straight, denticulated in its distal half, the
inner margin strongly arcuate and ciliated. The outer maxillipeds
are slender, with long hairs on their inner margins, the joints
diminishing successively in length. The first and second pairs
of legs are very slender; the chele shorter and no thicker than
the wrists, those of the second pair longer than the first; third
pair very much enlarged, the arm thickening to the distal ex-
tremity, near which is a small spine on the superior and exterior
margins ; the wrist very small, with a blunt subapical lobe on
its upper and lower surface: the hand ovate, slightly granu-
lated and hairy on its outer and inner surface, much larger
at base than the wrist; the superior and inferior margins thin,
but scarcely carinated, and ciliated, the superior margin armed
with serrated teeth; the fingers compressed, serrated on their
outer margins, meeting along their inner edges when closed,
acute at the apices, a blunt tooth on their inner margins. Fourth
and fifth pairs of legs slender and slightly hairy ; claws bispinose.
Rami of the appendages of the postabdominal segments ovate-and
ciliated ; those of the penultimate segment serrated on their outer
margins and with long hairs on the posterior margins ; the inner
ramus longitudinally unicostate, the outer subtruncate at the
extremity and longitudinally bicostate. Length to end of ros-
trum about 1 inch 2 lines.

LIVING IN THE VENUS’S FLOWER-BASKET. 509

Two specimens are in the Collection—one is a female with ova,
the other I believe to be a male.

In De Haan’s description of Spongicola venusta no mention is
made of the two spines on the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax,
behind the rostrum (which in his specimens is 9-toothed), nor of
the serrate teeth on the upper margin of the hand and on the
appendages of the sixth postabdominal segment, although there
are indications of these in his figure of the species in the case of
the last-mentioned organs. The hand in the figure is represented
as longer in proportion to its depth. The description, however,
coincides in all essential particulars with the specimens from Zebu ;
and the habitat “in Aleyoncellis” being the same, I have little
doubt that the species are identical.

JEGA sponatopHiLa, Semper, Archiv f. Naturg. xxxi. p. 84
(1867); Ann. 5 Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4) vol. ii. p. 26 (1868).
Pl. XXIV. figs. 3-5.

The body is elongate-oval, moderately convex and punctulated ;
the punctures nowhere very crowded, but most numerous upon
the head and first segment of the body. The head is transverse,
about twice as broad at base as it is long, with a small median
triangular frontal lobe, that is produced between the basal joints
of the upper antenne. The first segment of the body is rather
the longest; the lateral margins of all the segments form nearly a
right angle with the posterior margins, the postero-lateral angles
of the segments being themselves somewhat rounded. Six seg-
ments of the postabdomen are exposed; the first five are very
short, acute, and slightly produced backward at the lateral angles ;
the terminal segment is longer than the five preceding taken
together, but not quite as long as broad at the base, flat above,
with a shallow indentation parallel to its basal margin, semioval,
with ciliated margins. The eyes are black, broad at base, where
they cover a part of the inflexed lateral margins of the head; seen
from above, they are pyriform in shape, narrowing to the distal
extremity, which recedes slightly from the anterior margin of the
head. The upper antennz are short, when retracted not reaching
to the posterior margin of the first segment of the body: three joints
of the pedunele are visible; the first much enlarged, with a shallow
indentation on its upper surface, perhaps indicating the coalescence
of two joints; the third joint is about twice as long as and narrower
than the second. The inferior antenne are very long,when retracted
reaching beyond the posterior margin of the sixth segment of the

510 MR. E. J. MIERS ON CRUSTACEA

body ; their bases are concealed by a narrow process of the epi-
stoma: five joints of the peduncle are visible ; of these, the first and
second are very short, the third rather longer, the fourth as long
as the three preceding, the fifth as long as the fourth. The first
three pairs of legs are short and prehensile ; the coxe of the second
and third pairs oblong, rounded at their postero-lateral angles, and
marked with two oblique impressed lines ; the femora not dilated ;
the succeeding joints short, naked; the dactyli strong, arcuate,
and acute. The fourth to seventh pairs of legs are slender and
gressorial ; the cox are acute at the postero-lateral angles, those
of the fifth to seventh pair greatly produced backward ; the femora
are slender, elongate, not dilated, but slightly keeled on their pos-
terior margins; the succeeding joints slender, with a few stiff
hairs at their distal extremities and along their anterior margins.
The foliated appendages of the first five postabdominal segments
are not ciliated on the margins ; the rami of the appendages of the
sixth segment are broad and semitransparent, truncated at the
distal extremities, obscurely serrated and ciliated on the posterior
and exterior margins, and do not quite reach to the end of the
terminal segment; the inner triangular; the outer irregularly
quadrilateral, with the inner margin straight and parallel to the
distal half of the outer margin. Colour yellowish white, with
minute brownish-pink spots, which are visible only upon the head
and first two segments of the body. Length 1 inch 74 lines.

Of this species an adult female, from which the above descrip-
tion is taken, a smaller individual (length 1 inch 2 lines), and four
young, the smallest scarcely exceeding 7 lines, are in the collection.
The length of the antennz and form of the terminal segment and
of the serrated uropoda suffice to distinguish this species from its
congeners.

Nearly all the specimens of Euplectella in the Collection of the
British Museum contain Crustacea which appear to belong to one
or other of the species above described, but cannot be determined
with certainty without extraction from the sponges—an operation
which could not be effected without injury to the specimens.

In another fine species of Sponge from Zebu (the Meyerina
elaviformis, described by the late Dr. J. E. Gray from spe-
cimens brought home by Dr. A. B. Meyer) are several speci-
mens of an Isopod Crustacean quite distinct from the foregoing
species. An example of this Sponge having been divided longi-
tudinally for the purpose of showing its interior structure, I have
been enabled to examine and identify these Isopoda with a species

LIVING IN THE VENUS’S FLOWER-BASKET. 511

noticed but not described by A. White, in the ‘ List of Crustacea
in the British Museum, p. 107, 1847, under the name of ga
hirta, and subsequently described as 4. multidigita by Dana, in
his account of the Crustacea collected in the U.S. Exploring Ex-
pedition under Commodore Wilkes.

CrROLANA MULTIDIGITATA.— Aiea hirta, White, List Crust. Brit.
Mus. p. 107 (1847), sine descr.—. multidigita, Dana, U.S. Expl.
Exp. xiii.,Crust. 1. p. 768, pl. li. fig. 3 (1853). Pl. XXIV. figs. 6-11.

Body oblong-elliptical, moderately convex; all the segments
hispid, with short hairs, which are longest on the posterior margins
of the segments, and denser on the postabdominal segments. The
head is transverse, with a small, acute, median frontal lobe. The
first segment of the body is rather the longest, and its anterior
margin is closely applied to the base of the head; the postero-
lateral margins of all the segments are broadly rounded. Five
segments of the postabdomen are exposed ; the first four are very
short ; the lateral angles of the second segment are acute, of the
third obtuse and round; the terminal segment is triangular, usu-
ally about as long as broad (but in the specimen bearing White’s
MS. name rather broader than long), subacute at the apical ex-
tremity. The eyes, viewed from above, are suboblong, and extend
along half the lateral margins of the head. The upper antenns
are short, reaching little beyond the posterior margin of the head ;
peduncle two-jointed, the basal joint but little enlarged, the second
joint scarcely thicker than the flagellum. Lower antenne more
than half as long as the body, and separated at base by a very
narrow process of the epistome ; peduncle five-jointed, the first
three joints very short, the fourth and fifth long, slender, and sub-
equal; flagellum naked. The coxz of all the legs are obliquely
carinated ; those of the first to third pairs rounded at the postero-
lateral angles; of the fourth to seventh pairs with the postero-
lateral angles acute, and of the sixth and seventh pairs greatly
produced backward; the basal joints of all the legs are but
slightly dilated, those of the last four pairs slightly keeled on their
posterior margins ; the third to sixth joints of all the legs armed
with short spines on their under surface ; the dactyii of all the legs
are short, arcuate, and acute. The rami of the appendages of the
penultimate postabdominal segment are very unequal; the outer
very narrow and shorter than the inner, which is triangular, broad-
est and truncate at its distal extremity ; the margins are not
serrated ; they do not reach to the apex of the terminal segment.
Length nearly 1 inch.

512 ON CRUSTACEA LIVING IN THE VENUS S FLOWEE-BASKET.

Hab. Philippine Islands. (Several specimens, adult and young,
within Meyerina claviformis, Gray, from Zebu.)

Tf the position of the animals in the Sponge be natural and un-
disturbed, they would seem to have made their way to the hollow
interior by breaking through the tissues. Several specimens are
actually embedded in the substance of the Sponge. One which
I extracted is an adult female with ova; another is quite young.

On account of the non-dilatation of the basal joints of the an-
tennules, and the long inferior antenne, &c., this species appears
to be better placed in the genus Cirolana than in 4iga. It is at
once distinguishable by the triangular terminal segment, the
spines on the under surface of the legs, and the form of the
rami of the sixth pair of postabdominal appendages. ‘The speci-
men bearing White’s MS. name is from Swan River. Dana’s
specimens are from Borneo; and his figure agrees in every respect
with the specimens from the Philippines, except that the inner
ramus of the uropoda is represented as less distinctly triangular
and truncated at the extremity. The Aga macronema of Bleeker
(Acta Soc. Sci. Indo-Neerl. ii. p. 23, pl.i. fig. 1, 1857), taken from
various species of fish inhabiting the seas of Batavia, has, like this
species, a triangular terminal segment, but differs in the form of
the uropoda, &e.

In the British Museum are several specimens from the Philip-
pines, presented by S. T. Martin, Esq., “from the interior of
Meyerina,” and others “from Sponges collected by Dr. Meyer.”
In what appear to be the males, the median frontal lobe is greatly
produced, reflexed, and blunt at the extremity. In some speci-
mens the body is nearly or quite destitute of hair.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXIV.

Fig. 1. Spongicola venusta, De Haan. Lateral view of 9, X twice nat. size.
2. ————-._ Dorsal view of its cephalothorax.
3. Alga spongiophila, Semper. Lateral view of Q, nat. size.
4, —— Dorsal aspect of 9 , nat. size.
5. ——_ ——. Front foreshortened view of head, antennules, and antenne,
X twice nat. size.
6

, 7, 8. Cirolana multidigitata, Dana, shown in three different positions
within the sponge-tissue of Meyerina claviformis, Gray ; drawn from
mounted specimen in British Museum. Fig. 6 is asketch of a median
longitudinal section of the sponge, displaying (@) the animal in the cen-
tral excretory canal: os, oscular area; others close by are partially -
covered by the spicular ‘veil, In fic. 7 an animal (a) fills an oscular
space; and in fig. 9 an exterior view of same is shown, a dermal lace-
work of spicules surrounding, All nat size.

9. Head of male C. multidigitata, x twice nat. size.
10. Ditto of female C. multidigitata, x twice nat. size.
11. Upper view of terminal segment and uropoda of same species, nat. size.

Page

Acantharachna mirabilis, Smith, n.
SOM CEL OVAIT) eee a er aoe
Acanthocystis spinifera, reel . 294
turfacea . - - 200

Acanthonotus Hardwickii, Gray
(ftnote) . . 350

Acanthopterygii of India, distrib.
of . . » 138, 139
Accipiter cirrocephalus Abr Beeline tote:

Accipitres, geographical distrib.
of, 1; of New Guinea . . 308, 488
Aceros subruficollis, Blyth . . . 186
Acilius, 163; fasciatus, breathing
exper. on, 180 ; sulcatus. . . 179
Actea granulata . . . . . . 184
Acteomorpha, Miers, n. gen., 184;
erosa, Miers, n. sp. (Pl. XIV.). 183
Actinolophus pedunculatus . . 303
Actinometra,440; and Antedon, the
differences, 442; Bennetti, Miill.,
450; cirri, their number, ant:
condition of rosette &c., 451;
definition of, by Miiller, 440;
fimbriata, Adds; likeness to Sola-
nocrinus,454 ; multiradiata, 4A 5
on the genus, 440; polymorpha,
morphology of, 440, 444; ro-
busta, 451; solaris, “443 3 varia-
tion inarms &c. of . . - 450
Actinophrys oculata, 284; sol,
284; viridis, Hhrenb. (finote) . 292
Actinospherium Hichhornii . 285, 287

Actitis hypoleucus (L.) , 320, 504
figa hirta, 511; macronema,
Bleeker, 512; multidigita,

Dana, 511; spongiopbila, Sem-

per (Pl. XXIV.) .-. . 507
Aigotheles Bennetti . . . . - 314
leucogaster . . - . . «. 815
Ffluredus buccoides. . . . . 495

Stonii, Sharpe, .sp.. . . 495
Agabus bipustulatus, exper. on .177
Ageneiosus childreni, Sykes (finote) 349
Aglyptosternon, Bikr. (ftnote) . 343

Page
Ailia affinis, Giinther (ftnote) . . 350
colla, Ham. Buch. . . . . 350

Ailiichthys punctata, Day . . . 350
Air-bladder, homologue of . . . 199
, Opinions respecting . . . 209
Akysis Kurzii, Day (ftnote) . . 350
Alcyoncellum speciosum. . . . 506
Alcyone Lessoni, 311, 492; pul-
chra, 492 ; pusilla . dll, 492
Allman, G. J., recent researches
among the more simple sarcode
organisms, Antiiversary Address
for 1876, 261; for 1877 . . . 385
Allorhina anomala, Bates . . . 180
Alveolites Battersbyi, Edw. § H.,
360; clavata, 355; compressa,
Edw. & H., 359; cryptodens,
Billings, 360; denticulata, Hdw.
& H., 360; depressa, Flem., 359;
escharoides, Zam.,354 ; Fischeri,
Billings, 362; Fougtii, 358;
frondosa, Wich., 362; Gold-
fussi, Billings, 368 ; Grayi,Hdw.
& H.,359; imcrustans, 354; in-
fundibuliformis, 355; Labechii,
Edw. § H. 359; madrepo-
racea, 354; milleporacea, 355;
Notes on the genus, 353 ; repens,
Fougé, 360; Remeri, Biil.,
369 ; septosa, Flem., 357 ; spon-
gites, Steininger, 355 ; suborbi-
cularis, Lam., 354; tubiporacea 355
Ambassis alta, Cuv. & Val. (ftnote),
142; baculis, Ham. Buch., 148;
Barlovi, Sykes (finote), 142;
Commersonii, Cuv. & Val. 148;
Dayi, Bleeker, 143 ; denticulata,
Klunz. (ftnote), 143; Dussu-
mieri, Cuv. § Val. (ftnote), 148 ;
gymnocephalus, Lacép., 143;
indica, M‘Clell. (ftnote), 142;
interrupta, Bleeker, 143; male-
baricus, Jerdon (ftnote), 143 ;
nalua; H. B.,143; nana, H. B.,

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 42

514

INDEX.

Page

142; oblonga, C. § V. (ftnote),
142; ranga, H. B., 142; therma-
lis, C. & V. ({tnote), 144; Tho-
massi, Day, 143; uroteenia,
Bleeker, 143; Vachelli, Peters
(ftnote) .

Amblyceps ceecutiens, Blyth (fén. ),
350 ; mangois, Ham. Buch., 350 ;
tenuispinus, Blyth (ftnote) .

Amblyodon (Raf.), (ftnote), 140;
nicarague, Westw.,= ¢ Phileurus
nasicornis, Burm. .

Amblypneustes runs far south, &e.

Amesia juvenis, 197; pexifascia,
Buil., n. sp., 115, 197 ‘

Ameeba actinophora, 438; bilim-
bosa, 438; polypodia, Maz
Schultze, 276; princeps, 269 ;
terricola, Greeff, 274 & (nucleus
of) 275.

Ameeboid changes in plant- and
animal-cells -

Amphibious and migratory fishes
of Asia. . . c

Amphipnous cuchia, branchial sacs
of, 205; dug from clay

Amphistomatous Thalamophora

Amphitrema .

Amphizonella flava = Pseudochla-
mys patella, 394, 397; vestita,
Archer, 277; violacea, Greeff,
276.

Anabas, Cuv., 141; kept in pots
without water, 201; oligolepis,
Giinther (ftnote), 152; scan-
dens, Dal., 152; spinosus, Gray
§ Hardw. (ftnote), 152; trifo-
liatus, Kawp (ftnote)

Anaitis rosea, M‘Intosh, n. Pe 3 ‘de-
scription of

Anas superciliosa, Gm.

Anderson, Dr. John, on the habits
of Hornbills . :

Anguilla vulgaris, mode of respir a
tion of. . sae

Anseres of New iGuimes ape 321,

Ant-eater, ear-bones of ;

Antedon bathycrinus, 51; pallies,
51; Dubenii,445, 446 & (calyx of,
compared )456 ; Eschrichtii,454 ;
oral pinnules of, irritable, 446 ;
rosacea, 452; rosaceus

Anthias testudineus, Bloch (Fonote

Anthozoa tabulata . :

‘ Antichira gratiosa, Sharp, x. Sp. ‘
133; prasina, Burm., 134 ; Pal
tacina, Burm. .

Ants,217; chloroformed,224; com-

143

. 350

. 1380

79

. 270

198

. 214
. 391
. 410

. 152

. 214
505

. 156

. 202

505

. 188

. 446
152

. 361

. 134

Page
munication, power of, 219; con-
trast in behaviour of,238; depend-
ence on slaves, 245 ; different
kinds, 288; different nests, 236 ;
division ae labour, 246; experi-
ments testing intelligence, 218 ;
experiments testing the senses,
239; experiments under chloro-
form and intoxicated, tabular
view of, 229; habits of, remarks
on, 217; hearing of, 244; indi-
vidual influence and character,
221; intelligence and affection,
221; intoxicated, 225,229 ; pa-
rasites of, and on, 257; parthe-
nogenesis in, 257; recollection
of friends, 230; routes followed
in exp., 240, 245; sight of, 239;
slaves of Formica fusca, 248 ;
slaves of Polyergus, 252; sus-
pected cannibalism of,239 ; tables
of experiments on, 229 ; tables il-
lustrating experiments on divi-
sion of labour, 248 ; want of inge-
nuity im crossing chasms. . . 217

Aphrodita, sp. i.- 1.2) sa ee
Apiocrinide, new mi crinoids
belongingto . . . . AT
Appendices inferiores im Tricho-
ptera=harpagones. . . . . 195
Appias plana. . Bi aan oe Le
Arcania granulosa, Miers, m. Sp.» 107
Arcella arenaria, 279 ; hyalina, 399;
hyalina, Burnb., = Lecythium,
Hert. & Less., 399; vibrio-like
bodies of, 392; vulgaris. . 279, 391
rchzeopteryx, remark on metacar-
pus of . j . 101
Archaster andr omeda, q il excava-
tus, Wy. Thomson,n.sp. . . . 71
Arcyria flava. . 414
Ardea cinerea, skull of, 90 ; flavi-
collis, Lath, 504; sacra, Gm. 504
Arius pumilus, Val. (ftnote), 346 ;
ritoides, Cuv. & Val. (ftnote),
346; thalassinus, 338.
Arses Kaupi, 497; telescophthal-
mus (Garn.), 316, 497.
Arsipoda, Hirichs.. . . . . . 47
consuta, Germ., 477 ; piceipes 477
Artamus leucopygialis, Gould . . 501
Ascaris delphini, 42; maculosa,
45; simplex, 43.
Asia, amphibious and migratory
fishes of . . pall QS
Aspidobagrus, Bleeker (ftnote) . 341
Asteracanthion, development of . 56
ASheviden. th) « caeieticy pee aee alan TALL

INDEX. 515.
Page Page

Astictopterus gemmifer, 197; stel- Beetles, Australian Phytophagous,
lifer, 197. 458 ; description of new species

Astrodisculus . . . 295 from Central America, 129.

Astur albigularis, 4585 approxi- Berardius, ear-bones of . 187
mans, 489; cruentus, 488; Mey- Bilharzia os 5. 44, 45
erianus, Sharpe, 2S). (PLXXIL), Birnara nubila. . . 197
458 ; torquatus, 489; Wallacei, 489 | Boake,Mr., on Ceylon air-breathing

Athyma clerica, 196; nivifera . . 196 fisher oo AU

Atta barbara (Pl. XVII.), worker, Bogoda, Bleeker (footnote) . 139

major and minor . . 256 | Bola, H. B. (footnote) : 140

Aurelia aurita (Pl. XV.), abnormal chaptis, H. B. (footnote) 145
forms of, 191; abortion of parts coitor, H. B. (footnote) . . 145
of, 192. Bougainvillia Allmanii, Romanes,

Australian Phytophagous beetles . 458 n. sp. (ftnote), eee fruticosa,

name changed to B. Allmanii

Bacterium termo . 269 (footnote) . . 190

Badis, 139, 144; Buchanani, Bleek., Bourguetticrinus, of Chalk and Ter-
144; Dario, Ham. Buch., 144. tiary formations allied to living

Bagarius Buchanani, Bleeker, 301 ; Rhizocrinus . . 5 48
Yarrellii, Syes, 351. Bower Birds of New Guinea 6 82

Bagrus, Cuv. & Val. (ftnote) . 341 | Branchiosteus, Gill (footnote). . 342

abbreviatus, C. § V. (ftnote) . 344 | Brissopsislyrifera. . .. . 67
affinis, Jerdon (ftnote) = 840) || Britishi Polyzoa. <0) 3 . 479
agricolus, Jerdon (ftnote) . 345 | Bucerotids of New Guinea . 314
albilabrus, C. & V. (ftnote) . 344 | Bucharis Chapuisii, 462; granulo-
aorellus, Blyth (ftnote) . 844 sus, 462; martius, 463.

aorides, Jerdon (ftnote) . 344 | Bucorvus abyssinicus, ae ter

—— aorinus, Val. (ftnote) . . 844 of lachrymal bone of 91

—— Birmannus, C. & V. (ftn.) . 344 | Butler, A. G., on new species of

exodon, Bleeker (ftnote) . . 34 Euptychia, with tabular view of

—— fuseus, C. g¢ V.(ftnote). . 344 those hitherto recorded, 116;

—— pulioides, Bleeker (ftnote) . 344 on the butterflies of Malacca,196;

keletius, Bleeker (ftnote). . 345 ontwo new Lepidopterous insects

—— Lamarrii, C. & V.(ftnote) . 344 from Malacca, 115.

melas, Bleeker (ftnote) . 844 | Butorides javanica, Horsf. . 320

rhodopterygius, Blk. (ftnote) 344 | Butterflies of Malacca . . . 196

Schlegelii, Blk. (ftnote.) . . 344 | ——, geographical distribution ‘of. 197
-—— tengora, var., Blyth (ftnote) . 345

trachacanthus, c.g V.(ftn.) . 845 | Cacomantis assimilis, Gray . . 492

Bairdiella, Gill (finote) . . 140 | Callichrous affinis, Swazns. (finote)

Balsena, ear-bones of . . . 187 348; bimaculatus, Bloch, 348;

Baleeniceps rex, orbital cirele of 91 ceylonensis, Giinth. (finote), 348 ;

Eoluoniers malleus and incus Egertoniil, Day (ftnote), 348 ;
Gham . 187 gangeticus, Peters, 348 ; imma-

Baly, J. S., on species sQucnene itis culatus, Swaims. (ftnote), 348;
Phytophagous beetles . . 458 macrophthalmus, Blyth, 348;

Barbel, exper. on its respiration . 203 macrostomus, Swains. (ftnote),

Baeoae cue - 202 348; malabaricus, C. § V., 348;

Batassio, Blyth (fimote), 343 ; nee nebulosus, Swains. (ftnote), 348 ;
nis, Blyth (ftnote), 344. nigrescens, Day (ftnote),348; no-

Bathybius, remarks as to its nature 433 tatus, Day (ftnote), 348 ; pabda,

Bathyerinus Aldrichianus, Wy. Ham. Buch., 348; pabo, H. B.,
Thomson, n. sp., 47, 49, 50, 54:; 348 ; sindensis, Day, 348; vit-
gracilis, Wy. Thom., n. sp. . 47, 54 tatus, Swains. Gay 348.

Baza Reinwardti, Mill. & Schl., Callidula abisara ASF
309, 490; subcristata, 490. Calliploea leucogonis . . . 196

Bedula, Gray (ftnote) . 139 | Callomystax, Giinth. (Foote) . 8483

—— Hamiltonii, Gray & Hardw. Calomela, Hope . 475

Calornis cantoroides . . 601

(ftnote), 144.

516

INDEX.

Page Page
Calornis mysolensis. - . . 501 | Chanossalmoneus, introd. intotank 211
viridescens . . 318, 501 | Charadrius fulvus, Gm... . . 504
Calycine monad, development of . 423 | Cheilodipterus culius,H.B. (ftnote) 148
Campula oblonga, Cobbold, = Cheilotrema, v. Tsch. Sana ee . 140
Distoma campula . . . 40 | Chibia assimilis. . . 500
Canda reptans (Pl. XXIIL) . . . 486 carbonaria (Mill) . . . 499
Caprimulgus macrurus . 314, 493 | Chimarrichthys, Saw. (ftnote). . 344

Carnivorous Water- ee respira- Chirodota, larva of, taken by ‘ Chal-
tory action of. 161 lenger’ expedition". 279

Carpenter, P. Herbert, on Actino-
metra, Miill., with account of a
new species from the Philippines 440

Carpophaga muelleri, 319, 502;
pinon, 319, 502; puella, 503;
zoer, 502.

Carps buried in mud ee . 215
Carystea, Baly . . 475
Castalius ethion . . 196
Catallacta . 5 . 438
Catargyra elegans . . 197

Catharistes atratus, geog. distrib. of,

19; remark on, "93 ; map show-

ing range of, Pl. TI.
aura, vemark on... 23
Cathartes papa, geog. distrib. of, 18;

map showing range of, Pl. II.

Catopra, Bleeker ( finote) . 139
siamensis, Giinth. (ftnote) . 144
tetracanthus, Giiinth. (ftnote) 144

Catylopus, Giwich. (footnote) . 140

Centropus bernsteinii, 81; mene-

beki, 81; 311, 491; spilopterus,
81, 310, 491 ; violaceus, 81.

Ceratodus, air-bladder converted

intoalungin. . . io rg Aut}

Ceryle maxima, skull ebMe va te tliel 160

Cetacea, ossicula auditts Bh ; . 187

Cethosia methypsea . 196

Ceylon fishes, noteon . . 139

Ceyx solitaria, Zemm. . . 492

Chaca Buchanani, Giinth. (finote). 349
lophioides, Cur. & Val. . 849

Chalarothoraca . . . 298

Chalcophaps chrysochlora (Wagl. we ;

319, 502; stephani, P. f Jacq. 602

Chalcopsittacus cilonaneoriss

SiO 5 5 > oo oF 6 oo ABIL

‘Challenger’ Expedition, Sir C.

Wy. Thomson on Crinoids ob-
tained inthe. . . . 47

Channa, Gronov. . 141
indica, Gronov. (ftnote) . 152
orientalis, Bl. Schn. . 152

Chameeleo vulgaris, sacral plexus of 371
Chanda, Ham. Buch. (ftnote), 139 ;
bagoda, H. B. (footnote), 142;
lala, H. B. (ftnote), 142; phula,
H. B. (ftnote), 142; roconius,
M‘Clell. (ftnote), 142.

Chiroptera, ossicula auditis of .

Chlamidomyxis labyrinthuloides,
Archer . : . 281, 282

Chlamydodera cerviniventri is, Gould

82, 495

Chlamydophrys stercorea, Cienk.,
399; probably = Difflugia enche-
lys, Schneid., 400.

Cheetetes depressa, Flem., 367; hy-
perboreus, Wich. & Eth., 367 ; ra-
dians, Fischer, 365; septosus,
Flem., 367.

Cheetodon kakaitsel, Lacép.(ftnote)

Chromides 3 oO. .6

Chrysochloris, ossicula auditis of . 186

Chrysomelide . . . 474

Cidaris abyssicola, 64 ; - affinis (Sto-
kesii), 64; hystrix, 64; nutrix,
Wy. Thoms., sp. n., 62, 63; pa-
pillata, 62, 64; papillata, var.
Stokesii, 63.

Ciliophrys infusionum 5) BRE

Cinnyris frenatus, S. Mill. . 316, 496

Cirolana multidigitata (Pl. XXTV.) 511

Cirrochroa rotundata . . 196

Cisticola ruficeps 315, 494,

Cladodactyla crocea, Less. . 57, 58

Clarias assamensis, Day, 349 ; bra-

chysoma, Giinth. (ftnote), 349 ;
Dussumieri, Cuv. § Val., 349;
dendritic branchial cavity of, 205;
magur, Ham. Buch.349 ; marpus,
Cuv. § Val. (ftnote), 8349; me-
lanosoma, Bleek. (ftnote), 349 ;
punctatus, Cuv. § Val. (ftnote),
849 ; Teysmanni, Bleek., 349.

Clarke, R., and Mivart, St. G., on
sacral plexus and vertebra of
Lizards . 870

Clathrulina elegans aoe . 299

Clupisoma argentata, Swains. (foot-
note) . BIT NG . 842, 347

Cobalus ciliatus . EST

Cobbold, Dr. T., Trematode para-
sites from Dolphins of Ganges . 35

- 186

153
141, 153

Cobitis pacifica, Worst. (ftnote) . 148
Coccospheres, nature of . . 4284
Cochliopodium pellucidum ~ 27

Ceenites orientalis, Hichw. . . 861
Cojus cobojius, Ham. Buch.(ftnote) 152

INDEX. 517
Page Page
Colisa, Cuv. §& Val. (ftnote). . I41 | Ctenops, M‘Clell. (ftnote) . 141
ponticeriana, C. & V. (ftnote). 153 | Cuchia Eel, branchial arches of. . 205
unicolor, C. § V. (ftnote) . 153 Cyathocrinus 53
Collett, Robert, on Rees lemmus Cybister Rosselii Tie cs ea)
in Nor way . 327 | Cyclocephala cone Sharp,
Collocalia terree- -~reginee, Ramsay . 494 NM. Sp. . 3) oy dis)
Collosphera, Cienkowski on . 426 proba, Sharp, N. ‘sp. . 135
Colluricinela brunnea, Gould . 499 Cyclonoda, Baly, n.g., 474; pilula,
pallidirostris, Sharpe . . 499 Clark, 474; subpunctata, Clark 474;
Colpodella, reproduction of . . 423 | Cy clopsitta suavissima, Selater . 491
Columbze of New Guinea. . 318, 502 | Cyclopsittacus cervicalis . . 310
Colymbetes exoletus, exper. on. . 175 | Cyclothurus, malleus of . . 188
Comaster . . 455 | Cycnorhamphus, neck-vertebre of 94
Comatula (Alecto) and Actinometr By suevicus, palatal bones of . 92
distinctions of,442,451; Miiller’s Cynthia erotella Has . 196
classification of, artificial, 441 ; Cyphoderia margaritacea, Schumb. 406
multiradiata, 441 ; polymorpha, truncata, Schulze . 407
441; rosea, 442; trichoptera, Cypselus pacificus (Lath.) . 494)
441 ; what comes under, 441. Cystophrys Haeckeliana, Archer . 4u2
Condylura, malleus and incus of . 186 oculea, nature of . 409
Coracinus, Pall. (ftnote) 5 TAO: |) Cytodeeia lt iacticiy oa ie MichnenczOZ
Corals, Paleozoic . . 353
Cornuspira, Max Schultze on . 262 | Dacelo gaudichaudi, 313, 493 ; in-
Corone orru, Mill. . weecols termedius, Salvad., 312, 493.
Corvina, Cun. (ftnote), 140; cele- Dactylospherium vitreum . 266
bica, Bleek. (ftnote), 145 ; dor- Dasypus, ossicula auditisof . . 188
salis, Peters (ftnote), 145; Kuhlii, Day, Francis.geographical distribu-
Cuv. § Val. ({tnote), 145; lo- tion of Indian Freshwater Fishes.
bata, Cuv. § Val. (ftnote), 145 ; —Part I. The Acanthopterygu,
Neilli, Day (ftnote), 145 ; platy- Spiny-rayed Teleostean Fishes . 138
cephala, Cuv.f Val. (ftnote), 145 ; —. Part Il. The Siluride . . 338
sampitensis, Bleek. (ftnote), 145; on amphibious and migratory
soldado, Cant. (ftnote), 145 ; Fishes of Asia . . » UG
Wollfii, Bleeker (ftnote), 145. on some Irish Gasterostei . 110
Corvus orru, Miill.. . 501 | Defranceia luceruaria . . 485
Corymbipora fungiformis, Smitt . 485 | Deliasmetarcte . malty
Cossyphus, M‘Clell. (ftnote) . 843 | Delphinus, ear-bones ofa . 187
Cotinis adspersa, Sharp, n. sp. . . 186 | Dendrocygna guttata, 505 ; vagans, 505
gracilis, Sharp, n.sp.. . .157 | Description ofnew species of Beetles
Cracticus cassicus (Bodd.), 82, 317, from Central America . . 129
499; mentalis, Salvad. § D’ Al- Desmothoraca : . 298
bert., 317, 499 ; quoyi, Less.,499. Diadema incommoda . . 156
Craniorrhinus cassidix, 156; wal- Dialithus magnificus . . . 130
deni, Sharpe, n. sp. . . 156 Diaphoropodon mobile, Leiep . 408
Crematogaster scutellaris . 223 | Diceum Subyocononaiins Shar 15 496
Crinoids, notice of new living, 47 ; Dichocrinus. . 51
subepithelial band, nature of . 447 | Didosaurus, Giinth., n. gen., | 822;
Crotch, W. Duppa, on the migra- mauritianus, Giinth., n.sp. (bones
tion and habits of Norwegian of) 322 & (affinities of) 324.
Lemming, 27; additional note Didymium serpula_. . . 414
on, 83 ; further remarks on, 157. Diffiugia acropodia, Heriw. § Less. Be
Crustacea, new genus and species 396 ; enchelus, 398 ; symmetrica,
of, 183; oxystomatous, H. J. Wallick, 395.
Miers on, 107; species of, living Dimorphodon, 98 ; vertebree of, 94.
within Venus’s Flower-basket . 506 | Diphyllobothrum spit ido
Cryptocephalidee : . 459 from Porpoise . Be 04
Ceremonies holdsworthi, Miers, Diplolepis, Steind. (fimote) . 140
sp. nov. . 107 | Diplophrys Archeri . . . 408
Cryptopterus ‘latovittatus, Pl. (fn. ) 348 | Discoliths, nature of 433

518

INDEX,

Page

Discopora hispida, var. meandrina,
483; meandrina, Peach, n. sp.
Pl. XXIII, 482.

Distoma Andersoni, Cobbold, n. sp.,
46; campula, Cob., 40 & (ana-
tomy of) 41; compactum from an
Ichneumon, 41 ; crassum, uterine
folds of ?, 40; lancea, Diesing,
36 & (anatomy of) 37.

Ditropidus costipennis, Baly, x. sp.,
465 ; facialis, Baly, n. sp., 466 ;
Jansoni, Baly, n. sp., 467 ; leetus,
Baly, n. sp., 464; ornatus, Baly,
n. sp., 467 ; phalacroides, Baly,
n. sp., 464; pulchellus, Baly,
2. Sp., 468 ; serenus, Baly, n. sp.,
468.

Dolphins, ear-bones of

Domicella scintillata, Temm.

Domopora (Defrancia) _ stellata,
Goldf., 484; truncata, Jameson,
483.

Donacola castaneothorax, 502; ni-
griceps, Ramsay, 501.

Doran, Alban H. G., morphology
of mammalian ossicula auditiis .

Dyseytodes ts brea horent it,

Dytiscidse, on the respiratory action
Oleh att Wet ak &

Dytiscus marginatus, 161; breath-
ing-orifices of, 162, of ¢, 181, of
Q, 182.

Ear-bones,small, of mammals,abstr.
of paper on PU AEP
Echidna, anchylosis of malleus
and ancusjolee ieee
Hchinaster, development of .
Echinoderms, peculiarities in pro-
pagation of, 55; southern, rear
younginapouch. . .. .
Hchinoidea, demosticha, 62 ; peta-
losticha, 67.
Echinus, runs far south . .
Helectus polychlorus (Scop.)
Edentata, ear-bones of . .
Edoliosoma melas . . Skis
Eleotris, Gronov., 141 ; amboinen-
sis, Bleek., 149; baccata, Blyth
(ftnote), 149; butis, Ham. Buch.,
149 ; canariensis, Day, 148 ; can-
toris, Giinth. (ftnote), 148; ca-
perata, Cantor, 149; cavifrons,
Blyth, 148 ; feliceps, Blyth, 148;
fusca, Bl. Schn., 148; koiloma-
todon, Bleeker (ftnote), 149;
humeralis, Cuv. 4 Val. (ftnote),
149 ; incerta, Blyth (ftnote),148;
litoralis, Day, 148 ; lutea, Day,

. 187

80

185

- 263

161

. 491
. 188
. 317

Page

148 ; macrolepidota, Bloch, 148 ;
margaritacea, Cuv. §: Val.(ftnote),
148 ; mauritianus, Benn.({tnote),
148 ; muralis, Cw. § Val., 148 ;
nigra, Quoy g Gaim. (ftnote),
148 ; ophiocephalus, Cuv. § Val.,
148; porocephalus, Cuv. § Val.,
148 ; prismatica, Bleeker (foot-
note),149; scintillans, Blyth,148;
sexguttata, Cuv. g Val., 148;
soaresl, Playfair (ftnote), 148;
viridis, Bleeker (ftnote), 148.

Embia Batesii,Z‘Lach., sp. .,380 ;
Klugi, Ramb., 380; Latreillii,
379; mauritanica, 375 ; nigra,
Hagen, 383 ; persica, WM‘ Lach.,
sp. n., 382; Salvini, MLach.,
sp. n., 380 ; Savignyii, 376 ; So-
lieri, Rambd., 376.

Embidee, distribution of family,379;
habits of the family, 375; histo-
rical remarks on, 374; number
of species, 379; on the nymph-
stage of, 8373; systematic posi-
tion, structure, &c., 377.

Eneysting process,Hertwig & Lesser
OT AY. AU AS tea ESC eNO a oP

Entosolenia globosa, nucleus in

Epinephile hyperantus, Z.. . .

Hrethistes conta, Ham. Buch., 346 ;
elongata, Day, 346; hara, Ham.
Buch.,346 ; Jerdonii, Day, 346 ;
pusillus, Will. § Trosch. (ftnote)
346.

Hschara cervicornis (ftnote), 482 ;
rosacea, 481; Skenei, var. tri-
dens, Busk (Pl. XXIII.), 480;
stellata, Peach, n.sp.(P1.XXTIT:),
481.

Etheridge, Robert, and Nicholson,
H. Alleyne, on the genus Alveo-
Lites: At, 248523 Asie Se

Ktroplus, Cwv. § Val., 141; cana-
rensis, Day, 153 ; coruchi, Cuv.
&§ Val. (ftnote), 153 ; maculatus,
Bloch, 153; meleagris, Cwv. &
Val. (finote), 153; suratensis,
Bloch, 153.

Eudynamis cyanocephala. . 310,

Kuglypha alveolata, 398; ampula-
cea, Dujard., 404; pleurostoma,
Carter, 398.

Huglyptosternum lineatum, Day .

Eulabes dumonti (Zess.)

Kumolpide . . . .

Euphoria Belti, Sharp, n. sp.

Euplectella aspergillum, 506; Crus-

. 265
. 411

195

353

491

352

. 82, 318, 501
nt aS
187

tacea living within, 506; speciosa 506

Huplea Pinwilhi

a hOG

INDEX. 519

Page Page

Euptychia abretia, 117; albofas- liturata group, 117; lobelia,

ciata,117 ; acmenis,119 ; segrota,
121; eetherialis, Butl., n. sp. (Pl.
XII.), 126; affinis, 118 ; agatha,
122; alcinoé,123 ; ambigua, 119 ;
ambigua group, 119; anacleta,
Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XI1.), 123);
angelica, 121; angularis, 118 ;
antonoé, 120; argante, 118; ar-
gentella, 122; argyrospila, 118;
armilla, 117; arneea, 122; ar-
nea group, 122; ashna, 117; ata-
lanta,119 ; austeria, 118 ; ayaya,
122; Batesii, 121; benedicta,
Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XII.), 124;
binalinea, 119; binocula, 117;
brixiola, 121; brixius,121 ; byses,
122; cerulea, 121; calixta,
Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XIT.), 125;
callichloris, 122; calpurnia,
116; camerta, 119; celmis, 118;
chloris, 122; clementia, Butl.,
nm. sp. (Pl. XIT.), 128; clori-
mena, 122; clorimena group,
122; cluena, 121; cluena group,
121 ; ccelestis, 121 ; ccelica, 121 ;
cornelius, 122 ; cosmophila, 122 ;
erantor, 118; cyanites, 121 ;
cyclops, Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XII.),
126 ; disaffecta, 118; divergens,
118 ; doris,121 ; doris group, 121;
doxes, 122; doxes group, 122;
electra,118 ; enyo,117 ; eotis,119;
epinephele, 119; erichtho, 121 ;
evigone, 118; eriphule, 118 ; ery-
cina, 122; eurytus, 118; eusebia,
Butl., n. sp. (el. XII), 126 ;
fabiana, Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XII.),
126; fallax, 119; fetna, 117 ;
francisca, 117; fulgora, 121; fu-
mata, 120; furnia, 117; galesus,
119; gemmula, 122; gera, 121;
gera group, 121; gigas, 120 ;
glaucina, 121; gyrimon, 119;
grimon group, 119; gulnari,
120; harmonia, 120; harmonia
group, 120; helle,117; hermes,
119 ; hermes group, 119; herse,
122; hewitsonii, 122; hiemalis,
121; hilara, 117 ; Hiibneri, 119 ;
hygnia, Butl. (Pl. XII.), x. sp.,
127 ; insignis, 121 ; imsolata,117;
iris, 122; ithama, 1238; itonis,
122; jesia, 117; jovita, 119 ;
junia, 121; junonia, 122; labe,
117; languida, 116; latia, 122;
lea, 121; lea group, 121; lethe,
118 ; libye, 120; lbye group,
120; libyoidea,120; lturata, 117;

121; lupita, 123 ; lydia, 116;
macrophthalma, 117; mzepius,
122 ; mezepius group, 122 ; mai-
mouné, 119; manasses, 1238;
mare, 121; marmorata, 119;
melechiades, Butl., n.. sp. (Pl.
XIT.), 125 ; melobosis, 119; me-
tagera, 121; metaleuca, 116; mi-
ma,1l20; modesta, 119; mollina,
117; mollina group,117; mollis,
117; muscosa,120 ; myncea,118;
nana, Vesch., v. sp.P a var. of BH.
hermes, 128; necys, 120; necys
group, 120; nortia, 121; nossis,
117; nossis group, 117 ; nume-
raria, 123; numilia, 123; ob-
secura, 120; ochracea, 118 ;
ocirrhoé, 116; ocirrhoé group,
116; ocnus, 118; ocypete, 117;
ocypete group, 117; oreba, 120;
pacarus,120; pacarus group,120 ;
pon, 118; pagyris,122 ; palla-
dia,118 ; peculiaris,121 ; peloria,
123 ; penelope, 118; periphas,
118 ; pharella, 119 ; phares,119 ;
phares group, 119; philippa,
121; phineas, 120; phocion,
122; phocion group, 122; phro-
nius, 118; picea, 122; pieria,
118; pilata, 121; pimpla, 119;
poltys, 119; polyphemus, 120;
pompilia, 123 ; pronophila, 117;
pronophila group, 117; pyrac-
mon, 122; quadrina, 122 ; quan-
tius, 120; quantius group, 120;
renata, 118; renata group, 118 ;
rubricata, 119 ; _ rustica, 120 ;
sabina, 120; salvini, 122; sa-
turnus, 117; satyrina, 120;
Saundersti, 120; sericella, 122;
similis, 118; sosybius, 119;
soter, Butl., n. sp. (Pl. XII.),
124; species ?, 116; stelligera,
120; straminea, 118 ; sylvina,
123 ; squamistriga, 120; teles-
phora, Butl., v. sp. (Pl. XIL.),
127; terentia, 117; terrestris,
118; thalessa, Mesch., n. sp.?,
an abnormal form of H. batesii,
128; themis, Butl., 118; tiessa,
120; tolumnia, 122; tricolor,
121; umbrosa, 119; undeter-
mined species of, 123; undina,
118; undulata, 119; urania,
121; urbana, Butl., n. sp. (Pl.
XII), 124; usitata, 118; varia-
bilis, 118; vesper, 117 ; vesta,
117; vestigiata, 118; west-

520 INDEX.
Page Page
woodii, 117; yphthima, 120 ; Geckoid Lizard, bones of, from
zeba, 120; zeredatha, 119; ziza 121 Mascarene Islands. . . . . 324

European Rhopalocera, on the male
genital armature of. . . . . 195

Eurystomus crassirostris, Sclater . 493

Eutropius macrophthalmus, Blyth
(ftnote) . . 847

Eutropiichthys Burmanicus, 350 ;
vacha, Ham. Buch., 350.

Exostoma Berdmorei, Blyth, 352 ;
Blythu, Day, 352; labiatum,
MClell., 352; Stoliczkee, Day, 352

Experiments on air-breathing fishes 203

on breathing of water-
beetles . : 162-183
Hxtinct Mascarene Lizards Me Gi Ooze
Fasciola Jacksoni . . . 2 a 48
Faula centralis, Sharp, n. sp. ; 131

Filifera of Schulze =Reticulara,
Carpenter. . . . . 390
rich Inspecies . . . 396

Fish, abnormal variations of, 110;
amphibious and migratory of
Asia, 198; exhumation from
earth, 214; fallig from clouds,
213; poisoned by muddy water,
290.

Fluke, from biliary ducts of Por-

poise, 38; from Giraffe, 43;
larvee of Elephant, 43.
For aminifera, nucleusin. . 410

Formica cinerea, 257; fusca (Pl.
XVII.), 223, 280, 237, 246;
nigra, 218, 221 5 sanguinea (PI.
XVII.), 256.

Freshwater fishes of peas goog.
distrib. of. . . . 138

Gagata batasio, Ham. Buch., 350 ;
cenia, H. B., 350; ischkceca,
Sykes, 350 ; tengana, H. B., 350.

Gagata typus, Bleek. (Rinote) . 350

Galeopithecus, ossicula of. . . . 186

Gallerucidee . . ote o 2B
Gallinula anno oen, Gould > oo AOE
Gangetic dolphins, parasites of . 35

Gasterostei, onsome Irish . . . 110

Gaster: osteidee, remarks on Dr. Sau-
vage’s revision of . . 110

Gasterosteus aculeatus, Linn. 113,
variations of, 114; pungitius,
TInnn., 112, "red coloration . of
(ftnote), 111, variations of, 113 ;
spinachia, 112.

Gecko Newtonii, Giinth., n. sp.,
325 ; description, bones of, 325 ;
verus, 324, 326.

Geloptera igneo-nitens, Baly, n. sp. 472
vestita, Baly,n. sp. . . . 478
Genital armature of pee Rho-

palocera . . Spi «A S's)
Genyonemus, Gull (fmote) . . . 140
Geoffroyius aruensis . . . 309, 491

pucherani. . . Bie (S10)

Geographical distribution of Acci-
pitres, 1; of Indian freshwater
fishes, Part. I., 188; Part IL,
338; of Vulturide, 1.

Geopelia humeralis (Temm.) . . 503

Georychus probably a Lemming . 34

Gerygone chrysogastra, Gray . . 495

cinerascens, Sharpe, n. sp. . 494

palpebrosa . . . - . 495

Globiocephalus, ear-bones of) ene 187

Glyciphila modesta, Gray, 316,
496 ; subfasciata, Ramsay, 496.

Glyphodes amethysta. . . ~ 17

Glyptosternum botia, Ham. Buch.,

351; cavia, H. B., 351; coni-
rostre; Steind., 351 ; Waciderrenees
Giinth. (ftnote), 351; gracile,
Giinth. (ftnote), 351; lonah,
Sykes, 351; madraspatanum,
Day, 351; modestum, Day
(ftnote), 351; pectinopterum,
M*Clell. 351 ; Stoliczkee, Steind.
(ftnote), 351; striatum, 1‘ Clei/.,
351; telchitta, H. B., 351;
trilineatum, Blyth, 351.

Glyptothorax, Blyth ee . 343

Gobiide . . . 140

Gobius acutipennis, Cuv. § Val.,
147; albo-punctatus, C. & Te
1477 ; andamanensis, Day (ftnote),
146; artedi, 140; biocellatus,

C. § V., 147 ; Bleekeri, Day,
147; breviceps, Blyth (fmote),
147; brevifilis, C. & V. (ftnote),
146; brevirostris, Giinth., 146 ;
bullee-kokah, Russ. (ftnote),
146 ; bynoensis, Richardson,146;
caninus, Giimth. (ftnote), 146 ;
catebus, C. § V. (ftnote), 146;
celebicus, C. & V. (ftnote), 147 ;
chlorostigma, Bleek. (ftnote),
146; criniger, C. f° V., 146; cris-
tatus, Day, 147; cyanomos, BIz.,
146; elegans, C. g. V., 147;
giuris, Ham. Buch., 146; giuris
captured at sea, 211; gobiodon,
Day (ftnote), 147; grammepo-
mus, Bleek. (ftnote), 147; gri-
seus, Day, 146; gutum, Z. B.,

INDEX. 521

Page
147 ; interstinctus, Rich. (ftnote),
147; kokius, C. g V. (ftnote),
146 ; koku, Russ. (ftnote), 146 ;
kora, C. & V. (ftnote), 146;
korah mottah, Russ.(ftnote),146 ;
Kreffii, Steind. (ftnote), 146;
kurpah, Sykes (ftnote), 146;
litturatus, Steind. (ftnote), 147 ;
macrostoma, Steind., 146 ; ma-
crurus, Bleek. (ftnote), 147 ;
madraspatensis, Day, 147;
magniloquus, Day, 147; mala-
baricus, Day, 147 ; Masoni, Day,
146; melanocephalus, Bleek.
(ftnote), 147; melanosoma,
Bleek., 147 ; melanosticta, Day,
147; Neilli, Day, 147 ; novem-
radiatus, Ham. Buch. (ftnote),
148 ; nuna mottah, Russ.({tuote),
146; nunus, H. B., 147; ocella-
tus, Day, 146; ornatus, Riipp.,
147 ; padangensis, Bleek. (ftnote),
147 ; periophthalmoides, BUk.
(ftnote),147 ; personatus, Bleek.,
147 ; planiceps, Day, 147; plani-
frons, Day, 147 ; platycephalus,
Peters (ftnote), 146; polynema,
Bleek., 146 ; punctillatus, Riipp.
(ftnote), 147; puntang, Bleek.,
146; sadanundio, Ham. Buch.,
147;semidoliatus, Cuv.& Val.,147;
septem-radiatus, H. BL. (ftnote),
148; setosus,Jerdon(ftnote), 146;
sexfasciatus, Day, 146; spec-
tabilis, Ginth. (ftnote), 146 ; ste-
thophthalmus, Bleek. (ftnote),

Page
oviformis, Dujard., 397 ; socialis,
Archer, 400.

Giinther, Dr. A., notice of two large
extinct lizards formerly mhabit-
ing the Mascarene Islands . . 322

Gymnetis ramulosa, Bates . 130
Gymnocorax senex, Less. - 501
Gymuura, incus of » . 186

Gyps fulvescens, Hume, =) fulvus,
7; fulvus, geog. distrib. of, 4, and
map showing range of, Pl. IL.;
himalayensis, geog distrib. of,
8, and map showing range of, Pl.
III. ; hispaniolensis, Sharpe, re-
linguished as a species, =O. ful-
vus, 5; Kolbi, geog. distrib. of,
9; map showing range of, Pl.
III. ; doubtfully W.-African, 9 ;
indicus, geog. distrib. of, 10;
map showing range of, Pl. IV.;
occidentalis, remark on, 5; pal-
lescens, Hume, = ?G. indicus
(Scop.), 10; Rueppelli, geog.
distrib. of, 9; map showing range
of, Pl. 1V.; rutilans, Severtzoff,
=G. fulvus, 7.

Habits of ants, bees, and wasps,
217; of hornbills, 156; of the
Norwegian lemming, 27, 29.

Haeckel’s opinion of nucleus and
cell . oY SANE ANH e202

Halcyon sanctus, V. & H., 311,
492; Macleayi, J. f S., 492.

Haliaétus leucogaster (Gim.), 308,
490.

146; Stoliczke, Day (ftnote), Haliastur girrenera (V.), 308,
147; striatus, Day, 147; subli- 490.

tus, eae (ftnote), 147 ; tenta- Halichondria panicea, polyzoaon . 479
cularis, cs V., 147; tvedecem- Halicore, ear-bones of. . . . . 188
radiatus, GH (ftnote), 148; Halitherium, ear-bones of 188
ee C. g V. (ftnote), Halticinee 475
146; ventralis, C. ¢ V. (ftnote), Hamiltonia, Sunes (ftmote) . 139
147 ; viridipunctatus, C. g& V,, Haplochili . 208

146 ; zonalternans, Day, 147.
Gogrius, Day (ftnote), 341;

Sykesii, Day (ftnote), 346.
Goniocidaris canaliculata, Agass.,

65; difference from Cidaris, 64.
Gonothyra Loveni, attachment of

Haplochilus panchax, ‘Ham. Buch.
Haploinodotus, GulZ (ftnote)
Hara, Blyth (ftnote), 341; Bu-
chanani, Blyth (ttnote), 346;
filamentosa, Blyth (ftnote), 346.
Harpagones .

> 195

Heliozoa to . 303 | Hatteria, quadrato jugal bone of . 91
Goshawk, new species of . . 457 | Hedriocystis pellucida oon
Goura Alber tisi, Salvad. . 318,503 | Helicophagus, Bleek. (ftnote) . 842
Grallee of New Guinea 5 BAO) Heliophrys variabilis, Greeff, 385, 387
Grammatophora barbata. . . . 371 Heliozoa, 263, 287; skeletophora, 292
Graucalus angustifrons, Sharpe, Hemiaster, sp., 67, 68, 69, 70;

nu. sSp., 81, 499; hypoleucus, breeding-pouch of, 69, 70.

Gould, 81. Hemibagrus, Bleek. (ftnote) . 34]
Gromia granulata, Schulze, 397; Hemisilurus, Bleek. (finote) . 342

LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIII. 45

522

INDEX.
Page Page
Hesperornis regahs . . . . . 92 | Ithyornis dispar, teeth in 5 Ae

Hestia linteata . . ao AS

Heterophrys myriopoda, Ar cher,
392; spinifera, 29; varians,
Schulze, 386.

Heteropneustes, Miller (ftnote) . 343

Hirundo javanica, Sparrm. . . . 498

Holothuria tremula, direct mode of
developmentioteai-y sci san oO

Holothuroidea pedata . . . . 57

Homoprion, Hold. (ftnote) . . 140
Hornbill, description of a new,
155; on the habits of, 156.
Hornera borealis . . . . . . 484
Hyalodiscus, 264; rubicundus, 267.
Hyalolampe fenestrata . . . . 295
Hyalosphenia lata, Schulze. . . 394
Hydrocissa albirostris, habits in
feeding Me hy satu eG
Hydroporus. . - 162
elegans, 171 ; eyllenhalli, 170;
Ineequalis, breathing of, 169;
12-pustulatus, 171 ; pictus, ex-
per. on, 169.
Hydrovatus clypealis . . . . . 161

eeu as to
breathing . . 166
Hylobates hoolock, par tiality “for
living birds . . 157

Hymenaster nobilis, Wy. Thoms.,
m. sp., 74; allied to Pteraster,
76; pellucidus, wide distrib. of,
73.

Hyperia galba, wpeasiie on Me-
dus )-) = 56 5 188

Hyperoodon, ear- ~ hemes of : . 187

Hyphydrus ovatus, habits of, 162;
experiments on, 167.

Hypocrinus bethellianus, Wy.
Thoms., n. sp., 47, 51, 55; ana-
tomical soft parts of, Bd.

Hypselobagrus, Bleek. (ftnote) . 341

Tantheenas albigularis, Bp., 503 ;
Rawlinsoni, Sharpe, 503.
Idiocephala nigripennis ays . 459
Iguana tuberculata, 371 ; quadr. alo-
jugal of, 91.
Ilybius fuliginosus, observ. on the
breathing of . . . 176
Indian freshwater fishes, geog. dis-
trib. of, 188 ; families and genera,
of, results, 142,

Insectivora, ossicula audittis of . 186
Insects, two new Pe GOR eens:
from Malacca. . . . 115
Trish Gasterostei, I’. Day « on . . 110
greyhound pig, noteon . . 109

Isonychus pictus, Sharp, n. sp. . 181

Jobi, new species of goshawk from
the island of =. 4: ..), ::.)\ i geeas)
Johnius, Bloch (f{tnote), 140;
anei, Blyth (ftnote), 145; cata-
leus, Cuv. § Val. (ftnote), 145 ;
Dussumieri, Cant. (ftnote), 145 ;
Valenciennei, Hyd. (ftnote), 145.

Kangaroos, ear-bones of . . . . 189

Kettelia Lowii . go ng) BT
Kryptopterichthys, Bleek. (finote). 342
Kvyptopterus, Bleek. ({tnote) . . 342

Labrus tella katchelee, Russ. (ftnt.) 145

Labyrinthici . 141, 152
, bony branchial cavity of. . 205
—, distributionof . . . . . 208

Labyrinthulea macrocystis, 279;
resting-stage of, 281; vitellina,
279.

Laccophilus obscurus, breathing

Of erie Seer Paki se) AE
Lacerta viridis . Piast G ail
Lagenorhynchus, ear- -bones of . . 187
Lagomys speleus (fossil lemming P) 34
Lagynis baltica, Schultze . . . 406

Lalage humeralis, Gould, 499;
karu ( Less. & Garn.), 499. :

Lampides pseudelpis . . . . . 196

Lamprococcyx lucidus . . . . 310

Lasius flavus, 223, 238; niger,
207, 219, 243.

Laurion corculum. ... . . 197

Lecythium .. . 5 5 Sey)

Leiocassis rama, How Bae Bros DAG

Leiostomus, Cuv. § Val. (ftnote) . 140
Lemmings always go westward,
31; enemies of, 32; living under
the snow, 30; migration and
habits of Norwegian, 27.
Lemmus norvegicus . . 27
Lepidoptera coll. by Capt. Pinwill
im Malaccan) ih 6 waa elise oG
, genital organs of . . . 195
Lepidosiren, pneumatic duct of,
210; burrowing in mud, 214.
Leptophrys aa ee . 3886
Leucosia affinis, Mier s, 2. ‘Sp. 5 107 ;
brunnea, Miers, nm. sp. 107;
fusco-maculata, Miers, n. sp.,
107; Perryi, Miers, n. sp., 107;
pubescens, Miers, n. sp., 107;
pulcherrima, Miers, n. sp., 107 ;
reticulata, Miers, ». sp., 107;
Whitmeei, Miers, n. sp., 107.
Limopsis, sp. of, obtained by’ Chal-
lenger’ exped. . . . 47

INDEX. 623

Page

Lizards, notice of two large extinct,
322; sacral plexus and ver tebree
of, 370.

Lobivanellus miles . :

Lobosa, divis. of Thalamophora

Locomotion in sarcode organisms .

Lophogyps occipitalis, geog. distrib.
of, 11; map showing range of,
Pl. VI.

Loriculus vernalis . :

Lubbock, Sir J., observations on

ants, bees, and wasps.—Part IV. 217
Lycomedes Reichei . 130
Macher rhamphus alcinus . . 308

M‘Intosh, Dr. W. C., note on a
new example of the Phyllodo-
Cid D ye Wayneie ys

M‘Lachlan, R., on the nymph-
stage of the Embide, with notes
on the habits of the family, &e. .

Macrognathus caudatus, IZ‘ Clell.
(ftnote), 149; Hamiltonia,
M‘Cleil. (ftnote), 149; undula-
tus, M<Clell. Ce) 149.

Macrones

armatus, “Day, 345 ; Sarl

Ham. Buch., 344 ; Bleekeri Day,

340 ; Bly thii, Day, 344; cava-

sius, 7. B., 3405 ; chryseus, Day,

344; corsula, HT. b., 345; gulis,

HB. , 344 ; leucophasis, Blyth,

345 ; “malsbaricus, Day, 345;

microphthalmus, Day, 345

montanus, Jerdon, 345; kele-

tius, C. & V., 345; oculatus,

Jerdon, 345; punctatus, Jerdon,

345; seenghala, Sykes, 344;

tengara, H. B., 345; vittatus,

Bloch, 345.

. 215

373

. d41

Macropteronotus, Lacép. nen): 343
Macropus, malleus of . . 189
Macroscelides, malleus of . 186
Magosphera, Haeck. . 435

how related, 438 ; planula
Malabar, limits of, for fish fauna

436

(ftnote). . . . 189
Malacca, the butter fies | of 196;

new Lepidopterous insects from. 115
Malapterus bengalensis, Gray

(ftnote) Mies oO)
Malurus alboscapulatus -315, 494,
Mammalian ossicula auditis, mor-

phology of . 185
Manatus, ear-bones a . . 188
Manucodia atra (Less.) . 317, 500
“Marsupialia, ossicula auditis of . 189
Marsupium of Echinoderms 56

Mascarene Islands, notice of two

Page
large extinct lizards formerly in-
habiting . . - 322

Mastacembelus, Cun. § Val. . 141

armatus, ‘Lacép., 149; Gtin-
theri, Day, 149; malabaricus,
Jerd.(ftnote), 149 ; marmoratus,
C. g§ V. (ftnote), 149; pancalus,
TIE Bs NAO) pentophthalmus,
Gronov. (ftnote), 149 ; ponticeri-
anus, C. & VJ. (ftnote), 149 ;
punctatus, C. § V. (ftnote), 149;
unicolor, C. § V.,149; zebrinus,
Blyth, 149.

Mastigameeba aspera. . . - 269
Matuta granulosa, Miers, sp.n. . 108
lineifera, Miers, sp. n. . . 108
—— maculata, Miers, Sp. N. - 108
obtusifrons, Miers, sp.n.. . 108
rubro-lineata, Tae sp.n. ». 108
Matutide. . . - 108

Meduse, new species, var ighee. and

monstrous forms of . 190
Megapodius duperreyi, Less., 504;

tumulus, egg of, 504.
Megaptera, ear- THONG of . . 187
Megathopa candezei, von Har old . 130
Melidora collaris, Shar ‘pe, sp.n. . 313
Melithreptus albigularis, Gould . 497
Mesoplodon, ear- -bones of . 187

Meyerima claviformis, species of

crustacea living scone : . 506
Microcometes paludosa . 801
Microeysts of Cienk. . . 416
Micreeca flavigaster - 498
Microglossum aterrimum - 491
Microgromia socialis . - 401
Micronema, Bleek. (ftnote) . . 342
Microsicydium, Bleek. (ftnote) . 140

Miers, Kdward J., notes on the
Oxystomatous Crustacea . . 107

, on anew genus and species of
Crustacea. :

——, on species of Cr ustacea living
within the Venus’s flower-basket
(Euplectella) and in gene
claviformis

Migration and habits of Nor wegian
lemming . 27

Migratory fishes of ‘Asia, 198 ;
sudden appearance of, 212.

Milvus affinis, Gould. .

Mivart, St. G. J., and Clarke, ine
on sacral plexus and sacral ver-
tebree of Lizards . . 370

Monadina tetraplasta . . 423

zoosporea. . . . 423

Monadinez, Cienk., researches on AL]

Monads, develop. of, 424; Dalling

and Drysd., researches on, &e. . 423

183

- 506

- 490

524

Page
Monarcha aruensis, 497 ; carinata,
A97 ; clirysomelas, 497 ; euttu-
latus, 497 ; inornata, 497 ; mela-
nonotus, 497 ; tricolor, 498.

Monasamyli. . . Bo aly
Monera, Haeckel’s monog. of . . 427
——., remarks as to position . . 427
—— , tabular systematic arrang. of 435
Monitor arenaria . . . . + - 8471
Monodon, ear-bones of ane Si
Monothalamia . . . . . « « 263

amphistomata . . . . - 408

monostomata. . .- . - 403

Monostomatous thalamophora 65 OU
Monotremata, ossicula auditts of . 189
Morphology of the mammalian os-
siculaauditis . . . 185
Mugil, Artedi, 141; cascasia, ‘H. Be
150; corsula, Ham. Buch., 150 ;
dussumieri, Cur. & Val. ({tnote),
150; hamilton, Day, 150; ne-
palensis, Giinth. ee 5 5 HBG

Mugilidee . 6 141, 150
Mus, malleus of. . so AGS
islandicus (? sylvaticus) 5 0 OB)
Myiagra concinna, 498 ; latirostris,
498.
Myodes lemmus, 27, 327; area of

Norwegian habitat, 8328; enemies
of, 32, 328, 330 ; epizootic disease
of, 830; food of, 328; migra-
tions, directions of, 333 ; occur-
rence of great ones, 334; nest of,
328; reproduction, 329; wan-
dering, consequence of strong
vitality, 328, 830, 332; schisti-
color, Lilljeb., 329,

Myogale, malleusof . .... « 186

Myra carinata, 107; elegans, 107 ;
mamillaris, 107.

Myrmecobius, incus &e. of . . . 189
Myrmicaruginodis . .. . . 222
Myxastrum radians 430, 431
Myxobrachia . . ~ . 434

Myxodictyum sociale, “Haeckel. . 432

Myxomycete, as to their position,
A417; develop. of, 414; remarks
on, 413 ; sp. ?. Cienk., observ. on,
4.16.

Myzomela obscura, Gould . . . 496

Nandidee Hal lihe eey 89s 44

Nandus marmoratus, Cuv. § Val,
(ftnote) . . 139, 144

Nangra Buchanani, Day, 351 ; irl-
descens, Ham. Buch., 851 ; punc-
tata, Day, 851.

Nematodes of Porpoise . . . . 42

Neobalena, ear-bonesof. . . . 187

INDEX.

Page
Neophron ginginianus, as to colour
of bill of, 16 ; geog. distrib. of, 15;
map showing range of, Pl. VIII. ;
monachus= Vultur monachus, 2;
perenopterus, geog. distrib. of,
13; map showing range of, Pl.
VIL ; ; pileatus, geog. distrib. of,
17; map showing range of, PL

Neptis dindinga, 196 ; dorelia,196 ;
gononata, 196; heliodora, 196;
leuconota, 196 ; mamaja, 196;
peraka, 196.

Nesocentor chalybeus. . - 81

New Guinea, contributions to ‘the
ornithology of, Part I.,79; Part
IL, 305 ; Part JOUE, 457 ; Part
ve 486.

Nicholson, H. A., and Etheridge,

R., on the genus Alveolites . . 353

Norwegian lemming, D. Crotch on
27, 83, 157; R. Collett on, 237.

Noterus sparsus, exper. on . . 172

Notes on the genus Alveolites
and allied forms of Paleozoic
corals . . 353

Notice ofnew livin 2 Crinoids belong-
ing to the Apiocrinide . . . 47

Nuclearia simplex, Cienk. . . . 385

Nuclei of endosare in eae
TUT Cuca se . 427

Nucleus, Hertwig and “Lesser’s ac-
countvol yeu ee une . 264

Numeninus cyanopus, 320 ; uropy-
gialis, Gould, 504.

Nursia abbreviata, 107; plicata,
107 ; sinuata, Miers, Sp. 2. meg

Nyctalemon docile sea: . 197

Observations on ants, bees, and
wasps . 217

Odontopterys, ankylosed ‘teeth of,
remarks.on . 92

QGidionychis, Latr., “478 ; “Howittii,
Baly, n. sp., 478.

Cinops californiana, 24; falklan-
dica, 24; perniger, 23; urubi-
tinga, 24.

Oligotoma Saundersii, 379; Mi-
chaeli (Pl. XXI.), 383.

Olulaniasis, a parasitic disease of
cats... AD

Olynthia ruficapilla, Burm., 380 ;
cubana, Hagen, 381.

Olyra longicauda, M‘Clell., 347 ;
Burmanica, Day, 348; laticeps,
M‘Clell., 348.

Ompok, Lacép. (ftnote), 342; si-
luroides, Lacép. ({tnote), 348.

INDEX,

Page

On the geog. distrib. of Accipitres. 1

Onthophagus sharpi, von Harold,
131; tapirus, Sharp, n. sp., 130.

Ophichthys boro, pas with, as to
respiration. .

Ophiocephalide, 141, 150, 155;
accessory gill- cavity of, 205 ; dis-
tribution of, 208 ; favourite re-
sort of, 209.

Ophiocephalus, Bloch, 141 ; affinis,
Giinth.({tnote), 151 ; amphibius,
M‘Clell. (ftnote), 150 ; auran-
tiacus, Zam. Buch. (finote),151 ;
aurolineatus, Day (ttnote), 150 ;
barca, H. B., 150; chena, H. B.
(ftnote), 151; diplogramme, Day
(ftnote), ii ; fuscus, Cuv. § Val.
(ftmote),151; gachua, #.B.,151 ;
gachua, transported in wet hand-
kerchief, 201; grandinosus, Cuv.
gy Val. (ftnote), 150; indicus,
MM‘ Cleil.(ftnote), 151; karrouvei,
Lacép. (ftnote), 151; Kelaartii,
Giinth. (ftnote), 151; kora
molta, Russ. (ftnote), 151 ; latus,
H. B. (ftnote), 151; leucopune-
tatus, Sykes, 150; limbatus,
Cuv. g Val. (ftnote), 151; mar-
ginatus, C. f V. ({tnote), 151 ;
marulius, H. B., 150; micro-
peltes, C. & V., eae montanus,
MM‘ Cleil.({tnote), 151; nigricans,
C. & V. (fimote), 150 ; pseudo-
marulius, Gtiinth., 160; puncta-
tus, Bloch, 151 ; punctatus from
mud, 214); serpentinus, Cuv. §
Val. (ftnote), 151; stewartu,
Playfaw, 151; striatus, Bloch,
151 ; heophrasti, Val. (ftnote),
150; wrahl, Lacép. (ftnote), 151.

Ophiocomadidelphys Wy. eee
Spi Ms 77

Ophiolepis squamata, devel. of. . 56

Ophiomastix, 335; flaccida, Lyman 337

bo
(S)
bo

Ophioscion, Gil (ftnote) SpeneeL40
Ophiura texturata, nervous Bi
femeot <2). i: . 448

Ophiuride, description of a new
form of, 335; nervous system of,
449.
@phiuroides, 70454 207 eT
Orca, ear-bones of. . . . 187
Orcella brevirostris, parasites ae . 36
Organisms, recent researches among
some of the more simple sarcode,
261; second notice of. . . . 385
Organization of Ornithosauria. . 84,
Orgyria turbata .. 0 Bde sauahys
Oriolus striatus, Q. & iG, 82, 318, 500

Ornithocheiroidea. . .. . . 96
Ornithocheirus, brain-cavity of, 87 ;
comparison, carpals, &c., of, 100 ;
metacarpals of, 101; sections of
tooth of, 92.
Ornithoptera ruficollis . . . 197
Ornithorhynchus, ankylosis of incus
and malleus of . . - 189
Ornithosauria, organization of, 84.;
carpals and metacarpals, 995. ce-
rebral cayity of, 87; hind limbs
of, 104; Husley’s definition of,
85 ; limb-bones of, 98, 99 ; near-
est resemblance to birds, 106;
phalanges of, 101; Pl. IX. illus-
trating peculiarities of ; pectoral
and sternal bones of, 97; ribs
of, 95; sacrum of, 96; their
reptilian nature doubted, 105 ;
vertebral column of, 94, 96.
Orycteropus, malleus of. . 188
Osphromenus, Lacép., 141 ; nobilis,
MM‘ Clell., 153 ; olfax kept i in pots 201
Ossicula audits, pee of
Mammalian . . . 185
Otogyps auricularis, geog. distrib.
of, 12; map showing range of,
Pl. VIL. ; calyus, geog. distrib.
of, 13; map showing range of,
Pl. VII.; Dr. Exton’s remarks
on, 12.
Otolithus Sieh as Gea: Bleek.
(ftnote). . . . 145
Oxystomatous Crustacean ot) erty

Pachycephala, sp., 317 ; griseiceps,
317.

Pachypora Fischeri, Nich. § Eth.,
362; frondosa, Nich. & Eth,
362 ; lamellicornis, Lindstrom,
362.

Pachypterus melanurus, Swans.
(ftnote), 347; punctatus, Swains.
(ftnote),350; trifasciatus, Swatns.

(ftnote), 347.
Pachyrhamphus crassirostris . . 92
Palemon, sp. Po... reeRbOF
Paleosauria of Von Meyer 2 othe OG
Pamphila mesoides . . 197
Panay, descrip. of new "Hornbill
fromisland of . . . 155

Pandion leucocephalus, Gould, 309, 490

Pangasius Buchanani, Cuv. g Val. 347

Papilio asperi . . . 197

Paradisea raggiana, Sclater, 318,
487, 5

Paralepta, Baly, ». g., 474; fovei-

collis, Baly, n. sp., 475.
Parambassis, Bleek. (ftnote) . . 139

526

Page
Paranandus, Day (ftnote) . . . 189
Parasilurus, Bleed. (ftnote). . . 342
Parasites of ants, 257; of wild ani-
mals, difficult to ascertain destruc-
tiveness of, 44.
Parasitic crustacean on Aurelia

anritad: eRe OS
iRarrajcristata.g) a a-aeae aee enOS
Parthenoslilacmus. . . . . . 196
Passeres of New Guinea. . . . 815
Peach, C. W., observations on

British Polyzoa. . . . . . 479
Pelidnota Belti, Sharp, n. sp. . . 182
Peliomyxa palustris 271-273
Pelobius Hermanni, breathing of,

161, 163 ; experiments, summary
of, 165.

Peneide, sp. Of! 1 . 506
Pentacrini jundeseribed ‘ Challenger’
expedition . He AT

Pentacrinus asteria, ABA; bri iareus,
454; Miuilleri, 455; subangu-
lavis, 45A ; Wyville-Lhomsoni,
455.

Perea sari-kullah, Russ. (ftnote) . 145

Percidee 142, 139

Periophthalmus, — Schn., 140 ; ar-
gentilineatus, C. & V. (finote),
148 ; dipus, Bleek. (ftnote),148 ;
Freycineti, Cw. § Val. (ftnote),
148; fuscatus, Blyth (ftnote),148;
kalolo, Less. (ftuote), 148 ; koel-
reuteri, Pallas, 148; modestus,
Cant. (ftnote), 148; papilio, BZ.
Schn. (ftnote), 148 ; Schlosseri,
Pallas, 148.

Petrodromus, malleusof. . . . 186

Phagorus, M‘Clel/. (ftnote). . . 343

Phalacrocorax leucogaster, Gould . 505

Phalacronotus, Bleeker (ftnote) . 342

siluroides, Bleeker ({ftnote) . 348

Phalangogonia obesa, Burm., 129 ;
sperata, Sharp, n.sp.,134; stipes,
Sharp, 2. sp., 134.

Phanogenia, Lovén . . . 442
Phascogale, incus and stapes of . 189
Phascolarctos, malleus of . . . 189
Phelsuma seychellense doe etoa bee ay-45)
Phileurus nasicornis, Burm. . . 130
Phlogeenas jobiensis . . . . . 310
Phocena, ear-bonesof . . . . 187

Phonygamia Jamesii, Sharpe, n. sp.,
500; keraudreni, 500.

Phora formicarum, Verral, n. sp. 258

Phoride, new genus and species of,
258 ; parasitic on ants, 258.

Phractocephalus gogra, Sykes
(ftnote), 346; kuternee, Sykes
({tnote), 346,

INDEX.

Page
Phyllodoce maculata, Johnst., 215 ;
citrina, Malmgren, 215.
Phyllodocide, on a new example
of, 215. -
Phyllorhina, malleusof . . . . 186

Physarium album . . . . . . 414
Physeter, ear-bones of . . . . 187
Picarie of N. Guinea. . . 309
Piezorhynchus nitidus, Gould 316, 498

Pimelodus anguis, Ham. Buch.
(ftnote), 347 ; anisurus, IZ Clell.
(ftnote), 345 ; bagarius, VER IRs,
(ftnote), 851; batasius, H. B.
(ftnote), 345; carcio, H. B.
(ftnote), 345 ; carnaticus, Jerdon
(ftnote), 351; chandramara,
Hf, B. (ftnote), 346; djambal,

Bleeker ({tnote), B47 ; gagata,
H. B. ({tnote), 350; indicus,
M‘Clell. (ftnote), 345 ; menoda,

H. B. (ftnote), 345 : nangra,
H. B. (finote), 351; panga-
sius, Cuv. & Val. (ftnote), 847 ;
platespogon, Val. (ftnote), 351;
rita, HZ. B. (ftnote),346 ; seengteo,
Sykes (ftnote), 345; silondia,
H. B. (ftnote), 350; urua, H. B.
(ftnote), 34’.
Pinaciophora fluviatilis, Greeff. . 297
Pinacocystis rubicunda . : . 297
Pitta novee guinese, Mill. & Schleg.
315, 494
Plagiophrys, Clap. § Lach... . 399
Plagioscion, Gill (ftnote) . . . 140
Plakopus ruber. . . . 270
Platanista gangetica, parasites of - 35-
srmallens/of. le. i. eee
Platyarthrus Hoffmansegeii . . 257
Platycepha, Baly, n.g., 4753; ex-
imia, Baly, n. sp., 476.
Platycrinus, Paleeozoic genus allied
to living Hyocrinus bethellianus 51
Platyphora, Verral, n. gen., 259;
Lubbockii, 7. sp., 260.
Platystacus chaca, H. B. (ftnote) . 349
Plesioneura asmara,197 ; Pinwillii,
197.
Pleurophrys spherica, Clap. ¢
Lach., 407; amphitrematoides,
Arch., 407.

Plexus, sacral, of Lizards . . . 870
Piptesas agar. PaO a teri Nc es bic StoNS.
Plusiotis aurora, var.. . . . 180
Plyctolophus triton (Zemm. ) - - 490
Pneumatic duct of fishes. . . . 210

Podargus papuensis,Q.f G. . . 498

Podischnus terisander, 130; age-
nor, 130.

Polyacanthus, Cuv. § Val., 141;

cupanus, Cuv. & Val., 152 ;

sig-
natus, Giinth., 1538.

Psolus ephippifer, Vy. Thomson,
sp.n., 61; operculatus, 61.

Pteraster, develop. of, 56 ; militaris,
73.

“INDEX. 527
Page | Page
Pterocryptes, Peters (ftnote) . 342

Polyachus marginicollis 463
Polyceystina, vemarkson . . 288
Polyergus rufescens (PI. XVII. ),
245 ; slaves of, 252.
Polypterus . 209
Polystomella str intopunctata, nu-
cleus in . 411
Polyzoa, observations on British. 479
Pompholyxophrys punicea, Archer 295
Porphyrio melanopterus . 320, 505
Poteriocrinus : 53
President’s Anniversary Address
for 1876, 261 ; for 1877, 385.
Priodon, ear- -bones of . . 288
Priopsis rerrzeres Cuv. &§ Va
(ftnote) 143
Pristolepis, Jerdon, 139, 144; fas-
ciatus, Bleek., 144; malabaricus,
G iinth.,14A ; marginatus, Je erdon,
144.
Prosthecosacter convolutus, 42 ;
inflexus, 42.
Protameceba primitiva . : . 433
Protista, Haeckel’s view of . 7 261
Protogenes primordialis . . 428
Protomonas Huxleyi, 418 ; amyli,
418.
Protomyxa aurantiaca ; . 428
Pseudambassis, Bleek. (ftmote) . 139
Pseudecheneis sulcatus, 1Z‘Clell. . 352
Pseudembryo of Dre rae en
mark on . . 50
Pseudetroplus, Bleek. "(ftnote) . . 141
Pseudeutropius acutirostris, Day,
347; atherinoides, Bloch, 347 ;
garua, Ham. Buch., 347 ; goong-
waree, Sykes, 347; longimanus,
Giinth. ({tnote), 347 ; megalops,
Giinth. (ftnote), 347 ; Mitchelli,
Giinth. (ftnote), 347; murius,
H. B., 347; Sykesii, Jerdon, 347 ;
taakree, Sykes, 3477.
Pseudobagrus, Bleek. (ftnote) . . 341
Pseudochlamys patella . 893
' Pseudogyps africanus, geog. distrib.
of, 11; map showing range of,
P1.V.; bengalensis, geog. distrib.
of, il map showing range of,
LOVE:
Pseudorea, ear-bones of . . 187
Pseudosciena, Bleek. (ftnote) . . 140
Pseudosilurus, Bleek. (ftnote) . . 342
Pseudospongasius, Bleek. ({tnote). 342

Pterodactylus, bones of skull, com-
parisons of, 90,91; cerebral cavity
of, 87; hind limbs of, 104; how
grouped, 84; Kochii, patagial
membranes of, 103 ; longirostris,
brain of, 87; longirostris, com-
parison of bones of skull of, 90;
longirostris, vertebral column of,
94; scolopaciceps, skull of, 90.

Pteropus, malleus of low type .

Ptilonopus aurantiifrons, 503; co-
ronulatus, 320, 503; iozonus,
503.

Ptilorhis alberti, 501 ;
501.

Ptilotis analoga, Reichenb.

Pyxidicula operculata, Hhrenb.

magnifica,

Quadrula symmetrica, Schulze
Quinqueloculina fusca, Brady ; nu-
cleus in : :

Radiolaria, Cienk. on Collosphera,
426 ; Haeckel’s observ. on struc-
ture of, 426; remarks on, 288.

Rallina plumbeiventris, Wall. .

Rama, Sleek. (ftnote), 341; Bu-
chanani, Bleek. (ftnote), 346.

Raphidiophrys elegans, 296 ; viri-
dis, Archer, 297.

Rectes ferruginea, Bp. . .

Rhamphorhynchus Bucklandi, co-
racoid of, 98; Gemmingi, com-
parison of skull of, 90.

Rhinogryphus aura, geog. distrib.
of, 21; map showing range of,
Pl. VI.; californianus, geog.
distrib. of, 24; map showing
range of, Pl. VII.; falklandicus,
geog. distrib. of, 24; map show-
ing range of, Pl. VL. ; 3; perniger,
geog. distrib. of, 23 ; urubitinga,
geog. distrib. of, 24; map show-
ing range of, Pl. VII.

Rhinoscion, Gill (ftnote)

Rhipidura gularis, Mill. .

Rhizocrinus lofotensis, Sars

Rhizopoda, Her twig and Lesser’s
versus Carpenter’s definition of .

, Schulze’s hypothetical descent

GEA eiuidbiits, ateh 4. Sonu
Rhombosternus antennatus, Baly,
sp. n., 460; gracilicornis, Baly,
sp. n., 461; sulphuripennis,
Suffr. US., 459,
Rhopalocera, on the male eu
armature of .
Rhynchobdella, Cun, § Val.

oa

. 186

. 497
. B94

. 399
. 411

. 505

499

390

. 412

. 195

. 141

528 INDEX.
Page
Rhynchobdella aculeata, Bloch,149; Schn., 145; maculata, Gray &
aculeata from mud, 214; ‘el Hardw. (ftnote), 145; miles,
Bl. Schn. (ftnote), 149; ocellata, Lacép., 145; mnasus, Steind.

Cuv. & Val. (ftnote), 149; ori-
entalis, Bl. Schn. rues 149.

Rhynchobdellidee . 141
Rhynchocyon, malleus of . 186
Rhyparida, Baly . 473

maculicollis, Baly, sp. nm. . 473
Rhytidoceros ruficollis 314, 493
Rhytina, malleus and ineus of . . 188

Rita Buchanani, Bleek., 346 ; chry-
sea, Day, 346; crucigera, Giiinth.
(ftnote) 5 346 ; hastata, Val.,
346 ; pavimentata, Val., 346.

Rolleston, George, on the PN ehisto-
ric British Sus

Romanes, G. J., account of new epe-
cies, varieties, and monstrous
forms of Meduse, II. .

Rotalia, observations on .

Saccobranchus Bie ese OD:

a true amphibious fish, 211;
circulation of, 207; fossilis, air-
sacs of, 204, 205; microcepha-
lus, Giinth. (ftnote), 349; mi-
cropis, Giinth., 349.

Saccolobium retusum .

Sacral plexus of lizards . :

Salenia, sp., obtained by ‘ Challen-
ger’ expedition, 4.7; varispina,
47.

Sarcode, Dujardin’s definition of .

Sarcode organisms, recent re-
searches among, 261; second
notice of, 385.

Sarcorhamphus equatorialis of
Sharpe, doubtful, =? 8. gryphus,
18; gryphus, geog. distrib. of,
18; map showing range of,
PLT

Sarsia, monstrosities of
Saur' ocephalus, Seaccs of tooth-
structure of
Scarabeeidee, new species “of, from
Central America
Schilbeichthys, Bleek. (ftnote)
Schilbe pabo, Sykes (ftnote) .
S@ERIEy | 6 3.0 a. a Deo
albida, Cuv. & Val., 145;
aneus, Bloch, 145; axillaris, C.
& V., 145; Belengeri, C. g§ V,,
145; Bleekeri, Day, 145; ca-
runa, C.§ V. (ftnote), 145; ca-
rutta, C. § V.,146; coitor, Ham.
Buch., 145; cuja, H. B., 145;
diacanthus, ZLacép., 145; glau-
eus, Day, 146; maculata, Bl.

108

. 412

. 190

93

. 129
. 342
. 348
. 140

(ftnote), 145 ; osseus, Day, 146 ;
semiluctuosa, C. § V., 145; sina,
C.§V., 145; vee Bleck, 145.

Page

Scieenide . 145
Scizenoides asper, Bh yth (Ronote) 145
Scizenops, Gi// (ftnote) . . 140
Sciurus, malleus of Pie lists)
Serupocellaria ferox, 480 ; Macan-
drei, 480; scruposa, PL XXiIL.,
479.
Scythrops novee-hollandiz, Lath. . 492

Seeley, H. G., on the cepa
of the Ornithosauria

Sharp, D., descrip. of new species
of beetles (Scarabeeide) from
Central America

, observations on the respira-
tory action of the carnivorous
water-beetles (Dytiscidee) .

Sharpe, R. Bowdler, contributions
to the ornithology of New Gui-
nea, Part 1.,79; Pt. IL., 305;
Pt. UI1., 457; Pt.IV., 486.

——,, description of a new Horn-
bill from the Island of Panay

, notes on collection of birds

from S.K. New Guinea. .

, on a new species of Goshawk

from the island of Jobi

, on the collection of birds

brought by Mr. Octavius C.

Stone from 8.H. New Guinea

» on ornitholog. coll. formed
by Dr. James in 8.E. New
Guinea and Yule Island. . .

Sheat-fishes of India, 338; air-
vessel subservient to hearing,
3388 ; resort to muddy waters

Sicydiops, Bleek. (finote)

Sicydium, C. f V.,140; fasciatum,
Day, 148 ; griseum, Day, x. sp.
(ftnote), 140, 148.

Sicyopterus, Gzd/ (ftnote)

Silonia diaphina, Swadns. (ftnote),
346; lurida, Swains. (ftnote),
350.

Silundia gangetica, Cuv. § Val.,
350; Sykesu, Day, 349.

Silurichthys, Bleek. (ftnote) .

Berdmorei, Blyth (ftnote)

Siluride, geog. distrib. of -

Silurodes, Bleek. (ftnote)

—— resort of, 209; swim-bladder
of, 210 ; wounds from spines of,
340.

Silurus anastomus,

Cuv. § Val.

84.

. 129

. 161

. 155

79

. 457

. 486

305

. 339
. 140

. 140

. 342
. 849
. 338
. 342

INDEX.

Page

(ftnote), 348; anguillaris, Rws-
sell (ftnote), 349; asotus, C. &
V. (ftnote), 348; batrachus,
Bloch (ftnote), 349; biserratus,
Swains. (ftnote), 349; boalis,
Ham. Buch, ({tnote), 348; ca-
nius, H. £B. (ftnote), 348;
checkra, H. B. (ftnote), 348;
Cuvieri, Gray (ftnote), 350; du-
da, H. B. (finote), 348; Dukai,
Day (ftnote), 348; glanis, 270;
indicus, C. g V. (ftnote), 348;
lamghur, Heckel ({tnote), 348 ;
laticeps, Swains. (ftnote), 349;
microcephalus, C. § V. ({tnote),
348; Milleri, Bleek. (ftnote),
348 ; mysoricus, C. & V.(ftnote),
348; singio, H. B. (ftnote),
349 ; wallago, C. § V. (ftnote),
348.

Sirenia, ossicula audittis of . . .

Sisor rhabdophorus, Ham. Buch. .

Skull of the prehistoric British Sus,
Prof. Rolleston on (abstract)

Sloths, ear-bones of .

Smith, Edgar A., descript. of Acan-
tharachna mirabilis, a new form
of Ophiuride : :

Solanocrinus costatus, ABA; J eegeri,
454; scrobiculatus, ABA.

Sorex, ‘malleus of ,

South-east New Guinea, birds of :

Sparus, Russ. ({tnote)

Sphexrophyma, Baly,.n. gen.

Simoni, Baly, n.sp. .

Sphecotheres acaba, 500 ; Sal-
vadoru, 500.

Sponges, Crustacea living within .

Spongicola venusta, De Haan, Pl.
XXIV. : 5

Squatarola helvetica (ib, vi

Stellifer, Cuv. (ftnote)

Sterna melanauchen, Temm. . .

Sticklebacks, Irish, Francis Day
on, 110; 15-spined, Couch’s re-
marks on develop. of (ftnote),
blots

Stone, Mr. O. C., birds collected

Strik delicatulus, 49; flammea,
490.

Strongylocentrotus runs far
south . sae Vice bees

Strongylognathus “ testaceus (Pl.

OVATE raat

Strongylus commutatus, 45 ; “tetra-
canthus, 45.

Sus ey een arenes 108, 109 ; bar-
batus, 108, 109; cristatus, 108,

“LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL.

. 486

XIII.

529

Page

109; leucomystax, 108; on the
prehistoric British, 108 ; scrofa,
var. domesticus, 108; scrofa,
var. ferus, 108 ; verrucosus, 108,
109.

Syma torotoro, Less. . 492
Synaptula vivipara . . 56
Syneecus cervinus, Gouwtd . 504
Tadorna radjah, Garn. 321, 50d

Tagiades calligana, 197; lavata,
197.

Talegallus fuscirostris, Salvad. . 504

Talpa, incus of . . 186

Tanysiptera galatea, 312; micro-
rhyncha, Sharpe, sp. v., 811,
493 ; sylvia, Gould, 493.

Tape-worms of Porpoise . 42

Tatusia, ear-bones of . . 188

Tegumen of Lepidoptera . . 195

Terillus Duboulayi, Baly, n. sp. . 471

foveolatus, Baly, n. sp. . 469
perplexus, Baly, n. sp. . 470
squamosus, Baly, n. sp. . 470
vittatus, Baly, n. sp. » ATL

Thalamophora Sena 2 380

, how distinguished from He-
liozoa, 388 ; perforata and im-
perforata, 389.

Thaumantias crucifera, Romanes,

n. sp., Pl. XV., 190; helicobo-
strycha, Romanes, n. sp., Pl.
XV., 190.

Thaumantis aliris, West. $=
pseudaliris, 115; pseudaliris.
Butl., n. sp., 115, 196.

Thick-walled cysts of Cienk. . 416

Thomson, Sir C. Wyv., notice of
new living crinoids belonging to
the Apiocrinide . . . AT

-—, notice of some peculiarities
in the mode of propagation of
certain Echinoderms of the
southern sea. . 50

Thyridium, sp., closely resembling
Antichira gratiosa . . 134

Tiaropsis . . 190

indicans, Romanes, 1 n. sp. (Pl.
XV.), 194; oligoplocama, Ro-
manes, m. sp. (Pl. XV.), 194;
polydiademata, Romanes, n. sp.
(Pl. XV.), 194.

Tigrisoma heliosylos : . 321

Todopsis Bonapartii, Gira y, 316,
498 ; cyanocephala, 498.

Tolypeutes, ear-bones of . 188

Totanus brevipes, Owv. . 504

Trematode parasites from the Dol-
phins of the Ganges 38

44:

530 INDEX.
Page Page
Trichogaster, Bloch . . . . .141 | Venus’s flower-basket, ener of
—— chuna, Ham. Buch., 153 ; fas- Crustacea living within. . . 506
ciatus, Bl. Schn., 153 ; in earthen Verral iG. gE descript. of genus
pots, 201 ; labiosus, Day, 153 ; of Phoridee parasitic on ants. . 258

lalius, H. B., 153.
Trichoglossus massena, Bp., 80,
309, 491
Trichopodus bejeus, H. B. (ftnote),
1538; colisa, H. G. (ftnote), 153 ;
cotra, H. B. (ftnote), 153 ; sota,
H. B. (ftnote), 153.

-Trichopsis, Kner (finote) . . . 141
‘Trichopus, Lacép. (ftnote). . . 141
Trinema acinus, unionof . . . 3898
Tropidorhynchus novee-guineze, 8.
UG ness a ct Acca ROOM
Trout, conveyance to India ss ue 199
Tupaia, malleusof. . . . -. . 186
Umbellularia, sp., obtained by “Chal-
lenser: expeday @ su. Mee a.
Urapteryx marginipennis . . . 197

Vampyrella, Crenk., 419; gompho-
nematis, 421; spirogyre, 419.
Ventral fins, stress laid on presence
or absence of . . Sel neds ee

Vertebree, sacral, of lizards . . . 370
Vulturfulvus Kolbei,=Gyps Ruep-
pelli, 10; monachus, geog. dis-
trib. of, 2; map showing range
of, Pl. I.; monachus mentioned
by Fraser, = Neophron mona-
chus (Temm.), 2.
Vulturide, geog. distrib. of . . . 1

Walking fish, experiments with . 203

Wallago attu, Bloch, 348; Russellii,
Bleek. (ftnote), 348.

Water-beetles, on the respiratory
action of . . . 161

White, F. Buchanan, ¢ on ‘the: mele
genital armature in European

Rhopalocera, >. )ho8 9) eee
Wombats, ear-bonesof . . . . 189
Yellow cells of Radiolaria contain

starchy \. w05 > Ge eee
Yphthima corticaria . . . . . 196

END OF THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

Linn Soc. Journ. Zool. Val. XM. PI.

RB Sharpe.

ms 'ss0ug Fenny ‘GG ,9ms7 6009 sp4opums

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SrrremBer 19. j Price 2s.

THE JOURNAL

OF

PE LINNEAN SOCiInT ¥.

Vou. XIII. ZOOLOGY. No. 65.

CONTENTS.
Page
I. On the Geographical Distribution of the Accipitres.
By R. Bowntrr Snares, F.LS., F.Z.8., &c. (Plates
POT X ies: ACORN WEN ea i aa ROL seg ara NR CH aL 1

II. On the Migration and Habits of the Norwegian Lem-
ming. By W. Durra Crorcn, Hsq., M.A., F.LS... 27

Il. Trematode Parasites from the Dolphins of the Ganges,
Platanista gangetica and Orcella brevirostris. By T.
Spencer Cosson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Correspon-
dent of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia.
GRlahe, Maines anes a Sheil cL Waestad tA tee 30

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SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
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1876.

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THE JOURNAL

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THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

eo xii ZOOLOGY. |

CONTENTS.

a ee "aN 0 Arage
I. Notice of new living Crinoids belonging to the Apieer

By Sir C. Wrvintse Tromson, LL.D., F.R.S., P.LS.,

&e., Regius Professor of Natural History, University

of Edinburgh, Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff,

H.MLS. ‘ Challenger ’

II. Notice of some Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation
of certain Echinoderms of the Southern Sea. By
Sir C. Wrvitte Tomson, F.RS., F.LS., &e., of
H.M.S. ‘ Challenger’ Exploring Expedition 5d

Se

I1I. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea,—
Part. I. Notes on a Small Collection of Birds from
South-eastern New Guinea. By R. BowpiEr Suaree,
aS Bech escent Ga ce ce ee eh ces Gamete tee ak eee 79

IV. Additional Note relative to the Norwegian Lemming.
By W. Duper Crone bsg) Babis. foi occ casei 83
V. On the Organization of the Ornithosauria. By Harry
Govirr Seevey, F.L.S., F.Z.8., F.G.S., Professor of
Geography in King’s College, London ....... Ril pean 84
VI. Notes upon the Oxystomatous Crustacea. By Epwarp
J. Mrurs, Esq.) PDS. (Abstract. ) <0. csc. 107

VII. On the Prehistoric British Sus. By Professor G.
Rouixston, F.B.S.; F.L.8., &e. (Abstract.) ......... 108

LONDON:

SOLD AT THE SOCIETY'S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
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AND
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1976.

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The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
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Complete sets of the first twenty volumes of the Transactions
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for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
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arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five
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actions, and Second Series, Zoology and Botany, Vol. I. Parts I.
—III., are now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several
papers contained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have
been printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be
had.

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from the Library.

The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
Saturdays, when till 4 o’clock only.

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Piccadilly, London.

Feprvuary 28. Price 2s.

THE JOURNAL

OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Von. XIII. ZOOLOGY. | Of'r sy No. 67.
2 (Sap
CONTENTS. NSeee 907 J.
I. Onsome Irish Gasterostei. By Francis DAY FES “ice
ERAS. dc. OW ibaa Woodent. i). 2224 eee. amet 110

II. Descriptions of two new Lepidopterous Insects from
Malacca. By Antraur G. Buturr, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 115

III. On new Species of the Genus Huptychia, with a tabu-
lar view of those hitherto recorded. By ArruurR
G. Burien, F.LS., F.Z.8., &c. (Plate XII.) ....116

IV. Description of some new Species of Beetles (Seara-
beide) from Central America. By D. Saarp, Esq.
(Communicated by H. W. Bates, Esq., F.L.8.) ... 129

V. Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater
Fishes.—Part I. The Acanthopterygu, Spiny-rayed
Teleostean Fishes. By Francis Day, F.LS.,
Serr acer Shee ee eo en. Seco cle Aaa samen. 138

VI. Description of a new Hornbill from the Island of
Panay. By RK. BowpiEr Sarre, M.A., F.LS.,
F.Z.8., &c., Senior Assistant, Zoological Depart-
Ment Maribsm WETSeUN sure Pe Ld er dee 155

VII. On the Habits of Hornbills, being extract of a letter
by Dr. Jonny Anversoy, F.L.8., Indian Museum,

Caleuthar to Wns ds MR UE aur els cS. Medics s) 156
VIII. Further Remarks on the Lemming. By W. Duppa
Crone, Usg., B.S.) (Plate? MEP). ote. 157

IX. Observations on the Respiratory Action of the Car-
nivorous Water-Beetles (Dytiscide). By D. Suarp,
Esq., M.B. (Communicated by H. W. Barzs, Hsq.,
CEU SAGE, Vere thc eee hese Mee irk ica ne Una elae 161

X. On Acteomorpha erosa, a new Genus and Species of
Crustacea. By Epwarp J. Miers, F.L.S., Assistant
in the Zoological Department, British Museum.

(EU ETE te 9 UTE) (URI AGC RUM OPER ETA AR es oe 2 183
LONDON:
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LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
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WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
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y
heat

x5
NN
?

aes

Seis

NOTICE.

From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers.

The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
Botanical, is 2s. to the public, and 1s. 6d. to Fellows.

Hach volume of eight numbers, when subscribed for and paid
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Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth liable to an annual Contribution of £3, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.

Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.

The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices.

The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
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twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
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tained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been

rinted off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

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With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
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room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
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JUNE 5. Price %s.

THE JOURNAL

OF

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Vou. XIU. ZOOLOGY. | Orie” No. 68.
ee Ok
CONTENTS. Ser 40g

DE Si 3

I. Morphology of the Mammalian Ossicula audit
AxnBan H. G. Doran, F.R.C.S. (Communicated
by Professor Frownr, F.R.S., F.L.8.) (Abstract.) 185

IL An account of some new Species, Varieties, and Mon-
strous Forms of Medusw.—II. By Goren J.
Romanes, M.A.,F.LS., &. (Plates XV. & XVI.) 190

IIT. On the Male Genital Armature in the European Rho-
palocera. By Dr. F. Bucnanan Watre, F.LS. &c.
(CPSU ORSCETWANGHTI) sie hae JESTER gia Magee IRA ee AU 195

IV. The Butterflies of Malacca. By Artrnur GaRDINER
Bourtsr, F.L.S., F.Z.8., Senior Assistant in the Zoo-
logical Department, British Museum. (Abstract.) 196

V. On Amphibious and Migratory Fishes of Asia. By
EURANGCES DA Hist Ba Sates oie eee eS 198

VI. Note on a new Example of the Phyllodocide ( Anattis
rosea). By W. C. M‘Inrosu, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.8. 215

VII. Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and
Wasps.—Part IV. By Sir Joun Lupsgock, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., D.C.L., Vice-Chancellor of the
University of London: (Plate XVIL.)............... 217

VIII. Description of a new Genus and Species of Phoride
parasitic on Ants. By G. H. Verrat, Esq., Memb.

d Dist Torts Ws (OY G MN ae WM elven NAAN aed aa PERE URSA 258
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
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WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,
1877.

oo

ht

we
Kh

NOTICE.

from Vol. 1X. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
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The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
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The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
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rinted off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

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JUNE 20. Price 2s,

THE JOURNAL

OF

PAE TINS EAN: SOC HE

Vou. XIII. ZOOLOGY. Ors; A No. 69.

— ics % 5 ney
: Ns “SY : Yg/
CONTENTS. ‘AN DEPOSI! “Pape

I. The Anniversary Address of the President, Professor
Attman, M.D., LU.D., F.R.S.—Recent Researches

among some of the more simple Sarcode Organisms 261

IL. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By
R. Bowpier Suarer, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e. Part II.—
On the Ornithological collections formed by the late
Dr. James in South-eastern New Guinea and Yule
‘pera TOSI A Sh SUNN Ai earn Sete re Sane Ua Mam AD A 305

III. Notice of two large Extinct Lizards formerly inhabit-
ing the Mascarene Islands. By Dr. A. Ginruer,
F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the Zoological Department,
rritisly Miser: 2.202 yo Ga eaee eb cikh ye 322

IV. On Myodus lemmus in Norway. By Rozerr
CoueTr, Conservator University Museum, Chris-
tiania, C.M.Z.S., &. (Communicated by Dr. J.

By Ea eh dla INO SRO ORR i CN) SUA Re nS 5 ta. 327
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE,
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1877.

NOTICE.

Krom Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers.

The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
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Each volume of eight numbers, when subscribed for and paid
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may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
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Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
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tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.

The Feliows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
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lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
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The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
80 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
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Members are requested to apply at the Apartments of the
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delivered gratis to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in
arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five
years from the time of publication.—Of the 2nd Series of the
Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I-IV., Zoology and Botany, are
now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several papers con-'
tained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been
printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.

With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
from the Library.

The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
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President, or to the Secretary, at the Society’: Apartments, Burlington House,
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Avaust 20. Price 2s.

THE JOURNAL

OF

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Vou. XIII. ZOOLOGY. \ ge No. 70.

afRng CONTENTS.

I. Description of Acantharachna mirabilis, a new form of
Ophiuride. By Enear A. Smiru, F.Z.S8., Zoologi-
cal Department, British Museum. (Communicated
by Dr. J. Moris, F.L.S.) (Plate XVIII.)......... 335

Page

II. Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes.
—Part II. The Siluride. By Francis Day, Esq.,
ME Biron Mesh a aks eee Sails wea seke 338

III. Notes on the Genus Alveolites, Lamarck, and on some
allied Forms of Palezozoic Corals. By Prof. H.
Auteyne Nicuotsoy,M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,F.LS.,
and Rosert Eraeripen, jun., F.G.S8. (Plates
BS LIDS. TN SR Aa ER hr i aed PSL TaN ed 353

LY. On the Sacral Plexus and Sacral Vertebre of Lizards.
By St. Groner Mrvarr, Sec. L.S., and the Rev.
Ropert Cxiaexce, F.L.S. (Abstract.) ............... 370

V. On the Nymph-stage of the Ymbide, with Notes on
the Habits of the Family, &c. By R. M’Lacutay,
Heqa FUs., FLSs we. -(Plate XXII.) 2.22 last ore

LONDON: :
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND RY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,

AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1877.

NOTICE

From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers.

The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
Botanical, is 2s. to the public, and 1s. 6d. to Fellows.

_ Hach volume of eight numbers, when subscribed for and paid
in advance, will be charged 12s. to the public, and 9s. to Fellows.

Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.

Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth liable to an annual Contribution of £3, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.

Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.

The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices.

The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-30, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.

Members are requested to apply at the Apartments of the
Society, to Mr. Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may
be entitled to, or be desirous to purchase: but no volume can be
delivered gratis to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in
arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five
years from the time of publication.—Of the 2nd Series of the
Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I-IV., Zoology and Botany, are
now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several papers con-
tained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been
printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.

“With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
from the Library.

The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
Saturdays, when till 4 o’clock only.

Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, or to the Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House,
Piccadilly, Loudon.

SEPTEMBER 25. Price 2s.

THE JOURNAL

OF

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Vor. XIII. ZOOLOGY. eNO ae
NAAR E,
xs OF ‘YG /
A Sib ,
CONTENTS. oe Res ce

I. The Anniversary Address of the President, Professor
Atiuman, M.D., LU.D., F.R.S.—Recent Researches
among some of the more simple Sarcode Organisms.
Second Notice. (With 17 woodcuts.) ..................00- 385

II. On the Genus Actinometra, Miull., with a morphological
account of a new species (A. polymorpha) from the Phi-
lippine Islands. By P. Herperr Carpenter, B.A.,
Biological Master at Eton College. Communicated by
Dr. Witiram B. Carpenter, F.RB.S., F.L.S., &e. (Abs-

TOTE2 ACU} Rp els ASS toe or Rgats Wy ce GaSe GU enc a tA 440
LONDON:
SOLD. AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGION HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,
1877.

NOTICE.

From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Eight
numbers.

The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
Botanical, is 2s. to the public, and 1s. 6d. to Fellows.

Hach volume of eight numbers, when subscribed for and paid
in advance, will be charged 12s. to the public, and 9s. to Fellows.

Awy Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.

Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth liable to an annual Contribution of £3, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.

Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.

The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices.

The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,

for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more _

volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows ; of the Index to Vols. 26-80, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.

Members are requested to apply at the Apartments of the
Society, to Mr. Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may ~
be entitled to, or be desirous to purchase: but no volume can be
delivered gratis to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in
arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five
years from the time of publication.—Of the 2nd Series of the
Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I-IV., Zoology and Botany, are
now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several papers con-
tained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been
printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.

With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
from the Library.

The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
Saturdays, when till 4 o’clock only.

Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, or to the Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House,
Piccadilly, Loudon.

Frepruary 27. Price 2s.

THE JOURNAL

OF

Pi LINNHAN SOCTEYY.

Vou. XIII. ZOOLOGY. No. 72.

CONTENTS.

Page
I. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea.
By R. Bowpter Suarps, F.LS., F.Z.S., &c.—Part
Ii. On anew Species of Goshawk from the Island

ONAN) aiteliity(Cheg en tp. GO. ep | aegis ATONE a LATA aca a 457

II. Descriptions of Genera and Species of Australian
Phytophagous Beetles. By Joszrn 8. Baty, Esq.,
JUSTE OS ITA Saree REE daa eee ete ee ge 458

III. Observations on British Polyzoa. By Cuaruss
WitrraM Pracs, Hsq., A.L.S.&c. (Plate XXIII.) 479

IV. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea.
By R. Bowprer Suarez, F.L.S. &c.—Part IV.
On the Collection of Birds brought by Mr. Octavius
C. Stone from South-eastern New Guinea ......... 486

V. On Species of Crustacea living within the Venus’s
Flower-basket (Huplectella) and in Meyerina clavi-
formis. By Epvwarp J. Minrs, F.L.S. F.ZS.,
Assistant in the Zoological Department, British
NGS etiam) Winlabe PR NOV) oc a al, 506

Index, Title-page and Contents, &c., to Vol. XITT.

Oey

LONDON: i,
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1878,

+
PANS
HY

i

; if 4
Cc

Knife
a

NOt irs
ey
ah RPA a
AM,

Pn

NOTICE.

Smet €
From Vol. TX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers.
The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
Botanical, is 2s. to the public, and 1s. 6d. to Fellows.
Each volume of eight numbers, when subseribed for and paid
in advance, will be charged 12s. to the public, and 9s. to Fellows.

Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.

Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth hable to an annual Contribution of £38, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.

Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.

The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices.

The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-30, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.

Members are requested to apply at the Apartments of the
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be entitled to, or be desirous to purchase: but no volume can be
delivered gratis to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in
arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five years
from the time of publication —Of the 2nd Series of the Trans-
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now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several papers con-
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printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.

The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.

With certain restrictiors, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
from the Library.

The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.m., except on
Saturdays, when till 4 o’clock only.

Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, or to the Secretary, af the Society's Apartments, Burlington House
Piccadilly, London.

January ¥887.

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