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THE
JOURNAL
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
ZOOLOGY.
VOL. XIV.
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE,
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1879. |
Dates of Publication of the several Numbers included in this Volume.
No. 738, pp. 1-64, was published October 24, 1877.
7, (4, 5, G5=186; es May 23, 1878.
» 7, 4, 187-811, Ve August 31, 1878.
» 46, ,, dll—-4l7, is October 31, 1878.
» 77, 4, 417-505, eee January 31, 1879.
,, 78, ,, 505-606, A April 23, 1879.
79, 607-688, ,, May 20, 1879.
,, 80, ,, 689-761, # September 2, 1879.
bite
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PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET,
ohidy
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eeUN JAMO!
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F
t
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Bs aR,
LIST OF PAPERS.
Page
ALLMAN, Professor G. J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.
The Anniversary Address of the President for 1878.—Recent
Progress in our Knowledge of the Structure and Development
onthe Phylactolematous Polyzoal . 4.225. 00022 -+)20e es. 489
On the Relations of Rhabdopleura. (With awoodcut.) ...... 581
Armit, Capt. WittiAM H., F.L.S.
Note on Australian Finches of the Genus Poéphila .......... 95
Notes on the Presence of Tachyglossus and Ornithorhynchus in
Northern and North-eastern Queensland...............05. 411
Bastian, H. Cuaruron, M.D., F.RS., F.L.8., &c., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy in University College, London, and Phy-
sician to University College Hospital.
On the Conditions favouring Fermentation and the Appearance
of Bacilli, Micrococci, and Torulee in previously Boiled Fluids.
(NMED 8) WOOCOHUS)) “Goes scoeppenpoo doce pooeSOGeoonoUN 1
Baty, Josrpu §., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.
Descriptions of new Species and Genera of Eumolpide ...... 246
Descriptions of new Species of Phytophagous Coleoptera...... 336°
Busk, Professor Grore®, F.R.S., F.L.S.
On Recent Species of Heteropora. (Plate XV.) .........-4. 724
Burier, ArTuur G., F.L.S. &c., Assistant Keeper in the Zoolo-
gical Department of the British Museum.
On the Butterflies in the Collection of the British Museum
hitherto referred to the Genus Euplea of Fabricius........ 290
_ Cosson, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology, Royal Veterinary College.
The Life-History of Filaria Bancrofti, as explained by the Dis-
coveries of Wucherer, Lewis, Bancroft, Manson, Sonsino,
THREE, CINCH Apa cnac no ndoce one Momence) O00 00.0 os. 306
CoLLINGWooD, CuruBERt, M.A., M.B., F.L.S.
New Species of Nudibranchs from the Eastern Seas. (Abstract.) 737
lv
Page
+ Day, Francis, F.L.S. &e.
Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes.—
Partly, (Conclusion. 2% oc ite asm sa merarinmen Moonee 534
On the Occurrence of Morrhua macrocephala at the Mouth of —
the Mhames: (Gelato! INV a) ee ck tedera detent cn leet r-tckeinie atten 689
Duncan, Professor P. Martin, M.B. (Lond.), F.R.S., &e.
On some Ophiuroidea from the Korean Seas. (Communicated
by W. Percy Siapen, F.L.S.) (Plates IX.—XI.) ........ 445,
HANLEY, SyLvanvs, F.L.S.
Description oftwomew. Sitells eres eie nee nee 580
HawxksuHaw, J. Charxe, M.A., F.G.S.
“On the Action of Limpets (Patella) in sinking Pits in and abra-
ding the Surface of the Chalk at Dover ................-. 406
JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Notice of some Shells dredged by Capt.-St. John, R.N., in
Korea Straith. occ es ace sits as oa lores ole a eee ake eee 418
Note as to the Position of the Genus Seguenzia among the Gas-
EVOP OMB: cis hya bs + Pepetve wa tise crane lane toads fone cre er SETS a eRe ee rene 605
Luszock, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., D.C.L., Vice-Chan-
cellor of the University of London.
Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wasps.—
Part Vieevnts: (With onwioodcubs))anninr ise : ae .... 265
parpaVile Amisha en ae ee Mi erste toc ee 0:50 ee 607
On the Anatomy ob Amts: (Aibstract.) cnet cei nae 138
Manson, Parricg, M.D.
On the Development of Filaria sanguins hominis, and on the
Mosquito considered as a Nurse. (Communicated by Dr.
COBEOnD WHERAS SHUIinS» yaa bee eee PS us 304
M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
On the Annelids of the British North-Polar Expedition. (With
Sketch Map.) js os wile Moke ahs iesus «9059 tee 126
On a Remarkably Branched Syliis, dredged by H.M.S. ‘Chal-
Venger’ 6 oc vais ays ga u's wae eitie sles are alta er 720
M‘Lacutan, Ronert, F.R.S., F.LS., &e.
Report on the Insecta Grclading Arachnida) collected aby Capt.
Feilden and Mr. Hart between the Parallels of 78° and 83°
North Latitude, during the recent Arctic Expedition. (With
Sketeh: Map.) (ici kiss ce Vie Sete ‘nin eae
M‘Lacuian, Roper, and Pastor H. D. J. WaLLENGREN. 3
An Analysis of the Species of Caddis-flies (Phryganea) de-
seribed by Linnzeus in his ‘Fauna Suecica’ .............. 726
\
\
WY
Page
Miers, Epwarp J., F.LS., F.Z.S., Assistant in the Zoological
Department of the British Museum.
sevisionjol the Buppided. ’ (Plate Vo) ven nceuceessaseecc se 312
On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxyrhyncha,
with a Synopsis of the Families, Subfamilies, and Genera.
Gibites 2SUG yo UID peensnos coo bbe cos oo ody dren ataateece 634.
Mivart, Prof. St. GrorGx, F.R.S., Zoological Secretary, Linnean
‘Society.
Notes touching Recent Researches on the Radiolaria. (With
WGEVOOCCULSS) Paras sta cvasd slcusna’slars vise cupveisis guelslc syatsls/e)s'eislase;'< aus 136
Moss, Epwarp L., M.D., late Surgeon H.M.S. ‘ Alert.’
Preliminary Notice on the Surface-Fauna of the Arctic Seas,
as observed in the recent Arctic Expedition .............. 122
Morig, Dr. J., F.L.S., Assistant-Secretary of the Linnean Society..
Remarks on the Skull of the Hchidna from Queensland. (With
WOCKEM,))\ooganobednosounsnon HOM AC oR pools ose Oe Ro oes 418
Morir, Dr. J., F.L.S. &c.,and Professor H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON,
F,L.S. &e.
On the Minute Structure of Stromatopora and its Allies. (Plates
LW Co OOM a onde 656. tobe paOmC oC odo beDooeon 187
NicHoxson, Professor H. ALLEYNE, F.L.S. &c., and Dr. J. Muriz,
F.LS. &e.
On the Minute Structure of Stromatopora and its Allies. (Plates
SDV ERS On WO OCCULS: Wires cle sues stecvesieteiancta coele a) cee Gc ti ene one ara « 187
Parker, Professor W. K., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.
On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Urodelous
Prsriago tale ee CATS ELACES)) ior cers! esete on wie va cla ansperter wea le # ecu e) 61 717
SAUNDERS, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
On the Geographical Distribution of the Gulls and Terns
(STUD, Boi 6.02 ROO AOI OO ORR Os a aao 390
SHarpz, R. Bowpier, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S., &c., Senior Assistant,
Zoological Department, British Museum.
Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea :—
Part V. On recent Collections from the Neighbourhood of
Port Morseby, S.H, New Guinea .............. 626
Part VI. On Collections made by the Rev. W. G. Lawes in
Solin, New Grutieai saree aucrenae ase erc ps aay ei de cre ronsay 685
SLADEN, W. Percy, F.LS., F.G.S.
On the Asteroidea and Echinoidea of the Korean Seas. (Plate
AN PUTET Ber recromme rrite oe ety nee Me) ails Voreiiel uA RR es 424
val
Page
SMITH, FREDERICK, F.Z.8., Assistant Keeper, British Museum.
Descriptions of new Species of Aculeate Hymenoptera collected
by the Rey. Thomas Blackburn in the Sandwich Islands.
(Communicated by A. G. Butter, F.L.8.) ............0. 674.
WALLENGREN, Pastor H. D. J., and Ropert M‘Lacuuay, F.R.S.
An Analysis of the Species of Caddis-flies (Phryganea) de-
scribed by Linneeus in his ‘Fauna Suecita’ ..,........... 726
WATERHOUSE, CHar_zs O., Assistant in the Zoological Department
of the British Museum. .
Report on a small Collection of Insects obtained by Dr. J. C.
Ploem in Java, with a Description of a new Species of Hoplia 134
WarTERHOUSE, FREDERICK H., Librarian to the Zoological Society
of London.
Descriptions of new Coleoptera of Geographical Interest, col-
lected by i@harles Marwanls o-nyt a eye earl eee eee ee 530
Watson, Professor Morrison, M.D., and A. H. Youna, M.B.,
Owens College, Manchester.
On the Anatomy of the Elk (Alces malchis). (Plates VI. &
VEL, and: a woodcuta)in. ies sae cere pee eee eae 371
Warson, Rev. Roprrt Boog, B.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., &e.
Mollusca of the ‘ Challenger’ Hepedcn _
I, Preliminary Report to Prof. Sir C. Wyville Theeneee
F.R.S., Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff, on the
Mollusca dredged during the Exploring Voyage ...... 506
I. The Sorzenoconcuta, comprising the Genera Dentalium,
Suphodentalium, and Cadulus ...0......c00s. sere ene 508
Ill. Trocuipm, viz. the Genera Seguenzia, Basilissa, Gaza,
ON: emo ois 5 hae vce tains nie sete ain neo eee ee eee 586
IV. Trocuip# (continued), viz. the Genera Basilissa and Tro-
. chus, and the TURBINIDZ, viz. the Genus Turbo. (With
B WOOMCUE) bers w atonal etn ceoeo lee ies eRe een 692
Wuire, F. Bucwanay, M.D., F.L.S.
Descriptions of New Hemiptera Cl) ism. cecil tenet 482
Youne, A. H., M.B., and Professor Morrison Watson, M.D.,
Owens College, Manchester.
On the Anatomy of the Elk (Alces malchis). (Plates VI. & VIL.
and a woodcut.) ...... o's ie 0. SERGE gare ee ctarave een 371
vil
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE
( STROMATOPORA.—Microscopical structure of species of, as well as of
the genera Cenostroma, Caunopora, Clathrodictyon, Stylodictyon,
{ Stromatoceriwm, Pachystroma, doubtful Stromatoporoids, and
fossil Hschara nobilis. To illustrate Prof. H. A. Nicholson and
*\ Dr. J. Murie’s paper on Stromatapora and its allies.
V. Hrerrpea.—Exterior and details of examples of genera and species
of this peculiar group of the Anomurous Crustacea, as revised
by Mr. Edw. J. Miers.
VI Exx.—Tllustrations of larynx, digestive organs, and male genitalia
: of Cervus malchis, as described by Prof. M. Watson and Dr. A.
Wade
H. Young.
VIII. Korran Ecurroprrmata.— Exterior and minute structure of genera
and new species illustrative of Asteroidea and Hchinoidea described
by Mr. W. P. Sladen.
IX. ; KorEan OpHivROIDEA.—Magnified structural peculiarities of disk
X. | and arms of new species of Ophiurans, illustrating Prof. P. M.
XI. Duncan’s paper thereon.
OxyriynoHa.—Hnlarged views, structure of orbital and antennal
XII. regions of the Maioid Crabs (Oxyrhyncha), illustrating Mr.
Xill. Edw. J. Miers’s classification and synopsis of these forms of
Brachyura.
XIV. Morruva MACROCEPHALA.—Reduced figure of this rare Cod-fish
captured at mouth of Thames, and described by Mr. F. Day.
XV. HrtErororsa.—Exterior and microscopical sections of recent species
of this genus of Polyzoa as described by Prof. G. Busk.
ERRATA.
Page 151, line 22 from top, for ‘‘ Acanthodermia” read Acanthodesmia.
— 170, lines 22 and 31 from top, for “ Haliodiscus” read Heliodiscus.
— 482, line 16 from top, for “pore-arms” read pore-areas.
— 434, lines 8 and 9 from top,
— 4835, line 18 from bottom, | for MUSINGS GBH Lani
— 440, — 19 from bottom, delete “ HoninANTHUS TESTUDINARIUS, Gray.”
— 448, — 14 from bottom for ‘“ Oputorricupz{ ” read OPHIOTRICHID®.
— 482, — 9 from bottom, for “Limogonus” read Limnogonus.
— 486, — 10 from top, “antennis gracillimis corporis squilongis ”
should be antennis gracillimis ? corporis equilongis.
— 688, — 9 from top, for ‘Camropnaca” read CARPOPHAGA.
THE JOURNAL
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
NOTICE.
In consequence of unavoidable delay in connexion with Plates
and Index, the present Number, No. 73 (Vol. XIV. Part 1), is
issued. before No. 72 (Vol. XIII. Part 8), which will be published
shortly.
It is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings during the ensuing
Session, be written out complete, with proper references, fit for
publication ; otherwise there is possibility of their rejection. -It
is to be regretted that difficulties and delay have already occurred
through want of attention to the above matter.
Theory of Diseases 1,02 ene eee tee er 83
I. Introductory Remarks.
My object in the present communication is fourfold. First, I wish
to make known in detail certain experimental conditions which I
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. i
THE JOURNAL
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Onthe Conditions favouring Fermentation and the Appearance of
Bacilli, Micrococci, and Torule in previously Boiled Fluids.
By H. Cuariron Bastian, M.D., F.B.S., F.L.8., Professor
of Pathological Anatomy in University College, London, and
Physician to University-College Hospital.
[Read June 21, 1877:]
Contents.
uy Page
I. Introductory Remarks... .......0.05....s.0s+s0esrsnorecesene 1
II. Heat as a Promoter of Fermentation .................. 6
III. Oxygen as a Promoter of Fermentation ............... 9
TV. Liquor Potassz as a Promoter of Fermentation ...... 12
V. Interpretation of Experiments with Urine and
Liquor Potassze...... Peles casisatnaita ae aaa one otasiec ote 43
VI. Experiments with Superheated Fluids .................. 50
VII. Signs of Fermentation in the Boiled and Superheated
Fluids employed in the foregoing experiments...... 53
VIII. General Interpretation ; present State of the Ques
tion in regard to Archebiosis ..........sc...s0e-seee 6]
IX. Bearing of the Experimental Evidence upon the Germ
Theory Of Disease.......0....0..0ccosesereens-sernec secon 83
I. Introductory Remarks.
My object in the present communication is fourfold. First, I wish
to make known in detail certain experimental conditions which I
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 1
2 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
have found to be highly favourable to the development of fermen-
tation in boiled fluids; secondly, to record fresh instances of the
occurrence of fermentation in boiled acid fluids; thirdly, to bring
forward certain crucial evidence bearing upon the disputed inter-
pretation of the fertility of boiled neutral or faintly alkaline fluids ;
and fourthly, to record fresh instances of the fermentation of
guarded neutral fluids after they have been heated to 110° C. and
upwards.
The investigations recorded in the present communication have
been made principally with boiled urine, which will, when securely
guarded and kept at a temperature of 77°-86° F'. (25°-80° C.),
remain free from all signs of turbidity from the appearance of
organisms, as Pasteur, Lister, Roberts, Tyndall, and others have
ascertained. ‘The testimony of previous investigators on this sub-
ject is unanimous.
M. Pasteur, speaking of sweetened yeast-water and of urine,
says* :—‘ Nous avons reconnu que ces liquides, portés 4 la tem-
pérature de l’ébullition 4 100° pendant deux ou trois minutes,
puis exposés au contact de l’air qui a subi la température rouge
n’éprouvent aucune altération.” The latter of these fluids may
remain, he says, indefinitely, “sans éprouver d’autre altération
qu’une oxydation lente de la matiére albumineuse,”’ and this even
«4, la température de 25° 4 380°, température si favorable 4 la
putréfaction de urine.”
Prof. Lister} calls forcible attention to experiments with boiled
urine in support of the germ theory, its continued barrenness,
when protected after boiling, being the invariable result in his
hands. In regard to any organisms and their germs which it
might contain, he says :—“ It is necessary to maintain the elevated
temperature (212° F.) for about five minutes to ensure complete
destruction of their vitality.”’
Dr. William Robertst mentions healthy and diabetic urine as
bemg amongst the easiest fluids to sterilize, “ three or four minutes’
boiling ” sufficing, as he says, to bring about this result and cause
the liquid to remain permanently barren when kept at tempera-
tures ranging between 60° and 90° F’.
Prof. Tyndall§ also, in 1875, found five minutes’ boiling inyari-
* Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. 1862, t. lxiv. pp. 58 et 52.
+ Introductory Lecture delivered in the University of Edinburgh, 1869, p. 19.
{ Phil. Trans. vol. clxiv. pt. 2, p. 461.
§ Phil. Trans. 1876, vol. clxvi, pt. 1, p. 42.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 3
ably sufficient to sterilize urine when it was subsequently exposed
only to a “ moteless air.” Indeed, in regard to experiments made
with “ wrine, mutton, beef, pork, hay, turnip, tea, coffee, hops, had-
dock, sole, salmon, cod-fish, turbot, mullet, herring, eel, oyster,
whiting, liver, kidney, hare, rabbit, fowl, pheasant, grouse,’ amount-
ing in all to several hundreds, five minutes’ boiling was always
found sufficient to produce complete sterilization.
Tf, then, we omit from consideration those instances of “ smoul-
dering fermentation’’* in which, whilst the bulk of the fluid remains
clear, organisms are found mixed with sedimentary matter slowly
increasing in amount at the bottom of the vessel, and confine our-
selves solely to cases of well-marked fermentation characterized by
the supervention of unmistakable general turbidity due to the
multiplication of ferment-organisms, we shall have to deal with a
comparatively simple problem. There will in such cases be no
room for doubt as to whether or not the experimental fluids con-
tain organisms; in the great majority of instances these will be
so numerous that even a tyro with the microscope could find
them. Neither will there be room for the supposition that the
organisms which are found are “dead and have been there
all the time.’ Dead organisms cannot by any stretch of fancy
be supposed to multiply so as to make a previously clear fluid
turbid.
If, then, taking the fresh acid urine of a healthy person, and
boiling it so as to kill any organisms and germs which it may
contain, one is able, merely by subjecting this sterilized fluid to
certain physical and chemical influences, to cause it to ferment in
an unmistakable manner and swarm with living Bacteria, such a
procedure and its sequence could scarcely be otherwise regarded
than as a demonstrable proof of the truth of the physico-chemical
theory, and as an equally cogent disproof of M. Pasteur’s exclu-
sive “oerm theory”’ of fermentation. The same experiments
would coincidently afford clear evidence as to the occurrence of
so-called “spontaneous generation”’ f.
* Proc. Roy. Soe. vol. xxi. (1873) pp. 333 & 337.
+ This term will, I hope, after a time be discarded, because under it
two distinct processes have been included, which are liable to be improperly
confounded with one another. One process, which I designate by the word
archebiosis, includes the actual origination of living matter, its de novo forma-
tion ; whilst the other, heterogenesis, signifies a particular transformation of some
already existing living matter.
1*
4, DR. BASTIAN ON THE
In the experiments of this kind now to be described I have had
recourse to the aid of a stimulating physical influence (viz. heat),
which has been much more sparingly resorted to by other inves-
tigators, as well as by myself, on previous occasions ; I have also
made use of certain chemical agents (viz. oxygen and liquor po-
tasse) under conditions as novel as they are stringent. In several
respects, indeed, the experiments about to be recorded differ much
from those hitherto made for the purpose of throwing light upon
the two correlated and much vexed questions, as to the conditions
of origin of fermentations, and as to the present occurrence or
non-occurrence of archebiosis.
Whilst I have been careful to call to my aid all those conditions
and influences which were admissible and might, within the nar-
row boundaries of a strictly trustworthy experiment, be supposed
to favour the process of fermentation, I have also neglected no
precaution, however trivial, which has hitherto been insisted upon
as needful for the completeness of the preliminary destructive
process. I have stedfastly sought to destroy every trace of pre-
existing living matter within the glass-bounded field of experi-
ment, without unnecessarily deteriorating the mere organic matter.
With this end in view, in a large proportion of the experiments
the precaution has been taken, after boiling the fluids and hermeti-
cally sealing the vessels, to immerse them in an inverted position —
in acan of boiling water for 5”-15". By this means the portions of
the retort- or flask- walls which, during the boiling over the flame,
are only exposed to brief contact with the boiling fluid or to steam,
come during the boiling in the can continuously into contact
with the infusion itself heated to 212°F. An interval of three
quarters of a minute must, in these cases, be allowed to elapse after
the sealing of the tip of the retort or flask before it is inverted and
plunged into the boiling water, in order that this over-heated tip
may not crack by coming into contact with the fluid within, This
accident will also be diminished in frequency by long practice, and
by careful sealing in such a manner as to avoid any inbending of
the glass. When a minute crack has occurred, it is always
rendered obvious, during the period thas the vessel is cooling, by
a line of small air-beads starting therefrom, Such a vessel must
of course be rejected, or only kept for observation as an air-con-
taminated specimen.
A few words are desirable as to the best mode of subjecting
the experimental fluids to any given generating temperature.
———————
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 5)
In my earlier experiments, as well as in a few of those which
were made in connexion with this research, I had recourse to the
method of immersing the experimental vessels in a large beaker
or pan containing water and a thermometer. The temperature
of the water in such a vessel was raised to the required extent
by a spirit-lamp or gas-flame. But without frequent watching
and great care this method is almost sure to entail greater fluc-
tuations of temperature than are at all desirable. I have there-
fore now for some time had recourse to the ordinary incubator
employed in physiological laboratories, supplemented by one of
the ingenious and valuable gas-regulators* devised by Mr. F. J.
Page, B.Sc. This combination of apparatus gives us a warm
chamber which may be maintained almost indefinitely at any given
temperature. The variations, extending over several weeks, may
with care never exceed one degree Fahrenheit. In carrying out
this research I have latterly found it convenient to employ two
incubators, in one of which the experimental fluids could be ex-
posed to a very high generating temperature, and in the other to
moderately high temperatures.
It is more than ever necessary to employ an efficient heat-
regulator when the generating temperature to which the fluid is
to be subjected is very high, because an accidental rise even of
a few degrees might prove detrimental to the initiation of fer-
mentative changes—more especially if the fluids remained exposed
to this unduly elevated temperature for several hours. A caution
is needed, however, as regards the mode of using the incubator
in these experiments. A thermometer whose bulb is exposed to
the air of the chamber does not afford a correct indication of the
the temperature of an experimental fluid contained in a closed
glass vessel which has been resting for several hours upon its
floor. The temperature of the fluids would probably always be
higher than that of the air, which the thermometer registers.
A much more correct means of judging of the actual tempera-
ture of any experimental fluids contained in the incubator is
obtained by allowing the end of the thermometer, like the experi-
mental vessels, to rest upon the floor of the incubator. It is
of importance to regulate the temperature of the incubator in
accordance with the reading of a thermometer thus disposed,
since in the absence of such a precaution the experimen-
* Described in Proceed. of Chem. Soc., Jan. 1876, vol. i. p. 24.
6 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
tal fluids would mostly be exposed to temperatures higher by
7°_10° F. than had been intended—as I have ascertained by actual
trials.
Il. Heat as a Promoter of Fermentation.
The great dependence of the processes of fermentation upon
heat is one of the commonplaces of science. Jt is known, for
instance, that nearly all such processes, if not all, cease at about
41° F. (5° C.), and, speaking generally, that they increase in energy
with successive increments of heat till a temperature of about
86° F. (80° C.) is reached. It has hitherto been considered that
temperatures between 77° and 95° F. (25° and 36° C.) were those
most favourable for fermentations. The upper limits of favourable
temperature, however, had not been carefully defined; and this
was the case especially in regard to the occurrence of fermentation
in previously boiled fluids.
In previous experiments of this class no one had, so far as I am
aware, designedly made use of a generating temperature above
100° F. (88° C.); the heat employed by some investigators has
indeed been only too frequently below 77° F. (25° C.). Previous
to the month of August 1875, I had myself never purposely
employed a generating temperature above 100° F.; but early in
that month I discovered that some boiled fluids which remained
barren at a temperature of 77°-86° F. would rapidly become turbid
and swarm with organisms if maintained at a temperature of
115°F. (46° C.). This important fact was ascertained whilst ex-
periments were being made with hay-infusions and milk which
had previously been subjected to destructive temperatures consi-
derably higher than 212° F.
Soon after I discovered that an incubating or generating tem-
perature as high as 122° F. (50° C.) may be had recourse to with ad-
vantage in dealing with some fluids. Organic infusions which would
otherwise have remained barren and free from all signs of fermen-
tation, have under its influence rapidly become corrupt and turbid.
But although the high temperature proves to be so favourable for
initiating chemical changes of a fermentative type in some, it must
not be assumed that it would be equally provocative in respect to
all organic fluids. The conditions most favourable for the initiation
of such changes must be separately studied for each kind of fluid
with which experiments are being made, since important specific
differences may be encountered. I have already, however, ascer-
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. if
tained that this high temperature of 122° F. (50° C.) is just as
favourable for the fermentation of milk and of hay-, turnip-, and
other vegetable infusions, as it is for urine.
Shortly after my first announcement of this fact in June 1876*,
it was made known by Professor Cohn} that Dr. Hidam*had also
discovered that certain organisms would grow and multiply rapidly
at this high temperature in infusions of hay, though it was one
which proved fatal to Bacterium termo, Torule, and other allies.
He moreover stated that the organisms found under these con-
tions were invariably Bacillz. To this latter point I yhall have to
return in a subsequent part of this communication.
What I have now to say concerning the simple influence of
122° F. as an initiator and promoter of fermentation in boiled
fluids may be comprised in a very few words.
Where the initial acidity of urine, is such that it requires
less, or not more than 6 minims (17 per cent.) of liquor potasset
to the ounce (of 480 minims) to ensure its neutralization, I have
found that such a fluid after it has been boiled 2” over the flame
and 5''-10" in a can of boiling water, will almost invariably fer-
ment in 15-48 hours if kept at a temperature of 122° F.$, though
it will rarely or ever undergo this change at a temperature of
77--86> EF.
Where the acidity corresponds to 7 minims of liquor potassze per
ounce, a specimen of urine, boiled as above, sometimes ferments
and sometimes does not. A urine whose acidity equals 8 minims
of liquor potasse per ounce (nearly 1? per cent.) has only been
known to ferment on two or three occasions out of numerous trials ;
and where the acidity has been higher than this, the fluid has in-
variably remained barren under the stimulus of a temperature
of 122° F. acting alone—that is, without the additional aid of
other promoters, such as oxygen or liquor potassze.
When a urine whose initial acidity equals seven or eight minims
of liquor potasse per ounce has fermented after boiling, this has
been sometimes attributable to the fact that the specimen in ques-
* Proceedings of Royal Society, No. 172, vol. xxv. p. 149.
+ Beitrage zur Biolog. der Pflanzen, Bd. ii. Hft. 2, 1876, p. 268.
+ A 5:84-per-cent. solution (see p. 16).
§ I have, however, found a diabetic urine of five minims of acidity (sp. gr.
1040) invariably remain pure after a short boiling, even when kept at a heat
of 122° F.
8 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
tion has deposited phosphates before it reached the boiling-point,
and thus has had its acidity lowered*.
The behaviour of a specimen of urine prepared in the manner
above indicated has several times been tested, first under the in-
fluence of a lower temperature and afterwards under that of the
higher. Thus, to take an example from my note-book, two speci-
cimens of a urine whose sp. gr. was 1025, and whose acidity was
equivaleat to five minims per ounce of liquor potasse, were kept
at a temperature of 80° F. for eight days without undergoing any
change; but within twenty-four hours after they had been trans-
ferred to a temperature of 122° I. they were in full fermentation.
The powerfully stimulating influence of a temperature of 122° F.
may also be easily seen in another way. In addition to causing
certain fluids to ferment which would otherwise remain barren at
ordinary temperatures (77°-86° F.), it shows its influence upon
those fluids which will ferment at these lower temperatures, by
bringing about such a change with much greater rapidity.
No fluid serves better for showing these relative effects than urine
which has been neutralized with liquor potasse before the process
of boiling, because, though it will mostly ferment at the lower in-
cubating temperatures, it does so with difficulty and only after
many days. Thus I have found that a urine whose acidity re-
quired ten to twelve minims of liquor potasse per ounce for neu-
tralization, would (after such admixture and an ebullition of five
minutes’ duration) not ferment under 12-15 days, if kept at a
temparature of 70°-73° F., though such a change would show
itself in 15-30 hours at a temperature of 122° F.+
In previous paragraphs, when speaking of the degrees of acidity
of urine which would permit of its fermenting after ebullition at a
temperature of 122° F., I have always referred to its initial aci-
dity—its acidity, that is, previous to the process of ebullition, not
* See p. 53.
+ Whilst such comparisons are so easily to be made by others, and will so
plainly show the superior efficacy of a temperature of 122° F. in initiating fer-
mentation, one can only marvel at the attempts of Prof. Tyndall and of
Dr. Roberts to throw discredit upon my statements on this subject. It is to me
surprising that Dr. Roberts (see Proceed. of Royal Soc, No. 176, vol. xxv. p. 456)
could have resorted to so unscientific a method of testing the truth of such a
simple statement. The method adopted by Prof. Tyndall was perhaps not at all
more appropriate, though, as usual, he is very sparing in his narration of details
(Phil. Trans. 1876, Part 1, p. 57), so that it is more difficult to be quite cer-
ain what he did.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 9
after this event. Thisis a distinction of considerable importance.
If we take a urine whose acidity equals 10-15 minims of liquor po-
tasse per ounce, if we boil it and subsequently keep it for a long
time in the incubator at 122° F.,it remains barren; and yet on
opening the vessel and testing its acidity we may find that this
has been reduced to five, four, or two minims per ounce; it may
even be neutral*. The occurrence or not of fermentation in any
given specimen of urine at 122° F. is, therefore, not a question
of its less or greater acidity at some period subsequent to the
process of boiling, but of its degree of acidity at the time of
ebullition itself. Effects are produced by the heat plus the large
amount of acid, which are not produced by the heat and a smaller
amount of acid; and these effects may be merely germicidal, or
they may be more purely chemical in their nature f.
IIt. Oxygen as a Promoter of Fermentation.
Harly in the present century Gay-Lussac assigned to oxygen an
all-important role in the initiation of fermentative changes. He
and his followers regarded the oxygen of the atmosphere as the
“primum movens”’ in all fermentations—a doctrine which, though
it is in the present day generally admitted to be too exclusive,
was for a long time almost universally accepted. But even now no
one questions the fact that oxygen acts in common with other
agencies as a powerful inciter of fermentation and putrefaction.
I freely admit this latter proposition, although I have brought
forward some evidence tending to show that certain fermentative
processes may be initiated just as freely (or rather more so) in
closed vessels from which almost the whole of the air has been ex-
pelled by boiling, as in others in which atmospheric air, and con-
sequently oxygen, is present in much larger quantity f.
* See further on, at page 47, footnote *.
t The fact itself is shown by the different influence of potash upon an acid
urine according as it is added before or after the process of boiling. A urine
of twelve minims’ acidity to which six minims per ounce of liquor potassz has
been added before boiling, will ferment freely under the influence of 122°F. ;
but if this same urine had been boiled in its fully acid state, and the six minims
per ounce of liquor potassze were added afterwards, no such result would follow ;
or if it ever did ferment, it would be only rarely and after an interval of many
days. This is an anticipation ofa subject to be considered further on, but which
it is useful to note here.
t ‘Beginnings of Life,’ Appendix C, expts. viii., ix., xiv., XV., XVIli., xx., xxVi.,
XXX., XXXI11., and xxxvi.
10 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
The explanation of this fact is probably to be found in the sup-
position that, in starting the fermentation of some fluids, diminu-
tion of pressure may be of as much or even of more importance
than contact with free oxygen. This appears to hold good for hay-
and turnip-infusions. With some other fluids the influence of
oxygen seems to be decidedly more potent as a co-initiator of fer-
mentation than that diminution of pressure which is brought about
by hermetically sealing the vessel before the fluid within has
ceased to boil. Urine is an example of this latter class.
Fig. 1.
Retort with platinum electrodes.
I have made only a few experiments bearing upon the effect of
adding oxygen to boiled urine contained within retorts from which
air has been expelled; but to these I now refer, partly because
of the nature of the results obtained, though principally because
T shall be able to call the attention of other investigators to a
method which may hereafter prove capable of throwing much
additional light upon the conditions favouring the fermentation
of other boiled fluids, and perhaps upon the morphological varia-
bility of ferment-organisms—since it enables us at will to modify
the constitution of the fluid and the pressure to which it is sub-
jected, whilst we also expose it to varying amounts of oxygen.
In order to ascertain the effect of the addition of oxygen gas
to boiled urine contained in a sealed vessel from which air has been
expelled by boiling, I have made use of a retort (fig. 1), into the
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 11
shoulder of which two platinum electrodes have been inserted.
Such a retort may be charged with acid urine ; the urine may be
boiled for the requisite time ; and its drawn-out neck may be her-
metically sealed whilst the fluid is still boiling. After the fluid
has cooled, or after an interval of some days, we can easily liberate
a quantity of oxygen and hydrogen gas within the closed vessel
by connecting its platinum electrodes with the poles of a suitable
galvanic battery. We are thus able, by comparison, to ascertain
whether the addition of these gases and the other alterations in-
volved, exercise any appreciable effect in hastening the process of
fermentation or in otherwise modifying its course or its products.
From the few experiments which I have already made with the
view of throwing light upon this point, it would seem that the
addition of oxygen exercises the most marked influence when it is
allowed to operate in conjunction with liquor potasse liberated
from its tube almost immediately afterwards.
I have as yet made only a few experiments in which the in-
fluence of oxygen without liquor potasse was tested with acid
urine. In these, closed retorts were employed which had been
sealed after the fluids had been boiled for six minutes, oxygen was
liberated by electrolysis, and the vessels were subsequently kept
at 122° F. The results of the experiments were as follows :—
In one of these trials with a urine whose spec. grav. was 1025,
and whose acidity was capable of being neutralized by five minims
of liquor potasse to the ounce, the fluid became turbid after
the expiration of six hours, although, before the oxygen had been
liberated, this retort had been exposed to a temperature of 80°-
90° F. (21-26°C.) for eight days without its contained fluid under-
going any appreciable change.
In three experiments with a specimen of urine whose specific
gravity was 1026, and whose acidity was equivalent to eight minims
of liquor potassz to the ounce, no general turbidity was noticed,
though towards the end of the second day a very distinct amount
of flocculent deposit was seen in each of the vessels*. On open-
ing one of these retorts at once (after shaking its contents),
Bacilli of different sizes, with progressive and rotatory movements,
were found, some of which had grown into filaments, though they
were not very numerous in each field. The fluid in the two other
retorts underwent no very appreciable change during the next
* No cloudiness of the fluid had been produced during the process of
boiling.
12 DR, BASTIAN ON THE
four days; and when these vessels were opened their fluids were
also found to contain a sparing number of active Bacilli of dif-
ferent lengths.
In two other experiments, in which the urine was slightly more
acid, requiring 9 minims of liquor potasse to the fluid-ounce for
neutralization, a deposit formed more slowly and was smaller in
amount. It was ascertained to consist principally of abortive
crystalline matter; and the Bacilli, though present, were scarcer
still—not more than one or two being seen in each field of a No. 9
“immersion ”’ object-glass of Nachet, with a No. 8 eyepiece.
Finally, in two experiments with a urine.of extremely high
acidity (represented by 20 minims of liquor potassz to the ounce)
and a specific gravity of 1026, there was no appreciable naked-
eye change after eight days, other than the presence of a very
slight amount of sediment in each. On subsequently opening
the retorts, no organisms were found in their respective fluids, and
the scanty sediment was ascertained to consist of more or less
abortive crystals together with amorphous mineral matter.
A few other experiments in which the liberated oxygen was
brought into play almost simultaneously with liquor potasse, will
be subsequently referred to (p. 25).
IV. Liquor Potasse as a Promoter of Fermentation.
It has been well known for some time that the presence of
alkalies, and especially potash, favours the occurrence of fermen-
tation or putrefaction in suitable media. Gerhardt, for instance,
in his ‘ Chimie Organique,’ said*, “‘ Many bodies which, alone or
in the moist state, do not oxidize on exposure to air, undergo com-
bustion as soon as they are subjected to the influence of an alkali.
Thus pure alcohol can be kept exposed to the air indefinitely
without becoming acid; but when itis mixed with a little potash,
it quickly absorbs oxygen and becomes converted into vinegar and
a brown resinous matter. Itis clear from this that potash ought
to favour certain fermentations.” A little further ony, the same
eminent chemist thus gives expression to a more familiar, though
related, fact :—“ It is known that meats and vegetable substances
pickled in vinegar are preserved from decomposition at least
1018 2) GSAAMIO THINS 5 595 be The majority of acids produce the
same effect as vinegar.”
The action of alkalies and of acids in favouring and retarding
* Tome iy. 1856, p. 547. t Loc. cit. p. 556.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 13
fermentative changes has of late years become familiar to many
workers, and is very generally recognized, more especially since
attention was prominently called to one side of the subject by
Pasteur in 1862*. He found that some neutral or slightly alka-
line boiled fluids would ferment more easily than otherwise similar
boiled acid fluids, though he made no observations as to the com-
parative influence of acids and alkalies upon unboiled fluids.
Taking into consideration a limited group of facts only, he en-
deavoured to account for them in a manner which, if not adverse
to, did not sufficiently appreciate, the wider point of view of
Gerhardt.
Yet this wider point of view and the relative influence of acids
and alkalies may be demonstrated with the utmost ease, as I
pointed out in 1870+. Thus, if two portions of an acid infusion
are exposed side by side at a temperature of 77° F. (25° C.), fer-
mentation may be made to occur earlier, and to make more rapid
progress in either of them at will by the simple addition of a few
drops of liquor potasse ; and, on the other hand, if a neutral infu-
sion be taken and similarly divided into two portions placed side
by side under the same conditions, fermentation may be retarded
and rendered slower in either of them at will, by the simple addi-
tion to it of a few drops of some strong acid.
A neutral or faintly alkaline organic solution can in this way
be demonstrated to possess a higher degree of fermentability
than an otherwise similar acid organic solution. It seems there-
fore obvious that the higher tendency to undergo change of these
fluids might be less easily stifled than the lower tendency pos-
sessed by acid infusions, and consequently that the changes ca-
pable of taking place in boiled neutral and acid infusions respec-
tively might be very different; the previous boiling, that is,
might not prevent the higher fermentability of neutral infusions
from still issuing in fermentation, though it might much more
frequently extinguish the lower fermentability of acid infusions.
Numerous experiments by different observers have now demon-
strated the correctness of this inference. Boiled acid infusions,
guarded from contamination, mostly remain pure and. barren if
kept at or below 77° F. (25° C.), though some of the same infu-
sions similarly treated, except that they have been rendered neu-
tral by the addition of an alkali, will oftentimes become corrupt
* Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, tome Ixiv. p. 58.
t Nature, July 14, p. 227.
14 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
and swarm with organisms even at this comparatively low tempera-
ture. When subjected to a high temperature (122° F.), these
previously boiled neutral infusions will still more frequently fer-
ment, though this very strong stimulus will (as we have seen)
also cause some otherwise barren acid infusions to ferment and
swarm with organisms.
In the summer of 1875 I first made experiments with urine to
ascertain whether it followed the rule above alluded to—that is,
whether, like other acid fluids, its fermentability would be in-
creased by previously neutralizing it with liquor potasse. This
preliminary inquiry was soon answered in the affirmative.
Then came the more important question as to the cause or
mode of production of such increased fermentability. For two
reasons urine seemed to me to be a fluid specially favourable for
use in attempting to throw light upon this problem:—/irst, because
of the unanimity of experimenters as to the fact that, when boiled
in its acid state and subsequently guarded, it invariably remained
barren *; and secondly, because the marked acidity of urine would
necessitate the use of liquor potasse in easily measurable quanti-
ties, even when providing for the neutralization of such small por-
tions of fluid as are commonly employed in these experimentst.
Two alternative views are possible as to the cause of the
fact in question:—(1) It may be due to the “ survival of germs ”
of some of the ferment-organisms in the boiled neutral infu-
sions, as Pasteur asserts; or (2) it may be due to the mere
chemical influence of potash in initiating and favouring the
molecular changes leading to fermentation, as originally sug-
gested by Gerhardt.
This important question would seem to be so capable of being
settled by crucial experimentation as to make it not a little re-
markable that no such attempt was ever made by M. Pasteur.
Thus, the fluids may be boiled in their acid state so as to kill all
their contained germs and organisms, and to these fluids boiled
liquor potasse may be added in suitable quantity. The results
of a number of such experiments should be sufficiently decisive to
* This was my own experience also at the time. It wasnot till a later period
that I began to obtain the results with high incubating temperatures, which have
already been recorded (p. 7).
+ Mostly from 1 to 14 fluid-ounce has been made use of by me.
{ A few experiments of this nature were first made by Dr. William Roberts
with hay-infusion (Phil. Trans. 1874, vol. clxiv. pt. 2, p. 474).
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 15
enable us to fix upon the true mode in which liquor potassxe
operates in determining fermentation. If the fluids to which
boiled potash is added in suitable quantity still remained barren,
then such experimental results would unquestionably favour the
first interpretation, viz. that given by M. Pasteur and adopted
by other germ-theorists. If, on the other hand, the addition of
the boiled liquor potassze to the urine which has been boiled in
its acid state suffices to convert this previously pure fluid into
a turbid liquid teeming with ferment-organisms, then it would be
conclusively shown that the increased fermentability of neutra-
lized urine was ascribable to the second cause, viz. to the che-
mical influence of the liquor potasse in initiating fermentative
changes, whatever the precise nature of these early changes may
be, whether (a) partly vital, or (6) at first purely physico-chemical.
Some preliminary experiments were made with an apparatus
closely similar to that employed by Dr. Roberts in the very few
Fig. 2,
Plugged Flask with liquor-potasse tube.
16 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
experiments which he undertook with hay-infusion. Small narrow-
necked flasks were taken capable of holding nearly 8 oz. of fluid ;
and each of these was about half filled with a measured amount of
fresh unfiltered urine, whose degree of acidity had been previously
ascertained by carefully finding the exact number of minims of
the liquor potasse of the ‘ British Pharmacopeia’ which were
needed to neutralize 1 ounce of it*. Quantities of liquor potasse
just sufficient to neutralize the amount of urine intended for each
flask were then enclosed ina number of glass tubes, each of which
had a small bulb at one extremity and a similar bulb near the
other end, beyond which it was drawn out as a thin prolongation
and bent at an obtuse angle. Hach of these tubes was charged
by heating it in a flame before immersing its open capillary ex-
tremity in the requisite quantity of liquor potassz, contained in a
minute porcelain capsule. When the whole of the measured
amount of alkali had thus been forced into the glass tube, this was in-
verted, and its capillary extremity was sealed in the spirit-lamp
flame. Its neck was then wrapped round with cotton-wool, and
the tube itself was inserted into one of the flasks in such a manner
that the cotton-wool might act as a plug thereto, whilst the capil-
lary extremity of the tube just touched the bottom of the vessel.
The flasks being thus charged and arranged, the urine in its
altered acid state was boiled over a flame for five minutes. When
the fluid had cooled, the tube was pressed down slightly so as to
break off its capillary extremity ; and immediately afterwards a
flame was applied to the external bulb of the tube, so as to expand
its contained air. The measured amount of liquor potasse was
thus expelled into the sterilized urine; and the flask was then
placed in an incubator and maintained at a temperature of
104°-113° F. (40°-45° C.)+.
Some tentative experiments were made in this manner with
fresh urine whose specific gravity varied from 1020 to 1025, and
whose acidity was such that 7-15 minims of liquor potasse per
ounce were required for neutralization. In nearly every case it
* In these first experiments the liquor potasse was delivered from a subcuta-
neous injection-syringe, minim by minim when the point of saturation was nearly
reached. It may be well to mention that the solution of potash above named
has asp. gr. of 1058, and that it contains 27 grains of caustic potash to the fluid-
ounce of water (5:84 per cent.). What I have used has always been purchased
from Mr. W. Martindale, of 10 New Cavendish Street, London.
No higher incubating-temperatures were used in these particular expe-
riments.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 17
was found that the urine became lighter-coloured and turbid in
two or three days. Other experiments showed that a slight excess
of liquor potasse tended to retard or even prevent the occurrence
of fermentation, though a quantity of liquor potasse notably
below that needed for neutralization was found to be efficacious
in inducing it, and that, too, almost as rapidly as if the neutrali-
zation had been complete. Even when the liquor potasse was
added in quantity only sufficient for half-neutralization, fermen-
tation still took place in many instances, though in such cases the
result was usually delayed for five or six days.
In all these trials it was found that the fluid, when turbid,
was not foetid ; its odour was for the most part scarcely at all
altered, though at times it was rather more marked than usual.
The organisms found in the fermenting urine were in all cases
the same, viz. Bacilli, either short, medium size, or in the form
of long threads—and not the ferment thought by Pasteur to be
the invariable cause of the conversion of urea into ammonic car-
bonate and water*. Sometimes only the short unjointed rods were
found, though more frequently these were mixed with varying
amounts of longer Vibrio-like bodies, and with threads such as I
and others have generally spoken of as Leptothrix.
The results of the foregoing preliminary experiments induced
-me to seek other, stricter methods, free from two possible sources
of fallacy which might be thought to have influenced the results.
Thus, as the whole of the tube containing the liquor potasse was
not immersed in the boiling fluid, it was possible that the heated
vapour within the tube was not certainly sufficient to sterilize
the small quantity of air also contained within it above the level
of the liquor potasse. It would have been easy to meet this
source of uncertainty by boiling the closed liquor-potasse tubes
in a vessel of water for a time before inserting them into the expe-
rimental flasks containing the urine. But the other possible
source of fallacy would still have remained. It might be said by
some that the cotton-wool plug, which hitherto had been deemed to
be thoroughly efficacious as a protective barrier between the im-
purities of the outside air and the boiled fluid, was itselfa nidus
for germs, some of which, unkilled by the steam of the boiled fluid
(by which, of course, the wool has been saturated), subsequently
found their way into the fluid within the flask. This objection has
been urged by Prof. Tyndall against some experiments made by
Dr. William Roberts ; and if itis avalid objection (which I very
* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. lxiv. (1862) p. 50,
LINN. JOURN.—ZQOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 2
18 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
much doubt), there would be an end to the long-established reputa-
tion of cotton-wool as a protective filter in such experiments.
To get rid, however, of all doubt Fig. 3.
of this kind, I determined to repeat
the urine and liquor-potasse expe- bd
riments with hermetically sealed a
vessels from which air had been ex- |
pelled by boiling, and to take the =
further precaution of boiling the E
liquor-potassee tubes before insert- |
atl!) oy
eg TTT
1 hi
|
=
ing them into the experimental ves-
sels. It was safe at once to resort
to such a method, because I had
previously ascertained that urine
neutralized before boiling would fer-
ment in such closed airless vessels
almost, though not quite, as freely
as in flasks plugged with cotton-
wool. There was, therefore, nothing
unduly restrictive in the proposed
conditions.
The new mode of procedure which
I devised was conducted as fol-
lows :—
In the first place a stock of liquor-
potasse tubes had to be prepared
beforehand containing convenient
amounts of liquor potasse. -Some
were charged with 8, others with 10,
and others with 12 or more minims.
Those containing the same quantity
were kept together in separate
batches duly labelled and ready for pa
use, as occasion required, according |
to the degree of acidity of the urine
with which experiment was to be
made. In order to ensure perfect
accuracy in the measurement of the
liquor potasse, I have of late made
use of a small burette-tube (fig. 3) Buretie:tubo (or mewn
graduated to minims and fitted with liquor potasse.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 19
a stopcock, with which even half-minims can be delivered with
ease™.
Having prepared a number of small glass tubes closed at one
end and drawn out at the other, I proceed to charge them with
measured amounts of liquor potasse. As in the previous experi-
ments, the liquor potasse is delivered into a little porcelain pot;
and the open capillary extremity of the glass tube, previously
well heated in the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, is immersed
therein. When no more suitable rest is at hand the little por-
celain vessel may be placed in the angle between two bottles, so
that the upper end of the heated tube inclines against them,
partly for support and partly that it may cool more quickly.
In two or three minutes, when the whole of the liquor potassee is
forced into the tube, this is to be inverted, and its shoulder, where
Fig. 4.
9
|
TT
=A
Liquor-potassx tubes with capsule and stand.
it begins to narrow (fig. 4,*), is heated in a spirit-lamp flame, so
that the tube may be drawn out still more in this situation.
* This little instrument was made for me by Cetti and Co., of 11 Brooke
Street, Holborn, London.
oD
20 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
Subsequently the end of tube is bent, in the manner shown in the
figure (¢), and then hermetically sealed.
Thus prepared, the tube should be just half full of liquor po-
tasse. Its length will have been diminished as much as possible ;
and its tip is so arranged that it may be easily broken off by a
slight mechanical shock. These last steps in the preparation of
the liquor-potasse tubes are best carried out with the aid of a
very small spirit-lamp flame, as they require to be done slowly
and with care. On the one hand, it is necessary that the bent
part of the tube should be weak enough to break readily when
jerked against the wall of the experimental vessel in which it is
afterwards enclosed; and, on the other, it must not be so much
weakened as to make it break too easily or be unable to bear the
internal strain which it will have to undergo during its immer-
sion in boiling water. This, in fact, is the final stage in the pre-
paration of the liquor-potasse tubes. A number of them, after.
they have been hermetically sealed, are to be placed in a suitable
vessel containing warm water; and they are then to be raised to
the temperature of 212° F. (100° C.) for the period fixed upon.
As in these experiments I soon found that the longer or shorter
duration of the period of boiling of the liquor-potasse tubes
did not appreciably influence the results, they were, for the most
part, boiled for 15'—-20” only—though in many cases it was much
longer, and in two or three they were boiled for 2 hours. Thus
prepared, the tubes were set aside in compartments labelled ac-
cording to the number of minims of liquor potasse which they
contained.
A stock of such tubes being ready to hand, experiments may
be made at anytime. A suitable specimen of fresh urine is to be
taken, whose specific gravity is to be ascertained and whose degree
of acidity is to be most carefully estimated. This latter process
I have carried out by taking exactly 1 fluid-ounce of the urine
and adding liquor potassz to it, minim by minim, from the burette-
tube till the point of saturation is nearly reached. ‘Thereafter
the alkali has been added in half-minims at a time, and tested
between each addition with litmus and turmeric paper so as to
make quite sure of the time of complete neutralization*. In order
* It is not unimportant here to add that the test-papers which I have used
have been those sold by Mr.W. Martindale, of 10 New Cavendish Street, London.
They are similar to the papers used in the wards of University-College Hos-
pital. By careful trial I have ascertained that } of a minim of liquor po-
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. al
to facilitate this part of the process, I have made use of a lipped
measure (fig. 5) having a rather narrow
orifice, which can be easily covered by
the thumb so as to allow its contents to
be shaken for the thorough admixture
of each quantity of liquor potassee with
the urine to which it has been added.
These experiments have hitherto
been exclusively conducted with my
own urine; and I have generally found
that which was passed in the morning
before breakfast very suitable for use.
This fluid has remained clear after
boiling, no phosphates being deposited
during the process; its acidity has
usually been neutralized by 10-14
minims of liquor potasse per ounce;
and its specific gravity has varied from
1020 to 1025.
When the acidity of the urine with
which experiment is to be made has &
thus been accurately determined, one = :
can easily settle which set of the Lipped measure for admixture
already prepared liquor-potassx tubes of potash.
it will be most convenient to employ. I have generally made use
of about 1-13 ounce of urine for each experiment, and, after
tasse in an ounce of distilled water may be recognized by the previously red-
dened litmus paper, whilst + of a minim in the same quantity of distilled water
may be detected by the yellow turmeric paper. ‘The latter, though less delicate,
gives the most certain indication, especially when a drop of the fluid to be tested
is allowed to fall on dry turmeric paper. As the fluid is absorbed by this
partly bibulous paper, a faint brown circle is seen for a moment or two when
the fluid is very faintly alkaline, The importance of such details as this will be
obvious when I say that, last July, urine which I tested in M. Pasteur’s labo-
ratory and found to have an acidity equivalent to'74 minims of liquor potasse
per ounce, was pronounced by M. Pasteur to he “ légérement alcalin,” according
to the indications of a slightly reddened litmus paper recently used in his labo-
ratory. This wasa most surprising difference; and I cannot say yet how far our
very different indications hitherto as to degrees of acidity and alkalinity may
account for some of the discrepancies between the results of M. Pasteur and
myself in the performance of these urine and liquor-potassz experiments (see
Note 1, p. 180, of the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for July 23, 1877, where M. Pasteur
has also something to say on the same subject).—Sept. 1877.
22 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
numerous trials, have found it best in this series not to provide
liquor potasse sufficient to neutralize the quantity of fluid in
the unboiled state, but to make use of liquor potasse in a
closed tube to the extent of two thirds or three fourths of this
amount—the former being, on the whole, the safest proportion*.
An illustration will make the mode of procedure at this stage
clearer. If the urine to be employed has an acidity of 12 minims
of liquor potasse to the ounce, then 1 ounce of it should be placed
in each experimental vessel (retort or flask of about 2 ounces
Fig. 6.
Retort used in experiment, as described in text.
capacity); and with it a liquor-potasse tube containing 8 minims
of this fluid should be also inserted, with its narrowed and bent
extremity downwards. If, on the other hand, the urine had an
acidity of 8 minims of liquor potassz to the ounce, and only tubes
containing this amount of liquor potasse were at the time avail-
able for use, we should then have to place in each experimental
vessel 13 ounce of the urine and one of these 8-minim tubes.
When properly charged, the neck of the retort or flask is to be
* There is reason to believe that conditions other than the acidity of the
fluid mney subsequently have to be taken into account, since, although 2 may
seem quite favourable for one specimen, in another # of the amount of liquor
potassee which would have been requisite for full neutralization before boiling
appears to produce more speedy results. Such or analogous differences may haye
to be ascertained also in regard to the urine of different individuals.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 23
heated and drawn out to a narrow extremity, after which the urine
is gently boiled for about two minutes over a flame, great care being
taken to avoid any waste of the fluid by spurting. During the
continuance of ebullition the extremity of the vessel is hermeti-
cally sealed. Some little practice is required to do this properly—
that is, on the one hand to seal the vessel whilst there is a gentle
outpouring of steam, and, on the other hand, to do it in such a
way that there is no inbending of glass at the sealed extremity.
Hyen a small amount of such inbending is very apt to lead to
a minute crack at the next stage. After allowing an interval
of ? of a minute for the sealed tip to cool a little, the vessel is
inverted, and in this position is at once immersed in a can of
boiling water prepared, and ready to hand, for this purpose. Here
the experimental vessel is left for 8 minutes or more.
Three purposes are served by this double process of heating.
In the first place, it simplifies the experimental conditions to get
rid of the air by boiling; secondly, the speedy closure of the
vessel and the prolongation of the heating in a can of boiling
water reduces the loss of fluid by boiling to a minimum; and
thirdly, and principally, the inversion of the experimental vessel
during the second period of heating brings those upper portions
of the internal surface, as well as the outer surface, of the liquor-
potasse tube (which, during the boiling over the flame, may only
have come into contact with steam at 212° F.), into conti-
nuous contact with the heated fluid itself *.
After the urine in the boiled retort has become cool, the liquor
potasse is allowed to mix therewith. This is easily brought about
by shaking the retort or flask so as to jerk the bent capillary extre-
mity of the liquor-potassz tube against its internal surface. The
neck of the previously closed tube is thus broken off, and the
liquor potasse itself, owing to the comparative vacuum within
the experimental vessel, is forced out and mingles with the steri-
lized acid urine.
If six or ten vessels have been prepared in this way charged
with the same stock of urine, some one or two of them may be
selected for ‘“‘ control’’ experiments. In these the liquor-potassz
tubes are not broken, whilst in all the others they are ; so that when
subsequently placed in the incubator together at a temperature
* The whole of the internal surface of the liquor-potasse tube is similarly
exposed to the influence of its heated and caustic fluid during these different
modes of heating. :
24. DR. BASTIAN ON THE
ot 122° F., the two sets of retorts constitute crucial experiments
capable of testing the influence of liquor potassz upon the steri-
lized urine.
What I have found to happen almost uniformly in about two
hundred of such experiments is this :—If suitable fluids are dealt
with—that is, specimens of fresh urine whose acidity before boiling
does not require less than 8 minims of liquor potassz per ounce
for neutralization, and which do not deposit phosphates on boil-
_ing—the urine in the control experiments remains clear and appa-
rently unaltered for an indefinite time; whilst where the potash.
has been allowed to operate upon the sterilized fluid, it becomes
turbid, lighter in colour, and swarms with organisms in from 18 to
36 hours, onan average. The period with different urines is some-
times less and sometimes more, though no great prolongation
occurs except through some alteration having been brought about
in the proper ratio which should exist between the acidity of the
boiled fluid and the amount of liquor potassze which is added thereto.
Such delays in the occurrence of fermentation were common
enough during my earlier trials with this method; but now
that I have more carefully studied and ascertained some of their
causes, Lam generally able to obviate them and ensure the super-
vention of fermentation within two or three days*.
This fermentation of urine to which liquor potasse is added
after boiling, unquestionably takes place more readily in a flask
plugged with cotton-wool than in a sealed retort from which
air has been expelled by boiling. And that the slightly dimi-
nished readiness of the fluid to ferment in the airless retort is
attributable to the absence of atmospheric oxygen, seems to be
confirmed by other experiments now to be recorded, in which
an increased readiness to change is exhibited by urine and
liquor potasse under the influence of nascent or less-diluted oxy-
gen, liberated by electrolysis.
I have also in two experiments with closed flasks containing
urine and ordinary atmospheric airt liberated the liquor potassz
after the flask and its contents had been boiled, with the effect of
finding fermentation take place several hours earlier than it did
* Tn a few cases this has occurred even when the urine has been heated in the
can for 1-2 hours. Thus, I have seen it happen three times where the urine has
been boiled for one hour, and once where it has been boiled two hours. With
potash added beforehand almost to neutralization, I haye twice seen urine fer-
ment even after three hours’ boiling.
+ The flasks haying been hermetically sealed whilst the urine was cold.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 25
in other companion retorts whose contents were similar, except
for the fact that they contained no atmospheric air. The libera-
tion of the liquor potasse from the tube with a capillary neck
can only be brought about with great difficulty in a retort con-
taining air; and this was the reason of my giving up the condi-
tions more favourable to the fermentation of the boiled urine, in
order to avail myself of the facile and automatic emptying of the
liquor-potasse tube which takes place in the retort from which air
has been expelled by boiling.
In a trial of the combined effects of oxygen and alkali upon
urine whose specific gravity was 1028, and whose acidity was neu-
tralized by 18 minims of liquor potassz to the ounce, distinct tur-
bidity of the fluid of the retort to which oxygen had been added
made its appearance in thirteen hours; whilst in a companion
vessel similarly treated, except for the absence of free oxygen and
hydrogen, turbidity did not show itself till the expiration of the
forty-first hour.
On another occasion, when experimenting with urine whose
specific gravity was 1023 and whose acidity was neutralized by
5 minims of liquor potasse to the ounce, I found that the fluid in
two retorts into which liquor potassz had been liberated, and also
a quantity of oxygen and hydrogen, became distinctly turbid in
five and seven hours respectively ; whilst the fluids in companion
vessels similarly treated, except for the absence of oxygen and
hydrogen, did not show signs of turbidity before 223 hours.
This result was very remarkable, since, under the combined influ-
ence of liquor potassx, oxygen, and a temperature of 122° F., a
specimen of boiled urine became turbid much more rapidly than
a simple specimen of unboiled urine would have done, exposed to
a temperature of 77°-86° F.
It seems quite useless for me, in the present state of inquiry in
regard to these questions, to dwell upon the fact of the number of
times I have produced this or other results, or to describe them in
more detail. What I seek to do now is, by careful description of
my methods, to enable others, who will exercise proper care, to
obtain similar results. With this object in view, I shall, in the
first place, refer to certain causes of failure, and to certain causes
of variation in the time of supervention of fertility in sterilized
urine under the influence of liquor potassz, to which I have already
drawn attention in a previous paper*, in order to show why
* Now deposited in the Archives of the Royal Society.
26 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
failure has as yet attended the efforts of others to reproduce
these very delicate though crucial experiments.
At an early stage of this investigation experiments were
made by me to test the relative effects of different amounts of
liquor potasse in such experiments as I have just described. I
found that if only two or three drops of this fluid were added
from a similar tube to a quantity of boiled urine when, in accord-
ance with the directions previously given, it would have required
10, 12, or more minims, such a specimen of urine was never
fertilized. This convinced me fertilization in the other cases
was not due to the survival of germs either in the liquor potasse
or in the small amount of air within the liquor-potasse tube, and
consequently that the heat to which this had been submitted had
been quite suflicient to sterilize its contents. One drop of this,
as of any other fluid, if it really contained living germs, would
always suffice to infect many ounces, a gallon or more of urine.
The same conclusion, viz. that the contents of the liquor-
potasse tube had been completely sterilized, was also forced
upon me by the fact, which I frequently verified, that an excess
of liquor potasse to the extent of 1 or 2 minims beyond the
proper proportion would also invariably cause the urine to re-
main sterile in these experiments with airless vessels—a result
which would have been impossible if living germs had really been
contained within the liquor-potasse tubes. A slight excess of
liquor potassz was, in fact, soon found to be rather more inhibi-
tory in dealing with airless flasks than it had been when experi-
menting with flasks whose necks were plugged with cotton-wool—
as in those of my tentative first series, in which the fluids were, of
course, exposed to the influence of atmospheric oxygen. It was
in consequence of this, and because on trial I have found that
a slight deficiency of liquor potassee was comparatively harmless,
that in the paper sent to the Royal Society last year, of which an
abstract only has been published, I counselled the addition in the
plugged-flask experiments of ~ of the quantity of liquor potassex
which would have been needed for neutralization before boiling,
and in those with closed airless vessels its addition to the extent
of € of such quantity.
In relation to the variable period of fertility, to which I also
called attention in the paper above mentioned, as occurring in
my earlier experiments, it may be well to quote the following re-
marks :—‘ This variability might, I think, be in a great measure
:
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 27
obviated in the future, first, by a more strict attention than I at
first bestowed upon obtaining or providing for the precise degree
of neutralization desired—secondly, by attention to a fact of the
full significance of which I way not at first aware, viz. that the
acidity of the urine in certain cases becomes notably diminished
by boiling. This diminution in acidity seems invariably to occur
where acid phosphates are precipitated by boiling. The result is,
that, wherever this occurs, the liquor potassz is liable to be added
to the boiled urine in a harmful excess, since the quantity sup-
posed to have been required, and enclosed within the liquor-
potasse tube, was calculated upon the degree of acidity of the
fluid before it had been lessened by boiling. In cases of pro-
longed heating this diminution of acidity may have been very ap-
preciable. In a specimen of phosphatic urine whose acidity was
equal to 53 minims of liquor potasse to the fluid-ounce, I found
the acidity only equivalent to 4 minims to the ounce after the urine
had been boiled for only 2 minutes. In all cases, therefore, in
which, after a preliminarytrial, phosphates are found to be deposited
by boiling the urine, it would be proper to estimate the acidity
with a specimen of the fluid which had already been boiled for
the period determined upon as that to be employed in the expe-
riments about to be made. This is a precaution which should
in future never be omitted’”’*.... “It must not be forgotten
also that in boiling the measured quantity of urine in the retort
before its neck is sealed, any excessive spurting away of fluid may
cause an alteration in the proper ratio between urine and liquor
potasse.”’
Another cause of variation in the time of fermentation in spe-
cimens of the same set is the different rate of boiling to which
the fluids have been subjected during the first period—that is,
whilst the fluid is being boiled over the flame. Rapid boiling in
a retort or flask with a capillary extremity will very frequently
cause the temperature to rise as much as 33° C. (nearly 7° F.)
above the boiling-point, as I first ascertained in 18737. Acci-
dental variations in the rate of boiling, causing the temperature
to be raised to different points, may thus affect successive fluids of
the same stock differently. This, indeed, is another reason why it
is desirable to curtail the period of boiling over the flame and
* T would rather say now that it is better not to use such a fluid at all in
these particular experiments.
t See ‘ Nature,’ vol. ii. (1870) p. 227.
28 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
finish the heating process after the experimental vessel has been
hermetically sealed.
Since the first announcement of my new experiments, and
before the publication in detail of my method, two English inyes-
tigators have attempted to repeat them. Their method of pro-
cedure, however, has been inaccurate and probably vitiated by the
three causes of error above mentioned as having been pointed
out in my original paper now in the possession of the Royal
Society ; it was certainly, according to their own statements,
vitiated by two of them, as I will now proceed to show.
After referring to what appeared to him to be two sources of
fallacy in my mode of conducting these experiments (to the men-
tion and consideration of which I shall presently return), Dr.
William Roberts * says he determined to repeat them, but taking
care to avoid these alleged “defects.”” He proceeded as fol-
lows :—“A flask with a longish neck was charged with an ounce
of normal acid urme. The due quantity of liquor potassx requi-
site to exactly neutralize this (as ascertained by previous trials)
was enclosed in a sealed glass tube drawn to a vapillary portion
at one end. The tube was then heated in oil up to 280° F., and
maintained at that temperature for fifteen minutes. The tube
was then introduced into the body of the flask. The neck of the
flask was next drawn to a narrow orifice ; then the urine was boiled
Sor five minutes, and the orifice sealed in ebullition.” Now, having
regard to the two passages which I have italicized, it will be seen
that Dr. Roberts’s supposed repetition of my experiment was no
repetition at all; that is, he followed the very method most cal-
culated to ensure failure, and which even what was said in my
published “Abstract ”’ should have warned him against adopting f.
As I shall presently explain, potash sufficient to render the fluids
distinctly alkaline was added ; and this, together with the boiling
for five minutes before the vessel was sealed, was doubtless the
cause of Dr. Roberts’s failure.
The same Number of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society ’
contains a “ Note” by Professor Tyndall, in which he likewise
announces the fact that he has failed to reproduce my results.
His mode of repeating the experiment was also erroneous, at all
events, in those of his trials in which he makes any mention of the
* «Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ No. 176, vol. xxv. p. 455.
t See ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xxv. p. 503.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. 29
method employed. All that he says on this essential point is as
follows :—“ In some of the experiments the procedure described by
Dr. Roberts was accurately pursued, save in one particular. .
His potash-tubes, however, were exposed to a temperature of
280° Fahr., while mine were subjected to a temperature of 220°
only.” These experiments of Professor Tyndall, therefore, like
those of Dr. Roberts, will only tend to confirm my statement that
the addition of potash in excess leads to negative results. They
have no other bearmg upon my experiments, and they conse-
quently afford no evidence whatever as to the eflicacy of the two
precautions, the necessity for which they were destined to illus-
strate, and to whose discussion I shall presently return.
One other experimenter has also questioned my results, though
I cannot say that he has repeated my experiments. This is none
other than the illustrious French chemist himself, M. Pasteur.
In reply to a brief note of mine on the subject of these experi-
ments, which was sent to the French Academy, and in which my
exact method of procedure was not described, M. Pasteur accepted
the fact as true, but denied the interpretation. He, however,
instead of adding to the sterilized urine a quantity of liquor
potasse almost sufficient to neutralize it, added, as he says, solid
potash which had been heated to redness, or a solution of pot-
ash heated to 230° F. (110° C.), and this in quantity sufficient to
render the urine “ alkaline.” The result was (as I should have ex-
pected), that the urine so treated remained barren. This barrenness
I attribute to the fact that the potash had been added in excess ;
M. Pasteur, on the other hand, attributed it to the higher tempera-
ture to which the potash had been heated, and proclaimed his modi-
fied experiment as a triumphant vindication of the truth of his
previous theory. And yet it was not even this. His previous po-
sition was, that in neutral or slightly alkaline organic liquids cer-
tain germs were not killed at a temperature of 100° C. which
were killed at 110°C. Here, however, was liquor potasse, a
very strongly alkaline fluid, so caustic as to be capable of dissolving
protoplasm even when cold; and M. Pasteur would have us believe
that germs can, when immersed in it, resist a temperature of
100° C.—because he thought they did so in the very much weaker
fluid. Much evidence would be needed to bring conviction to the
minds of physiologists ‘on this point; and as yet none has been
offered.
At present, therefore, my experiments have not been repeated
30 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
by either of these investigators. The trials they have made
most closely resemble those experiments of mine which illus-
trate the effects of adding liquor potasse-in excess; and the
results they have obtained tend to confirm mine, and illustrate
the restrictive influence of even a slight excess of this agent.
I now turn to the subject of Dr. Roberts’s criticism of my
method, because in pointing out the untenability of his positions
J shall be able to throw some light upon the subject generally.
Two objections have been raised by him to the mode in which I
conducted my experiments, seemingly on the ground that in the
five experiments of this order which he had previously made, two
procedures were adopted which I did not imitate. Dr. Roberts
thinks that I ought (1) to have superheated the liquor-potassz
tubes ; and he thinks (2) that I ought to have allowed an interval
of some days to elapse before breaking them and permitting the
potash to mix with the boiled urine. Both these objections are
indorsed by Professor Tyndall ; and, as we have seen, an objection -
very similar to the first of them had previously been urged by
M. Pasteur; they require, therefore, to be critically examined*.
(1) Is tt necessary, or does any difference result from superheat-
heating the potash-tubes?—To the first part of this question I
had, previously to the date of my first communication on this
subject, given an answer in the negative, and that for the follow-
ing reasons :—
(a) Quite early in this investigation I made comparative exper1-
ments to test whether any or what influence over the result would
be produced by prolonging the period for which the closed liquor-
potasse tubes were heated; so that Dr. Roberts is in error in
supposing that they had been raised only for “an inconsiderable
period to the heat of boiling water.” In the majority of the ex-
periments they were heated to this extent for over twenty
minutes ; and in several of them they were boiled for one and
two hours. It was only when I found that this prolongation
of the boiling of the liquor-potassz tubes did not in the least
affect the result that I contented myself with the shorter period
of twenty minutes.
* M. Pasteur urged the superheating of the potash-tubes on the ground, as
above pointed out, that a temperature of 110° C. was needed to ensure the death
of germs even in a strong solution of caustic potash. Dr. Roberts does not ven-
ture so far as this. He considers the high temperature needful in order to
ensure sterilization of the air within the liquor-potassz tubes.
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. ol
(6) But I had, and I made known even in the abstract of my
paper, a convincing proof that this comparatively short period of
exposure to the temperatnre of boiling water was in fact sufficient
to sterilize the contents of the liquor-potasse tubes—as well
the liquor potasse as the small quantity of air which they con-
tained*. This was to be found in the fact that one of these tubes
charged with a very small amount of potash, or one charged with
a slight excess, never, when broken, caused the urine to ferment,
even though it had only been heated to 100° C. for twenty
minutes. This seemed to me, and still seems, a convincing proof
that no living germs existed within the tubes.
But when such prominence was given to this part of the ques-
tion by M. Pasteur—when, accepting the crucial nature of the
experiment, he challenged me to produce the results which I had
announced with sterile urine and a solution of potash, “ a la seule
condition que cette solution sera portée préalablement 4 100
degrés pendant vingt minutes, ou 4 130 degrés pendant cing
minutes,” I was very glad to meet his views and perform some
experiments under these conditions prescribed by M. Pasteur f.
The results even with liquor-potasse tubes heated to 110° C.
for twenty howrs were in no way different from those previously
procured with tubes heated only for a short time to 100° C.t
After this I also repeated my experiments with liquor-potasse
tubes which had been heated in oil to 140°-150° C. (284°-802° F.)
for one hour §. The results were similar. In fourteen experiments
with a urine of 1020 specific gravity, whose acidity was equivalent
to 10 minims of liquor potassee per ounce, and which did not
deposit phosphates when boiling or, except to the slightest extent,
after the addition of the potash, fermentation took place in all.
* See ‘Compt. Rend.’ Jan. 22, 1877.
t The reality of my results M. Pasteur admits. Thus, in the ‘Comptes
Rendus,’ July 17, 1876, tome lxxxiii. p. 178, he says, ‘Je m’empresse de déclarer
que les expériences de M. le Dr. Bastian sont, en effet, trés-exactes ; elles donnent
le plus souvent les résultats qu’il indique.” The only question between M. Pas-
teur and myself is as to the interpretation of results now common to both. His
interpretation (Comp. Rend. 29 Jan. 1877, tom. Ixxxiv, p. 206) is that germs are
added with the liquor potassze.
+ See ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Feb. 12 (1877), tome lxxxiv. p. 306.
§ A most troublesome process and method, because of the subsequent difficulty
in cleaning the potash-tubes.
32 DR. BASTIAN ON THE
This first criticism is, therefore, quite invalid; it was directed
towards a requirement which I had borne fully in mind from the
commencement of these experiments, and had fully met.
(2) Is the method of the “ control” experiment legitimate in such
investigations ? or must we in each case allow an interval of some
days to elapse before breaking the liquor-potasse tubes ?—Dr.
Roberts says *:—‘‘It is not sufficient to rely in such a case on a
control-flask or retort. Hach flask or retort should have its own
individual sterility tested, because it is practically impossible
to apply the heat exactly in the same degree in any two cases.”
To this I demur, and maintain that where the results are checked
and verified by a large number of trials, the method of the control
experiment is a more accurate and scientific method than that to
which he and, following him, Professor Tyndall had resort. This
position is based upon the following considerations.
First, it may be premised that the method of the “ control” ex-
periment has hitherto been habitually practised by many eminent
investigators, and that it has always been thoroughly relied upon
in cumulating evidence which was believed to be in favour of the
“germ theory.”
Secondly, Dr. Roberts’s objection to its use in these experi-
ments carries all the less weight with it because, as I have many
times ascertained both before and since the publication of my
first results, an exposure of two or three minutes’ duration to the
temperature of 212° Fahr. always suffices to sterilize a urine of
average acidity, whatever the incubating temperature to which it
may subsequently be exposed. Moreover, previous to the an-
nouncement of my results the undeviating verdict of other
experimenters with urine—the verdict of Pasteur, of Sanderson,
of Lister, of Tyndall, and even of Roberts himself—had been that
after boiling it for two or three minutes, urine kept in a warm
place, and free from extraneous contamination, always remained
puret. Such an amount of heat had invariably been found suffi-
cient to sterilize it. Why, therefore, when dealing with such a
fluid, could it be necessary to wait in each case before the liquor-
potasse tubes were broken P ~
In further support of the efficacy and trustworthy nature of
the method adopted by me, I may state that I have several times
repeated it in this manner :—Selecting any one at random from a
* «Proceed. of Royal Society,’ No. 176, vol. xxv. p. 455, note.
t See quotations to this effect ‘at p. 2.
Qg9
CONDITIONS FAVOURING FERMENTATION. oo
batch of 6-10 retorts or flasks whose contents had been boiled
over the flame for 2” and which were sealed during ebullition, I
have correctly predetermined that this particular fluid should re-
main sterile by simply omitting to break its associated liquor-
potasse tube, and that the others should ferment even after boiling
them for an additional period four times as long—this result
being induced simply by breaking their properly charged and
superheated liquor-potasse tubes. It seems, therefore, super-
fluous to urge that when such experiments are multiplied with
essentially similar results, as they have been, they afford evidence
of the most crucial and unmistakable character.
Dr. Roberts, however, impeaches this well-tried experimental
“method of difference ;”’ and Professor Tyndall countenances the
impeachment. Let us see what kind of method they would put
in its place.
Dr. Roberts thinks it absolutely necessary to wait several days,
or even a fortnight, in order to make perfectly sure that each in-
dividual fluid is sterilized before adding the superheated potash
thereto. Having shown that the grounds on which he rejects
the evidence of the control experiment are peculiarly weak in
-regard to a fluid so easily sterilized as urine, I will now endeavour
to show that the alternative procedure which he recommends to
replace this legitimate method is, on the contrary, open to the
most serious objections. Dr. Roberts, like Professor Tyndall, is
never unmindful of “the plain indications of the germ theory ;”
and though he does not persistently ignore, still he is not always
equally mindful of the plain indications of the opposite theory.
From the point of view of the germ theory, it is true, there is not
so much to be said against this delay in the liberation of the
liquor potasse ; but from the point of view of the opposite theory,
the serious question arises as to whether any or what chemical
changes would take place in the experimental fluids during this
period of probation. Other questions, as will be seen, have also
to be considered in regard to their method.
It is almost difficult to believe that Dr. Roberts could have
been speaking seriously when he said* that from the point of view
of the spontaneous-generation theory “there was no reason why
the alkali should not have been equally effective in promoting
germination, whether added before or after the short preliminary
* Phil. Trans. vol. clxiy. (1874) pt. 2, p. 474
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIY. a
By) DR. BASTIAN ON THE
boiling,’—when under the word “after” was included a period
of fourteen days’ exposure “in a warm place.”
The validity or degree of cogency of this statement may, perhaps,
be best appreciated by translating it into a symbolic formula :—
Let A represent ... The experimental fluid (urine).
Kee a ... The total chemical changes induced by
boiling it in its acid state.
aces - ... The total chemical changes induced by
boiling it after neutralization by potash.
BS ay 5 ... The chemical changes which the boiled
acid fluid may have undergone during
the period of probation.
Pes a3 ... The influence of potash upon this boiled
acid fluid after the probation-period.
The statement of Dr. Roberts is, therefore, tantamount to this :—
Because A-+ em
11.45 N3 ,, 11.47 ,, 12.5 N4 ,, 12
» a stranger came. TAG INGE ©, 12) See
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 273
12.13 N3 came. 12.15 went. | 12.30 N4 came. 12.32 went.
12.14 N4_ ,, TMS) » a Stranger came.
12.17 stranger came. » Ne (was disturbed)
12.19 N4 came. 12.20 ,, 12.37 ,,
12.20 N3_,, 12.22 ,, 12.38 N4came. 12.40 ,,
12.21 N1_, 12.25 ,, 12.42 N3_,,
12.95 N4 WDE ,. ONAN et OAQ)
27, INS ,; 12.28 ,,
_ Thus during these three hours only six strangers came. The
raisin must have seemed almost inexhaustible, and the watched
ants in passing and repassing went close to many of their friends ;
they took no notice of them, however, and did not bring any out
of the nest to cooperate with them in securing the food, though
their regular visits showed how much they appreciated it.
Again (on the 15th July) an ant belonging to one of my nests
of Formica fusca was out hunting. At 8.81 put a spoonful of
honey before her. She fed till 8.24, when she returned to the nest.
Several others were running about. She returned as follows :—
9.10 to the honey, but was disturbed, ran away, and
returned at 10.40. At 10.53 to the nest;
- 11.30 MeTPAOn teu,
12.5, but was disturbed; she ran away again, but
1.30. At 1.44 to the nest ;
i 2.0 Seen OW SR iy
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ry)
During the whole day she brought no friend, and only one
other ant found the honey, evidently an independent discovery.
Experiments testing Communication by Sound.
To test the power which ants might have of summoning one
another by sound, I tried the following experiments. I put out
on the board where one of my nests of Lasius flavus was usually
274: SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
fed, six small pillars of wood, about 1% inch high, and on one of
them I put some honey. A number of ants were wandering
about on the board itself in search of food, and the nest itself was
immediately above and about 12 inches from the board. I then
put three ants to the honey, and when each had sufficiently fed, I
imprisoned her, and put another; thus always keeping three ants
at the honey, but not allowing them to go home. Hf, then, they
could summon their friends by sound, there ought soon to be
many ants at the honey. The results were as follows :—
Sept. 8. Began at ill 4.m. Up to 3 o’cloek only seven ants
found their way to the honey, while about as many ran up the
other pillars. The arrival of these seven, therefore, was not more
than would naturally result from the numbers running about
close by. At 3 we allowed the ants then on the honey to return
home. The result was that from 3.6, when the first went home,
to 3.30, 11 came, from 3.30 to 4:no less than 43. Thus in four hours
only 7 came ; while it is obvious that many would have wished to
come if they had known about the honey, because in the next three
quarters of an hour, when they were informed of it, 54 came.
On the 10th Sept. we tried the same again, keeping as before
three ants on the honey, but not allowing any to go home.
From 12 to 5.80 only eight came. They were then allowed to
take the news. From 5.80 to 6, 4 came; from 6 to 6.30, 4;
from 6.80 to 7, 8; from 7.30 to 8 no less than 51.
On the 23rd Sept. we did the same again, beginning at 11.15.
Up to 3.45 nine came. They were then allowed to go home.
From 4 to 4.30,9 came; from 4.30 to 5,15; from 5 to 5.80,
19; from 5.30 to 6, 38. Thus in 33 hours 9 came; in 2,
when the ants were permitted te return, 81.
Again, on Sept. 80, I tried the same arrangement again, begin-
ning at 11. Up to 3.80 seven ants came. We then let them go.
From 3.80 to 4.80, 28 came; from 4.30 to 5,51 came. Thus
in four hours and a half only 7 came; while when they were
allowed to return, no less than 79 came in an hour and a half.
It seems obvious, therefore, that in these cases no communica-
tion was transmitted by sound.
Ezperiments testing Affection.
To test the affection of ants belonging to the same nest for one
another, I tried the following experiments. I took six ants from
a nest of Formica fusca, imprisoned them in a small bottle, one
end of which was left open, but covered by a layer of muslin. I
then put the bottle close to the door of the nest. The muslin
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 275
was of open texture, the meshes, however, being sufficiently large
to prevent the ants from escaping. They could not only, how-
ever, see one another, but communicate freely with their antenne.
We now watched to see whether the prisoners would be tended
or fed by their friends. We could not, however, observe that the
least notice was taken of them. The experiment, nevertheless, was
less conclusive than could be wished, because they might have fed
at night, or at some time when we were not looking. It struck
me, therefore, that it would be interesting to treat some strangers
also in the same manner.
On Sept. 2, therefore, I put two ants from one of my nests of
Ff. fusca into a bottle, the end of which was tied up with muslin
as described, and laid it down close to the nest. Ina second bottle
I put two ants from another nest of the same species. The ants
which were at liberty took no notice of the bottle containing their
imprisoned friends. The strangers in the other bottle, on the con-
trary, excited them considerably. The whole day one, two, or more
ants stood sentry, as it were, over the bottle. In the evening no
less than twelve were collected round it, a larger number than
usually came out of the nest at any one time. The whole of the
next two days, in the same way, there were more or less ants
round the bottle containing the strangers; while, as far as we
could see, no notice whatever was taken of the friends. On the
9th the ants had eaten through the muslin, and effected an en-
trance. We did not chance to be on the spot at the moment;
but as I found two ants lying dead, one in the bottle and one just
outside, I think there can be no doubt that the strangers were
put to death. The friends throughout were quite neglected.
Sept. 21.—I then repeated the experiment, putting three ants
from another nest in a bottle as before. The same scene was
repeated. The friends were neglected. On the other hand, some
of the ants were always watching over the bottle containing the
strangers, and biting at the muslin which protected them. The
next morning at 6 a.m. I found five ants thus occupied. One
had caught hold of the leg of one of the strangers, which had un-
warily been allowed to protrude through the meshes of the
muslin. They worked and watched, though not, as far as I could
see, with any system, till 7.30 in the evening, when they effected
an entrance, and immediately attacked the strangers.
Sept. 24.—I repeated the same experiment with the same nest.
Again the ants came and sat over the bottle containing the
strangers, while no notice was taken of the friends.
276 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
The next morning again, when I got up, I found five ants
round the bottle containing the strangers, none near the friends.
As in the former case, one of the ants had seized a stranger by
the leg, and was trying to drag her through the muslin. All day
the ants clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly, though
not systematically, at the muslin. The same thing happened all
the following day.
These observations seemed to me sufficiently to test the be-
haviour of the ants belonging to this nest under these circum-
stances. I thought it desirable, however, to try also other com-
munities. I selected, therefore, two other nests. One was a
community of Polyergqus rufescens with numerous slaves. Close
to where the ants of this nest came to feed, I placed as before
two small bottles, closed in the same way—one containing two
slave ants from the nest, the other two strangers. These ants,
however, behaved quite unlike the preceding, for they took no
notice of either bottle, and showed no sign either of affection
or hatred. One is almost tempted to surmise that the war-like
spirit of these ants was broken by slavery.
The other nest which I tried, also a community of Formica fusca,
behaved exactly like the first. They took no notice of the bottle
containing the friends, but clustered round and eventually forced
their way into that containing the strangers.
It seems, therefore, that in these curious insects hatred is a
stronger passion than affection.
Experiments showing the importance of the Sense of Smell to
certain Ants.
In order further to test how far ants are guided by sight and how
much by scent, I tried the following experiment with Lasius niger.
Some food was put out at the point a on a board measuring 20
inches by 12 (fig. 1), and so arranged that the ants in going straight
toitfrom thenest would reach Tae Ue
the board at the point 6, and .
after passing under a paper
tunnel, ¢, would proceed be-
tween five pairs of wooden
bricks, each 3 inches in length
and 1$ in height. When
they got to know their way,
they went quite straight along
a
the line de to a. The board was then twisted as shown in
fig. 2. The bricks and tunnel being arranged exactly in the
same direction as before, but the board haying been moved,
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. alin,
the line de was now outside them. This change, however, dial
not at all discompose | Fig. 2.
the ants; but instead at
of going, as _ before, \
through the tunnel and
between the rows of \
bricks to a, they walked
exactly along the old
path to e.
I then arranged mat-
ters as before, but with-
out the tunnel and with
only three pairs of bricks
(fig. 3). When an ant had got quite used to the path d to e,
LT altered the position of the Fig. 3.
bricks and food to f (fig. 4),
making a difference of 8
inches in the position of the ©
latter. The ant cameas before,
walked up to the first brick,
touched it with her antennz,
but then followed her old
line to a. From there she
veered towards the food, and
very soonfoundit. Whenshe
was gone, I altered it again,
as shown in fig. 5; she re-
turned after the usual inter-
val, and went again straight
to a; then, after some
wanderings, to jf, and at
length, but only after a lapse
of 25 minutes, found the
food at g. These experi-
ments were repeated more
than once, and always with
similar results. I then va-
ried matters by removing
the bricks, which, however,
did not seem to make any
difference to the ants.
278 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
Haperiments showing how Ants are affected by different coloured
Lights and Media.
Hrom the observations of Sprengel there could of course be
little, if any, doubt, that bees are capable of distinguishing colours 5
but I have in my previous papers read before the Linnean Society
recorded some experiments which put the matter beyond a doubt.
Under these circumstances, I have been naturally anxious to as-
certain, if possible, whether the same is the case with ants. I
have, however, found more difficulty in doing so, because, as shown
in the observations just recorded, ants find their food so much
more by smell than by sight.
I tried, for instance, placing food at the bottom of a pillar of co-
loured paper, and then moving both the pillar and food. The pillar,
however, did not seem to help the ant (Lasiws niger) at all to find her
way to the food. I then, as recorded in my previous paper, placed
the food on the top of a rod of wood 8 inches high, and when the
ant knew her way perfectly well to the food so that she went
quite straight backwards and forwards to the nest, I found that
if I moved the pillar of wood only six inches, the ant was quite be-
wildered, and wandered about backwards and forwards, round and
round, and at last only found the pillar, as it were, accidentally.
Under these circumstances, I could not apply to ants those
tests which had been used in the case of bees. At length, how-
ever, it occurred to me that I might utilize the dislike which ants,
when in their nests, have to light. Of course they have no such
feeling when they are out in search of food; but if light is let in
upon their nests, they at once hurry about in search of the darkest
corners, and there they all congregate. If, for instance, I unco-
vered one of my nests and then placed an opake substance over
one portion, the ants invariably collected in the shaded part.
I procured, therefore, four similar strips of glass, coloured re-
spectively green, yellow, red, and blue, or, rather, violet. The
yellow was rather paler in shade, and that glass consequently
rather more transparent than the green, which, again, was rather
more transparent than the red or violet. J then laid the strips
of glass on one of my nests of Formica fusca containing about
170 ants. These ants, as I knew by many previous observations,
seek darkness, and would certainly collect under any opake sub-
stance.
1 then, after counting the ants under each strip, moved the
colours gradually at intervals of about half an hour, so that each
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 279
should by turns cover the same portion of the nest. The results
were as follows—the numbers indicating the approximate num-
bers of ants under each glass (there were sometimes a few not
under any of the strips of glass):—
LAE ae Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.
50 40 80 0
5) a aes Violet. Green. Yellow. Red.
0) 20 4.0 100
Bae Red. Violet. Green. Yellow.
60 0 50 50
4. ...... Yellow. Red. Violet. Green.
50 70 1 40
Drs ise. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.
30 30 100 0
Gaere Violet. Green. Yellow. Red.
0 14 5 140
Ti SEA Red. Violet. Green. Yellow.
50 (0) 40 70
Seared. Yellow. Red. Violet. Green.
40 50 1 70
9. ....... Green. Yellow. Red. Violet.
60 35 65 @)
LOM ee Valolet: Green. Yellow. Red.
1 50 40 70
Hes Fors. ¢ ved: Violet. Green. Yellow.
50 2 50 60
11D tae Yellow. Red. Violet. Green.
35 55 0 70
Adding these numbers together, there were, in the twelve ob-
servations, under the red 890, under the green 544, under the
yellow 495, and under the violet only 5. The difference between
the red and the green is very striking, and would doubtless have
been more so, but for the fact that when the colours were trans-
posed the ants which had collected under the red sometimes re-
mained quiet, as, for instance, in cases 7 and 8. Again, the dif-
ference between the green and yellow would have been still more
marked but for the fact that the yellow always occupied the posi-
tion last held by the red, while, on the other hand, the green had
some advantage in coming next theviolet. In considering the differ-
280 SIR JOWUN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
ence between the yellow and green, we must remember also that
the green was decidedly more opake than the yellow.
The case of the violet glass is more marked and more interesting.
To our eyes the violet was as opake as the red, more so than the
ereen, and much more so than the yellow. Yet, as the numbers
show, the ants had scarcely any tendency to congregate under it.
There were nearly as many under the same area of the uncovered
portion of the nest as under that shaded by the violet glass.
Lasius flavus'also showed a marked avoidance of the violet glass.
IT then experimented in the same way with a nest of Formica
fusca, in which there were some pupx, which were generally col-
lected in a single heap. I used glasses coloured dark yellow, dark
ereen, light yellow, light green, red, violet, and dark purple. The
colours were always in the preceding order, but, as before, their
place over the nest was changed after every observation.
To our eyes the purple was almost black, the violet and dark
green very dark and quite opake; the pup could be dimly
seen through the red, rather more clearly through the dark yellow
and light green, while the light yellow were almost transparent.
There were about 50 pup, and the light was the ordinary diffused
daylight of summer. (See Table, p. 281.)
These observations show a marked preference for the greens
and yellows. The pups were 64 times under dark green, 3 under
dark yellow, 383 under red, and once each under light yellow and
light green, the violet and purple being altogether neglected.
I now tried the same ants under the same colours, only in the
sun; and placed a shallow dish containing some 10 per cent. so-
lution of alum sometimes over the yellow, sometimes over the red.
I also put four thicknesses of violet glass, so that it looked almost
black. (See Table, p. 282.)
Under these circumstances, the pups were placed under the red
7% times, dark yellow 53, and never under the violet, purple, light
yellow, dark or light green.
The following day I placed over the same nest, in the sun, dark
green glass, dark red and dark yellow (two layers of each). In
nine observations the pup were carried 3 times under the red
and nine times under the yellow.
I then tried a similar series of experiments with Zasius
niger, using part of a nest in which were about 40 pups,
which were generally collected in a single heap all together.
As before, the glasses were moved in regular order after each
281
STR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
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SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 283
experiment; and I arranged them so that the violet followed
the red. As far, therefore, as position was concerned, this gave
violet rather the best place. The glasses used were dark violet,
dark red, dark green, and yellow, the yellow being distinctly the
most transparent to our eyes.
Experiment. Experiment,
1. Pupee under yellow. 17. Pupe under yellow.
2. % 18. 4 i
3. e * 19. red.
4 9 ” 20. 1) ”
5 es 99 2 mo yellow.
6. 3) 39 22. 99 by)
the ereen. 23. ‘s A
8 * t 24. a red.
a: ms red. 25. it yellow.
10. RS yellow. 26. es red.
Tike - red. le e i
12. En yellow. | 28. ss 5,
13. ” ” ft 29. ” )
14. s red. 30. A yellow.
i155, ” ereen. 31. a red.
16. s ‘ 32. ot) ae ereen
I now put two extra thicknesses of glass over the red and
green.
35. Pupe under red. 37. Pup under red.
34. i yellow. 38. as a
35. - red. 39. i yellow.
36. Ae yellow. 40. Pe red.
The result is very striking, and in accordance with the observa-
tions on Hormica fusca. In 40 experiments the pup were carried
under the yellow 19 times, under the red 16 times, and under the
green 5 times only, while the violet was quite neglected. After the
first twenty observations, however, I removed it.
I then tried a nest of Cremastogaster scutellaris with violet glass,
purple glass, and red, yellow, and green solutions, formed re-
spectively with fuchsine, bichromate of potash, and chloride of
copper. The purple looked almost black, the violet very dark; the
red and green, on the contrary, very transparent, and the yellow
even more so. The yellow was not darker than a tincture of
saffron. The latter indeed, to my eye, scarcely seemed to ren-
der the insects under them at all less apparent; while under
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIy. 20
pt
SOnMDARMNE WHE
—
a)
284 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
the violet and purple I could not trace them at all. I altered
the relative positions as before. The nest contained about 50
larvee and pupe.
Observation.
ile gapeer Violet gl. Purple gl. ......... Bichr. pot. Fuchsine. | BE
Panpidity | aantiecee Bichr. pot. Fuchsine. Violet gl. Purple gl. "eS
CB ARARBE Fuchsine. Violet gl. Purple gl. ......... Bichr. pot. Ne
A aykten Green. Bichr. pot. Violet gl. Purple gl. Fuchsine. ‘S S
Dranabae Violet gl. Purpl.gl. Fuchsine. ......... Bichr. pot. | &%
ie ake Fuchsine, ois... Bichr. pot. Purple gl. Violet gl. f & oe
Us, costed Waoletycl se) Hiuchsineliaerceetae: Bichr. pot. Purple gl. | =e 8
toectnrnt: Purple gl. Violet gl. Fuchsine. ......... Bichr. pot. | a 2 dp
Dearie: Bichr. pot. Purple gl. Violet gl. 9 ......... Bich. pot. | Se a
105 conoae TNTOMSING)s — sonesn005 Bichr. pot. Purpl. gl. Violet gl. ) &
T then poured out half the yellow and green solutions and filled
them up with water, making them even lighter in colour as before.
(Pupx and
Observation. larvee half
IDA ease unplerelnmereeeee Violet gl. Fuchsine. Bichr. pot. } under the
a perches Bichr. pot. Purpl. gl. ......... Violet gl. Fuchsine. 4 ellow and
| half under
| the green.
Thus in every case the larvee and pupz were brought under the
yellow or the green.
Aug. 20.—Over a nest of Formica fusca containing about 20
pupe I placed violet glass, purple glass, a weak solution of fuch-
sine (carmine), the same of chloride of copper (green), and of bi-
chromate of potash (yellow, not darker than saffron).
. Violet. Purple. Green. Yellow. Red. The pup were placed under the yellow.
. Red. Violet. Purple. Green. Yellow. 3 a is
. Yellow. Red. Violet. Purple. Green. 95 % ©
Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. Purple. 5 7 A
Purple. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. " 4 Fs
Violet. Purple. Green. Yellow. Red. 5 i A )
Red. Violet. Purple. Green. Yellow. bp 5 green and yellow. ;
. Yellow. Red. Violet. Purple. Green. wn yellow.
. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. Purple. % green and yellow.
. Purple. Green. Yellow. Red. Violet. x 96 yellow.
. Violet. Purple. Green. Yellow. Red. a es 5
Here, again, in every case the pups were brought under the
yellow or the green.
I then tried a nest of Lasius flavus with the purple glass, violet
glass, the very weak bichromate of potash, and chloride of copper
as before.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 285
- Observation. [and green.
llgseopode Yellow. Green. Purple. Violet. The pups were brought under the yellow
eee Violet. Yellow. Green. Purple. ss “A ereen.
Sh vinaatie Purple. Violet. Yellow. Green. 3 i of
Al at eated Green. Purple. Violet. Yellow gestae s x
Doeteaees Yellow. Green. Purple. Violet. ») 9 yellow.
Om dscde: Violet. Yellow. Green. Purple. e 5 green.
The results, then, were the same as in the previous cases.
In these experiments, then, the violet and purple affected the
ants much more strongly than the yellow and green.
Tt is curious that the coloured glasses appear to act on the ants
(speaking roughly) as they would, or, I should rather say, inversely
as they would, on a photographic plate. It might even be alleged
that the avoidance of the violet glass by the ants was due to the
chemical rays which are transmitted. From the habits of these
insects such an explanation is very improbable. If, however, the
preference for the other coloured glasses to the violet was due to
the transmission and not to the absorption of rays—that is to say,
if the ants went under the green rather than the violet because
the green or red transmitted rays which were agreeable to the
ants, and which the violet glass, on the contrary, stopped—then,
if the violet was placed over the other colours, they would become as
distasteful to the ants as the violet itself. On the contrary, how-
ever, whether the violet glass was placed over the others or not, the
ants equally readily took shelter under them. Obviously, there-
fore, the ants avoid the violet glass because they dislike the rays
which it transmits.
Mr. Busk suggested that as the red glass stops the chemical
rays more effectually than the yellow or green, while the violet
is most transparent to them, and as the ants prefer the red
glass to the yellow or green, and these, again, to the violet, possibly
the explanation might be that the chemical rays were peculiarly
distasteful to them. To test this, therefore, I made some ex-
periments with fluorescent liquids which Mr. Hanbury was
kind enough to procure for me from Mr. Benger, of Manchester.
They were prepared by M. Caro, of Manheim. One was opake
grass-green by reflected light and orange by transmitted; one
violet by transmitted light and red by reflected; and a third
green by transmitted and red by reflected light. I believe their
exact chemical composition is not known, but that, in all cases,
fluorescine is the principal ingredient. They stop the chemical
rays, or rather turn them into visible rays. The action takes
20*
286 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
place altogether at the surface of the liquids, so that it is not ne-
cessary to use any large quantity. I poured them into shallow
glass cells about 4 inch deep, which I put, as before, over the ants.
If now they were affected mainly by the chemical rays, it must
appear to them to be dark under these solutions. This, however,
was not the case. The solutions seemed to make no difference
to them. JI also tried quinine and uranium glass with the same
effect.
In order to ascertain what colours were transmitted by these
several media, I-then tested them with the spectroscope, and
with the following results :—
The violet glass transmitted violet, blue, some green and yellow to about the line
D in the spectrum or a trifle beyond.
» 9) (double) transmitted violet and blue with tinge of red.
green glass. p most of blue, and about to line “ a.”
" » (double) ,, green, yellow, and red to about line “C,”
45 » (dark) Hy green and some yellow.
yellow ,, 5 the spectrum from red end to about half-
way between “F'” and “8.”
‘ » (dark) Is from red to end of green about “ F.”
red o " red with a touch of orange.
G » (double) _,, only red.
urple ,, of a little violet, a little yellow, orange, and
red.
Amm. sulph. of copper (blue) transmitted violet and blue only.
Chloride of copper... (green) 0 green, an edging of blue, and faint
yellow with an edging of orange.
Salionmeceemeneececcees op every thing except violet and blue.
Bichromate of potash (orange) ,, red, orange, yellow, and very little
green.
& ey | ¥, red, orange, yellow, and green,
IEnchisin'e Peserereererin (carmine) ,, red only.
Solution of carmine.. 99 ” ”
Solution of iodine a “a red, orange, and a very little-yellow.
But though the ants so markedly avoided the violet glass, still,
as might be expected, the violet glass certainly had some effect,
because if it was put over the nest alone, the ants preferred being
under it to being under the plain glass only.
I then compared the violet glass with a solution of ammonio-
sulphate of copper, which is very similar, though perhaps a little
more violet, and arranged the depth of the fluid so as to make it
as nearly as possible of the same depth of colour as the glass.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCE ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPs. 287
Approx. number
of Ants
under the Exp. 1. Exp. 2. Exp. 3. Exp.4. Exp. 5. Exp. 6.
Glassy cscckGies 0 0 0 2 0 2
SOMIGtOTE eens 40 80 100 80 50 7
Exp. 7. Hxp,8. Exp.9. Exp. 10. Total.
0) 2 3 0 9
60 40 90 100 710
In another experiment with Lasius niger Lused the dark yellow
glass, dark violet glass, and a violet solution of 5 per cent. ammonio-
sulphate of copper, diluted so as to be, to my eye, of exactly the
same tint as the violet glass ; in 8 observations the pup were three
times under the violet solution, and 5 times under the yellow glass.
I then removed the yellow glass, and in 10 more observations
the pupz were always brought under the solution.
It is interesting that the glass and the solution should affect
the ants so differently, because to my eye the two were almost
identical in colour. The glass, however, was more transparent
than the solution.
To see whether there would be the same difference between red
glass and red solution as between violet glass and violet solution, I
then (Aug. 21) put over a nest of Formica fusca a red glass and
a solution of carmine, as nearly as I could make it of the same
tint. In 10 experiments, however, the ants were, generally speak-
ing, some under the solution and some under the glass, in, more~
over, as nearly as possible equal numbers.
Aug. 20.—Over a nest of Formica fusca containing 20 pupe, I
placed a saturated solution of bichromate of potash, a deep solution
of carmine, which let through scarcely any but the red rays, and
a white porcelain plate.
Observation
1. Under the bichromate of potash were 0 pupz, carmine 18, porcelain 2.
2. 99 39 0 3) 3) 6 ” 14.
oe ” ” 6 39 99 9” 11.
4, 9 9 0 ”? ” 5) 29 18.
5. ”9 9 6 ” ” 4 ” 10.
6. 9 +) 0 Ed 39 19 ” ho
7. 9 bP) 0 99 be) 0 ” 20.
8. o2 ” 4 9 39 15 be) 1.
9. td 9 2 33 ” 4 33 14.
10. 3 5 ORE, i Ao age 1G.
ll. ” the 0 ” ” 3 te} 17.
Total... 56, dopg0od00090206 18 81 124
288 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
I then put over another nest of Formica fusca four layers of
red glass (which,when examined with the spectroscope, let through
red light only), four layers of green glass (which, examined in the
same way, transmitted nothing but a very little green), and a por-
celain plate. Under these circumstances the ants showed no
marked preference, but appeared to feel equally protected, whether
they were under the red glass, the green glass, or the porcelain.
Thus, though it appears from other experiments that ants are
affected by red light, still the quantity that passes through dark
red glass does not seem to disturb them. I tested this again by
placing over a nest containing a queen and about 10 pupz a piece of
opake porcelain, one of violet, and one of red glass, all of the
same size. The result is shown below.
Observation.
1. Queen went ace red glass. 5 pupze were taken under red glass, 2 under porcelain.
9. 3 porcelain. 0 ” ” 7 ”
Sh i red glass. O » ” 7 ”
4. ” 3” 6 3” bb) 2 »”
5, 5 79 6 29 ’ 2 ”
6 59 95 3 ” ” 7 ”
", * 90) 10 9 ” 0 ”
8. f % 4 9 3 6 ”
), ” ” 1 39 9?) 0) 2)
10. iS porcelain. 0 ne a3 10 3
iil ce red glass. 10 2 0 ”
12. 3 porcelain. 4 39 6 ”
13, red glass. 7 ” 09 3 ”
14. S porcelain. 4 Ke 6 20
15. 5 red glass. 4 » » 6 ”
16. 55 porcelain. 0 3 3 10 »
‘7A 5 red glass. 10 » ” 0 ”
18. “5 5 8 ” » 2 ”
19. “s porcelain. 7 Uae af 3 a
20, 3 arene 0» » 9
90 88
Obviously, therefore, the ants showed no marked preference
for the porcelain. On one, but only on one occasion (Obs. 9),
most of the pups were camila under the violet glass, but gene-
rally it was quite neglected.
T now tried a similar experiment with two layers of yellow
lass.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 289
Obs.
1, Queen went under the porcelain. 8 pupze were taken under yellow, 2 under porcelain.
2. ” 99 ” 2 ’ ” 8 bed
3. LB) 7 29 8 ” bed 2 ”
4. a a yellow glass. 5 _ s 5 te
ae 7H a porcelain. 3 3 4 8 3
6. a 53 yellow glass. 8 a ss 3 3
Wo a 5 porcelain. 6 4 5 me
8. ” ” 2? 0 bh) ” 7 é]
9. at es = 0 a ¥ 10 is
10. ¥ % yellow glass. 9 = i 1 5
We 3 PF porcelain. §& ef f 2 Fs
12. 3 a “3 3 4 3 a PP
13. 65 " yellow glass. 10 3 es 0 b
14. “3 53 porcelain. C ae 53 10 uo.
15. i 3 yellow glass. 10 x bg 0) Pe
16. 45 PA 45 7 i 5 3 5
We 3 Fs ue 10 - be 0) a
18. 43 $s porcelain. 1 3 oe 9) oh
U8), +5 i Pe 0) 4 = 10 7
98 92
I then put two ants on a paper bridge, the ends supported by
pins, the bases of which were in water. The ants wandered back-
wards and forwards, endeavouring to escape. I then placed the
bridge in the dark and threw the spectrum on it, so that succes-
sively the red, yellow, green, blue, and violet fell on the bridge.
The ants, however, walked backwards and forwards without
(perhaps from excitement) taking any notice of the colour.
I then allowed some ants (Lasius niger) to find some larve, to
which they obtained access over a narrow paper bridge. When they
had got used to it, I arranged so that it passed through a dark
box, and threw on it the principal colours of the spectrum, namely,
red, yellow, green, blue, and violet, as well as the ultra-red and
ultra-violet ; but the ants took no notice.
At the suggestion of Prof. Stokes, I then tried the following
experiments. Mr. Spottiswoode not only most kindly placed the
rich resources of his laboratory at my disposal, but he and his
able assistant Mr. Ward were good enough to arrange the ap-
paratus for me.
We tried the ants with coloured lights in a Bunsen’s burner,
using chloride of strontium and carbonate of lithia for red, chlo-
ride of barium for green, and chloride of sodium for yellow. The
lithium gives an almost pure red, the strontium and barium give
a little yellow, but so little that I do not think it would affect
the ants.
290 MR. A. G. BUDLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
The ants on which we experimented were Formica fusca and
F’, cinerea and Oremastogaster scutellaris ; but it was rather too
late in the season, and they were somewhat torpid.
The yellow of the soda-flame certainly affected the Formica
cinerea, but the others seemed to take no notice of it.
The barium also affected the /: cinerea, but neither of the others ;
IT could not feel sure whether it was the green or the accom-
panying yellow which disturbed them. The red of the lithium
was not so brilliant, still the F. cinerea seemed to perceive it.
The strontium-flame did not seem to have any effect on the
ants.
Tt is obvious that these facts suggest a number of interesting
inferences. I must, however, repeat the observations and make
others ; but we may at least, I think, conclude from the preceding
that :— (1) ants have the power of distinguishing colour; (2) that
they are very sensitive to violet; and it would also seem (3) that
their sensations of colour must be very different from those pro-
duced upon us.
As to the Longevity of Ants.
IT have been much surprised at the longevity of my ants. I
have still two queens of Formica fusca* which haye been with me
since 1874. They must therefore now be at any rate four years
old; but as they were probably a year old when I captured them,
they would now be not less than five years old. As regards
workers, I have some specimens of Formica sanguinea and LF. fusca
which M. Forel was so good as to send me from Munich in the
beginning of September 1575, some /. cinerea which I brought
back from Castellamare in Noy. 1875, and a great many belong-
ing to various species which have been with me since 1876.
On the Butterflies in the Collection of the British Museum
hitherto referred to the Genus Huplea of Fabricius. By
Arruur G. Buruer, F.L.S., &e.
[Read February 21, 1878.]
In the year 1866 I published a “ Monograph of the Diurnal
Lepidoptera belonging to the Genus Huplea,”’ in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Zoological Society.’ In this memoir I split up the group
into arbitrary and, as I now see, very unnatural divisions, over-
looking the fact that several natural genera existed.
* These ants are still alive, Aug. 1878.
REFERRED TO THD GENUS EUPLM@A. 291
In his paper “ On the Generic Names proposed for Butterflies,”’
Mr. Scudder regards Danais similis as the type of Huplea, his
argument being briefly as follows:—The Fabrician species are H.
plexippus, H. similis, and #. core; EH. plexippus is the type of
Danaida, Watreille, and #. core of Crastia, Hubner ; therefore L.
similis must be accepted as the type of Huplea.
Since no structural distinction between the green-spotted and
tawny species of Danais has, to my knowledge, ever been pointed
out, it would create hopeless confusion to accept this conclusion of
Mr. Seudder’s ; for then we should have to call Danais “ Kuplea,”
and sink the “ Danaida” of Latreille (plural form of the same) as
asynonym; I therefore would propose that the general usage of
the Fabrician name be retained.
In Mr. Scudder’s revision of the genera he frequently super-
sedes a name longinuse by the resuscitation of a partial synonym—
that is to say, he knocks over such a genus as Huplea (or, at any
rate, its long-accepted use) by the restoration of a name applied
to two of its many species. This alteration is in such cases not
a help, but a great hindrance to the advancement of science,
almost as much so, indeed, as his departure from the rule of the
British Association respecting the use of the terminations ide
and ia@ for families and subfamilies, for the sake of adopting
the long-forgotten terms Astyci, Rurales, Candidi, and a host of
others.
For some of the genera Mr. Scudder objects to Hibner’s names
because of the heterogeneous character of the material associated
under them by their author ; whereas in the case of others (Cithe-
rias, for instance) he selects the only species which ought to have
been omitted by Hiibner as the type, thereby retaining a generic
name which, of all others, ought to be shelved, to the overthrow
of a properly defined recent genus. Where such partiality 1s ob-
served in the adoption or rejection of names, it is impossible
altogether to follow this author.
It is my opinion, then, that #. core should, as hitherto, be re-
garded as type of the Fabrician genus, and ZH. climene (placed
with it by Hubner) as type of Crastia.
I propose to adopt the genera Salpinx and Trepsichrois of
Hubner, to fix the limits of my genus Calliplea, and to add a
genus for the reception of all those species the males of which
have two brands upon the interno-median area of primaries: for
this group I propose the name Stctoplea. The use of the brands
292 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
on the males of Huplea and Stictoplea is not certainly known ;
they are, however, distinctly impressed upon that portion of the
primaries which comes in contact with the anterior border of the
secondaries and the very prominent costal vein of the same wings
(between which the surface is much depressed) ; it is therefore
possible that they are for purposes of strigillation. In the fol-
lowing pages I shall give a list, under each genus, of the species
contained in the Museum cabinets, adding notes where necessary
to the elucidation of changes in synonymy &c., but not needlessly
burdening the paper with a repetition of the references contained
in Mr. Kirby’s ‘ Synonymic Catalogue.’
The first genus, Salping, is not altogether a satisfactory one ;
it contains two groups of species, the one group being much like
an enormous form of Calliplea (I refer to the S. phenareta group),
the other having a blue or sericeous brand upon the interno-
median area; in other respects the species seem nearly allied.
I propose to give the first of these groups the subgeneric title
of Macroplea.
Saupinx, Hubner.
Macroplea, Butler.
1. S. poHmNARETA, Schaller. 3 2, Amboina and North Ceram.
S. unibrunnea of Salvin should follow this species.
2. S. pLisa, Butler. S 2, Ceylon. (Types.)
3. 8. pHa@pus, Butler. & 2, Moulmein, Penang, Malacca.
(Types.) SS. brown of Salvin should be placed here and suc-
ceeded by S. mesocala of Vollenhoven, the female of which some-
what resembles it.
4. S. CALLITHOE, Boisd. ©, New Guinea. I mistook this fine
species for the female of S. mesocala, than which it is altogether
darker ; the Huplea callithoé of my Monograph is an entirely
distinct species.
5. 8. seMicrrcuLus, Butler. ¢. Hab. 2 (Type.)
Salpina, typical.
6. S. HismE, Boisduval. 9, Aru. Felder redescribes this spe-
cies under the name of Hv. bernsteinit.
7. 8. PasttHEA, Felder. G 9, Amboina and Ceram. This is
the LH. ewnice of my Monograph, and much like the Java species ;
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPL@A., 293
the LZ. staintonii of Felder is a slight variety to which one of our
Amboinese examples is referable.
8. S. consANGUINEA, n. sp.—Allied to S. pasithea, but more
readily compared with H. iphianassa; it differs from the latter in
the small size of the discal series of white spots on the primaries,
all, excepting the two uppermost in the male, being reduced to
points, and all those of the female being of equal size: expanse
3 inches 3-5 lines. o¢ @, Aneiteum, New Hebrides (five ex-
amples).
9. S. GRAEFFIANA, Herr.-Sch. o, Vaté, New Hebrides. This
is readily distinguished from the preceding by the pale borders to
its wings.
10. S. reutanassa, Butler. 3S 2, Aneiteum, New Hebrides. |
(Types.)
11. 8. EUNICE, Godart. ¢ 9, Java.
12. S. vestreratTa, Butler. §$ 9, Sumatra and Malacca.
(d type.)
13. 8. Hopsonut, Butler. 2, Formosa. (Type-)
14. 8. KADU, Hschscholtz. $ 2, Borneo.
15. 8. HEWITSoNII, Butler. @, Philippines. (Type.) Rather
larger than the preceding, the spots of primaries larger and bluer ;
two large spots on interno-median area, the lower one being very
large and white-centred. This appears to differ locally from Bor-
nean examples, and therefore I reinstate it.
16. S. viona, Butler. 3 Q, Celebes. (Types.)
IL7fo Sh
18. 8.
19. S. mmitata, Butler. 6, Solomon Islands. (Type.)
20. 8.
21. S. asstminata, Felder. 3, “Tiyoor.”’ I cannot find the
locality of our example in any atlas; Felder gives Aru as the
habitat of the species.
MNISzECHII, Helder. < 9, Celebes.
ELEUSINE, Cramer. <¢ 2, Java.
FRATERNA, Helder. 6, Ké Island.
22. 8. FRIGIDA, n. sp.—Allied to the preceding, but the white
arched belt of primaries further from the outer margin (which is
broadly brown), and fading away on the first median interspace
instead of running round the outer part of the inner margin ;
294 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
white outer border of secondaries narrower: expanse 3 inches
7 lines. 6, North Ceram.
23. S. ustperes, Hewitson. 3, Aru Islands.
24. S. nyacinruus, Butler. 3 9, Celebes. (Types.)
25. S. nupator, Hewitson. &, Celebes.
26. S. napamantuus, Fabricius. ¢, Silhet; 9, Nepal. This
seems to me to be the Fabrician insect; Mr. Moore has a Series
of both sexes.
27. 8. procLteTiANus, Mabricius. § 2, Malacca, Penang, Sin-
gapore.
28. 8S. Lowi, n. sp.—Differs from the preceding in the smaller
size of all its spots, the white patch of primaries distinctly ex-
cavated internally ; the two spots nearest to the apex white;
secondaries with only three or sometimes two short internal
- white streaks: expanse 3 inches 4 lines. Borneo (Low). Two
3d examples. Ihave seen other specimens of this species, which
is quite constant in its differences from the Malacca form.
29. 8S. ancrpicr, Godart. 3 @, Java. This is another well-
marked local form of the Radamanthus group.
30. 8. torENZzO, Butler. §, Solomon Islands. (Type.)
31. S. rREINscHKIT, Boisduval. 3 9, New Ireland.
32. S. supERBA, Herbst. ¢ 2, India, 8. China. I believe the
E.. ochsenheimeri of Lucas (nec Moore) to be either a faded ex-
ample of this species, or something very closely allied to it.
33. S. spLENDENS, Butler. $ 9, Nepal and Cherra Poonjee.
(Type.) Felder has described this species under the name of Z.
rogenhofert.
34, §. Margarita, Butler. 3 2, Moulmein, Penang, Malacca.
(Types.)
35. 8. kLuait, Moore. S 9, N. India.
36. S. ILLUsTRIS, n. sp.—Nearly allied to S. Alugii, but the
outer border of primaries deep chocolate-brown, not covered by
the blue shot, and with the white spots upon it smaller; the
discal series of spots abbreviated, not extending below the infe-
rior discoidal interspace ; the third spot in the series considerably
larger: expanse 3 inches 11 lines. ’, Silhet.
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPL@A. 295
eo
=
wa
. CHLOE, Guérin. G 2, Sumatra and Malacca.
. CRASSA, Butler. 3 Q, Siam. (Types.)
. ERIcHSoNU, Felder. ¢G 9, Dukhun and Bhotan.
. GAMELIA, Hubner. ¢ 9, Java.
ee
2
RMD MN
41. S. meyerus, Butler. 3 9, Borneo, Sumatra, Singapore.
(Types.) The preceding forty-one species are, for the most part,
large insects, the males of which invariably have a strongly arched
inner margin to the primaries, which are frequently ornamented
by an elongated depressed silky or blue spot; the secondaries
invariably with a large patch of whitish or pale yellow cut by the
subcostal vein. ,
CatLipLa@a, Butler.
1. C. uepEererti, Felder. § 2, EH. India, Malacca. C. dehaanit
seems to be allied to this species.
2. C. sertata, Herr.-Sch. $, Moala Island; 9, Maré, Loy-
alty group.
3. C. DoRYCA, n. sp.— 2. Allied to the preceding and to C. ma-
eares, larger and more brilliantly. blue-shot than either: wings
above piceous, very dark and brilliantly shot with purplish blue ;
outer borders chocolate-brown, darkest on the primaries ; eight
white-centred lilac spots in an angular series, the three first con-
fluent, the first and last minute, the others larger: secondaries
with an angular discal series of lilacine white spots, the three
nearest to apex alone distinct, decreasing in size from the costa.
Wings below chocolate- brown, with a continuous discal series of
white spots, each wing also with a marginal series of white dots
not reaching the apex; primaries with a white subcostal point
above the end of the cell; a large lilacine white oval spot near
the base of the first median interspace; inner border pale sandy
brown, with a large central lilacine patch. Expanse 3 inches 1 line.
Dorey (Wallace).
I have little doubt that Dr. Felder has confounded both this
and L. mazares with his ZL. saundersit.
4. C. Mazarus, Moore. & 9, Java. (Types.)
5. C. pumita, Butler. & 2, New Guinea, Waigiou. (Types.)
One or two species allied to this haye recently been described by
Kirsch. C. trimenii of Felder is the same insect.
296 MR. A. G. BULLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
6. C. unrantrits, Butler. &, New Guinea. (Type.) The
Hupl. sempers of Felder seems nearly allied to this species.
7. C. samnsit, Butler. 2, Port Moresby. (Types.) .
8. C. saunpErstt, Felder. ¢, Aru Island (three males). C.
forstert and C. adyte are clearly allied to this species.
9. C. TURNERI, n. sp.— 2. Allied to the preceding, but more
so to C. tulliolus, from which it differs in the white spotting of
the primaries, only the second to the fourth of the discal spots
being united to form the subapical patch (in H. twlliolus the fifth
is included), and in the more olivaceous tint of the broad pale
outer border of secondaries: expanse 2 inches 9 lines. Darnley
Island (Dr. Turner).
10. C. tuntiotus, Fabricius. $ 2, Rockingham Bay, Port
Stephen, Frankland Isles, Aneiteum, and Erromango.
11. C. pottita, Hrichson. 3, Philippines. This is very closely
allied to C. tulliolus, but the second to the sixth of the white
spots are connected.
12. C. ntvEaTa, Butler. & 9, Queensland, Cape York, Fitz-
roy Island. (Types.)
18. C. HyEMs, Butler. ¢, Timor. (Type.) The Hupl. arisbe
of Felder is this species, and #. hopfferi is a nearly allied form.
14. C. parcuta, M‘Leay. ¢ 2, Australia.
15. C. prrapus, Butler. S 9, Port Essington, New Holland.
(Types.) The species of Calliplea are all small; they have the
inner border of the primaries in the males strongly developed
and covering a large subcostal yellowish patch upon the secon-
daries, but without any trace of a brand on the interno-median
area.
TrEePstcHRois, Hubner.
Primaries elongated, the outer margin subangulated and slightly
inarched below the apex; the inner margin of the male very
slightly convex, without trace of a brand, but the secondaries
with a small yellowish patch in the cell at the origin of the first
subcostal branch.
1. T. cuaupia, Fabricius. § 2, Java.
2, T, MuLorBER, Cramer. 6S 9, Labuan, Sarawak, Malacca.
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPL@A. 297
3. T. mipamus, Linneus. ¢ 2, Malacca, Penang, Sumatra,
Nepal, N. India.
4, T. tistpHoONE, Butler. 3, Philippines.
Crastra, Hibner.
Males with more acuminate primaries than in Zrepsichrois, the
inner margin much more convex ; no brand on the primaries, and
no yellowish spot in the cell of secondaries: females similar to
Trepsichrois in form.
1. C. scuDDERII, n. sp.—Near to “C. ochsenheimeri” of Moore,
but much darker ; above with a small spot above the end of the
cell, a second in the cell, a third at one third the distance between
the cell and the apex, two placed obliquely on the inferior dis-
coidal and second median interspaces ; a discal curved series of
eight (of which the third is largest), and an irregular submarginal
series of dots, white: secondaries with one or two subapical white
points; costal area pale. Primaries below nearly as in the C.
ochsenheimert of Moore, but the spots smaller; secondaries with
fewer and smaller spots, the submarginal series obsolete. Expanse
1 inch 10 lines. Borneo (Shepherd).
2. C. OCHSENHEIMERI, Moore. 3 2, Java. (Types.) This is
probably the C. gyllenhali of Lucas; but the description of that
species states at first that the spots on the primaries are blue ;
afterwards, in the comparative description of the female, they
are called white: I therefore prefer provisionally to retain Mr.
Moore’s name for this Javan species, which is generically distinct
from the Hupl. ochsenheimeri of Lucas.
3. C. MALAYICA, n. sp.—Closely allied to the preceding, but
larger, considerably darker, and with the white spots much
larger, both the submarginal series in the secondaries of the male
complete; the female with a spot in the cell followed by three
complete series: expanse 4 inches 7 lines. ¢ 9, Malacca, Pe-
nang, Singapore.
4, C. cratis, Butler. 3, Philippines. (Type.)
5. C. procieria, Hiibner. oS 2, Philippines.
6. C. xinBERGI, Wallengren. 2, China.
7. C. crameErt, Lucas (& Moore). & 2, Borneo. The de-
scription by M. Lucas answers to Moore’s species.
298 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
8. C. MoorEr, Butler. 9, Sumatra. (Type.)
9. C. Brement, Felder. 9, Malacca, Sumatra, India.
10. ©. epenina, Butler. 3, Aru. (Type.) The £. aglidice of
Boisduval seems allied to C. ebenina, but differs on the under
surface.
11. C. nuaEns, Butler. &$, New Guinea. (Type.)
12. C. runrRDA, n. sp.—Velvety black-brown, with the costal
borders and a broad external border bronzy olive-brown, crossed
by a snow-white discal belt divided into spots by the nervures,
angulated in primaries, twice as wide in the female as in the
male, and followed (excepting at apex of primaries) by a sub-
marginal series of white spots in couples: wings below paler and
redder than above; a blue spot in each discoidal cell, followed by
a series of blue spots, three or four in the primaries, and five in
an angular series in the secondaries: expanse 3 inches 5 lines.
3 2, Port Moresby (Dr. Turner). A beautiful species.
18. C. squartpa, n. sp.—Nearly allied to the preceding, smaller,
paler, with all the spots of the white belt well separated, of a dull
creamy tint; the submarginal spots absent from the primaries,
obsolescent on the secondaries; the outer margin of the primaries
is also much straighter, and the discal series of spots parallel to
it, and therefore not sinuous as the white belt is in C. fumerea:
expanse, ¢ 3 inches 4 lines, 9 2 inches 11 lines. ¢ 9, Port
Moresby (Dr. Turner).
If this species.did not differ in shape, as well as in colour and
marking, it might be regarded as a variety of C. funerea.
14. C. rrsarta, Butler. & 2, Port Moresby (Dr. Turner).
15. C. nox, Butler. 3, Aru. (Type.)
16. C. aouporit, Boisduval. 2, Madagascar.
17. C. atecto, Butler. 3 9, Ceram. (Types.)
18. C. mezancnontoa, Budler.- ¢, Amboina. (Type.)
19. C. camARALZAMAN, Butler. 6, Siam. (Type.)
20. C. moprsta, Butler. o, Siam; 2, Moulmein. (Types.)
21. C. szpuncHRaALis, Butler. $ 9, Java. (Types.) Eupl.
zinkenti of Felder is the Amboinese form of this species, with
which it is confounded by its author.
22.°C. cLimMENA, Cramer. ¢& 9, Ceram, Amboina.
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPLQ@A. 999
23. C. MELINA, Godart. 9, Aru and Ceram. upl. redten-
bachert of Felder is identical with this species.
24. C. wattacet, Felder. 6, Gilolo.
25. C. LAPEYROUSEI, Boisduval. , Port Moresby. Hupl.
batesit of Felder, from Gilolo, seems closely allied to this.
26. C. occunta, Butler. S$ 2, Port Moresby. (Type.)
27. C. mrutors, Butler. 3, Waigiou. (Type.)
28. C. arayi, Felder. , Aru.
29. C. conFusa, Butler. $, Waigiou and New Guinea.
(Type-)
Evriaa, Fabricius.
The species of this genus are for the most part similar in form
to those of the genus Crastia; but the males have a more or less
strongly defined longitudinal brand on the interno-median area
of the primaries.
1. E. swatnsontt, Godart. $9, Philippines. Z. donovani,
from Celebes, is allied to the above.
2. H. BELINDA, n. sp.—@. Allied to £. orope, but the seconda-
ries with pale brown external area, crossed by a discal decreasing
series of white spots and a submarginal series of white dots
(nearly as in Z. helcita): expanse 2 inches 9 lines. Sumatra.
3. E. onope, Boisduval. $ 2, Timor. LF. baudiniana of Godart
may perhaps be a variety of this species.
4. HE. ELEUTHE, Quoy Gaimard. 2, Samoa (?), Ellice Islands.
5. E. conmnna, U‘Leay. 3$ 9, New Holland. 4. angasic from
Cape York and Moreton Bay, and #. lewinii from N. Australia,
Port Bowen, and Champion Bay, are slight varieties of this abun-
dant species.
6. E. nELcrta, Boisduval. New Caledonia, Erromango, Anei-
teum, Navigators’ Islands. Identical with #. montrouziert of
Felder.
7. HE. uscuscHoirzi, Felder. Fiji. A slight local modification
of the preceding species.
§. E. prsarora, Butler. 3 @, Ellice Islands (Whitmec).
9. HE. perRy1, Butler. o, Nieue or Savage cone (yee)
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV.
300 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
10. E. proserpina, Buller. Sf, Ovalau, Vanua Levu, Fiji.
(Types.)
11. BE. azsecra, Butler. 2, Philippines. (Types.)
12. BE. warrmet, Butler. 3, Lifu. (Type.) LE. boisduvali of
Lucas seems to be an allied species.
13. BE. scumentzt, Herr.-Sch. &,Samoa; 2, Upolu.
14. E. mirra, Moore. 3, Seychelles. (Type. Hab.
15. E. anpamanensis, Atkinson. 6, Andamans.
16. E. prana, Butler. 3, Celebes. (Type.) This is the &.
kirby of Felder.
17. E. norsFieLpu, Felder. <¢, Celebes. £. leachii of Felder
is an allied species.
18. HE. renpert, Butler. 3 Q, Hong-Kong, Sumatra. (‘Type.)
This is the H. lorquinit of Felder.
19. E. FRAUENFELDI, Felder. &, Trincomalee.
20. E. amymone, Godart. & 9, Cochin-China and Sumatra.
21. E. nienerti, Moore. <, Java. (Type.)
22. E. WALLENGRENII, Felder. S 9, Java (Horsfield).
23. E. scHErzenrt, Felder. 3, Java (Horsfield). This appears
to be an immaculate form of H. wallengrenit ; it is not congeneric
with my Z. picina.
24. EB. sanus, Butler. S 9, Java. (Types.)
25. E. Meera, Butler. o 2, Aru. (Types.)
26. E. auteintit, Felder. & 2, Port Moresby (Dr. Turner).
27. HE. vioteTta, Butler. S$ 2, Port Moresby (Dr. Zurner).
We have eight forms which make a gradation from this species to
#f. dolosa, and respecting which it is impossible, without breeding,
to decide as to whether they are varieties or species; they all
have females like themselves in tint and marking, but the distine-
tions between each two of these forms are less than are usually
to be found in allied species occupying the same district. I be-
lieve one or two of them are distinct ; but until I have seen more
examples it would be mischievous to name any of them without
giving figures of the whole.
28: E. potosa, Butler. & 2, Port Moresby (Dr. Turner).
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPL@A. 301
29. HE. anturacitna, Butler. ¢, Amboina. (Type.)
30. E. DUPONCHELI, Boisduval. ¢$,Ceram. Close to the pre-
ceding, perhaps not distinct.
31. HE. prerreri, Felder. , Waigiou; 2, Port Moresby.
32. E. morosa, Butler. 3 9, Sumatra(?) and Gilolo. (Types.)
This is #. dalmanu of Felder.
33. EH. torvina, Butler. S 9, Aneiteum, Lifu. (Types.)
34. EH. PAYKULLEI, Butler. &$ 2, Vaté, Aneiteum, Mota Island.
(Types.)
35. E. BRENCHLEYI, Butler. ¢ 2, Solomon Islands. (Types.)
#. vicina of Felder is intermediate in character between this spe-
cies and the next.
36. E. EuRYPoN, Hewitson. , Ké Island.
37. KE. coparri, Lucas. $ 2, Philippines and Siam. This
is H. siamensis of Felder. -
38. EH. coREOIDES, Moore. 9, Ceylon.
39. EH. corn, Cramer. <¢ 2, N. India, Landoor.
40. H. vERMicuLATA, Butler. 6S 2, N. India, N. Bengal.
41. HK. Eynpuovil, Felder. ¢ Q, Java (Horsfield).
42. EH. atcatHoi, Godart. 6 @, Silhet,N.India. Felder has
redescribed this as H. doubledayi because of the incorrectness of
Godart’s locality; H. geyeri, from Java, is intermediate in cha-
racter between £. alcathoé and £. pinwillit. .
43. HE. PINWILLI, Butler. & 2, Malacca. (Types.)
44, B. menetrriftsri, Felder. & 2, Borneo, Malacca, India.
45. B. putons, Westwood. & 2, Darjeeling, Silhet. Felder
hag described the female under the name of . poey2.
SrictopLe@a, Butler.
Males for the most part with straight inner margin like the
females, always with two well-defined sericeous brands on the
interno-median area, and placed one above the other. Type S.
gloriosa.
1. S. anortosa, Butler. 3, Celebes. (Type.) This is described
by Felder as Z. schlegelii, and by Vollenhoven as £. superba.
302 MR. A. G. BUTLER ON THE BUTTERFLIES
2. 8. swinnour, Wallace. 3 9, Formosa.
3. 8. taririca, Butler. 3 2, Philippines. (Types.)
4. S. erovet, Felder. 3 9, Malacca. Hupl. harrisii of Felder
is closely allied to this species.
5. 8. Hooper, Felder. 3, Silhet.
6. S. MicrosTicTa, n. sp.—Primaries like those of S. hopei, ex-
cepting that they are larger, all the spots are considerably smaller,
and the purple shot is less vivid; secondaries with only the three
first of the discal series of white spots: expanse 4 inches 2 lines.
Hab. ? (from the Banksian Cabinet.)
7. S. Brnorata, n. sp—d 2. Primaries quite as in S. hope ;
secondaries with only two white subapical points; all the other
spots obsolete: expanse 4 inches 2 lines. Silhet, Darjeeling, North
India, E. India, Borneo.
This is the Zupl. callithoé of my Monograph, but not of Bois-
duyal.
8. 8. tanKaNna, Woore. 3S 2, Ceylon. S. consimilis and mon-
tana of Felder are allied to this species.
9. S. protna, Butler. S, Sumatra. (Type.)
10. S. iInzQUALIS, n. sp.—d. Nearly allied to S. picina, but
much smaller, the primaries above with the upper longitudinal
sericeous brand narrower and much shorter than the lower brand ;
secondaries blacker, with the disco-submarginal area much paler,
forming an internally diffused belt; wings below with all the
bluish-white spots much smaller: expanse 3 inches 11 lines.
Amboina.
11. S. InconsPicvA, n. sp.— od. Wings above dull black ; pri-
maries with the central three fifths of the costal border, the ex-
ternal border, external angle and outer third of internal border
chocolate-brown, diffused internally ; the two sericeous streaks
well developed, the upper one narrower and slightly shorter than
the lower: secondaries with the costal border broadly sericeous
white ; subcostal and interno-median areas chocolate-brown, dif-
fused ; external area broadly reddish brown, diffused internally.
Wings below bronzy reddish brown, blackish in the centre : pri-
maries with the internal border greyish sericeous, terminating
externally, near the external angle, in a whitish patch ; a small
spot in the cell and two on the median interspaces bluish white :
REFERRED TO THE GENUS EUPL@A. 303
secondaries with a spot in the cell, and five in an angular series
beyond it, bluish white. Expanse 3 inches 7 lines. Sumatra.
12. S. iwmacuLata, n. sp.—d @. Nearly allied to S. mesta,
but altogether darker, the male without the apical or submarginal
blue spots, and the female without the white spots on the upper
surface of the primaries; blue spots below small, but similar:
expanse, ¢ 3 inches 3-4 lines, 2 3 inches 1 line. Port Moresby
(Dr. Turner).
Possibly a variety of S. masta, approaching the preceding spe-
cies.
138. 8. ma@sta, Butler. S, Dorey; o&@, Port Moresby.
(Type.)
14. S. potEscHaLu, Felder. 9, Port Moresby.
15. 8. rRristis, Butler. $, Aneiteum, New Hebrides. (Type.)
16. S. panna, Butler. S, Aru. (Type.)
17. 8S. sytvesterR, Fabricius. S$ 9, Port M‘Quarie, N. Aus-
tralia, Cape York.
18. 8. PEtoR, Doubleday. $ 2, Australia, New Holland.
(Types.)
19. 8. PEuPHON, Fabricius. 9, Mauritius. We have five ex-
amples of this species, one of which appears to be a male; if so,
this species will come into Crastia, near C. goudotiz, since none of
our specimens have a trace of any band on the primaries. I can-
not decide this point without fresh examples; ours are old, and the
body of the doubtful individual seems to be broken: therefore,
since the pattern agrees with the Australian group, it may pro-
-visionally be retained in Stictoplea. ;
304 DR. P. MANSON ON THE DEVELOPMENT
On the Development of Filaria sanguinis hominis, and on the
Mosquito considered as a Nurse*. By Patrick Manson,
M.D. (Communicated by Dr. Coszotp, F.R.S., F.L.S.)
[Read March 7, 1878.]
DEVELOPMENT cannot progress far in the Host containing the Parent
Worm.—F¥ortunately it is an almost universal law, in the history
of the more dangerous kinds of Entozoa, that the egg or embryo
must escape from the host inhabited by the parent worm before
much progress can be made in development. Were it possible
for animals so prolific as Filaria immitis of the dog, or Filaria
sanguinis of man, to be born and matured and to reproduce their
kind again in an individual host, the latter would certainly be
overwhelmed by the first swarm of embryos escaping into the
blood, as soon as they had made any progress in growth. If, for
example, the brood of embryo FYlarie, at any one time free in the
blood of a dog moderately well charged with them, were to begin
growing before they had each attained a hundredth part of the
size of the mature F¢laria, their aggregate volume would occupy a
bulk many times greater than the dog itself. I have calculated
that in the blood of certain dogs and men there exists at any
given moment more than two millions of embryos. Now the
individuals of such a swarm could never attain any thing ap-
proaching the size of the mature worm without certainly involving
the death of the host. The death of the host would imply the
death of the parasite before a second generation of Filarie could
be born, and this, of course, entails the extermination of the
species; for in such an arrangement reproduction would be
equivalent to the death of both parent and offspring, an anomaly
impossible in nature.
The Embryo must escape from the original Host.—It follows
therefore that the embryo, in order to continue its development
and keep its species from extermination, must escape from the first
host in some way. After accomplishing this it either lives an
independent existence for a time, during which it is provided
with organs for growth not possessed by it hitherto; or it is
swallowed by another animal which treats it as a nursling for
such time as is necessary to fit it with an alimentary system.
The former arrangement obtains in the Filarie inhabiting the
* [Throughout this memoir Dr. Manson employs the term “nurse” in the
same sense as that in which helminthologists use the term “intermediate host.”
—T. 8. Cossoxp.]
OF FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS. 305
intestinal canal, the Lwmbricus and thread-worm ; the latter is
followed by the several species of tapeworm, and also by other
kinds of Entozoa.
I find that in cases where embryo Filari@ are not in great
abundance in the blood, we may infer that there are only one or
two parent worms; they often disappear completely for a time, to
reappear after the lapse of a few days or weeks. From this cir-
cumstance I infer—Ist, that reproduction is of an intermitting
and not of a continuous character ; and, 2ndly, that the embryos,
after a certain time, are either disintegrated in the blood or are
voided in the excretions. The latter does occur, I know from
personal investigation, in the urine; and we have Dr. Lewis’s
testimony that he has found the animals in the tears. In this
way they may have an opportunity of continuing development
either free (as in the case of the Luwmbricus) in the media into
which the excretions are voided, or in the body of another animal
which has intentionally or accidentally fed on these (as in the
case of the tapeworms). Man, in his turn, may then swallow this
hypothetic animal or other thing containing the embryo suitably
perfected, and so complete the circle. This is the history of many
Entozoa; but I have evidence to adduce that, if it be one way in
which F. sanguinis hominis is nursed, it is not the only way, and
therefore probably not the way at all.
The Mosquito found to be the Nurse.—It occurred to me that, as
the first step in the history of the hematozoon was in the blood,
the next might happen in an animal who fed on that fluid. To
test this idea I procured mosquitos that had fed on the patient
Hinlo’s blood (Case No. 46, published in ‘Med. Times & Gaz.’
for March), and, examining the expressed contents of their
abdomens from day to day with the microscope, I found that my
idea was correct, and that the hematozoon which entered the
mosquito as a simple structureless animal, left it, after passing
through a oe of highly interesting metamorphoses, much
increased in size, possessing an alimentary canal, and being other-
wise suited for an independent existence.
History of the Mosquito after feeding on Human blood.—I may
mention that my observations have been made exclusively on
the females of one species of mosquito. I have never, in many
hundreds of specimens, met with a male insect charged with blood.
This is explained by the arrangement of the appendages and pro-
boscis of the male mosquito, which prevents it from penetrating
306 DR. P. MANSON ON THE DEVELOPMENT
the skin. As the male is provided with a complete alimentary
apparatus, it is presumed that he feeds on the juices and exuda-
tions of plants and fruits. There are two species of mosquito
found during the summer here: one quite a large insect about
half an inch long, with a black thorax and black-and-white banded
abdomen; the other about half that size and of a dingy brown
colour. The former is rare comparatively; the latter is very
common, and is the insect my remarks apply to. After a mos-
quito has filled itself with blood (which it can do, if not disturbed,
in about two minutes), it is evidently much embarrassed by the
weight of its distended abdomen, so that it no longer can wheel
about in the air. It accordingly attaches itself to some surface,
if possible near stagnant water, where it remains in a compara-
tively torpid condition, digesting the blood, excreting yellow
gamboge-looking feces, and maturing its ova. In the course of
from three to five days these processes are completed, and the
insect now betakes itself to the water, where the eggs are depo-
sited, and on the surface of which they float in a dark-brown
mass, looking like a flake of soot. The eggs do not take long to
hatch (they are beautifully shaped objects, like an Etruscan vase) ;
and the embryo emerges by forcing open a sort of lid placed at
the broad end of the shell. The larve now escape into the water,
where they swir about and feed, and become the “ jumpers’’ we
are familiar with, found in every stagnant pool.
If the contents of the abdomen are examined before the mos-
quito has fed, or after the food has been absorbed, the following
parts can easily be distinguished :—two ovisacs containing from
sixty to a hundred ova, two large glandular masses (intestine and
cesophagus), and a very delicate transparent fibrous bag, the sto-
mach. Ifthe blood contained in the dilated stomach is examined
soon after ingestion, the blood-corpuscles are seen quite distinct
in outline, and behaving very much as when drawn in the ordi-
nary way; but changes rapidly occur. First, the corpuscles lose
their distinctness in outline, then crystals of hematin appear ;
corpuscles and crystals give place to large oil-globules, and the
mass is deprived of its fluidity, and before the eggs are deposited
all colouring-matter disappears; the white material is absorbed or
expelled, and by the time the eggs are deposited the stomach is
quite empty but for the embryo Filarie it may contain.
How to procure Mosquitos containing embryo Filarize.—It may
be useful to those who wish to repeat and test my observations
OF FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS. 307
to know the plan I found most successful in procuring Filaria-
bearing mosquitos, and how their bodies were afterwards treated
for microscopic observation. Such details may appear frivolous
and unimportant; but by following them the observer will be
spared disappointment, and economize his time and patience.
I persuaded a Chinaman, in whose blood I had already ascer-
tained that Filarte abounded, to sleep in what is known as a
mosquito-house, in a room where mosquitos were plentiful.
After he had gone to bed a light was placed beside him, and the
door of the mosquito-house kept open for half an hour. In this
way many mosquitos entered the “house ;” the light was then
put out, and the door closed. Next morning the walls of the
“house” were covered with an abundant supply of insects with
abdomens thoroughly distended. They were then caught below
a wineglass, paralyzed by means of a whiff of tobacco-smoke, and
transferred to small phials, into some of which a little water had
been poured. A cover providing for ventilation was then placed
over the mouth of the phial. The effect of the tobacco-smoke, if
it has not been applied too long, is very evanescent, and seems to
have no prejudicial influence on the posture of the mosquito.
From the phials they may be removed from time to time, as re-
quired, by again paralyzing with tobacco and seizing them by the
thorax with a fine pincers. The abdomen is then torn off, placed
on a glass slide, and a small cylinder, such as a thin penholder,
rolled over it from the anus towards the severed thoracic attach-
ment. In this way the contents are safely and efficiently ex-
pressed, and observation is not interfered with by the almost
opaque integument. If the contents are white and dry a little
water should be added and mixed carefully with the mass, so as
to allow of the easy separation of the two large ovisacs. These
can be removed in this way by the needle, and transferred to
another slide for separate examination. A thin covering-glass
should be placed over the residue, which will be found to contain
the Filarie either within the walls of the stomach, or, if these have
been ruptured by too rough manipulation, floating in the sur-
rounding water.
Large proportion of Filarie ingested by the Mosquito.—The
blood in the stomach of a mosquito that has fed on a Filaria-infested
man usually contains a much larger proportion of Milarie than
does an equal quantity of blood obtained from the same man in
the usual way by pricking the finger. Thus six small slides,
LINN, JOURN,—ZOOLOGY, VOL, XIV. 22
308 DR. P. MANSON ON THE DEVELOPMENT
equivalent to about one drop of bloed from the man on whom
most of my observations were made, would contain from ten to
thirty Hematozoa; whereas the blood drawn by a single mosquito,
about as much as would fill one slide only, contained from twenty
to thirty as a rule, and sometimes many more. One slide, in
which I had the curiosity to count them, had upwards of a hun-
dred and twenty specimens. From this it would appear that the
mosquito has the faculty of selecting the embryo Pilarie ; and in»
this strange circumstance we have an additional reason for con-
cluding that this insect is the natural nurse of the parasite.
All Embryos do not attain maturity.—By far the greater number
die and are disintegrated, or are expelled in the feces undeveloped.
At the end of the third, fourth, or fifth day, when the stomach is
quite empty as far as food is concerned, and an embryo could not
easily be overlooked, only from two to six are found in the same
or slightly different stages of the emetarmorpbosts which T will now
attempt to describe.
The Metamorphosis of the Embryo.—The embryo for a short
time after entering the stomach of the mosquito retains all the
appearances and habits which characterized it when in the human
body; that is, it is a long snake-like animal, having a perfectly
transparent structureless body enclosed in a delicate and, for the
most part, closely applied tube, within which it shortens and ex-
tends itself, giving rise, from the collapse of the tube when the
body is retracted at either end, to the appearance of a lash at
the head and tail. In a very few hours changes commence. The
tube first separates from the body by an appreciable interval,
giving the appearance of a distinct double outline, and the body
itself becomes covered with a delicate but distinct and closely set
transverse striation. Oral movements are now very evident, not
that they did not exist before, but because the slight increase of
shading from the striation renders them more apparent. The
indication of a viscus seen in some specimens vanishes at this
stage. Presently the tube or sheath is either digested by the
gastric juices of the mosquito, or it is cast off as a snake does its
skin, and the animal swims about naked, and without any trace
of a head- or tail-lash. The striation becomes very marked; but
gradually as the blood thickens, and the movements of the em-
bryo become in consequence less vigorous, these markings com-
pletely disappear, giving place to a peculiar spotted appearance.
Each spot is dark or luminous, according to the focusing of the
\
OF FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS. 309
microscope, and probably depends on some oily material now
collecting in the body of the animal.
This concludes the first stage of the metamorphosis, and has
taken about thirty-six hours to complete. During all this time
the original proportions of the animal have been preserved and
vigorous movement maintained. Now, however, it enters on a
sort of chrysalis condition, during which nearly all movement is
suspended, and the outline and dimensions very much altered.
Hitherto the body was long and of graceful contour, but now it
becomes shorter and broader, the extreme tail alone not partici-
pating in the change. The large spots in the body disappear,
gradually giving place to what seems to be a fluid holding nume-
rous minute particles in suspension. I have once or twice detected
to-and-fro movements in these. The tail continues to be flexed
and extended vigorously, but only at long intervals, whilst all oral
movements cease. By the end of the third day the animal has
become much shorter and broader, the small terminal portion of
the tail still retaining its original dimensions, and appearing to
spring abruptly from the end of the sausage-shaped body. Large
cells occupy the previously homogeneous-looking body, and some-
times something like a double outline can be traced. Indications
of a mouth present themselves; and if a little pressure is applied
to the covering-glass, granular matter and cell-like bodies escape
from an orifice placed a little in advance of the tail. The animal
now begins to increase in length, and in some specimens to dimi-
nish in breadth, the growth seeming to be principally in the oral
end of the body. The structure of the mouth is sometimes very
evident ; it is four-lipped, the lips being either open or pursed up.
From the mouth a delicate line can be distinctly traced, passing
through the whole length of the body to the opening already re-
ferred to as existing near the caudal extremity. Feeble move-
ment may still sometimes be detected in the caudal appendix; but
when the now growing body has attained a certain length the
tail gradually disappears.
After this point, specimens of the Milaria in its third and last
stage are difficult to procure. Most mosquitos die about the
fourth or fifth day after feeding; and if their bodies, which fall
into the water, are examined, they are soft and sodden and with-
out Filarie, these having either decomposed or escaped. Some-
times, however, ovulation does not proceed rapidly, and the
mosquito survives to the fifth or sixth day ; or perhaps death may
not occur, as it usually does, soon after the eggs have been laid,
310 DR. P. MANSON ON THE DEVELOPMENT
and the-insect may survive this operation for two or three days.
Tn such the last stage of the metamorphosis can be studied: four
to six days seem necessary for its completion. Out of hundreds
of mosquitos watched, I have been successful in finding Fvlarie in
this last stage in four instances only. In one of these there was
quite a number of embryos in regular gradation, from the passive
chrysalis up to the mature and very active embryo, so that there
can be no doubt of the relationship of the latter to the former,
though their appearances differ so much. Owing to the small
number of specimens I have examined, I am not quite certain
about the details of this stage of the metamorphosis. As far as
I can make out, the body gradually elongates from the hundredth
to the fortieth or thirtieth of an inch, and when mature it measures
fully a fifteenth of an inch in length by the five hundredth of an
inch in breadth.
When at the above stage large cells occupy the interior; but
as development advances these become reduced in size, and accu-
mulate round the dark line I have already mentioned as running
from the mouth to the caudal extremity. In this way an alimentary
tube is fashioned, and the peculiar and characteristic valve-like
terminatiom of the cesophagus in the intestine, seen in the Maria,
is developed. The mouth may now be seen open and funnel-
shaped, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. Movements,
first of a swaying-to-and-fro character, but afterwards brisker,
now begin. The body gradually elongates and becomes perhaps
slightly thinner; all cellular appearance vanishes, and, owing to
the increasing transparency of the tissues, the details can no
longer be made out. A vessel of some sort is seen in the centre
running nearly the whole length of the body, and opening close
to one extremity; this extremity is slightly tapered, and is
crowned with three, or perhaps four, papille ; but whether this is
the head or tail, and whether the vessel opening near it is the
alimentary canal or vagina, I cannot say ; the other extremity is
also slightly tapered, but has no papille. ‘There can be no doubt
which is mouth and which tail, but the intermediate steps I have
failed to trace satisfactorily. There is a stage between these two
in which the mouth is closed, and the cesophagus can be seen
running from it. If the body is compressed, that tube can be
forced through the skin and distinctly seen ; but about that time
the tissues become so transparent that their exact relations can-
not be made out.
I cannot say if the three or four papillz round one extremity
OF FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS. ei? 311 ;
of the developed embryo constitute the perfected boring-appa-
ratus of the worm, or if it is the boring-apparatus at all; but
comparing this with what is found in other species of the same
genus, [ think it very probable that it either is or will become the
piercing-apparatus. Some time ago I operated on an Australian
horse for this worm, and had the satisfaction of finding the para-
site not very much injured after removal: it was an unimpreg-
nated female possessing all the typical structures of the Filarie.
Its head was armed with a five- or six-toothed saw, the teeth ar-
ranged, like those in some kinds of old-fashioned trephines, in a
circle round the mouth. I removed a worm from the same eye of
the same horse about three or four weeks previously ; the cornea
had healed, and the cloudiness cleared up before the second worm
appeared. I infer from this, from the very perfect boring-appa-
ratus, and from the female being unimpregnated, that the eye is
not the resting- or breeding-place of the Filaria found in it, but
that it is sometimes accidentally entered by the worm on its travels
in search of the suitable spot. From the fact that one worm suc-
ceeded the other I infer that the sexes are brought together in
this way (as in the case of Filaria sanguinolenta of the dog): when
a wandering worm comes across the tract of another, it follows it
up; thus several may be found together at the end of the burrow.
Probably, then, these papille are the boring-apparatus to be
used in penetrating the tissues of man and escaping from the ©
mosquito. At this (presumably the final) stage of the Filaria’s
existence in the mosquito it becomes endowed with marvellous
power and activity. It rushes about the field, forcing obstacles
aside, moving indifferently at either end, and appears quite at
home, and in no way inconvenienced by the water in which it has
just been immersed. This furmidable-looking animal is undoubt-
edly the Filaria sanguinis hominis equipped for meas life
and ready to quit its nurse the mosquito.
Future history of the Filaria.—There can be little doubt as to
the subsequent history of the Filaria, or that, escaping into the
water in which the mosquito died, it is through the medium of
this fluid brought into contact with the tissues of man, and that,
either piercing the integuments or, what is more probable, being
swallowed, it works its way through the alimentary canal to its
final resting place. Arrived there, its development is perfected,
fecundation is effected, and finally the embryo Filarie we meet
with in the blood are discharged in successive swarms and in
‘countless numbers. In this way the genetic cycle is completed.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 28
312 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
Revision of the Hippidea. By Epwanp J. Mirrs, F.LS., F.Z.8.,
Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British
Museum.
[Read November 1, 1877.]
(PuateE VY.)
Introductory Remarks.—The determination of the different spe-
cies of this small and peculiar group of Anomurous Crustacea,
and their identification with the brief descriptions of the earlier
authors, are often very difficult. Where the type specimens no
longer exist, it must of necessity remain uncertain what species
were known to Linneus and Fabricius. But three or four
species are mentioned by Lamarck and Latreille; and only five
are described by M. Milne-Edwards in the second volume of the
‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés’ (1837). In the twenty years
following the publication of that work the number of species was
more than quadrupled, as we find that Stimpson, in 1858, in the
preliminary Report on the Crustacea collected by the United
States Expedition to the North Pacific, enumerates (but does not
describe) 23 species, contained in 6 genera; and since the publi-
cation of his list several additional species have been described.
In the present revision of the group I have endeavoured, as far
as the state of our knowledge and the materials afforded by
the extensive collection of the British Museum will permit, to
determine the geographical range and the extent of individual va-
riation in the several species, and to indicate reliable characters by
which they may be distinguished ; but as several species are either
desiderata or insufficiently represented in the national collection,
there yet remain several points requiring further elucidation.
Three new species are described; but as several of those pre-
viously recorded are reduced to the rank of synonyma, the total
number is only 22.
It may be desirable to present a brief summary of the views
held by the different authors upon the classification and affinities
of the Hippidea, beginning with Latreille, who, by his researches,
may be considered to have laid the foundation of the natural
arrangement of the Crustacea. By this author (Gen. Crust. et
Ins. 1. p. 44, 1806) the genera Remipes, Hippa, and Albunea were
arranged in the family Paguriens of the tribe Macroures ; but he
subsequently (Cuvier R. A. ed. 1, i. p. 27, 1817) constituted a
distinct section, Anomaua, to contain these genera, together with
the Paguride, Porcellanide, and Galatheide. Lamarck (Hist.
MR. BE. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. 313
Nat. Animaux sans Vert. v. p. 218, 1818), observing the external
relationship of the Hippide with Ranina, arranged them with
the latter genus in a distinct section of the family, characterized
by the lamellated terminal joints of the legs.
M. H. Milne-Edwards (Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. p. 167, 1837)
considered the Hippiens a distinct tribe of the family Ptérygures
of his Orustacés Anomoures, but regarded them as allied to the
Raninide (p. 198).
De Haan (“ Crustacea,” in ‘Fauna Japonica,’ dee. vi. p. 195,
1849) retains in a somewhat wider sense the division Anomala of
Latreille, in which he includes the Hippidea, recognizing (p. 1386)
their relationship to the Raninide in external appearance and the
form of the legs, from which, however, he points out they are
widely separated in the form of the pterygostomian regions, number
of the branchie, and characters of the sternum and postabdomen.
By Dana (Crustacea in U.S. Explor. Exped. xiii. pp. 51 &
402, 1852) a very different view is taken of the affinities of these
animals. This author traces with great care and accurate know-
ledge the relations of the different groups of Anomura with the
higher Brachyural types, of which they are severally degraded
forms, showing that they may, with equal propriety, be classified
(a) as in a linear descending series they deviate from the
Brachyural to the Macrural type, or (0) according to their
respective natural affinities with the higher Brachyural sub-
tribes. In the former system the Hippidea are ranked by him
with the Porcellanidea, as constituting the second section, dno-
moura media, of the tribe Anomoura; in the latter they are classed
as Anomoura Corystidica, immediately beneath the Corystoidea,
which latter are undoubtedly Cancroid Crustacea. With all defer-
ence to the opinion of the distinguished American naturalist, [ must
regard the older view of their affinities as the more correct.
Although in their elongated carapace and antennex the Hippidea
have a considerable resemblance to certain of the Corystoidea, as
will be seen, e. g., by comparing the Chilian Blepharopoda spini-
mana and Pseudocorystes sicarius, 1 believe their true affinities
are with the Oxystomatous Brachyura, through the Ranimide.
They resemble these latter in their narrow and elongated form,
natatorial legs, and, in the case of the Albunezde, in the high and
laterally compressed hands of the anterior legs, which altogether
resemble those of the Oxystomatous Calappa and allied genera.
On account of the imperfect definition of the buccal cavity, it is
23*
314 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
not easy to trace any resemblance either to the Cancroidea or to
the Owystomata in the form of the mouth and oral appendages.
There exists, however, an important characteristic, and one, I
believe, not hitherto noted, in the form of the terminal lobe of
the exognath of the first pair of maxillipedes, which in the Hippidea
is elongated and narrow, as in the Oxystomata, where it is usually
applied to the opening of the efferent branchial channel. In the
Cancroidea and Oxyrhyncha this joint is more or less obtriangular,
short, and truncated at its distal extremity.
Stimpson, in the Report already referred to (Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. -
Philad. p. 229, 1858), places the Hippidea in the second section,
Schizosomt, ofthe Anomura. He establishes the two very distinct
and natural families, Wippide and Albuneide, gives diagnoses of the
known genera, and adds two, previously unrecorded, to the list*.
Geographical Distribution—The Hippidea inhabit all the
warmer temperate and tropical seas of the globe. Remipes
testudinarius, one of the most variable, is also the most widely
distributed species, occurring throughout the whole Indo-Pacific
region, from the east coast of Africa, along the southern and south-
eastern coast of Asia, in Australia, through the islands of the
Pacific, to the Galapagos and Cape St. Lucas in California.
Another species, 2. scutellatus, is found on both the eastern and
western shores of the Atlantic Ocean. The majority of the
species of the family appear, however, to be somewhat restricted
in their range. Those belonging to the family Albwneide are,
with two exceptions, restricted to the American continent, where
these Crustacea are especially abundant. The only species at
present certainly known to inhabit the seas of Europe is Aléwnea
guerinit from the Mediterranean.
List of the Species of Hippidea.
Fam. Hipripz.
REMIPES.
Names of the Species. Geographical Range.
1. R. testudinarius, Latr. Whole Indo-Pacific region.
s, var. denticulatifrons, os
2. R. scutellalus (Fabr.). Florida, West Indies, West coast
of Africa, Cape-Verd Islands,
Ascension Island.
* Dr. Claus (‘ Untersuch. Crust. Syst.’ pp. 59-61, Wien 1876) rejects the
suborder Anomura, and refers the Hippidea to the Brachyura on account of
what is known of their development. I regret that I have not yet had an
opportunity of studying this important work.
b> —
|
IH OA w NO
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDHA. 315
Names of the Species. Geographical Range.
. R. strigillatus, Stimpson. California.
. R. truncatifrons, n. sp. China.
MASTIGOCHIRUS.
. M. gracilis, Stm. China.
. M. quadrilobatus, n. sp. Philippines.
HIppPa.
. H. emerita (Linn.). Eastern coast of America (Cape
Cod to Brazil).
. H. analoga, Stm. Western coast of America (Cali-
fornia to Chili).
. H. asiatica, M.-Edw. Indian Ocean, Indo-Malayan archi-
pelago.
Fam. ALBUNEID&.
ALBUNEA.
. A. symnista (Linn.). Indian Ocean, Indo-Malayan archi-
pelago.
A. guerinii, Lucas. Gulf of Algiers.
. A. microps, White, MS. Sooloo Island.
A. gibbesii, Stimpson. South-east coast of United States.
. A. oxyophthalma, Leach (ined.). West Indies, Cayenne, Brazil.
. A. lucasii, Saussure. Mazatlan.
. A. speciosa, Dana. Sandwich Islands.
LEPIDOPS.
. L. scutellata (Desm.). Peru? St. Thomas.
. L. venusta, Stm. West Indies (St. Thomas).
. L. myops, Stm. California (Cape St. Lucas).
BLEPHAROPODA.
- B. spinimana (Philippi.). Chili.
. B. occidentalis, Randall. : California.
. B. spinosa, M.-Edw. and Lucas. Peru.
As to Habits —Until quite recently but little was known re-
speciing the life-history and habits of the Hippidea; but Mr. S.
L.
Smith has, in his most interesting and valuable memoir on the
early stages of Hippa talpoidea (Trans. Connect. Acad. iii. 1877),
furnished a fully detailed account of the development of the
common species of the Eastern shores of the United States. He
states, with regard to its habits, that this animal is far more
abundant on the sandy coasts of the Southern United States, and
gives reasons for believing that the northern range of this, as of
316 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
many other southern species, is restricted by the extreme cold of
the winters*.
He states, moreover, that H. talpoidea lives gregariously,
burrowing in the loose and changing sands at or very near low-
water mark, but that it is occasionally found swimming about in
pools left by the tide, and when undisturbed sometimes comes
out and swims in the same way along the shore, although pro-
bably never venturing far from the bottom.
It may be noted that Dana found his specimens of 2. hirtipes
swimming along the sandy bottom in shallow waters, near the
shores of a small island off Soung, the principal harbour of the
Sooloo Islands. Occasionally, however, these animals are col-
lected at greater depths. Thus Lucas collected his specimens of
Albunea guerinii at depths of 16-21 fathoms in the Gulf of
Algiers; and Mastigochirus gracilis, Stimpson, was collected
on a shelly bottom at a depth of 20 fathoms, at the island of
Ousima. So also specimens of the rare Blepharopoda spinimana
in the British-Museum collection were obtained by fishermen in
deep water in the Bay of Valparaiso.
Fam. Hippip#.
Hippide, Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sct. Phil. p. 229 (1858).
Anterior legs not subcheliform. Antenne with the accessory
joint minute or obsolete. Third maxillipedes suboperculiform, the
third joint greatly enlarged and without an exognath ; last tail-
segment greatly elongated, lanceolate, and acute at the extremity.
REMIPES.
Remipes, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. p. 45 (1806); M.-Edw. Hist. Nat.
Crust. ii. p. 204 (1837) ; Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil. p. 229
(1803). .
Antennules of moderate length. Antenne very short. Third
maxillipedes with the last joint somewhat unguiform. First legs
elongated, subeylindrical, robust ; the last joint not annulated,
styliform, similar to the preceding.
REMIPES TESTUDINARIUS. PI. V. fig. 1.
2 Hippa adactyla, Fabr. Ent. Syst. ii. p. 474 (1793), Suppl. p. 370
(1798) ; Latr. Hist. Nat. Crust. vi. p. 176 (1803).
* The advance northwards of species common to the east coast of North
America is probably checked by the cold Arctic current which impinges on the
shores of the United States and flows southwards between the coast and the
warm waters of the Gulf Stream ?—EHprror.
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. 317
Cancer emeritus, Herbst, Naturg. Krabben u. Krebse, u. p. 8, pl. xxi.
fig. 4 (1796), nec Linn. ?
Remipes testudinarius, Latr. Gen.- Crust. et Ins. i. p. 45 (1806); Lam.
Hist. Anim. sans Vert. v. p. 223 (1818); Desm. Consid. Crust. p. 175,
pl xxix. fig. 1 (1825); M.-Edw. Hist. Nat. Crust. 1. p. 406, pl. xxi.
figs. 14-20 (1837); Crust. in Cuvier R. A. (ed. 3), Atlas, pl. xh. fig.
1; Guérin-Ménev. Icon. R. A. Crust. pl. xv. fig. 3; Heller, Reise der
Novara, Crust. p. 72 (1865); Hilgendorf, Crust. in Van der Decken’s
Reisen in Ost-Afrika, ii. p. 94 (1869).
Remipes marmoratus, White, List Crust. Brit. Mus. p. 58 (1847), sine
descr.
Remipes pacificus, Dana, U.S. Expl. Exp. xiii. Crust. i. p. 407, pl.
xxv. fig. 7 (1852); Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, vii.
p- 241 (1862); Miers, P. Z. 8. (1877) p. 74.
Remipes hirtipes, Dana, I. c. p. 408, pl. xxv. fig. 8 (1852).
Remipes marmoratus, Jacq. et Lucas, Crust. in Voy. Pole Sud, Zool. ui.
p: 97, pl. viii. figs. 22-26 (1853) ; Miers, Cat. New-Zeal. Crust. p. 59
(1876).
Remipes pictus, Heller, Crust. Rothen Meeres, in Sitzungsb. Ak. Wiss.
Wien, xliv. i. p. 243 (1862). -
Remipes ovalis, A. M.-Edw. Faune Carcinol. in Maillard, Ile Réunion,
u. Annexe F, p. 12, pl. xvii. fig. 5 (1863).
Moderately convex, the carapace marked with numerous fine
interrupted transverse lines, postfrontal sinus usually distinct.
Frontal lobes moderately prominent, obtuse, and rounded, the
lateral lobes (in the typical form) scarcely projecting beyond the
median ones. Sides of the carapace with a series of shallow pits
bordered with tufts or lines of short hairs, forming a linear sub-
marginal striated area. Eye-peduncles slender, and usually ex-
tending a little beyond the end of the basal joint of the anten-
nules, which, like the antenne, are short and clothed with longish
- hairs. Anterior legs elongated, and clothed with rather long
hairs, which are densest on the inner margins, and show a ten-
dency to disposition in oblique series on the upper and outer
margins of the last two joints; the last joimt is similar to the
preceding, and tapers somewhat to its extremity, which is clothed
with long hair. The second, third, and fourth pairs of legs are
robust; the terminal joint of the second and third pairs but slightly
falcate, its distal half short, broad, and obtusely rounded at the
extremity; that of the fourth pair narrow and straight. Rami of
the appendages of the penultimate postabdominal segment ovate
and unequal, the inner the larger. Terminal segment elongated,
oblong-lanceolate. -
318 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
Hab. Australian Seas (Ooll. Mus. Paris, Brit.); Red Sea
(Heller) ; Mauritius (Coll. Mus. Brit.) ; Zanzibar (v. der Decken);
Réunion (Maillard); Nicobars (Heller) ; Sooloo Island (Dana) ;
Moluceas, Flores (v. Martens); Philippines (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ;
Ousima (Stimpson) ; New Hebrides, Mallicollo (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ;
Fiji Islands, Ovalau (Dana; Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; Samoa or Navi-
gators’ Islands (Coll. Brit. Mus.); Sandwich Islands (Dana) ;
Tahiti (Heller, Coll. Brit. Mus.); California, Cape St. Lucas
(Stimpson, Coll. Brit. Mus.).
This species, as has already been observed, is the most common
and widely distributed of the family, and varies somewhat in the
form of the frontal lobes, tarsal joints, &c. In the figure given
by Milne-Edwards, in the 3rd edition of Cuvier’s ‘ Régne Animal,’
and Guérin in the ‘Iconographie,’ and in specimens observed by
Hilgendorf from Zanzibar, as in one specimen in the British-
Museum collection, from Australia, there is a small tooth in the
notch separating the median frontal teeth; but this peculiarity
can hardly be considered to indicate a distinct variety of the
species. The greater number of the specimens in the Museum
are of the female sex; and between these and the males I have
not remarked any striking sexual distinctions; the terminal
segment of the male, however, is narrower than that of the
female. The length of the carapace of the largest specimens in
the collection does not exceed 14 in.
I have not discovered among the Banksian specimens now in
the British Museum the type specimen of Fabricius’s H. adactyla,
which has been referred to by Milne-Edwards as synonymous
with this species, but is described as having “cauda inflexa,
articulo primo longitudine thoracis,’ which certainly does not
apply to it; and I therefore retain the designation testudinarius,
by which it is generally known.
I follow Hilgendorf in uniting R. pictus, Heller, and R. ovalis,
Edw., with this species, as no characters are given which suffice
to distinguish them from the common form. The same may be
said of Ft. pacificus and hirtipes, Dana: of the former species
specimens from the Smithsonian Institution are in the British-
Museum collection which certainly belong to R. testudinarius.
Var. DENTICULATIFRONS. PI. V. fig. 2.
Remipes denticulatifrons, White, List Crust. Brit. Mus. p. 57 seg
sine descr.
-
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. 3l9
In this variety the lateral lobes of the front are narrower, spini-
or tuberculiform, and project beyond the level of the median
lobes. The frontal margin in the adult is denticulated. The
striations of the lateral margins are smaller than in the typi-
cal variety, forming a very narrow marginal band. The ter-
minal joint of the second and third pair of legs is much more
strongly falcate, its distal half narrower, and its apex more
acute.
Hab. Zanzibar; Philippine Islands, Maibate; Java; New
Hebrides, Aneiteum ; Loyalty Islands, Lifu; Galapagos, Charles
Island (Coll. Brit. Mus.).
The characters of this variety are so marked in the adult that
I was at first inclined to consider it a distinct species; but they
are much less evident in the young animal. Most of the speci-
mens I have examined are of the female sex; but the characters
are not sexual, as there are adult females of the preceding variety
in the collection. It would appear, from the localities given
above, that the range of this form is equal in extent to that of
the typical variety. The largest specimen, that to which White
originally applied the name, is much larger than any other of the
genus which I have seen—the carapace having a length of 12 inch,
and greatest breadth of 14 inch.
REMIPES SCUTELLATUS.
Squilla barbadensis ovalis, Petiver, Pterigraph. Amer. pl. xx. fig. 9.
Hippa scutellata, Fabr. Ent. Syst. ii. p. 474 (1793).
Remipes scutellatus, List Crust. Brit. Mus. p. 57, sine descr. (1847).
Remipes cubensis, Saussure, Rev. et Mag. Zool. ix. pp. 304, 308 (1857);
Meém. Soc. Phys. et Hist. Nat. Genéve, xiv. p. 452, pl. i. fig. 19
(1858).
Remipes barbadensis, Crap son: Anis yc. Nat. Hist. New York, x.
p- 120 (1871).
Body depressed, broad. Front very broad, anterior margin
sinuated on either side of the very slightly prominent median
frontal lobe, which is less acute than in &. strigillatus. The
obliquely striated area forms a narrow marginal band on each
side of the carapace, and is but very little broader posteriorly.
Hye-peduneles short, projecting but very little beyond the penul-
timate joint of the antennules—which is scarcely visible from
above, beyond the frontal margin of the carapace. Anterior legs
of moderate length ; terminal joint slightly compressed, with two
strong oblique setose ridges on its extero-inferior surface. Ter-
3820 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
minal joints of the second and third pairs of legs faleate, with
the distal as long as, and slenderer than the proximal half. Inner
ramus of the appendages of the penultimate segment longer than
the outer. Terminal segment elongated-lanceolate. Length of
carapace of largest specimen nearly 1 inch.
Hab. Cuba (Saussure, Coll. Brit. Mus.); Barbadoes (Prof.
Gill, Coll. Brit. Mus.); Key Biscayne, Florida (G. Wurdemann) ;
St. Christopher’s (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; St. Vincent, Cape-Verdes
(Cunningham, Coll. Brit. Mus.); Ascension Island (Coll. Brit.
Mus.); West Africa (Coll. Brit. Mus.).
There can be little doubt that the FR. cubensis of Saussure
and &. barbadensis of Stimpson are identical. Stimpson does not
indicate any distinct specific characters in his description of the
latter species; and there are even specimens from Barbadoes in
the British-Museum collection, received from the Smithsonian
Institution, labelled #. cubensis. The specimens named by Dr.
Leach #. scutellatus, and mentioned by White in the ‘ List of
Crustacea’ (J. c.), which in all probability were the type specimens
of the Hippa scutellata of Fabricius, are the types of my description
of this species. It is to be observed, however, that Fabricius in his
short description says, “ manibus chelatis; chele leves.” It is
possible that Fabricius mistook the maxillipedes, which present
a subchelate appearance when applied to the buccal cavity, for
the anterior legs. His description as it stands would certainly
apply better to a species of Lepidops, to which it is considered to
belong both by the earlier authors and Dr. Stimpson.
REMIPES sTRIGILLATUS. PI. V. figs. 3, 4.
Remipes strigillatus, Stimpson, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, vu.
p. 241 (1862).
Body much depressed, broad. Front very broad, with a very
slightly projecting median frontal lobe, anterior margin nearly
straight, entire, smooth. The obliquely striated area on the sides
of the carapace very broad in its posterior half, where it occupies
one fourth of the width of the carapace, strize sharp, minutely
setose, not interrupted, but extending quite to the margin, LHye-
peduncles short, reaching to the end of the penultimate joint of
the antennules. First pair of legs short, terminal joint slightly
compressed, with two strong oblique setose ridges on its extero-
inferior surface. Terminal joints of the second and third pairs
of legs short, broad, obtuse, and very slightly faleate. Inner
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. o21
ramus of the appendages of the penultimate segment but little
longer than the outer. Last segment oblong-lanceolate.
Hab. Cape St. Lucas (Stimpson, Coll. Brit. Mus.).
The broad striated area on the sides of the carapace at once
serves to distinguish this species. The three specimens of this
Species in the British-Museum collection from the Smithsonian
Institution are of small size, length of the carapace of the largest
not exceeding ;5 inch (Stimpson gives 1 inch as the length of the
carapace). The median frontal projection is very obscure ; and in
one specimen the anterior margin appears nearly straight.
REMIPES TRUNCATIFRONS, sp. n. PI. V. figs. 5, 6.
Body depressed ; frontal margin straight, entire, smooth, with
scarcely any trace of a median frontal lobe. Sides of the carapace
without any trace of the defined striated marginal area existing
in other species of the genus. Hye-peduncles very slender, pro-
jecting but little beyond the rather prominent penultimate joint
ofthe antennules ; cornea small,subterminal. Anterior legs small -
and slender; terminal joint of the second and third pairs of legs
short, broad at base, distinctly falcate, with the distal portion
much slenderer than the proximal. Outer ramus of the append-
ages of the penultimate segment of the postabdomen much
shorter than the inner. Terminal segment oblong-lanceolate.
Hab. China (J. R. Reeves, Esq., Coll. Brit. Mus.).
The obsolescence of the median frontal lobe, and the absence of a
lateral marginal striated area, serves to characterize this species.
The eye-specks, viewed from above, are placed at a little distance
from the distal extremity of the peduncle. The single specimen
in the British-Museum collection is a female. Length of cara-
pace 5), inch.
MAstTIGocHIRus.
Mastigopus*, Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sct. Phil. p. 230 (1858) (nom.
przoc. ).
Antennules and antenne short. Third maxillipedes rather
slender. First legs very long and very slender, with the last
joint especially greatly elongated and multiarticulate.
* This name was adopted in 1853 by Leuckart (Wiegm. Archiv f. Naturg.
xix. p. 258) for a curious Macrurous Crustacean. I have, therefore, altered the
termination, whilst retaining the allusion to the whip-like character of the
anterior legs.
3822 MR. E, J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
The two species known of this remarkable genus are both from
the Asiatic Region, perhaps the richest in remarkable forms of all
the great geographical areas.
Masticocurirus graciiis. Pl. V. fig. 7.
Mastigopus gracilis, Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil. p. 244 (1858),
Carapace elongate-ovate, very convex, with short crenulated
setose lines. Front 3-toothed; the median tooth triangular, the
lateral slender, and longer than the median one. Antero-lateral
margins 6-toothed, the teeth diminishing in length posteriorly.
Eyes slender, and more than half as long as the antennules.
Second joint of the maxillipedes oblong, longer than broad. An-
terior legs greatly elongated, slender, cylindrical; the dactylus is
longer than the carapace, and consists of 12-14 elongated joints ;
terminal joints of the legs of the second and third pairs very
slightly faleate. Last segment of the postabdomen elongate,
thick, longitudinally sulcate in the middle, and bicarinate near its
base. Length about 3 inch. ‘
Hab. China Seas (Stimpson, Coll. Brit. Mus.).
The single example of this species in the national collection
was presented by the Smithsonian Institution.
MASTIGOCHIRUS QUADRILOBATUS, sp.n. Pl. V. fig. 8.
Body elongate-ovate, very convex, marked with short crenulated
setose lines, as in the preceding species. Front 4-lobed, the two
median lobes small, rounded, and not nearly as prominent as the
spiniform lateral lobes. The striated lateral area is reduced to a
narrow line, bordering the whole length of the carapace, which is
without lateral marginal teeth. Eyes long, slender, and halfas long
ay the antennules ; second joint of the maxillipedes broad, with the
inner margin arcuate. Anterior legs very long, when thrown for-
ward longer than the body; the terminal joint consists of ten or a
dozen obscure unequal joints, and is clothed with long fulvous hairs;
the terminal joints of the second and third pairs of legs are long,
and very slightly falcate. The outer ramus of the appendages
of the penultimate segment is about half as long as the inner.
The terminal segment is oblong-lanceolate. Length of carapace
5 lines.
Hab. Philippine Islands, Guimaras (Coll. Brit. Mus.).
The form of the front, and the absence of antero-lateral mar-
ginal teeth, at once distinguish this species from the foregoing.
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OP THE HIPPIDEA. 320
The single specimen in the Museum was purchased of H.
Cuming, Esq.
Hepa.
Hippa, Fabr. (part.), Mantissa Ins. i. p. 329 (1787); M.-Edw. Hist.
Nat. Crust. ii. p. 207 (1837); Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil.
p. 230 (1858).
Antennules of moderate length. Antenne with a very long,
robust, multiarticulate, and strongly ciliated flagellum. Third
maxillipedes with the last joint narrow, laminate, and compressed.
First legs with the last joint lamellate-oval.
The species of this genus, of which two inhabit the opposite
shores of the American continent, and one the Indian and Indo-
Malayan region, bear a very close resemblance to one another ;
but the distinctive characters, although slight, appear constant in
large series of specimens.
Hippa EMERITA. PI. V. fig. 9.
? Cancer emeritus, Linn. Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) p. 1055 (1766).
? Astacus emeritus, Fabr. Ent. Syst. 1. p. 484 (1793).
Cancer testudinarius, Herbst, Naturg. Krabben, ii. p. 8, pl. xxii. fig. 3
(1796). {V% \
Hippa emeritus, Fabr. Ent. Syst. Suppl. p. 370 (1798).
Hippa emerita, Latr.(?) Hist. Nat. Crust. vi. p. 176 (1803); Lamarck(?),
Hist. Anim. sans Vert. v. p. 222 (1818); Desmarest, Consid. Crust.
p. 174, pl. xxix. fig. 2 (1825); M.-Edw. Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. p. 209
(1837); Crust. in Cuvier R. A. (ed. 3) pl. xl. fig. 2; Gibbes, Proc.
Amer. Assoc. p. 188 (1850); Dana, U.S. Expl. Exp. xiii. Crust. 1.
p. 409, pl. xxv. fig. 9 (1852); Guérin-Méneville, Icon. R. A. Crust.
pl. xv. fig. 2; im Ramon de la Sagra, Hist. Isla de Cuba, vii. Crust.
p. xxxiv. (1856); Heller, Crust. in Reise der Novara, p. 73 (1865).
Hippa talpoidea, Say, Journ. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil.i. p. 160 (1817); De Kay,
Zool. New York Fauna, pt. vi. p. 18, pl. vu. fig. 17 (1844); Gibbes,
Proc. Amer. Assoc. p. 188 (1850); Smith, Trans. Conn. Ac. iii.
p- 311 (1877).
Body very convex. Median lobe of the front triangular, sub-
acute, and separated from the lateral lobes by a distance usually
greater than its own breadth at base; the lateral frontal lobes are
narrow, acute, and much more prominent than the median lobe.
Carapace marked with irregular crenulated transverse lines, which
are nearly obliterated on the sides and towards the posterior
margin ; and with a distinctly marked postfrontal and postgastric
incised line. Eyes very long and slender. Antennules densely
324 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
hairy. Second joint of outer antenne with three spines at its
distal extremity, of which the median is very much the longest,
and directed slightly outward; flagellum very long, robust, multi-
annulated, and ciliated on its outer margin. Third joint of the
outer maxillipedes with the lobe at its antero-internal angle tri-
angular and subacute. Terminal joint of the first pair of legs
ovate; those of the second and third pairs of legs falcate, very
broad at base, narrow and subacute in their terminal halves.
Rami of the appendages of the penultimate postabdominal seg-
ment short, the outer shorter and broader oval than the inner.
The length of the carapace of the largest specimen from Brazil
is 1 inch 2 lines; but in a specimen of uncertain locality in the
collection the carapace is nearly 13 inch long.
Hab. Brazil (Mus. Paris, Brit.) ; Rio Janeiro (Dana, Heller,
Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; Five-Fathoms Bay (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; Vene-
zuela (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; Martinique (Herbst); Cuba, Mexico
(Guérin-Meéneville) ; United States (Coll. Brit. Mus.); Boston,
New York, Charleston Harbour, Key West (Gibées).
Specimens from Mazatlan, referred to this species by De
Saussure, belong in all probability to H. analoga. I think there
ean be little doubt that 4. talpoidea, Say, is identical with the
Brazilian H. emerita, although Gibbes, founding his conclusions
upon a comparison of four specimens from Carolina with two
from Brazil, is of the opposite opinion. The specimens from the
United States in the British Museum, presented by Say, are
small, and scarcely suffice to determine fie question, but certainly
do not appear specifically distinct.
According to De Kay (J. c.) and Smith (Trans. Conn. Ae. iii.
p- 111, 1877), H. talpoidea inhabits the entire eastern coast of the
United States from Cape Cod southward to the west coast of
Florida, Egmont Key being the most southern and western
habitat known to the latter author.
It is impossible to say to what species belong the specimens
from the Sandwich Islands referred by Randall to H. emerita, as
no description accompanies them.
Hippa anatoca. Pl. V. fig. 10...
Hippa emerita, M.-Edw. § Lucas, Crust. in D’Orbigny’s Voy. Amér.
mérid. vi. p. 32 (1843); Nicolet, Crust. in Gay, Hist. Chile, iu.
p- 185 (1849); De Saussure, Rev. et Mag. Zool. vy. p. 367 ae nec
Edwards.
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. - 395
Hippa talpoides, Dana, Crust. in U.S. Expl. Exp. xiii. 1, p. 409, pl. xxv.
fig. 10 (1852); Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil. vii. p. 175 (1854), nee Say.
Hippa analoga, Stimpson, Proc. Boston, Soc. Nat. Hist. vi. p. 85
(1856-59); Journ. Bost. Soc, Nat. Hist. vi. p. 486 (1857).
This species is nearly allied to H. emerita; but the carapace is
generally more rugose anteriorly, and the posterior margin is
straight. The median frontal lobe is broader, less acute, and not sepa-
rated so widely from the lateral lobes, which are acute but far less
prominent. The median spine of the second joint of the antennz
is proportionally not so long, and is directed slightly inward (not
outward, as in H. emerita). The lobe of the antero-internal
- angle of the third joint of the outer maxillipedes, in the speci-
mens I have examined, is broader, more rounded, and less pro-
minent. Length of the carapace of the largest specimen abcut
1 inch 2 lines.
_ Hab. Chili, Valparaiso (12-EHdw. & Lucas, Dana); Chiloe,
_Ancud, Luco Bay, and San Vincente (Cunningham, Coll. Brit.
Mus.) ; Mexico (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; Mazatlan (Saussure); Cali-
ornia, Tomales Bay (Stimpson); San Francisco and Monterey
(Samson, Coll. Brit. Mus.).
_ There are in the British-Museum collection two specimens
obtained by purchase, and labelled as having been obtained, with
a number of other Crustacea, from “ New Zealand and New
Holland.” They are of small size; carapace about 7 lines in
length, and appear to belong to Hippa analoga, the form of the
‘frontal lobes and second joint of the antenne being the same.
Hippa astatrca. Pl. V. fig. 11.
Hippa asiatica, Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. p. 209 (1837) 3:
Heller, Reise der Novara, Crust. p. 73 (1865). —
The specimens which I refer to this species are very nearly
allied to the two preceding, but differ from them in the following par-
_ ticulars :—The body is very convex and narrow, appearing almost
cylindrical when viewed from above. The lobes of the front are
_ very narrow and acute, the median is separated by an interval of
i _ nearly twice its own breadth from the lateral ones, which do not
a project much beyond it. The median spine of the second joint
a of the antenne is very long, and bent very slightly inward. The
_ antero-internal lobe of the third joint of the maxillipedes is broad,
rounded, and but little prominent. The terminal joint of the
326 MR. E. J. MIBRS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
first pair of legs is acute, and terminates almost in a spine.
_ Length of carapace of largest specimen, 1 inch 2 lines.
Hab, Seas of Asia(Mus. Paris); Ceylon (Heller,\Mus. Brit)
Madras (Heller) ; India, Java (Mus. Brit.). |
Fam. ALBUNEIDEZ.
Albunidee, Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil. p. 230 (1858).
Anterior legs terminating in a more or less perfectly sub-
chelate hand. Third maxillipedes subpediform (the third joint
not greatly enlarged), and furnished with an exognath.| toast
tail-segment not greatly elongated, ovate-lamellate.
ALBUNEA.
Aibunea, Fabr. Ent. Syst. Suppl. pp. 372, 397 (1798); M.-Edw. Hist.
Nat. Crust. ii. p. 202 (1837).
Albunza, Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil. p. 280 (1858).
Eye-peduncles lamellate compressed ; cornea very small. An-
tennules with an extremely long multiarticulate flagellum. Second
joint of antenne with a narrow but well-developed accessory jomt;
flagellum very short. Third maxillipedes with the third joint but;
slightly enlarged, and the fourth joint but shortly produced at
its antero-external angle.
ALBUNEA SYMNISTA.
Cancer symnista, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 1053 (1766).
Hippa symnuista, Fabr. Ent. Syst. ii. p. 474 (1793).
Cancer dorsipes, Herbst, Naturg. Krabben u. Krebse, ii. p. 5, pl. xxii.
fig. 2 (1796), nec Linn.
Albunea symnista, Fabr. Ent. Syst. Suppl. p. 397 (1798); Lair. Hist.
Crust. vi. p. 172 (1803); Lamarck, Hist. Anim. sans Vert. v. p. 224
(1818); Desmarest, Consid. Crust. p. 173, pl. xxix. fig. 3 (1825) ;
M.-Edwards, in Cuvier’s Réegne Animal (ed.3), Crust. pl, xlii. fig. 3;
Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. p. 203 (1837); Guérin-Méneville, Icon. Regne
Anim. Crust. pl. xv. fig. 1; Helier, Crust. in Voy. Novara, p. 72 (1865).
- Moderately convex, shining ; carapace marked with transverse
interrupted impressed lines, of which the postfrontal and the
angulated line separating the gastric from the branchial region
are the most distinct. Anterior margin with 12-14 closely
placed spiniform teeth, a semicircular median emargination, and a
small median tooth. Antero-lateral angles of the carapace with a
small acute spine. Hye-peduncles about twice as long as broad at
base, with their outer margins arcuated ; the cornea minute. An-
tenn not longer than the carapace, very hairy ; basal joint with
MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA. Sir
a spine at its antero-external angle; flagellum with the joints
diminishing successively in size. Antennules very long, exceeding
the body in length; the flagellum multiarticulate, and fringed
with long hairs on its upper and inner margin. Anterior legs
with the hand very short, and high in proportion to its length,
with short interrupted and setose ridges on its outer surface ;
its anterior margin straight, with a short spine at the antero-
inferior angle; finger arcuate, acute. Terminal joint of second
pair of legs strongly falcate, the distal half rather sharply
bent; that of the third pair slender, arcuate, with a prominent and
narrow lobe near its proximal end; that of the fourth pair broad,
slightly faleate, and acute at its distal extremity. Terminal
joint of the postabdomen longer than broad, spatulate, ovate, not
narrowed and produced at its distal extremity. Length of cara-
pace about 1 inch.
Hab. India, Pondicherry (Coll. Brit. Mus.) ; seas of Asia (Coll.
Mus. Paris); East Indies, Amboina (Herbst) ; Nicobars, Madras
(Heller).
Albunea symnista, Fabr., is mentioned by Brullé in his list of
the Crustacea inhabiting the Canaries, given in Webb and Ber-
thelot’s Hist. Nat. des iles Canaries, u. Zool. Crust. p. 17; but
this may prove on comparison to be one of the species inhabiting
the Mediterranean or Eastern American coast.
In the males of this species the terminal segment is notched at
its base, where it is articulated with the penultimate, and attains
its greatest width near its broadly rounded distal extremity,
toward which it is suddenly narrowed. In the females this
segment is narrow-ovate (see Lucas, Rev. et Mag. Zool. v. p. 47,
pl. 1. fig. 8, a, 0).
The form of the eye-peduncles, with the number of teeth on
the anterior margin of the carapace, and the form of the terminal
joint of the third pair of legs, suffice to ceuen. A. symnista
from its congeners.
ALBUNEA GUERINII*.
Albunea symnista, Lucas, Crust. in Explor. Algérie, p. 27, pl. ii. fig. 2
(1849); Heller, Crust. siidl. Europa, p. 153 (1863).
* It is possible that this is the species described by Linnzus (Syst. Nat.
p- 1052) from the Mediterranean, under the name of Cancer carabus. By
“ Rostrum dentibus 2 parallelis mobilibus depressis,’ the eye-peduncles may be
meant. The remainder of the description would apply fairly well to a species
of the genus Albunea.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 24
328 MR. E. J. MIERS’S REVISION OF THE HIPPIDEA.
Albunea guerinii, Lucas, Rev. et Mag. Zool. (ser. 2) v. p. 47, pl. 1. fig. 9
(1853).
This species, according to M. Lucas, differs from Albunea
symnista (with which species he confounded it in the Explor.
Algérie, i. p. 27, pl. iii. fig. 2) in the shorter and narrower ocular
peduneles, less elongated and crowded frontal spines, which are
broader at base, and in the form of the terminal segment of the
postabdomen, which is altogether cordiform in the male, broader
and ovate in the female. Length of the male 30-33 millims.
(1 inch 2-34 lines) ; of female 40 millims (nearly 1 inch 7 lines).
Hab. Gulf of Algiers (Lucas).
As compared with A. symnista, M. Lacas has shown (1. ¢. fig. 9,
a, b) that the terminal segment is scarcely notched, and attains
its greatest width nearer the base than the distal extremity, which
is represented as more acute than in that species. In the female
the terminal segment in 4. guerinii is more broadly ovate.
No explanation of the figures accompanies the description of
this species; but if, as appears certain, the figure 9 represents
the tarsus of the third pair of legs, a comparison of it with the
same joint of A. symnista figured on the same plate (fig. 8 d)
reveals another very marked distinction between the two species.
In
2
entertain
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 341
wanting). Thorax rather broader than long; sides parallel,
slightly rounded, slightly constricted before the base; disk di-
stinctly flattened, very faintly depressed across its middle, the
depression terminating on each side in a large distinct excavation,
the surface of which is stained with metallic green; just in front
of the base are also some irregular concolorous markings; upper
surface very smooth and shining, sparingly clothed with adpressed
fulvous hairs, very distantly punctured behind the apex, rather
more closely so towards the base and on the sides. Scutellum
trigonate, its apex broadly truncate. Hlytra much broader than
the thorax, parallel, depressed along the suture, rather strongly
punctate-striate; interspaces nitidous, transversely rugulose,
the rugze nearly obsolete towards the apex.
Genus Mrcarostomtis, Lacord.
MEGALOSTOMIS PLACIDA, n. sp. Anguste oblonga, subcylindrica ¢,
magis ovata 2, fulvo-picea, subtus pube sordide albido-fulva adpressa
dense vestita, supra minus dense fulvo-sericea, antennis dilatatis
nigris ; labro, vertice, oculorum orbitis, thorace basi et apice, elytro-
rum callo humerali limboque angusto, pygidii apice tarsisque nigro-
piceis ; thorace subcrebre punctato; elytris leviter rugulosis, minus
crebre punctatis. Long. 4—42 lin. Mas. Capite magno, lato.
Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons.
Head rather closely punctured, space between the eyes broadly
excavated on either side, the excavations separated by a narrow
longitudinal ridge which extends downwards across the clypeus;
vertex impressed with a small fovea; antenne short, three lower
joints nigro-piceous, the rest black, the basal joint strongly thick-
ened, rotundate-ovate, the second and third short, equal, submo-
niliform, the fourth obovate, moderately dilated, the fifth to the
eleventh compressed, laterally broadly dilated. Thorax more
than twice as broad as long; sides straight, parallel in the g,
converging in the 2, slightly smuate before the middle, the an-
terior angles acute, slightly excurved; basal margin sinuate on
either side the median lobe, the latter produced, obtusely truncate ;
above transversely convex, somewhat closely punctured, the in-
terspaces between the punctures granulose-punctate ; at the base,
in front of the median lobe, are three large, shallow depressions,
the middle one perpendicular, the lateral ones oblique; surface
clothed with adpressed hairs, rather more densely placed on the
sides than on the disk. Scutellum large, trigonate, the sides
342 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPRCIES
rounded, the apex acute; upper surface finely punctured, nar-
rowly edged with nigro-piceous. LElytra scarcely broader than
the thorax, subquadrate-oblong ; sides parallel in the 6, rather
more attenuated towards the apex inthe 9, subcylindrical, rugu-
lose, finely punctured, rather closely covered with pale adpressed
hairs. Thighs stained above with nigro-piceous.
Closely allied tu WZ. luctuosa ; shorter and more robust, paler in
colour, the antenne shorter in the male and more broadly dilated,
the elytra more densely pubescent.
Genus Draspts, Lacord.
DIASsPiIs BATESI, n. sp. Subquadrata, obscure cuprea olivaceo tincta,
granulosa, subopaca, antennis obscure rufis, extrorsum piceis ; thorace
crebre punctato, dorso valde gibboso, gibbere antice declivi, apice pro-
funde longitudinaliter inciso ; elytris profunde rugoso-punctatis, utrin-
que costa elevata bicurvata a callo humerali ad suturam oblique
ducta tuberculisque sex (duobus ante ceteris infra, medium positis)
instructis ; pygydio longitudinaliter tricarimato. Long. 23 lin.
Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons. Collected by Mr. Bates.
Head granulose, the vertex closely, the front more distantly im-
pressed with round punctures; clypeus rugulose ; labrum rufo-
piceous; five lower joints of antenne obscure rufous, the six
outer joints thickened, slightly compressed and forming an elon-
gated piceous club. Thorax granulose-strigose, closely covered
with round punctures, sides less closely punctured, hinder por-
tion of disk with a strongly raised gibbosity, the anterior sur-
face of which is very oblique ; its apex is divided by a broad, deep,
longitudinal incision into two strong, longitudinally compressed
protuberances, the apices of which are produced slightly back-
wards. Elytra slightly attenuated towards the apex, the latter
truncate; each elytron with an oblique, bicurvate, strongly
raised carina, which extends from just within the apex of the
strongly raised humeral callus nearly to the middle of the suture ;
in addition, six elevated tubercles are arranged as follows :—
two before the middle (one at the base, halfway between the
suture and the humeral callus, the other small, close to the
suture, about halfway between the basal margin and the oblique
ridge); four others below the oblique ridge, namely :—the
first near the suture, longitudinally compressed, and forming a
strongly raised elongate tuberosity; the second and third on the
middle disk, much less distinct; lastly, the fourth subapical,
transversely compressed and much more strongly raised than the
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 343
rest. Middle third of lateral margin reflexed. General surface
of the elytra coarsely and irregularly ragose-punctate, the rugo-
sities strigose. When viewed in certain lights, the body presents
a velvety appearance.
Ohlamys memnonia, Lac. (the type of which, formerly belonging
to M. Pilate, is now in my possession), has a distinct second scu-
tellum, and belongs to the present genus. Ch. mestifica, Lac., must
for the same reason be placed in this genus.
Genus Cutamys, Knoch.
CHLAMYS VELUTINA, n. sp. Anguste subquadrato-oblonga, rufo-
picea, opaca, antennis extrorsum nigris; thorace fortiter subremote
punctato, medio gibboso, gibbere sat elevato, antice declivi, elevato-
reticulato, apice longitudinaliter sulcato, sulco postice utrinque costa
irregulari elevata marginato—nigro-piceo, gibbere antice et apice
rufo-piceo ; elytris rufo-piceis, nigro-piceo (basi excepta) late margi-
natis, rude rugosis, utrinque tuberculis duobus ante apicem oblique
positis costisque elevatis longitudinalibus tribus, harum prima a basi
inter callum humerale et suturam ad declivitatem apicalem extensa,
sinuata, basi tuberculo compresso acuto instructa, ad apicem magis
elevata et in spam compressam retrorsum spectante abrupte desi-
nente, secunda minus elevata, a basi prope suturam ad paullo infra
medium extensa, basi et medio tuberculata, apice costa brevi trans-
versa valde elevata ad cristam primam connexa, tertia brevi, inter
callum humerale et costam primam posita, curvata, ad illam costam
paullo ante medium connexa, instructis. Long. 2 lin.
Hab. Amazons. Collected by Mr. Bates.
Head opaque, impressed on the vertex with a fine longitudinal
groove ; eyes deeply notched ; jaws pitchy black ; antenns shorter
than the thorax, the seven outer joints compressed, the five upper
ones black. Thorax rugose, deeply punctured on the sides, the
disk strongly gibbose, the anterior surface of the gibbosity oblique,
its apex longitudinally sulcate ; covered (the front excepted) with
irregular raised reticulations which form an irregular longitudinal
ridge on either side of the hinder portion of the apical groove.
Elytra scarcely broader than the thorax, oblong, convex, rugose,
deeply punctured, the punctures on the sides arranged in longi-
tudinal rows ; each elytron with three irregularly serrulate longi-
tudinal ridges—one commencing at the base, halfway between the
suture and the humeral callus, slightly flexuose, and extending
downwards as far as the deflexed apical portion of the elytron, its
base armed with a compressed acute tooth, below the middle the
ridge gradually increases in height, its apex terminating abruptly
“LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 95
344 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES |
in a compressed tuberosity, the apex of which is directed back-
wards ; the second commences near the scutellum and runs pa-
rallel to the suture, terminating a little below the middle of the
elytron, at its apex it is connected by a short, strongly raised,
transverse costa with the first ridge, at its base and again at its
middle it is furnished with a compressed acute tuberosity; the third
raised line commences just within the humeral callus, and, curving
eradually inwards, unites with the central ridge at about the end
of the anterior third of its course; placed obliquely on the outer
disk below the middle are two raised tubercles, the anterior one
ill-defined, the hinder one strongly raised ; parallel to these, placed
between the median longitudinal ridge and the suture, is a small
oblong tubercle. Pygidium, together with the sides and apex of
abdomen, nigro-piceous, the former with a narrow raised median
vitta.
CHLAMYS PLACIDA, n. sp. Subquadrata, valde convexa, castanea
piceo tincta, opaca, antennis extrorsum nigris; thorace utrinque for-
titer punctato, disco modice gibboso, gibbere elevato-reticulato, apice
leviter canaliculato; elytris fortiter punctatis, granuloso-rugosis,
utrinque carinis longitudinalibus tribus, prima curvata, basi et apice
magis elevata, a basi juxta scutellum ad suturam ante medium pro-
ducta, duabusque flexuosis, a basi fere ad apicem extensis, instructis.
Long. 22 lin.
Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons.
Head opaque, distantly punctured ; face broadly excavated lon-
gitudinally between the upper portion of the eyes; anterior
border of clypeus concave; antenne much shorter than the
thorax, robust, the eight outer joints compressed.and dilated, the
six upper ones black. Thorax opaque, granulose, impressed, but
not closely, with large, deep, round punctures, those on the sides
at the base piceous, the basal margin also narrowly edged with
piceous ; disk gibbose, surface of the gibbosity elevate-reticulate,
its apex very obtuse, longitudinally canaliculate ; on each side the
gibbosity at the base is an oblique depression. LHlytra dehiscent
at the extreme base, scarcely broader than the thorax, opaque,
strongly and deeply punctured, many of the punctures furnished
each with a single, very short, sericeous scale; the anterior disk
stained with piceous ; each elytron with three longitudinal ridges,
the first short, curved, arising at the base close to the scutellum,
and terminating on the suture before its middle, thickened and
subtuberculate both at base and apex; the second commencing on
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 345
the basal margin, halfway between the suture and humeral callus,
and running downwards and somewhat obliquely inwards as far
ay the deflexed apical portion of the elytron; the third commences
at the base just within the humeral callus, its anterior third
curving move strongly inwards than the former one, until it nearly
reaches the second ridge, the two on their middle third running
nearly contiguous and parallel to each other, being connected by
ill-defined transverse costze; at the commencement of its lower
third it diverges, running obliquely outwards, and is lost on
the surface of the outer disk nearly at a level with the apex of the
second costa; close to the suture, halfway between its middle
and apex, is an obtuse tuberosity. Pygidium broadly ovate-rotun-
date, truncate at the base, plane, deeply punctured, faintly exca-
vated on either side at the base and towards the apex.
CHLAMYS CHINENSIS, n. sp. Oblonga, convexa, nitida, subtus pallide
picea nigro-piceo tincta, subtus nigro-picea; antennis nigris, basi
piceis ; thorace profunde punctato, lateribus piceo-verrucosis, disco
gibboso, gibbere costis irregularibus piceis rete laxum formantibus
instructo; elytris profunde punctatis, rete elevato irregulari et tuber-
culis nonnullis piceis instructis. Long. 12 lin.
Hab. China. Collected by Mr. G. Lewis.
Head deeply punctured, nigro-piceous, variegated with fulvo-
piceous; vertex and front with a slightly irregular space on
either side, the median surface concave ; antennz with the seven
outer joints compressed and dilated, nigro-piceous, the four lower
ones pale piceous. Thorax deeply punctured, covered on either
side with large, irregular, pale piceous, wart-like protuberances ;-
disk gibbous, the gibbosity obtuse, covered with coarse, raised,
pale piceous ruge, which form an irregular network on its sur-
face. Elytra strongly punctured, irregularly strigose, and covered
with coarse, irregular, strongly raised, pale piceous lines, which ana-
stomose and form a loose network over the surface ; here and there
at their points of junction they are still more strongly elevated,
and form ill-defined tuberosities ; one of these, more distinct and
transversely compressed, is placed near the suture below its
middle; there are also several others strongly raised and well
defined near the-apex of each elytron.
CHLAMYS FULVIPES, n.sp. Oblonga, convexa, nigra, subnitida, labro,
antennis pedibusque fulvis, femoribus posticis fere totis, intermediis
subtus, tibiisque extus nigris ; thorace opaco, utrinque obtuse tuber-
25*
346 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES
culato, medio valde gibboso ; gibbere laxe elevato-reticulato, apice lon-
gitudinaliter canaliculato ; elytris subnitidis, rnde rugosis, tuberculis
compressis nonnullis validis instructis; pygidio tricarmato. Long.
2 lin.
Hab. India.
Head closely punctured, front with a faint longitudinal impres-
sion; labrum fulvous; antenne ‘rather shorter than the thorax,
the six outer joints dilated. Thorax opaque, slightly rugose, ob-
tusely tuberculate on either side, disk strongly gibbous, the gib-
bosity oblique anteriorly, its apex longitudinally canaliculate,
loosely elevate-reticulate. Elytra broadly oblong, less opaque
than the thorax, coarsely punctured, the interspaces irregularly
rugose, more strongly go on the hinder disk ; each elytron with a
number of raised compressed tuberosities arranged in three lon-
gitudinal rows—namely, four close to and parallel with the suture,
four others on the line of junction between the inner and outer
disks, less defined, and two on the outer disk itself; humeral callus
thickened. Pygidium longitudinally tricarinate, the carinz inter-
sected and united below the base by a transverse costa.
Genus Lamprosoma, Kirby.
LAMPROSOMA TRICOLOR, n. sp. Breviter ovatum, postice attenuatum,
valde convexum, subtus cum antennis nigrum, supra plumbeum, ca-
pite thoracisque angulis anticis viridi-zeneis ; clypeo late transversim
emarginato ; elytris tenuiter punctato-striatis; prosterno oblongo-
quadrato, postice paullo attenuato, disco antice leviter concavo, mar-
gine antico paullo elevato, medio smuato. Long. 33 lin., lat. 23 lin.
Hab. Amazons, Santarem.
Vertex minutely and sparingly punctured, lower portion of face
more strongly punctate ; triangular space between the eyes and
an oblique line bounding the clypeus on either side faintly exea-
vated ; clypeus short, its anterior margin deeply and broadly ex-
cayated, the hinder edges of the emargination transverse, nearly
straight; labrum brassy green, its front margin obtusely angled,
its surface coarsely punctured along the base, the anterior por-
tion excavated, nearly free from punctures. Thorax more than
twice as broad as long at the base ; sides rounded and converging.
from base to apex, nearly parallel at the base ; upper surface im-
pressed on either side just in front of the median lobe, very finely
and distantly punctured. Scutellum metallic green. Llytra
finely but distinctly punctate-striate.
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 34.7
LAMpROSOMA BarTEsI, n. sp. Breviter ovato-rotundatum, metallico-
olivaceum, nitidum, ore antennisque (basi fulva excepta) nigris; cor-
pore subtus, capite thoracisque lateribus rufo-aureis aut zeneis ; thorace
tenuiter, sat remote punctato ; elytris tenuiter punctato-striatis ; clypeo
antice abrupte declivi, leviter concavo-emarginato; prosterno sub-
quadrato, plano, postice sinuato-emarginato. Long. 33 lin., lat.
28 lin.
Hab. Upper Amazons.
Head bright rufo-aureous, the extreme vertex olivaceous ;
surface very finely rugulose, finely but distinctly punctured ; face
immediately above the clypeus faintly transversely excavated ;
apical portion of clypeus abruptly incurved, its anterior border
concave ; labrum black, its anterior surface deflexed, concave, the
anterior border obtusely angulate. Thorax more than twice as
broad as long ; sides converging and regularly rounded from base
to apex ; basal margin very oblique and feebly bisinuate on either
side, apex of median lobe obtuse; upper surface smooth and
shining, finely but subremotely punctured; on either side at the
base, close to the median lobe, is a shallow depression, the lobe
itself slightly reflexed. Scutellum dark metallic green. FElytra
finely but distinctly punctate-striate, the interspaces remotely
impressed with very minute punctures. Prosternum subquadrate,
plane, its sides sinuate, its apex sinuate-emarginate.
LAMPROSOMA HYPOCHRYSEUM, n. sp. Breviter ovatum, postice at-
tenuatum, valde convexum, nitidum, supra metallico-czruleum, seepe
viridi micans; corpore subtus, pedibus capite thoracisque limbo apicali
angusto angulisque anticis aureis; abdominis lateribus, ore scutello-
que nigris. Var. A. Corpus totum (ore scutelloque exceptis) metallico-
ceruleum. Long. 3-33 lin., lat. 2-27 lin.
Hab. Mexico, Guatemala.
Head granulose, distinctly but not closely punctured; vertex
and front impressed with a faint longitudinal groove ; anterior
margin of clypeus concaye-emarginate ; labrum black, cupreo-
aureous at the base, its anterior surface oblique, concave, its an-
terior border obtuse. Thorax about twice as broad at the base as
long; sides rounded and converging from base to apex; basal
margin very oblique on either side, the median lobe angular, its
apex obtuse ; above transversely convex, very minutely granulose ;
surface sparingly impressed with very fine punctures, which are
larger and more strongly impressed on the middle of the base: in
some specimens, on either side the basal lobe is a faint ill-defined
348 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES
excavation, only visible in certain lights. Scutellum black.
Elytra distinctly punctate-striate, interspaces smooth, impressed
here and there with very minute punctures. Prosternum oblong-
quadrate, its hinder apex sinuate in the middle; surface plane,
narrowly concave on the anterior margin.
LAMPROSOMA CUPRICOLLE, n. sp. Subrotundatum, valde convexum,
nitidum, subtus cum antennis (harum basi fulva excepta) nigrum ;
supra rufo-aureum ; thorace cupreo, interrupte rufo-aureo limbato ;
elytris evidenter punctato-striatis. Long. 23 lin., lat. 2 lin.
Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons. Collected by Mr. Bates.
Head finely but distantly punctured; front impressed with a
perpendicular grooved line; clypeus (viewed from the front) de-
flexed, concave, its anterior margin also concave ; its surface gra-
nulose, eneous ; labrum black, concave-emarginate ; under surface
of the basal and the whole of the second and third joints of the
antennee obscure fulvous, the remaining joints black. Thorax
more than twice as broad as long at the base; sides obliquely
converging and slightly rounded from the base towards the apex,
more quickly rounded near the latter ; basal margin very oblique
on either side, the median lobe slightly reflexed, its apex rounded ;
upper surface impressed on either side just before the median
lobe, sparingly and finely punctured; the entire lateral mar-
gin, the hinder margin for nearly its whole length, together with
the middle of the apical border, narrowly edged with rufo-xneous.
Scutellum metallic green. LElytra distinctly punctate-striate,
interspaces smooth, impunctate. Prosternum oblong-quadrate,
its surface plane.
LAMPROSOMA AMAZONUM, un. sp. Subrotundatum ¢, ovato-rotun-
datum, postice attenuatum 9 , valde convexum, igneum nitidum, subtus
cum antennis nigrum; thorace minus remote evidenter punctato;
elytris evidenter punctato-striatis; clypeo paullo elevato, declivi,
antice concavo-emarginato ; prosterno late oblongo-quadrato, plano,
rugoso-punctato. Long. 3 lin., lat. 23-23 lin.
Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons. Collected by Mr. Bates.
Head finely punctured, its surface somewhat irregular, faintly
rugose on the lower face ; front impressed with a fine longitudi-
nal groove ; clypeus slightly thickened, slightly deflexed, its an-
terior border concave-emarginate ; labrum black, its front margin
obtusely angulate, its anterior surface inflexed, concave. Thorax
more than twice as broad as long at the base; sides regularly
rounded and converging from base to apex; basal margin very
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 349
oblique and very slightly bisinuate on either side, median lobe
subacute; upper surface distinctly punctured, interspaces (when
viewed under a lens) very minutely punctured; at the base on
either side the median lobe is a distinct depression. Scutellum
narrowly trigonate, shining black. lytra distinctly punctate-
striate, interspaces remotely impressed with very minute punc-
tures, only visible under a lens. Prosternum broadly oblong-
quadrate, its surface plane, coarsely rugose-punctate.
LAMPROSOMA TRIDENTATUM, n. sp. Ovatum, postice attenuatum,
valde convexum, nitidum, subtus cum antennis nigrum, supra aureo-
zneum ; capite granuloso, tenuiter subremote punctato; clypeo de-
clivi, antice concavo-emarginato; labro tridentato; thorace remote
tenuiter punctato; elytris sat fortiter punctato-striatis; prosterno
plus duplo longiore quam latiore, plano, fortiter punctato, antice
concavo. Long. 3 lin., lat. 27 lin.
Hab. Brazil. f
Head granulose, finely but not closely punctured; clypeus
almost entirely separated from the face by a sutural line, its an-
terior surface gradually deflexed, more coarsely punctured than
the upper face, its anterior margin concaye-emarginate ; labrum
black, its anterior margin tridentate. Thorax more than twice
as broad as long at the base; sides quickly converging and slightly
rounded from base to apex; basal margin very oblique on either
side, broadly but slightly concave near the outer angle, apex of
median lobe subacute; upper surface distantly and finely punctured,
impressed near the middle of the basal margin with a few large
punctures ; at the middle of the base, just before the basal lobe, is
a faint, ill-defined transverse impression. Scutellum narrowly
wedge-shaped, black. lytra rather strongly punctate-striate ;
interspaces plane, impressed here and there with faint irregular
strige.
LAMPROSOMA CANALICULATUM, n. sp. Breviter ovatum, gibboso-
convexum, late metallico-purpureum, nitidum, pectore oreque nigris ;
capite evidenter punctato; clypeo depresso, antice profunde concavo-
emarginato, sinus lateribus in dentem robustum obtusum, intus leviter
curvatum, producto; thorace evidenter subremote punctato, nitido,
utrimque ante lobum basalem vix excavato ; elytris distincte punctato-
striatis, interspatiis (sub lente) tenuissime punctatis ; prosterno plus
triplo longiore quam latiore, antice canaliculato. Long. 3 lin., lat.
227 lin.
_ Hab. Upper Amazons, Pebas.
Head finely but distantly punctured ; clypeus and a narrow tri-
300 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES
angular space above depressed, the former on either side rather
more deeply excavated; anterior margin broadly and deeply ex-
cavated, angles of the emargination produced into a stout, obtuse,
slightly incurved tooth; labrum obtuse, its anterior surface ex-
cayated. Thorax more than twice as broad as long at the base ;
sides obliquely converging and slightly rounded from base to
apex; basal margin very oblique and faintly bisinuate on each side,
apex of median lobe obtuse ; surface faintly excavated on each
side just in front of the basal lobe, more strongly punctured than
the head. Scutellum metallic green. Llytra distinctly punctate-
striate, interspaces here and there faintly impresso-strigose, very
minutely punctured, the punctures (visible only under a lens)
arranged on each interspace in a broad longitudinal row. Pro-
sternum narrow, elongate ;. sides elevated in front, the space be-
tween forming a deep longitudinal groove ; surface coarsely punc-
tured. Legs robust, intermediate tibize not more dilated than the
hinder pair.
Nearly allied to ZL. amesthystinwm; one half the size, more
convex, and more attenuated posteriorly.
LAMPROSOMA CUNEATUM, n. sp. Ovatum, postice valde attenuatum,
valde convexum, subtus cum antennis nigrum, supra lete metallico-
purpureum ; capite granuloso, viridi-cyaneo, fortiter punctato, facie
supra clypeum fovea magna impressa; clypeo plano, antice truncato ;
thorace sat fortiter minus remote punctato; elytris sat fortiter punc-
tato-striatis, interspatis remote tenuissime punctatis ; prosterno
quadrato-oblongo, longitudinaliter concavo, rude rugoso. Long. 33
lin., lat. 23 lin.
Hab. Amazons.
Head granulose, coarsely but not very closely punctured; sur-
face of front slightly irregular ; face impressed just above the cly-
peus with a large deep fovea; clypeus almost entirely separated
from the face by a deeply impressed sutural line; its surface
plane, its anterior border truncate, obsoletely sinuate in the
middle ; labrum black, impressed at the base with a transverse
row of deep punctures; its anterior surface oblique, slightly con-
cave, its anterior margin veryslightly emarginate ; antenne as long
as the thorax, the five outer joints rather strongly dilated and form-
ing a narrow oblong club. Thorax more than twice as broad as
long; sides rounded and obliquely converging from base to apex,
flattened along the middle; basal margin very oblique and sinuate
on either side, median lobe obtuse; upper surface rather coarsely
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 351
but not deeply punctured ; on either side the basal lobe is a di-
stinct excavation. Scutellum elongate-trigonate. Hlytra very
convex, much attenuated towards the apex, the humeral callus
prominent ; punctate-striate, interspaces sparingly impressed with
very minute punctures, outer interspaces faintly convex.
LAMPROSOMA ARMATUM, n. sp. Ovatum, postice attenuatum, valde
convexum, subtus nigro-ceruleum, nitidum, supra granulosum, subni-
tidum, plumbeum, capite zneo-micante, ore antennisque nigris; clypeo
antice paullo inflexo, concavo-emarginato ; thorace remote tenuiter
punctato; elytris evidenter punctato-striatis ; prosterno subquadrato-
oblongo, postice plano, antice paullo concavo, margine antico utrinque
in dentem validum deorsum producto. Long. 33 lin., lat. 3 lin.
Hab. Columbia.
Head granulose, finely but remotely punctured; clypeus
almost entirely separated from the face by a sutural line, its an-
terior portion incurved, its apex concave-emarginate; labrum
black, its anterior surface obliquely depressed, concave, its apex
produced into two short obtuse lobes. Thorax more than twice
as broad as long at the base; sides converging and moderately
rounded from base to apex, slightly flattened on the middle and
towards the apex; basal margin very oblique and bisinuate on
either side, median lobe distinctly produced, its apex subacute ;
upper surface granulose, finely and distantly punctured, the
puncturing rather stronger at the sides and base; at the base on
either side the median lobe is a distinct excavation. Scutellum
black. LElytra distinctly punctate-striate. Prosternum nearly
twice as long as broad, dilated in front, the anterior margin pro-
duced on either side into a strong acute tooth ; surface plane, con-
cave in front, distantly punctured.
Genus Doryrnora, J7/.
DoryYPHORA VERRUCOSA, n. sp. Rotundato-ovata, valde convexa,
niger, subtus nitida, supra opaca, vertice puncto rufo armato ; thorace
fere impunctato ; elytris sat profunde inordinatim punctatis, interspa-
tiis elevatis, verrucosis; nitide fulvis, margine externo angusto lim-
boque inflexo nigris; mesosterni spina valida, quam metasternum paullo
longiore. Long. 7 lin.
Hab. Brazil, New Friburg.
Head distantly and remotely punctured ; vertex impressed with
a longitudinal groove. Thorax more than twice as broad as long ;
sides straight and nearly parallel from the base to the middle,
then obliquely rounded and converging to the apex, the latter
aon MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES
strongly produced, subacute; upper surface slightly excavated
on either side, very opaque, nearly impunctate, impressed on either
side at the base with a few very minute punctures; lateral margin
bordered by a single row of large punctures, which extend, although
less strongly marked, along the inner edge of the produced apex.
Elytra broader than the thorax, subquadrate-ovate, very convex,
deeply punctured, the interspaces thickened and forming irregular
wart-like tubercles over the whole surface. Mesosternal spine
very stout.
DoryPHuora Buck.eyi, n. sp. Anguste oblonga, convexa, subtus
cupreo-nigra, tibis tarsisque interdum cyaneo tinctis, supra cuprea,
nitida, antennis cyaneo-nigris, extrorsum nigris; thorace rude punc-
tato, interspatiis irregulariter elevato-cicatricosis; elytris quam thoracis
basis multo latioribus, apicem versus paullo attenuatis, convexis, pone
medium declivibus, sordide fulvis, rude et profunde piceo-punctatis,
punctis inordinatis, interspatiis ad apicem et ad latera incrassatis, sub-
verrucosis, fasciis erosis tribus, prima baseos integra, secunda ante me-
dium extrorsum abbreviata, tertiaque vix pone medium extrorsum in-
terrupta et abbreviata, nec non limbo inflexo nigro-zneis. Long. 8 lin.
Hab. Ecuador. ~ Collected by Mr. Buckley.
Head rugose-punctate, interspaces granulose ; front impressed
with a longitudinal groove, which terrainates between the eyes in
a deep fovea; antenne half the length of the body in the male,
rather shorter in the female, nigro-cyaneous. Thorax nearly twice
as broad as long; sides straight and slightly diverging from the
base to beyond the middle, thence rounded and converging to the
apex, the latter strongly produced, armed with a small fulvous
tooth; upper surface deeply impressed with large round punc-
tures, which are irregularly congregated over the surface; inter-
spaces granulose, elevate-cicatrose. Elytra much broader at the
base than the thorax, slightly narrowed towards the apex, the
shoulders broadly rounded; above convex, the highest part of
the convexity being before the middle, whence to the apex the
surface is obliquely deflexed; deeply impressed with large piceous
punctures, indistinctly placed in longitudinal rows on the ante-
rior half of the inner disk, placed irregularly over the rest of
surface; interspaces on the sides and apex thickened and sub-
verrucose; each elytron with three erose fasciz, one narrow on
the basal margin, a second before the middle, common, broad,
attenuated externally, and abbreviated some distance within the
lateral margin, and the third rather narrower, more deeply and
irregularly erose, abbreviated externally and also on the extreme
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 300
sutural margin, nigro-zeneous ; inflexed limb nigro-cyaneous, lon-
gitudinally concave, its outer margin verrucose. Mesosternal
spine stout, slightly longer than the metasternum.
Separated from D. biremis by the narrow, less convex form and
by the coarser punctuation of the thorax and elytra.
DoryYPHORA UNDULATA, ni. sp. Oblongo-ovata, convexa, nigra, nitida,
pedibus nigro-cyaneis, capite thoraceque subnitidis, hoe tenuiter
punctato ; elytris sat fortiter punctato-striatis, striis gemellatis,
eyaneo-nigris, fasciis angulato-undulatis quatuor, prima baseos inter-
rupta, secunda ante, tertia prope medium quartaque inter medium et
apicem magis flexuosa, maculisque ante apicem, inter se et cum
fascia apicali confiuentibus, flavis; macula marginali pone medium
posita rosea ; limbo inflexo nigro, tertia parte intermedia punctoque
prope basin roseis. Long. 6-7 lin.
Hab. Columbia.
Head opaque; antenne half the length of the body, the five lower .
joints nitidous, nigro-ceruleous, the rest opaque black. Thorax
twice as broad as long; sides straight and nearly parallel from
the base to beyond the middle, thence rounded and converging to
the apex, the latter submucronate; upper surface rather finely
but distinctly punctured. Elytra oblong, rather strongly punc-
tured, the punctures arranged in double rows, confused on the
outer disk ; each elytron with four narrow angulose-undulate pale
yellow fasciz, the first at the extreme base, interrupted in the
middle and on the outer border, the second between the base and
the middle, abbreviated on the suture and at the outer margin, the
third across the middle itself, entire, and the fourth halfway be-
tween the middle and the apex, abbreviated at the suture, the last
very irregular and connected with several irregular concolorous
patches, which extend nearly to the apex of the elytron; in addition,
on the middle disk of each elytron between the third and fourth
fasciz is a short semilunate yellow line; on the outer margin, just
at the outer extremity of the apical fascia, is a small oblong red
spot, connected beneath with the concolorous third of the in-
flexed limb ; in some specimens are also several small spots of the
same colour, placed near the apex of the elytron. Mesosternal
spine strong, nearly equal in length to the metasternum.
DoRYPHORA DORSOMACULATA, Jacoby *. Late oblongo-ovata, valde
* Since this paper was read, Mr. M. Jacoby, inthe ‘ Proceedings of the Zoo-
logical Society’ for the present year, p. 146, has described this insect under the
name given above. My description being already in type, it was too late to
withdraw it.
354 MR. J. BALY ON NEW SPECIES
convexa, pallide picea, nitida, antennis extrorsum nigris; thorace sat
crebre punctato ; elytris sat fortiter punctato-striatis, prasimis, puncto
basali, limbo exteriore, plagaque magna communi, a basi fere ad me
dium extensa, postice rotundato-ampliata, piceis, vittulis duabus ba-
salibus prope suturam lineaque submarginali flavis, sutura pone
plagam sordide flava, spina sat valida. Long. 43 lin.
Hab. Bahia.
Thorax transverse, twice as broad as long; sides rounded, the
anterior angles mucronate; disk rather closely punctured, the
puncturing varying both in degree and density in different indi-
viduals. lytra regularly punctate-striate, the punctures pale
piceous ; interspaces impunctate, with the exception of the one
between the seventh and eighth strie#, which is impressed about
its middle with a few punctures, equal in size to those on the striz
themselves.
DoryPHORA Ma@sTA,n.sp. Anguste oblonga, convexa, cupreo-nigra»
nitida, antennis nigris; thorace irregulariter punctato, angulis anticis
mucronatis, mucrone fulvo; elytris sat fortiter punctatis, punctis disco
externo imordinatis, disco interno striatim dispositis, striis gemeila-
tis, fulvis, utrinque sutura maculisque sex superficiem fere amplec-
tentibus cupreo-nigris, harum prima baseos postice erosa, secunda
elongata apicali ad marginem apicalem adfixa, ceteris irregularibus
fascias interruptas duas, unam ante alteram pone medium positas,
formantibus ; limbo inflexo fulvo, tertia parte apicali cupreo-nigra ;
spina valida. Long. 6 lin.
Hab. Columbia, Bogota.
Face rather closely punctured between the eyes; antenne half
the length of the body. Thorax more than twice as broad as
long; sides nearly straight and parallel, rounded and converging
at the apex, the anterior angle mucronate, its apex fulvous;
upper surface concave on either side, the surface irregularly punc-
tured. Ely tra broader than the thorax, their sides parallel, their
apices regularly rounded. Mesosternal spine rather shorter than
the metasternum.
Nearly allied to D. cisseis, Stal ; at once known by its narrower
thorax and by its narrower and more parallel form; the markings
on the elytra are also much larger, covering nearly the whole of
the surface.
DorypHora JAcOBYT, n. sp. Ovata, convexa, nigro-zenea, nitida,
thorace sat crebre fortiter punctato ; elytris confuse gemellato-striato-
punctatis punctis disco externo imordinatis, pallide stramineis ;
limbo angusto, ad suturam magis distincto, fasciisque duabus erosis,
OF PHYTOPHAGOUS COLEOPTERA. 3855
prima ante medium, elytri medio abbreviata, alteraque vix pone me-
dium, integra, paullo obliqua, nigro-cupreis. Long. 53 lin.
Hab. Ecuador. Collected by Mr. Buckley.
Head rather closely punctured ; front impressed with a short
longitudinal fovea; antenne black, the basal joint nigro-cyaneous.
Thorax scarcely twice as broad as long ; sides straight and paral-
lel from the base to beyond the middle, thence rounded and con-
verging to the apex, the latter produced, armed with a short
piceo-fulvous tooth; upper surface excavated on either side,
deeply punctured, the punctures irregularly crowded on the inner
disk, leaving here and there some impunctate patches. Elytra
broader than the thorax, convex, rather finely but distinctly punc-
tured, the punctures arranged in longitudinal rows on the inner
disk and on the extreme outer margin of the elytron, these
rows approximate, but rather indistinctly, in pairs: on the
greater portion of the outer disk the puncturing is confused ;
the disk of each elytron with five or six obsoletely elevated vittee ;
pale yellow, each elytron with a spot at the base near the scutel-
lum ; a broad common erose fascia, abbreviated at the middle of the
elytron, placed halfway between the base and the middle, and a
second entire, also erose, slightly oblique, situated just below the
middle, nigro-cupreous ; inflexed limb longitudinally concave,
black, with a faint metallic tint. Mesosternal spine rather longer
than the metasternum.
Genus LABIDOMERA, Chevr.
LABIDOMERA IMPERIALIS, n. sp. Rotundato-ovata, valde convexa,
metallico-purpurea, subnitida, scutello, tarsis antennisque nigris, his
basi piceis; thorace opaco impunctato; elytris tenuissime punctato-
striatis, punctis im striis confusis, utrinque fascia mregulari pone
medium, utrinque abbreviata, pustulisque tribus, prima subrotundata,
infra basin prope suturam sita, duabusque prope medium transversim
positis, externa trausversa, interna subrotundata, lete fulvis ornatis.
Long, 5 lin.
Hab. Rio Janeiro. Collected by the late Mr. Squire.
Head smooth, impunctate; front and vertex impressed with a
very fine longitudinal groove ; clypeus short, its upper margin
transverse, its surface slightly concave, finely punctured ; antennee
half the length of the body, three lower joints piceous, stained
above with black. Thorax more than twice as broad as long ;
sides rounded, converging in front, anterior angles acute ; upper
surface opaque, impunctate. Hlytra very minutely punctate-
306 PROF, T. §. COBBOLD ON THE
striate, the punctures very irregularly placed on the striz,the latter
obsolete towards the apex; interspaces very minutely granulose-
punctate, sparingly aciculate.
Genus Drutrerocampta, Hrichs.
DEUTEROCAMPTA SAUNDERSI, n. sp. Ovata, convexa, nigra, nitida ;
thorace subremote punctato, lateribus latis margimeque apicali angusto,
medio angulato, flavis; elytris evidenter punctato-striatis, utrinque
vitta suturali, basi et apice angustata, maculisque sex, superficiem
fere amplectentibus, nigris ornatis; harum duabus communibus,
prima pone basin, subcordata, secunda ante apicem, transversim tri-
gonata, tertia subrotundata, ad marginem humeralem adfixa, quarta
et quinta prope medium transversim positis, oblongis, externa postice
obliqua, ad marginem adfixa, sextaque marginali, minore, ad plagam
communem trigonatam parallela. Long. 4 lin.
Hab. Brazil; a single specimen, formerly in the collection of
Mr. W. W. Saunders.
Four lower joints of antenne, together with the palpi, piceous ;
face excavated and distinctly punctured on either side ; middle of
front and vertex nearly impunctate, impressed with a fine longi-
tudinal groove; upper margin of clypeus angulate; antenne
slightly less than half the length of the body, the four lower joints
piceous, the five outer ones distinctly thickened. Thorax nearly
three times as broad as Jong; sides nearly parallel at the base,
rounded and converging in front; disk subremotely punctured,
sides impunctate.
The Life-history of Filaria banerofti, as explained by the Dis-
coveries of Wucherer, Lewis, Bancroft, Manson, Sonsino,
myself, and others. By T. Spencer Coszoxp, M.D., F.RS.,
F.L.S., Professor of Botany and Helminthology, Royal
Veterinary College.
[Read March 7, 1878. ]
Tur time has now arrived when we may, with profit, pass in
review the essential facts of Hematozoal discovery in relation to
this #ilaria, and build up, as it were, a complete life-history of
one of the most remarkable parasites that has ever engaged the
attention of helminthologists. In short, I propose to show the
steps by which we have acquired our present knowledge, what
that knowledge actually expresses when summarized in the lowest
possible number of convenient terms, and what practical conse-
quences may be expected to flow from a fuller recognition of its
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTI. 357
importance. The practical issues especially affect the welfare of
persons resident in warm countries.
In the year 1868 Dr. O. Wucherer, since deceased, published
a paper in the ‘ Bahia Medical Gazette,’ entitled, ‘‘ Preliminary
Notice of a hitherto undescribed Species of Worm encountered
in the urine of persons affected with the intertropical hematuria
of Brazil” (Ref. No. 1*). Dr. Wucherer first discovered this
entozoon on the 4th of August, 1866, when engaged in examining
the chylous or milky urine of a patient then under his care at
the Misericordia Hospital. He was at the time actually in search
of the Bilharzia hematobia. It was at the suggestion of Grie-
singer that Wucherer sought for this fluke; and when thus
engaged he found in its place, so to say, “ some filiform worms
which were very narrow at one extremity and very obtuse at the
other.” As will be seen in the sequel, asimilar experience after-
wards occurred to myself. Dr. Wucherer, with a caution worthy
of the true savant, did not at once conclude that the urinary
parasites had actually passed from his patient; therefore taking
the necessary steps to prevent error, he obtained a fresh supply
of the excretion in a carefully cleaned vessel, and almost imme-
diately afterwards verified his previous discovery. In the follow-
ing October, and also subsequently, Wucherer made similar
“finds.” In two of these three instances the patients suffered
from chyluria; and in the third there was hematuria. The
Filarie were in all cases living and active in their movements.
He did not notice any eggs.
In the year 1869 (when engaged in preparing a supplementary
bibliography to my introductory treatise on the Entozoa) I
chanced to stumble upon a paper by Dr. Salisbury which had
hitherto escaped the attention of helminthologists (Ref. No. 2).
In this memoir, published in 1868, Dr. Salisbury announces the
discovery of a small species of entozoon in the bladder of a
patient who passed milky urine. Dr. Salisbury had the boldness
at once to describe the worm as new to science, and placed it in
the genus Trichina (TL. eystica, Salisb.). Nothing, Imay remark,
could be more striking than the difference of attitude assumed
* The numbers pene given refer to the Bibliography at the close of this
communication.
+t Some error as to the date of Wucherer’s discovery has crept into the lite-
rature of this subject: Thus, in the 2nd edition of Dayaine’s ‘ Traité’ (p. 943)
the year 1868 is mentioned as that in which the original find was made. In
this matter I haye followed the authority of Dr. Silva Lima.—T. S. C.
308 PROF. T. 8. COBBOLD ON THE
by Wucherer and Salisbury respectively. The one savant was
timid and reserved, almost to silence, respecting his find (which
had absolute priority), whilst the other put a totally wrong con-
struction on the facts observed. Dr. Salisbury unhesitatingly
relegated these mere embryonal forms to a genus with which
there was not a shadow of proof that it was entitled to be
associated.
During the month of March 1870, Dr. T. R. Lewis, of Calcutta,
noticed that minute Nematoid worms were present in chylous
urine. He did not, it seems, publish the fact at the time; but in
his Memoirs, which appeared some years afterwards, he distinctly
records the circumstance. In October 1872 he repeated his in-
vestigation of the urine of one of the patients examined in 1870,
and had the satisfaction of finding the young Filarza, which “had
undergone no appreciable change.”’ He also examined the blood,
with results that will appear in the sequel. Dr. Lewis states
that Dr. Charles and Dr. Palmer were the first to verify his
observations respecting the presence of MiJarie in chyluria.
In the month of July 1870, whilst engaged in the examination
of the urine of a little girl (who was under my professional care
as a sufferer from the Bilharzia disease, which she had contracted
at Natal, South Africa), I discovered numerous eggs and em-
bryos of a nematode worm. Although thousands of fluke’s
eggs passed daily from this child, with much blood, it never
occurred to me that the nematodes were hematozoal. The cir-
cumstance that the child’s parent had told me that three small
worms had long before passed by the urethra, led me to conclude
that they and their probable progeny were alike of urinary origin.
Had I examined a drop of blood from the finger, Dr. Lewis’s
subsequent important discovery of microscopic Hzematozoa
would probably have been anticipated. I do not at all regret
that I was thus misled. .
It was not until the spring of 1872 that I announced my
interesting find (Ref. No. 3). When doing so I did not seek
to secure scientific capital by imparting to mere embryos a generic
and specific title, but remained content to record the facts ob-
served, at the same time giving simple figures of the worm as
seen in the free and egg conditions. The notion which Leuckart
has since suggested, that the three mature worms alluded to were
Oxyurides, is by no means convincing (Ref. No. 4). As the
mother of the child more than once pointed to her finger’s length
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTT. 309
as indicating to me the length of the worm, I now incline to the
opinion that the worms in question were none other than sexually
mature examples of Filaria bancrofti. This view, moreover,
receives strength from the cireumstance that 1 drew long thread-
like strokes on paper which, she said, corresponded in appearance
with the worms. As to the thickness of the worms, nothing
reliable was said. When I wrote the original paper I had no
knowledge of the fact that Wucherer had anticipated Salisbury’s
previous discovery by about two years,
In and about the year 1872 several ‘finds’ of a similar order
to those above announced were made in foreign countries. I
regret that I cannot fix the dates of all these verifications with
absolute precision. In September 1872 Dr. Corre published a
“Note respecting the helminth encountered in hematochylous
urine” (Ref. No. 5). His careful description clearly refers to
the same entozoon as that already described by Wucherer, by
Salisbury, and by myseif. Again, in a communication addressed
to Dr. Davaine, and quoted in the recently published 2nd edition
of his (Davaine’s) well-known work, Dr. J. Crevaux refers to a
hematuria patient of his, at Guadeloupe, from whose urine he
had frequently obtained small worms (vers de la Guadeloupe).
He had, however, more than a hundred times punctured his
patient for the purpose of examining fresh blood; but in no single
instance did he detect microscopic Heematozoa (Ref. No. 6).
If I understand rightly, Corre’s description refers to worms ob-
tained from this selfsame patient.
In Dr. Crevaux’s remarks especial reference is made to a joint
memoir previously published by Dr. da Silva Lima and himself
(Ref. No. 7). Dr. Crevaux adds that although Dr. Lima dili-
gently sought for hematozoa in five separate patients whose
urine contained numerous worms, yet in no instance were any
entozoa found in the blood. Notwithstanding the recorded
differences as between the “ vers de la Guadeloupe” described by
Crevaux and Corre and the “vers du Brésil” described by
Wucherer and Silva-Lima, I can see no valid reason for sup-
posing that they are not identical forms.
In this place must also be noticed a very interesting circum-
stance recorded by Robin (Ref. No. 8). He says that Dr. Fon-
cervines transmitted to him the history of a case of chyluria
affecting an officer residing at Réunion Island. In this case some
blood-clots taken from the urine were found to contain embryonic
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 26
360 PROF. T. 8. COBBOLD ON THE
Nematodes. Two years subsequently, the dried clots being
softened in water, were still found to contain the worms tolerably
well preserved. From the date of the publication of Robin’s
‘Lectures,’ Dr. Foncervines’s ‘find’ could not, I presume, have
been made later than 1872. Not improbably it occurred at an
earlier date. M. Robin gives a figure of one of the worms. The
leneth and thickness of it do not materially differ from the
measurements of the Guadeloupe worm as given by Dr. Corre.
T hold that the slight discrepancies which do exist in respect of
size are of little or no moment. Stages of growth are alone
sufficient to account for some of them. The presence of an outer
skin, which some have spoken of as a cyst, cannot be held either
to settle or even to influence the question of specific identity.
The outer envelope, so far from its being in any sense comparable
to an adventitious cyst or “sheath,” as Lewis calls it, actually
represents the original embryo-skin separating by ecdysis. Its
nature ought to have been recognized from the very first ; but
Lewis appears to have thought that the presence of “ delicate,
translucent sheaths” indicated a material departure from the
appearances commonly presented by “the young of many other
Nematodes.”
Early in the month of July 1872 Dr. Lewis made his interesting
discovery of Nematode Hematozoa in the blood of an Indian
native suffering from diarrhoea; and in the month of October of
the same year he detected microscopic Filarie in the blood of
one of the patients in whose urine he had detected similar worms
more than two years previously. This is the case I have pre-
viously quoted. Without repeating any details, it suffices to
remark that the urinary parasites and the Hematozoa were
identical. Dr. Lewis, recognizing the importance of his dis-
covery, named the larval parasite Wilaria sanguinis hominis (Ref.
No. 9). Of course it was not possible for Lewis to declare that
his embryonal nematoids must belong to the genus Filaria, since
the embryos of other nematode genera very closely resemble
these microscopic hematozoa. However, the proposed nomen-
clature, so far as the genus was concerned, turned out to be a
‘lucky hit.’
The subsequently discovered parent worm may fairly be re-
legated to the genus in which Lewis thus happily placed it. We
now know, or at least are fully persuaded, that the larval worms
first discovered by Wucherer are identical with those separately .
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTI. 361
found by Lewis, Salisbury, Crevaux and Corre, da Silva Lima,
Foncervines, and myself. If, therefore, the original discoverer’s
name must stand in connexion with the genus Filaria, the worm
in question ought, in all fairness, to be permanently recognized
as Hilaria wuchereri. I hold, however, that in the present case
the parasite of Wucherer, of Salisbury (who placed it in the
genus Trichina), and of others (who either, like myself, did not
choose to give it a special name, or who, like Salisbury, adopted
an erroneous nomenclature) should carry with it the name of
the person who was the first to discover and to describe the
sexually mature representative of the hematozoa. Such a re-
cognition can in no way detract from the supreme merits of
Lewis. In the next place it does no injury to Wucherer’s
priority in the matter of the original discovery of the larva. In
the third place no injustice is done to Manson, whose remarkable
discovery of the intermediate host places the fame of his research
on an equally secure basis. In short, the helminthologist of the
future, when dealing with the question of the discovery of this
entozoon, will find himself obliged to bracket the names of four
distinguished observers together. Would he seek to be disin-
terestedly just, he must also award more or less conspicuous merit
to the several other workers whose names will naturally be read
between the lines that record the discoveries of Wucherer, Lewis,
Bancroft, and Manson.
In this connexion the ‘ finds’ of Drs. Sonsino, O’ Neill, Araujo,
and Felicio dos Santos cannot be passed over. It was on the Ist
of February, 1874, that Sonsino detected microscopic Frlarie in
the blood of a young Egyptian Jew (Ref. No. 10). He records
the fact in the following words :—“I put a drop of blood (from
the finger of the boy) under the microscope, placing it directly
under the objective glass, when with astonishment I discovered a
living organism in the midst of the hematic globules. The
nematoid had the shape of an Anguillula, as fig. 6 (in Dr.
Sonsino’s memoir) represents. It glided amongst the blood-
globules, which were tossed to and fro by its lively movements.”
Dr. Sonsino verified his observation on the 6th of the same month;
nevertheless, neither himself nor his colleagues (Drs. Ambron,
Dacorogna, Dutrieux), nor Dr. Abbate Bey, to all of whom the
facts were demonstrated, could at first persuade themselves that
the worms had really come from the blood. It was not until
Sonsino had become acquainted with the facts that I had recorded
26*
362 PROF. T. 8S. COBBOLD ON THE
in respect of my little hematuric patient from Natal that he was
fully satisfied as to the genuineness of his ‘find’ and as to the
identity of the parasitic forms in question.
In the year 1875 Dr. O’Neill found similar or, to use Dr.
Silva Lima’s words, “the same microscopic Filarie proceeding
from the skin affected with a disease peculiar to negroes, and
which they called ‘craw-craw.’” About the same time Dr.
Araujo algo encountered this #ilaria in a negro at Bahia suffer-
ing from the same disease. Dr. Araujo named the worm Filariose
dermathemica (Ref. No. 11). It is worthy of remark, in passing,
that in the ‘craw-craw’ cases the persons affected were not
chyluric. Further in this connexion, and in support of the
parasitic theory of hematochyluria, Dr. Silva Lima refers to
the writings of Dr. Almeida Couto (Ref. No. 12), and also,
especially, to an inaugural thesis by Dr. Victorino Pereira. This
distinguished young physician divided the hematuric discoveries
into four epochs, which he severally termed (1) the unknown,
(2) the Egyptian, (8) the Brazilian, and (4) the Indian period. To
these, however, as Dr. Silva Lima and myself have pointed out,
must now be added (5) the Australian, and (6) the Chinese
epochs of discovery (Ref. No. 13).
The part which I took in connexion with the Australian ‘ finds’
requires explanation. In 1876 Dr. Bancroft announced his dis-
covery of microscopic Hematozoa. He sent some of the human
blood in capillary tubes to Dr. Roberts, of Manchester, who for-
warded part of them to myself, and we verified the facts. In the
contents of one of the tubes I happened to notice a single, empty,
and uninjured egg-covering; and as this corresponded in size
and shape with some of those I had cbtaimed from my Natal
patient (1870), I drew Dr. Bancroft’s attention to the cireum-
stance (Ref. No. 14). This induced Bancroft to search for the
parent entozoon in the human body. His search proved suc-
cessful, as he obtained the adult Fidaria from a lymphatic abscess
of the arm on the 21st of December, 1876. On the 20th of the
following April, 1877, he communicated to me the particulars of
his investigation, and I announced his discovery in the following
July (Ref. No. 15). This announcement appears to have stimu-
lated Lewis to still further efforts, who, it appears, for “the last
five years had availed himself of every opportunity that presented
itself’? for a search after the parent worm. At length Lewis
was rewarded, and on the 7th of August, 1877, he found two
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTI. 863
mature Filarié in a blood-clot from a young Bengalee (then
under Dr. Gayer’s care for scrotal disease). Without loss of
time Lewis followed up his ‘find’ by a series of very careful
microscopic observations, and at once forwarded an elaborate
account of his work to England (Ref. No. 16). Meanwhile Dr.
Bancroft had forwarded some specimens of his adult entozoa to
myself, together with some rather imperfect illustrations which
he had executed and caused to be engraved. Some weeks elapsed
before I found time to examine the worms. When at length I
did so, and drew up a brief account of the structure and charac-
ters of the parasite, I forwarded it to the ‘ Lancet’ office, where,
by a singular coincidence, it arrived (as I understand) a few days
after the date of the receipt of Lewis’s communication. Thus
our accounts of the same parasite, under different names, were
published almost simultaneously (Ref. No. 17). If our illustra-
tions be compared it will readily be seen that they Heuer to one
and the same entozoon.
I may observe that Dr. Beale (having reproduced my figures
and description in the fourth edition of one of his works) had
thought it necessary to suggest an amount of ignorance on my
part which, had I really displayed it, must certainly have been very
reprehensible. Dr. Beale, mixing up two totally distinct parasites
(Filaria sanguinolenta and F. sanguinis hominis) together, has
sought to make it appear that I was unaware of the previous dis-
covery by Lewis of the latter worm in the person of the former
(Ref. No. 18). Dr. Le Roy de Méricourt has also very courteously
reproduced my figures in connexion with the editorial remarks
appended by him to the French version of Dr. Silva Lima’s memoir
(Ref. No. 19).
Here I am naturally led on to observe that notwithstanding
the fairly exhaustive character of Silva Lima’s memoir, very little
account has been taken, either by Lima himself or by other
writers, of Manson’s earlier investigations. This need not excite
astonishment, since few people can have had access to the journal
in which Manson’s original papers appeared. The ‘ Customs’
Gazette’ is little known; and but for the republication of Man-
son’s writings in one of our professional periodicals they might
long have remained unnoticed on the Continent (Ref. No. 20).
Even now I cannot give the precise date of Manson’s earliest
paper; but in his Report published in the spring of 1877 (that is,
in No. 13 of the ‘ Customs’ Gazette’) he refers to earlier papers
364 PROF. T. 8. COBBOLD ON THE
by himself in Nos. 10 and 12 of the same periodical. No doubt
it was a feeling of isolation that at length induced Dr. Manson
to make me the instrument of bringing his later researches
before the public; and I think it only fair to Manson that I
should quote an extract from his letter to me (dated Amoy,
November 27, 1877). He says, “I live in an out-of-the-world
place, away from libraries, and out of the run of what is going
on, so that I do not know very well the value of my work,
or if it has been done before, or better.” Those parts of Dr.
Manson’s voluminous manuscript which give clinical details were |
forwarded to the English periodical that first made the profession
acquainted with his writings (Ref. No. 21), whilst that part
of the MS. which deals with the more distinctly helminthic
aspects of the question are now submitted to the Society’s hands.
Other sections of the MS. remain in my hands. These deal with
statistics and pathology.
Amongst the other communications to which it is necessary
that I should refer, is one by Dr. Pedro 8. de Magalhaes. Dr.
Magalhaes describes free Nematodes from the waters of Rio (Agua
da Carioca); but notwithstanding their similarity to the larvee of
our Filaria, I cannot regard them as having any genetic relation
with F. bancrofti (Ref. No. 22). I may add that Drs. Chassaniol
and Guyot mention the case of a chyluria patient, thirty years
a resident at Tahiti, in whom they observed “the parasite,
which in all respects resembled that described by MM. Wucherer
and Crevaux’’ (Ref. No. 28).
From what has now been stated it must be obvious to any un-
prejudiced person that (as in the parallel case of Trichina spiralis)
if it be asked who discovered Milaria bancrofti, the answer must
be framed according as to whether the inquirer refers to the
adult worm, to the embryonal forms, or to the intermediate larva.
To quarrel over the mere name of the parasite would be childish,
and serve only to bring upon helminthologists a repetition of
the criticism which Helmholtz has recently bestowed upon the
conduct of naturalists generally. Ihave partly stated the reasons
why I think Bancroft’s name is most fittingly associated with
this parasite, and why it should supersede the nomenclature pro-
posed by Lewis (Filaria sanguinis hominis). Apart from its
trinomial character, in itself an objection, the adoption of Lewis’s
nomenclature practically ignores the earlier discoveries of
Wucherer and Salisbury ; yet, from the pathological standpoint,
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFT. 365
the name of Lewis will henceforth tower above all others in this
connexion, and Bancroft would, I am sure, be the last to dispute
the well-earned prerogative of Lewis. If my record is approxi-
mately correct, the dates of discovery will stand pretty much as
follows :—
1. WucueEreR, 1866.—Probably embryos of Strongylide
(Leuckart) ; Vers du Brésil (Wucherer; Davaine); Filaria
wucherert, suggested, conditionally, in this memoir (Cobbold).
2. SauisBuRY, 1868.—Trichina eystica (Salisbury) ; nematode
egos and embryos (Cobbold).
3. Lewis, 1870.— Worms that seem to belong to the Filaride
(Busk).
4. CossonD, 1870.— Embryos of a minute nematode supposed
to infest the urinary passages.
5. Crevaux and Sinva Lima, 1871 (?).—Vers de la Guadeloupe
(Crevaux; Davaine).
6. Corre, 1872.—L’helminthe dans les urines hématochy-
leuses (Corre).
7. Lewis, 1872.—Pilaria sanguinis hominis; hematozoon
(Lewis).
8. Foncrrvines, 1873 (?).—Les embryons d’un ver nema-
toide (Robin).
9. Sonstno, 1874.—Un nematode microscopico a guisa di
Anguillula (Sonsino).
10. O’Nettt, 1875.—Filariose dermathemica, from craw-craw
(O’Neill; Silva-Lima).
11. Mawson, 1875 (?).—Filaria worm in connexion with
chyluria, &c. (Manson). :
12. Banororr, 1876 (spring of). Filarie from human blood
(Bancroft ; Roberts; Cobbold).
13. Bancrort, 1876 (winter of ).— Filaria banerofti (Cobbold).
14. Lewis, 1877.—Filaria sanguinis hominis; mature (Lewis).
15. Da Stnva Lima, 1877.—Filaire de Wucherer (Silva Lima;
Dr. Le Roy de Méricourt).
16. Manson, 1877.—Filaria sanguinis hominis (Manson).
17. Manson, 1878.—Filarig in the stomach of Mosquitos
(Manson); the higher larval states of the Pilarie of Wicherer,
Lewis, and Bancroft (Cobbold).
The above is the nearest approximation to a correct chrono-
logical record that I can offer. With one or two exceptions the
dates refer to the actual periods of discovery. In the exceptional
366 PROF. T. S. COBBOLD ON THE
instances they refer to the time of publication. I can hardly
suppose, notwithstanding the pains I have taken, that it is alto-
gether free from error. Be that as it may, the leading features
of the record must, I think, be allowed to pass unchallenged ; and
if so, the following six propositions will likewise be accepted as
correct: ——
1. Filaria bancrofti is the sexually mature state of certain
microscopic worms hitherto obtained either directly or indirectly
from human blood.
2. The minute hematozoa in question, hitherto described as
Wucherer’s Filarie, Filaria sanguinis hominis, Trichina cystica,
Filariose dermathemica, and so forth, are frequently associated
with the presence of certain more or less well-marked diseases of
warm climates.
83. The diseases referred to include chyluria, intertropical
endemic hematuria, varix, elephantiasis, lymph-scrotum, and
lymphoid affections generally, a growth called helminthoma elastica,
a cutaneous disorder called craw-craw, and also, not improbably,
leprosy itself.
4. It is extremely probable that a large proportion or, at least,
that certain varieties of these affections are due to morbid
changes exclusively resulting from the presence of Milaria ban-
crofti or its progeny within the human body.
5. It is certain that the microscopic hematozoa may be readily
transferred to the stomach of blood-sucking insects, and it has
been further demonstrated that the digestive organs of the mos-
quito form a suitable territory for the further growth and meta-
morphosis of the larval Wilarie.
6. The character of the changes undergone by the microscopic
Filarie, and the ultimate form assumed by the larve whilst still
within the body of the intermediate host (Culex mosquito), are
amply sufficient to establish the genetic relationship as between
the embryonal Filaria sanguinis hominis, the stomachal Filarie of
the mosquito, and the sexually mature H7laria bancroftt.
Finally, it remains for me to glance at the practical conse-
quences that may be expected to flow from the acceptance of
these conclusions.
One of the greatest hindrances to the due recognition of the
remarkable part played by parasites in the production of human
endemics and animal epizootics arises from the circumstance that
no inconsiderable number of minute worms may infest a host
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTI. 367
without obvious injury to the bearer. This immunity, in reality,
proves nothing. If, for example, we take the parallel case of
Trichina we find that several millions of entozoa may exist in the
human or, at all events, in the animal bearer without the pro-
duction of any palpable symptom of discomfort. In such cases
it is not possible to determine the strict limits of health and
disease ; nevertheless, were we to double the amount of infection,
an imaginary line of demarcation is at once bridged over, and the
parasites become acknowledged as directly responsible for grave
symptoms which may even prove fatal to the bearer. Again, the
relative strength and size of the infested host constitute factors
that will materially modify or limit the power of the parasite for
injury. Where the entozoa are of minute size, and where their
injurious action is primarily due to the mechanical obstructions
they set up, it is clear that the virulence of the helminthiases, or
resulting diseased conditions, will mainly depend upon the number
of intruders.
Another consideration of the highest value in relation to epi-
demiology generally, and more especially in regard to the prac-
tical question as to the best methods of stamping out parasitic
plagues, is that which refers to the life-history of the entozoon
itself. It must be obvious that in all cases where the interme-
diate host can be captured and destroyed, the life-cycle of the
parasite can be broken or interrupted ; and if thus broken there is
an end to the further propagation of the species. The knowledge
that we have acquired by experimental research in this con-
nexion has already enabled us to set a limit upon the prevalence of
certain well-known disorders, such as trichinosis, cestode tuber-
culosis, and so forth. In the case of epizootics, however, which
are not merely dependent upon minute entozoa, but which are
also, in the way that we have seen, indirectly due to the action of
intermediary hosts that cannot be readily captured or destroyed,
our power of arresting the disease is comparatively limited. In
_ the case of Filaria bancrofti it is probably not necessary either
that a dead or living mosquito should be swallowed to ensure in-
fection ; but it 7s necessary that the parasitic larve should have
dwelt within the mosquito in order to arrive at the highest stage
of larval growth prior to their re-entrance within the human ter-
ritory. Undoubtedly the larve of Filaria bancrofti are swal-
lowed with potable waters. The perfect filtration of these waters
before use would certainly check and, in course of time, would pro-
368 PROF. T. 8S. COBBOLD ON THE
bably cause the total extinction of several of the many virulent
diseases that now afflict the inhabitants of warm climates.
LiveERARY REFERENCES.
1. Wucuerer, O. Noticia prelimimar sobre vermes de una especie
ainda nao descripta en contrados na urina de doentes de hematuria inter-
tropicale no Brazil.—Gazeta Medica da Bahia, Dec. 5, 1868. Idem: Sobre
hematuria no Brazil.—Gaz. Med. da B., Sept. 30, 1869, p. 435; also in
Hallier’s Zeitschrift fiir Parasitenkunde, 1869; also De ’hématurie observée
au Brésil (trans. by Le Roy de Méricourt).—Archives de Médecine Navale,
1870, p. 141. Idem (in a letter to Leuckart, quoted below).
2. SautispuRy, J. H. On the Parasitical Forms developed in parent
Epithelial Cells of the Urinary and Genital Organs.—Hay’s American
Journal, 1868, p. 376. (First quoted by me in the Supplemental Biblio-
graphy to my introductory treatise on the Entozoa in May 1869, p. 102,
with the title ““On a supposed species of Trichina from the Human
Bladder,” &c.—T. S. C.)
3. CopBotp, T.S. Onthe development of Bilharzia hematobia ; to-
gether with remarks on the ova of another Urinary Parasite (the so-called
Trichina cystica of Dr. Salisbury) occurring in a case of Hematuria from
Natal. Read before the Metropolitan Counties Branch of the British
Medical Association, May 17, 1872.—The Brit. Med. Journ. July 1872,
and in the ‘ Veterinarian,’ Sept. 1872; also noticed in my Lectures on Prac-
tical Helminthology (‘ Worms’), 1872, p. 145 (and in Tommasi’s Italian
Edit. Lett. xx. Vermi sanguigni, p. 149).
4, Leuckart,R. Die menschlichen Parasiten und die von ihnen her-
ruhrenden Krankheiten, Bd. ii. 1876, s. 638 (where he also quotes Wi-
cherer’s letter, and the writings of Lewis, Sonsino, Crevaux, and others).
5. Corre, A. Note sur Vhelminthe rencontré dans les urines hémato-
chyleuses.—Revue des Sciences Naturelles, Sept. 1872 (also quoted at
length by Davaine in his Traité des Entozoaires, 2° édit. 1878, p. 951).
6. CrevAux, J. (et Siuva Lima, J. F. da). Memoria sobre Hema-
turia chylosa ou Gordurosa des paizes quentes pelo (quoted by Davaine,
I. c. p. 950).—Idem: De Vhématurie chyleuse ou graisseuse des pays.
Paris, 1872.
7. Stuva Lima, J. F. da (with Crevaux, as above).
8. Rosin. Lecons sur les Humeurs normales et morbides du Corps
de ’homme, 2° édit. Paris, 1874, pp. 843 & 949 (quoted by Davaine).
9. Lewis, T. R. Ona Hematozoon in Human Blood; its relation to
Chyluria and other Diseases: Calcutta, 1874, repr. from the Eighth
Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of
India (with Additions), 1872; also in ‘ Indian Annals of Medical Science,’
1873, p. 234 e¢ seq.; also abridged notice (with remarks by Cobbold) in
LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANOROFTT. 369
the ‘London Medical Record,’ 1873, vol.i. p. 5. Seealsoa letter by me in
* Nature,’vol. vil. 1873-74. Idem: On the Pathological Significance of the
Nematode Heematozoa (repr. from the Tenth Ann. Rep. of the Sanitary
Comm. with the Gov. of India), Calcutta, 1874 ; also in ‘Indian Annals of
Medical Science,’ 1875.
10. Sonsino, P. Ricerche intorno alla Bilharzia hematobia in rela-
zione colla Ematuria endemica dell’ Egitto, e nota intorno ad un Nema-
toideo trovato nel sangue umano (Estr. dal Rend. della R. Accad. delle
Scienze fisiche-matemat. di Napoli, Fascic. 6°, giugno, 1874). See also
brief Review in the ‘ Veterinarian’ for April 1874. Idem: Sugli Ematozoi
come contributo alla fauna entozoica Egiziana, communicazione ll’
instituto Egiziano, Cairo, 1877 (p. 11). Idem: Della Bilharzia hematobia
e delle alterazioni anatomo-patologiche, &c., &c., Firenze, 1876, p. 40;
also as La Bilh. hem. et son role pathologique en Egypte, in the ‘Archives
Générales de Médecine’ for June, 1876 (p. 672).
11. Aravso, S. Archives de Méd. Navale, tom. xxiv. p. 229. Also
quoted by Silva-Lima (J. c. p. 442). See also ref. to O’Neill’s paper (in
Appendix below).
12. Couro, A. Gazeta Medica da Bahia, 1877 (Jan. & Feb.), quoted
by Silva Lima (J. c. p. 444).
13. Pereira, T. V. Inaugural Thesis, quoted by Silva Lima, in Gaz.
Med. da Bahia, Sept. 1377, also in the Arch. (.c. p. 449).
14. Copspotp, T.S. On the Verification of recent Hematozoal Dis-
coveries in Australia and Egypt.—British Medical Journal for June 24,
1876; repr. in the ‘ Veterinarian,’ July 1876.
15. CopsBoup, T. 8. Discovery of the Adult Representative of Micro-
scopic Filarie, in a letter to the Editor of ‘The Lancet,’ July 14,
1877 (p. 70).
16. Lewis, T.R. Filaria sanguinis hominis (mature form) found in
a Blood-clot in Neevoid Elephantiasis of the Scrotum.—The Lancet, Sept.
29, 1877, p. 453 (with figs.).
17. Copspo.tp,T.S. On Filaria bancrofti.—The Lancet, Oct. 6, 1877,
p- 495 (with figs.).
18. Braue, L.—The Microscope in Medicine, 4th edit. London, 1878
(p. 505). See also D. H. Gabb, below.
19. M&éricourt, A. LE Roy pe.—Archives de Médecine Navale, Dec.
1877 (p. 448).
20. Manson, P. Report on Hematozoa, in the 6th part of the
Customs’ Gazette, No. xxxiii. Jan._March : Shangae, 1877.
21. Manson, P.—Chinese Hematozoa (thirty-five cases).— Medical
Times & Gazette, March 2 and 10, 1878 (pp. 220 and 249); also addi-
tional particulars of a Case, Med. T. & G. for March 23, 1878 (p. 304).
22. Macaudss, P. S. de.—O progresso Medico de Rio de Janeiro,
370 ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF FILARIA BANCROFTI.
Noy. 15, 1877; letter in Gazeta Medica da Bahia, December 1877. See
also Bourel-Ronciére’s Analyse, &c. in Archives de Médecine Navale for-
March 1878, p. 208 (quoted below).
23. CHASSANIOL, A. et F. Guyot.—Hématurie graisseuse ou chy-
leuse; in their “Quelques Notes de Géographie Médicale recueilles a
Taiti,” Archives de Méd. Navale, Jan. 1878 (p. 65).
APPENDIX (August Ist, 1878).
Since this communication was read, several additional memoirs and papers
have come to my knowledge, as undermentioned.
24. O’NEILL, J. On the presence of Filaria in Craw-Craw.—The
Lancet, Feb. 20, 1875 (with figs. p. 265). See also Archives de Méd.
Navale, vol. xxiv. p. 229 (from Revista Med. da Rio de Janeiro), and Arch.
for March 1878 (p. 204).
25. Coes, G. C. On Lymph Scrotum.—Path. Soc. Rep. in British Med.
Journ. for March 9, 1878; also in ‘ The Lancet’ (same date).
26. BoureL-Roncrzre. Pathologie Exotique. This is an analysis
and commentary, chiefly of Dr. Silva Lima’s second memoir (Gaz. Med. da
Bahia, Nov. 1877), including a case by Dr. Silva Araujo. Many refe-
rences are given. Archives de Méd. Navale, March 1878, pp. 200-215.
27. Da Sinva Lima. The late Dr. Wucherer and the Filaria ban-
crofti. Letter in reference to an article entitled ‘ Helminthological work
in 1877.’—The Lancet for March 23, 1878, p. 441 (dated Bahia, Feb. 26).
28. Coss&. Sur ]’Helminthe rencontré par Wucherer et Crevaux, &c.
—Revue Montpellier, i. p. 190.
29. Manson and CosBoLp. On Filariasanguinis hominis in reference
to Elephantiasis, Chyluria, and allied Diseases.—Rep. of the London Me-
dical Society’s Proceedings for March 25, 1878, in‘ The Lancet’ for March
25, 1878 (p. 465).
30. CopBoLD. Mosquitoes and Human Filarie.—Clinical Memo-
randum, in ‘ British Medical Journal’ for March 16, 1878 (p. 366). See
‘ Popular Science Review’ for April 1878.
31. Gass, D. H. Letter announcing the occurrence of Filaria san-
guinis hominis at Hastings.—The Lancet for June 22, 1878.
32. Sonsino, P. Sull’ Anchylostoma duodenale (giving a differential
diagnosis as between its embryos and those of Filaria). Benha, May 16,
1878. str. dall. Imparziale.
33. Lewis, T. R. Remarks regarding the Hematozoa found in the
Stomach of Culex mosquito.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
for March 1878, p. 89.
34. Copso.p, T. S. Letter concerning Filaria sanguinis hominis, in
‘The Lancet’ for July 13, 1878, p. 64. See also ‘ Midland Naturalist’ for
August 1878.
ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. SyAll
On the Anatomy of the Elk (Alces malehis). By Prof. Morrison
Watson, M.D., and A. H. Youne, M.B., Owens College,
Manchester. Communicated by Dr. Muniz, F.L.S.
[Read December 20, 1877.]
(Puatss VI. & VII.)
For the opportunity of examining the anatomy of the Elk we are
indebted to the kindness of Messrs. Jennison, of the Zoological
Gardens, Manchester. The structure of this animal, so far as we
have been able to ascertain from a reference to such books as are
at our disposal, appears to have been very imperfectly worked
out. Indeed, with the single exception of a paper by Perrault *,
in which only the most obvious points in the anatomy of the
organs of digestion and circulation are referred to, we have been
unable to discover any anatomical description whatever of this
aberrant species. ‘The dissection was commenced with the inten-
tion of drawing up a complete account of the anatomy of the
animal; and had the period of the year been favourable, this
would certainly have been done. Coming, however, as the sub-
ject did, into our hands in the month of August, we soon found
that decomposition advanced so rapidly that we were compelled
to abandon this intention, and, after placing the viscera in spirit,
to confine ourselves to the muscular anatomy of the limbs, trust-
ing at some future time to be able to supplement the fragmentary
notes which form the subject of the present communication.
These notes, however, appear, so far as they go, to contain obser-
vations which have not hitherto been published, and we therefore
venture to place them on record without further apology.
Oreans or Digestion.
Tongue (Pl. VI. fig. 1).—The tongue is broader and more flat-
tened toward the tip than is usual among the Cervide. Its base
for a distance of 3 inches in front of the hyoid bone is smooth
and devoid of papille, which begin to make their appearance
on the dorsum radicis (Zaglas). The papille vallate are small,
and are confined to the borders of the tongue in the neigh-
bourhood of the root; they do not extend further forward than
the dorsum radicis. The rest of the upper surface of the tongue,
* Mémoires de l’Acacémie royale des Sciences, Paris, 1738.
372 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
as well as the margins, are covered with conical papille which are
of uniform size, except on the dorsum radicis, where they are
larger than elsewhere. Interspersed among these are the fungi-
form papille, which are readily distinguished by means of their
white colour. They are placed about } inch apart, and are found
in greatest abundance on the margins and tip of the tongue,
being of smaller size and more closely aggregated in the latter
situation.
Cheek.—The buccal mucous membrane is provided with nume-
rous large papille (Pl. VI. fig. 2) which, for the most part, are
compound, although some are simple in character. The number
of secondary papille in connexion with a primary papilla is com-
monly three, although it is not unusual to meet with only two
secondary papille attached to a common base. Tertiary papille
may or may not be present ; when present, they are small in size,
and their number is extremely variable.
Stomach.—The rumen consists of a number of pouches, and
does not differ much in respect of form from the ordinary Rumi-
nant type. The mucous lining is covered throughout with pa-
pille (Pl. VI. fig. 3), which are largest in the hollows of the
pouches, but are not wanting on the ridges which separate these,
although here they are much reduced in size. The papille are,
for the most part, spatulate ; but interspersed amongst these are
many of a cylindrical form. The largest measure between a
fourth and an eighth of an inch in length.
The reticulum is large. Its mucous membrane is thrown into
ridges which bound hexagonal spaces. These are largest in the
centre, and diminish in size towards the extremities of the compart-
ment. The ridges do not exceed j;0f an inch in depth. Nu-
merous papille are placed on their free margins, and are found
also on the floor of the spaces which they bound.
The psalterium is small. Its mucous coat is thrown into lon-
gitudinal laminz which are arranged in three series: the pri-
mary lamine of this stomach measure 1} inch in breadth; the
secondary lamine, situated one on either side of the primary,
measure 1 inch in breadth ; and the tertiary lamine not more than
+ of aninch. On either side of each tertiary lamina is a row of
partially coalescent papille, which gives rise to a fourth series of
lamine. The different lamine decrease in depth towards the
extremities of the psalterium ; and the surfaces of all of them are
covered with sparsely distributed rudimentary papille. Adopting
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 373
Prof. Garrod’s* method, the accompanying diagram will indicate
the arrangement of the laminz.
The abomasum presents the
usual form. Its mucous lining
is, for the most part, smooth,
but close to its commencement Dj ;
j : : iagram showing laminar arrange-
is thrown into irregular ruge. ment of mucous membrane of psal-
At the pylorus the walls of this — terium.
compartment are much thickened.
Small Intestine—The duodenum measured 2 feet in length,
and was dilated into a kind of pouch immediately beyond the
pylorus. The whole length of the small intestine, including the
duodenum, was 43 feet 11 inches. In Perrault’s+ specimen it
measured 48 feet.
Large Intestine.—The cecum measured 223 inches in length ;
according to Perraultt 13 inches. Its mucous lining just below
the opening of the ileum is thrown into a number of small glan-
dular pouches closely resembling the ileo-cecal gland of the
Giraffe as described by Cobbold§. The pouches, however, are
smaller in size in the Elk than in the Giraffe. The rest of the
large intestine is arranged in numerous coils, and measures, ex-
clusive of the cecum, 42 feet 6 inches in length. It diminishes
slightly in diameter as far as the rectum, where it is again
slightly dilated.
Liver (Pl. VI. fig. 4).—This measures 17 inches from side to
side, and 93 from above downwards ; according to Perrault, 1 foot
by 7 inches. It is divided into two lobes, right and left,
although, as remarked by Perrault, the longitudinal fissure is but
feebly pronounced. On the posterior surface of the right lobe is
a well-developed caudate lobule of a triangular shape, which lies
to the right of the portal fissure, whilst the upper border of the
right lobe is prolonged into a triangular Spigelian lobule mea-
suring 2 of an inch in length. ‘The gall-bladder, as remarked by
Perrault, is absent.
The spleen is elongated oval in form, and measures 8 inches in
length and 5} inches in breadth—measurements which agree
with those of Perrault.
* Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877.
+ Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, Paris, 1733.
t Loe. cit. § Todd’s Cycl. of Anatomy, vol. y.
374 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
LARYNX AND CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
The Larynx (Pl. VI. fig. 5), as will be seen by a reference to the
accompanying sketch, in its outward features resembles that of
the Cervide in general. With regard to its cartilages, these
have been already described and figured hy Professor Owen*.
The Heart is small, and does not differ in respect of form from
that of most Ruminants. Its cavities and valves are arranged
in the usual manner. The trunk of the aorta divides, as in other
Ruminants, into two, anterior and posterior. The “anterior
aorta’’ passes forwards to be distributed to the head, ‘neck, and
fore limbs; whilst the “ posterior aorta”’’ supplies the trunk and
posterior extremities.
URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS.
Kidney.—This is smooth and non-lobulated, a fact previously
observed by Perrault (Joc. cit.). The uriniferous tubules open, not
on separate papille, but upon a single elongated ridge. In this
respect the Elk agrees with the larger Cervide.
Testicle and Accessory Parts (Pl. VII. fig. 6).—The testicle
(a, a) is of the usual form, and is provided with a well-marked
epididymis. The scrotum is non-pendulous. The vas deferens
(b, 6) measures 18 inches in length, and is slightly dilated at its
entrance into the urethra. Before passing through the wall of
this canal, the two vasa are closely applied to one another; they
terminate on the floor of the urethra in a manner to be presently
described. Connected with the posterior extremity of each vas
deferens, previous to its passage through the urethral wall, is a
small vesicula seminalis (¢, ¢), which measures 11 inch in length.
It is placed along the outer side of the corresponding vas, and is
uncovered by muscular fibres. Hach unites with the vas of the
same side to form the ejaculatory duct.
Lying between the bladder and rectum is a well-marked fold of
peritoneum, which consists of two layers, one of which is reflected
from the lower aspect of the rectum, and the other from the upper
surface of the bladder to become continuous at the free margin of
the fold, which is directed forwards. Lying between the lamin
of this fold are the two vasa deferentia and a well-marked vesicula
prostatica. The former extend from without inwards, lying in
the free margin of the fold, and, having reached the middle line,
* «Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 594.
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 375
pass backward to open into the urethra, whilst the latter lies be-
tween the lower extremities of the vasa, and consists of a body and
twocornua. The body is represented by a stout fibrous cord, which
extends forwards to the free margin of the recto-vesical fold of
peritoneum, 2 distance of 5 inches, where it divides into the
cornua. Lach of the latter passes outwards in the free margin
of the fold for a distance of 33 inches, and then dwindles into a
fibrous cord of such tenuity that it becomes lost in the perito-
neum. ‘The body of the male uterus close to its junction with
the urethra is united with the vasa deferentia, and diminishes in
thickness to the junction of the cornua, where it expands into a
mass of tissue of a triangular form. The male uterus is solid,
and presents no trace of a cavity except just at its entrance into
the urethra, where there is a slight depression of the mucous
surface of that canal. There is no trace of a prostate gland.
The intrapelvic portion of the urethra (Pl. VII. fig. 7) mea-
sures 3 inches in length. Its walls (a, 6) are thick, and consist
of an external coat of circularly arranged muscular fibres, internal
to which is a thick layer of erectile tissue. On slitting open this
canal an elongated eminence (the veru montanum) is seen to ex-
tend from the neck of the bladder to within half an inch of the
bulb of the urethra, where it gradually disappears. On the
summit of this eminence is the elongated slit-like aperture of a
cavity measuring 7 of an inch in depth, on the floor of which are
seen the openings of the ejaculatory ducts. There is no trace of
any aperture communicating with the fibrous cord, which repre-
sents at least a portion of the uterus; and the question whether
we ought to regard the walls of the cavity itself as the representa-
tive of, and homologous with the uterus or with the vagina of the
opposite sex must in the mean time be left undecided. Leuckart*
directs attention to the structure of the male uterus in the Hare
and Rabbit, and says, “ But the most extraordinary circumstance
about the utriculus in these animals is this, that it receives the
ejaculatory ducts. In all other instances, these open indepen-
dently, by its sides, into the urogenital canal; but here, depart-
ing from this rule, they open into the undermost part of the
Weberian organ,” &c. It will thus be observed, from what we
have above stated, that not only the Hare and Rabbit, but aiso
the Elk, form exceptions to the general rule respecting the rela-
tion between the seminal ducts and the male uterus; and this is
* ‘Oyclopedia of Anatomy,’ art. Vesicula prostatica.
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 27
376 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
the more remarkable, inasmuch as in other species of Cervide the
arrangement conforms to the general rule above stated. On either
side of the veru montanum are two depressions which appear to
be the openings of ducts. The absence of any glandular bodies
appertaining to these, however, proved them to be merely super-
ficial depressions of the mucous lining of the urethra.
Cowper's Glands (Pl. VII. fig. 6).—These are two in number,
and are situated just behind the bulb of the urethra, being covered
in part by the muscular fibres of that canal. Hach is about the
size of a garden-bean, and gives off a duct which opens into the
bulbous portion of the urethra.
Penis measures 11 inches in length, and is laterally compressed.
It consists of two corpora cavernosa and a corpus spongiosum.
The latter presents a well-marked bulb posteriorly, whilst ante-
riorly it forms the glans (Pl. VII. fig. 8). This body is conical
in form, flattened from side to side, and on its under surface is a
shallow groove in which is placed the urethral orifice. There is
no vermiform terminal portion of the urethra, such as occurs in
many Ruminants. The muscles of the penis comprise an erector,
which is arranged in the usual manner, and two retractores penis,
the origins of which had been unfortunately divided, so that they
could not be identified. The muscles themselves form two rounded
and slightly flattened bands which pass forward, one on either side
of the penis, to be inserted by means of an aponeurosis into the
dorsal aspect of that organ at the junction of its anterior and
middle thirds. In the flaccid condition the glans is entirely re-
tracted within the prepuce. The latter is provided with four
muscles—two protractors and two retractors. The protractors
arise one on either side of the middle line from the abdominal
aponeurosis midway between the xyphoid cartilage and the penis,
and are inserted.into the prepuce. The retractors arise, one on
each side, from the abdominal aponeurosis in the inguinal region ;
their fibres pass transversely inwards, and are inserted along
with the protractors into the prepuce. The scrotum is non-pen-
dulous, and between it and the prepuce on either side of the
middle line are two rudimentary teats. The anterior of these is
situated at a distance of 34 and the posterior 24 inches from the
middle line of the abdomen.
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 377
Myonoey.
For reasons afterwards mentioned, in treating of the muscular
system, a comparison with that of other Ruminants has not been
entered into in detail, but a simple description of the muscles of
the body and limbs has been given. We have, for the sake of conve-
nience, adopted the nomenclature of Chauveau*, but we do not
consider ourselves bound by it in respect of general homological
Significance.
Muscles of the Fore Limb: Dorso-scapular Region.
Levator humeri (Mastoido-humeralis).—This muscle is attached poste-
riorly to the middle half of the anterior border of the shaft of the humerus.
Tt is a strong muscular band which passes forwards and upwards along the
side of the neck to be attached by means of a strong aponeurosis to the
skull behind the ear. The lowest fibres of the muscle, moreover, pass
over the angle of the jaw and parotid gland, and are prolonged forward as
a cutaneous muscle of the cheek.
Great Dorsal Muscle (Dorso-humeralis).—The fibres of this muscle
take origin from the spmous processes of all the dorsal vertebre posterior
to the highest point of the shoulder-blade, from a strong aponeurosis co-
vering the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, and by a single digi-
tation from the outer surface of the fourth last rib. The fibres pass ob-
liquely downwards and forwards to be inserted as follows:—The ante-
rior fibres terminate by blending with those of the posterior part of the
teres major, whilst the posterior and lower fibres end ona cord-like tendon
which passes in front of the teres major, and runs up to be inserted
into the lesser tuberosity of the humerus, receiving the fibres of the lower
half of the deep pectoral muscle, and giving off a tendinous slip which
joins the brachial aponeurosis upon the inner side of the arm.
Trapezius.—This muscle arises by two distinct rounded tendons from
the transverse process of the atlas, from the ligamentum nuche, and
from the spines of all the dorsal vertebrae, with the exception of the last
four, blending posteriorly with the origin of the great dorsal muscle. The
fibres constituting the anterior and posterior thirds of the muscle are
inserted into a strong aponeurosis covering the spinati muscles, and
continuous with that covermg the outer side of the arm. The central
fibres of the muscle are inserted directly into the middle third of the spine
of the scapula.
Rhomboideus arises from the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
dorsal spines, and from the ligamentum nuchze between these; the fibres
pass backwards and outwards, and are inserted into the whole length of the
superior margin of the scapula.
* «Traité d’Anatomie comparée des Animaux Domestiques.’ The Second
Hdition, revised by §. Arloing and translated into English by George Fleming.
Bathe
378 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
Angularis scapule arises in the middle of the cervical region from
about 4 inches of the ligamentum nuche, passes downwards and backwards,
and is inserted into the cervical angle of the scapula, where it coalesces
with the anterior fibres of the serratus magnus.
Pectoral Region.
The superficial Pectoral Muscle arises from the anterior extremity of
the sternum, and from the anterior two thirds of the inferior surface of
that bone. The fibres are continuous with those of the opposite muscle,
and pass outwards and backwards to terminate upon an aponeurosis
which covers the anterior surface of the elbow-joint, and is continuous
with the fascia of the forearm. This corresponds to that part of the
muscle which is described by veterinarians as the sterno-aponeuroticus,
whilst that portion of the muscle deseribed by them as the sterno-hume-
ralis has no representative in the Elk.
Deep Pectoral Muscle.—This is a large muscular mass, trapezoid in shape,
and exceeding in size the superficial pectoral. It arises from the posterior
three fourths of the inferior surface of the sternum, as well as from the apo-
neurosis which covers the rectus abdominis. The fibres pass forwards and
outwards, and are inserted as follows :—The anterior half is attached to
the lower border of the greater tuberosity of the humerus, to the lesser
tuberosity of that bone, and between these to a strong fibrous band which
arches over the biceps muscle; the posterior half of the muscular fibres
is inserted along with the tendon of the great dorsal muscle.
Costal Region.
Great Serratus consists of a costal and a cervical portion. The costal
portion arises by fleshy digitations from the eight upper ribs close to their
junction with the cartilages, whilst the cervical part arises from the lower
surfaces of the last three cervical vertebre. ‘The whole of the fibres con-
verging form a fan-shaped muscle, which is inserted into the ventral sur-
face of the scapula by two processes, one of which is a‘ tached to the anterior
and the other to the posterior angle of that bone, these two insertions being
united by a tendinous arch which bridges over the origin of the subsca-
pularis.
Muscles of Shoulder.
Long Abductor of Arm (Scapular Portion of the Deltoid) is relatively a
small muscle. It arises from the inferior extremity of the spine of the sca-
pula, as well as from the fascia covering the subspinatus. The fibres so de-
rived form a single muscle of a quadrilateral form, which is inserted into
the outer bicipital ridge of the humerus and into the bicipital groove. It
is to be observed that this muscle is not divided into two parts as in the
horse.
Teres major (Adductor of the Arm) arises from the upper fourth of the
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 379.
posterior costa of tbe scapula, and also from its posterior angle. It passes
downwards and forwards, and is inserted by a ribbon-like tendon into the
inner surface of the shaft of the humerus, about 2 inches below the head.
Posteriorly this muscle receives the anterior fibres of the great dorsal
muscle.
Teres minor (Short Abductor of the Arm) arises from the middle half of
the posterior border of the scapula. The fibres run downwards and for-
wards, parallel to the subspinatus, and terminate by being inserted into
_ the fascial origin of the external head of the triceps.
Superspinatus (Antea spinatus) arises from the supra-spinous fossa of
the scapula and from the fascia covering it, and is inserted into the upper
border of the great tuberosity of the humerus, as well as into its lesser tu-
berosity. Between these bony attachments the fibres are inserted in a
similar manner to those of the deep pectoral muscle, by means of a strong
fibrous band which arches over the long head of the biceps.
Subspinatus arises from the surface of the subspinous fossa and from
the fascia which covers the muscle. The fibres end ina stout tendon which
is attached to the outer surface of the great tuberosity of the humerus.
Subscapularis arises from the ventral surface of the scapula, with the ex-
ception of that portion which receives the insertion of the great serratus ;
its fibres pass downwards to be inserted by means of a strong tendon into
the inner surface of the lesser tuberosity of the humerus. At its origin
this muscle is partially divided into three portions, the central one being
bridged over by the tendinous arch of the great serratus.
Anterior Humeral Region.
Coraco-humeralis arises along with the biceps from the coracoid process
of the scapula, and is attached by means of a linear insertion into the
whole length of the inner surface of the shaft of the humerus.
Long Flexor of Forearm (Biceps) is a single-headed muscle which arises
by means of a thick flattened tendon from the coracoid process of the sca-
pula. This tendon, passing over a trochlear surface on the superior ex-
tremity of the humerus, gives place to a fleshy belly which terminates
in a strong flattened tendon: This tendon divides into two parts, of which
the outer is inserted into the inner border of the radius close to its head,
whilst the inner, passing off at right angles, is inserted into the inner border
of the olecranon process of the ulna.
Short Flexor of Forearm arises from the posterior surface of the shaft of
the humerus immediately below the head, as well as from the outer sur-
face of the root of the great tuberosity. The muscle winds spirally round
the external surface of the humerus, and is inserted by a flattened tendon
into the inner border of the shaft of the ulna just below the olecranon
process. ;
380 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG
Posterior Humeral Region.
Triceps Extensor Brachii.—This muscle possesses four distinct heads,
which arise as follows:—The outer head has an almost horizontal origin
extending from the lower border of the articular surface of the head
of the humerus, as far forwards as the outer surface of the base of the
great tuberosity. This head receives the fibres of insertion of the teres
minor. The middle head is the largest, and arises from the posterior
margin of the scapula for about two thirds of itslength. A third head is
attached to the posterior surface of the shaft of the humerus immediately
above the olecranon fossa, whilst the fourth head has an oblique linear
origin from the inner side of the upper half of the shaft of the humerus.
The fibres derived from these different sources terminate on a single stout
tendon which is inserted into the olecranon process of the ulna, after giving
an offshoot to the fascia on the back of the forearm. The third head de-
scribed above corresponds to the anconeus (Epicondylo-olecranius).
Muscles of the Forearm: Anterior Radio-ulnar Region: Extensors.
Anterior Extensor of Metacarpus is a broad fleshy muscle which arises
from the whole length of the external condyloid ridge of the humerus, and
also from the anterior part of the capsular ligament of the elbow-joint. It
is inserted by a stout tendon into the anterior border of the head of the
great metacarpal bone.
Oblique Extensor of Metacarpus arises from the middle third of the ex-
ternal surface of the radius. The muscle crosses from without inwards,
and ends on a tendon which, passing underneath the extensor of the pha-
langes and superficial to the anterior extensor of the metacarpus, is inserted
into the inner small metacarpal bone.
Anterior Extensor of Phalanges consists of two distinct portions. The
imner arises along with that portion of the anterior extensor of the meta-
carpus which is attached to the capsular ligament of the elbow-jomt, and
forms a fusiform belly which terminates on a tendon opposite the lower end
of the radius. This tendon forms an expansion in front of the metacarpo-
phalangeal articulation, from which three bands pass to be inserted into
the inner, outer, and dorsal surfaces of the second phalanx of the inner of
the two anterior toes. The outer portion of the muscle arises from the
outer side of the external condyle of the humerus, by fleshy fibres from the
posterior aspect of the upper extremity of the radius, and from an aponeu-
rosis attached to the lower half of the posterior border of the ulna. From
this head a tendon is given off, which is distributed to the outer of the two
anterior digits, its insertion resembling that of the tendon of the same
muscle to the inner toe; but in addition it also gives off, about the middle
of the metacarpus, a lateral slip which passes to the terminal phalanx of
the outer of the two posterior toes.
Long Extensor of the Phalanges.—This arises by two heads, one of
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 38L
which is attached to the outer side of the external condyle of the humerus,
and the other to the outer surface of the radius 3 inches below the olecra-
non. The first head ends on two tendons, of which the stronger passes
downwards in front of the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, lying between
the two tendons of the preceding muscle, below the expansion of which it
divides into two slips, each of which is inserted into the terminal phalanx
of an anterior toe. The other and smaller tendon passes down to be in-
serted into the last phalanx of the inner of the two posterior toes. The
second head terminates in a tendon which unites with that of the long ex-
tensor opposite the wrist-joint.
Note.—The anterior and long extensors have been thus described for
the sake of clearness. With reference to their action, they may be re-
garded as different parts of the extensor pedis of veterinarians.
Posterior Radio-ulnar Region: Flexors.
External Flexor of Metacarpus arises by means of a stout tendon from
the posterior border of the external condyle of the humerus. It passes
along the outer and posterior aspect of the forearm, and is inserted by
means of a tendon common to it and to the following muscle into the pisi-
form bone, as well as into the proximal extremity of the great metacarpal
bone.
Oblique Flexor of Metacarpus.—This muscle originates by two heads,
one from the inner side of the olecranon, and the second from a depression
on the inner side of the internal condyle of the humerus. These two heads
unite upon a tendon which blends with that of the preceding muscle and
is inserted along with it.
Internal Flexor of Metacarpus (Palmaris magnus) arises from the inner
condyle of the humerus, below the origin of the oblique flexcr, and termi-
nates on a rounded tendon, which is inserted into the inner and posterior
border of the proximal end of the great metacarpal bone.
Flexor sublimis Digitorum arises together with one of the heads of
origin of the flexor profundus from the posterior border of the inner
condyle of the humerus. The muscular fibres terminate at the lower end
of the forearm in two tendons which pass along the whole length of the
metacarpal bone, and are perforated opposite the metacarpo-phalangeal
articulations for the transmission of the corresponding deep flexor tendons.
Each is inserted by means of two slips into the base and sides of the second
phalanx of each of the two anterior toes. Behind the wrist-joint this
muscle is connected by means of two tendinous slips to the tendon of the
deep flexor on its mner side and to the pisiform bone on its outer side.
Flexor profundus Digitorum arises by two heads, an imner and an
outer. The inner head is the stronger, and arises in common with the
flexor sublimis, whilst the outer head is attached to the inner side of the
« olecranon process. The inner head of the muscle, moreover, is more or
less divisible into two parts. These end behind the wrist on a single’
382 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
¢
tendon, which is joined by the long slender tendon of the outer head. The
single tendon thus formed passes down as far as the metacarpo-phalan-
geal articulation, where it divides into two parts, each of which, after per-
forating the corresponding tendon of the flexor sublimis, is prolonged to
the terminal phalanx of an anterior toe.
Muscles of the Hind Limb: Giluteal Region.
Long Vastus is a large muscular mass which arises from the middle line
of the sacrum posteriorly, from the upper border of the ischium, and by a
strong tendon from the tuberosity immediately below that border. The fibres
pass outwards and downwards, the anterior ending on a special tendon
which is inserted into the outer border of the patella, blending with the
insertion of the extensor mass, whilst the remaining fibres end ona strong
aponeurosis which covers the upper half of the external muscles of the leg.
Superficial Gluteus arises from the outer surface of the iliae bone,
reaching as far back as the sciatic foramen, from a strong aponeurosis
covering the muscle, and from the fascia lumborum ; the fibres pass almost
_ directly backwards and converge to be inserted into the upper and poste-
rior borders, as well as into the outer surface of the great trochanter of the
femur.
Deep Gluteus.—This muscle lies under cover of the preceding, and is bi-
laminar, the two laminz being united along their inferior borders, but sepa-
rated posteriorly where the sciatic nerve passes between them. The super-
ficial part arises from the external surface of the iliac bone, the deeper
portion from the outer surface of the ilium in front of the sciatic notch,
from a fibrous membrane which covers the notch, and also from the great
sciatic ligament. The fibres from both lamine converge, and are inserted
into the anterior surface of the great trochanter, as well as into the adjacent
part of the shaft of the femur. j
It will be observed that we have only described two glutei muscles. The
bilaminar character of the deeper of these indicates its probable homology
with the two deeper glutei muscles usually described in the horse ; or it
may be that they correspond only to the deepest gluteus, which in the
Ruminants is described by Chauveauas being divided into two portions, each
of which is referred to by Rigot as a distinct and separate muscle.
Obturator Internus arises from the whole of the ischio-pubic portion
of the pelvic wall and from the inner surface of the obturator membrane.
The fibres pass obliquely forwards and upwards, and the tendon of the
muscle escaping from the pelvis through the small sciatic notch, is joined
by the fibres of the gemellus, and is ultimately inserted into a deep pit on
the inner side of the great trochanter of the femur.
Gemelli.—These muscles are conjoined, and form a single concave muscu-
lar mass, in the concavity of which the extra-pelvic portion of the obtu-
rator internus muscle lies. The muscle takesi ¢s origin from the border of
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 383
the small sciatic notch, and joining the obturator mternus tendon is inser-
ted along with it.
Square Crural Muscle (Quadratus Femoris) is attached internally to the
inferior border of the ischium, under cover of the posterior fibres of the
long vastus; the fibres form a flattened band which passes transversely
outwards to be attached externally to a bony ridge on the shaft of the femur,
which is continuous with the posterior border of the great trochanter.
Obturator Externus arises from the pubic bone external to the origins
of the adductor longus and pectineus, from the ischium behind the obtu-
rator foramen, and from the outer surface of the obturator membrane ; the
tendon of this muscle coalesces with that of the obturator internus, and is
inserted along with it.
Pelvi-femoral Region.
Psoas Magnus arises from the transverse processes and bodies of all
the lumbar as well as of the last two or three dorsal vertebrze, and before
passing out of the cavity of the pelvis unites with the iliacus, with which
its insertion is described.
Iliacus arises from the external border of the ilium, as far back as the
acetabulum, and from nearly the whole of the iliac fossa. Its tendon
unites with that of the foregoing muscle, and the two are inserted together
into the small trochanter, and about an inch of the shaft of the femur below
that process.
Psoas Parvus.—About half the size of the psoas magnus, lies internal
to that muscle, and arises from the bodies of the same vertebre which
afford attachment to the latter. Its tendon is mserted into the ilio-pecti-
neal eminence, as well as to the adjoining portion of the ilio-pectineal line.
Anterior Femoral Region.
The Muscle of the Fascia Lata (Tensor Vagine) arises as a fleshy
bundle from the anterior extremity of the crest of the ilium, from about
two inches of the surface of the bone immediately behind the crest, and
also from the fascia covering the superficial gluteus ; the posterior fibres of
the muscle end in the fascia covering the outer side of the thigh, whilst the
anterior (which form the larger part of the muscle) run downwards to
join the extensor tendon of the knee.
Long Adductor of the Leg (Sartorius) arises fleshy from the anterior
inferior spine of the ilium, by a tendon from the ilio-pectineal line, and from
the iliac fascia. The fibres form a ribbon-like muscle which lies in the in-
terval between the other adductors and the extensors. Jt is inserted into
the inner border of the ligamentum patellz and into the inner side of the
upper end of the tibia. Its msertion is united with the upper border
of the tendon of insertion of the gracilis.
Vastus Externus.—This muscle arises from the anterior margin of the
great trochanter, from the upper half of the linea aspera, and from the
B84 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
upper three fourths of the external surface of the shaft of the femur.
The muscle is inserted along with the rectus femoris.
Vastus Internus takes its origin from the anterior intertrochanteric
line, from the upper half of the internal surface of the shaft of the femur,
and from the upper three fourths of the anterior surface of that bone.
The fibres blend with those of the preceding muscle, and are inserted along
with those of the next muscle.
Rectus Femoris arises from the inferior border of the iliac bone im-
mediately in front of the acetabulum. Its fleshy fibres pass downwards,
and terminate in a tendon common to it and the two preceding muscles.
This tendon is inserted into the anterior tubercle of the tibia, it receives
on its outer side some of the fibres of the long vastus, and on its inner
those of the long adductor of the leg.
Internal Femoral Region.
Short Adductor of the Leg (Gracilis)—Has an extensive origin from
the lower surface of the pubic bone close to the symphysis, and from a
median tendinous band which separates it from the opposite muscle. This
band extends back as far as the anus. The muscle is inserted by means of
a broad aponeurotic tendon, the upper half of which is attached to the
inner border of the tibia, whilst the lower half unites with the fascia cover-
ing the inner head of the gastrocnemius.
Pectineus arises from the inferior border of the pubis close to the gra-
cilis. It passes downwards, and winds round the middle of the femur to
be inserted into the posterior border of the shaft of that bone.
Adductor Femoris arises from the outer surface of the body of the
pubis, between the origins of the pectineus and semi-membranosus, and is
inserted into the posterior border of the femur, its msertion corresponding
to that of the pectineus, but extending a little further down.
Posterior Femoral Region.
Semi-membranosus arises from the external surface of the pubic arch,
its origin extending from the posterior extremity of the symphysis to the
tuberosity of the ischium. Its insertion is into the lower third of the in-
ternal condyloid line of the femur, into the internal lateral ligament of the
knee-joint, and into the internal tuberosity of the tibia.
Semitendinosus.—This muscle arises, together with the vastus longus,
from a special tubercle of the ischium below the tuberosity of that bone,
as well as from the tuberosity itself, and from the upper border of the
ischium. The fibres form a thick fleshy mass, which lies parallel to the
posterior border of the vastus longus, and is inserted beneath the gracilis
into the inner border of the upper part of the shaft of the tibia, and also.
into the fascia covering the gastrocnemius.
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. : 385
Muscles of the Leg : Posterior Tibial Region.
Gastrocnemius arises by two heads, one from the outer, and the other
from the inner condyloid ridge of the femur. The heads unite together
about the lower third of the tibia, and are inserted by means of a stout
tendon which splits into two parts, a superficial andadeep. The superficial
extends as far as the lower end of the metatarsal bone, where it divides
into two slips which are inserted into the bases of the second phalanges of
the anterior toes. Between these slips the tendon of the flexor perforans
passes forward to the toes. The deeper portion of the tendon is inserted
into the tuberosity of the os calcis.
This description includes under one head both the flexor perforatus and
gastrocnemius, these two muscles being inseparably united. With refe-
rence to the muscles of this region we have departed slightly from the
nomenclature of Chauveau, our plantaris forming a portion of his flexor.
perforatus.
Soleus is fusiform and arises along with the outer head of the gastro-
cnemius. It terminates by joming the tendon of this latter muscle.
Plantaris is a delicate muscle which arises from the external condyloid
ridge of the femur, and from the posterior part of the capsule of the knee-
joint. It terminates by blending with the outer head of the gastrocnemius.
Popliteus arises by a strong tendon from a pit on the outer side of the
external condyle of the femur. Its fleshy belly is inserted into the upper
third of the posterior surface of the tibia. ;
Flexor perforans digitorum.—Arises by three heads. The superficial
head is attached to the posterior border of the external tuberosity of the
tibia. The two deeper heads arise, one from the posterior surface of the
upper two thirds of the tibia with the exception of so much of the bone as
affords insertion to the popliteus, and from an intermuscular septum at-
tached to the external border of that bone; whilst the other springs from
the internal and lower half of the oblique line of the tibia, and separates
the second head of origin of this muscle from the popliteus. The tendons
derived from the first and second heads unite opposite the lower end of the
tibia and are joined below the ankle-joint by that of the third head. The
common tendon thus formed passes as far as the lower end of the meta-
tarsal bone, where it divides into two slips, one of which is inserted into
the base of the last phalanx of each of the anterior toes, after passing be-
tween the tendinous slips supplied to the same toes by that part of the gas-
trocnemius which corresponds to the flexor perforatus. The third head of
origin of the flexor perforans corresponds to the oblique flexor of the pha-
langes of Chauveau.
Interossei.—These are represented almost entirely by ligament corre-
sponding to the suspensory ligament of the fetlock im the horse. It con-
sists of a stout musculo-tendinous band, which extends along the whole
length of the metatarsus.. The muscular portion does not appear to be
arranged in any definite manner. Above the metatarso-phalangeal articu-
386 PROF. M: WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
lation the band divides into three portions, a central and two lateral ; the
central portion after being connected to the sesamoid bones in this region
is inserted into the bases of the first phalanges of the two anterior toes ;
the lateral portions pass one along the outer, and the other along the inner
side of the metatarso-phalangeal joints to terminate on the dorsal aspect
of the second phalanges of the anterior toes, by uniting with the extensor
tendons.
Anterior Tibial Region.
Flexor of the Metatarsus arises by two heads. One is attached by
means of a strong tendon to a pit on the front of the external condyle of
the femur, as well as by muscular fibres to the outer surface of the ante-
rior tibial spine. The fibres give place to a stout tendon which passes be-
neath an annular ligament situated just above the ankle-joint, and is in-
serted into the inner side of the upper end of the great metatarsal bone,
after being perforated by the tendon of insertion of the second head of the
muscle. This second head is attached superiorly to the outer side of the
anterior tibial spine, to the outer side of the shaft of the tibia, and to a
stout fascia which conceals the tendon of the first head. The tendon of
the second head passes beneath the annular ligament, perforates that of
the first head, and is inserted immediately below it.
Peroneus (lateral flecor of phalanges) arises from the external tubero-
sity of the tibia behind the extensor of the toes, and from a strong inter-
muscular septum which separates it from the neighbouring muscles oppo-
site the upper two thirds of the tibia. Its tendon of insertion passes along
the outer side of the ankle and beneath the inferior annular ligament to
the lower end of the metatarsal bone, where it forms a flattened expansion,
which is inserted into the dorsal aspects of the second phalanges of the
anterior toes.
Extensor of the Phalanges arises by means of two muscular bellies from
the outer condyle of the femur ; these end on separate tendons which pass
together beneath both anterior annular ligaments as far as the lower end of
the metatarsal bone. The inner tendon unites with the fibrous expansion
formed by that of the peroneus, whilst the outer divides opposite the meta~
tarso-phalangeal articulation into two slips, which pass to be inserted into
the terminal phalanges of the anterior toes. This latter tendon is more-
over joined about the middle of the metatarsal bone by a small fleshy slip
which arises from the proximal end of that bone.
A muscle, which appears to have no representative in the horse, and
which forms as it were a second flexor of the metatarsus, arises from the
outer surface of the external tuberosity of the tibia and from the fascial
septum between it and the peroneus. It ends on a delicate tendon which
is inserted into a deep pit on the posterior and external aspect of the me-
tatarsal bone about one inch below its upper end.
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. 387
Body and Abdominal Muscles.
Panniculus Carnosus is strong and arises from an aponeurosis covering
the buttock, from the region of the knee-joint, and from an aponeurosis
which covers the dorsal region ; the fibres pass obliquely forward and down-
ward, the posterior ending in the abdominal aponeurosis, whilst the anterior
fibres converge and end on the fascia covering the axilla.
External Oblique arises by seven digitations from the outer surfaces of
as many of the lower ribs; it is inserted in the usual manner upon the ab-
dominal aponeurosis.
Internal Oblique arises from the outer half of Poupart’s ligament, and
from the anterior half of the crest of the ilium. Those fibres of the muscle
which arise from the ilium are inserted into the last rib, whilst the re-
mainder of the muscle terminates upon the abdomina! aponeurosis.
Transversalis.—This muscle arises through the medium of the lumbar
aponeurosis from the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebre, as well
as from the posterior margin of the thorax as far forward as the tip of the
cartilage of the fourth last rib. It is inserted into the abdominal aponeu-
rosis.
Rectus Abdominis has a tendinous origin from the median raphé which
separates the adductor muscles of the thighs. The muscle is inserted into
the cartilages of the posterior ribs.
ConcLuDING REMARKS.
Having now completed the account of our observations, it may
be as well that we should add a few words by way of comparison
of the anatomy of the Elk with that of other Ruminants. In re-
spect of the large size and compound nature of the buccal papille,
this animal differs from most of the Cervide in which they are
simple and conical in form, and agrees rather with the Camel and
Giraffe. The tongue, viewed either with reference to its form or
the arrangement of its papille, does not deviate essentially from
the Cervine type. Professor Garrod* says with regard to the
stomach of Ruminants :—‘ The rumen varies as to the shape and
distribution of the villi on its mucous membrane. In most of
the smaller species the folds which constrict the viscus, as well
as the pouches between them, are covered internally with villi,
though these are larger in the latter situations. In most of the
larger species the villi are absent on the folds, and are largest in
the middle of the pouches.” -Alces therefore agrees with the
smaller species of Ruminants, and not with the larger, as regards
the distribution of the villi, whilst their spatulate form recalls to
mind the exceptional appearance of these structures in the Rein-
* Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 3.
388 PROF. M. WATSON AND DR. A. H. YOUNG ON
deer * rather than the cylindrical form which they present in the
majority of the Cervide. Shallowness of its cells characterizes
for the most part the Cervine reticulum ; and in respect of this
division of the stomach, the Elk agrees with the majority of Deer,
including the Reindeer, in which, according to Professor Owen f,
the cells are extremely shallow. The lamine of the psalterium in
the majority of Deer are, according to Prof. Garrod, quadruplicate,
and to this general observation the Elk forms no exception ; at the
same time it is to be observed that in this animal the smallest
lamin are represented by rows of papille, an arrangement which,
according to the tables of the author just named, is also met with
in certain species of the genus Cervus, but which is by no means
so common as that in which the papille have completely coalesced
to form continuous lamine. The greatest divergence from the
Cervine type, so far as the alimentary canal of the Elk is concerned,
is to be found in the comparative lengths of the small and large
intestines. According to Meckelt the small intestine in the Cer-
vide as a rule measures more than twice the length of the large,
an observation which is substantiated by a reference to the tables
of Prof. Garrod§, whereas in the Elk the large and small intestines
are of nearly equal lengths. In this respect the Elk agrees more
closely with the Camelidz, in which, according to Meckel, the
small and large intestines are of equal length, than with other
members of the genus Cervus, only one species of which (Cervus
elaphus) at all approaches these measurements, and in it the
length of the small intestine exceeds that of the large by one
third. °
With regard to the comparative lengths of the cecum and large
intestine, as well as the absence of a gall-bladder, Alces agrees
with the Cervide in general.
Passing now to the generative organs, we find that Leuckart||
figures in the Stag vesicule seminales which are almost the coun-
terpart of those we found in the Elk; and the resemblance between
the genitals of the two animals is further borne out by the ab-
sence of a prostate gland in both. According to Pittard4 and
Murie**, it is possible that these vesiculee may represent the pros-
* Owen’s ‘Anat. of Vertebrates,’ p. 471.
t Ibid. p. 472.
} Cyclopedia of Anatomy, Cobbold, art. Ruminantia.
§ Loc. cit. p. 5.
|| Cyclopedia of Anatomy, art. Vesicula prostatica.
{ Cyclopxdia of Anatomy, art. Vesicula seminales.
** Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 352.
THE ANATOMY OF THE ELK. : 389
tate as well; but this view appears to us to be untenable, inasmuch
as the vesicule of these deer are true diverticula of the vasa defe-
rentia, and that each opens into the urethra along with the vas
deferens of the same side. Cowper’s glands are present in several
species of Cervus, whilst in others they are absent. Their pre-
sence would appear to be of no great importance in determining
the classification of this group. They are absent in Cervus ela-
phus, which in some respects approaches closely to the Elk, in
which they are present. The large size and peculiar form of the
vesicula prostatica above described differs much from the rudi-
mentary organ figured by Leuckart* in the Stag, but closely re-
sembles the corresponding organ in the Goat. Unfortunately the
very limited number of observations on its configuration in diffe-
rent species of Deer prevents any general conclusion being drawn
regarding its arrangement in this group. The glans penis, to the
form of which as an element of classification of the Ruminants
Prof. Garrod} attributes some weight,in the Elk resembles more
closely that of Cervus cashmerianus than that of any other species
figured by the author just named.
Comparative deductions respecting the myology of the Elk do
not seem advisable until it be completely worked out. So far ag
the muscles of the limbs are concerned, they are seen to closely
resemble those of the Ox and Sheep amongst Ruminants. Owing
to the want of definite information on the myology of Cervide, it
is impossible to arrive at any conclusions regarding the comparison
of the Elk in this respect with the animals to which it is most
closely allied.
Taking into consideration, however, those anatomical features
of the Elk which are brought out in the foregoing description,
there can be no doubt but that they lead to the conclusion that
in all essentials the animal is a true though somewhat aberrant
species of Deer; at the same time it appears doubtful if the
deviation from what may be called the normal Cervine type is
sufficient to justify the creation of a separate genus for the recep-
tion of Cervus alces.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
Puate VI.
Fig. 1. Dorsum of tongue showing papill (half natural size).
2. Mucous membrane of the cheek with papille (natural size).
* Cyclopxdia of Anatomy, art. Vesicula prostatica.
t Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1877.
390 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Fig. 3. Papille of the mucous membrane of rumen (natural size).
4. Outline of liver (reduced).
5. Larynx from behind.
Prats VIL.
Fig. 6. Male generative organs. The outline of the bladder is seen through
the peritoneum. ‘The lettering applies as follows :—a a, testicles ;
66, vasa deferentia ; ¢c, vesicule seminales; dd, Oowper’s glands ;
é, intrapelvie portion of urethra; /, bulb of urethra; gg, erectores
penis; / h, retractores penis; z, penis; 4, vesicula prostatica ;
11, ureters.
7. Intrapelvic portion of the urethra laid open, showing the single
Opening common to the two seminal ducts: a, muscular fibres;
6, erectile tissue.
8. Glans penis.
On the Geographical Distribution of the Gulls and Terns (Zaride).
By Howarp Saunpers, F.LS., F.Z.8.
[Read April 18, 1878.]
To those who have only a general knowledge of the family of the
Laride, which comprises the subfamilies Sternine (Terns), Rhyn-
chopsing (Skimmers), Larine (Gulls), and Stercorariine (Parasitic
Gulls), it may seem that there is but little to be said respecting
the geographical distribution of a group whose conditions of exis-
tence being almost entirely dependent upon water, and, in the
majority, marine, are therefore particularly favourable to disper-
sion and general distribution, and opposed to the development of
specialized forms. A closer investigation of the subject shows,
however, that whereas some members of the family have an ex-
ceedingly wide range, there are, on the other hand, many remark-
able and isolated forms which, for reasons as yet unknown to us,
are restricted to very narrow geographical areas. In some in-
stances it is not difficult to trace the connexion with the other
members of the same group; and in other cases the existing gaps
between closely allied species may be explained, with a fair show
of probability, by the alterations which are known to have taken
place in the geographical features of the area now inhabited. But
even then it must often be a matter for wonder that birds of such
powers of flight should consent (if I may use the word) to remain
within such confined limits, when the causes which formerly might —
have proved a barrier to their extension have for ages disappeared.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 391
There are, however, several remarkable instances of this apparently
voluntary restriction which are not to be accounted for by defi-
ciency or variation in food, nor even by climatic changes. These
cases are more frequently to be found amongst the Gulls (Larine),
which, being to a great extent omnivorous, are the scavengers of
the shores; whilst the Terns (Sternine) obtain their sustenance
almost entirely from the sea or from inland waters, and are
also, by their slender shape and length of wing, obviously adapted
for long and sustained flights. Yet even amongst the Terns there
are several remarkable cases of isolation and restriction; and it
is in this group that we are more especially enabled to trace seve-
ral interesting links in the chain of dispersion accompanied by
gradual variation.
It is not necessary to occupy more space with preliminary
remarks; but I my observe that my investigations during the
past seven years lead me to accept about 53 recognizable spe-
cies of Terns and Skimmers, 50 of Gulls, and 6 of Skua Gulls,
a considerable reduction from the 160 species upheld by Bona-
parte in his latest revision of the Longipennes. Even of the
accepted species, there are, however, several which are little more
than climatic varieties, and they will merely be alluded to in the
course of my remarks upon the general distribution of the groups
of which they form part. Nor is it my intention to lay any stress
upon solitary and accidental stragglers to places far removed from
their normal habitat, especially where these apparitions are those of
immature birds, which generally wander far more than adults—my
object being to bring forward the broad features of the geogra-
phical distribution of the members of this family, without dwel-
ling upon trifling and irrelevant exceptions.
For convenience of treatment it will be better to commence
with the Stercorariine, or Skua Gulls (Lestridine, Mliger), which
inhabit the Arctic and Antarctic seas. Two out of the four
northern species are very closely allied. The most Arctic in
its habitat, Stercorarius parasiticus (l.), commonly known as
Buffon’s Skua, being an elegant long-tailed form of the stouter
and shorter-tailed species S. crepidatus (Gm.), which, to avoid
mistakes, I call Richardson’s Skua, a vernacular name originally
applied to a melanic variety of the species, but adopted as the
least liable to cause confusion. ‘The former breeds throughout
the regions to the north of the Arctic circle, straying southward
in winter, both in the Atlantic and Pacific. Its extreme range on
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 28
392 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
record being that of a young bird obtained between the Philip-
pines and the Sandwich Islands, to which Bonaparte gave the
name of Lestris hardyi; this example is in the Berlin Museum,
where I have recently examined it. Richardson’s Skua has a more
southern breeding-range, nesting as far down as the Orkney and
Shetland Islands, whence it goes in winter as far as the Cape of
Good Hope, and in all probability up the east coast of Africa to
Persia and the coast of Scind, being apparently the species de-
scribed from there by Mr. A. O. Hume as S. asiaticus. On the
Atlantic side of America it goes to Rio Janeiro, being apparently
the species described by Solander, in his unpublished MS. in the
British Museum, under the names of Larus fuliginosus and L. ni-
gricans ; and it probably visits the Pacific coasts, as a solitary ex-
ample which I refer to this species was obtained by Mr. Buller
in the Province of Wellington, New Zealand. Both these spe-
cies possess great powers of flight, so that they are able to pursue
and rob, not only the smaller Gulls, but also the Terns ; and as
the latter are found in an uninterrupted succession throughout
the whole of the indicated range, there is at once an assignable
reason for great extension in the range of the latter of these two
Skuas. A larger and stouter species, with broad-pointed central
tail-feathers, S. pomatorhinus, with an Arctic breeding-range
nearly identical with that of S. parasiticus, has nearly as exten-
sive a southern range as S. crepidatus, immature birds having
occurred in West Africa down to Walwich Bay, and once at Cape
York, North Australia; whilst in the North Pacific it has oc-
curred at the Prybilov Islands, and the ‘ Challenger ’ Expedition
obtained a fine adult specimen in Inosima, Japan. In powers of
flight this bird is nearly if not quite equal to its two congeners,
and the same causes probably influence its distribution.
Butnow, on leaving these three perfectly distinct species,we come
to three others whose distinctions are comparatively trifling, at
the same time that the gradations of differences and geographical
distribution are very interesting. The northern species, S. catar-
rhactes, whose breeding-range stretches from the coast of Norway,
the Faroes, and Iceland, away through the Nearctic region and
the Pacific, appears to be nowhere numerically abundant, and is
fast becoming exterminated in Europe. It is a bold, predacious,
but somewhat heavy bird, addicted at times to the slaughter of
lambs, and deriving its main sustenance from plundering the Gulls,
especially the Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), upon which, more-
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 393
over, it seems to prey; for Capt. H. W. Feilden found the bones
and feathers of that species in the stomachs and castings of the
Skuas at the Faroes. In winter it ranges down to the Straits
of Gibraltar, and perhaps a little further; and on the Pacific side
it has once been obtained, as recorded by Lawrence, at Monterey,
California. It would probably have little chance of overtaking a
Tern, but it is quite fast enough to tyrannize over any of the
smaller Gulls; and it is interesting to observe that its range
coincides with the winter range of the Kittiwake. As already
shown, it has occurred in California; but descending that coast,
we find no trace of a large Skua until we enter the fish-abounding,
and therefore gull-frequented, waters of Humboldt’s Current,
which cools the coasts of Chili and Peru throughout a width of
about 300 miles, and sweeps outwards to diminish the natural
heat of the equatorial Galapagos Islands. In these productive
waters is found a large Skua, S. chzlensis (vide P. Z.S. 1876, p.
323, pl. xxiv.), separable from the northern S. catarrhactes by its
brighter and more chestnut underparts and axillaries—differences
which are constant, although it is true that they are merely those
of colour. Its bill is perhaps a trifle more slender than that of
the northern bird, a point which should be borne in mind, because
on passing through the Straits of Magellan, where this species
appears to stop, we come at once to another large Skua, S. antare-
ticus, which, although in such close geographical proximity to
S. chilensis, yet differs far more from it than S. chilensis does from
S. catarrhactes! The Antarctic Skua ranges from the Falkland
Islands down to the edge of the pack-ice, the shores of New Zea-
land, and up to Norfolk Island, and thence by way of the chain of
Kerguelen Island, St. Paul’s Island, the Crozets, &c., it reaches
the Cape of Good Hope and, as a straggler, Madagascar. From
the Cape it works round by Tristan d’Acunha and the South
Atlantic islands, till the chain is completed at the Falklands again.
S. antarcticus isa uniformly dusky bird, with stronger and shorter
bill than either of its near relatives; but it is interesting to
observe certain slight variations in the chain even in the selfsame
species. The largest birds are from the Southern Ocean, between
New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope, and they are also the
duskiest in colour; those from the South Atlantic are smaller, and
have a tendency to a pale frill of acuminate feathers, similar to
that which is more or less marked in all the other Skuas; whilst
the three individuals obtained by the ‘ Erebus’ and ‘ Terror’
28*
394. MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Expedition from the edge of the pack-ice, now in the British
Museum, are wonderfully bleached and weird-looking birds.
On reading the account given by Dr. Kidder respecting the habits
of this species at Kerguelen Is'and, where it seems to avoid
water and to prey principally upon the flesh of other birds, it is
rather remarkable that it should have varied so little; but so far
as our present defective knowledge of distribution goes, the evi- -
dence seems to point to the North Pacific as the district whence
the members of this group originally sprung. I am quite pre-
pared to learn that S. chilensis goes as far as the Galapagos, which
would considerably narrow the gap which separates it from S. ca-
tarrhactes. SS. antarcticus is a still more specialized offshoot,
entirely absent from the great space which lies between New Zea-
land and the western shores of South America, and probably re-
stricted from ascending the eastern coast of that continent and
the coasts of Africa by the absence from those districts of the
gulls upon which it can directly or indirectly prey.
In the North Pacific, again, where the Aleutian Islands form
a broken chain between Alaska and Kamtschatka, and enclose
Behring’s Sea, is found a distinct and very local species of
Kittiwake Gull (Rissa brevirostris, Brandt), having a short stout
bill, rudimentary hind toe, a grey mantle much darker than in the
Common Kittiwake, and orange legs and feet, but which calls
for no further remark. Over the same area is found the Common
Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla, a species which ranges throughout
the whole Arctic and Subarctic regions, descending on the Atlantic
coasts somewhat further than on those of the Pacific. The vast
majority of individuals throughout this area are precisely identical ;
but some of the Alaskan examples have a minute but distinctly
formed hind toe, and even a nail, although this peculiarity is
not always equally developed on both feet of the same bird!
Inasmuch as every other member of the family of the Laride,
except Rissa, has a fully developed hind toe, it is tolerably evident
that in Rissa it has for some reason become obsolete ; and as the
survivors of the hind-toed Riss@ are only found round Alaska, it
would appear probable that the North Pacific in this case also
is the point of dispersion and variation for this genus.
Amongst the typical Gulls there are only two species, Larus
glaucus and L. leucopterus, which have white primaries devoid of
dark markings or “ pattern’’; and these two range throughout
the whole Arctic and Subarctic region, including the North Pacific
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 395
from Alaska to Japan. It is, however, only in the North Pacific
and North-western America that we find Z. glaucescens, a gull
of similar dimensions but with faintly barred primaries, which
give it in effect the appearance of a washed-out Herring-gull
(ZL. argentatus). It is a perfectly recognizable species, but it is
clear that it forms a connecting-link between these two groups;
and as it is well-established that the Herring-gulls which are
resident furthest north are lighter in colour than southern ex-
amples, it is not difficult to trace out the gradual diminution of
colour through Z. glaucescens, till the total loss of it is reached in
L. glaucus and L. leucopterus. In the Herring-gull group, again, all
the forms—call them species or varieties—are found in the North
Pacific. It is there that we meet with L. argentatus of our islands,
Western Europe, and North America, as distinguished by its pale
flesh-coloured legs and pale eyelid from L. cachinnans, with its
slightly darker mantle, yellow legs, and bright brick-red eyelids,
which takes the place of Z. argentatus in the Mediterranean, over
the steppes of Russia and Siberia, and coasts of Asia, and reaches
to the Pacific seaboard of China. JL. affinis, Reinhardt, with a yet
darker mantle and wings, which, however, still show a distinct
pattern in their outer primary feathers, is also to be found in the
North Pacific. The explorations of Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie
Brown on the Petschora have shown us that this last species
merely visits Northern Europe and Siberia to breed at a time when
there is an almost continuous sunshine, whilst the rest of the year
is passed in the brilliant atmosphere of the Red Sea and the coasts
from thence to India. Bearing in mind the gradual increase in
intensity of colour in proportion to the amount of continued sun-
shine experienced by all these gulls, and the increasing pallor
amongst the species which mainly inhabit the north, it seems
impossible to avoid the deduction that many of these varieties
which we agree to call species are almost entirely due to climatic
influence. Of. the three species named, two are, however, exclu-
sively Palearctic; but on the American side, from Vancouver’s
Island to Lower California, is found another species, L. occi-
dentalis, Audubon, a gull with a very dark mantle, no pattern
on the outer primaries, and a short stout bill; this is an ex-
clusively American form, but it is clearly a member of this
group.
With the same range as L. occidentalis, and restricted, like it,
to the western side of the North Pacific, is found L. calefornicus,
396 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Lawr., the largest member of the group of which L. zonorhynchus,
Ord, is its nearest ally in the Nearctic region ; and again, over a
similar area is found L. brachyrhynchus, Richards., the close ally
and representative in North-western America of Z. canus of the
whole Palearctic region from Europe to Japan. These three
species seem to keep to their respective sides of the North
Pacific ; and if we except stragglers of LZ. californicus and L. zo-
norhynchus to Japan, and of L. canus to Labrador, these inhabi-
tants of the Nearctic and the Palearctic regions do not appear to
overlap ; nevertheless the North Pacific is the only area within
which they are ald found, and seems in this case also to be the
point of dispersal. This brings us to the consideration of another
natural group, the members of which occur throughout the whole
of the Pacific, both north and south, but more particularly in
the latter.
In the typical Gulls the barred tail is a mark of immaturity, and
the hood is usually the sign of breeding plumage; but there is a
group in which these conditions are partially or entirely reversed.
The coasts of China and Japan are frequented by L. crassirostris,
Vieill., a medium-sized gull, which has a slight tendency to a
brownish hood when young, but which in the adult state has a pure
white head and underparts, a dark grey mantle, and a tail crossed by
a broad black bar. On the Californian side is found L. heermanni,
of about the same size, with a still more distinct hood in the imma-
ture stage, with more black on the tail, and underparts of a sooty
grey colour, which fades away on the head into a pale grey in the
fully adult. Yet further south, on the coasts of Peru and Chili, is
L. belcheri, Vigors, a stout-billed gull, witha very marked hood in
the early stage, but which when adult is much like L. crassirostris,
except that its mantle is decidedly black. On the same coasts
oceurs a much slenderer and more elegant species, L. modestus,
T'sch., with rather delicate tarsi; this also has a decided hood
when immature, but in the adult the dark grey of the underparts
fades into a pale colour, and becomes almost white on the head
and forehead. In the Galapagos archipelago, and nowhere else,
is found a much stouter and coarser gull, L. fuliginosus, Gould,
of a nearly uniform sooty hue, and bearing a hood in the adult as
well as in the immature plumage. At the very extremity of the
district, and extending some distance beyond it, ranging from the
Straits of Magellan to the Falklands and South Shetland Islands,
comes an aberrant species, of which it can only be said that its
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 397
affinities are more with this group than with any other. This is
L. scoresbii, Traill, a gull with a remarkably short, stout, crimson
bill, coarse feet, with somewhat excised webs, and a decided hood in
the immature stage, whilst in the adult plumage the head becomes
light coloured as in the rest of the group, from which, again, it
differs in having a white tail like an ordinary adult gull. Passing to
the extremity of the opposite side of the South Pacific, we find in
Tasmania, and perhaps in New Zealand, a very large black-
mantled gull with an enormously deep bill, Z. pacifieus, Lath.,
which, whilst in some points resembling the typical gull, Z. do-
minicanus, to be considered next, has also a black band across
the tail, which seems to indicate a relationship to the Pacific
group. As regards L. dominicanus, Licht., it is an ordinary black-
mantled, stout-billed gull, with an extensive range, reaching from
New Zealand through Kerguelen and the intermediate islands to
South Africa, and thence to South America on both sides nearly up
to the tropic of Capricorn. So faras the southern hemisphere is
concerned it stands alone; and perhaps its closest ally is the
species LZ. marinus of the northern hemisphere, although the
interval between their ranges is considerable. To avoid re-
currence to the latter species, it may be as well to indicate its
range here. The Great Black-backed Gull, Z. marinus, the largest
of all the family, is found throughout the greater part of the
Palearctic and Nearctic regions, more especially in the North
Atlantic. In its wing-pattern it differs from any other large gull,
and it is by no means closely allied to the Lesser Black-backed
Gull, Z. fuscus, which is also confined to the northern hemi-
sphere, but has a less extended range, being only found along
the shores of Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea and
vicinity, not reaching to the Pacific seaboard of China, nor to
the American side of the Atlantic. The latter is a long-winged
elegant species, with yellow legs and a comparatively small foot,
and is apparently closer to L. affinis, Reinh., than to any other.
Returning to the southern hemisphere, we find there a small
and isolated group, all the members of whichare very closely allied.
In New Zealand the representative is L. scopulinus, Forst., a
small gull with grey mantle, head, tail, and underparts white,
and red billand feet. In Australia, Tasmania, and New Caledonia
it is replaced by L. nove-hollandie, Steph., which merely differs
from it in its slightly larger dimensions and a trifling variation
ip the pattern of the primaries. Then, without a link in the
398 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
chain, for no similar gull occurs on Kerguelen or any of the in-
termediate islands, a closely allied, but perfectly separable spe-
cies, LZ. hartlaubi, turns up at the Cape of Good Hope. New
Zealand also produces another species, L. bulleri, Potts, belong-
ing to the same group, but varying rather more in its wing-pattern
from ZL. scopulinus than that species does from the other two.
L. bullert seems to be rather a frequenter of inland waters, but
all the others are sea-gulls, and, as has been observed, they form
an isolated group. Bonaparte united them in the same subgenus
with Z. gelastes of the northern hemisphere ; but the resemblance
between them seems to me to be extremely superficial.
It is generally admitted that at one time Europe was united
to Northern Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar, and again at Cape
Bon in Sicily, the present Mediterranean sea being then divided
into two great lakes. These barriers have long been broken
down, yet there exists a gull which even now scarcely strays
beyond the ancient limits of one of these inland lakes. This spe-
cies is L. audowini, Payr., a long-winged bird similar to and nearly
as large as a Herring-eull, but with black legs and a cherry-red
bill crossed by a double transverse zone, its headquarters being in
the vicinity of Corsica and Sardinia, and its occurrence has never
been authenticated beyond Spain on the one hand, and Sicily on the
other. There are scarcely two other species which have so circum-
scribed an area, and in a sea-gull this isolation is very remarkable.
On the same waters, but with an extension of range as far as the
Black, Caspian, and Red seas, and thence to Scind, is found L. ge-
lastes, a slender gull, which, although devoid of a hood at all seasons,
has close affinities with those species which bear a coloured hood in
the breeding-season only, and which have next to be considered.
The typical Hooded Gulls are, with one exception, small or
medium-sized birds; and as regards number of species, the group
is better represented in the northern hemisphere than in the
southern. Indeed the whole of the south-eastern portion of the
globe can show but one solitary species, L. pheocephalus, Sw., a
South-African form with a pale grey hood, closely allied to, and,
in fact, only just separable from, L. cirrhocephalus, Vieill., which
inhabits the opposite coast of Brazil and the Rio de la Plata
States, and has also, strange to say, been twice obtained on the
Pacific near Lima. How it gets there is not known, the interval
being absolutely unbridged, but the fact is undoubted. The
African species is probably an offshoot of the American form, inas-
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 399
much as beyond the Neotropical district no other hooded gull is
known to exist in the southern hemisphere. The Neotropical re-
gion, which has been so well worked out by Messrs. Sclater and
Salvin, possesses three other indigenous species, two of which, L.
maculipennis, Licht., and L. glaucodes, Meyen, only differ in a slight
degree in the pattern of the wing-feathers. Their geographical dis-
tribution is, however, somewhat remarkable—the former ranging
from South Brazil down to South-eastern Patagonia, where it stops,
its place being taken from the Falkland Islands round to Chili by
L. glaucodes. At the first glance, both these species much resemble
our well-known LZ. ridibundus, L., of the Palearctic region, and
they appear to be its southern representatives. Along the Andean
range from Chili to Ecuador is found a much larger and handsome
species, LZ. serranus, Tschudi, which breeds on the shores and islands
of the Lake Titicaca and other lakes at a considerable elevation, only
visiting the Pacific coast during the bad weather in the mountains.
Any other Hooded species found in this region are merely winter
visitants from the north, and the most abundant of these is LZ. frank-
lint, a Subarctic species which breeds in the Fur countries, and
ranges through North America west of the Mississippi, Mexico, and
down the Pacific coast to Chili. Of the remaining two American
species, L. atricilla, L., which has black primaries, inhabits the
temperate and intertropical regions of the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts ; and L. philadeiphie (Ord), (L. bonapartw, Rich.), ranges
right across Subarctic America, descending both coasts, an im-
mature strageler occasionally finding its way to the British Isles.
In the Palearctic region, LZ. ridibundus, L.,is found throughout
its whole extent, descending in winter as far as 15° N. lat. On
the Indian coast it then impinges upen the domain of its stouter
relative L. brunneicephalus, Jerd., a species which has its summer
home in the lakes of the lofty tablelands of Tibet and Mongolia.
Strageling along the Atlantic coast, but in the main confined to
the Mediterranean and Black seas, is L. melanocephalus, Natt. ;
whilst that giant amongst the black-headed gulls, L. ichthyaétus,
ranges from the Mediterranean to the Bay of Bengal. Along
the coasts and over the inland waters of China and Mongolia is
found a very peculiar gull, LZ. saunders, with which my lamented
friend the late Mr. R. Swinhoe did me the honour of associating my
name: it has remarkably slender feet and tarsi, resembling those
of a marsh-tern, with a very stout and powerful bill. The smallest
of all the gulls, Z. minutus, Pall., ranges over the whole Pale-
400 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
arctic region; and in its immature plumage, and in the pattern of its
primaries when adult, seems to have no very close allies. In the
Red Sea are found two species, the more specialized of which,
L. leucophthalmus, is restricted to those waters, whilst L. hem-
prichit extends its range as far as Scind; like L. atricilla of Ame-
rica, they have black primaries, but there are no other points which
indicate any special affinity. To sum up the evidence afforded
by the distribution of the Hooded Gulls,it cannot be said toamount
to much more than a general indication of an origin in either the
Palearctic or Nearctic region, probably the latter, as it is from
thence that they have been diffused fas ar as the extreme southern
limits of the American continent.
The genus Pagophila calls for little remark: it contains but
one species, the Ivory Gull, P. eburnea, and is a well-marked,
coarse, and purely Arctic form, ranging from Novaya Zemlya to
Spitzbergen and Baffin’s Bay, but not being as yet recorded
from any part of the North Pacific. Another purely Arctic
form, the small Wedge-tailed or Ross’s Gull, Ehodostethia
rosea, Maceill., of which only thirteen specimens are known
to exist, has a still more circumscribed range, and its head-
quarters appear to be Melville Peninsula, Boothia Felix, and
perhaps the region between Spitzbergen and Franz-Joseph land.
This beautiful species when in breeding-plumage has a black
collar but no hood, the underparts being tinted with a rich rose-
colour, whilst the centre feathers of the tail are somewhat pro-
longed as in the Skuas, from which group, however, it is in all
other respects far removed. ‘This also is an Arctic species with
no near allies. The last of the Arctic species is Xema sabinit,
a gull but slightly larger in size, with a black hood deepening
into a collar, and a forked tail. This gull breeds right round the
Arctic circle from Greenland to the Siberian tundras north of
lat. 74°, and has been known to push its southern migrations as
far as the north of Peru. There is considerable interest attaching
to this wanderer in the tropical Pacific; for at Chatham Island,
one of the Galapagos group, and situated nearly on the Equator,
was obtained one of the two existing specimens of that rarest of
all gulls, X. furcata (Neb.)—a fork-tailed hooded species, which,
but for a few trifling details, is a gigantic X. sabiniz. Over the
real habitat of X. furcata there hangs a slight mystery. There
can be no doubt the specimen in the British Museum was ob-
tained in the Galapagos group, the very rock (Dalrymple rock,
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 401
Chatham Island) is indicated ; the plumage seems to be that of
maturity, and the date accords with what that plumage ought to
be. The other specimen, which is in the Paris Museum, is stated
by Neboux to have been obtained at Monterey, California, during
the cruise of the ‘ Vénus’; but that frigate also visited the Gala-
pagos, and there may be a mistake in the locality, as Mr. O. Salvin
has shown that such errors have occurred with other birds. This
supposition is favoured by the fact that the American naturalists
have kept a keen but unavailing look-out for it during many
years past ; and as the Galapagos group is seldom visited except
by whalers and an occasional British man-of-war, it seems probable
that this is another of those forms which are not merely confined
to that archipelago, but even to a few islands of it. Under these
circumstances it is interesting to find that its nearest ally comes
at times so close to its domain; and this approximation in the
Pacific is another link in the chain of evidence respecting the
centre of dispersion.
These Fork-tailed Gulls lead in a manner to the subfamily of
Terns (Sternine), although there is a tolerably wide gulf between
them, as shown by the shape of the bill, the short feet and tarsi,
and the long wings, the latter pointing to increased adaptation
for prolonged flight. Accordingly we find that, as a rule, there
are fewer specialized forms than in the Larine, and that the range
of the majority of the species is wider than in the same proportion
of the Gulls. Thisis mainly due to the conditions of their exist-
tence, which depend on fish and aquatic productions ; but even
under conditions so favourable to dispersion, there are not wanting
some remarkable instances of isolation. Of the larger and heavier
species, the largest, Sterna caspia, although nowhere numerically
abundant, has an immense range, being found breeding from the
Nearctic and Palearctic regions down to New Zealand, although
replaced throughout intertropical America and on the west
coast of Africa by the somewhat smaller and more elegant S,
maxima, Bodd. WS. cantiaca has a western Palearctic and eastern
Nearctic range, going to the Cape of Good Hope in winter, as do
also both S. fluviatilis and S. macrura, Naum., our Common and
Arctic Terns, which have a more extended range in the north,
whilst none of them are known to breed in the southern hemi-
sphere. From the Mediterranean to the Malay Archipelago and
Torres Straits is found S. media, the Old-World representative of
S. elegans and S. eurygnathus of tropical America; whilst from
402 MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Africa to Australia and Polynesia we find a large Tern only difter-
ing from the usual style of coloration in having a white frontlet
band at the base of its bill, and which, in spite of local variations
in size and colour of mantle, seems to me to be but one species,
S. bergii, Licht. It would be tedious to enumerate all the typi-
cal species and to give their respective ranges ; but there is a point
in the distribution of some of those in the southern hemisphere
which must not be passed over. On the coasts of Chili, the
Straits of Magellan, and the Falkland Islands is found S. hirwnd-
nacea, Less. (L. cassini, Sclater), rather larger than our Common
Tern, S. fluviatilis, and having a bright red bill. At Tristan
d’Acunha, and thence to St. Paul’s and Amsterdam Islands, and
down to Kerguelen Island, we find a very similar Tern, S. vittata,
Gm., but smaller and with the underparts washed with grey,
closely resembling, in fact, our Arctic Tern, 8. macrura, but
having a longer tarsus. The Tristan d’Acunha bird is undoubt-
edly 8. vittata ; but its connexion with S. hwwndinacea is shown
by a visibly closer approach to that species than is the case in St.
Paul’s or Kerguelen-Island examples. At Kergulen Island is also
found an affined but quite separable species, S. virgata, Cab., of
a more uniformly sooty hue, but still presentithg the characters
of an oceanic tern in its pointed red bill and elongated tail-fea-
thers ; this species is absolutely confined to that island. Passing
to New Zealand, we meet with very similar species, S. antarctica,
Wagler, in which the shape of the bill is somewhat modified, be-
coming short, stout, and considerably curved in the upper man-
dible, the webs of the feet are also more excised—peculiarities
which have led to its being placed by some systematists in the
genus Hydrochelidon, with which, however, it has no real affinity.
Here the chain breaks abruptly, there being beyond this point no
connexion with South America to complete the circle. As the
northern representatives of these Antarctic species come down,
in winter at least, as far as South Africa, the point of union seems
in this case to be the South Atlantic ; but when and why the se-
paration took place in their breeding-range it is impossible to say.
New Zealand also possesses one isolated species, S. frontalis, a
rather larger Tern with a white frontlet, apparently more closely
connected with S. cantiaca than with any other. _
From the Red Sea to the Laccadive Islands is found another of
these specialized forms, S. albigena, a slender species of the Common
Tern type, but washed all over with a sooty hue. Another mem-
'
4
:
‘
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 403
ber of the same group, S. dowgalli, has a very wide range, reach-
ing from temperate America and Europe to South Africa, Ceylon,
and the Andaman Islands, where it breeds, even to the northern
coasts of Australia. All these are typical species so far as shape and
the black crown to the head are concerned ; but from China and the
Andamans to Torres Straits and Eastern Polynesia we find S. me-
lanauchen, an oceanic species which has only a black band from
the lores to the nape, the crown being white ; this, again, is an iso-
lated form. In South America, from Brazil to Chili, there is ano-
ther species, S. trudeaui, which is singular in having no crest, but
only a dark streak from the eye to the ear and a party-coloured bill.
Of the group of Little Terns, of which S. minuta is the type,
there are several species, respecting which it need only be said
that the variations comprise the typically marked 8. balenarum
of South Africa, with a full black crown with white lores, S. minuta,
with only a partially black crown with black lores, and 9. nereis of
Australia, with uncoloured lores and a partially black crown. Their
distribution gives no clue to their point of dispersion. Neither are
the three species of Marsh-terns comprised in the genus Hydroche-
lidon of much use ; they are probably Old-World forms, having a
wide range north and south. Only one, the Black Tern, 8. nigra
(L.), is found in America as well as in the Palearctic region, the
other two, H. hybrida and H.leucoptera, ranging as far as Australia
and New Zealand. Sterna anglica, placed by some systematists in
the genus Geochelidon, and the River-terns, S. seena of India and
S. magnirostris of Tropical America, need no special remarks.
Returning once more to the North Pacific, we find a remarkable
and very local form in Alaska, 8. alewtica, which hay a white front-
let, black lores, a dark crown, and a dark grey mantle, the under-
parts being washed with grey. Looking at the head alone, it pre-
sents the markings of one of the group of Sooty Terns which have
been placed by Wagler in three distinct genera, Onychoprion,
Haliplana, and Planetis, all based upon the same identical spe-
cies! It differs, however, from all Sooty Terns in having the
rump and tail pure white, in which respect it resembles the bulk
of the Nearctic and Palearctic species, whereas in the Sooty
Terns the rump and tail are dark like the mantle. At present it
is separated by an interval of upwards of 20° of latitude from any
of the Sooty Terns, of which there are three species, all wide-
ranging and intertropical ; but it is impossible to avoid consider-
ing it an important link in the chain of descent, the other com-
404: MR. H. SAUNDERS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
ponent parts of which are missing. This view is strengthened
when it is observed that from the Moluccas throughout part of
Polynesia is found its nearest ally amongst the Sooty Terns,
namely §. Jwnata, a species in which the upper parts are dark
grey instead of black as in S. fuliginosa and S. anestheta. Here,
again, the Pacific seems to be the point of departure.
On the coasts of Peru and Chili is found a very remarkable
species, Nenia inca, typical as regards its forked tail, but raised
to generic rank on account of its long, curved, projecting feathers
resembling moustaches, and the union of the foot with the hallux.
It is believed to be a rock-breeding species, but little is known
about it. A still more highly specialized form is the snow-white
Gygis, which has long slender toes, with deeply excised webs, and
a graduated tail, the second or third feathers being the longest,
in which respect it is allied to the Noddies (Anous). Gygis can-
dida ranges from Ascension, St. Helena, Madagascar, Mauritius,
&c. to Australia, and thence through Polynesia up to the Sand-
wich Islands: at the Marquesas is also found a smaller and slender-
billed form, which I consider entitled to specific distinction, G.
microrhyncha. The nidification in this genus is very peculiar, the
single egg being placed in any trifling depression in the surface of
the branch, or in a fork of a tree or even of a stout plant. In
making no nest these birds resemble the majority of the Sternine ;
but the shape of the tail points to a relationship with the mem-
bers of the genus Anows, the nearest being with the two small
grey Noddies, A. ceruleus (Bennett), and A. cinereus, Gould,
which appear to be almost if not entirely confined to the coral-
islands of the Pacific, where they deposit their single egg in the
crevices of the rocks, making no nest. Next comes a nearly black
Noddy with a white crown, A. leucocapillus, Gould, confined to
the islands between the Paumatu group and North Australia,
which also seems to make no nest. The record respecting these
and the two following species is, however, very imperfect, and it
is not safe to base any deduction upon what is at present known
of their distribution. A. melanogenys, Gray, with deep black
lores and greyish nape, is a widely-distributed species, being found
from Honduras down to Australia and Polynesia. The most
remarkable fact about its range is that the ‘ Challenger ’ Expedi-
tion obtained it at Inaccessible Island close to Tristan d’Acunha,
in 37° 8. lat., the home of the penguin, the albatross, and other sub-
antarctic species, where the even more widely-diffused Common
DISTRIBUTION OF THE GULLS AND TERNS. 405
Noddy, A. stolidus, was alsofound. These two species make a sub-
stantial nest of seaweed, and place them on trees, bushes, and rocks.
Of A. tenuirostris (Temm.), I can only say that it seems to have
been obtained at Senegal, the islands of Rodriguez and Mauritius,
and the west coast of Australia: it differs from A. melanogenys in
having grey lores and face ; but much more information is requi-
site respecting it before its range can be mapped out with any
approach to accuracy.
Of the Skimmers (Ahynchopsine), which have the general ap-
pearance of Terns with a remarkable projecting under mandible,
there are three species separable by their plumage alone. In
habits and nidification they are alike, frequenting the banks of
large rivers, and depositing their eggs on the sand. The most
distinct is naturally &. nigra of Tropical America; R. flavirostris
of Egypt and the Red Sea, and #. albicollis of India, being more
closely related. The American species ranges from New Jersey,
along both sides of America down to 45° S, lat., and its complete
isolation from its two close allies is very peculiar.
It is, then, in the North Pacific that we find the majority of
the typical Larine, and it is there alone that the Arctic and
white-primaried forms are connected through L. glaucescens with
the group which have distinctly barred primaries, almost all the
members of which are also found there. It is only in the North
Pacific that we can see where the three-toed Rissa began to
deviate from the typical four-toed Gulls, and it is only there that
a faint line of connexion can be traced between the only two
species which have forked tails (Xema). It is only along the Pacific
coasts that the continuous chain can be followed with the typical
Hooded Gulls, of which LZ. ridibundus is the Palearctic representa-
tive, and which in LZ. glaucodes reaches unbroken tothe Straits of
Magellan, whilst in the eastern hemisphere it cannot (with the
solitary exception of the South-African L. pheocephalus) be found
south of 10° N. lat. It is again only in the North Pacific that we
find the peculiarly-coloured tern Sterna aleutica, which so clearly
connects the typical Sterne with the intertropical Sooty Terns,
S. lunata, S. anestheta, and S. fuliginosa. It is not necessary to
lay much stress upon those Pacific gulls which, with slight modi-
fications, have barred tails at all ages and a hood in the immature
stage, for there the chain is more broken; and the majority of the
Sternine are also so wide-ranging that their distribution teaches
406 MR. J. C. HAWKSHAW ON THE
us but little, although even here the links which unite S. hirundi-
nacea of South America with S. antarctica of New Zealand, by
way of the Southern Ocean, are very interesting. The distribu-
tion of the Skuas or Parasitic Gulls seems also clearly to con-
nect the northern and southern hemispheres by way of the
Pacific. It is, in fact, easier to specify the isolated groups which
have no apparent connexion with the Pacific, foremost amongst
which is that comprising the New-Zealand LZ. bulleri and L. sco-
pulinus, the Australian Z. nove-hollandia, and the South-African
L. hartlaubi. In the Arctic region there are the two isolated and
specialized genera of Gulls, Pagophila and Rhodostethia, which are
not known on the Pacific side; whilst amongst the Terns the in-
tertropical genera Menia, Anous, and Gygis, although somewhat
related znder se, offer no particular points of union with the typical
Sternine. It is admitted that the present record is necessarily
very imperfect, but it seems to me that the bulk of the evidence
indicates the North Pacific as the centre of dispersal ; and whether
this view be accepted or not, I trust that the points to which I
have drawn attention may at least show that Mr. A. R. Wallace’s
statement that the Laride are of little use in the study of geogra-
phical distribution is capable of a slight modification.
On the Action of Limpets (Patella) in sinking Pits in and
Abrading the Surface of the Chalkat Dover. By J. CuarKe
Hawxsuaw, M.A., FG.S. (Communicated by Dr. J. Murtz,
F.L.8.)
[Read April 18, 1878.]
(Abstract. )
THE surface of the chalk which is exposed between high- and
low-water mark on the foreshore to the east of Dover is covered
by a series of small and finely grooved hollows made in the sub-
stance of the chalk. These abrasions of the surface are made by
the limpets when feeding on the coating of delicate seaweed which
covers the surface of the chalk.
When the rock has a good coating of this seaweed, the pro-
ceedings of any single limpet may be well seen. The lingual
teeth make a small scoop or groove in the chalk; and as the
animal makes a number of grooves one beside the other, a line is
produced. After the limpet has completed a line, which is curved
ACTION OF LIMPETS ON CHALK. 407
with the concave side towards the animal, it reverses its action
and makes another curved line, in which each new groove is made
to the left of the last one. The first and second lines meet at a
more or less acute angle; so the limpet moves over the ground
making curved lines in alternate directions, which form a zigzag.
Sometimes the angle which the curved lines make with one ano-
ther is so small, and the lines are consequently so close together,
that all, or nearly all, the surface of the chalk 1s subjected to the
grooving. In such cases patches of freshly abraded chalk more
than an inch square in area represent the work of a limpet pro-
bably in one tide. In other cases, when the animal had moved more
rapidly over the ground, the result of such an excursion appeared
in an open zigzag line. In these cases the length of the path of
the animal was sometimes more than 12 inches—the length of
the curved lines forming the zigzag being # of an inch, and the
width +4; of an inch, but varying from that downwards, according
to the size of the animal by which they were made.
On the part of the chalk foreshore immediately to the east of
- Dover, which is generally free from great inequalities or débris,
limpets are very abundant, almost to the exclusion of other shell-
fish ; and down to near low-water mark there is little or no sea-
weed, excepting the young growth, which appears to be removed
with part of the surface on which it grows soon after it appears.
The number of limpets to a square foot varied, in the few cases
in which I had time to count them, from 5 to 9, omitting small
ones less than about half an inch. Further to the east along the
shore, where there has recently been a fall of the cliff, the shore
is encumbered with blocks of chalk. Many of these blocks were
covered with a matted coating of fine, semitransparent, ribbon-
like seaweed. The limpets had not yet obtained a footing here ;
but I found one or two, conspicuous by the little clearing they
had made in the midst of the seaweed. It was here possible to
ascertain the area of surface which one limpet could abrade and
keep clear of any but the youngest growth of seaweed. I mea-
sured some of these bare patches, and found them to vary from 8
to 14 square inches in area. The whole surface of these patches
was closely grooved, the less recent work being covered with an
incipient growth of seaweed. If one limpet could keep clear 14
square inches, it would require ten to keep clear a square foot,
which agrees with my former estimate (small ones being omitted)
of nine to a square foot where the rock was grooved all over.
It is not easy to estimate the amount of chalk removed by
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 29
~ 408 MR. J. C. HAWKSHAW ON THE
limpets in the course of a year; but they must repeat the abra-
ding process many times if they can, as some do, confine their
operations to a few square inches of surface. Some of the best-
defined grooves which I measured were 25 of an inch in depth;
but I think that the limpets in grazing over a surface which has
been previously grooved have a tendency to deepen the first-made
grooves in the centre; and if so, the above depth might be the
result of several operations. As nearly as I can estimate it, the
depth of chalk removed on a fresh surface is about ‘006 of an
inch; so that if we suppose the limpet to feed over the same area
of surface ten times in a year, the total depth of chalk removed.
will be ‘06, or about 54, of an inch. In any case they do more to
destroy the rock-surface than the sea ordinarily does. If this
were not the case, the action of the sea would obliterate the
marks made-by the limpets, which it does not; for the surface of
the chalk is free from the marks or grooves only along the base of
the cliffs where the shingle is washed about by the waves, and in
a few holes and guilies where loose pebbles are rolled to and fro.
The limpets do a great deal of apparently unnecessary work in
rasping away so muchchalk ; but it may be beneficial to them in
preventing the settlement of sedentary rivals, such as Bulani or
the larger seaweeds, and so enabling them to keep a large sur-
face of pasture-ground to themselves. The rasped surface seems
to be soon covered again by the fine green coating on which, I
presume, they feed. They rasp close round any hard object,
such as a piece of shell or flint imbedded in the chalk; so that
any Balanus or other sedentary growth would be left on an exposed
pedestal of chalk, and, as the chalk iy soft on the surface, would
be liable to be washed off by the waves. On a large block of
chalk which was tenanted by a quantity of limpets, so that every
part of the surface was rasped over by them, I noticed one or
two solitary Balani. The raspings extended close round the base
of the shells of the Balani, and must have tended to weaken their
hold on the rock. Yet a large proportion of the shells of the
limpets had five or six large Balani on them. It would appear
probable from this that there was something which made the
chalk an unsuitable resting-place for Balani; and the action of the
limpets may not unlikely be the cause. The limpets certainly
had the foreshore almost entirely to themselves down to low-
water mark. ‘These comparatively large areas of rock-surface
covered only by a short vegetable growth, and browsed over by
—
ACTION OF LIMPETS ON CHALK. 409
limpets, remind one, in a small way, of the llanos or _pampas on
the land, where arboreal vegetation is kept down by herbivorous
animals. Yet the limpets appear to do their work more effectu-
ally, as they uproot all alien growths.
The holes in the chalk, in which the limpets are often to be
found, are, I believe, excavated in a great measure by rasping
with the lingual teeth, though I doubt whether the object is to
form a cavity to shelter in, though the cavities, when formed, may
be of use for that purpose. It must be of the greatest importance
to a limpet that, in order that.it may ensure a firm adherence to
.the rock, its shell should fit the rock accurately ; when the shell
does fit the rock accurately, a small amount of muscular. contrac-
tion of the animal would cause the shell to adhere so firmly to a
smooth surface as to be practically immovable without fracture.
As the shells cannot be adapted daily to different forms of
surface, the limpets generally return to the same places of at-
tachment. Jam sure this is the case with many; for I found
shells perfectly adjusted to the uneven surfaces of flints, the
growth of the shells being in some parts distorted and indented
to suit inequalities in the surface of the flints. As the edges of
the shells, especially those of the younger animals, are very sharp,
the effect of pressure brought to bear on the edge, either by the
contraction of the animal or by the shock of the waves, would, if
there is the least sideway movement, be to cut into the chalk
round the edge of the shell. The muscles of the animal are ge-
nerally relaxed when reposing; for if the point of a knife be
quickly inserted beneath the edge of the shell, it may be detached
from the rock without difficulty; but ifthe least warning by a
touch be given to the animal, its muscles contract, and it adheres
so firmly that it is impossible to detach it without breaking the
edge of the shell*. These alternate relaxations and contractions
on sudden alarms would tend to increase the effect of the cutting
action of the edge of the shell. I saw the fine indentations
round the edge of some of the shells exactly reproduced upon the
surface of the chalk; and this could only result from pressure on
the shell forcing its sharp edge into the chalk. A very little
pressure, as may be found by trial, will suffice to force the edge
of the shell into the chalk. The effect of the formation ofa
groove in the chalk corresponding with the edge of the shell
* Reaumur found that a limpet could sustain a weight of from 28 to 30.
' pounds for some seconds (Jeffreys, ‘ Brit. Conch.’ yol. ii. p, 282).
a
410 ON THE’ ACTION OF LIMPETS ON CHALK.
would be to diminish the internal capacity of the shell, and pos-
sibly to cause discomfort to the animal, or prevent its obtaining
a firm hold on the rock. As all the surface of the chalk
outside the shell becomes covered with the fine growth of sea-
weed, the outer side of the groove round the edge of the shell,
which forms the side of the pit, becomes in like manner covered
with seaweed, and is pared away toaslope. This assists the
cutting effect of the edge of the shell, as it is more effective
against the foot of a slope than it would be if the face of the pit
were perpendicular. JI noticed one case in which a limpet ap-
peared to have pared away one side of the pit, that opposite the
head of the animal, as fast as the pit had been sunk. The animal
had begun to browse from the edge of the shell outwards.
The above appears to me to be an explanation of the manner
in which the habit of sinking pits may have been acquired by
limpets. But in many cases they now appear to excavate deeper
pits than would be required for the removal of the protuberance,
extending the excavation below the plane of the rim of the shell.
For what purpose this is done I do not know, unless it be to get
a clean surface of chalk to adhere to, as their slimy bodies would
detach pieces of chalk in time, and possibly render their hold
less secure. Small pieces of chalk do adhere to the animals when
you remove them from the rock. These hollows which they ex-
cavate below the plane of the rim of the shell are, when com-
pleted, basin-shaped, sloping away from the edge of the shell. At
first they are begun beneath the head of the animal, and a consi-
derable hollow is often made there before the excavation is ex-
tended round the sides backwards. During the process of exca-
vation a lump is left in one stage in the centre.
When a limpet has sunk some distance into the chalk by the
above processes combined, the pits are further enlarged by smaller
limpets sinking secondary ones and browsing on the seaweed
which grows on the sides of the pits.
I noticed signs that limpets prefer a hard smooth surface to a
pit in the chalk. On one face of a large block, over all sides of
which limpets were regularly and plentifully distributed, there
were two flat fragments of a fossil shell about 3 inches by 4 inches,
each |imbedded in the chalk. The chalk all round these frag-
ments was free from limpets; but on the smooth surface of the
pieces of shell they were packed as closely as they could be. I
noticed another case which almost amounts, to my mind, to a
proof that they prefer a smooth surface to a hole. A limpet had
CAPT. W. E. ARMIT ON TACHYGLOSSUS. 411
formed a clearing on one of the seaweed-covered blocks before
referred to. In the midst of this clearing was a pedestal of flint
rather more than 1 inch in diameter, standing up above the sur-
face of the chalk: it projected so much that a tap from my
hammer broke it off. On the top of the smooth fractured surface
of this flint the occupant of the clearing had taken up its abode.
The shell was closely adapted to the uneven surface, which it
would only fit in one position. The cleared surface was in a
hollow with several small natural cavities, where the limpet
could have found a pit ready made to shelter in; yet it preferred,
after each excursion, to climb up on to the top of the flint, the
most exposed point in all its domain.
In South America our limpets have, I believe, representatives
with shells a foot in diameter. If the proceedings of these South-
American giants are at all the same as those of the limpets of our
own shores and are in proportion to their size, they must materi-
ally aid in the encroachment of the sea on the land when the rock
happens to be soft *.
Notes on the Presence of Tachyglossus and Ornithorhynchus
in Northern and North-eastern Queensland. By Capt.
Witiiam £. Armir, F.L.S.
[Read June 20, 1878.]
Somz doubt having been evinced of the existence of Tachyglossus
and Ornithorhynchus in Northern Queensland, I am desirous of
laying a few facts before the Society, which will establish the ex-
treme northern limit of the species as far as yet known.
Tachyglossus occurs at Bellenden Plains, situated some thirty
miles north-east of Cardwell, in about 18° S. latitude. It fre-
quents the scrubs on the mountains and river-banks, and on one
occasion, in 1873, I found the hind legs of one in a black fellow’s
‘““dilly-bag.” At Georgetown, distant some 200 miles west of
Cardwell, this animal is pretty common ; and last year I succeeded
in capturing three males. One adult female I secured in 1876,
having a fine young one in the pouch. All the above speci-
* Subsequent to the reading of the foregoing, my attention was called to a .
paper by Fred. C. Lukis (‘ Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ 1831, vol. iv. p. 346), wherein
figures of limpet-tracks are given. Although I find that, independently, I cor-
roborate his observations, nevertheless, so far as I can learn, the bulk-of my
facts and suggestions haye not hitherto been dwelt on by previous writers.
412 CAPT, W. E. ARMIT ON TACHYGLOSSUS.
mens were found by mere chance when on Wallaby shooting-
excursions in the granitic hills near Georgetown. Had I chosen
systematically to hunt for them, I have no doubt that twenty
could have been procured in a fortnight; for I have seen their
tracks and burrows almost everywhere round this township.
The female is said here to lay one egg, which is placed in the ab-
dominal pouch and hatched*. The young thrusts its bill into the
curious inverted nipple and expresses the milk. From observing
a young male with softish quills, I am of opinion that it leaves
the abdominal pouch as soon as the spines begin to cover its back,
as these would no doubt wound the skin lining it. The males
have only a thick muscular ring, which in the females expands
into a large pouch during the breeding-season. ‘The opening is
diagonal, and back towards the hind quarters.
From the fact that I had to use some force to get dike young
out of the pouch, I think that the inverted nipple is supplied
with a muscular ring which is contractile, and by which the animal
is enabled to hold the bill firmly in the nipple.
* [Captain Armit would seem not to be conversant with Prof. Owen’s re-
searches on the Monotremata, especially his paper “On the Marsupial Pouches,
Mammary Glands, and Mammary Feetus of the Echidna hystrix,” in ‘ Philos.
Trans.’ (Roy. Soc.), 1865, pp. 671-686, pls. xxxix.-xli. In this both curious
and highly interesting information are given, not the least being the conflicting
evidence of Australian observers. Whether the Echidna and Ornithorhynchus
are brought forth alive or are the product of extruded eggs, is still an unsettled
question: the anatomical data point to the former ; those who have had the live
animal in Australia insist on the latter. It behoves, then, that the further at-
tention of those with opportunity in the field should be called to the desiderata
in the life-history of these animals, as summed up by Prof. Owen, /. c. p. 682,
and herewith quoted :—
“The chief points in the generative economy of the Monotremes which still
remain to be determined by actual observation are:—1. The manner of
copulation. 2. Theseason of copulation. 3. The periodof gestation. 4. The
nature and succession of the temporary structures for the nourishment and
respiration of the foetus prior to birth orexclusion. 5. The size, condition, and
powers of the young at the time of birth or exclusion. 6. The period during
which the young requires the lacteal nourishment. 7. The age at which the
animal attains its full size.”
Of the Echidna, pregnant females killed between 25th July and 7th August,
and of the Ornithorkynchus, between 15th October and 15th November, Prof.
Owen suggests, might yield material to explain No. 4.as above. The womb and
all connected parts intact should be placed in strong spirit and forwarded to
London for examination by competent authorities. Eggs, or supposed eggs, as
laid, if promptly put in spirit and transmitted hither, would solve a disputed
physiological problem of the highest interest.—Hprror. |
ON THE SKULL OF THE ECHIDNA FROM QUEENSLAND. 413
Mr. E. B. Kennedy records the capture of a Tachyglossus at
Plain Creek, in lat. 21° south. And, from information derived
from one of my troopers, I am of opinion that it will be found
on the Leichardt ranges, as also throughout the length and_
breadth of the Cape-York peninsula. The New-Guinea forms
will, I think, vary (perhaps only slightly) from our Australian
types, judging by Mr. Ramsay’s description of Tachyglossus
lawesii (Proc. Linn. Soc. NewS. Wales, 26 March, 1877).
I forward, under separate cover, the head of an adult female
killed at Georgetown, for comparison with the New-Guinea and
South-Australian types.
I have not, as yet, been able to secure specimens of the Orni-
thorhynchus ; but I watched one-swimming about ina large water-
hole situated 150 miles west of Georgetown on the road to Nor-
manton. I distinctly saw this animal’s head and bill above water,
but was unable to capture it, as it dived on hearing the pack-
horses trotting up to the hole to drink. My boys inform me
that they saw this “ funny fellow” in the Upper Herbert ; and it
occurs on the Leichardt river. The extreme northern limit is
therefore at present formed by the 18° of south latitude.
The absence of Tachyglossus on the Flinders and Gilbert river-
plains is easily accounted for by the absence of scrubs and hills,
or rocks, under which they generally burrow. It never comes out
to feed except during the night: and when attacked, simply rolls
itself into a spiny ball. Four men, by taking one claw. each,
had considerable difficulty in stretching one out. They resemble
a hedgehog in outward appearance, but are much darker.
Remarks on the Skull of the Hehidna from Queensland.
By Dr. J. Muniz, F.L.S.
[Read June 20, 1878.]
Atone with his paper, Capt. W. E. Armit was good enough
to forward to the Society a roughly cleaned dried skull of
the Echidna obtained by him, to which the following label
was attached: “ Head of Zachyglossus (histria?) 9, killed near
Georgetown, in 18°S. lat., Nov. 1876.” As, moreover, he has ex-
_ pressed a desire that it should be compared with those of South
Australia and New Guinea, I have fulfilled this wish so far ag
circumstances permitted.
414 DR. J. MURIE ON THE SKULL OF
The skin and snout-membrane from the eyes forwards were
intact ; and the palatal membrane was also in a perfect state of
preservation, though dried. Slight injury had been sustained in
the bones of the left supraoccipital and postparietal region ; but
as tissue held this fractured area together, it did not materially
interfere with the examination and comparison of the cranium.
Having softened the hardened tissues by soaking the specimen
in water for a few days, I could well make out the natural appear-
ance of the nostrils and mouth and of the palate-ridges. These I
made sketches of, and meanwhile compared the objects themselves
with the excellent illustrations of Prof. Paul Gervais * of the
Echidna of New Guinea, Echidna (Acanthoglossus) bruijnii.
The orifices of the nostrils of Capt. Armit’s specimen are
shorter and more triangular than in Gervais’s sketch of those of
the Northern New-Guinea animal. In this respect they rather
agree with the representation given by Mr. E. P. Ramsayt of his
Echidna (TLachyglossus) lawesii of Southern New Guinea; but
they equally correspond, so far as I can make out, with the common
Australian form, 2. hystrix. I may note that there is a tiny ele-
vation or nipple-like process at the posterior end of each orifice,
which seems absent in Acanthoglossus, and, I believe, is not men-
tioned by writers as present in the older known species of
Echidna.
Prof. Gervais figures the mouth of L. bruijnii as longer and
narrower, and with a decidedly more lanceolate lower lip than
obtains in Capt. Armit’s Queensland specimen, where, as in the
common Hehidna, upper and lower lips have a roundish contour
and the oral opening short and relatively widish. In this Queens-
land Tuchyglossus, from the tip of the snout to the angle of the
mouth measures 0-4 inch; the width of mouth-opening 0°25
inch, and the snout width 0°35. In 7. lawesui, Mr. Ramsay
gives the corresponding dimensions as. 0°45, 0°83, and 0°5 inch re-
spectively. In Acanthoglossus the measurements are 0°8 inch,
0:2 inch, and 0°32 inch, as derived from Gervais’s fig. 3, pl. vi.
Thus the two former offer nearer approximations, and, while dif-
ing from the latter, agree with H. (Zuchyglossus) hystrix.
As regards the character of the soft palate, Capt. Armit’s spe-
cimen shows obviously, and at a glance, marked distinctions from
that depicted in pl. vii. fig. 5 of Gervais’s illustrations of the
" * ‘Ostéographie des Monotrémes vivants et fossiles,’ Atlas, plates vi. & vii.
+ “Note of a Species of Echidna (Tachyglossus) from Port Moresby, New
Guinea,” Proc. Linn. Soc. of New South Wales, vol. ii. p. 31, and pl.
THE ECHIDNA FROM QUEENSLAND. 415
New-Guinea form. In this latter, according to him, rearwards
there are five transverse lines of adnate conical papille lessening
in the number of tubercles forwards, and in advance a dozen
median linear, double, single, or rosette-like clumps. He remarks
also that the palate of the Australian Hchidna has seven serial
transverse spiny lines bearing some resemblance to those of
E. brwijnii. In the palate of the Queensland animal (woodcut)
I find eight approximated, transverse, tuberculated rows poste-
riorly, and 0°3 inch in front of these another more arcuate,—
that is, in all nine well-marked tuberculate cross ridges. Fur-
thermore, there are eight somewhat scale-like cross arches, in one
or two of which tracings of serrate free border is visible with a
hand-lens. These latter are situate nearly equidistant, and about
0:2 inch apart, the hind one being opposite the anterior border
of the orbito-zygomatic arch. The anterior palatine slit opens
between the third and fourth front ones. Thus, of the New-
Guinea and Queensland examples, both possess seventeen palatal
ridges; but the pattern of these is un-
like, that of the Queensland animal, to
all intents and purposes, resembling
that extant in the common L. hystrix.
With respect to the cranium, I com-
pared that from Queensland side by side
with those in the College-of-Surgeons
Museum, viz. five in all, intact. Of these
specimens of Hehidna-skulls, that num-
bered 1705 a 1s labelled Z. hystrix, from
Grafton, Clarence River, New 8. Wales;
No. 17084 is that of a young male
which lived in the Zoological Gardens ;
No. 1708 8 is that of acompleteskeleton //
of a young Z. setosa from Tasman’s Pe- /f
ninsula. Of No. 1705, E. hystrix, the ||
locality is unrecorded; and No. 17044
is marked in the Catalogue, ‘ Skull of an
Echidna.” Moreover Prof. Flower lately = 4 |
has had added to the collection a cast /,7f_/ yyiywiunil
) / J i sigue
of the skull of Echidna (Acanthoglossus) 4. Kt. j
bruijnit (No. 1723 a), presented by Prof. WG
Gervais.
526 : . Palate of Capt. Armit’s
Th E
e subjoined Table gives certain of DE eae Great
the measurements in inches and deci- y,; Sees
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 30
416 DR. J. MURIE ON THE SKULL OF
mals, of the skulls in question ; and it is to be noted that those
in the first two columns are from less mature animals than the
succeeding three.
Admeasurements of Echidna erania.
Catalogue numbers of skulls.. - 1705 a. 1708 a. 17088. 1705. 1704.4. Queens- New-Guinea
land. coast.
Extreme length ............06.06- 36 38 3°9 ae il 415 42 ee
Hxtreme breadth (temporo-pa- } 165. 163. 18 1-8 1:3 1-7 2'3
rietal region)
Greatest vertical heicht......... Testy Mas led 145 14 Wena eg)
From tip of beak to front oth 1:8 19 1-9 21 2-15 2] 5]
Dsl OM Pe nacnaotE anti sheeohcanoouLee
Now it will be seen that there is a nearly uniform relative pro-
portion between the five skulls and that from Queensland, as can
be distinguished from the New-Guinea cast in the right-hand
column. Nay, it is hard to point out any characters, irrespective
of similarity of dimensions, to separate the skulls, whether from
Tasmania, New South Wales, or Queensland. Tor example, the
closest inspection of the so-called H. setosa (No. 17088), from
Tasmania, shows, one would say, perfect agreement in most de-
tails with Capt. Armit’s Queensland specimen, though the former
to the eye seems a shorter, broader, higher skull, with a slightly
fuller temporal region, than does the latter. Again, the male
skull of the #. hystrix (No. 1708 a), has somewhat shorter pre-
and postpalatine fissures than 1708 B ; questionably a matter of
age or sex, though both are not from old animals. In 1704 the
anterior condyloid foramina are open and the palatine region
generally broadish. In No. 1705, evidently a thoroughly old skull,
judging from its solid osseous texture, both orbito-frontal and
parieto-occipital regions are ample.
The female Queensland skull, almost exactly of the same length
as those numbered 1705 and 17044, is barely appreciably nar-
rower across the cerebral area, but decidedly lower in the same
region. Whether this last feature is a matter of sex (it being
from an adult female) or a tendency to variation, I am unable to
say. At all events, it is a feature so trifling in its way that no
argument can be drawn therefrom.
The lower jaw of this same Queensland skull is a pefect coun-
terpart of those of #. hystrix and EL. setosa compared.
It would be but a reiteration of the statements of Prof. W.
THE ECHIDNA FROM QUEENSLAND. 417
Peters and G. Doria*, of Prof. Rolleston +, of Mr. E. P. Ramsay,
and of Prof. Gervais, to detail the widely marked differences which
appertain to the skull of the Northern New-Guinea Echidna, E.
(Acanthoglossus) bruijniit. Size, length and curvature of beak,
&e. are appreciable at a glance, and cannot be mistaken.
On the skull of the Port-Moresby Echidna, E. (Lachyglossus)
lawesvi, no data are yet published to enable a comparison to be
made.
I may say I regret the change of generic name from the well-
known and established Echidna to that of Tuchyglossus, which
latter, Prof. Peters points out, has priority. I should prefer also
that of Proechidna for Acanthoglossus, as incidentally hinted by
Prof. Gervais (J. ¢c. p. 43).
In conclusion, I would state that from the data which have come
under my observation we cannot regard Capt. Armit’s animal
found in Queensland as offering any distinction from that of the
wide-spread Hchidna hystrix; and so far as skull alone is con-
cerned, that termed /. setosa cannot positively be distinguished
from H. hystrix. On this latter head and that of supposed
exterior distinctive characteristics, I look forward to the continua-
tion of Prof. Gervais’s admirable memoir to furnish us with evi-
dence of a more decisive nature than at present can be gathered
from the scattered published data.
Capt. Armit’s note seems to be useful in determining the animal’s
northern range in Australia. But I may add that I trust he will
endeavour, by further investigations on the spot, to clear up those
enigmas in the procreation and development of the Monotremes
which I have mentioned in the footnote to his own paper.
* Ann. del Mus. Ciy. di Sci. Nat. de Genova, 1876, tom. ix. p. 183, “ De-
scrizione di una nuova specie di Tachyglossus proyeniente della Nuova Guinea
settentrionale.”
+ Report Brit. Assoc. 1877.
LINN. JOURN.—-ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 31
418 DR. GWYN JEFFREYS ON SOME
Notice of some Shells dredged by Capt. St. John, R.N., in Korea
Strait. By J. Gwyn Jerrrzuys, LL.D., F.BS., F.LS.
[Read June 20, 1878.]
Our knowledge of the Invertebrata inhabiting the North-Pacific
Ocean has been considerably advanced by Capt. St. John’s dredg-
ings in the Japanese and Korean Seas, as the publications of this
Society will testify.
With respect to the Mollusca, I noticed in the ‘ Journal’ (Zoo-
logy, vol. xii. 1874) certain species thus procured by that excellent
naturalist in North Japan, which are identical with or varieties
of European species; and Mr. Edgar Smith subsequently gave,
in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ (ser. 4, vols. xv.
and xvi. 1875), a list of Gastropoda from the same source. Capt.
St. John’s last dredgings in the Strait of Korea have yielded a not
less abundant and valuable harvest of Mollusca; and although I
prefer having the species worked out by Mr. Edgar Smith, which
he will doubtless do with his usual accuracy, I cannot refrain from
adding some remarks on a few of these species, which I consider
European or interesting in other points of view.
In my former paper on the same subject I ventured to express
an opinion that certain species of Mollusca which are common to
the North-Atlantic and North-Pacific oceans might have origi-
nated in high northern latitudes, and have found their way to
Japan on the one side, and Europe on the other, by means of a
bifurcation of the great Arctic current. This opinion has been
now corroborated by Capt. St. John, who says, in his letter to me
of the 8th June, 1878, “It seems to me that the Arctic current
bifurcates, bringing similar species of Mollusca, and gradually de-
positing them along its course in the Pacific and Atlantic.”
I have to return my thanks not only to Capt. St. John for so
kindly placing these further dredgings at my disposal, but to Mr.
J.T. Marshall, for having laboriously and carefully sifted the
smaller material and picked out and assorted all the organisms.
from it.
BRACHIOPODA.
TEREBRATULA CAPUT-SERPENTIS, Linné, var. SEPTENTRIONALIS.
Anomia caput-serpentis, L. Syst. Nat. ed. xii. p. 1153.
Terebratula caput-serpentis, Jeffreys, British Conchology, ii. p. 14, pl. i.
five palo 4s wale xamentae
Hab. Korea, 35 fathoms. Spitzbergen and Davis Strait to
SHELLS FROM KOREA STRAIT. 419
Malta and the Adriatic; Jamaica; North-east America; Japan;
Australia; New Zealand: low-water mark to 1180 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene and Post-tertiary: Coralline Crag ; Scotland;
Scandinavia; Belgium; South Italy; Azores.
Very variable in shape and sculpture. Many synonyms; I have
noted seventeen.
CONCHIFERA.
ANOMIA EPHIPPIUM, Linné.
A. ephippium, L. S. N. ed. xii. p. 1150: B. C. ii. p. 30, pl. i. f. 4; v.
p- 165, pl. xx. f. 1, a-e.
Hab. Korea, 54 fathoms; young. North Atlantic, from Ice-
land and Faroe Isles to Egypt; Black Sea; Madeira; N.E. Ame-
rica. Depth 0-1450 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene and Post-tertiary: Coralline Crag; Great
Britain and Ireland ; Scandinavia; Italy.
This polymorphous species has caused the manufacture of
between thirty and forty synonyms.
PECTEN sImIuis, Laskey.
P. similis, Lask. Mem. Wern. Soc. i. p. 387, pl. vii. f.8: B. C. ii.
Peilsnva ps lOS, plaxmunefa oa:
Hab. Korea, 30-54 fathoms. Finmark to the Gulf of Egina ;
Madeira; Jamaica: 2-722 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene and Post-tertiary: Coralline Crag; N.W.
Germany ; Italy.
The Korean specimens are smaller than those of European seas,
although otherwise undistinguishable. They are rather nume-
rous, and consist of single or separate valves. A few of them
(upper valves) are coloured and mottled or streaked exactly like
European specimens ; but they are generally white or colourless.
A valve from Rasel Amoush, on the Tunisian coast, has the in-
side marked with radiating lines which resemble strie; and I
mistook it for a species of Amussiwm or Plewronectia. See Rep.
Brit. Assoc. 1873, p. 112.
This abundant species has several obsolete synonyms.
CRENELLA DECUSSATA, Montagu.
Mytilus decussatus, Mont. Test. Brit. Suppl. p. 69.
Crenella decussata, B, C.ii. p. 133, pl. in. f. 4; v. p. 172, pl. xxviii. f. 6.
Hab. Korea, 35-51 fathoms. Spitzbergen; Greenland; Ice-
land ; Scandinavia; North of England and Ireland, and Scotland ;
North Atlantic (‘ Valorous’ Expedition, a fragment from 1750
31*
4.20 DR. GWYN JEFFREYS ON SOME
fathoms); Mediterranean (‘ Porcupine’ Exped.); N.E. America ;
N. Pacific (P. P. Carpenter): low water to 580 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene: Monte Pellegrino, Sicily (Monterosato).
Post-tertiary: Fifeshire; Norway.
Nocrnetra ovaris, 8S. V. Wood.
Pleurodon ovalis, S. V. Wood in Ann. N. H. 1840, p. 231, pl. xii. f. 1.
Nucinella miliaris, Mon. Crag Moll. 1861, p. 73, tab. x. f. 4, a-e.
Hab. Korea, 40 fathoms; a single valve.
Fossil. Pliocene: Coralline Crag (S. V. Wood) ; Antwerp Crag
(Vanden Broeck).
This remarkable little shell is certainly not the Nucinella milt-
aris of Deshayes, who repudiated Mr. Wood’s identification of
his Crag species with the Paris-basin fossil. But the present dis-
covery in a recent or living state of a generic form supposed to
have been long ago extinct is extremely interesting. Pecchiolia
(or Verticordia) acuticostata and several other species are common
to the Crag formation and the North Pacific. As the Hocene and
Pliocene species are not the same, I fear Mr. Wood’s remarks
with respect to the capability of variation in species which may
be descended from more ancient forms are not quite applicable
to the present case.
This species is a member of the Arca family. I have retained
the name “ ovalis,” originally given by Mr. Wood, although it is
inappropriate, signifying “‘ belonging to an ovation ;’’ the name
ought to have been ovata, meaning “ egg-shaped.”
LEPTON SULCATULUM, Jeffreys.
L. sulcatulum, B. C. i. p. 201; v. p. 177, pl. xxxi. f. 4.
Hab. Korea, 35 fathoms ; several valves. Guernsey ; Jersey ;
Etretat ; Tangier Bay; coast of Tunis and Adventure Bank;
Sicily ; Canary Isles: laminarian zone to 180 fathoms.
Lasma RuBRA, Montagu.
Cardium rubrum, Mont. Test. Brit. p. 83, tab. xxvii. f. 4.
Dasa rubra, B.C. ni. p: 219; pl. v. f 25) v. p: 179, pl. xxxi taal:
Hab. Korea, 35-40 fathoms ; two or three valves and fragments.
Greenland (Mus. Copenhagen) and Iceland to the Mediterranean
and Adriatic; Canary Isles; North and South Pacific; Strait of
Magellan ; St. Paul and Amsterdam Isles: shore to 20 fathoms.
Fossil. Coralline Crag and South-Italian Tertiaries ; Post-ter-
tiary at Portrush and in Norway.
There are a few more or less obsolete synonyms.
SUELLS FROM KOREA STRAIT. 421
Keira pumina, S. V. Wood.
K. pumila, J. Sowerby, Min. Conch. tab. 637. f. 3; S. V. Wood, Mon.
Crag Moll. p. 124, tab. xii. f 15, a, b.
Hab. Korea, 36 fathoms; two valves. ‘ Porcupine’ Exped.,
1869, off the west of Ireland, 422 fathoms: 1870, between Fal-
mouth and Gibraltar, 220-795 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene: Coralline Crag, Sutton. The figures in the
‘Crag Mollusca’ do not quite agree with the description, nor
with specimens which Mr. Wood kindly sent me; the figures in
‘Mineral Conchology’ are excellent. Also Sciacca, Sicily (Mon-
terosato).
This ought not to remain in the genus Kellia. I should be
inclined to place it in Philippi’s genus Scacchia as typified by
S. elliptica.
AXINUS FLEXUOSUS, Montagu.
Tellina flexuosa, Mont. Test. Brit. p. 72.
Axinus flexuosus, B. C. ii. p. 247, pl. v. f. 6; v. p. 179, pl. xxxiu.
fesslelias
Hab. Korea, 30 fathoms; var. polygona, 54 fathoms: young
specimens and valves only. Type and varieties: North Atlantic
from Spitzbergen and Greenland to the Agean archipelago
and the Canaries; N.E. and N.W. America: 3-450 fathoms.
‘Lightning’ Exped.,550 fathoms. ‘ Porcupine’ Exped. 1868, 3-
630 fathoms; 1870, 5-1095 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene and Post-tertiary in Europe (including the
Coralline Crag) and N.E. America.
Variable in shape, and therefore having several generic and
specific names. The variety polygona is Ptychina biplicata of
Philippi, and A. obesus of Verrill, according to G. O. Sars.
Panopea pLicaTa, Montagu.
Mytilus plicatus, Mont. Test. Brit. Suppl. p. 70.
Panopea plicata, B. C. iii. p. 75, pl. in. f. 2; v. p. 192, pl. hi. f. 1.
Hab. Korea, 40 fathoms ; a small single valve, but unmistak-
able. Upper Norway to Sicily and the Canaries, 5-300 fathoms.
Fossil. Pliocene and Post-tertiary : Red and Coralline Crags ;
Antwerp Crag; Monte Mario; Belfast. :
Var. carinata= Mytilus carinatus, Brocehi,=Areinella carinata,
Philippi. Palermo, 32-43 fathoms (Monterosato).
Synonyms. Sphenia cylindrica, 8. V. Wood; Saxicava fragilis,
Nyst ; 8. rugosa, juv., Forbes § Hanley ; Myrina oceanica, Conti.
422 DR. GWYN JEFFREYS ON SOME
Fossil. Pliocene: Val di Andona (Brocchi); Coralline Crag
(S. V. Wood); Monte Mario (Conti, Rigacct); Ficarazzi (Monte-
rosato)!
An allied species from the Korean dredgings (85 fathoms) is of
arhomboidal shape and more solid ; and it has a sharper keel
and transverse strie or riblets. Arcinella levis of Philippi, a
Sicilian fossil, is perhaps my Decipula ovata from the ‘ Porcupine’
dredgings of 1869, and from Osterfiord in Norway, as well as the
Tellimya ovalis of Prof. G. O. Sars from the Loffoden Isles. See
Friele, ‘ Bidrag til Vestlandets Molluskfauna,’ in Vidensk. Forh.
for 1875 ; and Sars, ‘ Bidrag til Kundskaben om Norges arktiske
fauna,’ 1, Mollusca (1878), Suppl. p. 341, t. 33. f. 1, a-e.
Saxtcava RuGosa, Linné.
Mytilus rugosus, L.S. N. ed. xi. p. 1156.
Saxicava rugosa, B. C. iii. p. 81, pl. iti. f. 3; v. p. 192, pl. li. f. 3, 4.
Hab. Korea, 30-54 fathoms; young. Apparently world-wide
in its distribution, from low water to 1622 fathoms.
Fossil. Miocene, Pliocene, and Post-tertiary, throughout Europe
(including the Coralline Crag), Northern Asia, and N.E. America.
Synonyms, both generic and specific, numerous.
GASTROPODA.
PUNCTURELLA NOACHINA, Linné.
Patella noachina, L. Mant. Plant. p. 551.
Puncturella noachina, B. C. iti. p. 257, pl. vi. f. 2; v. p. 200, pl. lix. f. 1.
Hab. Korea, 30-54 fathoms ; var. princeps, young. Type and
variety : from Greenland and Wellington Channel southwards to
Cape Cod, and from Spitzbergen to the Strait of Gibraltar ; Sea
of Okhotsk and North Japan: 4-250 fathoms. ‘ Lightning’
Exped., 170 and 189 fathoms. ‘ Porcupine’ Exped., 1869, 73-420
fathoms ; 1870, 292-1095 fathoms.
Fossil. Miocene (?), Pliocene, and Quaternary or Post-tertiary
formations, in Scandinavia, Great Britain, and Sicily ; mostly in
“olacial ”’ deposits.
As usual in the case of tolerably common species like this, P.
noachina has received several other names.
Attached to a living specimen of P. noachina from 420 fathoms
in the first ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition was a Planorbulina (one of
the Foraminifera) of the same kind that has oecurred in the Korean
dredgings. Mr. H. B. Brady tells me that this Planorbulina
SHELLS FROM KOREA STRAIT. 423
was common also in the ‘ Challenger’ dredgings, but that he had
not hitherto found any satisfactory description or figure of it.
TURBO SANGUINEUS, Linné.
T. sanguineus, L. S. N. ed. xii. p. 1235.
Var. pallida. Smaller, yellowish white with a red apex or tip, and
having the spiral striz rather slighter and more numerous.
Hab. Korea, 2-4 fathoms; several specimens. Throughout the
Mediterranean, from a few fathoms to 120.
Fossil. Newer Tertiaries of Nice and Southern Italy.
The colour of Mediterranean specimens varies from blood-red
to yellowish-brown ; but the apexis always red. Such specimens
likewise differ in respect of the number and comparative stoutness
of the spiral strie.
The umbilicus is perforated in the young only. It is probable
that Linné may have included Zrochus Adansoni, and especially
the variety twrbinoides, in his description of Turbo sanguineus, by
saying “umbilicus aliis perforatus, aliis nequaquam.”’
It is the Zurbo purpureus of Risso and ZL. coccineus of
Deshayes.
PTEROPODA.
EMBOLUS ROSTRALIS, Hydoux J Souleyet.
Spirialis rostralis, Hyd. § Soul. Rev. Zool. 1840, p. 236; Soul. Voy.
Bonite, ii. p. 216, pl. xui. f. 1-10.
Hab. Korea. Oceanic and gregarious in all southern latitudes.
Weinkauff mistook this for the Spirialis Jeffreysi of Forbes and
Hanley, which belongs to a different genus.
Of the above named fourteen species, six (viz. Anomia ephip-
pium, Pecten similis, Lepton sulcatulum, Axinus flexuosus, Panopea
plicata, and Turbo sanguineus) are here noticed for the first time
as living in the North Pacific as well as in the North Atlantic ;
Nucinella ovalis and Kellia pumila, which had been regarded as
extinct, the former not only specifically but generically, are now
recorded as recent: the other six species (viz. Terebratula caput-
serpentis, Crenella decussata, Lasea rubra, Saxicava rugosa, Punc-
turella noachina, and Embolus rostralis) were already known to in-
habit both oceans. No less than nine out of these fourteen species
are Coralline-Crag fossils: they are Terebratula caput-serpentis,
Anomia ephippium, Pecten similis, Nucinella ovalis, Lasea rubra,
Kellia pumila, Axinus flecuosus, Panopea plicata, and Saxicava
rugosa.
424 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
On the Asteroidea and Echinoidea of the Korean Seas.
By W. Percy Srapey, F.L.S., F.G.S.
[Read June 6, 1878.]
(Puate VIII.)
THE Echinoderms collected by Capt. St. John whilst surveying
in the Straits of the Korea and neighbouring Japanese waters,
were intrusted by Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys and Dr. Ginther to Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, to whose kindness in placing the material in
my hands I owe the pleasure of presenting the following commu-
nication upon the small but very interesting series of Asteroidea
and Echinoidea. Itis only justice due to Capt. St. John to remark
that the value of the present collection is enhanced by his very
careful registration of the exact position and depth at which the
specimens were taken; whilst the importance of the Echinoderms
themselves is increased by the fact that many of them belong to
forms hitherto little known or imperfectly described; in addi-
tion to which several are represented by small and premature
growth-stages, which enable us to fill in phases in the life-history
of the species to which they belong. ‘The association of several
of the species will also be found full of particular interest.
Holding the opinion that the duty of a naturalist is not com-
pleted by the simple determination of mere lists of species from
a given locality, but rather that it les in pointing out what
variations are undergone by known “forms” from the general
type in order to attest the results of the conditions of the special
habitat, it has been the aim of the author to indicate as far as he
was able the particular modifications presented in the cases under
notice, or at least to denote the grounds on which the determina-
tions rest.
ASTEROIDEA.
ASTROPECTEN FORMOSUS, sp. nov. Pl. VIII. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.
Coll. St. John: Korea, 36 and 54 fathoms (young); W. Coast
of Nipon, 60 fathoms.
Disk large, rays short, arm-angles widely rounded; the greater
and lesser radii of the largest specimen measure respectively 14°5
millims. and 5:2 millims., or in the proportion of 23:1 approxi-
mately. The foot-papille, which are all cylindrical and taper
towards the tip, form two series: the inner one, which spreads
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 425
out into a comb overhanging the ambulacral furrow, is composed
of three papille, the middle one being longer than the others ;
the outer series, which radiates towards the ventral plates, consists
in the middle of the arm of three papille, whilst along the inner
fourth of the furrow there are four or five, these being arranged
two and two, or two and three together, one pair opposed to the
inner series, the others placed more external and nearer together.
On the innermost plates of the ray this external series of foot-
papille is further augmented by two or three additional spinelets,
and which form an almost imperceptible transition into the scu-
ticles of the ventral plates. The ventral marginal plates bear three
spines—the uppermost, or that nearest the margin, being the
smallest ; the second is large, compressed and acuminate, twice
the size of the marginal spine, and is succeeded by another almost
as large. The spines are arranged obliquely across the plate,
except in the arm-angle, where they form a straight series along
with two or three additional spinelets which lie between them
and the furrow. The main spines of these inmost plates of the
arm-angle are also somewhat smaller than their successors. The
rest of the ventral plate is covered with numerous small com-
pressed and finely acuminate scuticles, standing erect and fairly
well spaced, which present quite a different appearance to the
flat, closely-packed, spatulate scales which so frequently clothe
the under surface of Astropecten. The furrows between the
plates are wide, having the margins set with fine seteform spi-
nules, very different from the armature of the plate just described.
The upper marginal plates, which are broader than long, number
_ about sixteen on each side, exclusive of the tip. They are closely
papillate ; and the spine-like papille are cylindrical, with radiate
tips more or less expanded and quite clavate. There are about
five rows of these spinelets upon a plate, exclusive of the mar-
ginal seteform series, the middle ranges being larger than the
rest ; whilst the seteform spinelets which fringe the furrows are
much longer and more delicate, and present in a more marked
degree the clavate character of the tip.
The paxillary area is, at the middle of the ray, a little broader
than the marginal plate (though not twice as broad); and the
paxille are large and very distinctly stellate, 5-6-radial, with a
ray springing from the centre as well, though sometimes this is
wanting. The madreporiform body is situated close to the mar-
ginal plates.
426 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
Two very young Astropectens, measuring respectively 105
* millims. and 8 millims. in their greatest diameters, seem to belong
to this species. The relative characters of the disk and rays, the
arrangement of the foot-papille, the armature of the ventro-mar-
ginal plates, and the paxille of the dorsal surface present only
such differences as might be expected in the premature condi-
tions of the Astropecten above described. The inner row of foot-
papille consists of three spinules asin the adult form; but in the
outer series there are only two on the outer portion of the fur-
row, and three on the inner; their arrangement, however, being
such as to leave little doubt, when comparison is made with the
different portions of the furrow in the largest specimen, that they
belong to one and the same speeies. On the marginal plates of
the smaller specimen there is only one spine; but on the larger
there seems indications here and there of the future development,
out of the plate armature, of the larger companion spines. The
paxille are large and much simpler than in the adult, having fewer
radii.
Although these juveniles were dredged on different occasions—
one being taken off the Korea at the depth of 54 fathoms, and
the other off W. coast of Niphon, 60 fathoms—they both agree
in the singular circumstance of having gorged a small bivalve!
and in each case apparently of the same species. In the larger
of the two young starfish the distention of the test and the
position of the shell lead to the supposition that the diminu-
tive gourmand had fallen a martyr to the indulgence of its appe-
tite !
This Astropecten bears some resemblance to certain examples
of the northern form known as Astr. Miulleri, M. & T.; regarding
that, however, as an extreme variation of A. irregularis, the dif-
ferences presented by the Asteroids at present under considera-
tion are such as to justify the opinion that they should be classed
(provisionally at any rate) as distinct from that species. It would
not, however, be surprising to find, from the examination of a
larger supply of material from this and other localities than
is at present available, that the above specific determination would
require to be included within the extended diagnosis of the type
of A. irregularis, although the distribution as at present known
of the varietal forms of that species (e. g. A. Miilleri, A. echinu-
latus, etc.) would hardly lead to such a supposition.
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 427
ASTROPECTEN JaPonicus, Miller & Troschel.
1842. Astropecten japonicus, Miiller § Troschel, System der Asteriden,
p. 73.
Coll. St. John: Korean Straits, 9 fathoms.
The arms are moderately long and narrow; R=11:25 millims.,
7=4 millims. The foot-papille, arranged in wedge-shaped groups
of five, are long, fine, and cylindrical. The first spinelet, which
forms the apex of the wedge, stands by itself, projecting inward
upon the furrow, is thicker than the rest and arched upwards at
its base ; the others stand external to this, two and two together,
the outermost pair being rather longer than the inner pair ;
whilst on the inmost portion of the furrow the outer series of
papille are augmented by one or two additional spinelets. The
adambulacral plates which bear the foot-papille appear very much
depressed, in consequence of the gibbous character of the ventro-
marginal plates—a feature which is very striking when compared,
for instance, with specimens of Astr. formosus, mihi, of nearly
equal size.
The upper marginal plates are broader than long, and covered
closely with short stout granulose spinules of clavate form, and
on the outer half of the arm carry on their outer margin a small
conical spinelet. In the specimen under notice the nine outer,
out of thirteen marginal plates, are thus armed.
The ventro-marginal plates project more outwardly than the
upper marginal plates, and bear one large, compressed, lanceolate
spine at the margin, which is generally followed by two smaller
spines placed side by side, not half its length, and very much finer
and more cylindrical. The rest of the spinulation consists of
small, short, isolated, cylindrical spinelets. In the present
example these have been very much abraded; and little further
detail can be made out.
The dorsal area or paxillary field is, in the middle of the arm,
very little, if any, broader than the marginal plate. The paxille
are large and closely crowded—so much so that the radii (of which
there are 8-9 and very robust) of a paxilla are directed upward,
instead of at right angles to their pedicle; and this gives to the
paxillary area a granulate rather than a stellate appearance to the
naked eye, and without any indication of regular arrangement.
Dr. Liitken remarks* on never having seen an Astr. japonicus
* ‘Videnskabelige Meddelelser ’ for 1864, p. 127.
4.28 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROLDEA
with the spines upon the dorsal marginal plates. On the speci-
men under consideration these are so small that they might
easily be passed over without notice,—whilst, further, it is a cha-
racter of such usual variability that I am fully prepared to believe
in the existence of examples in which they are wanting altogether,
their rudimentary state on the present specimen quite leading to
that idea. A seemingly parallel instance may be pointed to in
the case of Astr. euryacanthus, Ltk.*, in the premature stages of
which small spines are present on the outer margin of the dorsal
marginal plates towards the ends of the arms, but no trace of them
remains in the adult.
Our knowledge of this species at present is very scanty; and
it may not be beyond the range of probability that a more exten-
Sive series of specimens will require the modification of our
current ideas of the form altogether, and possibly even ity amal-
gamation with such a species as A. scoparius, when more is defi-
nitely known about the premature stages of these Astropectens.
ASTROPECTEN POLYACANTHUS (of A. armatus-type), IL. & T.
1842. Astropecten polyacanthus, Miiller 8 Troschel, System der As-
teriden, p. 69, taf. v. fig. 3. ‘
— Astropecten hystrix (Val. MS.), M. & T. ibid. p. 70.
— Astropecten armatus, Miiller § Troschel, ibid. p. 71.
1843. Astropecten vappa, Miiller & Troschel, Wiegm. Archiv f. Natur-
gesch. Jahrg. 9, p. 119.
1864. Astropecten armatus, Liitken, Vidensk. Meddelelser for 1864, p.132.
1865. Astropecten armatus, v. Martens, Ueb. Ostasiat. Echin., Wiegm.
Arch, Jahrg. 31, p. 352.
1876. Astropecten polyacanthus, Perrier, Stell. du Mus., Arch. de Zoo-
logie gén. et expér. t. v. p. 275.
Coll. St. John: Yedo Bay.
So far back as 1864, Dr. Liitkent raised the question as to the
validity of the separation of A.armatus, M. & T., from Japan, and
A. vappa, M. & T., from Australia, as species distinct from the
typical form of A. polyacanthus from the Red Sea, asserting his
inability to detect in the material he had examined any characters
of specific value to warrant such a division. M. Perrier, after
* Vidensk. Meddel. 1871, p. 232.
+ Compare with this Liitken’s remarks on a specimen of As¢r. aster wanting
the spines (in Vidensk. Meddel. 1864, p. 130).
t ‘‘ Kritiske Bemerkninger om forskjellige Sostjerner,” Vidensk. Meddel. 1864,
p. 132.
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 429
studying the large collections in Paris, concurs in these views,
and maintains the consolidation of tbe above-mentioned forms,
including also A. hystrix (Val.), M. & T.*
M. Perrier further expresses his opinion that the differences
upon which the separation has stood are nothing more than con-
ditions of age and locality—the series of specimens which the
French savant has had the opportunity of examining being pro-
cured from stations as widely distant as Zanzibar, Muscat, Ceylon,
Hong-Kong, Fiji Islands, Port Jackson and several other loca-
lities in Australia, thus indicating a very extensive distribution
of the A. polyacanthus type.
Although the present specimen is in a somewhat weathered
condition, it can unmistakably be assigned to the varietal group
formerly described under the name of A. armatus, M.& T. In
each ray the three marginal plates which succeed to the inner-
most in the arm-angle are destitute of tubercles and dorsal mar-
ginal spines. ‘This character is regular, and accords with the
typical description given in the ‘System der Asteriden.’ Liitken
(Vidensk. Medd., 1864, p. 182) chronicles the occurrence of con-
siderable irregularity and variation in the number of these spine-
less plates in different rays of the same individual, and cites
examples from Hong-Kong having only one, or two, or even none
of the undeveloped spineless plates on different rays of the same
specimen. This starfish measures R=35 millims., r=9°6 millims.
Without calling in question the accuracy of M. Perrier’s de-
termination, the occurrence of such instances as this of a form
presenting strongly marked variations at different stations within
the area of its distribution, urges upon naturalists the necessity
of exercising extreme caution against being led away by a ten-
dency to group too comprehensively the forms which may be
included within a large and widely distributed genus; for how-
ever seriously the multiplication of frivolous “species”? may em-
barrass a classification, the wholesale grouping, or, in other words,
the unbounded extension of the limits of specific character, is
productive of much more injurious results, in that it curtails the
precision of definition, and, whilst ignoring environment as a
factor, divests nomenclature of one of its highest and most im-
portant qualities.
* “Stellérides du Museum,” Archives de Zoologie expérimentale et générale
(Lacaze-Duthiers), tome v. 1876, p. 275.
430 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
From the fact that forms are separated by much smaller and
less striking differences in an extensive genus than in one of more
limited scope, “species”’ in the larger group have often not such
clearly marked or conspicuous characters as those which are
presented by “varieties”? in a less comprehensive genus. It
follows that the judgment should be very cautiously exercised
when tempted to embrace within a single species all the strongly
marked distributional extremes of any widely-spread type, how-
ever closely their connexion may seem to be preserved through
intermediate forms; for in many cases these gradations are nothing
more or less than the links which indicate to us the development
of ‘‘ species,” and are, in short, the stages with which generally
we are unacquainted, owing either to the imperfection of know-
ledge, or more frequently by reason of their destruction through
the hostility of unfavourable conditions.
Taking into consideration the advance which knowledge is con-
tinually making by means of the addition of new material from
hitherto unexplored fields, the process of too comprehensive
grouping would ultimately result in the formation of series
which, from their very unwieldiness, would require arbitrary
division for the mere purposes of classification and comprehension,
if the ordinary natural distinctions be ignored. Of course it will
be acknowledged that “species”’ are but arbitrary divisions after
all, and that a nomen triviale serves but to register the state of
information and our opinions upon certain forms of life ; but since
under such an aspect the organisms themselves stand as the out-
come of adaptation and the conditions of existence, the latter
factor being thus synonymous with habitat or geographical posi-
tion, taken in its widest sense, it would evidently be a disadvan-
tage to science to lose the record of the influence which has been
exerted, and to sacrifice so simple an indication of the relative
position of a modified type within the area of its general occur-
rence.
STELLASTER BELCHERI, Gray.
1847. Stellaster Belcheri, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 76; et Syn-
opsis of Starf. Brit. Mus. (1866), p. 7, t. vii. fig. 1. :
1866. Goniaster (Stellaster) Belcheri, von Martens, Ueb. Ostasiat.
Echin., Wiegm. Archiv, Jahrg. 32, p. 86.
1871. Goniaster (Stellaster) Belcheri, Laitken, Vidensk. Meddelelser for
1871, p. 247, tab. v. fig. 3.
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 431
1876. Pentagonaster (Stellaster) Belcheri, Perrier, Stellérides du Mu-
seum, Arch. de Zool. expér. et gén. t. v. p. 42.
Coll. St. John: Korean Straits, 50 fathoms.
In the type specimen figured and described by Dr. Gray, a
group of two or three small tubercles is situated upon the disk in
each radial area at about the same distance from the centre as the
madreporiform body, whilst further outward, at the base of the
arm, stands a single isolated tubercle, likewise in the median line
of the ray.
In an example of S. Belcheri from Australia, which Dr. Liitken
has described, this latter tubercle is wanting ; and from the cir-
cumstance of the specimen being much smaller than that of Gray’s
(measuring only r=8 millims., R=25 millims.), Litken has been
led to regard the presence of this isolated tubercle at the base of
the rays as merely a dependence on age and growth.
The present specimen is smaller than either of the above, and
is interesting from the fact that the only tubercles which it pos-
sesses are a single one in each radial field. Each of these occu-
pies the middle of a plate which is situated rather further than
the madreporiform body from the centre of the disk, and is sur-
rounded by several small granules markedly larger than those
which cover the plates generally. The disk is moderately convex,
the radial areas gibbous, and the interradial ones depressed. The
semidiameters of the disk and rays measure 7 millims. and 19
millims. respectively.
The inner row of foot-papille form a compact comb on each
interambulacral plate, arching upward over the furrow and having
in each group 5-6 papille, the ad- and aboral being smaller than
the others. The outer series consists of a single small, short,
stout papilla placed opposite to the middle of the inner row, and
having two or three papillate granules on each side, sometimes in
line and sometimes behind it, the whole forming a more or less
regular line parallel with the inner series. Occasionally a few
additional granules form an irregular reduplication of this series,
whilst upon the inner portion of the furrow the granules which
stand near to the main single papilla gradually increase in size,
the distinction between them becoming almost imperceptible.
There are but few pedicellarie valvulate on the dorsal surface,
and none on the marginal plates. The marginal spines are com-
pressed, not tapering towards the tip, which is rounded. Upon the
two outer thirds of the arm there is only a single plate in the dorsal
432 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
area between the marginal plates, the last two or three of which
meet in part of their length, and thus disconnect the median
series. j
CRIBRELLA DENSISPINA, sp. nov. Pl. VIII. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Coll. St. John: Korean Straits, W. coast of Niphon, 40
fathoms.
Arms rounded and very uniform in thickness throughout their
length, tapering only slightly and very gradually towards the ex-
tremity, which is blunt and wellrounded. Arms slightly flattened
at the base, and quite continuous with the disk, being separated
by no interradial depression; arm-angles well rounded. The
ossicles of the rays and disk are covered very densely with small
closely-crowded spinelets, so closely packed as to suggest to the
naked eye the granulate appearance of Linckia. The spinelets
are built-up of multiradiate laming, and by expansion at the tip
assume a clavate form. The intermedial pore-arms are very small,
quite disconnected and enclosed; they are frequently furnished
with one papilla only; but two or occasionally even three occur.
The madreporiform body is nearer to the centre than the mar-
gin of the disk; and the septa, which radiate in straight lines from
its centre, are closely studded with spinelets similar to those of
the disk and rays.
The foot-papille are more robust than the spinelets of the dorsal
or lateral portions of the ray, and are placed in oblique pairs upon
the adambulacral plates. The inmost pair, or that nearest the
furrow, are longer and much stouter than the others, and are suc-
ceeded by four or five similarly oblique pairs of smaller spinelets,
following in series and gradually diminishing in size and thick-
ness until they merge imperceptibly into the densely packed spi-
nulation of the ventro-lateral plates.
The specimen measures R=26 millims.,7=5 millims. ; breadth
of a ray midway between the tip and disk, 4 millims.
ASTERACANTHION RUBENS (Linné), var. MIGRATUM, mzht.
Coll. St. John: Korean Straits.
T'wo small specimens, their greatest radius measuring 16
millims. and 12 millims. respectively. Although only in a young
and premature stage of growth, I feel little hesitancy in assigning
these starfish to the above widely spread species.
The ambulacral papilla are short, moderately stout, and cylin-
drical, and arranged two and one alternately upon the interam-
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 433
bulacral plates, with more or less regularity according to the
individual, sometimes the odd spines being few and far between.
These are succeeded by the ventro-lateral spines in oblique rows
of two (or three in the middle portion of the arm), and are stout,
moderately long, and slightly tapering towards the tip ; then fol-
lows the broad side-area, bounded by the lateral spines, which are
similar in size and character to the last mentioned, and, standing
one to a plate, are well spaced and form a straight marginal
series. These spines are surrounded at the base by a thin circlet
of small pedicellarie forcipiformes *; and the ventro-lateral series
have also a few on their upperside. The spines of the dorsal
surface are small, tapering towards the tip, and pointed ; they are
widely spaced and have a few pedicellarie forcipiformes at their
base, but no wreath (and in some cases only two or three even),
whilst the interspace between the spines is very thickly strewn
with numerous large pedicellarie forficiformes.
The large size and great number of these latter pedicellariz, as
well as the isolated character of the marginal spines, without even
a trace of any undeveloped companion such as is frequently to be
found in young A. rubens of typical form at the same age, the
general absence of all embryonic secondary spines on the inter-
calary pieces, either of the dorsal surface or the sides, and, in
* Tn 1866, Dr. W. B. Herapath published a memoir “ On the Pedicellarise of
the Echinodermata” (Quart. Journ. Microscop. Science, vol. v. pp. 17 5-184), in
which he described the structure of these organs as presented in the Asteriade,
at the same time assigning very characteristic technical designations to the dif-
ferent forms. ‘This paper, unfortunately, seems to have been overlooked by
subsequent writers, and also by M. Perrier, who in 1869 brought out his care-
ful and very excellent ‘Recherches sur les Pédicellaires et les Ambulacres des
Astéries et des Oursins.’
Apart, however, from Dr. Herapath’s obvious claim to priority, certain of
the names employed by the French savant can only be regarded as colloquial
terms which would require to be replaced by a more strictly scientific nomen-
clature before they couid become the general property of the naturalists of
other countries. It is therefore with particular pleasure that attention is called
to the above-mentioned earlier paper, as it supplied the want in the direction
indicated.
According to Dr. Herapath’s terminology, the pedicellarie forcipiformes, or
“ scissor-shaped,” are equivalent to the ‘‘ pédicellaires croisés” of M. Perrier;
and the pedicellarie forficiformes, or “shears-shaped,” to the “ pédicellaires
droits” of the French author. The terms being synonymous with the ‘‘ major ”
and “minor,” the “large” and the “small,” as applied to pedicellarix by
some American and English naturalists.
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 32
434 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
fact, the tout ensemble of the spinulation, dispose me, after careful
study of this limited material, to regard the starfish as present-
_ ing a well-marked locational variety of the A. rubens type. And
although these structural modifications are not such as would
command more special recognition, the divergence seems one
which is well worthy of record in a morphological point of view.
ECHINOIDEA.
STRONGYLOCENTROTUS INTERMEDIUS (Barnes), A. Agassiz.
1863. Psammechinus intermedius, Barnes, in A. Agassiz, Proc. Acad.
N. 8S. Philadel. p. 357.
1866. Boletia radiata, von Martens, Ostasiat. Echin., Wiegm. Archiv,
Jahre. 32, p. 136.
1872. Strongylocentrotus intermedius, A. Agassiz, Rev. Echini, Lil.
Cat. M. C. Z. p. 164.
Toxopneustes grandiporus, Liitken (MS. Copenhagen Mus.), fide A.
Agassiz.
Coll. St. John : lat. 34° 8' N., long. 126° 24’ E., Korean Straits,
24 fathoms.
Owing to its dense clothing of short moderately uniform spines,
this Echinoid bears a great resemblance in facies to Spherechinus.
The resemblance, however, is merely superficial, as neither the
tubercles nor the spines are equal-sized, nor are the former closely
packed upon the plates or arranged in strictly horizontal rows ;
the gill-slits are very slight, being Jittle, if at all, more deeply in-
dented than generally in Strongylocentrotus. In none of the above-
mentioned details, which are regarded as stable generic characters
in Spherechinus, does the present sea-urchin agree ; and although
it resembles that genus in possessing only four pairs of pores to
each are, their mode of arrangement does not differ essentially
from that of Strongylocentrotus.
The poriferous zones are nearly as broad as the median am-
bulacral area, which at the ambitus bears four vertical ranges
of tubercles—the outer ones, which stand next to the poriferous
zones, being much larger than the inner series. On the interam-
bulacral plates there are three primary tubercles, the middle one
longest; and this alone remains prominent up to the apical disk,
whilst the companion tubercles diminish very rapidly on the ab-
actinal surface, being wanting altogether or represented only by
small miliaries on the uppermost plates. There are also two or
three large secondaries and a moderate sprinkling of miliaries
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 435
upon the plates, but which diminish both in size and number on
the upper portion of the abactinal surface ; two of the secon-
daries are placed on the aboral margin of the plate, and stand
above the interspaces between the primary tubercles. There are
also two or three small tubercles between the arcs in the poriferous
zones, the one which stands under the upper pore of each ambu-
lacral plate (¢. e. the second pore of an arc) being nearly as large
as a primary tubercle ; and its series forms a prominent vertical
row. The genital plates are comparatively small, with the ex-
ception of the madreporite, and the oculars large, two of them
entering the anal circle ; both the ocular and ovarial orifices are
conspicuous.
The actinostome is small, the indentations well marked but not
deep, and the buccal membrane furnished with small elongate cal-
careous plates.
The colour of the test is light purple or greenish, having the
interradii frequently of a darker tint; and that of the spines dark
olive tipped with purple. In one small specimen the spines of
the ambulacra are greyish white tipped with violet. The speci-
mens dredged by Capt. St. John accord closely with the descrip-
tion given by Von Martens of Boletia radiata, which Mr. Alex.
Agassiz indicates, from personal knowledge, to be synonymous
with Barnes’s earlier determination of Psammechinus intermedius.
Hence the present reference of the Hchini under consideration.
EcHINOMETRA LUCUNTER (Leske), Blainville.
Coll. St. John: Hatzura, Japan.
Only one small premature specimen, which seems to vary
from the ordinary Pacific form in its shorter and stouter spines,
and prominent and somewhat exposed apical disk. . lucunter,
however, is such a highly variable form, and the changes which
take place during growth are so great in all the members of the
genus, that the “suggestions” presented by the example under
notice do not appear to warrant any special importance being
placed upon them. The colour of the spines is light green shading
into light violet, and tipped with grey, and having the milled rim
white or grey also. Pores arranged in arcs of four.
TEMNOPLEURUS Harpwickil (Gray), A. Agassiz.
1855. Toreumatica Hardwicku, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 39.
1863. Microcyphus elegans, A. Agassiz, Proc. Acad. N. S. Philad.
p. 397.
30%
436 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
1863. Temnotrema sculpta, A. Agassiz, Proc. Acad. N. S. Philad.
p. 358.
1866. Temnopleurus japonicus, von Martens, Wiegm. Archiv, Jahrg. 32,
p. 133.
1872. Temnopleurus Hardwickii, A. Agassiz, Rev. Echini, pp. 166
& 460.
Coll. St. John: lat. 38° 28’ N., long. 141° 25’ E., Sendai
Bay, 9 fathoms; lat. 32° 49’ N., long. 128° 54’ E., Korea
(young).
In this Temnopleurus the sutural pits are wanting altogether on
the actinal surface, whilst above the ambitus they are deep and
bevelled in the median line of the interambulacral areas, but only
small adjoining the poriferous zone; the sutural pits of the am-
bulacral areas are similar to those of the interradia, though
smaller ; and these broad, connected, triangular excavations give
quite a naked appearance to the median line of the areas. The
coronal plates carry only one large primary tubercle, which in
the interambulacral areas is placed near the middle of the plate—
the series forming two vertical prominent lines, which extend
from the apical pole to the actinostome. The spines which are
attached to these primaries are conspicuous from all the rest, both
by their greater length and by their coloration, which at the base
is very dark brown or purple, with the rest ofthe shaft pink. On
either side of the interambulacral primary tubercles there is in
general (except towards the apical disk) one large secondary
tubercle, the remainder of the plate carrying numerous robust
miliaries. In the ambulacral areas the primary tubercle is placed
near the outer margin of the plate, and is accompanied by one
or, near the ambitus, sometimes two secondaries and several mi-
liaries. The anal area is small; and the genital plates are well
tuberculated. The actinostome is also small in comparison with
other species.
The following measurements will show the proportions :—
A, B
millim millim.
Diameters eee 24. 27:25
ere lat ep eenneee ceaeeeee 12 13°5
Actinostome ............ 8 8:1
Two young specimens of this species were also obtained, and
accord very closely with Mr. A. Agassiz’s excellent figures of
the growth stages of this Zemnoplewrus. They were dredged in
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 437
lat. 32° 49' N., long. 128° 54’ E., and measure respectively 7
millims. and 11°2 millims. in diameter.
TEMNOPLEURUS REYNaAuDI, Agassiz (juv.).
1846. Temnopleurus Reynaudi, Agassiz, Cat. rais., Ann. Sc. Nat. vi.
p. 360.
1855. Toreumatica Reevesii, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 39.
— ?Toreumatica granulosa, zd., ibid.
1863. Toreumatica concava, A. Agassiz, Proc. Acad. N. S. Philadel,
p- 358 (non Gray).
1872. Temnopleurus Reynaudi, A. Agassiz, Rev. Echini, p. 166.
Coll. St. John: lat. 33° 14’ N., long. 182° 55’ E., Korea, 40
fathoms.
Very little was definitely known respecting the premature
phases of Temnopleurus prior to the careful and characteristic
drawings which Mr. Alex. Agassiz has given of this and the pre-
ceding species. The present specimens, ofa diameter of 9 millims.,
are distinguishable from young 7. Hardwickii of about the same
size by their thinner, more compressed, and subconoid test, which is
of a light ashy-grey colour, rayed with pale violet in the interambu-
lacral areas. ‘The apical disk is conspicuous, and the primary anal
plate very large and characteristic; the ocular plates are large,
with their outer margin tridentiform, and having at the base
adjoming the genital plates a lozenge-shaped pit; one ocular
enters the anal circle. The interambulacral sutural excavations
extend up to the primary tubercle, which has the appearance of
standing at the apex of a triangular depression occupying the
entire adoral margin of the plate; the pits are larger and more
clearly defined on the actinal than upon the abactinal surface, and
those of the median ambulacral area bear on their adoral margin
a very large spheridia, the series of these, which number six or
seven, extending nearly up to the ambitus. There are but very
few miliaries upon a plate ; and the two or three which occupy
the upper portion still bear traces of fine radial connexions with
the primary tubercle. The secondary tubercles, of which, at the
ambitus, there is one on either side of the primary, are compara-
tively small.
In young 7. Hardwickii of the same size the tuberculation of
the plates is distinct and more numerous, and the sutural pits,
though deep, are much more limited.
438 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
TEMNOPLEURUS TOREUMATICUS (Klein), Agassiz(?) (juv.).
TEAS, WALLIS stieysy JI), LIL) 1 TLS},
1734. Cidaris toreumatica, Klein, Nat. Dispos. Echin. p. 64.
1788. Echinus toreumaticus, Gmelin, Linn. Syst. Nat. 3180.
1816, Echinus sculptus, Lamarck, Ann. sans Vert. p. 47.
1841. Temnopleurus toreumaticus, Agassiz, Monog. Scutelles, p. 7; et
im Valentin, Anat. du gen. Echin. p. vii.
1846. Temnopleurus bothryoides, Agassiz, Cat. Rais., Ann. Se. Nat. vi.
p- 360 (pars).
1863. Temnopleurus Reevesii, Agassiz, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard,
i. p. 23 non (Gray).
1872. Temnopleurus toreumaticus, A. Agassiz, Revision of Echini,
p- 166.
Coll. St. John: lat. 34° 8’ N., long. 126° 24’ H., Korea, 24
fathoms.
A small specimen measuring 9'5 millims. in diameter, which
differs entirely from the preceding young Zemnopleuri, I refer,
although not without hesitation, to the above species. The test
is stout ; and the primary tubercles are large and very prominent,
with the sutural pits extensive and sharply defined. The well-
developed secondaries and miliaries which fill the plates, form
oblique lines thereon, continuous with similar lines on the com-
panion plate, the miliaries of the upper portion of one plate
following the same trend as the lower and principal range of tu-
bercles on the accompanying plate. This feature, combined with
the band-like character of the portion of the interambulacral plates
which lies between the sutural cavities, is very suggestive of the
arrangement in Temnechinus. The genital plates are compara-
tively large ; and the anal area is surrounded by a prominent and
close ring of robust secondary tubercles. Compared with young
TL. Hardwicku, the Echinoid under notice is readily distinguished
from specimens of similar or even greater size by the prominent
character of the tuberculation and the regularity of the special
arrangement which this displays.
If the view be correct that the present premature specimen is
the young of 7. torewmaticus, the characters which it presents are
such as point to an interesting phylogenetic connexion of Temno-
pleurus with Temnechinus ; whilst it much more nearly resembles
the fossil forms of that genus than the seemingly aberrant species
Lemnechinus maculatus, Ai. Agassiz.
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 439
SALMACIS SULCATA, Agassiz.
1846. Salmacis sulcatus, Agassiz, Cat. Rais., Ann. Sc. Nat. vi.
p. 359.
Salmacis virgulatus, zd., ibid.
1850. Melobosis mirabilis, Girard, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. iii.
p- 365.
1866. Salmacis conica, von Martens, Ostasiat. Echin., Wiegm. Archiv,
Jahrg. 32, p. 159.
Diploporus pyramidata, Troschel, Mus. Berolin. (fide v. Martens).
1866. Salmacis pyramidata, v. Martens, Wiegm. Archiv, Jg. 32, p. 159
(pars).
1872. Salmacis sulecata, A. Agassiz, Rev. Echin., Ill. Cat. M. C. Z.
Harvard, p. 156.
Coll. St. John: lat. 34° 8’ N., long. 126° 24’ H., Korean Straits,
24 fathoms.
Test subconoid and somewhat depressed, having small sharp
triangular pores in the median areas and at the junction of the
interambulacra with the poriferous zones. Ambulacral pores
arranged in triple arcs, which have the appearance of forming
two vertical rows, two pore-pairs standing on the inner series to
one on the outer, in regular alternation—the intermediate space
between these single pore-pairs being occupied by a small secon-
dary tubercle which isolates them from one another. Coronal
plates narrow, the inner third of each being naked. The inter-
ambulacral plates at the ambitus bear a horizontal row of three
small tubercles, of which the middle one is the largest, and forms
a vertical series extending from the apical pole to the actino-
stome; the series adjoining the poriferous zone dismimishes very
rapidly in size on the abactinal surface, becoming merely miliaries
which hadly reach the apex; whilst the inner series extends only
half the distance from the ambitus to the apical disk. Above
these tubercles, on the upper margin of each plate, runs a hori-
zontal row of well-spaced miliaries. The ambulacral plates carry
one large tubercle closely adjoining the poriferous zone ; and this
at the ambitus is accompanied by another rather smaller tubercle
in horizontal line, but which does not extend in vertical series to
within one third of the distance of the apical disk. In addition
to these primary tubercles, there are two or three miliaries on the
upper margin of the plate, of which the one standing midway over
the interspace between the two primaries is almost as large as a
secondary tubercle, and extends in series much further towards
the apical disk than the small inner primary.
44.0 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
The apical system is moderately large, with the anal margin
closely tuberculated; the genital apertures are very large and
round, and the plate bearing the madreporiform body much larger
than the others; the ocular plates are stout and carry numerous
tubercles, one being placed on each side of the aperture. Three
specimens furnished the following measurements :-—
A. B. C.
millim. millim. millim.
Diameter ............ ive 14 14
IBIGNEAC sconcoascssden0 11:75 8:3 91
Actinostome ...... Uf 6 6
EcHINANTHUS TESTUDINARIUS, Gray.
1851. Echinanthus testudinarius, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. p. 35;
et Cat. Echinida (1855), p. 6, pl.i. fig. 1.
1851. Echinanthus australasiz, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. p. 34,
et Cat. Echinida (1855), p. 5, pl. 1. fig. 2.
1854. Clypeaster tumidulus, Miiller, Bau d. Echin. p. 90.
1866. Clypeaster testudinarius, v. Martens, Wiegm. Archiv, Jahrg.
SP Ne F AO.
1870. Clypeaster speciosus, Verrill, Silliman’s Journ. p. 95.
Coll. St. John: lat. 83° 14! N., long. 128° 55! E., west coast of
Nipon, Korean Straits, 40 fathoms.
EcHINANTHUS THSTUDINARIUS, Gray.
This Clypeastroid is distinguished by the form and height of
test, with its deeply impressed and gradually sloping actinal sur-
face and large actinostome; whilst the shape of the ambulacral
petals, the thickened margins of the test, and its small and widely
spaced tubercles are further characteristic of the species.
The superficial resemblances which exist between certain forms
of BD. testudinarius and Clypeaster rotundus, A. Ag., are remark-
ably close; the association, however, of their comparative differ-
ences with structural characters of considerable importance is
very constant, and sufficient to warrant full recognition in specific
determinations.
(CLYPEASTROID) —— sp. ? juv.
Coll. St. John: lat, 34° 8’ N., long. 126° 24’ E., Korea, 24
fathoms.
A small Fibularia-like Echinoid measuring 6°5 millims. in
length, which is in all probability the young stage of a Clypeas-
troid; but to which special form it belongs it would obviously be
very hazardous to determine from such limited material, in the
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. AAT
present state of our knowledge of the undeveloped stages of the
species of that group. Itis certainly different from any described
Hibularia ; but, from the characters which it presents, I prefer to
regard it as a young and premature phase of growth, rather than
as a new species of that very unsatisfactory genus.
ECHINOLAMPAS OVIFORMIS (Gmel.), Gray.
1788. Echinus oviformis, Gmelin, Linn. Syst. Nat. 3187.
1801. Nucleolites oviformis, Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert. p. 347.
1816. Clypeaster oviformis, Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert. p. 15.
1825. Echinolampas oviformis, Gray, Ann. Phil. x. p. 7, et Cat. R.
Echinida, p. 35.
Echimolampas orientalis, id. ibid.
Coll. St. John: Korean Straits, W.coast of Nipon, lat.33°14! N.,
long. 128° 55’ E., 40 fathoms.
The Hehinolampas referred to the above species has a very ellip-
tical and distinctly ovoid contour when seen from above ; the test
is high and fully arched; apex very eccentric anteriorly, and the
mouth in a somewhat more central position on the actinal surface ;
bourrelets moderately developed. Ambulacral petals slightly
petaloid, with poriferous zones unequally developed, the anterior
zones of the antero-lateral pair and the posterior zones of the
postero-lateral pair being little more than half the length of the
companion zone of the petal; the inner pores are round, and the
outer ones somewhat larger and elongated. Tuberculation mo-
derately distant, and widely spaced in the neighbourhood of the
actinostome. Apical disk small, and the genital pores not very
wide apart.
The following measurements will serve for comparison :—
Length 53 millims, breadth 44 millims., height 33 millims., ante-
rior margin to centre of apical disk 17 millims.
EcHINOCARDIUM AUSTRALE, Gray.
1851. Echinocardium australe, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser.
vol. vii. p. 131, e¢ Cat. Echinida (1855), p. 44, pl. iv. fig. 1.
1851. Echinocardium zealandicum,Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat.Hist. 2nd ser.
vol. vii. p. 131, et Cat. Echinida (1855), p. 44.
1863. Echinocardium Stimpsoni, A. Agassiz, Proc. Acad. N. Sc. Phi-
ladel. p. 360.
1869. Amphidetus novee-zealandiz (Val.), Perrier, Rech. s. les Pédicell.
p- 176.
Coll. St. John; lat. 88° 10’ N., long. 129° 12’ E., Korea, 36
fathoms.
442 MR. W. P. SLADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
Three young specimens, two of them being very small. Com-
pared with 4, caudatum, the abactinal surface slopes at a much
smaller angle from the apical pole, whilst the contour of the test,
viewed from above, is much more rotund than in similar-sized
specimens of the Atlantic species. The intrapetalous fasciole
forms a wider triangle outwardly ; and the anal and subanal fas-
cioles are disconnected in examples measuring only 7:2 millims.
in length; whilst in &. cordatuwm of even greater size they are
unmistakably confluent. The apical disk is scarcely excentral ;
and the peristome, though only slightly so, is more anterior than
in the young of 4. cordatum. It will be further found, when
comparison is made between the two species, that relatively the
periproct occupies a very high position on the posterior end in the
present form, and also that the zones of the posterior lateral
ambulacra converge only very slightly as they approach the am-
bitus, whilst in 4. cordatum they approximate rapidly.
An example of this species of the same size as the young £. cor-
datwm, given by A. Agassiz in the ‘ Revision of the Hchini,’ has
been figured for the purpose of comparison (cf. Pl. VIII. figs. 14,
STS IS}, IEA)
ScHIZASTER VENTRICOSUS, Gray.
1851. Schizaster ventricosus, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vii.
p- 133.
— Schizaster Jukesi, Gray, ibid. p. 133.
1855. Schizaster (Nina) ventricosus, Gray, Cat. Rec. Echinida, Brit.
Mus. p. 60, t. iv. fig. 2.
—— Schizaster (Nima) Jukesii, Gray, ibid. p. 61.
1872. Schizaster ventricosus, A. Agassiz, Rev. Echin. (Ill. Cat. Mus.
Comp. Zool.), p. 158.
Coll. St. John: lat. 34° 13’ N., long. 186° 73’ E., 48 fathoms.
The collection contains one small specimen of this very fragile
Kehinoid, and measures only 14 millims. in length. Compared
with S. canaliferus, the contour, when seen from above, is more
elliptical, the test being much fuller and more rotund in the pos-
terior portion, and having its greatest breadth across the hinder
third; the apex is not so eccentric; and the present Schizaster is
further characterized by the great height of the posterior portion
of the test; a rapid slope to the actinal surface forms the trun-
cate anal end, the upper part of which does not overhang the
lower, the periproctal orifice being situated very high up on the
area. The odd anterior ambulacrum is not so wide as in S. cana-
\
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 443
liferus ; and the lateral keels which bound it are more strongly
developed. The anterior lateral ambulacra are very broad, whilst
the posterior petals are shorter, more pear-shaped, and have a
concave curve outwardly.
Conclusion.
The following list will dicate the extremes, as at present
known, of the geographical distribution of the species comprised
in the above collection :— q
ASTEROIDEA.
Astropecten formosus, mihi........ Korea.
japonicus, M. & T........... Japan.
polyacanthus, M.& T....... Red Sea, Zanzibar, Australia, Fiji
Islands, Japan.
Stellaster Belcheri, Gray ........ New Guinea, N. Australia.
Cribrella densispina, mihi......... Korea.
Asteracanthion rubens, Linné...... Japan, N. Atlantic.
EcCHINOIDEA.
Strongylocentrotus intermedius - Seghalion, Japan, Australia.
(Barn.), A. Ag.
Echinometra lucunter (Leske), Bl.. Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Society
Islands, Sandwich Islands, Japan.
Temnopleurus Hardwickit (Gray), Japan, Unalaska (Dall, Smithson.
A. Ag. coll.).
Reynaudi, Ag.......+.eee0... Ceylon, Malacca, N. China seas.
toreumaticus (Klem), Ag..... Persian Gulf, Siam, Philippine
Islands, N. China seas.
Salmacis sulcata, Ag. ............ Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Australia,
China.
Echinanthus testudinarius, Gray .. Red Sea, Australia, Japan, Sand-
wich Islands, California,
Echinolampas oviformis (Gmel.), | Red Sea, Cape of Good Hope,
Gray. Molucca.
Echinocardium australe, Gray .... South Africa, New Zealand, Australia,
China, 8. Japan.
Schizaster ventricosus, Gray ...... Siam, Hongkong, Fiji Islands*.
An analysis of the above will show that, out of the six Asteroids,
three are additions to the fauna of Japan, viz. Astropecten formo-
sus, Stellaster Belchert, and Oribrella densispina. Of these, Stel-
laster Belchert has hitherto been known as inhabiting N. Australia
and New Guinea only; Astropecten formosus may be regarded as
* In drawing up this list, I am indebted for a number of citations of collec-
tion to Mr. Alexander Agassiz’s “ Revision of the Hchini,” Ill. Cat. Mus. Comp
Zool. Harvard, vii. 1872-74.
44 Ai MR. W. P. SEADEN ON THE ASTEROIDEA
a representative form of the N.-Atlantic A. irregularis type; and
Cribrella densispina I am disposed to consider an independent
development from C. sanguinolenta of the N. Atlantic. Of the
remaining Starfish, Asteracanthion rubens is the widely spread
Atlantic and cireumpolar Asteroid; Astropecten japonicus is con-
fined to Japanese waters ; and Astr. polyacanthus has a very exten-
sive distribution, extending from the Red Sea on the west to the
Fiji Islands on the east, and reaching northward to Japan—the
most important feature which is thus rendered prominent being
the presence of northern or representative northern species of
Starfish in the Korean seas.
Turning now to the Echinoidea, it will be found that, of the ten
which have been enumerated above, five are additions to the
Japanese fauna, viz. Temnopleurus Reynaudi, PT. toreumaticus, Sal-
macis sulcata, Hchinolampas oviformis, and Schizaster ventricosus.
Of these, Temnopleurus Reynaudi has hitherto been ranked as a
more southern form, and having an extension westward as far as
Ceylon; and similarly 7. torewmaticeus, which has a still greater
westerly stretch to the Persian Gulf. Salmacis sulcata is likewise
amore southern species, and with a distribution westward as
far as the Red Sea; Hehinolampas oviformis is quite a western
form in relation to Japan; and Schizaster ventricosus occupies a
southern area which ranges eastward to the Fiji Islands. Of the
remaining five, which are known Japanese forms, two have a very
wide distribution, viz. Lchinometra lucunter and Echinanthus tes-
tudinarius, the former extending from the Red Sea to Australia
and thence eastward to the Society Islands, and the latter occupy-
ing nearly the same area, but with a still greater easterly exten-
sion, reaching to California ; Hehinocardium australe extends south-
ward to New Zealand and westward to South Africa,—none of
the Echinoids above mentioned having a more northerly extension
than some portion of the Japan islands. Strongylocentrotus inter-
medius reaches from Seghalion to Australia; and Temnopleurus
Hardwickit isthe only one whose limits extend no further south-
wards than Japan, whilst it reaches a latitude as far north as
Unalaska.
From this conspectus it will be seen that all the Echinoidea,
with the exception of a single instance, are those occupying a
habitat which has a more southern and, in general, also a more
westerly extension than the locality under notice.
It is especially noteworthy in this collection of specimens from
AND ECHINOIDEA OF THE KOREAN SEAS. 445
the Korean Seas, that whilst a large proportion of the Asteroids
point to a northern centre of derivation, the Hchinoidea, on the
other hand, all belong to species having a southern and westward
area of distribution.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII.
. Astropecten formosus. Abactinal aspect, natural size.
. Actinal side of same specimen, about the middle of a ray, x 10.
. Arrangement of the foot-papillz on the inner portion of the ambulacral
furrow, X 10.
. Abactinal side of same specimen, about the middle of a ray, x 10.
. Cribrella densispina. Abactinal aspect, natural size.
. Actinal side of same specimen, about the middle of a ray, x 10.
. Arrangement of the foot-papille, seen somewhat obliquely, and more
highly magnified.
. Abactinal side of same specimen, about the middle of a ray, x 10.
. Madreporiform body of same specimen, X 10.
. LTemnopleurus toreumaticus (Klein), Ag.(?), juv.; profile, natural size.
. Actinal aspect of same specimen, natural size.
12. Portion of test of same specimen, x 10.
13. Apical disk of same specimen, X 10.
14. Echinocardium australe, Gray. A young specimen 7°75 millims. in length ;
abactinal aspect, x 5.
15. Actinal aspect of same specimen, X 5.
16. Longitudinal profile of same specimen, X 5.
17. Portion of the posterior end of the test of same specimen, showing the
separation of anal and subanal fascioles, magnified.
Fig.
oo ho ee
IS oP
—
=o ©
On some Ophiuroidea from the Korean Seas. By Professor
P. Martin Duncan, M.B. (Lond.), F.B.S., &&. (Commu-
nicated by W. Purcy Siapen, Hsq., F.L.S.)
[Read June 6, 1878.]
(Puates IX.-XI.)
I. Introduction and General Relations of the Fauna.
II. List of Families, Genera, and Species.
III. Description of the New Species, and notices of those hitherto
known.
IV. Remarks on the Species, and on thei Affinities. :
V. Description of the Plates.
I. Introduction and Relations of the Fauna.
Carr. St. John, R.N., in his late voyage in and about the seas to
446 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
the south and east of the Korea, dredged up numerous specimens
of small Ophiurans, which were in company with several Aste-
roidea and Hchinoidea. Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys sent me some of
these specimens ; and finding them very interesting, I was glad to
avail myself of Dr. Ginther’s kindness when he placed in my
hands the part of Capt. St. John’s collection that had been sent
to the British Museum, with a view to its being examined and
named. Mr. Perey Sladen undertook, at my suggestion, the ex-
amination of the Starfish and Echini; and this communication is
the result of my work on the Brittle-stars.
Situated near land which is rarely visited by Huropeans, the
Korean seas are to the south-west of the Japanese islands, to the
north and rather to the east of Formosa; and the Philippines are
many degrees to the south and a little to the west. Their floor was
virgin ground to the dredger; and it was reasonably anticipated
that some remarkable forms would be discovered in the fauna.
It was interesting to notice, as the specimens were brought under
careful examination, how several distant Ophiuran faunas were
associated together, and represented not so much by identical
as by very closely allied species. The peculiar grouping of certain
genera very characteristic of well-known areas was to be traced
in the fauna of this out-of-the-way locality.
One group of genera was not without its resemblance to those
of the remote Smith’s Sound and the North Atlantic; another
recalled the familiar forms of the West-Indian seas; and a com-
munity of species with the Red Sea was noticed.
Out of the 16 species and several varieties, only three had pre-
viously been described from other localities, namely :—Ophioglypha
sinensis, Lyman, from the China seas and Philippines; Ophzonerezs
dubia, from the Red Sea and the Philippines ; and Ophiactis sex-
radia, from the Pelews and Philippines, Nicobars and Tahiti.
Three of the new species of Ophioglypha belong to the group of
the genus which contains the species O. Stuwitzii, O. albida, and
O. nodosa; but they may be readily distinguished from these nor-
thern forms. The new Ophiacantha is interesting from its be-
longing to a genus of which a species is so commonly asso-
ciated with the Greenlandic Ophioglyphe ; but it has characters
which ally it to Ophiacantha stellata, Lyman, from Barbadoes.
And the common Ophiolepis of the Korean seas, whilst having
some abnormal characters, is not without some resemblance to the
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 4A7
immature Ophiopholis, the common associate of the well-known
forms just mentioned. The group of Amphiure and Hemipholis,
to which the Korean specimens belong, is characterized by the
small.number of mouth-papille ; and they are allied to Amphiura
Jiliformis and A. squamata, both Atlantic forms. The new species
of Ophionereis and Ophiothela I have also recognized in a small
collection of undescribed Ophiwre from the Red Sea. ‘The
Ophiothria of the Korean seas, with its numerous glassy spines
and extremely variable disk and colour, does not come within any
of the specific diagnoses of that very large genus, which is so fully
represented in the Philippine seas.
Lyman and Liitken, especially, have shown the mimeticism and
the similarity of generic and specific groupings of Ophiuroidea on ~
both sides of the Isthmus of Panama, and the interesting repre-
sentative character of the Ophiuroid faunas of the eastern African
seas and of seas around the islands of the Pacific.
Having this world-wide distribution of closely-allied forms to
deal with, it is not surprising that the difficulty of discriminating
the species of large genera should be great. To this difficulty is
added the extremely unsatisfactory multiplication of genera that
has taken place, specific attributes often being regarded as
generic, and parts of the generic diagnoses being frequently appli-
cable to the type species and no other. It has been necessary
to modify one genus, and to suggest the absorption of another after
the examination of the form which I have termed Ophiolepis
mirabilis : and in the instance of Hemipholis microdiscus a part of
the Agassizian diagnosis must be discarded. One of the Ophio-
glyphe is very like an Ophiomusian; and the remarks upon it
will be found after the description of the species.
The fauna of Ophiuroidea, the result of dredging over a wide
sea-floor, if it 1s an average of the whole, denotes conditions un-
favourable to the large growth of individuals. The number of
genera (ten) is small; and the excess of Ophioglyphe is as remark-
able as is the absence of several genera common in the Pacific.
Thus Ophioenemis, Ophiopeza, Ophioplocus, Ophiocoma, Ophiarachna,
Ophiarthrum, Pectinura, and Ophiopsammiwm are not represented.
As a whole, the fauna is that of shallow water.
448 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
II. List of Ophiurans collected in the Korean Seas.
Order OPHIURA, J. Muller.?
Family OpHioLuPpipipz, Ljungman*.
Genus OpHioGLyPHA, Lyman.
1. Ophioglypha Forbesi, sp. nov. 4. Ophioglypha Sladeni*, sp. nov.
2. O. striata, sp. nov. 5. O. sinensis, Lyman.
3. O. sculpta, sp. nov.
Genus OpHIOLEPIS, Lyman (amended).
1. Ophiolepis mirabilis, sp. nov.
Family AMPHIURID#, Ljungman.
Subfamily OPHIONEREIDINA.
Genus OPHIONEREIS, Liitken.
1. Ophionereis dubia, Audouin,var. 2. Ophionereis variegata, sp. nov.
Subfamily AMpHiuRriIn«&, Ljungman.
Genus AMpHIuRA, Forbes (modified).
1. Amphiura Liitkent, sp. nov. 2. Amphiura koree, sp. nov.
Genus HemIpPHo.is, Agassiz.
1. Hemipholis microdiscus, sp. nov.
Genus Opuiactis, Liitken.
1. Ophiactis sexradia, Grube. 2. Ophiactis affinis, sp. nov.
Subfamily OpHIACANTHIN&, Ljungman.
Genus OpHIAcAnTHA, Miiller & Troschel.
1. Ophiacantha Dallasi{, sp. nov.
Family OpHiorTRicinp#, Ljungman.
Genus OpHIOTHRIX.
1. Ophiothria koreana, sp.nov. 2. Ophiothrix koreana, varr. nov.
Genus OPpHIOTHELA, Verrill.
1. Ophiothela Verrilli, sp. nov.
Total species 16.
Species known before, from other localities.
1. Ophioglypha sinensis ......++++000. Hong-Kong.
2. Ophionereis dubia ...... nooo odo bd Red Sea.
3. Ophiactis sexradia....+...++ ++... Phihppines.
* Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar, 1866, p. 303.
+ Named after my friend Mr. W. Percy Sladen.
+ In recognition of Mr. W. 8. Dallas, Assistant Secretary of the Geological
Society.
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 449
New species.
1. Ophioglypha Forbesi. 8. Amphiura koree.
2. O. striata. 9. Hemipholis microdiscus.
3. O. sculpta. 10. Ophiactis affinis.
4. O. Sladeni. ll. Ophiacantha Dallasii.
5. Ophiolepis mirabilis. 12. Ophiothrix koreana and varie-
6. Ophionereis variegata. ties.
7. Amphiura Liitkent. 13. Ophiothela Verrilli.
ITE. Description of the Species.
Genus OpniociyeHa, Lyman.
1. OpntociypHa Forpust, sp. nov. Plate 1X. figs. 1, 2, 3.
A very Ophiomusoid-looking form, but having tentacles as far
out on the arm as the seventeenth plate.
The disk is pentagonal, rather thick, flat above, and is notched
for the arms, which are slender and tapering. The scales on the
upper part of the disk are large, few in number, and very regu-
larly placed ; there is a rosette, the central scale being pentangu-
lar, and the others are larger and rounder, and two large rectan-
gular scales reach from its circumference to the interradial space,
which is filled by them, and one even bends downwards below the
upper margin. One or two very small scales are at the edges of
these larger. A small scale separates the radial shields within.
The radial shields are large, about as broad as long, curved at the
free side, straight at the edge over the arm, united by the greater
part of their inner side, and broad and blunt at their end near the
rosette. The notch for the upper arm-scale is small,and there is
some swelling of the shields near their junction. The radial
scales are large, long and broad, and the curved free edge is
armed with about ten or more short, distinct spinules, which, di-
minish in size as they merge into some very minute ones at the
edge of the generative plate, close to the mouth-shield.
The interbrachial space, below the margin of the disk, is oceu-
pied by a large scale, which reaches to the distal edge of the mouth-
shield: there is a small scale with a slight boss on it between this
scale and the generative plate. The mouth-shields are large,
occupy nearly the whole of the space between the arms, and are
longer than broad ; they are broad without and rounded; the sides
are long and rather straight; and quite within there is an angular
process with a sloping rounded shoulder, which forms the sides
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 33
450 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
and bounds the generative slit. The side mouth-shields are large
and oblique, rather broad, and are united at their inner edge,
which is produced between the jaws; the aboral edge is in contact
with the angular process of the mouth-shield.
The jaws somewhat resemble the side mouth-shields in shape ;
they are short, wide apart without, are united within, and are
rather projecting downwards. The mouth-papille are broad, short
and close, and the innermost of each angle iy small and diamond-
shaped. The others, equal in height, form a linear surface, which
is continuous, and the separation of the papilleis only indicated
by faint line. The outermost is the broadest, and there are in
all eleven to each angle including that at the apex.
The outer end of each jaw reaches to the opening for the ten-
tacle, or to the side of the first lower arm-plate.
The lower arm-plates.—All are separate, from the union of the
side-plates in the median line. The first, although differing in
shape from the others next in succession, is as large as they are ;
itis very peculiar in shape, being something like that of the blade
of a hatchet: The margin within is narrow and notched, the
outermost teeth fitting therein.. The sides are re-enteringly
curved, and within they bound the tentacle-opening and sup-
port three close, short tentacle-scales, and without they expand,
where the plate becomes broad at its distal end, which is broadly
curved, with rounded edges.
The next plate is broader than long, angular within, curved
without slightly ; and the sides, in one part rather straight, become
curved where the side-plate passes obliquely to join its fellow
along the median line. The third lower arm-plate is not so broad
as the second, and has the same general shape. At about the
twelfth or thirteenth lower arm-plate the size is much diminished,
and the plate ceases to be recognized at about the twentieth joint,
which is close to the tip. J
The side arm-plates unite below along the median line and
separate the first lower arm-plate from the second, and the second
from the third very definitely; and from this point the length
of the junction increases, and is greater than the length of the
lower arm-plate. Further down, the side arm-plates nearly form
the whole of the joints ; they are broad and spread out wider with-
out than within. A small, short, subspimiform tentacle-scale is
on each side-plate, just external to the side of the lower arm-
plate ; its direction is longitudinal, and it protects along slender
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 451
tentacle. The tentacle-scale becomes microscopic towards the
seventeenth joint, and minute tentacles are seen thus far out.
The first tentacle-opening, slightly curvilinear, has four broad,
but short, close, straight-edged tentacle-scales, two on either side.
The next has a short ridge and a spiny scale on the side arm-plate,
and a raised rim on the lower arm-plate ; and the third has a small
scale on the side arm-plate alone.
The upper arm-plates near the disk are hoe like. There are
two small plates within the notch which are broader than long,
close and convex from side to side. The next plate is overlapped
slightly by the second, is boss-like and convex, strongly rounded
without, and the sides slope in towards the disk. The fourth
upper arm-plate is separated from the third by the side arm-plates,
and is irregularly heart-shaped and boss-like and convex, espe-
cially distally ; it forms about one half of the breadth of the
joint, the rest being made up by the expanded distal part of the
side-plates. The succeeding upper arm-plates diminish in size in
all directions, and become more angular; and the last is seen on
the twelfth or thirteenth joint.
The upper parts of the side arm-plates unite in long median
lines ; they are constricted within and expanded distally. Three
very short stumpy arm-spines are in a depression on the side of
the plate, close to the edges. The upper spine is the smallest,
and they are unequally distant.
Locality. Korean Straits, 51 fathoms. Collected by Capt. St.
John, R.N.
Ljungman has established the genus Ophiothyreus in order
to separate one species, O. Goesi, Lj., from Ophiomusium, Lyman
(see Stockholm Citversigt af Kong. Vet. Forh. 1871, published in
1872, arg. 28, pp. 619, 620). This genus is characterized, amongst
other peculiarities, by papille, some fifteen in number, projecting
downward on the margin of the innermost arm-plate (“ margine ad
scutelium brachiale intimum vergenti papillifero”’). The inner-
most upper arm-plate, large and triangular, is divided into two
parts—the under arm-plates “inter sese tangentia,” and the side
arm-plates “ad brachium medium versus primum inter sese
paullum tangentia.”” There are two squamiform ambulacral
papille “ ad ternas,’”’ and two minute arm-spines reaching, like the
papille, to the third plate only.
This genus has Ophiomusoid characters, especially in the ab-
sence of the tentacles from the distal arm-divisions; but the
33”
4
452 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
divided upper arm-plate suggests, according to Lyungman, the
alliance with Ophiolepis. It is not without affinities to Ophio-
glypha, but it differs materially and generically from the new form
described above.
OPHIOGLYPHA STRIATA, sp. nov. Plate IX. figs. 4, 5, 5a.
An Ophioglypha with strie on the proximal side margin of
the side arm-plates.
The disk is pentagonal, thick, flat above, straight and high in
the interbrachial spaces, strongly notched for the arms; and the
numerous scales are flat, overlapping, and inconspicuous. ‘The
central scale is large, and is surrounded by five small ones, suc-
ceeded by five large and some small scales, the rosette being indi-
stinct. A medium-sized scale separates the radial shields at their
inner angle ; numerous scales pass towards the interbrachial space,
where there is a central line of large ones bounded by two rows
of smaller scales.
The radial shields, small and irregular in shape, are separated
within, are then united for a short space, and are parted externally
by the long convex upper arm-plate, which is fringed with a row of
rudimentary spines at the sides. Sunken at the edges, the shields,
about as long as broad, are bounded aborally by a straight or by
a curved edge, into which the large radial plate fits on either side.
In young specimens a small plate occurs, besides the first arm-
plate in relation to the radial shields, and fills up the angle more
or less ; but with growth this becomes an important plate, and is
not then distinguishable from the first arm-plate.
The radial plates are rounded, large, tall from below upwards on
the side of the arm, broad above and narrow below, where they
seem to merge into the generative plates. They forma conspicuous
part of the interbrachial space, and are armed with about fifteen
short spines, which are sharp and distinct above, and which unite
and form broad expansions below.
The convex upper arm-plate, the rounded radial plates, and the
colour (a faint grey) of the radial shields renders the parts over
the insertion of the arms very remarkable.
The mouth-shields are large, occupy nearly all the space below
and between the arms, and even are bent upwards slightly at the
lower part of the tall interbrachial space; they are longer than
broad, broadest and roundly curved aborally, narrower and more
sharply curved orally, where there is a slight point, and the sides
oe
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 453
are rather straight without, and converge more definitely within.
All are slightly convex, and the madreporic is the largest.
The side mouth-shields are small; they are largest near their
inner junction, and they have a round small outer lobe, which
bounds the first tentacular opening aborally. The jaws are broad,
short, and are tumid near the plate, and they support nume-
rous mouth-papillee. There are from eleven to thirteen papille,
all of which are small, to each mouth-angle: the first resembles
a true tooth, is the longest, and is angular and sharp; the next
are smaller and are rounded, and the others are mostly little
narrow bands, more or less separated, here and there, and rounded.
There are four teeth, which are long, flat, narrow, and pointed.
The arms, five in number, are about once and a half the length
of the diameter of the disk; they are broad and high at the disk,
and taper gradually, and retain their great development at the
sides to their tip.
The lower arm-plates within the disk have a more or less bold
longitudinal convexity with a broad expansion on either side ab-
orally. Broadest without, the plates are curved and are slightly
hexagonal, the side arm-plates being joined to the small margins
on either side of the distal end, and the rest of the side giving
support to the curved, short, flap-like set of ambulacral papille.
Beyond the disk the lower arm-plates lose the convexity,
are at first about as long as broad, and then become longer
towards the tip of the arm. They are hexagonal and broadest
aborally, and the oral edge, nearly straight, is the broadest, the
opposite one diminishing gradually to a point where the side arm-
plates come in contact, very close to the end of the arms. At
that part the lower arm-plate is more elongato-quadrangular and
broadest aborally.
The lower arm-plates support on either side, aborally, a row of
thin, short, curved, flap-like processes, which are tentacle-scales.
They are usually five in number, are close, split up often and very
irregular ; but those which are nearest the aboral part of the plate
are the largest, and the others diminish rapidly m size. ‘These
scales diminish in size and number rather rapidly towards the
mid arm, where there igs a rudimentary tentacle-scale, and it is
lost towards the tip.
The upper arm-plates vary much in shape and size; the first,
in the larger specimens, is within the angle of the radial shields,
and is rather conyex, about as long as broad, rather pointed, and
454, PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
with curved sides within, and with straight sides and a straight
or curved edge aborally. In small specimens there is a small scale
quite in the angle of the radial shields. A ridge, more or less
dentated with minute spines, is on each side, and it is continuous
with one on the next arm-plate, and it merges into the upper
spines of the side arm-plate. The second arm-plate is broader
than the other, broadest and curved without, with sides sloping
to the smaller oral end. The next plate, also nearly quadran-
gular, is broader than long, slightly curved without, and nearly
straight within. The fourth plate is hexagonal, broader than
long, broadest without ; and the edges are straight at the sides,
and curved elsewhere slightly. The other upper arm-plates are
hexagonal, longer than broad, with the greatest width externally;
and towards the tip the length increases and the edges within and
without become almost points. All are slightly convex from side
to side, giving a keeled shape to the top of the arm.
The side arm-plates are important members of the arm; but
they form the tall sides, and but little of the upper and lower
surfaces. They are therefore tall, broad, and slightly curved at
the free edges. They lie close to the side of the arm, where
their breadth is very equal; and on their oral side, beneath the
overlapping, ill-developed, semilamellar spines of the outer edge
of the antecedent plate, there is a row of linear striations corre-
sponding apparently with the spines. Above, there is an angular
process of the side arm-plate which articulates with the sides of
the upper arm-plates; and quite at the end the side arm-plates
meet above.
On the lower part of the arm avery slender process of the side
arm-plate is in contact externally with the second lower arm-
plate ; and the next and following side arm-plates join the lower
arm-plate on the increasingly wide distal lateral side of the hexa-
gon. In mid arm the side arm-plates encroach more on the arm-
plates, and finally near the end separate them and unite. They
form much of the under part of the arm; and they are swollen
and convex towards the under part of it. The tentacle-open-
ings down the arm are rather large, linear and broad, and in-
crease in size towards the disk. Low down the arm there are only
rudimentary tentacle-scales on the side arm-plates. The spines
are on the edge of the side arm-plates, and do not project out-
wards; they are thin, lamellar, or rarely poimted, and are numerous
occasionally when the ordinary lamellar condition is split up.
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. A455
The tentacle-opening nearest the mouth-angle is large, oblique,
and linear, and there is a margin of about from ten to twelve
short and broad, blunt, lamellar tentacle-scales, one half being on
the lower arm-plate. The next opening has about six scales on
the side arm-plate; and so has the third. The tentacle-scales
gradually merge into ordinary spines along the edge of the suc-
ceeding side arm-plates, and gradually become fewer and fewer.
The diameter of the disk between opposite interbrachial spaces
is 73, inch, and the length of the arm is about 5°> inch.
Locality. Sondai Bay, Korean Sea. Collected by Capt.
St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIOGLYPHA SCULPTA, sp. nov. Plates IX. & XI. figs. 6, 7,
8, & 35.
The body is thick, pentagonal in outline, with well-marked slits
for the arms, which are broad and high near the disk, tapering
and short, being never more than once and a half the length of
the diameter of the disk.
The upper surface of the diskis covered with large, medium-sized,
and a very few small, overlapping, stout, rather tumid scales, which
are often marked with minute dot-like cavities, and with short
straight furrows close to the edge. A central rosette is formed
of six, close, large plates, without any others intervening ; the cen-
tral plate, somewhat irregular in shape, is not overlapped. There
are two large scales placed radially, which reach from the rosette
to the edge of the disk in each interbrachial space; and three
small scales, running parallel with the rosette, reach from it to the
proximal separation of the radial shields, into which the central
one fits. The radial shields are small, irregular in shape, are much
overlapped, and are largest and broadest at the notch without ; they
are united and even overlap for a short space, and are narrow
within. They are tumid, rounded off, and marked with pits.
The interbrachial spaces are large, slightly re-enteringly curved,
and slope inwards and downwards. They are covered by numerous,
small, very projecting, tumid scales in mosaic,and aremuch furrowed
from side to side. A comb of very small, sharp, slender spinules
is on the radial scale on either side of the notch, and. it is conti-
nuous below with a spined edge of a generative plate. There are
about twenty to twenty-four spinules.
The mouth-shields are small, longer than broad, very prolonged
and angular within, and broad and nearly circular without: there
456 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
is a slight shoulder where the angular part joins on to the rest, on
either side, and it marks the line of contact, without, of the side
mouth-shield and the end of the wide generative opening. The
angular part is enclosed by the obliquely placed side mouth-shields,
which are joined within broadly, and which are rather swollen.
The jaws form a short broad angle, and are rather swollen lon-
gitudinally close to the mouth-papille. There are three small
spiniform mouth-papille at the apex—one at the angle over the
teeth, and one on either side. The other papille are long, low,
thin ridges, sometimes separated slightly into four indefinite
masses on either side, that nearest the spiniform teeth being
pointed. The papille are small. There are five teeth, the upper-
most being the largest; they are small, narrow, projecting, flat
and spear-headed.
The upper arm-plates.—The first, seen close to the notch and
within the radial shields, is rudimentary. Itisa broad, very short
_lamina, with some rudimentary spinules upon it on either side.
The second is small, broader than long, curved without (re-enter-
ing), and tumid; it carries spinules on its sides. The third, much
larger, and often the largest on the arm, is broader than long,
broadly heart-shaped, the broad rounded angle within being some-
times overlapped, and the large distal curve is produced to a slight
angle on either side. The seventh plate is pointed and angular
within, and much rounded without; length and breadth nearly
equal; and it is separated from the eighth by a slight median
union of the side arm-plate. At the end of the arm the upper
arm-plates are greatly separated, are broader than long, and heart-
shaped, forming a minute prominence. The plates near the base
of the arm are swollen, especially distally, and the surface is
marked by minute radiating lines.
The under arm-plates.—The first is about as long as broad,
smallest and bluntly angular within, largest-and re-enteringly
curved without, and more or less triangular, with the angles cut
off or curved ; the centre of its surface projects slightly. The
second plate is larger, nearly square, with curved corners, nar-
rowest within, sloping at the sides, projecting in the middle, and
marked with short furrows; its proximal edge is slightly curved
towards the disk, and the edge, without, has a very faint notch
and a broad shallow re-entering curve. The third plate, squarish,
is broadest without, and the next has a very decided distal curve.
All project and are marked at the sides. The eighth is small,
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 457
broader than long, angular and sharp within, curved broadly
without, with short straight sides; it 1s convex, and separated
from those next to it by the side arm-plate junction. ‘Towards
the tip of the arm the lower arm-plates are very small, widely
separated, and about as broad as long, angular within and broadly
curved without.
The side arm-plates are largely developed and form much of
the arm. They are long, broad, stout, and flap-like, standing
away from the arm at the base, especially below. They are closer
to the arm lower down, are convex and swollen, and have large slits
between them. They meet below between the seventh and eighth
lower arm-plates, and gradually form much of the lower surface
of the arm. They form the whole of the thick side of the arm
and a large portion of the upper surface also. Above, they are
close to the arm, are swollen and long, and their distal edge is
curved gracefully. They unite between the seventh and eighth
plates, and form much of the end of the arm. There are eight
spines on the third side arm-plates; and they are not quite on
the middle of the free edge, but on its outside, the tentacle-scales
being nearer the other edge. The spines are very short, often
flat, rounded and sharp, unequal, and some are broader than
others. T'owards the end of the arm there are five subequal
spines, all very short.
Tubercle-scales.—The tentacular opening, at the side of the first
lower arm-plate, is long, and there are four moderate-sized scales
on either side of it; the second, not so long, hag three more or less *
perfect, flat, short, rounded tipped scales on the side arm-plate,
and two on the side of the lower arm-plate. About the sixth or
seventh plate there is a tentacle-scale on the side arm-plate and
on the lower arm-plate; and then they frequently, but not inva-
riably, cease to be noticed, the small one on the side arm-plate
often remaining.
A smaller specimen than the type, and having the disk about
one half the size, shows some variation in structure which should
be noticed.
The principal disk-seales are represented, but are slightly com-
pressed ; they have the patterns of dots and furrows on them.
The first and second upper arm-plates have spines on them; and
the side arm-plates unite, either between the fourth and fifth or the
fifth and sixth upper arm-plates. Beneath, the tentacle-scaley are
carried on nearly to the end of the arm on the side arm-plate,
458 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
but only to the sixth or seventh lower arm-plate; and their
lamellar nature is remarkable. The mouth-plates are more
distinct.
Several still smaller specimens show the general arrangement
of the disk-scales, have a spine here and there on the second
upper arm-plate, and the side arm-plates unite above between the
second and third upper arm-plates. Beneath, the tentacle-scale
ceases on the fifth lower arm-plate, and the side arm-plates join
between the third and fourth or fourth and fifth lower arm-plates.
The jaws are thicker and the mouth-papille are less developed
than in the larger forms. There is a tendency of the tentacular
scales to form ridges, and of the spines to split.
Locality. Korean Straits, 23 fathoms. Collected by Capt.
St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIOGLYPHA SLADENT, sp. nov. Plate IX. figs. 9, 10, & 11.
The disk is pentagonal, thick, much notched above the arms,
which are short, straight, and tapering, and not quite twice as
long as the diameter of the body.
The upper surface of the disk is covered with numerous rather
tumid scales of all sizes, disposed without much regularity, some-
times overlapping and usually in mosaic. A large central seale is
circular in outline, and has a slight boss on it, and four large
scales of the rosette with a small one surround it, being sepa-
rated by smaller scales. Hach of the outer large scales has
three smaller ones on its distal edge, the central scale of the three
being fixed in between the radial shields.
The radial shields are longer than broad, have their inner
and outer ends nearly equal, and their inner sides united for a
short space, and the outer sides are curved; separated slightly
orally by one scale, they are widely apart without and are placed
obliquely. The shields do not reach the margin of the disk, and
each terminates without in a long radial scale, curved without
and furnished with fourteen close, distinct, short, slender spines.
The interbrachial spaces are straight and they are boldly scaled.
The mouth-shields are large, and reach without, close to the ver- —
tical margin of the interbrachial spaces; they are longer than
broad, with a very pointed angle within and a broad curve with-
out, the sides sloping from the broad base to the sharp angle.
The side mouth-shields are small, short, narrow, and united at
OPHIVROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 459
their inner edge ; they are in contact with the distal third of the
mouth-shield, and reach the generative slits.
Jaws short and converging ; tooth-plate large; mouth-papille
eleven to each angle. They are small, short, and the outer are
broad; the innermost is sharply rounded and spearhead-shaped,
and the next are smaller and sharper, the others resembling the
outermost. There are four teeth, which are long, narrow, thin, and
rounded.
The lower arm-plates are small, have a central longitudinal
projection, are longer than broad, and have flat sides. The first
is the largest, and the next few are close, slightly broadest and
curved without. In mid arm (twelfth plate) they are elongated
heart-shaped or verging on the hexagonal, and are slightly sepa-
rated by the side arm-plates.
The upper arm-plates.—The first and second are within the
notch: the one is very small, triangular, curved without, narrow
within; and the other, much longer, is nearly square, and convex
from side to side. The third, shorter than the second, is broader
than long, is slightly overlapped by the second, convex from side
to side, especially at its distal end, where itis curved. The fourth,
broader than long, is broadly curved distally, where it 1s promi-
nent and convex ; it is narrower within, the proximal edge being
overlapped by the third plate. The succeeding plates become
more and more angular within, are broadly curved and project-
ing without, and are longer than broad. At the tip the plate is
very small and heart-shaped.
The side arm-plates widely separate the others at the tip of
the arm, and separate the upper plates slightly at about the
eighth joint; and the fourth upper plate is encroached upon
by the prominent broad flaps of the side arm-plates. The side arm-
plates are, on the whole, well developed, for the arms have large
sides; they have large flaps, which are tumid and swollen below
and convex above; they are close to the arm.
Their free edge has spines on it, whichare directed towards the end
of the arm, and near the disk, on the side of the arm, on several side
arm-plates, there is a solitary, sharp, short spine on the body of the
plate and remote from the others. Onsome side plates it is close to
the otherspines. Thespines on the edgeare short, small, close, sharp,
slender, and some are flat; they are rather irregular in breadth and
length, and a long one is usually innermost on the top of the arm.
Beneath, one or two spiculate sharp spines, longer than the others,
460 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
are seen external to the tentacle-scales. There are eleven spines on
the fourth plate, and further out they are six and then four in
number. The tentacle-openings are large and long : the first has
four or five close, short, rounded scales on either side; and the
second has five subspiniform scales on the side arm-plates, and
four small blunt ones on the lower arm-plate; the next opening
has the same number of scales, and then four are found around
some, the number diminishing to one. The flat scales on the
lower arm-plate cease at the sixth, where they are nearest its
distal end.
Locality. Korean Sea. Collected by Capt. St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIOGLYPHA sINENsIs, Lyman, Illust. Cat. Harvard Mus.
no. vi. p. 12 (1871).
Many small specimens of this species were found in 40 fathoms
in the Korean Strait by Capt. St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
Genus Ornroxerts, Jill. § Troschel.
OPHIOLEPIS MIRABILIS, sp. nov. Plates IX. & X. figs. 12,
1A, 14,
The disk is large, swollen above, circular in outline, and without
arm-notches. The arms not more than twice the diameter cf the
disk in length, are broad at the disk and taper rather suddenly,
becoming small towards their ends.
Above, the disk is covered with scales of different sizes and
shapes ; they and the radial shields are minutely granular, and
are separated by continuous series of minute round scales in
single or double rows, and sometimes a minute scale is produced
into a short conical spine. The mosaic and regularity of orna-
ment is exquisitely regular. The scales are in rosette centrally,
and there are two large and some other scales in the interradial
space. The radial shields are large, long, separate, broadest and
rounded without, and angular and most distant within; they are
convex, elongate pip-shaped, and are granular, and each is sur-
rounded by a mosaic of minute convex scales. They are, more-
over, separated by two or three moderate-sized scales, each of
which is surrounded by minute ones. Several short, stout, and
rather blunt spines are at the margin of the disk; and they
become smaller and more numerous and crowded in the interbra-
chial space, towards the mouth-shield.
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS, 461
The mouth-shields are small and granular; they are broader
than long, rounded without, angular within, where a reenter-
ing curve slopes to the rounded, but angular, sides. The
madreporic is the largest. The side mouth-shields are large,
and rather long and rectangular in shape; they reach on to the
lower arm-plate.
The jaws are broad and short; the mouth-papille are large,
thin and rounded, and there are six to each angle. Beneath
the lowest tooth there is a broad rounded knob separating the
papille. The teeth are ten or eleven in number, increasing in
length and breadth from below upwards; they are straight or
slightly guttered within. The jaw-plates are well-defined, and the
lowest teeth form a funnel-shaped cavity leading to the close
upper ones.
The lower arm-plates.—The first is rudimentary, and is bounded
on either side by the very close ends of the side mouth-shields :
the second is large, and the general shape is much broader than
long ; the inner edge is grooved and concave; the outer, the longest,
is nearly straight or slightly concave. ‘The sides are slightly
incurved for the tentacle-scale, and the corners are slightly
rounded. The plates are separate; and the union is by a skin,
the side arm-plates not reaching between. Near the tip the
plates become longer and are still separate.
The side arm-plates are small, project from the side of the arm,
have four short spines on the edge, and. a large tentacle-scale
which extends along the side of the lower arm-plate. The spine
next to the scale is the smallest, and becomes a three-spined
hook near the tip of the arm. ‘The spines are conical, broad
below, bluntish, are faintly striated, and stand out from the
arm. The surface of the lower arm-plates is granular, and there
are indications of faint rings of colour on the arms.
The upper arm-plates are surrounded by a row of very small
accessory plates, fourteen to eighteen in number; there is a
large accessory plate at the side and rather without, where it
simulates in size and position part of the side arm-plate ; it is
bounded, but not externally, by small accessories. The upper
arm-plates nearest the disk are small and more or less rudimen-
tary, are broader than long, and they are crowded by the rows
of small accessory scales: after the fourth or fifth, the others
become large, oval from side to side, and much broader than long.
In some specimens one of the edges is often straight. Further
462 PROF, P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
out they become longer than broad and more or less oval, and the
small accessory plates diminish in number and cease, but the
large side accessories project. Towards and at the tip the acces-
Sories are not seen, as they gradually diminish in size, and the
side arm-plates separate the upper arm-plates, which become very
small.
The tentacles within the mouth are large and stumpy, and those
of the arm are longer than the large tentacle-scale. The colour
of the whole is light brownish red, and there is a blotch of dark
colour on the radial shields and sometimes on the centre of the
disk. The arms are dark red-brown close to the disk for a short
space, and then they are slightly ringed with alternate dark red
and light buff. In some instances the spines in the interbrachial
spaces are dark-coloured.
There is much variation in the colouring and marking ; and as
the animal dries, the colours become lighter, the red disappears
and is succeeded by a buff tint.
Locality, Sondai Bay, Korean Sea. Collected by Capt.
St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
Genus OPHIONEREIS, Litthen.
- OPHIONEREIS VARIEGATA, sp. noy. Plate X. figs. 15, 16.
The disk is flat above, circular in outline, and small; and the
arms are moderately slender and tapering, and about four or five
times the diameter of the disk in length. The colour of the
upper part of the disk and arms is purple and light buff. The
light tint is in four blotches on the disk, one in each interradial
Space, and the radial shields have a light mark on them, as have
also all the scales and notably the few larger ones. The arms
. look banded with the light and dark tint; and two or three upper
arm-plates are darker than the succeeding one, and have, besides,
a longitudinal light area and a little spot near the end, besides
lateral purple stripes and tinting. The accessory plates are
generally tinted light purple, and some of the spines are banded.
Beneath, the colour is light buff; and there is no colour orna-
mentation until quite at the tip.
The disk-scales are small, numerous, and without order; and
the radial shields are very small, swollen, long-oval in shape, and
very distant. Beneath, the scaling is distinct and small, and there
is no other colour than the common light tint ; it reaches close to
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 463
the mouth, and is bounded by the ridge of the generative slit on
either side; and this is very minutely spined, the row of spines
meeting close to the mouth-shield.
The mouth-shields are small, slightly longer than broad, cordi-
form, angular within, and curved broadly without, the madreporic
being rounder in outline. They are remote from the margin of
the disk, and are attached aborally to the process of the conver-
ging generative slits. The side mouth-shields are rather large,
bound much of the mouth-shield, are narrow and united at their
inner edge, and rather broad and triangular near the lower arm-
plate.
The jaws are short, and together they form almost a semi-
- circle, instead of an angle, and are broader than long. There are
eleven mouth-papille to each angle ; the last but one, externally, is
the largest, and that at the angle resembles a small true tooth;
those on either side project, but are rather blunt. The teeth are
broad, and rather square at the free edge, and are five in
number.
The under arm-plates vary slightly in shape, and those in mid
arm are very broad aborally, rather angular within, but still, on
the whole, are longer than broad. There is a slight curve ab-
orally, where the plate forms not only the under arm, but en-
croaches on either side: there is a re-entering curve on either
side for the tentacle, and then the sides slope sharply inwards,
and the oral edge is short and approaches a point, or the oral
portion of the plate may present a sharp and narrow curve.
The side arm-plates encroach by a blunt process upon the under
surface, and produce the angularity of the under plates, but they
do not separate them entirely.
The upper arm-plates overlap, are broader than long, and have
a broad curve aborally and a faint longitudinal ridge; they are
convex from side to side, broadest and least curved within, and
the sides slope inwards from the oral edge. There is an accessory
plate on each side, and it is broader and curved without and
angular within, being close to the side of the upper arm-plate,
and not projecting beyond its bold distal curve.
The side arm-plate has a narrow process which reaches slightly
towards the median line beyond the accessory piece, which is
pretty constant to the tip of the arm. The side arm-plates are
small, form much of the side of the arm; they are rather thick,
project slightly from the arm, and their free edge, which supports
464 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
three small spines, is rather thick. The spines are short, rather
stout ; the middle one the largest, blunt, with a small base of at-
tachment, and it rarely surpasses the upper arm-plate in length.
The tentacle-scale is large and oval in shape.
Locality. Korean Straits, 33 fathoms. Collected by Capt. St.
John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIONEREIS DUBIA, Awdouin, sp., Var. SINENSIS, NOV.
This Ophiuran species was delineated with great exactitude by
Audouin in Savigny’s ‘ Deser. de Hgypte,’ 1809, pl. 50; and after-
wards it was termed Ophiolepis dubia by Miller and Troschel,
‘Syst. Asterid.’ p. 94. Subsequently Lyman placed it in the
genus Ophionereis, and termed it Ophionereis dubia, Lyman. The
credit of discovery and of accurate representation clearly belongs
to Audouin in the first instance.
Lyman states that the specimen figured doubtless came from
the Red Sea, as the species is not found in the Mediterranean.
The form from the Korean Sea is well grown, and differs from
the type as follows :—The lower arm-plates have a median notch
and eminence; the spines are subequal, and they are rarely
banded with colour. It has a marsupium, and doubtless, as ~
was commonly the case in these Korean species, it was vivi-
parous.
Locality. Korean Sea, with Ophionereis variegata, nobis. Col-
lected by Capt. St. John, R.N.~
In the British Museum.
Genus AmMpuiuRA, Forbes.
Ampnivra LirKent, sp. nov. Plate X. fig. 17.
The disk is tumid, swollen at the sides, and slightly con-
stricted in the interbrachial spaces. It is covered with very
small, subequal, overlapping scales, which are still smaller beneath.
The radial shields are small, long, and narrow; broader ab-
orally, where they approach and sometimes touch, smaller and
separated by a mass of scaly derm within, where they are more
or less overlapped by scales.
The mouth-shields are somewhat diamond-shaped, about as
long as broad, angular without and at the sides, and well-
rounded within; the madreporic is the largest and is almost cir-
cular in outline. All are continuous aborally with a furcate
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 465
process, on the sides of which are the generative slits, and all
project orally so as to be very close tothe jaws. The side mouth-
shields are very small, narrow, and triangular ; they are separate
within, and form a blunt process on the edge of the lower arm-
plate without.
There are four mouth-papille to each jaw-angle ; and there is
an upper tentacle-scale, on either side, with its top close to the
jaw. ‘The inner pair of mouth-papille are separate, large, pine-
apple-shaped with a point, and their attachment to the jaw
is somewhat constricted: the outer pair are subspinous, long,
compressed, often bent, and project downwards, being attached
close to the junction of the jaws and the side mouth-shields. The
jaws are short, stout, straight, and parallel; and the teeth are
large, broad, short, and rather square at the edge. The tentacles
of the oral apparatus are large and long.
The first lower arm-plate is very small and rudimentary ; and
the second to the fifth, which are covered by the disk, are longer
than broad, rectangular, with the corners rounded ; the inner and
outer edges are slightly slanting, and the plates are slightly sepa-
rate. In mid arm the plates are longer than broad, slightly
swollen at the sides, straight without and also within, where there
is often a faint notch or a re-entering distal curve. Towards the
end of the arms the plates are longer, more swollen at the sides,
and rather constricted within and without from the inward ex-
tension of the side arm-plate.
The upper arm-plates are broader than long in mid arm, and
rather longer than broad near the disk and at the end. The first
is small, and about as long as broad; it is heart-shaped, and the
distal curve, the largest, is bold, whilst the opposite end is more
angular; the second, overlapped slightly by the first, is longer and
larger, as are the third and fourth; their greatest breadth is
orally, where the broad curve is. A faint longitudinal coloured
ridge is seen near the outer edge. The plates gradually increase
in size, and become broadly oval in shape; and the side arm-
plates, large on the side of the upper part of the arm, only permit
them to touch by a small edge. At the end of the arm the plates
are broadly curved without, and rather small and angular
within.
The side arm-plates are large, and form much of the tall sides
of the arm and part of its upper surface, although they do not
absolutely meet until close to the end. Their free edge does not
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 34
466 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
project much; but its vertical dimensions are considerable, and
the plates are separated by skin. The spines project at right
angles to the arm from the free edge, and are short, stout, flattish,
constricted at their attachment, swollen in the middle, and bluntly
pointed. Near the disk there are six spines, the upper and lower
ones projecting upwards and downwards respectively, and the
others regularly radiating. The longest, which is either the third
or fourth from above, is about the length ef the upper arm-plate.
Lower down the arm there are four spines, and three at its end,
whose tips are less projecting.
There is one tentacle-scale, which is large, rounded, and flat,
situated on the side arm-plate; and the tentacles are very
long.
The colour of the disk is slaty, and of the arms reddish brown
with lighter-coloured under arm-plates. The disk is +; to + inch
long, and the arm is about ten times as long. ‘They are stout,
broad, and much curved.
Locality. Korean seas. Collected by Capt. St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
AMPHIURA KORER, sp.nov. Plate X. figs. 18, 19.
The disk is flat above, tumid, and constricted in the interbra-
chial spaces and rather thick; and the arms are broad, not much
more than twice the length of the diameter of the body, arched
above, flat below, and furnished with three small spines and two
tentacle-scales. The upper surface of the disk is covered with
scales of several sizes; there is a small rosette of middle-sized
scales, and there is much small scaling in the interbrachial
spaces, and the scaling of the lower part is equal and not very
fine.
The radial shields are small, much longer than broad, and are
completely separated by three disk-scales.
The mouth-shields are heart-shaped, longer than broad, rounded
and longer without, very angular and pointed orally, with out-
wardly curved inner edges. The side mouth-shields are large,
united, and thick at theirinner edge, long, broad, and triangular,
broader towards the lower arm-plate, and much in contact with
the mouth-shield. The jaws are small, short, thick, close and
straight; there are six mouth-papille on each angle, and an upper
sharp tentacle-seale on either side. The two papille beneath the
teeth are large, lumpy, and blunt, rectangular in shape, with the
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 467
corners curved and constricted at the jaw; the next is broad,
eurved, and often produced into a slight spine, and the outer one
is broader, short and thin, like a ridge; and by its junction
with that of the next angle, a sharp margin is formed as a boun-
dary to the jaw space.
The first lower arm-plate is small, and the others are about as
broad as long, broadest without, where the edge is faintly incurved,
and angular within, where the edge is short from the incoming of
the large side arm-plates. The side near the distal end is straightish
and bears a tentacle-scale, and then it slopes inwards orally.
Towards the end of the arm the plates are small, longer than
broad, curved without, and more angular within, and are sepa-
rated by the side mouth-shields.
The upper arm-plates are short, large, convex from side to side,
much broader than long; they are strongly curved within, and
nearly straight aborally, and towards the end they become sepa-
rate and more pointed orally.
The side arm-plates are well developed, and have a thin inferior
process between the under arm-plates, and a larger, which extends
on the upper arm: they begin to encroach soon, and are in con-
tact, at the tip of the arm, separating the lower plates. They pro-
ject very slightly, and three short, slender, sharp spines arise
from the free edge; these are smaller at the base, thin, slender,
round in transverse outline, and are about the length of an arm-
plate. A large tentacle-scale, rounded and broad, is on each side
arm-plate, and is in contact with that of the lower arm-plate.
The colour is white; the arms are curled downwards, and their
length is about twice that of the diameter of the disk.
Locality. Korean Straits, 37 fathoms. Collected by Capt.
St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
Genus Hemrpno tts, Agass.
HEMIPHOLIS MICRODISCUS, sp. nov. Plate X. figs. 20, 21, 22.
The disk is small, constricted at the interbrachial spaces ; and
the arms, about eight times as long as the diameter of the disk,
are long and tapering. The upper surface of the disk has thin
overlapping scales of several sizes, and there are faint indica-
tions of a rosette. A numerous series of smaller scales is in the
midst of the interbrachial spaceabove, and there are smaller ones on
either side ; and five radiating lines of longish scales pass between
34*
468 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
the radial shields, separating them centrally. The radial shields
are long, slightly curved, broad without where they join, narrow
within where they are separated by three scales and are rather
smaller. The disk is naked below; and the generative slits are
large and long.
The mouth-shields are small, longer than broad, and heart-
shaped ; they are angular orally, and well curved without, and the
madreporic, the largest, has a furcate process externally. The
side mouth-shields are large, triangular, narrow at the inner edge,
where there is incomplete junction, curved within, and large and
expanded at the arm.
There are four mouth-papille to each angle; the innermost
two under the teeth, are large, blunt and long; and the others
are long, spiniform, with a narrow base of attachment, and some-
times their base is broad, and there isa division into two. There
is a sharp spiniform upper tentacle-scale on either side. The jaws
are rather separate without, stout and short.
The lower arm-plates are longer than broad, very slightly
curved without re-enteringly, and the corners are rounded. The
sides are nearly straight, and they slope towards the median line
orally. The inner edge is short, and soon becomes angular.
The upper arm-plates are broader than long, slightly curved
without, and with a broad and rounded ang!e within. The side arm-
plates are well developed; and there are four short arm-spines, of
which the upper and lower are the thinnest, and the others are
stouter and blunter. They stand out radially, and havea narrow
base of attachment, a broad lower part, and a tapering end, and
they are striated and rough. Towards the end of the arm the
spines are more slender and spiculate, and they are there usually
three in number.
The arms are about nine times the diameter of the disk,
whose diameter is =; inch. The free edges of the side arm-plates
are wide apart, and naked skin exists between them on the side
of the arm.
There are two small rounded tentacle-scales close together, one
on the under arm-plate and the other on the side arm-plate.
Locality. Korean Straits, 51 fathoms. Collected by Capt.
St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 469
Genus Oputactris, Liithken.
OPHIACTIS SEX-RADIA, Grube (sp.), Wiegm. Archiv, 1857, p. 324,
under genus Ophiolepis.
This species was described by Litken subsequently as Ophiactis
Reinhardtii, and figured by him in tab. ii. fig. 7, in his essay on
the West-Indian and Central-American Ophiure, p. 263, in
noticing the species obtained by the corvette ‘Galathea’ from
Nicobar and Tahiti.
The Korean specimen evidently belongs to this species ; and
thus the known distribution is from Zanzibar, Nicobar Islands,
Korean seas, Sandwich Islands, and south to Tahiti.
Locality. Korean seas. Collected by Capt. St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
OPHIACTIS AFFINIS, sp.nov. Plates X. & XI. figs. 23, 24.
The disk is circular in outline, without arm-notches ; there is a
medium-sized, circular, flat scale in the centre, around this a
number of others, which are smaller, forming an indefinite rosette ;
and a band of irregular-shaped scales passes outwards in each in-
terradial space, with one or two rows on either side of smaller
scales. The radial shields extend halfway to the centre, are sepa-
rated by two scales, the outer of which is long and narrow, and
the inner, producing the greatest amount of divergence, shorter
and broader: the shields are nearly in opposition over the arms,
and separated within; they are rather covered at the margins by
the scales of the disk, and are long, narrow, and broadest without.
The scales of the margin of the disk carry a few separate, rather
wide apart, stout, short spines ; there are more on the top of the
disk, but in the interbrachial spaces below the scaling is small, and
the spines become crowded, small, very short, thin, and numerous.
The oral structures are small; and four or five of the broad
lower arm-plates are within the range of the disk.
The mouth-shields are small, triangular, very slightly broader
than long, broad, and slightly rounded aborally, where there is
attachment to a process continuous with the sides of the genera-
tive slit, bluntly angular, or more or less rounded within, and
produced at the sides. The madreporic plate is rounded and larger
than the others. The side mouth-shields do not meet within, but
are large, triangular, with rounded edges, and are at the oral side
of the mouth-shield; they unite with their neighbours on the
under part of the first arm-plate.
470 PROF. P. M, DUNCAN ON SOME
The oral slits are large and wide; the jaws are slender and
separate near the mouth-shield, and broader at the plate, where
the broad teeth are attached. These are four in number, andthe
lowest has are-entering curve to its free edge. There is a mouth-
papilla, long, lamellar, rather produced downwards on the edge of
the jaw close to the side mouth-shield ; and beneath the true teeth
there is a small broad lumpy papilla, somewhat resembling them,
but much smaller in size.
There are five arms, which are about three or four times as long
as the diameter of the disk; they are broad, and ringed with
dark grey and green colour, especially above. The lower arm-
plates are broader than long, broadest without, where there is a
slight rounding or nearly a straight edge, narrower, but still wide
within ; and the sides are either rounded, to give an elliptical ap-
pearance to the whole, or are straighter, slanting decidedly near
the oral edge of the plate. Towards the tip of the arm the shape
becomes hexagonal, and the outer edge is nearly straight and
broad, the inner being very short.
The upper arm-plates, on mid arm, are nearly twice as broad as
long, overlapping, well rounded within, less so, or nearly straight-
edged without, the sides being sharply curved, the whole being
irregularly elliptical. At the tip they are longer and triangular,
with the point within. They form much of the upper surface, even
at the tip.
The side arm-plates are large, extend on the top of the arm in
a broad process between the sides of the successive upperarm-plates,
are flap-like, and stand out from the arm at the sides, and encroach
more or less short of separating the lower plates below. Some
have an accessory small spine at the edge of the plate above, to-
wards its end near the median line; and all, except near the tip,
have four short, radiating, rather wide apart, blunt spines on the
edge. The lowest spine is the smallest, and the next is usually
blunter and larger than the others. There are three spines near
the tip. The longest spines are about the length of an arm-plate.
The tentacle-scale, one on each side, is large, oftentimes nearly as
long as the lower arm-plate; it is narrow where attached, and
broad and rounded slightly where free, and the length exceeds
the breadth.
The diameter of the disk is 4 inch. The bands on the arm are
broad, and the dark grey-green tint occupies one or two upper
and side arm-plates ; then there is the usual greenish-buff tint on
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 471
two, three, or more before the next band. In some parts many
plates are covered longitudinally with a stripe of the green tint.
The edges of the radial shields and some of the scales of the disk
are tinted with the dark colour, but the traces of it below are
slight.
Locality. Korean seas. Collected by Capt. St. John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
Genus OpnracantHa, Mull. & Troschel.
OrvntacantHa Datnastt, sp. nov. Plate XI. figs. 25, 26, 27.
The disk is small, pentagonal, and contracted in the inter-
brachial spaces. The radial shields are entirely hidden; but
their outlines, long and narrow, can be traced beneath the cover-
ing, which, like that of the rest of the disk, is ornamented with
microscopic stumps, each terminating in three wide-apart sharp
thorns, there rarely beg two and four terminal ones; stumps
slightly larger in the centre of the disk.
The under surface of the disk is covered to the outer edge of
the mouth-shields with the same texture, the thorned stumps being
small and crowded. ach stump is on a rounded base, the agere-
gate of which form the membrane of the disk.
The mouth-shields are very small, heart-shaped, angular within,
rounded without, and longer than broad; they are-marked with a
central splash of purple colour.
The side mouth-shields, much larger than the mouth-shields, are
nearly united within, and extend on either side outwards beyond
the broadest part of the mouth-shield, and come in broad contact
with the first side arm-plate. These side shields are broad from
side to side, and their inner edges long, are shorter than the outer,
where the shield is largest ; their outer edge partly bounds the
generative opening. The jaws are short and broad from side to
side, so that the angle is not a very acute one. The mouth-
papille are seven on each angle; the inner one, below the teeth, is
markedly larger and longer than the others, and it is somewhat
in the shape of a long sharp fir-cone. The next and neighbouring
papille are more spiniform, and the most external on either
side are broader and shorter than the others. ‘The teeth are four
to each jaw, and they are longer than broad, and flat, rounded
within.
The arms are about six times as long as the diameter of the
disk, and are very nodose in appearance from the swollen nature
472 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
of the side arm-plates, close to their outer free edge. The arms
taper rather suddenly, and are bent downwards after death, giving
a very spidery look to the form.
The first under arm-plate is small, longer than broad, broadest
within, where there is a slight re-entering curve in the midst of a
convex inner border, and much narrower distally, where there is
a rounded process separating the side mouth-shields, and termina-
ting close to the junction of the first side arm-plates on the arm.
The second under arm-plate is much larger than the first; it 1s
broader than long, projects slightly, and is broadly heart-shaped in
outline, The inner part is angular, and the outer broadly curved,
and the angular sides arerounded. The next arm-plate, separated
by well-developed side arm-plates, which meet longitudinally
along a straight line, is less angular orally ; and the fourth arm-
plate, much broader than long and smaller on the whole, has its
sides slightly straighter than those already mentioned. The suc-
ceeding under arm-plates are smaller, have the sides straighter,
and the distal curve is less developed than the oral. At the tip
of the arm the lower plates are much smaller and widely separate,
their sides are straight for a short distance, the curve is more in-
tense without than within, and the whole is still broader than long.
The upper arm-plates are widely separated, small, slightly
broader than long, angular within, faintly re-enteringly curved at
the sides and well rounded distally. They are convex above.
Near the tip of the arms they are strongly rounded without, and
very convex above from side to side and from within externally.
The side arm-plates are strongly developed, and constricted
proximally ; each gradually swells out laterally, broadly, and algo
superiorly, so as to include the upper arm-plates in a considerable
nodosity, which is only lateral inferiorly. They unite above, as
below, in straight median lines, and the result is that a side view
of an arm presents a tolerably straight condition of the lower sur-
face, and a waved edge of alternate depressions and rounded pro-
jections of the upper surface.
The free edge of the side arm-plates, rather stout and pro-
jecting at the side of the arm, gives origin to four sharp, glassy
spines as well as to a minute spinulose tentacle-scale. The spines
are shorter than a joint, are spear-like, striated longitudinally, and
are minutely serrate; the upper are the largest and longest, and
sometimes a fifth exists near the disk. The texture of the arm-
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 473
plates is granular, minute glassy-looking granules being separated
by a more opaque development.
The specific characters are the minutely bifurcate or trifurcate
thorned condition of the upper and lower surfaces of the disk, the
great side arm-shields, the nodose condition of the upper part of
the arm, the great development of the side arm-plates, the four
sharp spines, and the minute tentacle-scale.
The species represents Ophiacantha stellata, Lyman, from Bar-
badoes, 100 fathoms (Illust. Catal. Harvard Coll., No. 8, 11. p. 11).
Tt differs from O. indica, Lym.
Locality. Straits of Brea, 50 fathoms. Lat. 38° 19’ N., long.
129° 7’ H. Collected by Capt. St. John, R.N.
Genus Orntorurix, Jill. & Troschel.
Numerous specimens of a species and its varieties which belong
to this genus are amongst the dredgings brought from the Korean
seas by Capt. St. John, R.N. They all have numerous slender,
long, serrate, and usually glassy spines on the arm, a broad under
surface to the arm, disunited side mouth-shields, and a disk whose
colour and armature are excedingly variable. The specific pecu-
liarities and the curious amount of variability have been determined
after the examination of about eighteen specimens.
OPHIOTHRIX KOREANA, sp. nov. Plate XI. figs. 28,29, 30, 81, 32.
The disk is usually circular in outline, and rarely pentagonal ;
it is rather thick, flat above, and swollen at the interbrachial
spaces. The radial shields are longer than broad, narrow and
rounded within, and broad without, where there is a short rounded
projection over the arm. Closer without than within, they are often
slightly separated by dermal tissue. Their outer margins are
sunken, as it were, and rounded, and their surface is covered with
a skin which supports a very few stumps, which may nearly be
covered by them, and which may have spinules and even a short
spine or two upon the surface. The stumps are swollen at the
base, constricted in the cylindrical portion, and are armed with
three sharp, slender, wide-apart thorns. The thorns are rarely
two and four in number. The spinules are longer than the
stump, and have longer thorns. The spines are glassy, slender,
and toothed at the side.
The rest of the upper surface of the disk is crowded with stumps,
474, PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
resembling those of the radial shields; and there are spines and
spinules, in some specimens, near the centre.
Towards and on the interbrachial spaces, reaching in a trian-
gular patch on to the under surface, are spinules, which become
crowded inferiorly. They are slender, with swollen bases of attach-
ment, and have long trifid thorns.
There is a reddish tint on the centre and in the interradial
spaces, and it also sometimes encircles the whole disk as with a
narrow band. The tips of the stumps and spinules are often red.
The disk is covered with skin, under which traces of scales may
sometimes be seen; and below the disk is naked beyond the patch
of spinules.
Inferiorly, the disk-membrane joins on by two plates to the
distal joint of each mouth-shield: the generative slits are large,
and the generative plates are broad and large and very visible at
the side of and above the arms.
The mouth-shields are small, broader than long, diamond-shaped,
rounded at the sides, angular within and curved without, where
there is union with the edges of the generative slit. The oral
edges are slightly re-enteringly curved. The madreporice shield is
elliptical and the largest.
The side mouth-shields are rather large; they are narrow at
their inner edge where they do not unite, and they are broad and
triangular where they are in contact with the first lower arm-plate.
Their oral edge is curved, with the concavity towards the jaws.
The pairs of jaws are slender and are widely separate, and each
jaw of the separate angle is distinct near the mouth-shield.
The tooth-papille are in a very long narrow oval; they are
small, and crowded in a row of six or more inferiorly, and be-
come gradually larger above until they approach the true teeth.
Within the edge of the oval thus formed there is a well separated
mass of tooth-papille in two rows, and they are larger than those
around. The number of papille is variable.
The teeth are narrow, flat, slightly rounded, and sometimes
have a boss on the free end; they increase in size upwards, but
the highest is sometimes smaller than the others. There are five
in all.
The lower arm-plates increase in size from the oral ring to
where the arm is well free from the disk, and they retain a con-
siderable dimension until the terminal third, where they decrease
eradually. Their typical form is slightly broader than long,
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 475
broader without than within, with sides sloping inwards. The
distal edge, wider than the other, is broadly curved, the convexity
pointing orally ; its angles are cut offand rounded; there is a re-
entering curve at the sides, and the proximal edge is grooved, the
concavity looking orally. The plates are rather separate and
united by skin, and they are rather flat, and form the bulk of the
under surface. They are usually without any special tint other
than the light brown of the whole, but in some there is a pinkish
line on either side close to the edge. At the tip of the arm the
plates are longer, less incised, and are closer together.
The upper arm-plates are close, longer than broad, angular
orally, with a straight edge there, and they are boldly rounded
distally. They slope on either side from a median faint
central ridge, which ends at the rounded extremity in a faint
nodule. The sides slope to the angle, and are overlapped by the
side arm-plates, and one upper arm-plate slightly overlaps that
next to it. Near the tip the length of these arm-plates increases
over the breadth. A white longitudinal line with a red or purple
one on either side, of greater or less breadth, is often to be seen.
The side arm-plates are well developed, and stand out from the
arm, forming with the connecting-skin much of theside-arm. Below
the free edge extends outwards on a level with the surface of the
under arm-plates,and supports short spines and the small tentacle-
scale. Above, the inner end of the side arm-plate is prolonged
into a short angular process with a curved margin, which overlaps
and to a certain extent separates the upper arm-plates. ‘This
process has one or more long spines on its surface, and the others
are on the free edge of the plate, where it forms the side of the arm,
The plates extend on the under surface of the arm, but do not
meet, and are broad enough to place the tentacle-scale well with-
out. The scale is small, largest at the base, and minutely thorned.
The spines near the disk are numerous, and they vary from 9 to
12; further on they diminish to 7, 5, and 3 in number.
The spine next to the tentacle-scale is the smallest, and is a
mere spinule, with a sharp thorn on the plates nearest the disk and
for some distance, but soon the thorn becomes bent and a second
one forms on its side, and there is a boss-like prominence below
and near the origin. This two-toothed and curved hook increases
in size towards the end of the arm, is glassy, and points orally.
Sometimes there are three teeth. The next spine is slightly
larger, is flat, tapering, serrated and striated, and often bushy at
476 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
the broad top, or its top may be sharp. Sometimes the denticles
on the side are long enough to simulate hook-processes. The
third is slightly larger, and the others increase in length and size,
the maximum being reached on the shoulder of the arm, and before
the process of the side arm-plate is reached. Occasionally on
the top of the arm and on the extremity of the side arm-plate
there is a smaller needle-shaped spine without denticulation. The
spines as a whole are flat, striated, many-toothed, and end with
a sharp brush of thorns, or are blunt and rarely simple at the ter-
mination. All have a distinct boss-like base, and are glassy when
young, and more opaque when old and dry.
The specimens present the appearance of haying been vivipa-
rous. The diameter of the largest disk is ;3; inch, and its longest
arm is one inch in length.
Locality. Korean Straits, 23 fathoms. Collected by Capt. St.
John, R.N.
In the British Museum.
Variation. The disk is sometimes pentagonal in outline. The
whole of the disk is sometimes covered with a crowd of stumps
and the radial shields also, but the spinules appear in the inter-
brachial space and have three long thorns.
No derm is seen in some specimens separating the radial shield
from its fellow.
In young forms, the spines are shorter, sharper, with fewer
teeth, and are sometimes not quite straight ; the tooth-papille are
not so numerous, the under arm-plates are longer and less curved
without, and there are fewer spines on the side arm-plates.
This variable species is allied to Ophiothri« spiculata, Le Conte,
and is the representative of O. violacea, Lk.
OPpHIOTHRIX KOREANA, variety, sp. and var. nov.
The disk is circular in outline, and the interbrachial spaces
below are very tumid and project, being tinted at the edge pale
green, nearer the margin light red. The disk is coloured
light reddish brown, and the numerous short trifid stumps on it
are of a dark red colour. The arms are light red and violet in
tint, and there is a light streak with darker colour running down
the upper arm, the darker tint spreading. There is a line of dark
tint on the under arm on either side. The stumps on the disk
are separated and not crowded, and those on the interbrachial
space are longer and not coloured, being trifid and glassy. The
spines are seven or more towards the base, largely thorned and
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. AT]
glassy, and they are slender and long. The hooks are large, with
two sharp processes, and are blunt. This is a young form of a
variety of the last type.
Locality. Korean seas. Collected by Capt. St. John, B.N.
In the British Museum.
Genus OpntoTHEena, Verrill.
(Notes on Radiata, Trans. Connecticut Acad. vol. i. part 2,
page 269.)
Verrill has described a species Ophiothela mirabilis, and Lyman
gives a drawing of the side-arm of a specimen (Illust. Cat. Har-
vard College, No. 8, 11. 1875, page 34, pl. iv. fig. 60). The species
is from Panama Bay, Pearl Island.
Lyman has described a species Ophiothela tigris, probably from
the Pacifie (Illust. Cat. Harvard College, No. vi. page 10, pl. i.
figs. 10-12, 1871); and Lutken has described Ophiothela isidicola
from the Eastern seas (Ophiurid. noy., Overs. K. Danske Vidensk.
Selskabs Forhand. 1872, pp. 92 & 107). Numerous specimens
of this species were obtained by Semper from the Philippines, and
are now in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col-
lege.
A specimen which must be referred to this genus is amongst the
collection of Ophiurans from the Korea, and instead of clasping
some kind of Jszs or any zoophyte, it clings to the arms of a blunt-
spined Amphiwra. Its habits are evidently those of the forms
already described, and its flap-like side arm-plates, the well-deve-
loped hooks, and the skin-covered arms ornamented with rounded
masses of carbonate of lime, the six arms and corresponding large
close radial shields, bring it clearly within the genus. From
Liyman’s plates the Korean form differs, and it would appear to
differ from the other species. I have some forms from the Red
Sea which are closely allied to that now under consideration ; and
they all form a group characterized by the regular ornamentation
of the disk, with short, thick, knob-shaped spines, having a broad
foundation, the regular boss ornamentation of the upper arm and
the semiglobose condition of the mouth-shields, and the presence
on the distal free edge of the side mouth-shield of a club-shaped
Spine.
OPHIOTHELA VERRILLI, sp. nov. Plate XI. fig. 33.
The disk is rather thick, and the radial shields covered with a
minutely and sharply granular skin. They have numerous yery
478 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
distinct, irregularly placed, knob-shaped spines on them, which
are not quite globose, having a blunt tip; they are minutely
thorny at the top, and have a rather constricted peduncle and a
broadish defined expanded base. The centre of the disk, where
the shields do not reach, and the linear interradial spaces bear
larger spines, six or seven in the centre and three or more else-
where, but all have the same knob-shape and minutely spiny sur-
face. Some on the interradial spaces are slightly elongate, and a
large one is usually at the margin. The interbrachial space below
and at the sides is ornamented with several of these spines. The
generative plates are large and distinct. The upper surface of
the disk contrasts with the skin-covered interbrachial, regions.
The mouth-shields and side mouth-shields, although fused and
covered, are seen to be large. The distal end of the mouth-shield
is globose ; and the side mouth-shields, broad orally, are ornamen-
ted by a slender, downward projecting, club-shaped spine, some-
times forked close to the generative slit. The side mouth-shields
do not unite externally, but only reach the under arm-plate.
The jaws are short, rather separate, parallel, rather swollen
high up in the region of the upper tentacle, where there is a
rounded spiny process. There are ten tooth-papille on an oval
mass ; and the angle is large, and projects rather downwards. The
tentacles are long and large.
The under arm-plates are covered with a delicate skin; but the
plates are visible and are separate, rather hexagonal, broadest
without, where there is a notch, and angular orally, the line within
being slightly notched. The outer angles are rounded, and the
sides slope in straight. There appears to be a median depression,
and the outer angles are swollen.
The skin on the upper arm-plates usually hides them, but they
are rounded rather angularly distally. A series of solitary
median large bosses passes down the arm, and two or three smaller
ones are in a transverse line between them. These last do not
exist at the tip, where the large boss is very distinct.
The side arm-plates have the characters of those of the genus ;
they are minutely granular at the sides and swollen, but there is
no special ornamentation or keeling. The upper spine of the
five is small and rugged, the next is larger and longer and often
spiculate, the third is the largest and is denticulate within, and
the others become strong hooks with the points looking orally down
the arm. There are no tentacle-scales, and the long tentacles
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEAS. 479
come out from the side of the arm. The arms are about twice —
and a half as long as the diameter of the disk, which measures
zy inch.
Locality. Korean seas, on Amphiwra. Collected by Capt. St.
John R.N.
In the British Museum.
IV. Remarks on the Species.
The first species of Ophioglypha (O. Forbes) described is very
anomalous from some points of great affinity to the genus Ophio-
musium. The mosaic of the disk, the long almost connected
mouth-papille, the meeting of the side arm-plates above and be-
low, and the small size of the upper and lower arm-plates would
connect the form with Lyman’s genus Ophiomusium. But the
papilliferous radial scales and generative plates, and the presence
of a tentacle-scale and minute tentacle far out towards the tip,
are not characters of that genus. The species is aberrant from
the typical Ophioglypha, on account of the oral structures espe-
cially ; and the disk scaling is to a certain extent abnormal. It
is an interesting form, for it throws a light on the value of Ophio-
musium asa genus. Its species as yet are remarkably widely
separated, and it must be acknowledged that its characters are very
embryonic. For the literature of Ophiomusiwm, see Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. Cambridge, U.S., vol. i. No. 10, page
322. See also Wyville Thomson, ‘ Depths of the Sea,’ vol. i.
p- 172; ‘ Voyage of Challenger,’ vol. 11. p. 67.
Ophioglypha striata, so called from the remarkable groovings
on the side arm-plates, is also characterized by the structures
about the notch of the disk, and the curious shape and spinula-
tion of the first two or three upper arm-plates.
Ophioglypha sculpta is clearly an ally of O. Stueztes, and the
furrowing and dotting of some of the scales and plates is very cha-
racteristic. The spiny condition of the first upper arm-plate is
to be noticed.
Ophioglypha Sladenz is characterized by the accessory spine on
the body of the side arm-plate, by the numerous spines near the
disk and their irregular length, and the bossed disk scale.
Ophioglypha sinensis, Lyman. Numerous specimens of this
rather aberrant Ophioglypha were dredged up. The scaling of the
disk differs from that of all the other forms in the Korean seas.
Ophiolepis mirabilis. This common species has the disk of
Ophiolepis as diagnosed by Miller and Troschel, that is to say
480 PROF. P. M. DUNCAN ON SOME
the scales, which are of good size, and the large radial shields are
environed by rows of small scales as by belts. But the upper
arm-plates have also the supplementary rows of small scales
around them, and there are also large accessory side pieces.
Moreover there are hooks on the side arm-plates. This mixture
of Ophiolepian and Ophiopholian characters is very interesting ;
and this species, I consider, renders the abolition of Ophiophols,
ay a genus, inevitable.
Ophionereis dubia is represented by a variety in the Korean
collection ; and the distinctions between the variety and the type
have been already noticed.
Ophionereis variegata is allied to the species O. annulata from
Panama, but the arrangement of the side arm-plates, of the acces-
sory plates, and of the mouth-papille differs. There is a manifest
resemblance to O. squamata, Kinberg, from Honolulu; but the
shape of the under arm-plates and the arrangement of the radial
shields differs; and the resemblance is less to O. crassispina, Kin-
berg, from the same island.
Amphiura Liitkent has small radial shields touching without,
and the side mouth-shields are not joined within. There are
four mouth-papille, two of which are spinous and long, and
the inner pair large; there is but one tentacle-scale, and there
are six spines near the disk, and four further out. This does
not approach in form to any as yet described from the Pacific side
of America.
Amphiura koree has an oral arrangement of mouth-papille,
jaws, and side mouth-shields remarkably like that of A. sguamata,
Sars, from the Atlantic and the eastern coast of the United
States; but the radial shields differ, and the mouth-shields also ;
the arms also differ in length. Lyman states that there is a close
resemblance between A. squamata and A. tenera, Lutken, from the
West Indies, and A. pugetana from California. It is interesting
to find this affinity prolonged still further west, in the form of the
short-armed species under consideration.
The genus Hemipholis of Agassiz contains Amphiure with the
disk naked below ; but to this evident generic attribute he added
some which are not of generic value, such as limiting the arm-
spines to three and the mouth-papille to two. In Hemipholis
microdiscus the two mouth-papille near the side mouth-shields
are evident enough, but there are two more under the true teeth ;
moreover there are four spines.
——
Sa nae ee so
SRI oop
=,
OPHIUROIDEA FROM THE KOREAN SEA. 481
Ophiactis sexradia, Grube, the O. Reinhardtii figured by Liitken,
is evidently represented in the Korean fauna; and its range is
enormous between America and Africa.
Ophiactis affinis so closely resembles an Amphiuran, that were
it’ not for the spines on the margin and on the disk below, the
propriety of making this spination any thing more than of spe-
cific value may well be doubted. It belongs to a group allied to
O. simplex, Liitk., and O. Milleri, Liitk., the one from Panama
and the other from the West Indies.
The species of Ophiacantha is remarkable for the development
of the side arm-plates, the nodular condition of the arm, and the
small spines. It is a very distinct type.
The Ophiothrix is very variable, and belongs to the section with
numerous glassy toothed spines, hooks with two claws, and an
oval of numerous tooth-papille, numbering nearly twenty.
Stumps bifid or trifid.
Finally, the Ophiothela, closely allied to O. tsidicola, differs
principally in the ornamentation of the disk.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
Puate IX.
Fig. A Ophioglypha Forbes, nobis, from above, <8.
rf a », trom below, x8.
A e » last lower arm-plates, x8.
4, Guiegapen striata, nobis, from above, x8.
5), a fi » side of arm, x8.
5a, os Seas » Serrature of side arm-plates, more mag-
nified.
6. Ophioglypha sculpta, nobis, from above, X8.
ie - Pa » from below, <8.
8. »» Upper arm-plate, x8.
9. Gehan ypha Giniee nobis, from above, X 8.
10. % a » trom below, <8.
11. s ze » side of arm showing extra spines, x8.
12. Ophiolepis mirabilis, nobis, from above, x8.
Prats X.
13. Ophiolepis mirabilis, nobis, from below, <8.
14. 9 a6 », Side arm-hooks, highly magnified.
15. Ophionereis variegata, nobis, oblique view, part of arm and disk, x8.
16. i 4 » trom below, x8.
17. Amphiura Liitkent, nobis, oral structures, x8.
18. Amphiura koree, nobis, from above, <8.
19. s " » oral structures, <8.
20. Hemipholis microdiscus, nobis, from above, x 8.
Ze i “. ,, from below, x8.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 30
482 DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA.
Fig. 22. Hemipholis microdiscus, nobis, spines and tentacle-scales of arm,
highly magnified.
23. Ophiactis affinis, nobis, from above, x8.
Puate XI.
24. Ophiactis affinis, nobis, from below, x8.
25. Ophiacantha Dallasii, nobis, thorns of the disk, magnified.
26. es 3 » from above, X 8.
27. *) a » from below, x8.
28. Ophiothrix koreana, nobis, from above, x8.
29. 5 a , from below, x8.
30. ” ” » spine. highly magnified.
3l. of sg ,. stump from the disk, highly magnified.
32. arm hook, highly magnified.
33. Ophiothela Verrilli, nobis, from above, X 8.
34. Hemipholis microdiscus, nobis, nat. size.
35. Ophioglypha sculpta, nobis, nat. size.
Descriptions of New Hemiptera. (1.)
By F. Bucnanan Wuire, M.D., F.L.S.
[Read November 7, 1878.]
Tue majority of the insects herein (and probably hereafter) to
be described, were taken by my friend Professor J. W. H. Trail
during his fruitful exploration of the Amazon region, in 1873-
1875; and his localities refer to the country drained by that
river and its tributaries. The types of all the species men-
tioned are in my collection. The subjoined tabular list of two
new genera and seventeen new species comprises what is contained
in this paper.
Paryphes pontifex. Velia vivida.
Fibrenus bullatus. virgata.
Largus lentus. Neovelia Traili.
Ischnodemus inambitiosus. Microvelia mimula.
Pamera pagana. Hydrobates regulus.
Lethzeus lepidus. Limogonus ? lotus.
Helenus hesiformis. —— ? lubricus.
Acanthocheila abducta. Pelocoris procurrens.
Hydrometra metator.
CorEIDz.
1. Parypues (SUNDARUS) PONTIFEX, n. sp. Supra et subtus cum
antennis pedibusque zneo-viridis; lobo postico pronoti scutelloque
croceis; hemelytris atris opacis, corii marginibus angustis costali api-
calique, et commissura clavi flavescentibus ; membrana nigro-brunnea;
DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA. 483
rostro tarsisque nigris. Lobo postico pronoti utrimque in alas magnas
rotundatas sursum vergentes dilatato. long. 18, lat. 5 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Lago cerrado, Rio Jurua, Oct. 30,
1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
Allied to Paryphes regalis, Westw., and P. flavicollis, Sign.,
but differing in coloration, shape of the pronotum, &c.
LyGHeID-z.
2. FIBRENUS BULLATUS, n. sp. Obscure castaneo-brunneus opacus,
capite et margine antico pronoti ochraceo-hirsutis ; pronoti margini-
bus lateralibus et postico flavis, linea longitudinali centrali castanea ;
corii marginis antici dimidio basali, margine apicali (angulo intimo
excepto), necnon linea prope suturam clavi flavo-albidis; antennis,
rostro, tibiis, tarsis membranaque nigris; marginibus posticis segmen-
torum ventris (quinto excepto), et signaturis segmentorum genitalium
flavo-albidis. Pronoti lobo antico, preecipue in mare, convexo-promi-
nulo, levi; lobo postico, scutello hemelytrisque punctulatis ; femo-
ribus omnibus, preesertim anticis, subtus pone medium spinis non-
nullis armatis. 6 long. 9, lat. 3 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, 1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
3. LARGUS LENTUS, n.sp. Rufo-flavescens, maculis anticis et margine
postico thoracis, necnon bucculis, antennis ad basin, maculisque ex-
terioribus acetabulorum pallidioribus ; pronoto antice et scutello ad
basin obscurioribus ; capite (tuberculis antenniferis et linea abbreviata
inter oculos exceptis), antennis pedibusque nigris ; sternis fusco-brun-
neis; parte basali metastethii et ventre testaceis, hujus limbo laterali
et marginibus basalibus segmentorum in medio brunneis, lineolis
longitudimalibus centralibus ad basin segmentorum nigris; pronoto
fusco-punctato margine postico late brevi; scutello crebrius fusco-
punctato ; hemelytris remotius fusco-punctulatis, limbo exteriore sub-
impunctato ; membrana hyalina; femoribus anticis subtus apicem
versus spinis tribus armatis. © long. 14, lat. 6 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Urubu Caxoeira, Rio Jurua, Nov. 6, -
1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
It is with some hesitation that I bring forward this species as
distinct from the variable Largus humilis, Drury. The heme-
lytra, however, are much more sparingly punctate, the front mar-
gin being almost impunctate, which (with the coloration unlike
that of the various described varieties of L. humilis) seems to
justify its specific separation.
Note.—The word “ testaceous”’ seems to be rather indefinite
in the meaning attached to it by various authors, By some a |
484 DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA.
reddish colour like that of red pottery is meant, by others an
ochraceous yellow, with a slight brown tinge like sunburnt bricks,
or “terra cotta.” The latter is, I think, the correct interpretation
of the term ; and in that sense I use the word.
4. IscHNODEMUS INAMBITIOSUs, un. sp. Niger, sericeus, opacus,
capitis vertice, lobo postico pronoti, abdomine pedibusque subnitidis ;
hemelytris pallido-ochraceis, clavi basi et margine interiore late, cori
apice latissime, margine apicali, angulo interiore, et suture clavalis
parte tertia apicali, necnon macula longa ovali (discum membranz
implente et extus apicem versus corii sinuata) nigris; femorum apici-
bus imis, tibiis, tarsis, et antennarum articulorum 3 basalium apicibus
plus minus flavido-brunneis; rostro, tibiis anticis, tibiis ceteris ad
apicem, et tarsorum articulo tertio obscurioribus ; abdominis lateri-
bus nigris; ventre ad basin ferrugineo. Hemelytris abdomine maxime
brevioribus, rosiro metasterni medium attingente. d long. 6, lat. 1
millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Camana, Rio Javary, Dec. 6, 1874,
J. W. H. Trail.)
Allied, but not very closely, to Ischnodemus tibialis, Stal.
5. PAMERA PAGANA,n.sp. Subelongata, nigra, pallido-pilosula, parce
punctata; antennis, rostro pedibusque testaceo-flavis, illarum articulo
apicali fusco ante medium late albido-annulato; capitis clypeo et
tuberculis antenniferis, pronoti collo antico et lobo postico brunneo-
castaneis, hoc nigro-maculato ; hemelytris sordide testaceo-flavis, clavo
corioque fusco-punctatis ; corii fascia pone medium irregulariter fracta,
apice margineque apicali brunneo-fuscis; membrana sordide flavo-
albida, inter nervos fusco-notata ; tarsisad apicem fuscis. ¢ long. 5,
lat. 14 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Rio Solimoes, Nov. 18, 1874, J. W.
H. Trail.)
Closely allied to Pamera bilobata, Say ; but apparently distinct
by its smaller stature, differently coloured antenne and rostrum,
the latter being also rather longer, by the coloration and especially
the punctuation of the hemelytra, &c.
6. LeTHUS LEPIDUS,n. sp. Oblongus, nigro-piceus, rude punctatus ;
pronoti disco et angulis posticis maculis parvis, scutelloque lineis tri-
bus abbreviatis brunneo-flavis notatis; hemelytris irregulariter pallido-
venosis, et maculis, una basali, altera intus medium versus necnon
duabus extus prope apicem, flavo-albidis notatis; membrana dilute
fusca dilutius venosa; antennis brunneis; pedibus pallido-flavo-
brunneis. Femoribus anticis subtus prope apicem spinis 4 parvis, et
cum tibiis omnibus spinulis setiformibus nonnullis armatis. @ long.
6, lat. 24 millim.
y
+
4
a
i
ee —
7 i
DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA. 485
=
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Lower course of the Rio Jurua,
Nov. 12, 1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
Allied to Letheus pallidinervis, Stal, but, besides the darker
colour, differs in having the anterior femora, which in that species
are unarmed, furnished with four small teeth towards the apex.
ARADIDS.
HELENUS, . g.
Corpus oblongum, retrorsum sensim dilatatum, supra cum anten-
nis pedibusque valde villosum et setosum. Caput processu antico
paullo producto, inerme, pone oculos sensim angustatum. An-
tenne articulo primo maximam ad partem apicem capitis supe-
rante, articulis primo tertioque subequilongis, articulo quarto
quam dimidium tertii breviore. Thorax transversus, paullo ante
medium transverse impressus, marginibuslateralibus emarginatis,
margine basali ante scutellum sinuato. Scwtellwm triangulare,
transversim rugosum, longitrorsus carinatum, marginibus ele-
vatis. Hemelytra apicem abdominis fere attingentia, parte cori-
acea quam scutellum longiore, membrana venosa venis anastomo-
santibus. Pedes mediocres. Venter convexiusculus ; spiraculis
a marginibus lateralibus remotis, spiraculis segmenti quinti ad
margines illos appropinquatis. Sternum et venter sulco longi-
tudinali interrupto instructa.
In facies and structure closely allied to Hesus, Stal, but differ-
ing in, amongst other points, the shaggy pubescence, structure of
the membrane, and the interruptedly sulcate sternum and venter,
which latter character brings it into relations with the division
Aradina. Name in honour of Professor James William Helenus
Trail.
7. HELENUS HESIFORMIS, n. sp. _ Ferrugineus, villositate ochraceo-
brunnea vestitus; capite, antennarum articulo basali, femoribus, an-
nulo apicem versus tibiarum, et segmentis genitalibus obscurioribus.
3 long. 9, lat. pone medium 43 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, 1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
TINGITIDZ.
8, ACANTHOCHEILA ABDUCTA, n. sp. Oblongo-ovata, nigra, opaca ;
hemelytrorum area costali necnon partibus totis pone abdomen fere
vitreis, nigro-venosis ; area costali fascia transversa picea abdominis
apicem versus notata, et illic multo subtilius et irregulariter reticulata.
© long. 5, lat. 3 millim.
486 DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Fonteboa, Oct. 13, 1874, J. W. :
H. Trail.) c
The antennz being broken, I cannot say whether all the joints
are black.
HYDROMETRID&.
9. HyDROMETRA METATOR, n. sp. Aptera, brunnea, opaca ; antenna-
rum articuli primi dimidio apicali, secundi apice et articulis 2 apicalibus
(tertio ad basin excepto), rostro apice, femorum et tibiarum apicibus,
necnon tarsis nigris. Capitis parte anteoculari quam pars postocularis
duplo longiore; antennis gracillimis corporis xquilongis. d¢ long. ”
18, lat. 1 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Urucaca, Rio Jurua, Noy. 1, 1874,
J. W. H. Trail.)
The genus (which is the same as Limnobates of some authors)
has not before, I think, been recorded from 8. America.
VELIIDS.
10. VELIA VIVIDA, n. sp. Aptera, nigra, pubescentia nigra brevissima
et capillis longioribus brunneis vestita ; pronotimargine antico macula
fulva (macula majore triangulari argenteo-sericea obtecta et fere oc-
culta) utrimque notata ; abdominis dorsi segmentis 2 basalibus utrim-
que argenteo-maculatis ; sterni lateribus ventreque argenteo-sericeis ;
coxis, trochanteribus, femoribus anticis basin versus, connexivo et
ventre ad medium testaceo-brunneis ; antennis fusco-brunneis; pedi- t
bus rostroque brunneis, illis subtus pallidioribus. Antennis longis
gracilibus, articulis primo secundoque subzequilongis, quarto quam
secundus breviore, quam quintus longiore; pronoto longitrorsus carinato, ;
angulis posticis tuberculo acuto extrorsum retrorsumque vergente in-
structis ; femoribus posticis pone medium subtus spinis 2 armatis.
Long. 73, lat. 23 millim.
Hab. Nicaraguam,
1]. VeLIA viRGATA, n. sp. Alata, fusco-brunnea, capillis concolori-
bus vestita ; pronoti margine antico macula irregulari triangulari ar-
genteo-sericea utrimque notato ; lateribus sterni abdominisque argen-
teo-sericeis ; antennis concoloribus articulo basali (apice excepto) ’
pallidiore; pedibus testaceo-brunneis, femorum macula basin versus
subtus annulisque 2 latis, tibiarum annulis 3, tarsorum articulis ad
apicem brunneis ; connexivo testaceo-brunneo brunneo-maculato. An-
tennis sublongis gracilibusque, pronoto maxime convexo-elevato lon-
gitrorsus carinato, angulis posticis tuberculo obtuso instructis. ¢
long. 5, lat. 1 millim. :
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Igarapé da Caxoeira, near Manaos, ;
June 4, 1874, “at light,” J.W. H. Trail.)
DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA. 487
NEOVELTIA, n. g.
Corpus oblongum. Caput antice truncatum, deorsum modice
productum. Ocwli magni antrorsum convergentes sed haud ap-
proximati. Antenne articulo primo valde curvato, quam secundus
duplo longiore, secundo tertioque subzquilongis, quarto quam
tertius paullo breviore. Hemelytra homogenea. Pedes mediocres,
intermedii reliquis longiores; tarsis anticis biarticulatis, arti-
culo primo minutissimo, articulo ultimo brevissimo, crasso, fusi-
formi ante medium biunguiculato; tarsis intermediis triarti-
culatis tibiis fere equilongis, articulo primo minuto, articulis
secundo tertioque wquilongis, ultimo fere ad basin fisso; pedi-
bus posticis brevibus, tarsis uniarticulatis, tarsis anticis gracilio-
ribus et paullo longioribus, articulo fusiformi, pone medium
biunguiculatis ; femoribus posticis incrassatis subtus pone me-
dium serie spinarum armatis, tibiis posticis curvatis.
Iam by no means sure that the hinder tarsi have not a very
minute basal joint. The spines on the hinder femora gradually
decrease in size, the first (7. e. the one nearest the middle of the
femur) being the longest. The structure of the tarsi at once di-
stinguishes Weovelia from Microvelia and other allied genera.
Name from 7 éos and velia.
12. Neovetra TRAILU, n. sp. Nigro-brunnea, pubescentia conferta
concolori vestita, capite, antennis, pedibus, pronoto postice abdomi-
nisque lateribus parce nigro-setulosis; pronoto antice, prostethio,
connexivo, ventre ad medium, antennarum articulo primo ad basin,
coxis, trochanteribus, femorum anticorum macula et vitta subtus,
femorum posticorum basi et spinis ad basin flavido-fulvis; pronoti
carina centrali subelevata plus minus, preecipue antrorsum, rufo-fulva.
3 long. 4, lat. 13 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, August 1874, “at light,”
J. W. H. Trail.)
13, MicRoVELIA MIMULA, n. sp. Nigra, pubescentia conferta brevis-
sima cinerea vestita; capitis vertice vittula geminata longitudinali
rufescente male definita notato; pronoto intra marginem anticum fascia
angusta latera haud attingente rufo-flava; hemelytris fuscis ma-
culis 8 albidis ornatis; connexivo, pedibus antennisque pallide tes-
taceo-fulvis, articulis ad apicem plus minus fuscis. @ long. 2 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, August 1875, “ at light,”
J.W. H. Trail.)
DR. F. B. WHITE ON NEW HEMIPTERA.
we
o9e
HyDROBATID®.
14. HyDROBATES REGULUS, n. sp. Apterus, testaceo-rufus, sternis
ventreque pallide brunneo-sericeis; thoracis linea longitudinali
utrimque percurrente, abdominis dorso (linea media tenui excepta),
linea utrimque prope latus ventris, antennarum articulo primo ad
basin et apice imo, secundo ad apicem, tertio quartoque totis, rostro,
oculis, femorum anticorum vitta infera, femorum posteriorum et tibi-
arum intermediarum apicibus imis, necnon tibiis posticis et tarsis
omnibus fusco-brunneis. Q long. 20, lat. 25 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Mabria, Rio Purus, Sept. 16, 1874,
J.W. H. Trail.)
Differs from Hydrobates erythropus, Burm., both in size and
colour. The apical angles of the connexivum of the sixth abdo-
minal segment are also less produced.
15. LimnoGonus (?) Lotus, n. sp. Brunneo-niger, nitidus, levis,
subtus sordide albido-sericeus, capitis marginibus anticis argenteo-
sericeis ; capitis lineolis 2 longitudinalibus obsoletissimis anterius
posteriusque abbreviatis, linea transversa basali utrimque dilatata, collo-
que, pronoti macula pone marginem anticum sordide rufo-testaceis ;
marginibus angustis lateralibus pronoti lte, anterius obsoletius et
sordide flavescentibus ; lateribus prostethi et mesostethii, vittaque
angusta metastethii et ventris prope margines laterales nigris ; parte
laterali nigra mesostethii linea abbreviata argenteo-sericea ornata ; pe-
dibus infuscatis ad apicem saturatioribus ; acetabulis medium versus,
trochanteribus et femoribus anticis ad basin pallido-testaceis, horum
margine infero et macula postica pone medium, necnon tibiis ad api-
cem fuscis; antennis dilute brunneis, articulis primo secundoque ad
apicem, tertio quartoque totis fusco-nigris. Antennis vix } corporis
zequilongis, articulo quarto quam secundus breviore, secundo } primi
zquilongo, tertio et quarto subzequilongis; rostro paullo pone marginem
anticum prostethii productum ; pronoto longitrorsus obsolete carinato,
ad marginem anticum prostethi distincte constricto, lobo antico ad
medium depresso, lobo postico leviter convexo, angulis posticis elevatis ;
femoribus anticis crassiusculis; femoribus intermediis ? corporis
zequilongis ; tibiis intermediis quam femora paullo brevioribus ; heme-
lytris apicem abdominis paullo superantibus. ¢ 2 long. 6-7, lat.
2-21 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, 1874, J. W. H. Trail.)
The comparative length of the antenne-joints and the length
of the rostrum are not in accord with the characters of Limno-
gonus as constituted by Stal. Still this and the foliowing spe-
cies may find a place in that genus in the meantime.
STRUCTURE OF THE PHYLACTOLEMATOUS POLYZOA. 489
16. Limnoconus (2?) LUBRICUS, n. sp. Limnogono (2) loto similli-
mis sed minor, pronoto vix constricto, lateribus corporis haud vel
obsoletissime nigro notatis, femoribus anticis linea longitudinali pos-
tica vice maculz fuscz ornatis. Long. 5, lat. 15 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Manaos, August 1875, “ at light,’
J.W. H. Trail.)
NAvCcORIDA.
17. PELOCORIS PROCURRENS, n. sp. Pallide brunneo-testaceus, ca-
pitis postici. et pronoti maculis nonnullis irregularibus, connexivi
signaturis, femorum anticorum supra macula irregulari et posterius
basin versus vittula brunneo-fuscis ; capite pronotoque obsolete, hujus
disco distinctius et transversim rugosis ; pronoti marginibus laterali-
bus angustissime reflexis; hemelytris minutissime punctulatis.
long. 5, lat. 35 millim.
Hab. Brasiliam borealem. (Montealegre, 1873, J. W. H.
Trail.)
Belongs to the same section of the genus as binotulatus, Stal ;
but is very much smaller and otherwise different.
Tur ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT,
Professor ArtmMan, M.D., LL.D., F.RB.S.
Recent Progress in our Knowledge of the Structure and
_ Development of the Phylactolematous Polyzoa.
th [Read May 24, 1878.]
7
ContInuIné to adopt the practice which I have hitherto regarded
as the most useful—that of making the Addresses delivered at
the Anniversary Meetings of the Society reports of the progress
of discovery in certain departments of zoological research—l
have this year chosen for my subject the structure and develop-
ment of the Phylactolematous Polyzoa, making the report ex-
tend over a period which dates from the publication of my own
early researches on this group*.
Unless we include among them the genus Rhabdopleurat, all
the Phylactolemata are inhabitants of fresh water. One of their
* A Monograph of the Freshwater Polyzoa. Published by the Ray Society,
1856.
+ I do not believe that Rhabdopleura has any real claims for admission
into the group of the Phylactolemata. The characters which at first sight
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 36
490 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE STRUCTURE AND
most obvious peculiarities is the possession of an epistome, an
organ somewhat resembling the epiglottis of a mammal. which
springs from the lophophore or support of the tentaculay crown
at the anal side of the mouth, whose entrance it defends ‘nuch in
the same way that the epiglottis defends the glottis. "With one
exception—that afforded by Fredericella—the lophophore is in
the form of a crescent.
STRUCTURE.
We owe to Hyatt a very valuable and well-illustrated memoir
on the structure of the Phylactolematous Polyzoa*. The genera
which form the subject of his observations include, with the
exception of Lophopus, all those hitherto found in Europef, as
well as a new genus Pectinatella, which, so far as we yet know,
is confined to the United States. He has studied the histological
structure of the endocyst and of the alimentary canal, the dis-
tribution of the muscles and of the nervous system; and on all
these points has added much to our previous knowledge of the
group.
Nitsche has also published the results of a series of very careful
and valuable researches on Alcyonella fungosat, which he takes
as a representative of the Phylactolemata. He does not appear
would appear to justify these claims are its crescentic lophophore and the
possession of a shield-like organ extended over the mouth, and havin, some
resemblance to the epistome of a Phylactolematous polyzoon. t
The crescentic lophophore, however, of Rhabdopleura is very different from
that of the Phylactolemata, the tentacles which it carries forming an inter-
rupted series instead of a continuous row round the edges of the lophophore.
The shield-like organ, moreover, as shown by its development, has a sig ifi-
cance entirely different from that of a Phylactolematous epistome. It is in
fact an independent zooid (person) intercalated into the life series of the
animal.
The characters of Rhabdopleura are altogether so anomalous as to place it
in a great primary section of the Polyzoa, at least equal in rank to those of
Hcrorrocta and Enpoprocra—a section for which one of its most striking
features, the possession of the great supraoral shield, would suggest the name
of AsPIDOPHORA.
* Alpheus Hyatt. “Observations on Polyzoa, Suborder Phylactoleemata,”
Proceedings of the Hssex Institute (United States), 1865, vol. iv.
t Alcyonella is referred to merely as a form of Plumatella.
t Nitsche. “ Beitrige zur Anat. und Entwick. der Phylactolamen, insbeson-
dere yon Alcyonella fungosa,” Axchiy fir Anat., 1868.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYLACTOLEMATOUS POLYZOA.’ 491
to have been aware of the researches of Hyatt, made a short
time previously ; and though he has, to a certain extent, been
anticipated by these, his memoir has all the value of independent
investigation.
Nitsche’s observations agree, on the whole, with those of
Hyatt, but in some important points supplement them; and we
thus, from the combined labours of the American and German
zoologists, have attained to a very accurate and complete know-
ledge of the structure of the Phylactolematous Polyzoa. The
following may be regarded as the most important results of
these researches.
Structure of Endocyst.—In the endocyst three distinct layers
may be demonstrated. These are (in succession from without
inwards):—1, an outer cellular layer; 2, a muscular tunic; 3, a
ciliated epithelium.
The outer cellular layer is composed of two different forms of
cells. The cells composing the principal mass of this layer are
prismatic where they enter into the proper body-walls, while in
the tentacular sheath or invaginable portion of the body-wall
they have become diminished in height and increased in width
so as to assume the form of flat polygonal cells. In every case
they show a manifest cell-membrane, and possess a large and dis-
tinct nucleolated nucleus. Hyatt makes the interesting observa-
tion that in the tentacular sheath these cells are eminently con-
tractile, occasionally dilating to twice or thrice their normal size,
and then suddenly contracting.
Imbedded among the polygonal cells we find those referable
to the second form. These are roundish or oval, also with
manifest membrane and with small parietal oval nucleus. Their
contents, which in the living animal are clear and strongly
refringent, become quickly and intensely coloured by carmine
solution, while the polygonal cells are scarcely affected by the
colouring-matter.
In the muscular tunic two distinct sets of fibres may be de-
tected, an outer circular or transverse set, and an inner longitu-
dinal set, both supported by a common delicate homogeneous
foundation membrane. Both circular and longitudinal fibres are
smooth, more or less flattened, contain a nucleus, and lie with
their pointed ends wedged between each other. ;
The third and most internal layer of the endocyst is the
ciliated epithelium. Nitsche has noticed that the a do not
492 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE STRUCTURE AND
uniformly cover this layer. On the tentacular sheath and on
the under part of the body-wall they are disposed in separate
groups, each of which is seated on a small elevation determined
by the presence of a nucleus.
Structure of Alimentary Canal.—The histological structure of
the alimentary canal is very similar to that of the endocyst. Its
walls, for the greater part of their extent, are here also composed
of three layers. The outer is an epithelial layer continuous with
the epithelial or inner layer of the body-wall. It is, however,
destitute of cilia, and is composed of flattened fusiform cells, con-
taining a nucleus, but without any cell-membrane. At the blind
end of the stomach it increases in thickness, and is here continued
over the funiculus.
Next to the epithelium is a muscular layer composed of fibres
supported by a transparent homogeneous foundation membrane.
The fibres are flat bands pointed at each end, and having for the
most part a longish nucleus in the middle. They run trans-
versely round the alimentary canal, with the pointed ends of each
wedged into the intervals of others. Nitsche has noticed in them
a kind of striation, but has not satisfied himself that this depends
on an essential structure of the fibre. The muscular fibres are
absent on the extreme point of the stomach where this passes
into the funiculus.
The most internal stratum of the alimentary canal consists in
the stomach of a single layer of cells. Here this layeris thrown
into longitudinal ridges, whose cells contain brown granules, which
possibly indicate a hepatic function. The ridges have been shown
by Nitsche to consist of certain cells of this layer which have be-
come elongated, and are sometimes enlarged at their free extre-
mities so as to present a club-shaped form*.
The inner layer of the rectum appears also to consist ofa simple
layer of cells. These are prismatic, and sit vertically on the mus-
cular layer. Each is provided with a nucleus at.its base; and as
they are all of equal length, the longitudinal ridges of the stomach
are here wanting.
In the esophagus the cells which correspond to this layer pre-
sent, according to Nitsche, a very remarkable condition. He
describes them as being of long prismatic shape with the long
This view is apparently the right one, and isa rectification of a somewhat
different description of the longitudinal ridges given formerly by myself (‘ Mo-
nograph of the Freshwater Polyzoa’).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYLACTOLEMATOUS POLYZOA. 493
axis perpendicular to the walls of the esophagus. They have in
their middle a large oval nucleus with clear strongly refringent
nucleolus. The nucleus divides the cell into an inner half and a
peripheral half. The peripheral half is clear, and has the appear-
ance of being empty and closed at its inner end by the nucleus,
while the inner half is filled with granular contents. The inner
half, moreover, is provided with a special cell-membrane, while
the peripheral half has no proper membrane. The peripheral
portions thus appear to constitute a system of lacune in which the
wall of one forms a part of the wall of that abutting on it, and
which may be thus best compared with a honey-comb.
Lying on the free end of each of these cesophageal cells may be
seen a small transparent vesicle, which at one time swells out into
a sphere, at another contracts into ashort ovoid. These vesicles
seem to represent an internal epithelial layer of the cesophagus.
Where the cesophagus slightly dilates towards the mouth, they
are replaced by cells bearing long cilia, and here also the honey-
comb-like lacune are absent.
Tentacles.—The walls of the tentacles are composed of three
layers—an outer cellular layer, an inner epithelium, and an inter-
mediate homogeneous membrane. Muscular fibres also enter
into the composition of the tentacle; but these do not form, asin
the body-walls and alimentary canals, a continuous layer. The
homogeneous membrane forms the proper foundation-layer of the
whole tentacular crown. It is in direct continuation with the
homogeneous membrane of the muscular layer of the cesophagus
and body-wall, and, like this, is easily coloured by carmine
solution. It forms also the foundation-layer of the interten-
tacular membrane, and is continued beyond the free margin
of this membrane along the opposed sides of the tentacles in
the form of a ridge, which, however, in the living animal, is
concealed beneath the outer cellular layer, beyond which it does .
not project.
The outer cellular layer of the tentacles is divided by this ridge
into two distinct portions. That which lies behind the ridge is
directly continued from the outer cellular layer of the body-wall
which passes uninterruptedly from the tentacular sheath upon
the back of the tentacles, where it presents the two elements
already described, the polygonal cells and the round cells. This
part of the cellular layer carries no cilia; but, on the other hand,
fine, long, stiff bristles have been described by Nitsche as occur-
494 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE STRUCTURE AND
ring here along the middle line of the tentacle; these are ar-
ranged in groups of two or three at tolerably regular intervals.
While the outer cellular layer of the body-wall is thus carried
over the back of the tentacles, their opposite or oral side is clothed
by a continuation of the ciliated epithelium ofthe mouth. Besides
the cilia thus continued from the mouth along the middle line of
the oral side of the tentacles, there is a dense line of vibratile
cilia along each of the opposed sides of the tentacles. On each
side of the ciliated tract which runs along the middle of the oral
face of the tentacle and between this tract and the lateral line of
cilia is a non-ciliated area which, according to Nitsche, carries a
series of long stiff bristles. These stand singly at reeular dis-
tances from one another and tolerably close, thus differing from
the bristles on the back of the tentacles, which are disposed in
groups of two or three.
The inner epithelium extends from the cavity of the lophophore
into that of the tentacle, and presents two strong ridges, one along
each of the lateral sides of the tentacular lumen.
Special Muscles.—The investigation of specimens hardened in
chromic acid shows in the interior of the tentacles two fasciculi
composed each of two or three long fibres. These had been
already noticed by Hyatt, and their existence is now confirmed
by Nitsche. They run, one along the oral side, the other along
the opposite side of the tentacle. Their fibres contain nuclei and
are apparently muscular.
The same homogeneous membrane already so frequently re-
ferred to has been followed by Nitsche into the epistome, where it
forms the foundation-layer of this organ. Hyatt describes three
muscle-bands as entering into the structure of the epistome. I
had already described the musculature of the epistome as con-
sisting of a single strong fasciculus which acts as an elevator*.
With this view the observations of Nitsche are entirely in ac-
cordance.
Under the name of “brachial contractors,” Hyatt describes a
series of previously unnoticed muscular bands situated within the
arms of the lophophore, where they run transversely in their walls.
These, by their contraction, act on the floor of the arms, drawing
it up into folds.
He also, under the name of “lophophoric flexors,” describes
‘Monograph of the Freshwater Polyzoa.’
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYLACTOLHMATOUS POLYZOA. 495
a pair of large muscles, one in each arm. These run from the
oral region to the extremities of the arms, and serve to elevate
their tips.
The two groups of muscles hitherto known as the “ great re-
tractors of the polypide” and the “rotators of the lophophore ”’
are brought together by Nitsche under the designation of the
“ sreat motor thuscles of the polypide.” Heso names them from
a belief that when the poly pide is completely retracted its extru-
sion may be initiated by the action of these muscles, though when
it is only partially retracted the contraction of the body-wall may,
by its pressure on the contained fluid, be of itself sufficient to bring
about the evagination of the tentacular sheath and the protrusion
of the polypide.
Nitsche further shows that the individual fibres of these muscles
are each enveloped in a distinct sarcolemma, and are provided
with anucleolated nucleus, which lies between the proper muscle-
substance and the sarcolemma, In quite young buds the muscle-
fibres are found to be as yet short fusiform cells with parietal
nucleus. Nitsche has never been able to see a true striation in
the muscular fibre, but only a slight transverse wrinkling of the
sarcolemma; while the breaking up of the fibrille into disks, which
may be occasionally witnessed, takes place so irregularly, that he
eannot regard it as indicating a normal structure.
The posterior parieto-vaginal muscles are described by Nitsche
as continuous with the longitudinal fibres of the endocyst. They
are not, like the other special longitudinal muscular bundles (such
as the great motors of the polypide), simple structures consisting
of a single histological element, but are composed (1) of a foun-
dation-membrane formed by a prolongation of the homoge-
neous membrane of the tunica muscularis of the body-wall, (2)
of muscular fibres which pass inwards in bundles from the longi-
tudinal iibres of the body-wall, (3) of an epithelium by which each
parieto-vaginal band is enveloped. The muscular fibres of these
bands pass upwards on the tentacular sheath, and form its fine
longitudinal musculature.
With this composite condition Nitsche contrasts the simple
structure of the anterior parieto-vaginal muscles. These, more-
over, are not, like the posterior, continued into the muscular
layer of the body-wall. Hach fibril of the anterior set is known
to present a small swelling, which he has proved by treatment
‘with chromic acid to be a true nucleus. He has also observed
496 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE STRUCTURE AND
that, on the places where these nuclei lie, the muscular fibre and
nucleus are enveloped by a fine sarcolemma.
Nervous System.—Both Hyatt and Nitsche have made the
nervous system of the Phylactolemata a subject of careful study,
and have considerably advanced our knowledge of it. The central
nerve-mass is described by Hyatt as presenting a longitudinal
depression which indicates a division into two lateral masses,
each of which would form a ganglionic centre for the nerves
going to its own side of the body. Nitsche has made a similar
observation, which thus tends to confirm Dumortier’s original
view of the existence of two lateral ganglia in the central nerve-
mass of Lophopus, though Hyatt has not succeeded in demon-
strating the existence of an cesophageal collar.
A very delicate cesophageal collar has, on the other hand, been
described by Nitsche, who makes an apt comparison of the
central nerve-mass to a signet-ring with two long horns affixed
to the right and left of the stone. The stone represents the
ganglionic centre, the remainder of the ring the cesophageal collar,
and the two horns are thick chords which pass into the arms of
the lophophore.
The two ends of the ganglion, whose double nature may be
inferred from the presence of a deep furrow on the surface which
rests on the cesophagus, are continued laterally round the ceso-
phagus, thus forming the cesophageal ring just referred to. This
ring, however, is very thin and difficult to detect. The two
chords which are sent off from the opposite side into the arms
of the lophophore are much thicker.
The central mass is, according to Nitsche, surrounded by a
firm envelope, which appears to be identical with the homogeneous
membrane already so often mentioned. By means of this the
ganglion is attached to the cesophagus, and the horns to the arms
of the lophophore. The contents of the envelope consist of a
finely granular mass in which very numerous nuclei are scattered,
the nuclei preponderating over the finely granular matter both
in the ganglion and in the horns. The cesophageal ring, on the
other hand, shows an indistinct fibrous structure, and a similar
structure is seen in the very delicate peripheral nerves which
proceed from the ganglion and horns.
From the sides of the horns and: from their points run a
number of fine chords, each of which passes towards the inter-
space between every two tentacles, then passes through the walls
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYLACTOLEMATOUS POLYZOA. 497
of the lophophore, and divides into branches on the intertentacular
membrane beneath the cellular layer; but no closer connexion
of the nerves with the tentacles could be traced. Nitsche also
believes that he has seen a fine filament pass from the anterior
margin of the ganglion into the epistome, but cannot speak of
this with certainty.
The central mass is stated by Hyatt to be contractile, and, as
a result, mutable in form. It is difficult to reconcile this character
with the properties of a true nervous centre, and one can scarcely
help believing that Hyatt’s account of it rests on some deceptive
appearance.
Statoblasts—Hyatt describes the statoblasts of Pectinatella as
armed, like those of Cristatella, with spines; but he has not
succeeded in detecting in the statoblasts of Pectinatella the
ciliated membranous envelope which in Cristatella surrounds
these bodies before their liberation. In Pectinatella they are
detached from the funiculus before the appearance of the spines,
and then lie loose in the body-cavity, where they remain until
the death of the polypide and the decay of the upper part of the
zocecium affords them exit. They are then floated off, and
remain during the winter in a quiescent state, and often im-
bedded in ice. The young polyzoon, which on the approach of
spring protrudes from between the separating valves of the stato-
blast, has the whole of its free surface covered with vibratile
cilia. By the aid of these it enjoys for some time a free-swim-
ming existence, and finally disencumbers itself of the old valves
of the statoblast, loses its cilia, and becomes fixed.
The peculiar statoblasts which are known to occur in several
freshwater species, and which, instead of being free, are always
found closely adherent to the walls of the zocecium, are regarded
by Hyatt as originating in these walls instead of being formed,
like the free statoblasts, in the funiculus. He also states that the
free statoblasts of Fredericella, though primarily formed, like those
of other genera, in the funiculus, become subsequently attached
to the walls of the zocecium, where they resemble in all respects
the true fixed statoblasts.
DEVELOPMENT.
Development of the Bud.—Some very valuable contributions to
our knowledge of the development of the Phylactolemata have
been made by Metschnikoff and by Nitsche.
498 PROF. ALLMAN ON THE STRUCTURE AND
Metschnikoff, in a short communication to the St. Petersburg
Academy *, describes the eggs of Alcyonella as formed in the
inner epithelial layer of the body-cavity, where they occur as
simple cells combined into a mass so as to form an ovary. From
this are detached the mature eggs with the germinal vesicle still
apparent. These float about for a time in the body-cavity, and
then enter into relation with a peculiar bud, which appears, in
the form of an ordinary Polyzoon bud, on the walls of the body-
cavity, into which it projects. He could not discover how the
ege becomes first attached to this bud; but he has determined
that it ultimately becomes included within it, the bud enveloping
it in a duplicature which he compares to a decidua reflexa. In
the sort of brood-capsule thus formed the egg undergoes total
cleavage, and becomes changed into a heap of cells, which, after
enlarging, forms a central cavity surrounded by a double layer
of cells. This constitutes the cyst of the well-known Includes :—Cobvitis balgara, Ham. Buch.; (? C. phosxochetla, M'‘Clelland) ;
Schistura aculeata, M‘Clelland ; Cobitis maya, Sykes ; Canthophrys vittatus and
olivaceus, Swainson; Misgurnus lateralis, Giinther.
§ Includes :—Cobitis carnaticus, mysorensis, and ? rubripinnis, Jerdon ; Pla-
tacanthus agrensis, Day.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. D590
3. L. BerpMoret', Blyth. Moulmein in Burma.
The 3 species of this genus have a local distribution; 1 extend-
ing from the Himalayas as far as Southern India; 1 Southern
India, Malabar, and Ceylon; and 1 Eastern Burma.
Genus ACANTHOPHTHALMUS.
1. A. panera?, Ham. Buch. North-east Bengal and northern
portions of British and Upper Burma.
Genus APUA.
1. A. Fusca, Blyth. Pegu.
Genus JERDONIA.
1. J. macunata, Day. Madras.
Genus NEMACHEILICTHYS.
1. N. Ripper, Sykes. Deccan.
Genus NemMacHEILUs.
. Evezarpi, Day. Poona in the Deccan.
‘AA
2. N. pavonacsnus’, Clelland. Assam.
3. N. ruBrprpinnis*, Blyth. Tenasserim.
4. N. porta’, Ham. Buch. From Sind, throughout India
(except its southern portion and Malabar coast).
5. N. monoceros, J/‘Clelland. Assam.
6. N. putcHELius, Day. Bowany River, at base of Neilgherry
7. N. stnuvatus, Day. Western Ghauts.
8. N. GuEntHERI, Day. Rivers along slopes and base of Neil-
gherry hills.
9. N. semiarmatvus, Day. Rivers along slopes and base of
Neilgherry hills.
10. N. corica®, Ham. Buch. Delta of Ganges and Brahma-
putra.
1 Includes Acanthopsis micropogon, Blyth.
2 Includes :—Cobitis cinnamomea, M‘Clelland; Canthophrys rubiginosus,
Swainson.
3 Includes Acanthocolitis longipinnis, Peters.
4 Includes Cobitis semizonata, Blyth.
5 Includes :—Cobitis bilturio, Ham. Buch.; C. bimucronata, ocellata, and
scaturigina, M‘Clelland; C. moreh, Sykes; Somileptes wnispina, Swainson; Ne-
macheilus aureus, Day.
© Includes:—Schistura punctata, M‘Clelland ; Acowra cinerea, Swainson.
1
56 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
11. N. rvercoxa’, M‘Clelland. Himalayas.
12. N. monranus, M‘Clelland. Himalayas.
13. N. striatus, Day. Western Ghauts.
14. N. muurrrascratus’, Day. Himalayas and Assam.
15. N. Dentsoni*, Day. Mysore, Deccan, and western
Ghauts.
16. N. notostiema, Bleeker. Ceylon.
17. N. zonattERNANS, Blyth. Tenasserim provinces.
18. N. papacensis, Gunther. Tibet.
19. N. zonarus’, MClelland. From the Punjab, throughout
the N.W. Provinces, Bengal, Assam, and Orissa.
20. N. cincticaupa, Blyth. Burma.
21. N. rrianeuraris, Day. Travancore hills.
22. N. savona’, Ham. Buch. N.W. Provinces and Bengal.
23. N. Beavani®, Giinther. From Orissa to Mysore and South
India.
24, N. sprtoprervs, Cuv. f& Val. Himalayas, Assam, Cochin
China.
25. N. MarmMoratus’, Heckel. Cashmere Lake.
26. N. Sroxriczxm’, Steindachner. Himalayas and Yarkand.
27. N. puTanensis, M‘Clelland. Boutan, in the Himalayas.
28. N. aracizis, Day. Head-waters of Indus in the Hima-
layas.
29. N. rurto’, Ham. Buch. Assam.
Of the 29 species of Nemachedlus, 8 are found in the Himalayas,
one of which extends to Yarkand and another to Assam ; 1 extends
to the Himalayas, Assam, and Cochin China; 2 to Sind and India
1 Perhaps includes Coditis microps, Steindachner.
2 Includes :—(? Schistura subfusca, M‘Clelland); Nemacheilus montanus,
Giinther (not M‘Clelland).
3 Includes Cobitis montanus, Jerdon (not M‘Clelland).
4 Includes Nemacheilus mugah, Day. ;
5 Includes Acoura obscura, Swainson.
6 Includes NV. chryseus, Day.
7 Includes Cobitis vittata, Heckel.
8 Includes :—Cobitis tenwicauda, Steindachner ; C. Griffithiz, Ginther.
9 Includes :— Cobitis gibbosa, M‘Clelland ; C. arenata, Val.; Acowra argentata,
Swainson.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 557
(except its southern portion and Malabar coast) ; 2 to the delta of
the Ganges, one of which extends to Assam ; 3 Assam; 1 Orissa
and Southern India; 1 Poona; 7 Western Ghauts and rivers
along their bases ; 1 Ceylon; 3 Burma.
Although these fish are common enough in the waters of the
plains, they are still more numerous in those of the hills.
Family CiuuPErp 2.
Members of this family are found in the fresh waters of India,
but they can only be considered accidental residents there.
Some, as the hilsa (Clupeazlisha), are anadromous, and only ascend
the rivers to deposit their ova. Others which are more constant
residents are few in number, and probably descendants of
some whose progenitors have had their return to the sea cut off,
and have thus become freshwater forms.
Family NoroprEeripa.
Genus Nororrerwus.
1. N. xaprrat’, Lacépede. Throughout the fresh waters of the
plains of India to the Malay archipelago.
2. N. currata*, Ham. Buch. Sind, Lower Bengal and Assam,
Burma and Siam to the Malay archipelago.
This genus is also represented in Africa.
Family SYMBRANCHID 2.
Three genera have representatives in India.
1. Ampuirnous*, Miller. India and Burma.
2. Monoprerus’, Lacépede. Burma, Malay archipelago, and
China.
3. SymBrancuus’, Bloch. India to the Malay archipelago.
The following are the species belonging to this family.
1 Includes :—Gymnotus notopterus, Pallas ; Clupea sinura, Bl. Schn. ; Mystus
badjee, Sykes ; Notopterus Pallasit and N. bontianus, Cuv. & Val.
2 Includes :—Notopterus ornatus, Gray; N. Buchanani, Cuy. & Val.; N.
hypselosoma and N. lopis, Bleeker.
3 Includes Pnewmabranchus, pt., M‘Clelland.
4 Includes :—Fluta, Bl. Schn.; Ophicardia, M‘Clelland ; Apterigia, Basi-
lewski.
5 Inciudes :—Unibranchapertura, Lacép. ; Puewmabranchus, pt., and Ophister-
non, M'Clell.; Tetrabranchus, Bleeker.
558 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Genus AMPHIPNOUS.
1. A. cucnra’, Ham. Buch. Punjab, throughout Bengal and
Orissa, through Assam to Burma.
Genus Monoprtervs.
1. M. savanensis’, Lacép. Burma, Malay archipelago, and
China.
Genus SYMBRANCHUS.
1. 8S. BenGaneNsts*, ‘Clelland. India to the Malay archi-
pelago, and the Philippines.
The foregoing freshwater fishes alluded to as existing in India
and Burma belong to sixteen families*, which are distributed as
follows :—
Scienide, Gobiide, Rhynchobdellide, Mugilide, Siluride,
Scombresocide, Cyprinodontide, Cyprinide, Murenide, all of
which have representatives in the Palearctic, African, and Oriental
regions. Percide group Apogonina, Labyrinthici, Notopteride,
which belong to the African and Oriental regions. Nandide
group Nandina, Ophiocephalide’, Symbranchide, and Chromides,
all of which are restricted to the Oriental region except the last,
which has a representative in Madagascar.
By giving every genus and species and adding their synonyms
in the form of notes, all question as to what are included in these
papers must be set at rest. Some authors may consider that i
1 Includes :—Ophichthys punctatus, Swainson ; Prewmabranchus striatus, le-
prosus, and albinus, M‘Clelland.
2 Includes :—Unibranchapertura levis, Lacép.; Symbranchus eurychasma,
Bleeker; Ophicardia Phayriana, M‘Clelland; Symbranchus grammicus,
Cantor ; Monopterus cinereus, xanthognathus, marmoratus, and helvolus, Rich-
ardson; Apterigia saccogularis, nigromaculata, and immaculata, Basilewski.
3 Includes :—Symbranchus immaculatus, Cantor ; Tetrabranchus microph-
thalmus, Bleeker.
4 Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his excellent paper on ‘‘The African Element in
the Fauna of India,” in the ‘Ann. & Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1876, observes of
the zoological productions of India:—‘ Ihave long been convinced that many of
the usual generic groups are artificial; and some are even founded upon geogra-
phical distribution—forms which inhabit Africa being placed ina different genus
from those which inhabit India on account of a difference in the locality, and
not of a difference in structure.’ However well such a remark may apply to the
other branches of zoology, I do not think it is correct as regards ichthyology.
5 Thave obtained Ophiocephalus gachua from Beloochistan; it has likewise
been taken in Afghanistan, or localities within the Palearctic region.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 599
have unduly multiplied some species, considering local varieties
as more appropriate ; by referring to those enumerated it will be
easy to erase those objected to. Others, I know, think that some
which I have placed as synonyms should be given as species.
Anyhow, by following out every form as I have done, I have tried
to obviate one of Mr. Blanford’s objections, that “with only the
facts procurable from museum catalogues and other published
works, I know from experience that it is impossible to ascertain
correctly the details of distribution ; the numerous errors com-
mitted by the older naturalists, by whom the term India was used
in the very loosest and vaguest sense, have but rarely been elimi-
nated ; and it is constantly the practice in monographs and cata-
logues to quote species and genera as found in two localities—
the old and erroneous one, and the real locality subsequently dis-
covered”’ (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1876, xviii. p. 278).
The fishes I have enumerated belong to 87 genera, thus dis-
tributed :—
Also in the Malay| 7, yay soli
No. of genera in India. | archipelago and pe g In Africa.
Africa. pean
19 Acanthopterygii ...... ait 10 0
26 Siluridge! ...2.:......++- 12 10 0
1 Scombresocida ...... 12 0 0
2 Cyprinodontide ...... 1 0 fe
35 Cyprinidxe ............ ae 106 be
1 Notopteride ......... 1 0 0
3 Symbranchide ...... 0 2 0
87 12 32 2
_ It appears that out of 877 genera, 2 only are restricted to
Africa (not being Malayan), both being lkewise Palearctic; 32
extend to the islands of the Malay archipelago ; 12 are common
to both the African and Malayan regions, out of which 6 are like-
wise Palearctic.
1 2 are also Palewarctic; the other two, Periophthalmus and Eleotris, have
marine representatives also.
2and 3 Also Paleearctic.
* Cyprinodon also Palearctic ; Haplochilus not so. -
5 Barilius has been taken at Candahar; Rasbora is not known to be Pale-
arctic, the remaining two are.
® Out of these 10 genera, 3 are Burmese, not belonging to the Hindustan sub-
region.
* Genus Etroplus will be considered separately.
560 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
If we tabulate the 369 Indian freshwater species in the same
manner, they will be found thus distributed :—
Also in the Malay alte
No. of species in India. | archipelago and a ee i chi- | Tn Africa .
Africa. leech
47 Acanthopterygii ...... 2 92 )
S85) Silunideel aeeeesceeee 0 6 0
1 Scombresocidz ...... 0 (0) 0
5 Cyprinodontide ...... 0 1 IL
226 Cyprinide ............ 01 73 15
2 Notopteride ......... 0) 2 0
3 Symbranchide ... 0 2 0
369 2 27 2
Leaving out the question of the original home of the first parents
of these fishes, we may inquire, what element is now most apparent
amongst the Indian freshwater fishes, the African or Malayan? A
single glance at the Tables will show that the Malayan element is
most developed. In short, we are unable to ascertain one single
genus which is solely African and Indian, as all the African forms
which extend to India are either likewise present in the Palx-
arctic region, or else in the Malay archipelago, or in both.
If we turn to the distribution of the species, we obtain the same
results. Out of 869 Indian or Burmese forms, 2 are likewise
African (not Malayan), but they are also Palearctic ; 27 are com-
mon to India (including Burma) and the Malay archipelago; 2
to both Africa, India, and the Malay archipelago.
How has the African element entered India proper’? I exclude
1 Discognathus is also Palzarctic.
2 Pristolepis fasciatus is Burmese, and not found in the Hindustan sub-
region.
3 Out of these 7 species, 5 are found in Burma, but not in the Hindustan
subregion,
4 and > Both Palearctic forms.
6 Mr. Blanford considers there is evidence that in Northern and Central
India the fauna in the later Tertiary times was more allied to that now exist-
ing in Africa than it is now—that this is shown by the presence of Hippopota-
mus, Camelopardalis, Loxodon, and a number of antilopine forms in the Plio-
cene fossil fauna of the Nevaliks &c.,—and states his belief that the Vertebrata
had been in connexion with Africa:—/jirs¢, forms common to the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions, the bulk of the present Indian fauna; secondly, forms
common to the Ethiopian region and India, but not extending to the eastward
of the Bay of Bengal, nor represented in 8.W. Asia now lying in the direct line
between India and Africa; thirdly, species with Hthiopian affinities, which
may have wandered into India from Arabia and Baluchistan,
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 561
from this consideration whether at some earlier period of the
world’s history a migration of fishes occurred from the north,
and as they travelled south some found their way into Africa,
others into India; whileas their distance from their base increased,
and due to climatic and other disturbing causes, they became mo-
dified as we now find them. Although all the genera of fishes
which I have alluded to as common to Africa and India are fresh-
water, some are commonly residents within tidal influence. I
will therefore subdivide the 14 genera into (1) strictly freshwater
forms, and (2) those which contain some representatives which
reside in the sea.
Ccncre. Ethiopian Mediterraneo-
; subregion. | Persic subregion.
.; ( Mastacembelus ...... W. Africa. Present.
SB |] Eros cocbsonagos0n0e All. *
SOF Claritas) tue cent All. i
‘| Discognathus ...... HK. Africa. 5
© 5 IPT scasssocsooovosqac All. 2
x |} LBA Goneccodooccoss All. i
= | Barilius ............... H. Africa. 4
7, || INBRIO OTF) oceasoogocoscne H. Africa. Absent.
® \ Notopterus ......... W. Africa !. ys
( Periophthalmus j|| HE. &W. & ‘3
@® Eg || UBlleromes Goonsencence | 8. neat 4
ae SaGeb clone ysreadascee All. Present.
wm 3S | Cyprinodon ......... E. a
\ Haplochilus ......... i. Absent.
It would thus appear that the irruption of the majority of the
freshwater forms common to Africa and India must have been by
way of the Mediterraneo-Persic subregion.
We have now to consider what freshwater fishes are found
in the various subregions of the Oriental region, and which are
peculiar to each. I propose taking Mr. Wallace’s subdivisions,
having the deltas of the Ganges, Indus, and the Brahmaputra as the
boundaries of the Hindustan subregion on the N.W., N., andN.E.,
while on the 8.W. it extends to the Ceylonese subregion. The
Ceylonese subregion commences on the western coast below Goa,
and includes Canara and Malabar with the western Ghauts to
Ceylon ; passing along the Neilgherries, its fish fauna in Mysore
joins with that of the Hindustan subregion; while in the Car-
natic it extends in like manner as high as the river Kistna. Out
1 This Malayan element in West Africa corresponds with what has been ob-
served in mammals and birds.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. Al
562 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
of 731 genera present in the Hindustan and Ceylonese subregions,
we find them thus distributed* :—
eke g Soon eet comes
73 genera, where distributed. eyolhee | Far Se eS ae
Ss | 2 S |) se] s
ee ret dey as. sl i S|
iss | q m A a | =
Se Ss ate ie | 2
qiniliniololgaia
Hindustan, Ceylon, Burmah to Malay |
PREC HOMERS) ogaacsosooo0000 So=acc09008 8 | & 1 toWit@® | i | &
Hindustan and Ceylon subregions...| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | O
bed 9 to
IBunmarorsbeyoudeereeeeesereeeeee 1 Lo} ®} © | @ i} @ | @
Hindustan subregion .................- @) gi} @ | il A O | ©
x to Burma or
beyond . netaalenanes A i DONO Oe aOR ae)
Ceylonese eubr egion. aneobeecess, cosdendes tro}! oO}; ©} Lt} © | &
ms z to Burma or
|o(eh Zones Meer essen nator cononosrecoadesoscan AO | Of O- | Oo O
|
Out of the foregoing 73 genera of freshwater fishes which are:
found in the Hindustan and Ceylonese subregions, no less than
62 extend to Burma or the Malay archipelago, or to both;
whereas only 15 are common to the Palearctic region. Thus we
not only observe the comparatively small amount of the Ethio-
pian element in the Indian fish-fauna, but also find that (exclu-
ding the Himalayan forms) the ichthyology of India and Ceylon
is far less Palearctic than it is Malayan.
The Oriental genera (excluding the Himalayan) which are
distributed more or less through its subregions of Hindustan,
Ceylon, Burma and Siam, and the Malay archipelago, but possess
neither Ethiopian nor Palearctic representatives, are as follows :—
1. Nandus, 2. Pristolepis, 3. Sicydium, 4. Ophiocephalus, 5. Channa,
6. Anabas, 7. Polyacanthus, 8. Osphromenus, 9. Liocassis, 10. Pan-
gasius, 11. Pseudeutropius, 12. Callichrous, 13. Wallago, 14. Chaca,
15. Bagarius, 18. Glyptosternum, 17. Homaloptera, 18. Cirrhina,
1 The Burmese and Himalayan genera which are not common to Hindustan
are omitted.
2 Itis to be regretted that, with the exception of some portions of the Hima-
layas and the western Ghauts of India, the hill-ranges scattered over Hindustan
have not had their fishes sufficiently collected. H.D. Thomas, Esq., of the
Madras Civil Service, has lately sent me a collection made on the Sheverry
hills in Madras; and they are identical with those of the neighbouring
plains.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 563
19. Thynnichthys, 20. Chela, 21. Botia, 22. Acanthopsis, 23. Lepi-
docephalichthys, 24. Amphipnous, 25. Symbranchus, and 26. Mo-
nopterus.
Among those genera which are restricted to the Hindustan sub-
region we have :—1. Atha, 2. Ailichthys, 3. Sisor, 4. Nangra, 5. Psi-
lerhynchus, and 6. Somileptes, all being found in the deltas of the
rivers Indus, Ganges, and Bramaputra, or their affluents. Re-
stricted to the Ceylonese subregion we have 1. Htroplus, 2. Jerdo-
nia. The following are found in the Ceylonese and Hindustan
subregions, also in Burma :—1. Badis, 2. Saccobranchus, 8. Rohtee,
4. Amblypharyngodon, 5. Nuria, 6. Danio, 7. Perilampus, 8. Semi-
plotus, and 9.Amphipnous. Restricted to Hindustan and Burma:—
1. Trichogaster, 2. Hrethistes, 3. Rita, 4. Silundia, 5. Hutropiich-
thys, 6. Gagata, 7. Catla, 8. Aspidoparia, and 9. Acanthophthalmus.
Having thus briefly examined what the Indian freshwater fish-
fauna is asa whole, we next come to the consideration of what is the
Fish-fauna of Ceylon ? Here a great difficulty exists, as the fishes
of that island still remain to be thoroughly worked out. Bleeker’s
‘Cobitoides et de Cyprinoides de Ceylan’ unfortunately does not
enumerate the localities whence his examples were obtained ;
consequently one is ignorant as to whether they came from the
northern or southern districts, or from both. And this question
igs important when examining into the zoology of that island, the
southern portion consisting of hill-tracts which Mr. Blanford
elasses with Malabar and the “low country on the west coast of
India from Cape Comorin to a little north of Bombay, and a range
of hills near the same coast as far north probably as the Tapti
river.” The northern portion of Ceylon, he considers, belongs to
the Indian province or subregion. |
Some materials, however, exist for investigating this question,
as we know of 41 species of freshwater fishes belonging to 29
genera inhabiting Ceylon. The genera consist of 9 Acantho-
pterygians, 6 Siluroids, 1 Scombresocid, 1 Cyprinodont, and 12
Cyprinoids, with one exception, all having representatives in
Malabar, the single exception being the genus Channa, very
closely allied to the ubiquitous Indian genus Ophiocephalus, from
which it is separated because it is deficient of ventral fins.
The 41 species consist of :—13 Acanthopterygians, 9 of which
extend through India and Malabar ; 1 to Southern India and Mala-
bar; 1 to Java and China; whilst 1 is restricted to Ceylon.
7 Siluroids, 4. of which are distributed through India and Malabar ;
41*
564 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
1 to South India and Malabar; 1 to Java; and 1 restricted to
Ceylon. 1 Scombresocid, common to India and beyond. 1 Cy-
prinodont, found also in Malabar. 19 Cyprinoids, 3 of which are
distributed through India and Malabar, 1 extending to Africa ; 6
to South India, 5 of which are also found in Malabar ; 1 to India,
excluding Malabar; 2 to Malabar ; while 7 are sefnivied to
Ceylon.
In short, the freshwater fish-fauna of Ceylon would show a very
slight connexion with Africa, and that only through the same
genera being distributed throughout India and Malabar; but
certainly there exists a Malayan’ element, to which I shall refer
further on.
The Malabar fish-fauna is intimately related to that of Ceylon
and (but to a decreased extent) with that of the southern portion
of the Coromandel coast, as some species extend their range as
far as the Kistna. The following Table will show the relation-
ship of the Ceylonese freshwater fish-fauna to that of the remainder
of the region on the continent of India, also how it agrees with
the Hindustan subregion or elsewhere.
Subregions.
Ceylonese.
Family and Genus?. Range beyond region.
Malabar | Hindu-
Ceylon. and SSH
main-
land.
ACANTHOPTERYGII.
1. Ambassis ........... 1 1 1 Africa ; Burma, Siam,
Malay archipelago.
QA PBaGisiesitens saaanees 0 1 1 Burma.
Gh INENICEUEE) Qogaogoone. 0 1 1 Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago.
4. Pristolepis ......... 0 1 0 Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago.
IBS, (E7009 sensconsdse50s 1 1 1 Cosmopolitan.
6. Sycidium............ 0 1 0 Burma, Malay archi-
pelago, and beyond.
6 4
bo
Carried forward......
1 Wallace remarks of Ceylon that although it “generally agrees in its pro-
ductions with the southern part of India, yet it has several birds which are
allied to Malayan and not to Indian groups, and a fine butterfly of the genus
Hestia, as well as several genera of beetles, which are purely Malayan.”
? Those genera which haye marine as well as freshwater representatives are
printed i in italics.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 56d
Family and Genus.
Brought forward ... ;
ACANTHOPTERYGII (con-
tinued).
7. Hleotris
8. Mastacembelus ...
9. Ophiocephalus ...
10.
Wit,
Polyacanthus......
Htroplus....-..2....
12.
13.
SILURIDA.
14. Macrones
15.
16.
17.
18.
Pseudeutropius ...
Callichrous.........
Wallago
SIGUE! Goeyoeccooce
Clarias
19.
. Saccobranchus ...
. Bagarius ..........
22. Glyptosternum ...
ScoMBRESOCID#.
BR. JAMOHPE soccovo00d00d00
Carried forward......
Subregions.
Ceylonese.
Malabar | Hindu-
and stan.
Ceylon aa
land.
2 6 4
I 1 if
1 1 1
1 I I
1 0 0
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 1 0)
1 1 1
1 i 1
1 1 Jae
1 t 1
0 il 0
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
16 22 17
Range beyond region.
Africa; Burma, Siam,
and Malay archipe-
lago.
Mediterraneo-Persic
region, West Africa,
Burma, to Malay
archipelago.
Burma, Siam, to Malay
archipelago and be-
yond.
China.
Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago, and be-
yond.
Malay archipelago.
Burma, Siam, Malay}
archipelago.
Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago.
Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago.
Burma, Siam, Malay
archipelago.
Himalayas, Burma,
Stam, Malay archi-
pelago, China; Palx-
arctic region.
Africa, Mediterraneo-
Persic region, Burma,
Siam, Malay archi-
pelago, &e.
Burma, Siam, Cochin
China.
Burma, Siam, to the
Malay archipelago.
Malay archipelago.
Almost cosmopolitan.
566
MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Family and Genus.
Brought forward ...
CyYPRINODONTID.
24. Haplochilus
CyPRINIDz.
25. Homaloptera......
26. Discognathus ......
27.
28.
29.
. Danio
»erilampus..c-..-
. Chela
39.
40.
NovrorPrerip&.
41. Notopterus.........
SYMBRANCHID.
42. Symbranchus......
Motalesee
Range beyond region.
Subregions.
Ceylonese.
Malabar pea
al an,
Ceylon. eeteies
land.
16 22 17
1 1 I
0 1 0
1 i 1
1 1 1
0 1 0
1 1] i
1 1 il
il 1 1
1 1 if
0 1 1
1 il i
1 il 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 il
0 II 0
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 1 a
29 4] 30
Tropical Africa, Burma,
and the Malay archi-
pelago.
Himalayas and Malay
archipelago.
Africa, Mediterraneo-
Persic region, Hima-
layas, Burma.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago, &c.
Mediterraneo-Persic
region and Sind
hills,
Burma.
The Old World.
Burma and the Nico-
bars.
Africa, Burma, to the
Malay archipelago.
Burma.
East Africa, Burma,
to the Malay archi-
pelago.
Burma.
Burma.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago.
Burma to the Malay
archipelago and be-
yond.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 567
We can deduce the following results as to the distribution of
the 29 genera present in the island of Ceylon.
Present on the mainland
of the Ceylonese Present in Hindustan. Present elsewhere.
subregion.
28 26 1 China; 1 Madagascar ,
| but also mainland.
The Malabar fish-fauna is intimately related to that of Ceylon,
and (but to a diminishing extent) with the southern portion of
the Coromandel coast, as some species extend their range as far as
the Kistna. Amongst the Cyprinide, 16 genera’ are represented
in Malabar, 12 of which are likewise found in Ceylon: of the
remaining 4, 1 is common to the western Ghauts and the Hima- ~
layas, 1 to Western Asia and Sind; while of the other 2, one is
distributed through India, the other is local at Madras. Ceylon
possesses no genus of Carps unrepresented in Malabar.
Of species, 60 are found from Canara down to the western
Ghauts (including the Neilgherry hills and rivers at their bases)
and Ceylon; 40 are found in Canara or Malabar (2 of which are
common to the Himalayas, and 5 to the plains of India); 7 are found
in Malabar and Ceylon; 7 restricted to Ceylon; 1 to India and
Ceylon.
Amongst the Acanthopterygians, 11 genera are found in Ma-
labar and Ceylon: 2 of these are restricted to Malabar; 2 are
common to India and Malabar ; 6 to India, Malabar, and Ceylon;
1 is only found in Ceylon. Of species, 27 are found in Malabar
and Ceylon: 14 are Malabar forms, 7 of which are found in the
plains of India ; 9 are common to India, Malabar, and Ceylon; 1
to Malabar and Siam; 3 to Ceylon, one of which extends to
Jaya.
I have now to refer to a certain peculiar distribution of fishes,
already remarked upon, but respecting which a more detailed
examination is necessary.
Genus Pristolepis is found along the western Ghauts of
India, is absent from the Hindustan subregion, but reappears
in Burma, whence it is distributed to the islands of the Malay
archipelago. Ophiocephalus micropeltes is found from Canara to
Cochin, is absent from Hindustan, but reappears in Siam,
1 This must not be understood to mean that these genera are absent from the
waters of the plains of India.
568 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
O. gachua is found at the Andaman Islands. Genus Channa is
found in Ceylon and China, but absent from intermediate loca-
lities. Polyacanthus signatus has only been taken in Ceylon and
Java. Genus Htroplus through the Ceylonese subregion, and an
allied genus in Madagascar. Genus Silurus, Himalayas to Akyab,
Tenasserim, Cochin China, the Malay archipelago and beyond; also
Eastern Europe and Turkestan, and along the Malabar Ghauts ;
but is not found inthe Hindustan subregion. Hostoma along the
Himalayas to Assam, Pegu, Tenasserim, and the confines of China.
Haplochilus panchax from the Hindustan subregion, through
Burma and Siam to the islands of the Malay archipelago, and is also
common at the Andaman Islands. Scaphiodon from Western
Asia to the Sind and the Punjab, and along the western Ghauts,
but is otherwise absent from India. Nuria danrica extends from
the Ceylonese and Hindustan subregions to Burma and the Nico-
bars; but is absent from the islands of the Malay archipelago.
Homaloptera Brucet and H. maculata are common to the Hima-
layas and the western Ghauts of India, but are absent from the
Hindustan subregion.
The preceding and other somewhat similar instances offer a
wide field for conjecture as to how these fishes came in such loca-
lities, and by what means they have spread to more distant
districts ; but before offering any remarks on the subject, it
will be necessary to digress a little, and refer to the opinions of
others who have written on this question.
Geologists have pointed out that the plains of Hindustan are
Tertiary with a few isolated patches of Secondary rocks, and the
peninsula in the later Tertiary epoch was an island, an arm of the
sea existing along the present deltas of the Ganges and the
Indus. Ceylon and South India consist (at least on the western
Ghauts) mainly of granitic and old metamorphic rocks; and they
probably formed during a portion of the Tertiary period a large
continent, the zoology of which had a close affinity to that of the
Malayan region.
Dr. Stoliczka observed that “it does not appear improbable
that the fauna of India was at some remote period chiefly or alto-
gether Malayan, and that it had been more or less destroyed in
those parts which were affected by the enormous volcanic erup-
tions, characterized as the Trappean formation of Central and
N.W. India. It must have been somewhere about that time
when a communication was established between India and Africa,
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 569
and when African forms were enabled to travel eastwards and at-
tain a firm hold in India. The immigration from the west must
have been considerable; for it seems to have greatly checked the
further development of the Malayan fauna, which remained pre-
‘served only on the more elevated hills, chiefly those consisting of
gneissose and metamorphic rocks” (Proc. As. Soc. 1871, p. 84).
In short, many zoologists consider that the Indian fauna was
formerly very similar to the Malayan; that something occurred
which acted injuriously on that fauna; while a communication
occurring with Africa, and perhaps due to the Indian climate be-
coming more tropical, a development of African forms occurred,
but that this commingling did not take place on the more elevated
regions ; that afterwards there was a large irruption of Malayan
forms due to a connexion being formed between Burma and
Eastern Bengal, and that they overran the Hindustan subregion.
The distribution of the freshwater fishes in these regions ought
to give us some facts which support or refute these opinions ; for
although marine fishes can ascend into fresh water, and should
their retreat to the sea be cut off, they are able to make it their
home, it is not so with true freshwater forms, which never breed
in the sea, and cannot exist in it for any length of time. Thus
the freshwater forms are unable to pass from the mainland to
islands!; they must have a freshwater channel up which they can
proceed ; but for this to exist, a land-continuity becomes neces-
sary. land connexion alone between two continents may not
always be sufficient ; as even if such were present, it does not ne-
cessarily follow that freshwater would be also there. Again, a
mountain-chain may extend across the isthmus over which fresh-
water fishes would not be able to pass.
It has been advanced that freshwater fishes have two modes of
dispersal :—(1) carried by external agency out of one river-system
to another, or from the mainland to islands ; (2) by river-sytems
due to some cause commingling and permitting the fish to
migrate. : ;
Under the head of external agency, the action of hurricanes
and whirlwinds have been adduced, when with the downpour of
1 Wallace observes of Amphibia :—‘ Salt water is fatal to them as well as to
their eggs; and deserts and oceans would probably form the most effectual
barriers to their “dispersal ; whereas both snakes and lizards abound in deserts,
and have some means of occasionally passing the ocean which frogs and sala-
manders do not seem to possess.”
570
/ MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
water fishes are said to have descended, it is assumed in a living
state; but of the instances I have had unequivocal evidence of,
they were invariably dead, sometimes putrid. Proof of their
descending alive is yet wanting. Then it has been stated, on the
authority of Gmelin, that fish-ezgs may be carried by aquatic
birds. It appears hardly credible that fish-eggs could be swal-
lowed by birds and subsequently extruded per anum with their
vitality intact. If the fish were ovi-viviparous, the mothers (in-
side whom were fertilized eggs) might be swallowed, and thus
the eggs might (?) be extruded with the vitality unimpaired. But
there are no Indian freshwater fishes which are ovi-viviparous; and
the aquatic bird which swallowed the unfertilized fish-eggs would
hardly assist in producing fishes in distant localities. That some
birds might gorge themselves with fish-eges, and having flown
some distance, might disgorge some, is not improbable ; and in
such a manner fishes might be distributed. In fact, in India we
see some marine forms of Siluroids in which the males carry about
the eggs in their mouths until the young are hatched. Water-
beetles are likewise believed to occasionally convey fertilized fish-
eggs from one piece of water to another, and sometimes without
destroying their vitality.
Respecting river-systems, by commingling (due to changes in
level, or from other causes), enabling fish to migrate, such appears
to be very likely. One might take as an example how some of
the Himalayan streams go to the Indus and western coast of
India, and others descend to the Ganges and pass to the Bay of
Bengal. Here a communication by their lateral branches might
occur during some period of flood.
But I have shown that some fishes of the western coast of India
and Ceylon have a very peculiar distribution; present along the
mountain-summits or some distance up their sides, they are absent
from the plains, but reappear in the Himalayas, in Jemma Siam,
the Malay archipelago, or China.
The geographical distribution of the amphibious Oriental family
of Ophiocephalide is well worthy of an attentive investigation.
Species extend through vast districts. Thus O. striatus is found
throughout the fresh waters of the plains of India and Ceylon,
Assam, Burma, Siam, and in most of the islands of the Malay
archipelago. This would be one reason for believing either that
these freshwater fishes at a former period could inhabit the sea
and thus extend from island to island, or else that land once joined
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 571
these islands together and to the mainland, while over this land
were streams or ponds of fresh water along which these fishes
went. O. gachua is first met with at Guadur, also on the hills of
Beluchistan and Afghanistan; it extends through the Indian and
Ceylon subregions, Assam, and Burma; while, as I have formerly
remarked, it is common in the streams at the Andaman Islands.
T can only account for their presence in such a spot by the same
theory of a former land-connexion with the mainland ; the dis-
tance is too far for any accidental cause to have occasioned its
presence there.
O. micropeltes is present in the rivers of Canara and Malabar,
absent from the plains of India and Burma, reappearing in Siam ;
and is distributed through the fresh waters of the islands of the
Malay archipelago. The allied genus Channa is also found in
Ceylon, but disappears between thatisland and China. The per-
coid genus Pristolepis exists at the base of the Malabar hills, but
is not found elsewhere in India, reappearing in Burma. The am-
phibious Polyacanthus signatus is only found in Ceylon’ and
Java.
The delicate little Haplochilus panchax is distributed in the
fresh waters of the Andaman Islands, and is likewise found through
the Ceylonese and Hindustan subregions, also in Burma and the
islands of the Malay archipelago.
But the Nicobars give us another freshwater fish which is ab-
sent from the islands of the Malay archipelago, but present on
the mainland of India, Burma, and Siam, whence it has probably
spread ; it is the little Nuria danrica, of which Mr. Ball brought
several examples from the Nicobars.
Amongst the Siluride we find somewhat the same distribution
may oceur. Clarias magur is found throughout India, Burma,
and the Malay archipelago, C. Teysmanni in Ceylon and Java,
and C. Dusswmiert along the coasts of India and the islands
of the Malay archipelago, these last two, so far as is known,
being absent from the intervening districts. The. Cyprinoid
Thynnichthys is also a resident only in the Deccan, Kistna, and
Godavery rivers in India, reappearing in the islands of the Malay
archipelago.
These examples of distribution are not peculiar to fishes, but
are seen in other divisions of the animal kingdom, and would seem
to point out that there must at a former period have existed a
land communication between Malabar and Ceylon and the Malay
572 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
peninsula, and which may have embraced the Andamans and
Nicobars.
Mr. Kurz (Journ. As. Soc. 1876, p. 105) observes that “the
Nicobars form a link in the chain of islands that stretches up from
Sumatra to the Arracan Yomahs (mountains), and they are in all
probability the remnants of a mountain-range that connected
Sumatra (and more especially the Nias Islands, where the same
sandstone prevails as that of the Andamans and Arracan) and
Arracan at atime when the sea covered the vast alluvial plains of
the Ganges and the Indus, thus rendering Hindustan an island
subsequent to its probable connexion with Africa.”
Were the chain of mountains carried from about the Nicobars
to the west and joined to Ceylon, we should thus have the means
of communication between the Malay peninsula and the Ceylon
region complete: we could in this manner understand how fresh-
water fishes might be absent from the subregion of Hindustan,
but present on either side, as Ceylon and Burma. Perhaps, as
has been advanced, the Bay of Bengal was a portion of a large
continent now submerged, and it was by that route that the Cey-
lonese subregion received its Oriental forms of animal life at a
time when the plains of Hindustan were submerged.
That this region didnot extend to Madagascar or the Mauritius
would also appear to be demonstrated by the freshwater fishes ;
for we do not find (unless they have been introduced) Rhyncho-
bdellidee, Ophiocephalide, nor the genera Polyacanthus, Osphro-
menus, Trichogaster, nor any of the Indian genera of the Siluride,
Cyprinodontide, Cyprinide, or Symbranchide’.
But in the higher elevations of the western Ghauts I have ob-
served that forms occur similar to those of the Himalayas, and
also having representatives on the Malay peninsula and in the
Malay archipelago; I have also remarked upon the genus Scaphio-
don extending from the rivers of Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor
to Sind, where they have representatives in the hills, and also to
the Salt range of the Punjaub. Passing along the western
Ghauts, we again come upon the same genus, which extends to
the most southern extremity of the Neilgherries’. In a similar
1 See ‘ Poissons de Madagascar, Bleeker, 1874.
* IT may also suggest an alternative route. Homaloptera Brucei and H. macu-
lata are both found in the western Ghauts and also on the Himalayas. The
genus exists in Java and Sumatra; we can also trace it up the Tenasserim coast,
but it is absent from the Hindustan subregion. It would seem to have spread
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 57/83
manner I have taken the Siluroid genus Huglyptosternum from
the rivers of the hills of N.E. Assam, from the upper portion of
the Jumna at the foot of the Himalayas, and it likewise has been
captured in Syria. Bariliws, likewise found in East Africa, is
distributed to both the Hindustan and Ceylonese subregions,
extending into the Himalayas, and also distributed along the
western Ghauts to Ceylon. These facts, if they prove any
thing, would serve to show that at a former period a commu-
nication must have extended up the western coast of India to
Sind ; and as we do not find African types represented on the
western Ghauts, we may infer that such occurred prior to the
communication which took place between Africa and India. If,
however, one genus of Carps could pass this way, so could another ;
and by this route the means of extension to the Himalayas would
have been open ;, while by Ceylon and the Andamans fishes might
also have extended to the Malay peninsula or the islands of the
Malay archipelago.
I will but briefly remark upon the freshwater fishes of the
Himalayan region, as I have elsewhere (“ Fishes of Yarkand,”’
P. Z.S. 1876, p. 781) followed out their distribution. We find
two great classes, the Tartarian fauna from the Palearctic region
- above the Himalayan descending to where it meets the Hindus-
tan forms. It must not be forgotten in working out the details
of these regions, that vast valleys having a tropical temperature
exist in the Himalayas ; and here some Indian forms have found
congenial homes.
The Schizothoracine, or hill Barbels, are entirely distinct from
any low-country forms, consisting of Carps more or less covered
with minute scales or destitute of any; a membranous sac or slit
exists anterior to the anal fin, and is laterally bounded by a row of
vertically-placed scales arranged like eave-tiles, and which are con-
tinued along the base of the anal fin. The genus Oreznus is that
most frequently observed by European visitors to India, as it is
found along the sub-Himalayan range : it is possessed of a trans-
verse inferior mouth, and a sucker behind the lower jaw, de-
monstrating its necessity for some mechanical apparatus to enable
it to withstand the force of the hill-torrents. As we ascend to
the higher and less precipitous regions we find the gape of the
from the Malay archipelago ; but it is remarkable that the same species should
only be found in two such widely separated localities as the Himalayas and the
Ceylonese subregion of India.
574 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHIOAL
mouth, if transverse, is anterior in the various genera; but the
head is most commonly compressed, and the dorsal fin armed
with a strong, serrated bony ray.
Having thus briefly shown the distribution of the Indian fresh-
water fishes, and traced out the countries from which they have
been derived, we come to the question, What are the most typical
families having representatives in India?
Those most extensively distributed are the Ophiocephalide and
Symbranchide, to which I have already alluded as strictly Ori-
ental forms possessing an amphibious respiration: next we have
the Labyrinthici, also Oriental, but with some African represen-
tatives which, however, do not extend to India; the Oriental
genus Anabas extends from Assam to the eastwards ; Osphrome-
nus from N.E. Bengal and Assam, also to the east ; whilst some
have a more local range, as Trichogaster, from the Hindustan sub-
region to Burma.
Doubtless the Siluride and Cyprinide are the forms most pre-
valent in the Indian fresh waters, the former being represented
by 26, the latter by 35 genera. I propose first to investigate the
Cyprinide, as they appear to be of a more northern (if not Pale-
arctic) origin than the scaleless Siluroids. Amongst the Cypri-
nide the first thing that deserves attention is the absence of ad-
ditional means of respiration to the gills, as we see in the Acan-
thopterygians (as in Ophiocephalide and amongst the Laby-
rinthici), an addenda which is likewise seen amongst the Siluroids
in the genera Clarias and Saccobranchus, and in the Symbran-
chide in the genus Amphipnous.
Seeing that out of these four large divisions of Indian freshwater
fishes, the Cyprinide is the single one not possessing any species
favoured with an amphibious form of respiration, we come to the
consideration of what are the most typical genera of Indian Carps.
We know of 226 species of Carps in India, 70 of which, or nearly
one third, belong to the genus Barbus, a genus which has very
close affinities with several others. Ifthe mouth were a little
more transverse, it would lead us to the Cirrhina’, possessing 5
1 Cirrhina latia takes on various modifications in accordance with the loca-
lities it inhabits. In hill-streams it is seen as if it attached itself by the lower
surface of its head to stones, as we find occurs in Discognathus, and the rudiment
of a pad may be observed behind the lower lip. The passage of this form into
Discognathus, having about the same number of rays and scales, would not appear
to be very difficult. There is likewise another curious structural change which
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES, 575
species, while Labeo, with its 25 species, is simply a Cirrhina with
more developed lips and a more extended dorsal fin; and the
Burman forms of Osteochilus and Dangila are not very distantly
removed from Cirrhina and Labeo.
Of the genus Barbus we have 3 subgenera :—(1) Barbodes, with
four barbels, the species of which, if soberly coloured, attain to a
large size, as the Mahseer to 90 lb., or even upwards of 100 Ib.,
in weight; whereas those which are found richly coloured in
clear and rapid mountain-streams are usually small: a strong
dorsal spine (unless serrated) is mostly a sign that the species
exists in the vicinity of high mountains. (2) Subgenus Capoéta,
with two barbels, never attain the size reached by many of those
with four barbels ; some, especially when residents of hill-streams,
are vividly coloured. (8) Subgenus Puntius, destitute of barbels,
are usually of a small size.
If we briefly examine into the distribution of these three sub-
genera of the genus Barbus, we observe that the forms which
exist in the Huropean subregion are only those possessing four
barbels ; that they are distributed as far as the other divisions of
the genus, but diminish in size the nearer they are to the tropics,
provided they are solely residents of the waters of the plains.
The subgenus Capoéta has not been recorded from Europe, but
has been taken in Africa and also in Persia; still its numbers are
small until we arrive at the Oriental region, throughout which
it is distributed. The subgenus Puntius appears to be confined
to Southern Africa and the Oriental region.
The foregoing seems to show that the larger forms, all of which
are Barbodes, are probably descendants from Palearctic progeni-
tors. And this view is still further confirmed if we investigate
where these fishes breed. If the hot plains of India in which they
abound were the home of their ancestral forms from immemorial
occurs not only in old examples of Discognathus, but in other Carps having
Palzarctic representatives. I allude to a deep transverse fissure (generally
accompanied with numerous large glands in its vicinity) which in some adults
extends across the snout (see ‘ Fishes of India,’ pls. 122 and 123), in others only
a trace of such is present. We see the same modification occur in large examples
of Labeo or Cirrhina in hilly regions and Assam, also, but to a less extent, in
some species of Barbus, as B. Thomassi from the western Ghauts and B. spt-
lophilos in Assam ; while the only other true Carp which has Palearctic repre-
sentatives (excluding Scaphiodon) is the Barilius, and in hill examples of
B. tileo this fissure is more or less well marked.
576 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
time, we should expect to see them breeding there; but we find
that) Barbels in India breed either in the waters of the plains or
in those of hilly regions, whilst it is an invariable rule that the
larger forms choose the latter place. Thus we see the Mahseer
and its ailies residents of rivers which take their origins in moun-
tains, that during the cold months of the year, when the mountain-
streams are at their minimum size, these fishes descend to the
waters of the plains, but reascend the hill-waters with the first
burst of the monsoon in order to deposit their ova in cooler Joca-
lities. Although this is most easily observed on the Himalayas,
I have likewise found the Mahseer in Sind, and that it ascends
the Beloochistan hills to breed ; that the same phenomenon occurs
in Malabar, where the rivers descend from the western Ghauts ;
and I have likewise been fortunate enough to be a witness to the
fact that the larger species of Barbel (Barbodes) in Southern
India ascend the Neilgherry streams for the same purpose.
Some species of Barbodes of a moderate size breed in the waters
of the plains of India; but these have generally a serrated bony
ray to the dorsal fin. Asa rule, all Barbels breeding in the plains
are of a moderate or small size; whilst of the subgenus destitute
of any barbels (Puntius) all are small, some minute, whilst none
normally breed in hill-waters. This leads me to believe that
Puntius is a degenerate Barbodes, due perhaps to constant resi-
dence in the plain; that such deterioration is shown in their dimi-
nutive size and want of barbels.
If such is the case, we ought perhaps to be able to show spe-
cies in which this modification is even now going on; and such I
believe I have found in Southern India. Barbus mahicola,
Cuv. & Val., has two barbels, but is otherwise similar to B. fila-
mentosus, Cuv. & Val., which possesses none. Should a number
of examples be examined, it is seen that these appendages in
some are very minute, being, as a rule, smallest in specimens ob-
tained furthest from the hills. In South Canara, the Wynaad,
and base of the Neilgherries, where the finest examples are met
with, B. mahicola abounds ; towards Cochin and up the Coro-
mandel coast as far as Madras the barbels, when present, are small,
and the B. jilamentosus is the common type.
I may also here record a curious change which has 6éccurred in
one species of Barbus, the B. conchonius, H. B., which has been
transported, within the memory of man, from the plains into the
Nainee-tal lake on the Himalayas. It is evidently losing the ser-
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES. 577
rations from its dorsal spine ; and in time, if this continues, it
will become more like B. éerio, H. B., than the typical form.
On the other hand, some Carps would appear to be more derived
from the east, as :—Chela, from the Malay archipelago to the Hin-
dustan and Ceylonese subregions; Semplotus, from Burma to
Assam ; Catla, also from Siam and Burma to the Hindustan (but
not the Ceylonese) subregions ; Amblypharyngodon, Danio, Peri-
lampus, Nuria, and Fohtee, from Burma to India generally.
If we now turn to the Siluride or scaleless fishes, we find them
represented by 26 genera composed of 85 species, demonstrating
how inferior in numbers they are to the Carps. Some of these
genera, as Clarias and Saccobranchus, have, as I formerly ob-
served (‘On Amphibious and Migratory Fishes of Asia,” Journ.
Linn. Soe. Zool. vol. xii. p. 198 e¢ seg.), respiratory organs having
a lung-like function, and which are distinct from the gills; and
as all fishes having these accessory breathing-organs are restricted
to tropical regions, we may assume that Clarias and Saccobran-
chus are tropical fishes,
T have already (Journal Linn. Soc. Zool. xii. p. 888) given an
account of these fishes as found in India with the localities they
inhabit; and it is therefore unnecessary to adduce further rea-
sons for considering that we have the remains of three distinct
and separate faunas existing amongst the living freshwater
fishes of India. The jirst, among the ancient granitic hilly
of the Western Ghauts, extending into Ceylon, and also found
on the Himalayas and in the Malay archipelago, shows some
former connexion between these various points. That the fish
themselves are of two races—the Palearctic, which were derived
from Asia (or the Mediterraneo-Persic subregion) west of
the Indus; and the Malayan, which came through a continent
now submerged beneath the Indian Ocean, a portion of which
we, however, still discern in the Andamans and Nicobars. The
second fauna, that of the plains, has an African element in it,
and was likewise derived by a land communication west of the
river Indus; but, due to some cause, its genera, unless widely dis-
tributed, give but a small proportion of existing forms. The
third fauna, and by far the largest, is spread over the plains of
India, and derived its existence through communication being
formed with Burma and countries to the eastward ; and these ap-
pear to have supplanted the prior African element from the waters
of the plains.
LINN JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 42
578 MR. F. DAY ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL
Table showing the distribution of Genera in the various
Subregions.
Hindu- | Ceylo-
stan sub-| nese sub-
region. | region.
Burma | Malay
and | archipe-
Siam. | lago.
Ambassis ........6ceeee.
INEMAGITE) Gasdobedobbocooude
IBAGIS ese eee aan
SHS CISOMA! lose deceit
Gobius eee ene
Sicydium ...............
‘Periophthalmus ......
IBIGOUTEIS) pon0000d0008000008
Rhynchobdella .........
Mastacembelus .........
IMT aT Soh sooeasogoooobo bbe
Chanmnalieesssneeernecrs:
JANES cgcocodacaeodoo00e
Polyacanthus............
Osphromenus .........
Trichogaster .........0+-
Htroplus ............00
IMTEVORONIES Son dbondncoade
Mitta epaissceeeaseaseeser
TEEFOEEISIOS Soso0ndaoo0s006
Pseudeutropius.........
O)hynit) cocadedboauceesdes0ad
Callichrous .........00.
Wrallago.-tn-scnescnees-
FSHULTERBES). dacocoadoousacaced
Chaeayenenenoscctere ce
Clavias eye eee
Saccobranchus .........
Silundia . ...............
CSIR ane ae serine saat
Ailiichthys............06-
Hutropiichthys .........
Amblyceps.............-.
SISO |/iGovekaoseneceaueseee
IRENE — ocoopsvobeo0008
Glyptosternum .........
Euglyptosternum ......
Pseudecheneis .........
Hxostoma ..............
iBelonelercesesenessserere
Cyprinodon ............
Haplochilus ............
Ft ret et et tek free fet et peek free fee fd feel faced feel feet ek mt et et ee OM et OH OH HH OR HH OH
MOM OOCORFM COO CO OOOH HE OH HH OHOOCOO OHH OOHRS HH OHH HOR HB ee eee
MPOPMREPOOOFP OM OE HE OOM Be eH He ee EE HOHOH OOH OH BH He eee eee ee
MPOPMFOSCOCOMPKHOOCOOCOCOCC OOH BH HP HOB HCOOH HOR HH HOH HH ee eee HHO HE
|
|
em SSOCOFFSOKSOSCCOCSCOCSOCSCOCOrFCOCSCOCOC OC OCOOCOSooOOoOSOrHOoOrOCOeOSCOoOSCOOSS
Carried forward
42 25
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISHES.
Table (continued).
Brought forward ...
Homaloptera...........-
Psilorhynchus
Discognathus............
OWEHINES .cocoasooooaesbo0
Schizopygopsis .........
Schizothorax ............
Ptycobarbus
Diptychus ...............
HAE ONE ciseaige cl cuir ces
sec voores
ID REA, SocoobooosooHooUeT
Cirrhina
Semiplotus...............
Scaphiodon
(Genie) Che paneecassperoeenen
Thynnichthys
Amblypharyngodon ...
Barbus
INTHE) Gunbocaplereeedonnee ce
INGS| OI) Goopoasgaacuoceods
Aspidoparia
Rohtee
TENANTS) Gaggacsboadendonse
Danio .
Doce ensertssccoeas
Cine ley ecdcubeehacoseuaceors
Botia
Acanthopsis
Somileptes..............-
Lepidocephalichthys...
Acanthophthalmus ....
Nemacheilichthys......
Nemacheilus ............
Notopterus...............
Amphipnous............
Monopterus
Symbranchus............
Hindu- | Ceylo- eae
stan sub-|nese sub- 1
\ : ayas
region. | region.
25
MOR RHE OOP ERO EH See ee eee OOH OOO OOHEOL
MOSHE OFSSHOSCOCR EE EH OR EH HOOHOHOCOHOOOCOOHOE
SPSS SSSSSSSSOHMSSSHSOSCOOSOH SOOO OHO OR Eee EHH OHO
579
Malay
archipe-
—
i
ieje}
2
PR OME OSSCOCP OPE HOOP COHOH CHOC OREH HOO OOO OOHS
(=r)
ito)
iS
uN
—_
(@/0)
nS
=r)
580 MR. 8. HANLEY ON TWO NEW SHELLS.
Description of two new Shells. By Syivanus Hantey, F.LS.
[Read December 19, 1878. ]
Metanta Limporat, Hanley. TP. oblongo-turrita, brevis, magis
minusve crassa, olivaceo-flava. Anfractus pauci (circiter 8),
magni, convexi, rapide crescentes ; supremi lzves, fascia spirali
livida aliquantulum supra medium szpius picti; inferiores cos-
tellis subdepressis (nonnumquam versus costellas basis acutiores
angustas magisque distantes obsoletis) spiraliter ornati. Sutura
distincta. Apertura ovato-elliptica, basi rotundata, circiter 2
longitudinis teste sequans, livida vel livido-fasciata; peristoma
pallida ; columella arcuata, macula livida picta, haud angusta.
Long. 1 poll.
Hab. Mulé-it Range, Tenasserim (Limborg).
I am indebted for specimens of this shell to Colonel Godwin-
Austen, who has requested me to name the species after its dis-
coverer. The shell, which is very unlike any of its congeners in
British India, displays no other painting than the narrow livid
band which winds occasionally to the outer lip; it is probable,
however, that additional ones are sometimes developed upon the
body-whorl. The spire tapers quickly to its point, which latter
is broken in all the examples I have studied. There are no lon-
eitudinal folds.
Lrepromya Gravina, Hanley. T. rhomboideo-obovalis, subequi-
lateralis, fragilis, in medio tumida, ad rostrum concava, lactea,
lineis tenuibus elevatis approximatis concentrice rugosa ; plica
dorsalis postica angulata margini dorsali fere attingens. Latus
anticum rotundatum; latus posticum acuminatum, extremitas
rostri centralis. Margo dorsalis antice subdeclivis, postice de-
clivis ; margo ventralis in medio subito tumidus, postice concavus.
Apex declivis, acutissimus. Long. 1 poll.
Hab. ? (Mus. Hanley).
I have only seen a single valve (a left one, in very fine con-
dition) of this peculiar-looking shell, which merely differs from a
broken specimen from Arakan in the greater closeness of its
raised lines and the nearer approximation of its Telliniform fold to
the dorsal edge. It approaches the Z. (Weera) cochlearis of
Hinds ; but in that bivalve the raised lines are further apart, the
posterior side is much longer, and the apex of the more tapering
and more elongated beak rises above the middle. The rare Sero-
ON THE RELATIONS OF RHABDOPLEURA. 581
bicularia adunca of Gould is said to be a synonym of Neera
cochlearis, but is only known to me from its brief description in
the ‘Otia’; its characters do not harmonize with those of L.
gravida.
On the Relations of Rhabdopleura.
By Professor G. J. Auuman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President.
[Read December 19, 1878.]
Some years ago I founded this genus for a very remarkable Polyzoal
form dredged by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys and the Rev. A. M. Norman
from a depth of 90 fathoms in the Shetland seas*. My obser-
vations were made on specimens which had been preserved in
spirit; and, as far as the condition of these would allow,
some interesting results were obtained. G. Ossian Sars, how-
ever, had nearly at the same time the good fortune to dredge,
from a depth of 120 fathoms, at Lofoten, off the Norwegian coast,
examples of another species of the same genus ; and he has been
thus enabled to make a very careful and complete examination of
the living animalt, and has in many important points rectified
and supplemented the observations made by myself on spirit
specimens.
At first sight Rhabdopleura would seem to find its proper place
among the Phylactolemata, to which it has the appearance of
being allied by its crescentic lophophore and by the homologue
of an epistome, if we so regard the remarkable shield-like organ
which in the adult animal is situated between the two orifices of
the alimentary canal.
The crescentic lophophore of Ahabdopleura, however, is very
different from that of the hippocrepian or crescentic-disked Phy-
lactoleemata, from which it is widely separated by its interrupted
series of tentacles; while I am by no means ready to admit that
the shield which constitutes so important a feature in this genus
is the homologue of an epistome. A comparison of the more
striking characters of Khabdopleura with those of a typical poly-
* Allman, on Rhabdopleura Normani. Quart. Journ. Mier. Se., January
1869.
t G. O. Sars, on Rhabdopleura mirabilis. ‘The University Programme’ for
1869. Christiania, 1872. Reprinted in Quart. Journ. Micr. Se., January
1874.
582 PROF G. J. ALLMAN ON THE
zoon will help us in arriving at a conclusion regarding these
points.
The more important features by which Rhabdopleura differs
from the typical marine Polyzoa will be found (1) in its cres-
centic lophophore ; (2) in the tentacular series not being con-
tinued from the bases of the arms round the body of the lopho-
phore ; (8) in the lateral rather than terminal position of the
mouth ; (4) in the possession of a remarkable shield-like organ
which is attached to the body of the lophophore between the
mouth and anus; (5) in the possession of a chitinous rod which
extends through the tubular coencecium, and gives attachment to
one end of a contractile fleshy cord, which at the other end is
fixed to the body of the polypide; (6) in the absence of an endo-
eyst lining the cavity of the zocecium, and in the further absence
of a tentacular sheath.
A somewhat closer comparison of Rhabdopleura with an ordi-
nary polyzoon will bring out some points of great interest, and
will, I think, suggest the true significance of its singularly ab-
errant features. One of its most anomalous characters is the
apparent absence of an endocyst and tentacular sheath. In the
spirit specimens I failed to find any thing but what seemed the ob-
scurest indications of them; and on these I would lay no stress,
for the careful investigations of Sars on the living animal render
it highly probable that neither endocyst nor tentacular sheath as
usually understood are to be found. I believe, however, that
Rhabdopleura is not without their homologues. These may be
partly recognized in the fleshy contractile cord. This cord
may be regarded as an endocyst which has become separated
from the chitinous ectocyst, while the approximation of its
walls has brought about the almost complete obliteration of its
cavity. Where, however, the cord is attached to the polypide,
it spreads in the form of a membrane over the whole of the
alimentary canal. This membranous extension of the cord re-
presents the anterior part of the endocyst with the tentacular
sheath; and Sars has already suggested the possibility of the
endocyst being here found. Posteriorly a still greater transfor-
mation has taken place; for in all the older parts of the coene-
cium we find the continuation of the cord in the condition of a
chitinous rod, which, however, still presents in its lumen a trace
of the original endocystal cavity. The endocyst in receding from
the ectocyst carries with it the longitudinal muscular fibres which
RELATIONS OF RHABDOPLEURA. 983
Schematic and hypothetical diagram of Rhabdopleura. a. Lophophore, with
origin of tentacles; 6. Shield; c. Mouth; d. Cisophagus; e. Stomach; f In-
testine; g. Anal orifice; hh. Endocyst; 7. Contractile cord; %. Commence-
ment of the chitinous rod; 7. External chitinous tube.
The representative of the endocyst is indicated by the broad dark line.
584: PROF. G. J. ALLMAN ON THE
had entered into its composition ; and we accordingly find the
contractility of the endocyst retained by the cord*.
It is obvious that with these conditions there can be no inva-
gination or evagination of the cystid walls; and the endocyst
being anteriorly closely adherent to the walls of the polypide,
while it is quite free from the ectocyst, the polypide in the act of
protrusion carries out with it the whole of the anterior part of the
endocyst without any evagination, and in retraction withdraws
it without invagination into the tube of the chitinous ectocyst.
The obliteration of the endosarcal cavity need not surprise us ;
for in Pedicellina a nearly similar condition exists. Here also, asin
Pedicellina, the absence of special retractor and parieto-vaginal
muscles is a necessary result of the obliteration of this cavity.
The contractile cord-like portion of the endocyst offers a me-
chanism quite efficient for the retraction of the polypide. Its
protrusion, in the absence of an endocystal cavity filled with a
perigastric fluid, is not so easily explained. It is possible, how-
ever, that this may be aided by the elasticity of the cord, or, as
Sars suggests, by the action of the great foot-like shield.
The determination of the true import of the shield is a matter
of considerable difficulty ; but I believe that what we know of it
in connexion with the development of the polypide will tend to
throw light on this question. In the earliest known stage of the
bud, the shield already exists as a relatively very large organ.
Indeed in this stage we can find nothing but the short thick
cord-like endocyst carrying on its free end the great shield, which
in R. mirabilis is, according to Sars, in the form of a moderately
curved disk, while in &. Mormani it has the curvature carried
to such an extent as to make it resemble the two-valved fleshy
mantle of a Lamellibranchiate.
Within the hollow of the curve the polypide is gradually de-
veloped. The shield becomes still larger, and continues for some
time to exceed the growing polypide in size; but it is at last
surpassed by this, and is finally reduced to the condition of a
mere appendage of the polypide.
From this account of the origin of the shield and its connexion
with the polypide, it is obvious that it cannot be the homologue
of the epistome of the proper phylactolematous Polyzoa. Though
our knowledge of the development of the epistome is by no means
* Tf such be the true interpretation of the contractile cord of Rhabdopleura,
this cord cannot be homologous with the funiculus of Aleyonella &e.
RELATIONS OF RHABDOPLEURA. 585
complete, there is reason to believe that it is formed, like the
lophophore and tentacles, by an introversion of the polypide walls
in the region of the mouth, and that it has thus a significance
entirely different from that of the shield of Rhabdopleura.
The formation of the chitinous ectocyst offers another question
by no means easy of solution. We know that in the ordinary
Polyzoa the ectocyst is a simple excretion from the surface of the
endocyst, which is continually in contact with it. In Rhabdo-
pleura, during the early stages of development of the polypide,
the cord which represents the chief part of the endocyst is much
thicker than ata later period, and may have then allowed the
chitinous tube to be moulded on its surface. I am, however,
well inclined to believe that the function of excreting the ecto-
eyst devolves on the shield, which at an early period is relatively
very large. It possesses, too, at this period a structure which
might quite accord with such a function, being composed of elon-
gated prismatic cells whose ends abut upon its outer surface.
Indeed we can hardly avoid comparing it in this function, as well
as in its form, with the shell-secreting mantle of a Lamellibran-
chiate mollusk.
If we bring together the morphological facts here adduced, we
shall find that they give us a series which, so far as it goes, re-
presents the life-history of Rhabdopleura. We have the endocyst.
which, notwithstanding its anomalous condition, retains its normal
faculty of originating new zooids by gemmation. In Rhabdo-
pleura, however, the direct product of this faculty is a shield-
like zooid, which by its bivalve form in R. Normani may even
suggest the Cyphonautus-stage of Membranipora; and it is from
this that we find emitted the ultimate bud which becomes directly
developed into the proper polypide. The developmental pheno-
mena here differ from those in Alcyonella mainly by the interca-
lation of a scutiform zooid between the cystid and the polypid.
This zooid does not perish after the completion of the polypid,
but remains as a subordinate appendage of the latter.
We are yet entirely ignorant of the sexual reproduction of ©
Ehabdopleura ; and until this is discovered our knowledge of its
life-history must continue incomplete.
It must be now evident that whatever apparent resemblance
there may be between Fhabdopleura and the proper Phylactole-
mata, this genus essentially differs not only from the Phylacto-
lemata, but from all other Polyzoa to such an extent that it will
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 43
586 REV. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
be necessary to place it in an independent section of the class.
To this we may assign the name of PoLyzoa ASPIDOPHORA.
Indeed I regard Rhabdopleura as entitled toa rank at least as
high as that of the Horoproota and EnpoProcta ; and the AsPI-
DOPHORA will thus constitute a third great section of the class.
The hydroid affinity attributed to Rhabdopleura by the elder
Sars, and accepted by his son, is based on a misconception of
hydroid structure and development, as doubtless the distinguished
Scandinavian zoologist would, on more mature consideration,
have been among the first to admit*.
MOLLUSCA OF H.M.S. ‘CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION.
III. Trocuip2, viz. the Genera Seguenzia, Basilissa, Gaza, and
Bembix. By the Rev. R. Boog Watson, B.A., F.LS., &e.
[Read December 5, 1878. ]
Tue following group of genera are of considerable interest. They
are nearly allfrom very deep water. Of the Seguenzias, two spe-
cies are new; and some additional information of interest has
been obtained regarding the genus. Basilissa is a new genus
whose labial and basal sinus connect it with Seguenzia; while
both genera present Plewrotomaria features hitherto unknown
among the Trochide. Gaza is utterly distinct, not alone from
these two genera, but from any thing known in the family, in
which a reverted thickened lip is an entire anomaly. The genus
Bembix, here proposed, is made for a new form of the Trochide,
presenting an epidermis.
SEGUENZIA, Jeffr.
J. G. Jeffreys, Report on the Biology of the ‘ Valorous’ cruise,
Roy. Soc. Proc. No. 178, 1876, p. 200.
In all the species of this genus I have seen, besides the infra-
gutural sinus resembling that of Plewrotoma, there are two others
-—one, which is rather sharp and slight at the carina, and another,
opener, on the base: between all of these the lines of growth
curve out strongly towards the mouth. This might probably be
accepted as a generic character. It is a feature very difficult to
trace ; but it certainly exists. In a perfect shell the mouth-edge
* See Ray Lankester in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Jan. 1874.
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 587
would of course exhibit it ; but all the specimens I have seen are
more or less chipped.
The nacre of the shell isa feature that connects this genus with
the Trochide. The nacreous layer is evidently not thick; and
when the shell is young and perfectly fresh it is altogether so
translucent that the nacre hardly appears as more than a pearly
lustre; and in all cases it has more of the beauty of the actual
pearl than that of the mother-of-pearl shell, but the nacreous
layer is unmistakably present. The exterior calcareous layer is
thin and very highly translucent, but still not glassy.
List of Species.
1. Seguenzia formosa, Jeftr. 3. S. carinata, Jettr.
2. 8. conica, W. 4. 8. trispinosa, W.
1. SEGUENZIA FORMOSA, Jeffr.
St. 24. N. of Culebra Island. St. Thomas, Danish W. Indies.
March 25,1873. 3890fms. Several young and broken specimens.
St. 56. Bermudas. May 29, 1873. 1075 fms. Globigerina-
ooze. 4 specimens, hardly full-grown.
Var. LinzATA, W.
St.120? Pernambuco. Lat. 8° 73'S., long. 84° 28' W. Sep-
tember 9,1873. 675 fms. Mud. 1 young specimen.
St. 122? Pernambuco. Lat. 9° 10’ S., long. 34° 50’ W. Sep-
tember 10,1873. 350fms. Mud. 1 young specimen.
J. G. Jeffreys, ‘ Valorous’ Expedition, Roy. Soc. Proc. No.
173, 1876, p. 200:—From N. Atlantic, 1450 fms. Bay of Biscay,
Spain, and Portugal, 718-795 fms. Gulf of Mexico, 325 fms.
Fossil, Trapani, Sicily (Seguenzia).
Shell—Small, conoidal; spire high; base inflated, white, glossy,
with high spiral threads. Sculpture. Of spiral threads there
are ten on the last whorl—one small, sharp, just at the suture ;
two, strong and sharp, of which the lower forms the basal
carina; the upper, which issometimes even the more pro-
minent, lies a little higher than halfway between the basal and
the sutural spiral: on the base there are seven, very equal in
strength and in distribution—the first lies somewhat remote
from the basal carina, and is separated from it by a broad
shallow furrow; the last les pretty close to the pillar and
twines round it. On the upper whorls only the sutural and
supracarinal spirals are seen. There are microscopic spirals
on all the surface. Longitudimals—there are many hair-like,
43*
88 REV. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
sharply projecting, flexuous, defining the lines of growth on
the upper whorls, but these become very faint on the later
whorls. Colour pure white with pearly translucency when
fresh, but weathering opaque with a pearly gleam through the
calcareous surface-layer. Spire high and conical, in some
specimens a little depressed. -Apewx small, rounded, slightly
tabulated, with the 14 embryonic whorl projecting, round,
glossy, but slightly roughened. Whorls 8, of slow and
regular increase, angulated above, sharply carinated, inflated
on the base, which is also slightly angulated by the third infra-
carinal spiral. Suture only doubtfully traceable (under the
microscope) in the middle of the sutural spiral. dlowth per-
pendicular. Outer lip thin and sharp, not, patulous, not
descending, with an open not deep angular sinus near the
suture, from which the line of the edge runs outwards uninter-
rupted across the second spiral, and forms a round projecting
point, retreating again so as to form a second sinus, smaller
and sharper, in the line of the basal carina, from which it again
runs outwards into a rounded point in the exterior basal fur-
row, and from this again retreats, sharply changing its direc-
tion on the fifth spiral, and then again retreating, as before, to
the sixth spiral, where it forms a third, open, obtuse-angled
sinus, and then passes in regularly to the centre. Pillar-lip
twisted, with a deep rounded sinus above, a strong twisted tooth
at about two thirds of its length, another narrower rounded
sinus below, anda sharp tooth at the point. The pillar is
strengthened by a pad, which is spread out on the base so as to
cover the seventh (counting from the suture) spiral, and enve-
lopes the pillar so as to leave a minute furrow behind it, but
ceases at the pillar-tooth. Umbilicws completely closed (but
in some young specimens presenting a minute hole, see var.
lineata, W.). H. 02. B. 0:14, least 0:12. Penult. whorl
0:04. Mouth, height 0:07, breadth 0:06.
Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys tells me (in litt., Nov. 15, 1878) that he has
got the operculum of this species, and that it “is ear-shaped,
very thin, paucispiral (having only two whorls); the spire very
small, excentric, and placed on the columellar side, thus resem-
bling somewhat that of Solariwm and Adeorbis ’’—a feature which,
according to Quoy and Gaimard, is shared by Huchelus, Philippi’s
subgenus of Trochus.
To the young specimens from Pernambuco, var. lineata, W., 1
ea
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 589
have put a query; for though I cannot separate them, still the
longitudinal sculpture is stronger, and there is an umbilicus.
2. SEGUENZIA Ionrica, W.*
St. 24. Culebra Island. St. Thomas, Danish W. Indies.
390 fms. Mud. 7 young specimens.
St. 73. W. of Azores. June 30,1873. Lat. 38° 30’ N., long.
31°14’ W. 1000 fms. Globigerina-ooze. 2 specimens and frag-
“ment.
Shell.—Small, depressedly conical, sharply carinate, and spirally
lirate, umbilicate, smooth. Sculpture. There is a sharp carina at
the periphery ; above this is a spiral liration formed by a sharp an-
culation, which on the upper whorls lies near the suture, but on
the later whorls lies nearer the carina. The carina is margined
below by a broad, shallow, round furrow, which is defined on its
inner side by a sharp spiral thread. The umbilicus is defined by
a sharp thread, outside of which is a shallow furrow and two or
three more spiral threads; the centre of the base is nearly
smooth, but has also some feeble spirals, which increase in
strength toward the outside and toward the centre. Besides
these, the whole surface is covered with sharp, not approximate,
microscopic spirals. Longitudinals—there are numerous di-
stinct lines of growth, which on the second whorl are like
minute radiating spokes, and in the superior sinus (2. e. between
the suture and the first spiral) are sharp and distinct, and more
remote than elsewhere on the surface, except on the base round
the umbilicus, where, though less sharp, they are even more
distinct. Colour a dead chalky white, with an exquisite pearly
nacre below the outside layer and within the shell. Spare low
and scalar. Apew flattened, the embryonic 14 whorl, though
somewhat tumid and large for the genus, being somewhat im-
mersed. Whorls 7, of regular and slow increase until the
last, which increases somewhat more rapidly ; angulated above,
tumid on the base, where (unlike S. carinata) the edge of the
umbilicus is the most projecting part. Swtwre linear, very
minute, but defined by a very slight shelf, which projects hori-
zontally just below it. Mouth perpendicular, squarish, but
too much broken for description. Oufer lip, the lines of growth
show it to have the same three sinuses as those described in
S. formosa. Pillar-lip patulous, a little reverted, scarcely
twisted, with a broad deep sinus above, a strong, but not sharp,
% So called from its resemblance to the volute of the Ionic capital.
590 REV. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
twisted tooth projecting at about three fourths of its length,
below which is a smaller sinus running out into a point at the
extreme end of the pillar. Umbilicus large, funnel-shaped,
deep, sharply defined by the edge of the base, the spiral of
which runs out to the point of the pillar-lip. Within the um-
bilicus is a strongish undefined spiral furrow answering to the
pillar-tooth, and the lines of growth are strongly defined.
H.018. B.0:24; least breadth 0:21. Penultimate whorl 0:04..
This species differs from S. carinata, Jeffr., in being more
depressed and broader, much more angulated and more lirate
above, more tumid and lirate on the base, of which the carina is
less flanged, and the most prominent part is the edge of the um-
bilicus, not the centre; here, too, the last whorl and the mouth
are larger. The young of this species look disproportionately small
and high.
3. SEGUENZIA CARINATA, Jeffr.
St. 73. West of Azores. June 30,1873. Lat. 38° 30' N., long.
31°14’ W. 1000 fms. Gobigerina-ooze. 1 specimen.
St. 78. San Miguel, Azores. July 10,1873. Lat. 37° 24 N.,
long. 25° 13' W. 1000 fms. Globigerina-ooze. 1 specimen.
St. 85. Palma, Canaries. July 19, 1873. Lat. 28°42’ N., long.
18° 6’ W. 1125 fms. Volcanic sand. 4 specimens, young.
St. 120. Pernambuco. September 9,1873. Lat.8°37'S., long.
34°28'W. 675 fms. Mud. 2 specimens, young.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Biol. Val. Cruise, Proc. Royal Soc. No. 178,
1876, p. 201. N. Atlantic, 690 fms. ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition,
1870, Bay of Biscay, off Spain and Portugal, 718-1095 fms.
Shell.— Small, broadly conical, rounded on the base, sharply an-
gulated, umbilicate, thin, polished, vitreous. Sculpture. Thereis -
asharp circumbasal carina, which on the spire sometimes projects
a little above the suture, and there is generally concealed by the
succeeding whorl. In the middle of the whorls is a slight spiral
thread, which on the earlier whorls is much stronger and some-
what lower in position than on the last; it defines the inferior
edge of the generic sinus. The base is margined by a broad flat
flange, and the edge of the umbilicus is defined by a fine sharp
thread. Besides these there are some faint traces of microscopic
spirals on the whole surface, especially on the base ; and the basal
sinus has on its outer edge more or less traces of a fine spiral
thread. Longitudinals—there are many hair-like flexuous lines
of growth. Colour glassy when fresh and young, in older shells
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 591
opaque white, but even then showing barely the faintest
trace of pearly nacre. Spire conical, rather depressed, and
with a slight convexity of its contour-lines. Apex very small
and sharp, flattened on the one side, and with the minute em-
bryonic 13 whorl projecting roundly on the other. Whorls
7, of gradual increase, slightly convex above, flatter below,
and a very little constricted above the sutural flange, whose
edge is sharp below and rounded above. The base projects
rather sharply from the inner side of the carinal flange, and
then passes rather flatly across to the edge of the umbilicus, into
which it slopes steeply. Swtwre linear and a very little impressed.
Mouth perpendicular, almost square, but a little rounded both
on the sides and at the angles. Outer lip sharp and thin, not
patulous, not descending; the curves of its edge are similar to
those described in S. formosa, there being three sinuses, one
near the suture, a second at the carina, and a third toward the
exterior of the base. Puilar-lip is patulous and a little reverted,
scarcely twisted, with a broad deep sinus above, a strong twisted
projecting tooth at about three fourths of its length, below which
is asmaller sinus running out into a point at the extreme end
of the pillar. Umbzlicus large, funnel-shaped, deep, defined by
a fine spiral thread, which runs out to the point of the pillar-lip ;
within the umbilicus is a shallow furrow answering to the
pillar-tooth, and above is another spiral thread, stronger, but
less sharp than that on the edge ; the curved lines of growth are
strongly defined in the umbilicus. H. 015. B. 0:17, least
0:15. Last whorl 0:037. Mouth, height 0-049, breadth 0:5.
This species is so thin and transparent that scarcely any trace
of nacre can be recognized; but by carefully occluding the hight
on the outside, and thus having all the light reflected from the
inside of the mouth, the pearly lustre is distinctly visible, especi-
ally at the outer upper corner. i
4. SEGUENZIA TRISPINOSA, W.*
St. 120. Pernambuco. September 9, 1873. Lat. 8°37'S., long
34° 28'W. 675 fms. Mud. 12 specimens, old and young.
Shell.Small, high, conical, scalar, with three rows of tubercled
lirations, umbilicate, thin, smooth. Sculpture. There is a
sharp circumbasal carina, above this is a broad shallow fur-
row; about one third up the whorl is a narrow and blunt
liration; a little more remote is a third, separated by a
* From the three rows of spinous lirations.
sit
92 REV. B. BOOG WATSON ON THE
narrow, horizontal, flat surface from the suture. All these
three lirations are ornamented with little tubercles or blunt
spines, which are strongest on the highest thread, and there
number about twenty-five on the body-whorl, on the second
thread there are about twenty-eight. The base, which is
rather flatly arched, has round the outside a flat surface hardly
deep enough to be called a furrow, defined on the inner side by
a clear narrow line, within which the curve of the base rises a
little and has some faint spirals. The edge of the umbilicus
is sharply defined by a fine line, outside of which is a broad
shallow furrow bordered externally by a slight spiral; there
is another narrower furrow, the outer side of which is the
most projecting part of the base, but beyond this is rather
flat and has some obsolete spirals. On the upper whorls the
spirals are feeble and without tubercles, which only appear di-
stinctly on the fourth whorl. Longitudinals—the flexuous lines
of growth are very faint. Colowr porcellanous when young and
fresh, but weathering to a chalky white, with a pearly nacre
below the thin surface and within the mouth, especially at the
outer upper corner. Spire conical, high, scalar. Apex very small
and sharp, flattened on the one side, and with the minute
14 embryonic whorl projecting tumidly on the other. Whorls
73, of gradual increase: the upper ones are rounded; the
later flat below the suture, then angulated, then fiat on the
conical slope of the spire, and then very slightly constricted
above the carina, very slightly rounded on the base, with a flat
and slightly impressed, but sloping border round the outside,
sharply angulated at the umbilicus. Swtwre linear, but strongly
defined by the constriction and impressed angulation of the
shell at that point. Mouth perpendicular, nearly square.
Outer lip sharp and thin, not patulous, not descending. The
curves are very faintly indicated by the lines of growth, but
are similar to those described in S. formosa, Jefir., there being
three sinuses, one near the suture between the first and second
spinose thread, a second, very small but sharp, at the carina,
and a third toward the exterior of the base. Pzllar-lip 1s patu-
lous and reverted, with a furrow behind it, twisted, with a
broad deep sinus above; a strong twisted projecting tooth at
about two thirds of its length, below which is a smaller sinus
running out into a point at the extreme end of the pillar ;
this point corresponds to the umbilical carina. Umbilicus
more openthan large, perpendicular and deep, being only slightly
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 593
narrowed by the reverted pillar-lip and by the corresponding
ridge which twines spirally round the pit-wall. Below this ridge
is avery strongly marked furrow, which corresponds to the
pillar-tooth. H. 0:14. B. 0:15; least breadth 0-13. Last
whorl 0:06. Mouth, height 0:05, breadth 0:06.
This species most resembles S. carinata, Jefir., but is narrower,
sharper, and the last whorl is larger: the suture is angulately im-
pressed instead of being faintly linear; the spiral threads are
stronger, and are picked out with tubercles; the base is more
equably curved, the spirals on it are stronger: the umbilicus is
smaller, and is more strongly defined, not only by the stronger
carina, but by the extracarinal furrow. The pillar-tooth comes
in higher up than in that species.
Basitissa, W., gen. nov. (Gacidvoca, queen.)
Testa conica, carinata, umbilicata, margaritacea, anfractu ultimo superne
sinuato; columella recta, parum obliqua, tenuis, superne excavata, in-
ferne vix dentata, ad basin autem valde angulata; apertura rhom-
boidea, labiis nee conniventibus nee callo palatali junctis.
The special feature of this genus is the sinus in the outer lip
near its junction with the body. In the presence of such a sinus
it resembles Seguenzia, Jeffr., but differs from that genus in this,
that Basilissa has a wide, open, shallow, not a deep-cleft sinus, is
brilliantly nacreous, and lacks the sharp tooth on the pillar with
the strongly marked sinus above and below it. It also wants the
carinal sinus which all the species of Seguenzia I have examined
present ; and the basal sinus can scarcely be said to exist, though
on the base the lines of growth change their direction markedly
below the carina.
In form, in sculpture, and in its sinus this genus recalls M‘Coy’s
genus Platyschisma, a Carboniferous fossil; but that belongs to
the Solariide, and is distinguishable at once by the absence of the
mother-of-pearl structure of shell, by its rounded mouth, and by
its short pillar.
List of Species.
1. Basilissa lampra, W. 4. B. alta, W.
2. B. simplex, W. 5. B. superba, W.
3. B. munda, W. 6. B. costulata, W.
1. Basirissa LAMPRA, W. (Aapmpos, shining.)
St. 246. July 2, 1875. Lat. 36° 10' N., long. 178° 0! E. Mid
Pacific, east of Japan. 2050 fms. Grey ooze. 1 specimen.
594 REV. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
Shell.—Thin, white, opalescent, smooth, faintly reticulated. In
form slightly resembling a smallish Zonites cellarius, with a
high concave spire, sharp apex, acute carina, angulated umbi-
licus, and rhomboidal mouth. Sculptwre. Smooth, glossy, irides-
cent, with ten to twenty faint spiral threads on the upperside of
the body-whorl ; the last of these which joins the lip is much
stronger than the others ; a little remote and below is a thread
forming the keel, below which, and nearer, are two other strong
threads ; round the umbilicus are also two strong threads ; the in-
termediate space on the base is marked with eight to ten im-
pressed spiral striz. The interstices of the spirals are crossed by
longitudinals, which are regular, fine, hair-like, but distinct and
well parted ; their curve on the surface below the suture shows
the old sinus. On the base they are radiating and are crowded
and irregular, except round the umbilicus, where in the first
two or three strie they are very sharp and distinct. On
the upper whorls both the spirals and longitudinals are finer,
but sharper, than on the last. Colowr a greyish, horny, trans-
lucent, opalescent white. Spire raised, with a concave outline.
Apex, which consists of the single minute embryonic whorl, is
slightly exserted and sharp ; it is quite smooth, but thespirals and
longitudinals begin sharply immediately belowit. Whorls 63, of
slow and regular increase except the last, which widens rapidly,
depressed, quite flat, except the last, which is slightly rounded
above, and still more slightly concave on the base, with an acute,
but still rounded keel. Swtwre impressed on the body-whorl,
but on the upper whorls sharply, though slightly, marginated
below. Mouth alittle oblique, rhomboidal, the basal and palatal
limes being nearly parallel, while the outer and inner lip diverge
downwards. Outer lip thin, not patulous, not descending, advan-
cing at its junction with the body-whorl, and then retreating so as
to form a shallow, broad, open sinus a little below the suture,
acutely, but roundedly, angulate at the periphery, nearly flat on
the base, with a very slight nick at the point of the pillar, where
it joins the inner lip at a slightly obtuse angle. The pillar-lip is
straight. It is a very little thickened, and is slightly porcella-
nous. It advances a little on the edge of the umbilicus; below
this it is hollowed out by a receding curve, but advances again
into a slight rounded projection just above its junction with the
outer lip. In its whole direction it inclines slightly to the left.
Umbilicus oblique edged, funnel-shaped, being wide in the
mouth and deep, with straight converging sides. It is slightly
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 595
marked with lines of growth and a few faint spirals ; while all
the rest of the shell without and within is brightly opalescent,
it is scarcely so at all. Height 03. B. 0-48, least 0°35.
Penultimate whorl 0:08. Mouth, height 0:2, breadth 0:23.
This specimen is full-grown, and the animal is still within
the shell, but the operculum is absent.
The species has a slight general resemblance to Trochus (subg.
Solariella, S. Wood) aureonitens, A. Ad., but is utterly different,
not only in its angulation, but in its sculpture.
2. BasILissa SIMPLEX, W. (simplew.)
St. 323. February 28, 1876. Lat. 35° 39’S., long. 50° 47’ W.
Oif mouth of La Plata. 1900 fms. Grey mud.. 1 specimen.
Shell.—A. rather narrow cone, with a flat base, sharply angulated,
small, thin, delicate, smooth, glassy, nacreous under a thin
white calcareous surface. Sculpture. There are longitudinals,
which are faint, hair-like, and sinuated, showing the old lines
of growth. Of spirals, faint, rounded, and irregular, the whole
surface has traces. At the bottom of each whorl is a flat
puckered band, about 0°01 inch broad, whose upper edge
projects sharply, especially on the upper whorls, and whose
lower edge is a slight narrow flange which forms a sharp
carina at the periphery. This band forms the upper border
of the suture, which is further marginated below by two
not contiguous rounded threads occupying the top edge of
each whorl. The base is covered by about fourteen rounded
ridges and furrows, which are rather stronger toward the
centre, the last one, forming the edge of the umbilicus, being
specially so. Colour, the surface is a dead slightly creamy
white, formed by a thin calcareous layer through which the
underlying nacre shines. Spire high and conical. Apex broken.
Whorls 8 (reckoning the first two as broken), of slow and
regular increase till the last, which enlarges rapidly ; perfectly
flat, with an upper and lower border, sharply angulated and
carinated at the periphery, slightly convex, but still very flat
on the base, with a bluntly angulated and carinated umbilical
edge. Suture linear, almost invisible, marginated above and
below. Mouth perpendicular, rhomboidal, with the body-pillar
and basal edges nearly equal, and the pillar and outer lip nearly
parallel. Outer lip sharp and thin, not patulous, not descend-
ing, advancing at its junction with the body-whorl, then re-
_ treating so as to form the broad open sinus, acute-angled at the
596 REV. BR. BOOG WATSON ON THE
periphery, slightly arched across the base, nicked close to the
point of the pillar. Pillar-lip arched, strengthened by a thin
pad; reverted on the umbilicus so as to leave a slight groove
behind it, with a slight tooth in front. From the body-whorl
it bends very much over to the left, so as largely to cover the
umbilicus, and then it curves over to the right to join the outer
lip on the base at an obtuse angle. Umbilicus small, oblique-
edged, funnel-shaped, nearly covered by the pillar-lip, and con-
tracted within, scored with hair-like lines of growth. Height
0255. B. 0:25, least breadth 0-2. Penultimate whorl 0:075.
Mouth, height 0°12, breadth 0-11.
This isa narrower shell than Basilissa alta, W., less ornamented
and with a smaller umbilicus. Than B. munda, W., this is a nar-
rower shell, the flexuous longitudinals are stronger, the supra-
sutural band is stronger, and in that species the infrasutural band
is wanting.
3. BAsInissa MUNDA, W. (mundus.)
St. 85. July 19, 1873. Lat. 28° 42' N., long. 18° 6’ W. Off
Palma, Canaries. 1125 fms. Tine volcanic sand. 1 young spe-
cimen.
Shell.—Broadly conical, flat on the base, sharply angulated, small,
thin, delicate, smooth, glossy, nacreous under a thin white calca-
reous surface. Sculpture. There are longitudinals, which are very
faint but still sharp, sinuated, showing the old lines of growth.
Of spirals there are over the whole surface very faint traces. At
the bottom of each whorl, about ‘Olin. above the suture, is a
sharp narrow thread, which on the last whorl is bordered below
by a second, rather higher and sharper, which forms the carina,
and which on the spire is buried by the overlap of the succeeding
whorl. On the base there are about eleven fine spirals, within
which is a strong furrow, and a projecting, crenulated, or rope-
like thread forming the edge of the umbilicus. Colour opales-
cent, from the underlying nacre shining through the polished,
thin, translucent calcareous layer of the surface. Spire high and
conical. Apex flattened, with the minute smooth embryonic
14 whorl slightly projecting. Whorls 6, of regular and slow
increase (but the specimen is not full-grown); perfectly flat,
the slope being scarcely broken by the suprasutural thread.
Suture linear, almost invisible. Mouth perpendicular, irregu-
larly rectangular, broader than high. Outer ip sharp and thin,
with a slight open sinus; sharply angled at the periphery,
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 597
slightly arched across the base, apparently nicked at the point
of the pillar. Pillar-lip arched, strengthened by a thin pad,
reverted on the umbilicus so as to leave a groove behind it, with
a slight tooth in front. From the body it bends very much
over to the left, so as largely to cover the umbilicus; it then
advances straight and is toothed in front. Umbzlicus small,
oblique-edged, with acrenulated margin. Height 0:13. Breadth
0:14, least 0°12. Penultimate whorl 0:03. Mouth, height 0-06,
breadth 0:05.
Than B. simplex, W., this is a broader, smoother, less banded
shell. Than B. alta it is lower, less ornamented, with a much
smaller umbilicus.
4, Basttissa aLra, W. (altus.)
St. 24. Mar. 25,1873. Culebra Island, St. Thomas, Danish
W. Indies. 3890 fms. Mud. 3 specimens, one full-grown.
St. 120. Sept. 9, 1873. Lat. 8° 37'S., long. 84° 28! W. Off
Pernambuco. 675 fms. Mud. 1 young specimen.
Var. oxytoma, W.
Shell.—An equilateral cone, flat-based, sharply angulated. Small,
thin, delicately sculptured. Nacreous under a thin, white, calea-
reous surface. Sculpture. There arelongitudinals about 45, hair-
like, strongly sinuated, flexuous, for they advance markedly on
the periphery, where they are each ornamented by an elongated
curved tubercle, and on the base they again retreat so as to form a
sinus. On the earlier whorls these longitudinals are much more
distinct than on the later, and each starts from a little bead,
which lies close to the suture, but these beads are very feeble
on the last whorl. In the intervals of the longitudinals and
parallel to them are very faint lines of growth. Of spirals
there are above the carina two stronger than the rest, with a
sharp intermediate furrow; above these are several hair-like
lines, which become feebler towards the middle of the whorl
and stronger again above, the upper whorls presenting one in
particular, which connects the row of infrasutural beads. On
the base below the carina are four narrow and sharp spirals,
followed by about eight, which are broader and flattened, and
within there is one stronger than the rest, with about sixteen
rounded beads, which crenulate the edge of the umbilicus. The
furrows between these basal spirals are cut into little oblong pits
by the longitudinals. Colour a dead creamy white, with the
‘ underlying nacre gleaming through. Spire high and conical.
598 REY. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
Apex flattened, with the minute, smooth, 17 embryonic whorl
somewhat tumidly projecting. Whorls 83, of slow and regular in-
crease. In the earlier whorls there is a slight tumidity below the
suture, a slight contraction in the middle, and a slight swelling
round the base of each whorl. This last feature is feebly persis-
tent in the later whorls, but otherwise these are flat. There ig
a sharp carinated angle, and the base is almost flat, with an
angular tubercled umbilical edge. Suture linear, almost invisible.
Mouth perpendicular, somewhat rectangular, and broader than
high. Outer lip sharp and thin, not patulous, not descending,
with a rather deep but broad and open sinus at the suture,
forming a slightly acute angle at the periphery, where it ad-
vances very markedly, retreating immediately to form a sinus
on the base, where it is barely arched. Pillar-lip, which is
somewhat thickened, advances very little at its junction with
the body, then retreats slightly so as to form a small sinus,
bending at the same time a very little over the umbilicus. It
has a sort of double point with a slight nick between them. It
is very slightly reverted, and the umbilical groove behind it is
very small. Umbilicus small, funnel-shaped, oblique-edged,
erenate on the margin, and strongly scored within, and with
an oblique spiral formed by the old points of the false pillar-
end. Height 0:25. Breadth 0:24, least 0°22. Penultimate
whorl 0:08. Mouth, height 0:09, breadth 0-1.
The variety from Pernambuco is characterized by the remark-
able distinctness of its sculpture, whence its name. This species
is a broader and much more ornamented form than B. simplex or
B. munda.
5. BAsILissa SUPERBA, W. (superbus.)
St. 184. HE. of Cape York, Australia. Lat. 12° 8’ S., long.
145° 10' EH. 1400 fms. Grey ooze. 1 specimen.
Shell.High, concavely conical, flat-based, sharply angulated ;
thin, finely reticulated, cream-coloured. Nacre very faint.
Sculpture. Spirals, there are about twenty delicate threads, very
nearly but not quite regular in thickness or distance, on the
upper part of the last whorl; they slowly decrease in number
on the previous whorls. The two (or three) which form the
carina are thrown out a little on a projecting whitish fillet,
which encircles the base of the whorls. This whitish fillet ex-
tends to the base, where it forms a narrow obliquely-corrugated
edging. On the base there are about thirty spirals, more
crowded, flattened, and irregular than above, and the edge of
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 599
the umbilicus is defined by another whitish fillet, ornamented
with about thirty oblong beads. One or two smaller and more
faintly beaded threads le within the edge of the umbilicus.
Longitudinals—there are of these on the last whorl about 120,
flexuous, marking the lines of growth, rather stronger, more
regular, and more distant than the spirals, which run over the
top of them and form little white nodes at the crossings. The
intersections of these two systems cut the whole surface into
rhombic reticulations, whose breadth is about 0-011 and their
height 0006. The longitudinal threads themselves are about
0-005 and the spirals about 0°003 broad. On the base the lon-
gitudinals are flattened and spread out into undulations.
Colour creamy, on a dull polished surface, with a very faint
nacreous gleam, which is pearly within the mouth; the apex is
ruddy. Spire high and conical, with slightly concave slopes ;
apex broken. On the upper whorls the longitudinals are strong,
while the spirals are obsolete, except the carinal fillet, which
projects bluntly above the suture. Whorls about 14, of very
regular increase, very slightly convex, sharply acute-angled
at the carina; on the base, flat at the outer edge and barely
convex in the middle, with a slight dip in toward the edge of
the umbilicus, which is strongly defined. Swtwre linear, de-
fined by the white carinal fillet, and also on the lower whorls
by being very slightly impressed. 2/outh perpendicular, rhom-
boidal, the basal and palatal lines being parallel, the other two
somewhat diverging and curved, broader than high. Outer lip
sharp and thin, not patulous, not descending, with a shallow
open sinus below the suture, below this, about the middle of the
whorl, it advances with a rounded sweep, retreating sharply
across the carina to form the open rounded basal sinus towards
the outer edge of the base. Pillar-lip sharp and thin; it
rises from the body a good way within the edge of the umbilicus.
It retreats so as to form a sinus, and there it bends over a little
on the umbilicus, and it forms a sharp angle projecting into a
tooth at the extreme point of the pillar. Umbilicus strong,
deep, abrupt, there being on the base only a very slight dip
in towards it, and it is defined by the white-beaded fillet.
Within, besides the two spiral lines, there are slight longi-
tudinal striations, and the inner edge of the whorls twines like
a staircase round it, but concealed by the over-curve of the
pillar-lip. H. 0°75. B. 0°65, least 06. Penultimate whorl
016. Mouth, height 0:2, breadth 0°28.
600 REV. R. BOOG WATSON ON THE
The form of this shell connects it with Basilissa alta, B. sim-
plex, and B. munda, and it distinctly has the sinuses of the
genus: the layer of nacre is very faint ; there is, however, a gleam
of it through the surface-layer, and within the mouth, in a favour-
able light and protected from light coming through the shell,
there is a distinct pearly lustre.
Tt has some resemblance to Hutrochus gemmatus, Reeve, in form
and in its gemmed umbilicus; and, though much higher and more
conical, recalls the Solaria of the group Zorinia (Gray), especially
S. trochoides, Desh.
6. BasILissa cosTuLATA, W..
St. 24. Mar. 25; 1873. Off Culebra Island, St. Thomas,
Danish West Indies. 890fms. Mud. Three rather young spe-
cimens.
Shell.—Small, depressedly conoidal, sharply angulated, flattish on
the base, sharply and deeply umbilicated, a little porcellanous,
flexuously ribbed. Sculpture. The whole surface is covered with
longitudinal flexuous ribs, which are narrow, sharp, and uniform,
and each is about 0:002 in. broad, and they are parted by intervals,
which at the suture are twice and at the periphery thrice as broad
as the ribs. There are about 40 of these on the last whorl. They
are crossed by spirals, half the breadth of the ribs, running across
the intercostal spaces and forming knobs on the ribs. Of these
on the last whorl there are about seventeen, much closer-set
and less uniform than the ribs ; 1n particular the carinal spiral,
which is very sharp, and the fourth and seventh above it, are
stronger than the others; the last mentioned of these is espe-
cially so on the earliest whorls. On the base the longitudinals,
though continued even into the umbilicus, become much less
prominent and are no longer nodose; and the spirals, of which
there are about fifteen, are closer-set, broader and flatter, except
the first three below the carina, which are sharp and narrow.
The whole base is pit-marked from the spiral interstitial fur-
rows being cut up by the longitudinals. Colowr dead white (on
the base a little glossy) on the thin porcellanous surface, through
which the nacreous layer behind gleams. Spire raised, with a
very slightly concave outline. Apex, which consists of the mi-
nute smooth embryonic whorl and a half, is itself a little flat-
tened, but rises sharply above the sculptured surface of the suc-
ceeding whorls. Whorls 53, of slow and regular increase till
the last, which begins to enlarge rapidly. They are slightly
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 601
rounded above, very sharply angulated at the keel, and flattened
on the base, with a bluntly angulated umbilical edge. Suture
distinct, slightly impressed. Mouth perpendicular, square.
Outer lip sharp, thickened by a slight internal remote callus,
not patulous, not descending, advancing at its junction with the
body-whorl and then slightly retreating so as to form the very
shallow open sinus; right-angled at the periphery, flat on the
base,where it retreats so as to form two rounded sinuses, making
with the pillar an angle that is scarcely obtuse. Pillar-lip is
straight, slightly thickened and reverted, so as to leave a
slight groove behind it. It advances on the body-whorl,
then retreats so as to form a slight sinus, bending at the same
time shortly but sharply to the right into the umbilicus and
then advancing straight forward, but a little toward the left, to
its junction with the outer lip at the base. Umbilicus funnel-
shaped, open-mouthed, oblique-edged, straight-sided, deep and
contracted internally. Its edge is sharply defined by a spiral
thread, and is obliquely scored by the longitudinal ribs ; further
in its walls are marked by hair-like lines of growth and faint
spirals. Height 0°12. Breadth0:14; leastO'11. Penultimate
whorl 0:23. Mouth, height 0-063, breadth 0-061.
This species slightly resembles in sculpture the young of Mar-
garita striata, Brod. (=Trochus cinereus, Couth., nec Da Costa),
but in all details of form and ornamentation is very different.
From Trochus amabilis, Jeffr., besides the generic features, it
differs in the depressed spire, in the absence of the deep-cut suture,
in the flatness of the base, and in all the features of minute sculp-
ture.
Gaza, W., gen. nov. (yaca, treasure.)
Testa trochiformis, plane margaritacea, eleganter celata, labio retroverso
calloque margaritaceo incrassato; columella torta, directa, antice
mucrone angulata, postice a labio penitus disjuncta, ad regionem
autem umbilicalem in pulvinum margaritaceum complanata. Opercu-
lum rotundum, membranaceum, tenue, multispirale.
I wish to express by “ plane” the sense of both Jucide and
penitus, the shell being both on the surface strikingly and through-
out its whole substance entirely nacreous.
Whether this and all the other features enumerated above will
prove constant is a question for time to determine. At present
a new genus is inevitable; for this shell, though plainly one of
the Trochide and of the Trochocochlea group, cannot possibly be
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. dich
602 REV. BE. BOOG WATSON ON THE
put into the genus Zrochus in any of its divisions. In form it re-
sembles most of all one of the West-Indian operculated pulmonates,
such as Alcadia, while its exquisite nacre, its cancellated sculp-
ture, its reflexed thickened lip, its nacreous umbilical pad, and
its perpendicular externally mucronated pillar, separate it im
the strongest way. In these circumstances I have yielded to the
strongly expressed opinions of judges so trustworthy as Dr.
Kobelt, of Frankfort, and Mr. Dall, of Washington, and take
this as the type of a new genus.
1. Gaza DmDALA, W. (6aidados, variegated.)
St.174. August 3, 1874. Kandavu, Fiji. Lat. 19° 10'S., long.
178°10'E. 610 fms. Globigerina-ooze. 1 specimen.
Shell.—Depressedly globose, with a convexly conical spire, thin,
translucent, horny, nacreous in its whole texture, and irides-
cent on the surface, with a slightly reverted and narrowly
thickened lip, a thin-edged twisted pillar, the point of which
runs out into a bluntly mucronated angle. Sculpture. Lon-
gitudinals—the whole surface is covered with strong, puckered,
oblique lines of growth, which are sharp-edged, but flat-
tened, rather regular, with many minuter ones in the inter-
vals. The longitudinals are cross-hatched with spirals which
are stronger and more regular but not perfectly uniform,
consisting of square threads and furrows of equal breadth,
and both scored by the longitudinals; on the earlier whorls
these spirals disappear before the longitudinals do; and on
the base they become on the outside feebler, closer, and finer,
in the middle broader and flatter, and stronger again toward
the centre of the shell. Colour a delicate yellowish, with a horny
translucency and exquisite iridescence, which under the lens
appears brilliant. Spire high and slightly scalar. Apex very
small, flatly rounded, the embryonic 14 whorl very slightly pro-
jecting. Whorls 7, of gradual increase, well rounded, the last
slightly angulated below, and on the base flattened, but rather
less so towards the mouth, where there is a slight con-
traction and downward turning of the whole whorl, without,
however, any descending of the lip at its junction with the body.
Suture very distinct, but not impressed. Mowth rather large,
very oblique, semioval. Outer lip reflected and thickened by
a strong but narrow, equal, rounded, white pearly callus, which
almost disappears just at the upper corner, and which has a very
slight furrow round its margin; it does not descend at all.
MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION. 603
Inner lip—tfrom the corner of the outer lip a very thin layer of
nacre spreads out a little way across the body, but then ceases
entirely. The pillar is spread out at its base as a confined, flat-
tened, unevenly inclined, semicircular, iridescent umbilical pad,
from the left corner of which the pillar proper projects, narrow-
edged but rounded, twisted, straight, bending to the left, and
advances into asharply angulated, and,as seen from behind, even
mucronated junction with the basal mouth-edge, to which the
umbilical pad curving round the back of the pillar also attains.
The inside is scored with the external sculpture, and 1s bril-
liantly iridescent. The umbilical pad is defined by a narrow
furrow, and in front by a slightly tumid ridge, which is the least
nacreous part of the whole shell. Operculum is membranaceous,
horny, yellowish, with about six to seven turns, each strongly
defined by a narrow line of thickening, and sharply scored with
minute oblique radiating lines. H. 0°65. B. 0°87, least 0°7.
Penultimate whorl 0-199. Mouth, height 0°43, breadth 0°41.
Unfortunately, though the operculum is preserved, nothing but
traces of the animal remain within the shell.
Brempix, W., gen. nov. (Géufxé, a top.)
Testa conica, alta, carinata, basi inflata, umbilicata, tenuis, margaritacea
epidermide tenui membranacea induta.
The remarkable feature of this genus is its being covered with
a thin, extremely persistent, smooth, fibrous epidermis, like
that of some of the Helices, a feature to which I know nothing
similar in the family. The epidermis swells up and becomes pus-
tulated in water. In form the shell recalls some of the Cantha-
ridus group, but is thinner and on the base more tumid; the axis
is perforated, and the pillar is thin, reverted, and merely angu-
lated in front. It is very unfortunate that the shell, of which
there is but one specimen, is not quite full-grown, so that the form
of the umbilicus and, still more, of the mouth is very doubtful.
The animal, too, and the operculum are both absent. Its separa-
tion from the Turbonide is thus not quite satisfactory. As to the
name of the genus, I think the only objection that can be taken
to it is that Philippi proposed the name Bembiciwm for one of the
genera of Litorinide, but afterwards himself withdrew it for the
prior name of fisella, Gray.
1. Bempix ova, W.
St. 232. May 12; 1875. Mosima, Japan. Lat. 35° 11! N.,
604 ON THE MOLLUSCA OF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION.
long. 189° 28’ E. 345 fms. Sandy mud. 1 specimen, not quite
full-grown.
Shell.—High, concavely conical, carinated, sculptured on the upper
whorls, smooth or wrinkled below, thin, with a tumid lirated
base, narrowly umbilicated, with a smooth epidermis, thin,
but especially so on the base. More or less nacreous all
over under a thin porcellanous upper layer. Sculpture. The
first three whorls (after the embryonic apex) are reticulated
by three sharp remote spirals, and rather stronger, slightly
oblique longitudinals, which rise at their intersection into
small sharp pyramidal tubercles; the interstices are a little
broader than high. This system gradually dies out and leaves
the surface smooth, only the row of infrasutural tubercles sur-
vives in an enlarged but depressed form, and springing from
these some sinuous oblique and slightly irregular longitudinal
puckerings appear on the last whorl, which is nearly bisected
by the sharpish, slightly expressed, finely tubercled carina.
This bisection of the last whorl arises from the great prolonga-
tion and tumidity of the base, on which, below the carina, are
five narrow, equally parted, spiral threads, and two intraum-
bilical ones, which are more contiguous. Besides this larger
system of sculpture, the whole surface is covered with minute,
oblique, irregular, and interrupted puckerings of the epidermis.
Colour a brownish yellow, but below the epidermis there is
a thin pure white porcellanous layer, through which and the
epidermis the sheen of the nacreous layer gleams. The base
is whiter, the epidermis there being very thin. Inside the
mouth is an exquisite roseate nacre. Spire high, with a slightly
concave contour, the lines of which are hardly swollen out by
the slight tumidity of the last whorl. Apex eroded, but evi-
dently small. Whorls 7 or 8, of regular increase, quite flat,
except the last, which is very slightly constricted below the
suture, a very little tumid on the upper slope, sharply cari-
nated but not much angulated at the suture, and very tumid
on the base. Sutwre linear, strongly defined above by the
square furrow lying between the lines of tubercles which margi-
nate the suture above and below. On the last whorl it be-
comes slightly pouting, from the projection of the carina and
the slight infrasutural constriction. Mouth nearly square, very
little oblique in the line of its advance, but standing out a little
obliquely to the axis of the shell. Outer lip thin, not descend-
ing. Pillar-lip thin, spread out broadly at its base over the
DR. GWYN JEFFREYS ON THE GENUS SEGUENZIA. 605
umbilicus, which it largely conceals, with a deep narrow furrow
behind it. It advances thin and pointed, curving over to the
right to its angular junction with the basal lip. Umbilicus de-
fined by a spiral thread and with two other spirals within it.
It is not so much small as concealed by the pillar-lip. H. 0°82.
B. 0°63, least 0:58. Penultimate whorl 0:19. Mouth 0-4;
breadth 0:38.
Perhaps Yrochus (Cantharidus) iris, Humph., while totally
unlike in most respects, nevertheless approaches this in form
more than any other shell does.
Note as to the position of the Genus Seguenzia among the Gas-
tropoda. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, LL.D., F.RS., F.L.S.
[Read February 6, 1879.]
Tur Rev. R. Boog Watson in a valuable paper, which was lately
read before the Society, on some of the Mollusca procured by the
‘Challenger’ Expedition, included the genus Segwenzia in the
Trochus family.
When I described that genus in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society ’ (No. 73, 1876, p. 200), I said that it evidently belonged
to the Solarium family ; and I gave my reason for this opinion,
to which I adhere. I am sorry not to agree with my friend Mr.
Watson ; but such difference of opinion is useful to science.
The chief points of distinction between the genera of Trochide
and Solariide consist in the shell of the latter not being pearly
or nacreous inside, and in the operculum being ear-shaped and
few-whorled, with a lateral nucleus and excentric spire, as in the
Littorinide. The operculum in the Trochide is circular and mul-
tispiral, with a central nucleus. I have fortunately succeeded in
extracting the operculum from a small fresh specimen of Seguen-
zia formosa ; and I find it to be ear-shaped, very thin, paucispiral
(having two whorls only), the spire being very small, excentric,
and placed on the columellar side. It resembles that of Solariwm
and Adeorbis, genera of the same family. Mr. Watson says that
my account of the operculum represents “a feature, which, accord-
ing to Quoy and Gaimard ,is shared by Huchelus, Philippi’s sub-
genus of Trochus.”’ Now all that Philippi remarks as to the oper-
culum of Huchelus is, “ der Deckel hat nach Quoy und Gaim. nur
wenige Windungen ;” but no mention is made of the shape of the
operculum nor of its spire and nucleus. I have carefully examined
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 45
606 DR. GYWN JEFFREYS ON THE GENUS SEGUENZIA.
all the species, five in number, of Huchelus (Aradasia, Gray) in the
British Museum, which show the operculum ; and in every species
the operculum is more or less circular, and the nucleus is central.
In A. cancellata of Krauss and A. baccata of Menke the operculum
is at first closely multispiral, as in other Trochide, although the
last whorls more rapidly enlarge. Chenu describes the operculum
of Huchelus as “subarrondi.”’
Sequenzia formosa has a nacreous exterior; but S. carinata and
S. elegans have the same composition and appearance as the shells
of Solarium hybridum and Adeorbis subcarinatus. All pearly shells
do not necessarily belong to the Lrochus family, e.g. Turbo, Ha-
liotis, and Nautilus, to say nothing of Anomia, Avicula, and other
bivalve shells.
The labial slit occurs not only in Plewrotomaria, but also in
Emarginula, Scissurella, Siliquaria, and the Pleurotomide, as well
as in Seguenzia.
It is to be hoped that any further doubt as to the systematic
position of this remarkable genus will ultimately be cleared up
by the discovery and examination of the soft parts of the animal.
Deep-sea researches have auspiciously commenced: they must be
continued and extended.
N.B. Two species of Seguenzia (viz. formosa and carinata)
were fully described by me in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Na-
tural History’ for April 1877, pp. 319 and 320; and it surely
was superfluous for Mr. Watson to redescribe them at equal
length. If every specimen of every species were described in the
same way, the literature of natural history would become unne-
cessarily voluminous.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BENS, AND WASPS. 607
Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wasps.—Part VI.
Ants. By Sir Jonn Lusszock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.LS.,
D.C.L., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor of the University of London.
[Read February 6, 1879.]
ANTS.
Plant-hurs and Fur preventative against Ants climbing.
Wuen I first began keeping ants, I surrounded the nests by
moats of water. This acted well; but the water required conti-
nually renewing, especially, of course, in summer, just when the
ants were most active. At length, however, in considering the
habits of ants and their relations to flowers, another plan sug-
gested itself to me. The hairs by which plants are clothed are of
various forms, and fulfil various functions. One is, I believe, to
prevent ants and other creeping insects from climbing up the
plants so as to obtain access to the flowers, and thus rob them of
their honey.
It occurred to me, therefore, that instead of water I might use
fur arranged so that the hairs pointed downwards. This I have
found to answer perfectly ; and I mention it specially because
the same arrangement may be found practically useful in hot
climates. Itis, of course, very possible that in hot countries the fur
might be open to objections which do not occur in England; and,
again, the tropical species might be able to climb up the fur; but
at any rate the experiment would be worth trying.
Workers fregently fertile as well as Queens, but produce
usually Males.
It is generally stated that among ants the queens only lay eggs.
This, however, is not correct.
Denny * and Lespést have shown that the workers also are
capable of producing eggs; but the latter asserted that these
egos never come to maturity. Forel, however, has proved £ that
this is not the case, but that in some cases, at any rate, the eggs
do produce young. Dewitz even maintains§$ that the workers
* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. yol. i. p. 240. °
Tt Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1863.
t Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 329.
§ Zeit. f wiss. Zool. vol. xxviii. p. 536.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIv. 46
608 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
py) b)
habitually lay eggs, and explains the difference which on this view
exists between the workers of ants and those of bees, on the
ground that (as he supposes) the majority of ants die in the
autumn, so that the eges laid by the queens alone would not be
sufficient to stock the nest in the spring; while among bees the
majority survive the winter, and consequently the eggs laid by
the queen are sufficient to maintain the numbers of the com-
munity. In reply to this argument, it may be observed that
among wasps the workers all perish in the autumn, while, on the
contrary, among ants I have proved that, at least as regards many
species, this is not the case. Moreover, although eggs are fre-
quently laid by workers, this is not so often the case as Dewitz
appears to suppose. Forel appears to have only observed it in
one or two cases. In my nests the instances were more nume-
rous; and, indeed, I should say that in most nests there were a
few fertile workers.
Among bees and wasps also the workers are eccasionally
fertile; but, so far as our observations go, it is a curious fact that
their eggs never produce females, either queens or workers, but
always males. ‘The four or five specimens bred by Forel from the
eges of workers were, moreover, all males.
It would therefore be interesting to know whether the same
is the case generally among ants; and my nests have supplied me
with some facts bearing on the question. Most of my nests con-
tained queens ; and in these it would be impossible, or at least
very difficult, to distinguish and follow the comparatively few
eggs laid by the workers. Some of my nests, however, contained
no queen; and in them therefore all the eggs must have been laid
by workers. ,
One of these was a nest of Formica cinerea, which I brought
back from Castellamare in November 1875. At that time it con-
tained no eggs or larve. In 1876 a few eggs were laid, of which
fifteen came to maturity, and were, I believe, all males. Last year
there were fourteen pupe, of which twelve came to maturity and
were all males. °
Again, in a nest of Lasius niger, kept in captivity since June
1875, there were in 1876 about 100 young; and these were,
as far as I could ascertain, all males. At any rate there were
about 100 males, and I could not finda single young female. In
1877 there were again some pup; but none of them came to
maturity. Last year fifteen haye come to maturity ; and fourteen
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 609
were males. The other I could not find; but I have no doubt,
from the appeacance of the pupa, that it was also a male.
Another nest of Zasius niger, captured in November 1875, in
1878 brought only one young ant to maturity; and this wasa
male.
Again, in a nest of Formica fusca captured in 1875, though in
1876 and 1877 eggs were laid and a few arrived at the pupa-state,
none came to maturity. They were all, however, either males or
queens, and, I have little doubt, were males. This year one came
to maturity, and it was a male.
Another nest of &. fusca, captured in 1876, did not bring up
any young in 1877. This year three larve came to maturity ; and
they all proved to be males. A nest of / fusca, captured in
1877, in 1878 brought only one young one to maturity. This was
a male. ;
In these species, then, as far as the evideuce goes, it would
seem that, as in bees, the workers can produce males only. On
the other hand, I ought to add that ina nest of Lasius flavus cap-
tured in 1876 a number of workers were produced this year. In
this species the larve live through the winter; but I can hardly
believe they take two years in coming to maturity. Nor dol
think the ants had access to any other larve; still I would not
attach too much importance to this isolated case. In the ease of
bees we know that the queen is brought up on different food from
the workers. Whether this is the case among ants, we have no
knowledge. Jam, however, disposed to believe it ; because while
hundreds, 1 might say thousands, of workers have been bred in
my nests, and a large number of males, not a single queen has
been produced in any one of them.
As to the Relations of Ants and their Domestics.
M. Lespés has given a short but interesting account of some
experiments made by him on the relations existing between ants
and their domestic animals, from which it might be inferred that
even within the limits of a single species some communities are
more advanced than others. He found that specimens of the
curious blind beetle Claviger, which always occurs with ants,
when transferred from a nest of Lasius mger to another which
kept none of these domestic beetles, were invariably attacked and
eaten. From this he infers that the intelligence necessary to
keep Clavigers is not coextensive with the species, but belongs
46%
610 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
only to certain communities and races, which, so to say, are more
advanced in civilization than the rest of the species.
With reference to the statements of Lespés, I have more than
once transferred specimens of Platyarthrus from one nest to ano-
ther, and always found them received amicably. I also trans-
ferred specimens from a nest of Lasius flavus to one of Formica
Jusca with the same result. I even brought from the South of
France some specimens of a different species, I believe Typhlo-
pone, and put them in a nest of Mormica fusca, where they are
still living, and have brought up more than one brood of young.
These species, however, occur in most ants’ nests, while Clavigers
are only found in some.
Longevity of Ants.
In my previous paper I have called attention to the longevity
of ants, which has proved to be much greater than I had ex-
pected. One of my nests of Formica fusca was brought from the
woods in December 1874. It then contained two queens, both of
which are (May 1879) still alive. I have little doubt that some
of the workers now in the nest were among those originally
captured, the mortality after the first few weeks having been but
small. This, however, I cannot prove.
In the following nests, however—viz. another nest of Formica
fusca, which I brought in on the 6th June, 1875, one of Lasius
niger on the 25th July, 1875, of Formica sanguinea (kindly sent
me by M. Forel from Munich) on the 12th September, 1875,
and of F cinerea on the 29th November, 1875—there were no
queens ; and, as already mentioned, no workers have been pro-
duced. Those now living are therefore the. original ones; and
they must therefore now be between three and four years old.
In fact, though I lose many ants from accidents, especially in
summer, in winter there are very few deaths.
On the mode of recognition of Friends.
It is clear, from the experiments recorded in the present and
in my former papers, that the ants recognize their fellows in the
same nest; but it is very difficult to understand how this can be
effected. The nests vary very much in size; but in some species
100,000 individuals may be by no means an unusual number,
and in some instances even this is largely exceeded. Now it
seems almost incredible that in such cases every ant knows
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 611
every other one by sight. Neither does it seem possible tkat all
the ants in each case should be characterized from those of other
nests by any physical peculiarity.
It has been suggested that ants may recognize one another by
scent, This, however, I think, cannot be the explanation. For
instance, when intoxicated, ants were recognized; surely the
whiskey must have obliterated any natural odour. Again, I have
kept ants for forty-eight hours in an atmosphere strongly scented
with musk ; but when returned to the nest they were recognized
without the least doubt or hesitation.
It has been suggested in the case of bees that each nest might
have some sign or password.
The whole subject is full of difficulty. It occurred to me, how-
ever, that experiments with pupe might throw some light on the
subject. Although the ants of every nest, say of Formica fusca,
are deadly enemies, still if larve or pupe from one nest are trans-
ferred to another, they are kindly received, and tended with ap-
parently as much care as if they really belonged to the nest. In
ant-warfare, though sex is no protection, the young are spared,
at least when they belong to the same species. Moreover,
though the habits and disposition of ants are greatly changed if
they are taken away from their nest and kept in solitary con-
finement, or only with a few friends, still, under such circum-
stances, they will carefully tend any young which may be confided
to them. Now if the recognition were effected by means of
some signal or password, then, as it can hardly be supposed that
the larve or pup would be sufficiently intelligent to appreciate,
still less to remember it, the pups which were intrusted to ants
from another nest would have the password, if any, of that nest ;
and not of the one from which they had been taken. Hence, if
the recognition were effected by some password or sign with the
antenne, they would be amicably received in the nest from which
their nurses had been taken, but not in their own.
In the first place, therefore, I put, on the 2nd of September
1877, some pupe from one of my nests of Formica fusca with a
couple of ants from the same nest. On the 27th I put two ants,
which in the meantime had emerged from one of these pup, into
the nest at 8.30 a.m., marking them with paint as usual. At 9
they seemed quite at home; at 9.30, ditto; at 10, ditto; and they
were nearly cleaned. After that 1 could not distinguish them.
On the 29th another ant came out of the pupa-state ; and on
612 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
the 1st October at 7.45 I put her into the nest. She seemed
quite at home, and the others soon began to clean her. We
watched her from time to time, and she was not attacked; but,
the colour being removed, we could not recognize her after 9.30.
On the 14th July last year (1878) I put intoa small glass somo
pupe from another nest of Formica fusca with two friends.
On the 11th August I put four of the young ants which had
emerged from these pupe into the nest. After the interval of
an hour, I looked for them in vain. The door of the nest was
closed with cotton-wool; so that they could not have come
out; and if any were being attacked, I think we must have seen
it. I believe, therefore, that in the meantime they had been
cleaned. Still, as we did not actually watch them, I was not
satisfied. I put in, therefore, two moreat5 p.m. At 5.30 they
were all right; at 5.45, ditto, but one was almost cleaned.
At 6 one was all right; the other was no longer recognizabie,
having been quite cleaned. At 6.30 also one was quite at home ;
the other could not be distinguished. At 7 both had been com-
pletely cleaned.
The following day I marked another, and put her in at 6 a.m.
At 6.15 she was all right among the others, and also at 6.30, 7,
7.30, 8, and 9.80, after which I could no longer distinguish her.
Again, on the following day I put in another at 6.45 a.m. At
7 she was quite at home, and also at 7.15, 7.30, 8, and to 9.80,
after which I did not watch her.
To test the mode in which the ants of this nest would behave to
a stranger, I then, though feeling no doubt as to the result, intro-
duced one. ‘The difference was very striking. The stranger was
a powerful ant; still she was evidently uncomfortable, started
away trom every ant she met, and ran nervously about, trying to
get out of the nest. She was, however, soon attacked.
Again, on the Ist October some pupe of Lasius niger were placed _
in a glass with five ants from the same nest.
On the 8th December I took three of the ants which had emerged
from these pupe, and at midday put them back into their old nest,
having marked them by nicking the hind leg. Of course, under
these circumstances we would not watch the ants. J examined
the nest, however, every half hour very carefully, and am satisfied
that there was no fighting. The next morning there was no dead
ant; nor was there a death in the nest for more than a fortnight.
December 21. Marked three more in the same manner, and
SIR JOWNN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS, 618
put them in at 11.15 a.m. Looked atthe usual intervals, but saw
no fighting. The next morning there was no dead one outside the
nest; but [I subsequently found one of these ants outside, and
nearly dead. Iam, however, disposed to think that I had acc-
dentally injured this ant.
Dec. 23. Painted three, and put them in at 104.m. At 11
they were all right, 12 do., 1 do., 2 do.,38 do, 4do.,5 do. At3
I put in three strangers for comparison: two of them were soon
attacked ; the other hid herself in a corner. The next morning I
found two ants outside the nest ; and they were two of the stran-
gers. On the 31st I found the third stranger dead outside the
nest. ound no other dead ant for some days.
Dec. 29. Painted three more of the ants from the pup2 sepa-
rated on the Ist Oct., and put them inat 10.30 a.m. At 11 they
were all right, 12 do., 1 do., 2do. During the afternoon they
were once or twice attacked for a minute or two, but let go again
almost directly. The next morning I found one dead ant, but
had no reason to suppose that she was one of the above three.
The following morning there was again only one dead ant outside
the nest; she was the third of the strangers put in on the 23rd
as mentioned above. Up to the 28rd Jan. found no other dead
one.
Jan. 3, 1879. Painted three more and put them in at 11.30 a.m.
At 12 two were all right: we could not see the third; but no ant
was being attacked. 12 do. 1, all three are all right; 2, do.;
5 do.
As already mentioned, for some days there was no dead ant
brought out of the nest.
Jan. 5. Painted three more and put them in at 11.80 a.m. At
12 two were all right among the others ; 1 could not find the third;
but no ant was being attacked. 12.30 do., 1 do., 2 do., 4 do.
Jan. 6. Hound two of them all right among the others. There
was no dead ant.
Jan. 13. Painted three more and put them in at 12.80. At1
they were all right. 2do. 4, two were all right; I could not
see the third, but she was not being attacked. The next morning,
when I looked at the nest, one was being just carried, nat
dragged, out. The ant carried Ler about 6 inches and then put
her down, apparently quite unhurt. She soon returned into the
nest and seemed to be quite amicably received by the rest.
Another one of the three also seemed quite at home. The third
614: SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
T could not see; but up to the 23rd Jan. no dead one was brought
out of the nest.
Jan. 19. Marked the last three of these ants and put them
into the nest at 9.30 a.m. They were watched continuously up
to 1. At that time two of them had been almost completely
cleaned. One was attacked for about a minute soon after 11,
and another a little later; but with these exceptions they were
quite amicably received, and seemed entirely at home among the
other ants.
Thus every one of these 32 ants was amicably received.
These experiments, then, seem to prove that ants removed from
a nest in the condition of pup, but tended by friends, if reintro-
duced into the parent nest, are recognized and treated as friends.
Nevertheless the recognition does not seem to have been complete.
In several cases the ants were certainly attacked, though enly by
one or two ants, not savagely, and only for a short time. It
seemed as if, though recognized as friends by the great majority,
some few, more ignorant, or more suspicious, than the rest, had
doubts on the subject, which however, in some manner still
mysterious, were ere long removed. The case in which one of
these marked ants was carried out of the nest, may perhaps be
explained by her having been supposed to be ill, in which ease, if
the malady is considered to be fatal, ants are generally brought
out of the nest.
It now remained to test the result when the pupe were con-
fided to the care of ants belonging to a different nest, thouch, of
course, the same species.
I therefore took a number of pupe out of some of my nests of
Formica fusca and put them in small glasses, with ants from
another nest of the same species. Now, as already mentioned, if
the recognition were effected by means of some signal or pass-
word, then, as we can hardly suppose that the larve or pups
would be sufficiently intelligent to appreciate, still less to re-
member it, the pupee which were intrusted to ants from another
nest, would have the password, if any, of that nest and not of the
one from which they had been taken. Hence, if the recognition
were effected by some password or sign with the antenne, they
would be amicably received in the nest from which their nurses
had been taken, but not in their own.
I will indicate the nests by the numbers in my note-book.
On the 26th August last year, I put some pup of Formica fusca
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 615
from one of my nests (No. 36) with two workers from another
nest of the same species. Two emerged from the chrysalis-state
on the 80th; and on the 2nd September I put them, marked as
usual, into their old nest (No. 36) at 9.30 a.m. At9.45 they seemed
quite at home, and had already been nearly cleaned. At 10:15
the same was the case, and they were scarcely distinguishable.
After that I could no longer make them out; but we watched the
nest closely, and I think I can undertake to say that if they had
been attacked we must have seen it.
Another one of the same batch emerged on the 18th August,
but was rather crippled in doing so. On the 21st I put her into
the nest (No. 86). This ant was at once attacked, dragged
out of the nest, and dropped into the surrounding moat of water.
Again, on the 14th July last year (1878) I put some pupe of
Formica fusca from No. 386 into a glass with three ants of the
same species from nest No. 60.
On the 22nd I put an ant which had emerged from one of these
pupz into her old nest (No. 36) at 9.30 a.m. She was at once
attacked. 10, she is being dragged about. 10.30 do.
Aug. 8. Put another ant which had emerged from one of these
pupe into her old nest (No. 386) at 7.45 a.m. At 8 she seemed
quite at home among the others. 8.15 do., 8.30 do., 9 do. 9.80 do.
Aug. 9. Put two other young ants of this batch into their old
nest (No. 36) at 7 a.m. At 7.380 they were all right. At 7.30
one of them was being dragged by a leg, but only, I think, to
bring her under shelter, and was then let go. Young ants of thig
species, when the nest is disturbed, are sometimes dragged to a
place of safety in this way. At 8.80 they were all right and
nearly cleaned. After this I could not distinguish them ; but if
they had been attacked, we must have seen it.
Aug. 11. Putin another one as before at 8.30 a.m. At 8°45
she was all right. At 9 she was dragged by a leg, like the last,
but not for long; and at 9.30 she was quite comfortable amongst
the others. 10 do., 10.45 do., 12 do., 5 do.
Aug. 24. Put in the last two ants of this lot as before at
9.15 a.m. At 9.30 they were all right. 9.45 do. At 10 they
were almost cleaned. At 10.380 I could only distinguish one ; and
she had only a speck of colour left. She appeared quite at home;
and though I could no longer distinguish the other, I must have
seen it if she had been attacked.
Thus, then, out of seven ants of this batch put back into their
616 SIR JOUN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
old nest, six were amicably received. On the other hand, I put
one into nest No. 60, from which the three nurses were taken.
She was introduced into the nest at 8.15 a.m., and was at once
attacked. 8.45, she is being dragged about. 9, do.; 9.15, do.;
9.30, do. Evidently therefore she was not treated as a friend.
Again, on the 14th July last year (1878) put some pupe of
Formica fusca from nest No. 60 with three ants from nest No. 36.
On the 5th August at 4 p.w. I put an ant which had emerged
from one of these pups, into her old nest (No. 60). At 5.15 she
seemed all right. ‘They were already cleaning her ; and by 4.30
she was no longer distinguishable. We watched the nest,
however, carefully for some time; and I feel sure she was not
attacked.
Aug. 6. Put another of this batch into nest No. 60 at 7.15 a.m.
At 7.30 she is not attacked. At 8, one of the ants was carefully
cleaning her. At 8.15 she was quite at home among the apnea
At 8.30 do., she was nearly cleaned. 9.80 do.
Aug. 8. Putin another as before at 7.45. At 8 she is all
right. 8.80 do., 9.30 do., 9.45 do.
Aug. 9. Put in another as before at 7 a.m. At 7.30 she is
quite at home among the others, and already nearly cleaned. At
8 I could no longer distinguish her; but certainly no ant was
being attacked. 9 do.
Aug. 11. Put in another as before at 8 a.m. At 8.15 she is
quite at home. 8.30 do., 9 do., 9.80 do., 10 do., 12.30 do.
Aug. 13. Lastly, 1 put in the remaining young ant as before
at 7am. At 7.15 she was all right. At 7.30 do. and nearly
cleaned. At 8 I could no longer distinguish her ; but no ant was
being attacked.
Thus, then, as in the preceding experiment, these six ants when
reintroduced into the nest from which they had been taken as
pupe, were received as friends. On the other hand, on the 5th
August I put a young ant of the same batch into nest No. 36,
from which the three nurses had been taken. She was introduced
at 11 and was at once attacked. At 11.80 she was being dragged
apout, and shortly after was put to death. I then introduced a
second; but she was at once attacked like the first.
Aug. 22. I put some pupe of Hormica fusca from nest No. 64
under the charge of three ants from No. 60. By the 7th Septem-
ber several young ones had emerged. I put two of them into nest
No. 64 at 8,15 a.m. They were amicably received, as in the pre-
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 617
ceding experiments, and the ants began to clean them. At 8.80
they were all right. 8.45 do. At 9 they had been completely
cleaned so that I could not distinguish them; but there was no
fighting going on in the nest.
On the same day, at 9.45 a.m. I put into nest 64 two more as
before. At 10 they were both quite at home among the other aunts.
10.15 do., 10.30 do., 11 do., 12 do., 1 do. Ithen put in a stranger ;
and she was at once fiercely attacked.
Sept. 8. Put in two more of the ants which had emerged from
the pup, as before, at 9.30 a.m. At 9.45 they were all right. 10
do., 10.30 do., 11 do., 11.30 do., 12 do., 1 do.
On the other hand, on September 14, I put one of these ants in
the same manner into nest No. 60 at 6.30 a.m. She was at once
attacked. At 6.45 she was being dragged about by an antenna.
7 do. At 7.30she was by herself in one corner. At 8.30 she
was again being dragged about. 9.80 do. The difference,
therefore was unmistakable.
Lastly, on July 29 I put some pupe of Hormica fusca from out
of doors under the charge of three ants from nest No. 36.
Aug. 8. Several had come out, and I put two of them into the
nest of their nurses (No. 36) at 2 p.m. Both were at once
attacked. At 2.45 they were being dragged about. 3do. 3.30
one was being dragged about. 4, both were being attacked.
Hyentually one was turned out of the nest. The other I lost
sight of.
Aug. 4. Put two more of this batch into nest No. 36. at 12.80.
One was at once attacked. 1, one is being dragged about by an
antenna, 2.30, both are pene attacked. At 2.45 one was
dragged out of the nest.
I then put back one of the old ones; as wade have been ex-
pected, she was received quite amicably.
I then tried the same experiment with another species, Lasius
niger. I took some pups from two of my nests, which I knew
not to be on friendly terms, and which I will call 1 and 2, and
confided each batch to three or four ants taken from the other
nest. When they had come to maturity I introduced them into
the nests as before.
They were taken from their nest on the 20th Sept.; and the
results were as follows.
Pupz from nest 1 confided to ants from nest 2.
Sept. 20. Put one of the young ones into nest 2 at 7.15 a.m.
618 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
Several at once threatened her. At 7.25 one of the ants seized
her by an antenna, and began dragging her about. 7.30, she was
still being dragged about. 8, do. 8.15, she is now being dragged
about by three ants. 8.30, she is still attacked. 9,do. At 9.15
she was dragged out of the nest.
Sept. 23. Put two of the young ants into nest 1 at 9.15 a.m.
One was at once attacked, and the other a few minutes after-
wards. 9.45, both are attacked. 10, do. One is now dead and
hanging on to a leg of assailant. 10.15,do. 10.45, both are still
being dragged about.
At 11 a.m. I put into nest 2 three more very young ones. At
11.10 one was attacked. At 11.20 all three were being viciously
attacked, and yet one was nearly cleaned. At 12 one was being
attacked, one was alone in a corner, the other we could not find.
At 12.10 one was dragged out of the nest and then abandoned,
on which, to my surprise, she ran into the nest again, which no
old ant would have done. She was at once again seized by an
antenna. At 12.30 she was still being dragged about ; the second
was being cleaned. In this instance, therefore, I think two out
of the three were eventually accepted as inmates of the nest.
Sept. 25. Put two of the young ones into nest 1 at 2.30 EM.
At 2.45 one was attacked, but not viciously. 3 do., 3.15 do.
No notice was taken of the other, though several ants came up
and examined her. 3.80, the first is not attacked, the second is
almost cleaned. 4, the first has been again attacked, but not
viciously, and moreover has been partly cleaned. The second is
evidently received as a friend, and is almost cleaned. 4.30, they
are both comfortably among the others and are almost clean. At
5 I could no longer distinguish them.
I now pass to the other batch, namely, pups from nest 2 with
ants from nest 1.
Sept. 25. Put three of the young ants into nest 1 at 9.30 a.m.
At 9.45 two were attacked, the third was by herself. 10do. At
10.15 one made her escape from the nest. At 10.20 the third
was attacked. At 10.80 one of them was dragged out of the
nest, and then abandoned. At 10°50 the third also was dragged
out of the nest.
I then put two of these ants and a third young one into nest 2.
At 11.15 a.m. they seemed quite happy; but at 11.80 two were
being dragged about ; the third, who was very young, was, on the
contrary, being carefully cleaned. At 12 this last one was undis-
STR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 619
tinguishable ; of the other two, one was being attacked, the second
was taken no notice of, though several ants came up to her. At
12.5 the first was dragged out of the nest and then abandoned ;
the second was being carefully cleaned. This went on till 12.20,
when the paint was entirely removed.
Sept. 27. I put in three more of these young ants into nest 1,
at 7.45 a.m. At 8 o’clock they seemed quite at home among the
other ants. A few minutes after, one was being held by a leg;
the other two seemed quite at home. At 8.30 one was almost
cleaned, one I could not see. At 9 two of them were quite at
home, but I could not see the third. At 9.30 they were both all
but cleaned ; and after that we were no longer able to distinguish
them.
Thinking the results might be different if the ants were allowed
to become older before being returned into their nests, I made no
further observations with these ants for two months. I then took
two of the ants which had emerged from the pup separated on the
20th of September, and which had been brought up by ants from
nest 2, and on the 22nd of November I put them back at 12
in their old nest (that is to say, in nest 1), having marked them
as usual, with paint. They showed no signs of fear, but ran
about among the other ants with every appearance of being
quite at home. At12.15 do. At 12.30 one was being cleaned.
At 12.45 both were being cleaned; and by 1 o’clock they could
scarcely be distinguished from the other ants. There had not
been the slightest symptom of hostility. After this hour we
could no longer identify them; but the nest was carefully watched
throughout the afternoon, and I think I can undertake to say
that they were not attacked.. When we left off watching, the
nest was enclosed in a box. The next morning I examined it
carefully to see if there were any dead bodies. This was not the
case; and I am satisfied, therefore, that neither of these two ants
was killed. To test these ants, I then, on the 24th of November,
at 8.80 a.m., put into the nest two ants from nest 2. At 8.40
one was attacked; the other had hid herself away in a corner.
At 9.15 both of the ants were being dragged about. At 9.35 one
was dragged out of the nest and then released, and the other a
few minutes afterwards. After watching them for some time to
see that they remained outside, I restored them to their own
nest. The contrast, therefore, was very marked.
Again, on Noy. 25, I took two ants which had emerged from
620 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
pupe belonging to nest 2, removed on the 20th September, and
brought up by ants from nest 1, and put them back into their old
nest at 2 pM. They were watched continuously until 4 P.M,
but were not attacked, nor even threatened. The following
morning one of them was quite well, the other one had probably
been cleaned. We could not distinguish her; but if she had been
killed, we must have found her dead body. I then at 10 a.m.
put in two more. At 10.30 one of them was attacked for a
moment, but only fora moment. With this exception neither of
them was attacked until 2 o’clock, when one of them was again
seized and dragged about for a minute or two, but then released
again. We continued watching them till half-past 4, when they
seemed quite at home amongst the others. On the other hand a
stranger, put in as a test at 12, was at once attacked. It was
curious, however, that although she was undoubtedly attacked,
yet at the very same time another ant began to clean her.
The next morning we found one ant lying dead in the box out-
side the nest ; and this turned out to be the stranger of yesterday.
She had been almost cleaned ; but there were one or two infini-
tesimal particles of paint still remaining, so that there could be no
doubt of her identity.
The next day, Nov. 27, I put in three more of the ants derived
from these pupe at 10 a.m. At 10.80 they were all right, running
about amongst the others. At 11 o’clock the same was the case ;
but whilst I was looking again shortly afterwards, one of them was
seized by an antenna and dragged a little way, but released again
in less than a minute. Shortly afterwards one of the others was
alyo seized, but let go again almost immediately. At 1 o’clock
they were all right, and also at 2. They had, however, in the
meantime been more than once threatened, and even momentarily
seized, though they were never dragged about as strangers would
have been. At 3 o’clock I found one of them dead ; but I think I
must have accidentally injured her, and I do not believe that she
was killed by the other ants, though I cannot speak quite posi-
tively about it. The other two were all right, and had been
partly cleaned. At 6 one of them was running about comfort-
ably amongst the rest; the other I could not distinguish ; but
certainly no ant was being attacked.
Nov. 28. I put in the last two ants from the above-
mentioned batch of pupe at noon. Like the preceding, these
ants were occasionally threatened, and eyen sometimes attacked
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 621
for a moment or two; but the other ants soon seemed to find out
their mistake, and on the whole they were certainly treated as
friends, the attacks never lasting more than a few moments.
One of them was watched at intervals of half an hour until 5 p.m. ;
the other we could not distinguish after 3, the paint having been
removed ; but we shouldcertainly have observed it had she been
attacked.
On the whole, then, all the 32 ants belonging to Hormica fusca
and Lasius niger, removed from their nest as pups, attended by
friends and restored to their own nest, were amicably received.
What is still more remarkable, of 22 ants belonging to F. fusca,
removed as pups, attended by strangers, and returned to their
own nest, 20 were amicably received. As regards one I am
doubtful; the last was crippled in coming out of the pupa-case;
and to this perhaps her unfriendly reception may have been due.
Of the same number of Lasius niger developed in the same
manner from pup tended by strangers belonging to the same
species, and then returned into their own nest, 19 were amicably
received, three were attacked, and about two I feel doubtful.
On the other hand, 15 specimens belonging to the same two
species, removed as pupe, tended by strangers belonging to the
same species, and then put into the strangers’ nest, were all
attacked.
The results may be tabulated as follows :—
ae ee qd P Pupzx brought up by strangers.
yeplaced in their own nest. Put in own nest. Put in strangers’ nest.
PAttoe Keds a scans cere 0 7* 15
Received amicably.. 32 37 0
I propose next season to make some more experiments of
this nature; but even the above results seem to me very inte-
resting. The differences cannot be referred to any difference of
temperament in different nests. For instance, any idea that
the specimens of Formica fusca experimented with in August
and September, and amicably received, were so on account of
the peaceable character of the nests, is disposed of by the facts.
Thus specimens of #. fusca experimented with in August and
September last were taken principally from two nests, numbered
respectively 36 and 60. Now, while nest 36, in’ most cases,
amicably received ants bred from its own pupe but tended by
ants from 60, it showed itself fatally hostile to ants from pupe
* About three of these I do not feel sure.
622 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
b orn in nest 60, even when these had been tended by ants from
nest 86. Nest 60, again, behaved in a similar manner, as a general
rule, amicably receiving its own young, even when tended by ants
from 86 ; and refusing to receive ants born in nest 36, even when
tended by specimens from 60.
These experiments seem to indicate that ants of the same nest
do not recognize one another by any password. On the other
hand, if ants are removed from a nest in the pupa-state, tended
by strangers, and then restored, some at least of their relatives
are certainly puzzled, and in many cases doubt their claim to
consanguinity. I say some, because while strangers under the
circumstances would have been immediately attacked, these ants
were in every case amicably received by the majority of the
colony, and it was sometimes several hours before they came
across one who did not recognize them.
Suggestions as to the Relation fc. of second “ Knot” and Sting.
I have elsewhere suggested* that the existence of a second
“knot”? in the Myrmicide stands perhaps in relation with their
possession of a sting. The late Fred. Smith indeed, describes
(cophylla, which has only one knot, as having a sting; and I have
the above-cited memoir admitted that this would be a difficulty,
though not, I think, a conclusive argument against the sugges-
tion. Forel + has since pointed out that the sting of Gcophylla is
rudimentary. He rejects my view, however, on the ground that
some ants which have two knots have only a rudimentary sting,
such as Pheidole; while some of the Poneride have a well deve-
loped sting and yet only one knot.
In does not, however, seem to me that these cases are con-
clusive. The stings of ants are obviously homologous with those
of Bees and other Hymenoptera. The sting may therefore be
said to be more ancient than the ant ; and as we may also assume
that the ancestors of ants at one time had an abdomen of the
more usual type, ze. without a knot, the existence of ants
with a sting and only one knot, so far from being inexplicable, is
just what might have been expected. They represent in this re-
spect an archaic phase through which the ancestors of AZyrmica
must haye passed. The existence of a second knot, giving
* Monthly Micros. Journ. Sept. 1877.
t Zeit. f. wiss. Zool, 1878, vol. xxx. p. 30,
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 623 |
ereater mobility to the sting, might have been an advantage, and
thus gradually produced in certain cases, without necessarily
being developed in others, in which, perhaps, some other advantage
was enjoyed.
The so-called stingless ants, as Forel and Dewitz* have
clearly shown, possess in reality a rudimentary sting ; and their
ancestors obviously had a more developed one. Such cases,
therefore, as Pheidole and Atta, to which M. Forel refers, repre-
‘sent cases in which, perhaps with reference to the powerful de-
velopment of the mandibles, the sting has fallen partly into disuse,
and consequently has diminished in size. On the other hand, the
second knot having once been formed, has retained its existence.
It will be observed also that the “knot” in the Formicida,
where it is single, is much more elevated than in the Myrmicide
where there are two knots, and consequently two sets of muscles
moving the abdomen. Thus, while the Myrmicide have two sets
of muscles acting on the abdomen, and the Formicide only one,
the difference is to a certain extent neutralized by the fact that
the muscles in the latter family are longer than in the Myrmicide.
This accounts I think, for the elevation of the knot or scale in
Formica and the allied genera.
As to Sounds emitted by Ants.
In ‘Nature’ for December is a letter from Mr. T. 8. Tait,
who, writing from Baroda, says that by means of the microphone
“we have been able to hear the roar of a black ant when attacked
by its companion.” . It is unfortunate that Mr. Tait does not
mention the species, because some of the Mutillids make a sound
which is audible even to the naked ear. Moreover the expres-
sion “attacked by its companion’’ is curious, and does not
harmonize with the usual habits of ants. Still I am quite dis-
posed to believe that ants do produce sounds.
Tn the previous paper I have mentioned that I was never able
to satisfy myself that my ants heard any sounds which I could
produce. On the other hand, I have tried unsuccessfully various
experiments, in order to ascertain whether the ants themselves
produced any sounds for the purpose of conveying signs or ideas.
Prof. Tyndall was good enough to arrange for me one of his sen-
sitive flames; but I could not perceive that it responded in any
* Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. vol. xxviii.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 47
624 SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.
way to my ants. The experiment was not, however, very satis-
factory, as I was not able to try the flame with a very active nest.
Prof. Bell most kindly sct up for me an extremely sensitive
-microphone : it was attached to the underside of one of my nests ;
and though we could distinctly hear the ants walking about, we
could not distinguish any other sound.
It is, however, far from improbable that ants may produce
sounds entirely beyond our range of hearing. Indeed it is not
impossible that insects may possess senses, or rather sensations,
of which we can no more form an idea than we should have been
able to conceive red or green if the human race had been blind.
The human ear is sensitive to vibrations reaching to 88,000 in a
second. The sensation of red is produced when 470 millions of
millions of vibrations enter the eye in a similar time ; but between
these two numbers vibrations produce on us only the sensation
of heat; we have no special organs of sense adapted to them.
But there is no reason in the nature of things why this should be
the case with other animals; and the problematical organs pos-
sessed by many of the lower forms favour the suggestion. If any
apparatus could be devised by which the number of vibrations
produced by any given cause could be lowered so as to be brought
within the range of our ears, it is probable that the result would
be most interesting.
Observations on the Kindness of Ants.
In my previous paper I have given various cases which seem to
show that ants are not so uniformly humane as the descriptions
of previous writers would seem to imply. Some of those who
have done me the honour of noticing my papers have assumed
that I disputed altogether the kindly feelings which have been
attributed to ants. I should, however, be very sorry to treat my
favourites so unfairly. So far as I can observe, ants of the same
nest never quarrel. J have never seen the slightest evidence of
ill-temper in any of my nests: allisharmony. WNorare instances
of active assistance at all rare. Again, indeed I have myself
given various cases showing care and tenderness on their part.
In one of my nests of Formica fusca was a poor ant which had
come into the world without antenne. Never having previously
met with such a case, I watched her with great interest; but she
never appeared to leave the nest. Atlength one day I found her
wandering about in an aimless sort of manner, and apparently
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK ON ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. 625
not knowing her way at all. After a while she fell in with some
specimens of Lasius flavus, who directly attacked her.. I at once
set myself to separate them ; but whether owing to the wounds
she had received from her enemies, or my rough, though well-
meant handling, or both, she was evidentiy much wounded, and
lay helplessly on the ground. After some time another Yormica
Jusca from her nest came by. She examined the poor sufferer
earefully, then picked her up tenderly and carried her away into
the nest. It would have been difficult for any one who witnessed
this scene to have denied to this ant the possession of humane
feelings.
Again, if an ant is fighting with one of another species, her
friends rarely come to her assistance. They seem generally
(unless a regular battle is taking place) to take no interest in the
matter, and do not even stop to look on. Some species, indeed,
in such cases never appear to help one another; and even when
this is the cage, as for instance in the genus Lasius, the truth
seems to be that several of them attack the same enemy—their
object being to destroy the foe, not to save their friend.
WASPS AND BEES.
Further Experiments as to their Knowledge of Colour, Se.
The experiments recorded in one of my previous papers (Journ.
Linn. Soe. vol. xii. p. 510) tend to indicate that wasps are less
euided by colour than bees. I thought, however, that it would
be well to make some more experiments on the subject. On the
afternoon, therefore, of the 1st September I put a wasp’ to some
honey on a slip of glass placed over red paper, and, continually
supplying fresh honey, allowed her to keep on coming till the 5th.
IT then moved the paper and the honey about 15 inches, putting
another drop of honey on another slip of glass, over green paper,
in the old place. She returned to the honey on the green paper,
I then replaced the honey and red paper as before, and she came
back quite straight to it. 1 then again moved it, and put honey
on blue paper in the old place. She returned, however, quite
straight to the honey, without taking any apparent notice of the
change of colour. Sept. 7th, I moved the honey and paper about
a foot, and put a drop of honey on glass over blue paper in between.
She went to the honey on the blue paper. I then let her come
again to the honey on the red three or four times, and then as
before moved the paper about a foot, and put another drop of
ATs
626 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE
honey over it, placing the old honey on yellow paper in between.
She came to the honey on the red paper, but after feeding for
about half a minute left it, to try that on the yellow.
I may mention that other observations of the same kind gave
similar results; but it is perhaps hardly worth while to give more
details. .
' Indeed, while hive-bees were generally contented with any
honey I gave them, wasps showed a very different disposition, .
and, if there were several drops of honey near one another, flew
frequently from one to the other, as if to make sure which they
liked best.
Conduct towards their Friends.
With reference to the behaviour as regards comrades, I may
observe that the results entirely confirmed those previcusly ar-
rived at. For instance, a wasp observed and fed from the 7th
to the 12th Sept. did not brmg more than three or four friends
during the whole of that time.
Contributions tothe Ornithology of New Guinea. By R. Bowp-
LpR SHARPE, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &. Part V.—On recent Col-
lections from the Neighbourhood of Port Moresby, 8.E. New
Guinea.
[Read March 20, 1879. ]
THe collection described in the present paper was formed by Mr,
Kendal Broadbent, a well-known Australian naturalist, in the
vicinity of Port Moresby and in the interior. It is one of the
most important that has been made by the English travellers in
South-eastern New Guinea ; and it will be interesting to compare
the species here enumerated with the forthcoming account of
Signor D’Albertis’s collections from the Fly River. It may be
noticed that in this paper a Parrot of the genus Aprosmictus ig
described, which is closely allied to another species from the Fly
River, but yet appears to be distinct, offering a parallel case to
the two Crowned Pigeons of Southern New Guinea, where we
find Goura Albertis: inhabiting the Port-Moresby district replaced
by G. Selatert on the Fly River. The same mountain-fauna seems
to extend from the latter locality along the southern part of New
Guinea, at least as far as the mountains in the interior of Port
Moresby, if we may judge by the presence of such birds as Dry-
meedus Beccarii and Cinclosoma ajax, which occurs in both Signor
D’Albertis’s and Mr. Broadbent’s collections. When these moun-
ta
ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 62
tains are more thoroughly explored, it will doubtless be found that
they contain a certain number of species closely allied to others
from the mountains of the north-west, and in some cases even iden-
tical with the latter. At present, however, the affinities of the
south-eastern species seem to lie with those of the Aru Islands
where they are not Australian, as by far the majority of them really
are. The discovery of two species of green-shouldered Aprosmictus,
related to the fine Aprosmictus insignissimus, Gould, of Australia,
and of a species of the peculiar Australian genus Cinclosoma,
strengthen the Australian affinities of the avifauna of South-
eastern New Guinea.
in the present paper F have also taken the opportunity of cor-
reciing some errors which have crept into my accounts of the
collections made by Mr. Stone and Dr. James in the same loca-
lity and published in the Society’s Journal.
Note.—Since the present communication was read, I have re-
ceived from Mr. Ramsay a copy of his recent paper, laid before
the Linnean Society of New South Wales on the 30th of last Sep-
tember, entitled “ Contributions to the Zoology of New Guinea,”
parts 1 & 2 (Journ. Linn. Soc. N.S. W. ui. pp. 241-805). In this
paper Mr. Ramsay describes the Parrot and Flycatcher which I
considered to be new to science; and consequently my specific
names must be suppressed. Irefer to Mr. Ramsay’s paper in the
accompanying text.
1. AstuR Torquatus (Lemm.); Sharpe, Mitth. Dresden, iii.
p. 809.—Urospizias torquatus, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov.
xil. p. 88.—Astur Sharpil, Zeamsay, l. ¢. p. 248.
Mr. Broadbent’s collection contains a beautiful adult bird, mea-
suring 10°3 inches in the wing. As in the case of Mr. Stone’s
specimen recorded by me in the ‘ Proceedings’ of this Society, the
thighs and under tail-coverts are both barred with rufous.
2. HARPYOPSIS NOVZ-GUINE, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov.
xi. p. 86; Sharpe, Mitth. Dresden, iil. p. 355, pl, xxix.
A very fine specimen collected by Mr. Broadbent bears the fol-
lowing Jabel :—“ Male: eyes dark brown. YT airfax Harbour, Port
Moresby. Scrub bird.” It measures as‘ follows :—Total length
31 inches, culmen 2°7, wing 18:6, tail 15:5, tarsus 5°2.
3. HIERACIDEA ORIENTALIS (Sehl.); Sharpe, Cat. B. i. p. 422.
An example in Mr. Broadbent’s collection. The present is the
first record of the occurrence ofa Hieracidea in New Guinea; and
628 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE
I cannot find any difference between the specimen from Port
Moresby and others from Australia in the British Museum.
4. APROSMICTUS CHLOROPTERUS, Ramsay, 1. c. p. 251.—A.
Broadbenti, Sharpe, Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist. April 1879, p. 318.
Adult male. General colour above blackish, with a slight green-
ish wash, the scapulars like the back; head all round crimson,
with the exception of the nape and hind neck, which are bright
blue, this colour extending on to the upper part of the mantle ;
lesser wing-coverts along the edge of the wing blackish like the
back, with a very faint wash of blue; the inferior lesser coverts
and the whole of the median series bright yellowish green, form-
ing a large shoulder-patch ; greater wing-coverts dark like the
back ; bastard wing, primary-coverts, and primary quills rather
brighter green externally, blackish on the inner web; the inner
secondaries darker, and becoming blackeras they adjoin the sca-
pulars ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts deep blue ; tail
dull blackish, with a shght greenish gloss on the two centre fea-
thers, the rest washed with blue externally ; sides of face, throat,
and entire under surface bright crimson; the under tail-coverts
blue-black, tipped with the same crimson as the breast; under
wing-coverts deep blue, the greater series and the lower surface
of the quills black.
Closely allied to A. callopterus of the Fly River, but having the
nape blue as well as the mantle, whereas the whole head is red in
the above-mentioned species. A. chloropterus is also a slightly
smaller bird.
5. Hos ruscata, Blyth; Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. x.
p. 84; Ramsay, 1. c. p. 253.
A numerous series in Mr. Broadbent’s collection, as well as in
Mr. Goldie’s.
6. NASITERNA KEIENSIS, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Otvic. Glenov. x.
p- 26; Gould, B. New Guinea, part vi—N. pusilla, Ramsay, 1. .
p- 201. a
A. specimen was in Mr. Broadbent’s collection, and another in
Mr. Goldie’s. As far as I can judge without actually comparing
specimens, these little Pygmy Parrots appear to belong to the
species described by Count Salvadori from the Ké Islands.
7. SCYTHROPS NoV#-HOLLANDI@, Lath.; Sharpe, Journ. Linn.
Soc. xi. p. 492; Ramsay, 1. ¢. p. 259.
——_——
ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 629
According to Mr. Petterd, in his notes appended to Mr. Stone’s
collection (ef. Sharpe, J. ¢.), the Channel-bill Cuckoo was gene-
rally distributed near Port Moresby. The first specimens that I
have seen from that locality have now come to hand, the species
being represented in Mr. Broadbent’s and Mr. Lawes’s collections,
while several specimens are in Mr. Goldie’s.
8. CENTROPUS NrGRICANS (Salvad.).—C. spilopterus, Sharpe,
Journ. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 490 (nec Gray); Ramsay, l. ¢. p. 258.—
Polophilus nigricans, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. xiii. p. 463.
The number of specimens which I have now seen of this Cuckoo,
bearing out Count Salvadori’s characters, convince me that I was
wrong in referring the bird to C. spilopterus of the Ké Islands.
9. TANYSIPTERA SYLVIA, Gould; Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soe. xiii.
p: 498; Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov, x. p. 803.—T. Salvado-
riana, Ramsay, l. c. p. 259.
In Mr. Broadbent’s collection were several examples, which
appear to be quite identical with Cape-York specimens.
10. TanysIPTERA MicRoRHYNCHA, Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soe.
xi. p. 811.—T. galatea (pt.), Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. x.
p- 802.—T. galatea, Ramsay, l. c. p. 259 (nec Gray).
I have now examined a large series of the Racket-tailed King-
fisher in the collections both of Mr. Goldie and Mr. Broadbent,
and I find the character of the small bill holds good. A certain
difference is seen in the blue coloration of the head, some speci-
mens having a rich cobalt-brown, inclining to silvery cobalt only
onthe edges: this is the most plentiful form, and agrees with the
type of the species in the Museum. In Mr. Broadbent’s collec-
tions, however, was a beautiful bird, of the same size as 7. micro-
rhyncha, but differmg in having the back strongly washed with
purplish blue, the head and wing-spot rich silvery cobalt. This
may be the very old male bird; and I do not propose to describe
a new species from a single example.
11. DENDROCHELIDON MysTAcEus (Less.).—Macropteryx mys-
tacea (Less.); Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. x. p. 311; Ram-
say, l. ¢. p. 265.
One specimen collected by Mr. Broadbent, and two in Mr.
Goldie’s collection.
12. GymwNocorax sENEX (Less.); Sharpe, Cat. B. iii. p. 50.
A specimen in grey plumage in Mr. Broadbent’s collection.
620 MR. 2. B. SHARPE ON THE
13. Prirornis Atbrrri, Liliot ; Sharpe, Cat. B. iii. p» L5G:
Mr. Broadbent has sent a pair of male birds, which I refer to
ihis species. The one retained for the Museum collection mea-
sures as follows—total length 11°8 inches, culmen 271, wing 7°55,
tail 4, tarsus 1°7. It will be seen that these dimensions differ a
little from those given by me in the ‘ Catalogue of Birds;’ and the
specific differences of the males of P. Alberti and P. magnifica be-
come somewhat modified when the bird fromSouthern New Guinea
is considered. As, however, the females of the two species are
quite dillerent, it will be interesting to examine this sex of the
present bird from its new locality. Mr. Ramsay, who has the latter
birds in his hands, declares them to be P. magnifica.
14. PINaRoLEsTES MEGARHYNcHUS (Q. gf G.); Sharpe, Cat. B.
ili. p. 295.—Colluricincla megarhyncha, Ramsay, 1. ¢. p. 280.
A single specimen in Mr. Broadbent’s collection.
15. GRavcALus sUBALARIS, Sharpe, Mitth. k. zool. Mus. Dres-
den, Heft ii. p. 864; td. Cat. B. iv. p. 26.—Campephaga Boyeri, -
Ramsay, 1. ¢. p. 284.
An adult male in Mr. Broadbent’s collection.
16. EpontisoMa NigRUM (Garn.); Sharpe, Cat. B. iv. p. 45.—
E. melas, Ramsay, U. c. p. 288.
An adult male in Mr. Broadbent’s collection, and a female in
Mr. Goldie’s. ‘This species was also contained in Mr. Stone’s
collection, but was omitted by accident from the list given by me.
17. Micr@ca FLAVOVIRESCENS, Gray, Sharpe, Cat. B. iy.
p- 125; Ramsay, 1. ¢. p. 272.
In Mr. Broadbent’s collection.
18. PecrnopRyas PLACcENS.—LEHopsaltria placens, Ramsay, 1. e.
p- 272.—P. flavicincta, Sharpe, Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist. April 1879,
p. dla.
Adult. General colour above yellowish green ; the wing-coyverts,
quills, and tail-feathers dusky sepia-brown, edged with the same
colour as the back ; head and nape dark grey, with slight indica-
tions of dusky centres to the feathers of the crown; the lores,
sides of face, and ear-coverts dark grey, the latter blackish ; fore
part of cheeks and a large chin-spot dark grey, the latter tinged
with green where it joins the threat, which, with the hinder part
of the cheeks and sides of the neck, is bright yellow; fore neck
ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 6351
chest, and sides of upper breast yellowish green, darker on the
latter ; remainder of under surface of body bright yellow; under
wing-coverts and axillaries whitish, washed with yellow, with a
dark greenish patch near the outer edge of the wing; quills dusky
brown below, whitish along the basal edge of the inner web;
bill black ; feet pale yellowish in skin.
This appears to me to be avery distinct species of Pacilodryas,
nearer to P. capito and P. lewcops than to any other, but quite
different from either. The ‘ Key to the Species’ in my Catalogue
(vol. iy. p. 241) will require modification as follows :—
6. Abdomen yellow. ]
ce’. Lores with a large white spot &¢.........:0.5-+200> CES
d', Lores yellow, as also entire under surface ; head olive- Copies
welllowy Iie tNe nile Seo ve neon on oeooc soos oub. papuana.
e’. Lores grey, like the rest of the head, sides of face, and
chin; above olive-yellow; below bright yellow, with
the fore neck and chest green, forming a broad band
DOMOSS WS. ENESS GoooooooeodoodwovenbosDooDCOOH flavicineta.
19. RurPrpuRA MACULIPECTUS, Gray; Sharpe, Cat. B. iv.
p- 826.
Not to be distinguished from Aru-Island birds in the collec-
tion. A single example sent by Mr. Broadbent.
20. ARSES ARUENSIS, Sharpe, Notes Leyden Mus. i. p. 21, et
Cat. B. iv. p. 410.—Arses enado, Ramsay, l. c. p. 269.
A pair m Mr. Broadbent’s collection. The male seems to have
even less black on the chin; and the female is rather brighter
rufous and not so dark brown on the back. ‘The bird from 8.E.
New Guinea may yet prove to be a distinct species from that of
the Aru Islands when more complete series are available for
comparison.
21. PacHYCEPHALA LEUCOGASTRA, Salvad. § D’ Albert. Ann.
Mus. Civie. Genov. vil. p. 822.
An adult specimen in Mr. Broadbent’s collection. Ihave com-
pared it with the type, kindly lent to me by Count Salvadori.
22. CrncLOsOMA AJAX.—Hupetes ajax, Zemm. Pl. Col. ii. pl.
573; Gray, Hand-l. B. i. p. 267, no. 3913.—E. Goldiei, Ramsay,
Ll. c. p. 808.
An adult male in Mr. Broadbent’s coliection, which he calls a
“Mountain-Thrush.” Signor D’Albertis exhibited a specimen
from the Fly River at a recent meeting of the Zoological Society,
and informed me that Count Salvadori had examined the series
632 MR. BR. B. SUARPL ON THE
brought by him, and had determined the bird to be the Lupetes ajax
of Temminck. On this point the Count will be better informed
than myself, as he has examined the type in the Leiden Museum,
which I have not been able to do. We may therefore believe in
the identity of the species now sent from South-eastern New
Guinea, notwithstanding the difference in the plate of Temminck’s
work and the specimens now sent. The Leyden bird, however, is
said to be a female; so that the differences may be merely sexual.
The bird is certainly not a Eupetes, but is a Cinelosoma, and is
interesting as adding one more Australian ee to the avifauna
of New Guinea.
The following is a description of Mr. Broadbent’s specimen :—
General colour above ochraceous brown, rather darker towards
the lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts; scapulars like the
back ; wing-coverts glossy black ; quills blackish brown, externally
ochraceous-brown, broader on the secondaries, the innermost of
which are almost entirely ochraceous brown; two ceutre tail-
feathers like the back ; the rest of the tail black, with broad white
ends to the outer feathers ; lores, eyebrow, feathers below the
eye, and ear-coverts glossy blue-black, forming a broad band of
black, which runs from the base of the nostrils, encloses the eye,
and extends down the sides of the neck; a second broad band of
white extends from the base of the lower mandible, along the sides
of the face, including the basal part of the ear-coverts, down the
sides of the neck; cheeks, sides of throat, as well as the entire
throat, fore neck, and chest glossy blue-black ; sides of body from
the sides of fore neck downwards clear orange-rufous, the lower
flanks ochraceous brown; centre of the breast and abdomen white,
separated from the orange-rufous sides of the body by a line of
black, the feathers bordering the two lines of colour being exter-
nally white and internally black, the plumes of the breast where
they adjoin the white of the underparts being black with white
tips; thighs olive-brown ; under tail-coverts mottled with white
und black, the inner web being white and the outer one black;
edge of wing black; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, with
more or less concealed black bases; quills ashy below. Total
length 9:2 inches, culmen 1, wing 3°9, tail 4, tarsus 1:35.
23, Evpreres nrericrissus, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov.
ix. p. 86; Ramsay,1. ¢. p. 277.
The four specimens sent by Mr. Broadbent differ from Z. ce-
ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. 633
rulescens of North-westérn New Guinea exactly in the way pointed
out by Count Salvadori; so that the black under tail-coverts,
though a slight, seem to be a constant specific character,
94. Drymapus Beccartit, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. vii.
p- 65; id. P. ZS. 1878, p. 97.
The specimen sent in Mr. Broadbent’s collection appears to
belong to this species, which is one of great interest. The genus
is Australian ; and the present bird was described from the Arfak
Mountains in N.W. New Guinea; and it was afterwards found in
the Aru Islands by the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition ; so that $.K, New
Guinea is an entirely new locality for the species.
25. Metanopyrruvs Rosertsoni,D’ Albert.—Mina Robertsoni,
Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. x. p. 12.—Hulabes orientalis, Ramsay, 1. c.
p. 279
A specimen isin Mr. Broadbent’s collection ; and another is in
that of the Rev. Mr. Lawes. These two birds both have entirely
yellow heads and necks, with a few remains of black feathers on
the nape. I cannot bring myself to believe that these are of the
same species as JZ. anais from North-western New Guinea, of
which the Museum has three specimens collected by Mr. Wallace, -
‘and representing both adults and young. All three have well-
defined black heads, with a broad yellow collar, also well defined,
separating the crown from the back. The young one differs in
being black below with yellow edges to the feathers, and in not
having the yellow chest-patch developed. It may be surmised
that IL. Robertsoni, being so closely allied to AL. anais, goes through
somewhat similar stages of plumage, and may possibly have a
black head in the immature dress. The adults, however, appear
to be well characterized.
96. REINWARDTENA Remnwarpti (Lemm.); Salvad. Ann, Mus.
Civic. Genov. ix. p. 208.
Two adult specimens in Mr. Broadbent’s collection.
27. HENICOPHAPS ALBIFRONS, Gray; Salvad. Ann. Mus. Owwic.
Genov. ix. p. 207.
Compared with birds from North-western New Guinea, the
bill in the present specimen sent by Mr. Broadbent seems much
larger. The metallic coloration also is much greener on the
wing, not fiery copper as in two of Mr. Wallace’s specimens in
the Museum collection ; a third, from N,W. New Guinea, is so
634 MR, E. J. MIERS-ON THE
intermediate that no reliance can be placed on this colouring as
a specific character.
28. PuLoG@nas JoBiIENsis (Meyer); Gould, B. New Guinea,
part vil.—Chalcophaps margarithe, D’ Alb. § Salvad. dan, Mus.
Civic. Genov. vil. p. 836 (1875).—Phlogcenas margarithee, Salvad.
op. cit. vill. p. 495 (1878).
A somewhat immature specimen in Mr. Broadbent’s collection
in brown plumage, glossed with purplish violet on the sides of the
neck and shoulders; the head dark grey, with a few rufous fea-
thers remaining ; the throat and chest whitish, obscured by rusty
brown or greyish edges to the feathers; rest of under surface
ashy brown, with obscure fulvous edges to the feathers. The
specimen is not unlike Dr. Meyer’s typical bird figured by Mr.
Gould (J. ¢.). .
29. TALEGALLUS FusctrosrRis, Salvad.; Sharpe, Journ. Linn.
Soc. xii. p. 504.
The specimens sent by Mr. Broadbent and Mr. Goldie bear out
the character of the dusky bill, on which Count Salvadori separated
the species.
On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxyrhyncha,
with a Synopsis of the Families, Subfamilies, and Genera.
By Epwarp J. Miers, F.L.8., F.Z.8., Assistant in the Zoo-
logical Department, British Museum.
[Read March 6, 1879.]
(Prates XIT. and XIII.)
IntropuctoRY REMARKS.
Tur Oxyrhyncha, or Maioid Crabs, have been placed by nearly
all carcinologists at the head of the Brachyura, on account of the
high degree of concentration exhibited both in the sensory organs
and nervous system. There is perhaps no one of the great divisions
of the higher Crustacea more numerous in genera and species, or
more interesting on account of the great variety both of form and
structure exhibited in the different types, nor any in which a
thorough revision of the classification is more urgently needed.
No comprehensive account of the group has appeared since the
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 635
publication, in 1834, of Milne-Edwards’s first volume of the
‘Histoire naturelle des Crustacés,’ wherein 36 genera of this
group are enumerated.
Dana, in 1852, in his account of the Crustacea of the U.S. Ex-
ploring Expedition, gives a synopsis of the then known genera,
the number of which had considerably increased. Since that
time, however, no further revision has appeared ; but during the
twenty-six years that have elapsed, a very considerable number
of new forms have been made known to science, through the
labours of modern carcinologists, among whom the late Dr.
Stimpson and M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards must be particularly
mentioned. The totalnumber of well-established genera included
in the present revision is 106 ; but not a few of those previously
described are reduced to the rank of subgenera or are regarded as
synonyma, and others, which are insufficiently known to me, are
referred to parenthetically.
The Oxyrhyncha, as defined by M. Milne-Edwards, constitute
as a whole a natural group; but no single character can be men-
tioned which will serve to distinguish them universally from the
other Brachyura. Externally they are distinguished by their
more or less elongated carapace (which is usually provided with
a rostrum and narrows anteriorly), large epistoma, longitudinal
antennules, and the position of the basal antennal joint, which in
the typical Maiide is situated beneath the eyes. The buccal
cavity is quadrate, with its anterior margin straight. The
branchiz are nine on each side, the afferent canal opens behind
the pterygostomian regions in front of the anterior legs, and the
efferent canal at the sides of the buccal cavity. The male
genital appendages arise from the bases of the fifth ambulatory
legs. ;
From the Oxystomata, which are closely related to the Oxy-
rhyncha in the narrowness of the frontal region and the concen-
tration of the organs of sense, the latter are distinguished by the
triangulate buccal cavity and the position of the afferent branchial
channel ; but the genus Mesorhea, recently described by Stimpson,
evinces a remarkable approximation on the part of the Partheno-
pidee to the Oxystomatous type. From the Cyclometopa (Can-
croid Crabs) the typical Maiide are distinguished by the longi-
tudinal antennules and the position of the basal antennal joint ;
but the Parthenopids, again, occupy in this respect a position
almost intermediate between the rest of the Oxyrhyncha and
636 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
certain Cancroidea, They may indeed be regarded as not so
much true Oxyrhyncha as a group osculant between these latter
and the Cancroidea and Oxystomata.
Nearly all subsequent authors have retained the Oxyrhyncha
as defined by Miulne-Edwards. Dr. Strahl, however, in a
system of classification of the Brachyura* based mainly upon
characters afforded by the structure of the basal joint (dasi-
cerite) of the antennex, separates the Parthenopine from the
Oxyrhyncha, and unites them with the Calappide and Matu-
tide, which he removes from the other Oxystomata, and places
Oncinopus in the vicinity of the Grapsoid genus Hymenosoma.
His views were shortly afterwards adversely criticised by Stimp-
son, who demonstrated the inconvenience of a classification
founded upon the modifications of a single organ, and necessi-
tating the dismemberment of the older natural groups, and in-
stanced several genera which would thereby be removed from
the place in the system to which their real affinities would
assign them; nor do I believe Dr. Strahl’s views have been
adopted by any later carcinologist.
As regards the primary subdivisions of the Oxyrhyncha, the
following are the principal classifications that have been pro-
posed.
Milne-Edwards in 1834 {, divided the Oxyrhinques (Oxy-
rhyncha) into three tribes or primary groups of equal value. The
first two of these, his Macropodiens and Maiens, are distinguished
merely by the greater length of the ambulatory legs of the former
group, in which are placed all those forms in which the first and
second ambulatory legs are longer than the anterior legs and more
than twice as long as the postfrontal portion of the carapace.
If this distinction were rigidly applied, it would be necessary to
place not only nearly-allied genera, but species of the same genus
(e. g. Doclea) in different families. Yet it is not to be denied
that the greater length of the ambulatory legs is often correlated —
with important modifications of the structure of the orbits and
antenne.
M.-Edwardy’s third group, Parthénopiens, is a perfectly natural
* Monatsber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, pp. 713 and 1004 (1861).
+ Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol, xxv. p. 189 (1863).
{ Histoire naturelle des Crustacés, vol. i. p. 272 (1854).
—-
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATOID CRUSTACEA. 637
one, and has been adopted by nearly all later authors, and consti-
tutes the fourth family, Parthenopide, of the present revision.
The genera included in his Macropodiens are, with a few excep-
tions (Latreillia, Hgeria, Doclea), included in my subfamilies
Leptopodiine and Inachiine. The primary sections of his Marens
(MW. cryptophthalmes and M. phanérophthalmes) although somewhat
differently characterized, correspond, the former (with the excep-
tion of Lebinia, Lissa, Mithraw, and Chorinus) to my family Mande;
the latter, except Pericera, Paramicippa, and Stenocionops, to the
subfamily Acanthonychine of my family Inachide.
De Haan, in the fourth decade of his great work *, divides
his family Majacea into five primary groups, or “ genera,” i. e.
Parthenope, Maja, Pisa, Doclea, and Inachus. The first of these
corresponds to my family Parthenopide, @thra being rightly in-
cluded and Hurynome omitted from the group. The three fol-
lowing are characterized only by the form of the merus joint of
the outer maxillipedes (a most variable character); and the
genera (or “subgenera” as they are designated by De Haan) are
grouped together in each without reference to the orbital and
antennal characters : consequently these groups are in no degree
conterminous with those adopted in the present revision. The
fifth, or Inachus group of De Haan, includes those genera which
are characterized by the articulation of the merus joint of the
outer maxillipedes with the next at its summit instead of its
antero-internal angle. This is a far more natural section ; yet the
rigid application of this character would now necessitate the
separation of genera very closely allied in other respects, as Dana
has shown in the case of Hurypodius and Oregonia; and other
instances might be given.
In Dana’s arrangement of the Maioideat, three legions or
primary sections are established. The first (Maiinea) corresponds
to the Macropodiens and Maiens of M.-Hdwards, and is divided
into five families; the second (Parthenopinea) corresponds to
M.-Edwards’s Parthénopiens ; and the third (Oncininea) is estab-
lished for the single genus Oneinopus of De Haan.
The characters of the families of the Maiinea are tabulated as
follows :—
* Crustacea of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ of V. Siebold, p. 77 (1889).
t Amer, Journ. of Sci. and Arts (ser. 2), xi. p. 425 (1851), and U.S. Explor,
Exped. xiii. Crust. i. p. 77 (1852).
638 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
Fam.i. Marrpm. Eyes retractile into orbits.
Fam. ii. Tycuip#. yes retractile beneath carapace ; no orbits.
Fam. iii. Euryropipa#. Kyes retractile to sides of carapace.
Fam. iv. Lepropopip. Eyes not retractile. Legs very long.
Fam. vy. Pericertp”. Syes not retractile. Legs of moderate length.
With respect to this arrangement I may observe, in the first
place, that the retractility or non-retractility of the eyes is scarcely
a character that can be used for separating the families; for in
many of the Leptopodiide the eyes are capable of a certain
degree of mobility, and in many Periceride they are, as Stimpson
has pointed out, completely retractile within the orbital cavity.
It is somewhat remarkable that Dana did not observe the cha-
racters that are afforded by the structure of the orbital region
itself, taken in conjunction with the concurrent modification of
the form of the basal antennal joint, to which attention had already
been drawn by Milne-Edwards, and which, I am convinced, offer
far better distinctions for a natural arrangement of the various
groups. Within his first family (Maids) Dana includes most of
the genera referred by me to the Maiide and Periceride ; his
second family (Tychide) contains but three genera, whereof the
last, Camposcia, has but little affinity with the two preceding ;
the third (Eurypodide) also includes but three genera, all refer-
able to my family Inachidee; the fourth (Leptopodide) cor-
responds, with the exception of Inachoides, to my subfamily
Leptopodiine. The fifth (Periceridz) is a somewhat heterogeneous
sroup ; but the majority of the genera included in it belong to my
subfamily Acanthonychine of the family Inachide.
The subfamilies of the Matinea instituted by Dana appear to
me to be unnecessarily numerous, and are for the most part
founded upon characters of minor importance, ¢.e. the form of
the carapace and rostrum. His minor subdivisions, indeed, are
less natural than those of Milne-Hdwards; but to him belongs the
merit of having recognized that the Parthenopinea form a group
equal in value to the remainder of the Oxyrhyncha (with the
single exception of Oncinopus). .
M. Alphonse Milne-Hdwards, by whosefinely illustrated memoirs
‘our knowledge of the genera of Oxyrhyncha has been so greatly
increased, has not, I believe, published any classification of the
group; but in his classification of the Brachyura set forth in the
introductory portion of his ‘ Histoire naturelle des Crustacés
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 639
fossiles’*, establishes two families, Inachoidiens and Maiens,
apparently corresponding to Dana’s Maiinea and Parthenopinea.
The late Dr. Stimpson, in his Preliminary Report of the Crus-
tacea Brachyura dredged in the Gulf Stream +, points out several
errors in Dana’s classification, and proposes or amends the cha-
racters of several subfamilies and families. Of these the Peri-
cerins, Othoniine, Eurypodiide and Acanthonychide would
seem to correspond respectively to my Periceride, Othonine,
Inachide and Acanthonychine ; but as often only a single
character is mentioned by which to distinguish the groups, and
no lists of the genera included are given, the limits he would
have assigned to them had he lived to publish a complete system
must remain uncertain. His subfamilies Leptopine and Collodine
are not retained in the present classification.
It may be useful in conclusion to refer to the arrangement
adopted by Dr. Claus in his lately-published Treatise on
Zoology (Grundziige der Zoologie, 3te Aufl. p. 558, 1876), as,
although this author does not do more than indicate the
leading generic types of the Oxyrhyncha, his views are of spe-
cial interest as emanating from a carcinologist of the highest
reputation. In his system the Oxyrhyncha are divided into two
families—Majidee, Parthenopidee—corresponding to the first and
second of Dana’s legions ; and the Majide are further subdivided
into three subfamilies :—(1) Majine, in which the eyes are retrac-
tile into orbits; (2) Hurypodine, in which the eyes are retractile
but without orbits; and (8) Leptopodiine, with non-retractile
eyes.
In the present revision the first and second of Dana’s primary
groups (Maiinea, Parthenopinea) are retained. The remarkable
genus Oncinopus, for which Dana established a section (Oncininea)
equal in value to the two above mentioned, must, I believe, be
included in my family Inachide. The abbreviated character of
the basal antennal joint is not peculiar to it, but exists also in
Macrocheira; the genus, however, exhibits a certain degradation
from the Brachyura in its subdorsally raised fifth ambulatory
legs. In its antennal characters, no less than in the flattened
trianculate form of the carapace, it approaches the Grapsoid genus
Elamene and its allies.
* Ann, Sci. Nat. tome xiy. Zoo!. p. 185 (1880).
+ Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology, ii. p. 109 (1870).
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 48
640 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
Within the Maiinea, a regular gradation of characters may be
traced from the forms (Leptopodia and Stenorhynchus) with non-
retractile and laterally projecting eyes and narrow basal* antennal
joint and elongated epistoma, at one end of the series, to those
(exemplified in Pericera and Mfithrax) with deep circular and
well-defined orbits, transverse epistoma, and greatly developed
basal antennal joint, at the other; and I accordingly distinguish
among the Maiinea three principal groups, founded upon the
orbital and antennal characters, as will be seen in the following
tabular arrangement.
Legion I. Matrnwa. (Maiinea, Dana; Inachotdiens, A. M.-Kdwards.)
Basal antennal joint well developed, inserted beneath the eyes, and
occupying a great part of the infraocular space.
Family I. InAcnHipa. Eyes non-retractile, or retractile against the
sides of the carapace. No defined orbits exist ; but there is often a well-
developed preeocular or postocular spine. Basal joint of antennze usually
very slender, sometimes moderately enlarged.
Family If. Maiipa. Eyes retractile within the projecting orbits, which
are more or less incomplete below the eyes, or marked with open fissures
in their upper or lower margins. Basal antennal jomt always more
or less enlarged.
Family I], Pericrripa. Eyes usually retractile within the orbits,
which are small, deep, and cireular, never incomplete. Basal antennal
joint well-developed, and usually very considerably enlarged.
As arule, there can be no difficulty in assigning to any genus
its place in one or other of the three families characterized above ;
yet, as the Maiide constitute a group intermediate between the
Inachide and Periceride, there are certain genera which he on
the border line separating the Inachide and Maiide, which
might be referred with almost equal justice to either family unless
some artificial limit were imposed. In ZLoworhynchus, for example,
the preocular and postocular spines and basal antennal joint are
largely developed, and this genus apprceximates closely in its
orbital and antennal characters to Pisa and its allies among the
Maiine; and, to take another instance, Zyche has its upper orbital
margin as much developed as Acanthophrys among the Maiide,
yet cannot be separated from its natural allies Stenoctonops and
Stilbognathus, which belong to the Inachide. Again, among the
Maiinea with deflexed front, it will be shown that a regular transi-
* T use this term, in the sense commonly employed by authors, for the large
joint which is apparently the first of the basal portion of the antenna, but is
in reality the second joint (“ basicerite”).
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 641
tion may be traced from Micippa with well defined orbits, to the
remarkable genus Picrocerus, in which the true orbits are as little
developed as in many Inachine.
In cases such as these, I believe it is often better to preserve
the natural sequence of the genera, though in so doing one must
slightly overstep the literal definition, than, by too strict an
adherence to the definition of the group, to separate forms which
in all characters save one may be nearly allied. Nature imposes
no artificial limits ; and not even an arbitrary distinction will in
all cases avail to separate kindred forms *.
Legion I], PartHEeNopinga. (Parthenopinea, Dana et auctorum).
Basal antennal joint very small, and embedded with the next joint in
the narrow hiatus between the front and inner suborbital angle ; the
infraocular space being mainly occupied by the lower wall of the
orbit.
Family IV. PARTHENOPID#. Characters of the section:—This group
corresponds in the main with M.-Edwards’s Parthénopiens; but the cha-
racters are modified to include several genera which agree with those
{known to Milne-Edwards in the structure of the orbits and antenne, but
differ in the carapace and auterior legs. Moreover I follow De Haan in
excluding Hurynome (which really belongs to the Maitide) and including
Cithra (which is placed by Milne-Kdwards in a separate section of the
Cancériens—Cancériens cryptopodes).
As already stated, the Parthenopinea are very distinct as a
sroup from the rest of the Oxyrhyncha. Perhaps their nearest
affinities in that direction are with Znachus through Inachoides.
The triangulate form of the carapace, with its strongly marked
depressions separating the different regions, is the same, and the
slender basal antennal joint. In Jnachoides the rostrum is simple,
as in Parthenope and Lambrus.
In the plates that accompany this paper I have figured
what may be regarded as typical examples of the principal
modifications in the structure of the orbital and antennal region
throughout the Oxyrhyncha, wherein may be traced the gradual
* Dana, for example, separated the Cancroidea into two parallel groups
(Cancridx and Hriphiide), characterized respectively by the presence or absence
of a ridge on the endostome defining the efferent branchial channel; but in
Xanthodius, a genus since described by Stimpson, this ridge is rudimentary, and
this genus may be referred either to the vicinity of Chlorodius in the former, or
Ozius in the latter group. Similar intermediate forms occur between Actea
and Acte@odes, genera belonging respectively to the parailel series Xanthinzx and.
Chlorodiinz in the family Cancride.
48*
642 ' MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
approximation of the Maioid to the Cancroid type through the
development of the orbits and of the basal portion of the antenne,
the increase in width of the interocular portion of the carapace,
the shortening of the epistome, and the obsolescence of the
rostrum.
In the synoptical arrangement of the families, subfamilies, and
genera which follows, I have omitted all references to the litera-
ture, as these will, it is hoped, be given on a future occasion, and
the characters themselves are to be regarded as merely diagnostic.
Those genera which are unknown to me from examination of spe-
cimens are distinguished by an asterisk ; and it may be, as the
descriptions are often short and insufficient, that I have referred
one or two to a wrong position in the system. Synonyma are
placed in brackets and printed in ¢talics. In every case I have cited
what I regard as the typical species of the genus. Many of the
genera are distinguished by characters of very trivial import-
ance ; and it is impossible in any linear arrangement to express
adequately their very complex affinities; but is hoped that the
present arrangement, while on the whole a natural one, will serve
as a practical guide to the determination and classification of the
numerous types of this interesting group.
Synoprroan ARRANGEMENT OF THE FamrLres, SUBFAMILIES,
AND GENERA.
Family I. INACHID.
Eyes non-retractile, or retractile against the sides of the carapace. No
defined orbits exist; but there is often a well-developed przocular and
postocular spine. Basal joint of antennz usually slender, sometimes
moderately enlarged.
The carapace varies in shape, being subtriangular, or oblong-triangular, or
subpyriform. Rostrum simple or bifid, sometimes very short. An-
terior legs with the fingers never excavated at the tips. Ambulatory
legs sometimes very long. Postabdomen of male and female 4-
to 7-jointed, two or three of the joints often coalescent.
Subfamily 1. Lepropopiina#. (See Plate XII. figs. 1, 2.) (Macropo-
diens, M.-Kdwards, part. ; Leptopodide, Dana, part., Stimpson.)
Eyes slender, non-retractile, and laterally projecting. Przeocular and
postocular spies minute or wanting. Basal antennal joint very slender
throughout its length.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATIOID CRUSTACEA. 643
The carapace is subtriangular. Rostrum usually simple (bifid in Ste-
norhynchus). The merus joint of the outer maxillipedes is truncated,
or elongated and rounded at its distal end, and articulated with the
next joint at its summit or at its antero-external or antero-internal angle.
The anterior legs have the palm cylindricai or inflated, fingers acute.
Ambulatory legs slender and very long.
The genera included in this subfamily are placed at the head of
the Maioidea on account of the close approximation of the eyes
and antenne and their separation from the rest of the body by
the constriction of the postocular portion of the cephalothorax ;
the epistome is very long, and generally two or three of the post-
abdominal segments coalescent.
§ Rostrum extremely long, simple. A postocular spine. Anterior
legs with the palm elongated, cylindrical. Ambulatory legs ex-
tremely long.
Lertopropis, Leach (Macropus, Latr., part. ; Pactolus, Leach).
Carapace smooth, even above. Antennz concealed beneath the
rostrum. Type Leptopodia sagittaria (Kabr.).
* Merororapuis, Stimpson. Carapace uneven above. An-
tennw long, flagellum exposed. Type Mletoporaphis calcarata
(Say).
§§ Rostrum composed of two spines, or very short and simple. No
postocular spine. Anterior legs with the palm shorter, inflated.
SrrnorHyncnus, Lamarck (Macropus, Latr., part.; Macro-
podia, Leach). (Plate XII. figs. 1, 2.) Rostrum elongated,
of two slender contiguous spines. Type Stenorhynchus rostratus
(Linn.).
Acumus, Leach. Rostrum very short, emarginate. Type
Acheus Cranchii, Leach.
The characters derived from the form of the merus joint of the
outer maxillipedes and dactyli of the ambulatory legs are subject
to much variation in the exotic species.
* PopocHELA, Stimpson. Rostrum simple, acute. Pterygo-
stomian regions naked. Type Podochela grossipes, Stimpson.
Poponrema, Stimpson. Rostrum simple, rounded, excavate
beneath, and hood-shaped. Pterygostomian regions with lamelli-
Re a
Yw i* ;
644: MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
form ridges defining the afferent branchial channels Type Po-
donema Riisci, Stimpson.
Subfamily 2. Inacuina. (See Plate XII. figs. 3,4.) (Macropodiens,
M.-Edwards, part. ; Hurypodiude, Stimpson.)
Eyes slender and retractile. Praeocular spine usually wanting, post-
ocular usually distinct. Basal antennal joint usually very slender through-
out its length, not narrowing distally.
The carapace is subtriangular or subpyriform ; its margin is often slightly
produced over the base of the eye-peduncles. Rostrum simple, bifid, or
two-spined. The merus joint of the outer maxillipedes is either truncated
and articulated with the next joint at its antero-internal angle, or elongated
and rounded at its distal end. ‘The anterior legs in the male are small, or
have the palm inflated and the fingers acute. The ambulatory legs are
usually slender, and often very long. Postabdomen 5- to 7-jointed.
In this subfamily are included what may be considered the
typical Inachide. The form of the merus joint of the outer max-
illipedes would probably afford excellent sectional characters ; but
as many of the genera are unknown to me, I prefer to group
them according to the form of the rostrum.
§ Rostrum very short, emarginate.
* Basal antennal joint reaching to front.
Hucinerors, Stimpson. Carapace suboblong. Rostrum short,
bifid, slightly deflexed. Eyes extremely long and mobile. Outer
maxillipedes with the merus joint short, truncated at distal end.
Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type Hucinetops Lucasii,
Stimpson.
Camposcta, Latreille. Carapace elongated, subpyriform. Ros-
trum very short, emarginate. Eyes long and slender. Outer
maxillipedes with the merus joint elongated, obovate, and rounded
at its distal end. Ambulatory legs very long. Type Camposcia
retusa, Latreille.
The genus Hucinetops in the form of the carapace, eyes, and
maxillipedes has some affinity with J/icippa and its. allies; Cam-
poscia, in the form of the merus joint of the outer maxillipedes,
approaches Jnachus.
The four following genera (of none of which I have seen spe-
cimens) are constituted a distinct subfamily (Collodinze) by Stimp-
son, on account of the shortness of the rostrum. This character
is of scarcely sufficient importance for such a purpose; and it
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 645
appears to me that these genera must certainly be arranged in the
same subdivision with Camposcia and Eucinetops.
*CoLtopEs, Stimpson. Carapace subtriangular. Rostrum
bifid, with the spines approximated. Merus joint of outer
maxillipedes produced internally. Hyes of moderate length.
Ambulatory legs all subprehensile, tarsi slender. Type Collodes
granosus, Stimpson.
*Aractnopsis, Stimpson. Carapace narrow, suboblong. Ros-
trum bifid. Eyes long. Merus joint of the outer maxillipedes
broader than long. Ambulatory legs filiform, tarsi straight. Type
Arachnopsis filipes, Stimpson.
*BATRACHONOTUS, Stimpson. Carapace subtriangular. Ros-
trum emarginate. Merus joint of the outer maxillipedes broad.
Ambulatory legs of the first pair extremely long, those of the
posterior pairs very short. Type Batrachonotus fragosus, Stimp-
son.
*Houproanatua, Stimpson. Carapace subpyriform. Rostrum
apparently trifid (the median lobe being the interantennulary
spine). A preocular spine. Hye large, peduncle short. Merus
joint of the outer maxillipedes somewhat L-shaped. Type Hu-
prognatha rastellifera, Stimpson.
Acumopsis, Stimpson. Carapace triangular, with the regions
well defined. Rostrum short, bifid; postocular spine small; a
preocular spine present. Outer maxillipedes with the merus joint
elongated. Ambulatory legs slender; three last pairs with the
dactyli falciform. Type Acheéopsis spinulosus, Stimpson.
Tyacuts, Habr. Carapace triangular, with the regions well
defined. Rostrum very short, bifid; no preocular spine ; post-
ocular spine large. Outer maxillipedes with the merus joint
elongated. Ambulatory legs elongated, with the terminal joints
usually straight. Type Jnachus dorsettensis (Pennant).
** Basal antennal joint very short, not reaching to front.
Onctnopus, De Haan. Carapace elongate-triangular. Front
emarginate, Basal antennal joint very short, the next longer.
Merus joint of outer maxillipedes elongated and articulated with
the next at its summit. Ambulatory legs slender, the penulti-
mate joints of the first and second pairs more or less dilated and
646 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE ”
compressed, the fifth somewhat raised upon the dorsal surface.
Type Oncinopus aranea, De Haan.
This curious genus in the form of the basal antennal joint comes
nearest Macrocheira, and also has some affinity with the Grapsoid
genus Hlamene and its allies. In the subdorsally elevated fifth
ambulatory legs it approaches the Maioid Anomura.
§§ Rostrum simple.
*INACHOIDES, MWilne-Edwards (Xiphus, Eydoux & Souleyet).
Carapace triangular, with the regions well defined. No preocular
spine. Postocular well developed. Anterior legs with the palm
inflated. Ambulatory legs very slender, with the dactyli straight.
Type Inachoides microrhynchus, M.-Kdw. & Lucas.
§$§ Rostrum long, two-spined.
* Spines of rostrum contiquous with one another.
Evuryponrus, Guérin-Méneville. Spines of rostrum rather
stout, narrowing to distal extremity. Ambulatory legs very long,
with the penultimate joint dilated and compressed. Type Hury-
podius Latreillet, Guérin.
Orugonta, Dana. (Plate XII. figs.3,4.) Carapace flattened,
not spinose. Spines of rostrum very slender. Ambulatory legs
of moderate length, very slender, with the penultimate joint simi-
lar to the preceding, not dilated and compressed. Type Oregonia
gracilis, Dana.
PruistacantTua, Miers. Carapace convex, spinose. Spines
of rostrum long, divergent at their tips. Anterior legs in male
elongated. Ambulatory legs very slender and very long, penul-
timate joint not dilated and compressed. Type Pleistacantha
sancti-johannis, Miers.
** Spines of rostrum divergent.
1. Third joint of outer maxillipedes not emarginate at its distal end.
Hauimvs, Latreille. Carapace subtriangular, with lateral mar-
ginal spines. Three spines above the eye. Merus joint of the
outer maxillipedes somewhat auriculated and produced at its
antero-external angle. Anterior legs in male enlarged, palm
slightly compressed. Ambulatory legs with the penultimate
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATOID CRUSTACEA. 64:7
joint more or less flattened, and dilated toward its distal end.
Type Halimus auritus, Latreille.
This genus establishes a transition to the Maiide.
Amatura, Rowe. Carapace subtriangular, spinose. No spines
above the eye. Anterior legs of moderate size. Ambulatory
legs slender and cylindrical, penultimate joint not dilated. Type
Amathia Rissoana, Roux.
Cuorinus, Leach. Carapace elongated, convex, without lateral
marginal spines. A prominent preocular spine. Eyes very small.
Merus joint of the outer maxillipedes not auriculated. Anterior
legs in the male greatly elongated. Ambulatory legs of the first
pair much elongated, of the last three pairs short. Type Chorinus
heros (Herbst).
Macrocuttra, De Haan. Carapace triangular. Preocular
spine small. Basal antennal joint very small, not reaching the
front. Merus joint of the outer maxillipedes elongated, and
rounded at its distal end (as in Camposcia and Inachus). Legs
very long. Type Macrocheira Kampferi, De Haan.
2. Third joint of the outer maxillipedes notched at its distal end.
2 Bis ini A. M.-Edwards. Carapace subtriangular.
Rostrum bifid, its spines divergent. Basal joint of antenne rather
robust. Anterior legs in male long and slender. Ambulatory
legs with the penultimate jot dilated and square-truncated as
in Acanthonyx. Type Hrichoplatus Huttoni, A. M.-Edwards.
This genus establishes the transition from the present subfamily
to the Acanthonychine. The single species was contemporaneously
described by me as Halimus Hectori, from an imperfect specimen.
Subfamily 3. ACANTHONYCHIN. «(See Plate XII. figs. 5,6.) (Maiens
- phanérophthalmes, M.-Kidw., part.; Acanthonychide, Stimpson.)
Eyes small and immobile or partially retractile, and concealed beneath
the prominent preocular spine. Basal antennal joint usually enlarged at
base and narrowing distally. Postocular spine small or absent.
The carapace is usually more or less oblong and flattened, more rarely
elongated and subcylindrical or subtriangular. Rostrum simple or bifid.
The merus joint of the outer maxillipedes is truncated at its distal end, and
articulated with the next joint at its antero-internal angle. The anterior
legs in the male usually have the palm compressed. The ambulatory legs
are of moderate length.. Postabdomen 4- to 7-jointed.
648 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
Some of the genera in the first and second sections of this sub-
family approach the Leptopodiine in the length of their epistoma,
narrow interocular space, and coalescent postabdominal segments.
Consequently the Acanthonychinx are to be regarded as a series
parallel with, rather than inferior to, the Leptopodiine in a natural
arrangement,
§ Carapace elongated, ovate-cylindrical. Rostrum elongated, emar-
ginate or bifurcated. Preocular minute, or wanting. Eyes im-
mobile, Last two pairs of legs very short.
This section would appear to correspond with Stimpson’s sub-
family Anomalopine.
Xenocancinus, White (Huenioides, A. Milne-Edwards). (Plate
XII. fig. 5.) Carapace . ovate-cylindrical. Preocular spine
wanting. Antenne concealed beneath the rostrum. Type Xe-
nocarcinus tuberculatus, White.
*ANOMALOTHIR (Anomalopus, Stimpson, nom. preoc.). Carapace
almost subeylindrical. Przocular minute. Antenne visible from
above. Type Anomalothir furcillatus (Stimpson).
8§ Carapace in the male subtriangular. Rostrum simple, aeute-—
Ambulatory legs regularly decreasing in length.
* Hyes immobile. Sexes (where known) dissimilar.
*Mocosoa, Stimpson. Carapace subpentagonal. Rostrum
subtriangular, entire, obtuse, excavated below. Preocular ?ucode
Outer maxillipedes with the merus joint short, broad, and pro-
duced at its antero-external angle. Anterior legs? Type Jo-
cosoa crebrepunctata, Stimpson.
Trigonorurr, Miers. Carapace subtriangular.. Rostrum en-
tire, obtuse, flattened below, and produced into lateral carine.
Preocular wanting. Outer maxillipedes with merus joint not
produced at its antero-external angle. Anterior legs rather small,
palm compressed. Type Trigonothir obtusirostris, sp. n.
A single specimen, locality unknown, is in the Museum collection.
Hventa, De Haan. Rostrum slender, deep, and laterally
compressed, acute ; preocular spine small. Sexes dissimilar (the
carapace in the female being produced into large lateral lobes or
expansions). Hands compressed, cristate above. Ambulatory
CLASSIFIOATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 649
lees more or less dilated and compressed. Type Huenta proteus, -
De Haan. :
Smmocarcinus, Miers. Rostrum as in Hwenia,\but shorter,
Preocular spine wanting. Sexes dissimilar. Hands in adult
male turgid, not cristate above. Ambulatory legs not compressed.
Type Simocarcinus simplex (Dana).
The type of this genus is the Hwenia simplex of Dana: this
species and his H. brevirostrata are obviously male and female of
the same form. Specimens are in the British Museum of both
sexes.
Crctonyx, Miers. Rostrum laminate, flattened, very broad,
and transversely oval in shape. Eyes situated in the narrow
angle between the base of the rostrum and front of the carapace,
the sides of which are produced into dilated wing-like expansions
as in Huenia. Type Cyclonyx frontalis (White). Only known
from a single female in bad condition.
** Hyes mobile. Seaes similar.
Mrvatuivus, J7-Hdw. Rostrum slender, acute. Preocular
spine well developed. Carapace subtriangular. Anterior legs
with the palm slightly compressed, fingers arcuate. Ambulatory
legs not compressed. Type Menethiuws monoceros, Latr.
§$§$ Carapace usually more or less oblong or orbiculate in outline.
Rostrum flattened, emarginate, bifid, or two-spined. Preocular
usually well developed. Byes mobile. Basal antennal joint
dilated at base, narrowing distally. Ambulatory legs of moderate
length.
* Flagelium of antenne concealed beneath the rostrum and not
visible from above.
*Leucripre, W.-Hdwards. Rostrum laminate, divided by anar-
row median fissure. Carapace subtriangular or subpentagonal.
Preocular spine wanting. Basal antennal joint not much en-
larged at the base. Type Leucippe pentagona, l.-Edwards.
This genus marks the transition from the preceding section to
the present one.
Mimunvus, Stimpson. Rostrum laminate, bifid. Cara-
pace flattened, subpentagonal, with the lateral margins in both
sexes produced into bilobate laminate expansions. Przocular
650 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
spine present. Basal antennal joint not much enlarged at base.
Type Mimulus foliatus, Stimpson.
Herantus, J0-Edwards. Rostrum lamellate, emarginate.
Preocular spine present. Basal antennal joint considerably en-
larged at base. Ambulatory legs with the penultimate joimt not
dilated and compressed.
Subgenus 1. Eprantus. Carapace suboblong. Second tooth
of the antero-lateral margins greatly developed. Type Epialtus
bituberculatus, M.-Edwards.
Subgenus 2. Awrinrpinta, M‘Leay. Carapace suboval, smooth,
or uneven. Second tooth ‘of the antero-lateral margins small.
Type Antilibinia Smithii, M‘Leay.
I place in this subgenus the W.-American species with smooth
oval carapace. M‘Leay’s type species is from 8. Africa. In the
American species (1. dentatus, H. emarginatus) the orbital mar-
gin, although not prominent, is so well defined and circular that
they might almost be separated as a distinct genus, and placed
near Scyra in the Periceride. A. Smithii externally resembles
the species of Labinia.
*HupLEuRropoy, Stimpson. Carapace depressed and uneven ;
antero-lateral angles strongly prominent. Ambulatory legs
strongly prehensile, penultimate joints dentigerous. Type Hw-
pleurodon trifurcatus, Stimpson.
This genus seems to be in some degree intermediate between
the subgenera Epialtus and Antilibinia.
** Flagelle of antenne exposed and visible from above at side of
rostrum (basal joint of antenne not much enlarged at base).
Pucerria, Dana (Peltinia, Dana). Carapace somewhat con-
stricted behind the second lateral spine. Ambulatory legs slender,
with the penultimate joint not dilated or compressed. ‘Type
Pugettia gracilis, Dana.
Acantuonyx, Latreille. (Plate XII. fig.6.) Carapace usually
suboblong, not constricted behind the second lateral spine. Am-
bulatory legs with the penultimate joint more or less flattened,
dilated, and compressed. Type Acanthonyx lunulatus, Risso.
(The genus Dehaanius of M‘Leay, Anuulosain Smith’s 8. Africa,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 651
p- 57, pl. ii. fig. a, would seem, from the figure and the position
assigned to it by its author, to have the eyes retractile within
well-defined orbits, and hence to be referable to the family Maitide.
Except as regards the orbital characters, the species figured (De-
haanius acanthopus) altogether resembles the 8.-African Acan-
thonyx dentatus, M.-Edw. Perhaps there ig some error in
M‘Leay’s delineation of the species in question.)
Subfamily 4. MicRorHYNCHIN#.
Eyes short and completely retractile; the postocular spine or lobe
largely developed. Basal antennal joint considerably enlarged throughout
its length (except in some Doclee). Przeocular spine short or absent.
The rostrum is simple or more or less bifurcated. Carapace more or
less triangular and convex. The merus jomt of the outer maxillipedes
cordiform, or truncated at its distal extremity. Legs usually rather slender.
Postabdomen of male and female 6- to 7-jointed.
This group is altogether intermediate in the structure of the
orbital and antennal region between the Inachide and the Maiide.
The genus Loworhynchus, for example, closely approaches in these
respects Pisa and its allies ; but the upper orbital margin is not
developed as in the genera of that section of Maiide. Of most
of the genera I have seen no specimens.
§ Rostrum simple. No preocular spine.
* Microruyncuus, Bell (? Salacia, M.-Edwards & Lucas).
Carapace broadly triangular. Rostrum very short. Merus joint
of outer maxillipedes somewhat cordiform. Anterior legs in male
small. Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type Microrhyn-
chus gibbosus, Bell.
*Apromata, v. Martens (Pyromaa, Stimpson). Carapace some-
what pyriform. Merus joint of outer maxillipedes with the |
antero-imternal lobe strongly projecting. The rest nearly as in
Microrhynchus. Type Apiomaia cuspidata (Stimpson).
*Ksopus, A. Milne-Hdwards. Carapace elongate-oval, convex.
’ Front rounded at its distal end. Outer maxillipedes with the
merus joint slightly produced at its antero-lateral angle. Type
Esopus crassus, A. M.-Kdwards.
§§ Rostrum bifid or emarginate. A preocular spine usually
present.
LoxoruYncuvs, Stimpson. Rostrum slightly deflexed, bifid ;
652 : MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
the spines coalescent at base, and then divergent. A prominent
preocular and postocular spine. Basal joint of antennee consi-
derably enlarged. Merus joint of outer maxillipedes entire at
its distal end. Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type
Loworhynchus grandis, Stimpson.
*Lipipocipa, W.-Hdwards. Rostrum prominent, not deflexed
and emarginate at its distal end. Merus joint of outer maxilli-
pedes notched at its distal margin. Legs rather long. Type Lzbi-
doclea granaria, M.-Hdw. & Lucas.
This genus is closely allied to Zibinia in the family Peri-
ceria.
Doctzs, Leach. Carapace orbiculate-triangular, or orbicu-
late. Rostrum usually very short, emarginate. No preocular
spine. Basal antennal joint but moderately enlarged at base,
Legs very long and slender. Type Doclea Rissonit, Leach.
This genus is closely allied to Hyeria, and marks the transition
to that genus of Mande. .
Subfamily 5. STENOCIONOPINA.
Eyes elongated and retractile, partly concealed by the praocular spine,
which is very greatly elongated. Basal antennal jot considerably en-
larged throughout its length.
The rostrum is composed of two spines. Carapace somewhat oblong
and posteriorly prolonged. The articulation of the merus joint of the
outer maxillipedes with the preceding joimt is often very peculiar.
The enlarged basal antennal joint marks the approach of this
subfamily to the Maiide. Were the upper orbital margin as
well developed in all the genera as in Zyche, it would be better to
constitute it a subfamily of that group.
*Srmnocronops, Latreille. Upper orbital margin behind pre-
ocular spine not developed. Posterior lobe of the carapace
simple. Merus joint of outer maxillipedes greatly produced
and acute at its antero-external angle, and with a notch on its
inner margin for the insertion of the fourth jomt. Type Steno-
cionops cervicornis (Herbst).
*SritBoGNaTuus, v. Martens. Facies of Stenocionops. Ischium
joint of the outer maxillipedes with a longitudinal pit on its outer
gurface which is covered with bristles; merus jot conyex and
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATOID CRUSTACEA. 653
shining, with a flat rounded lobe ‘at its antero-external angle.
Type Stilbognathus erythreus, v. Martens.
Tyrone, Bell (Platyrhynchus, Desb. & Schramm*). Upper or-
bital margin behind the preocular spine well developed, laterally
produced, and concealing the eyes, with a deep fissure. Ischium
and merus joints of outer maxillipedes flat and smooth, the third
or merus joint dovetailed into the second, not produced, or with
a small lobe at its antero-external angle. Type Tyche lamellifrons,
Bell.
Family 11. MAIIDA.
Eyes retractile within the orbits, which are distinctly defined; but often
more or less incomplete below, or marked with open fissures in their
upper and lower margins. . Basal antennal joint always more or less
enlarged.
Subfamily 1. Matmna. (See Plate XII. figs. 7-10.)
(Matens cryptophthalmes, M.-Kdwards, part.).
Carapace usually subtriangular. Rostrum well developed. Anterior
legs in male enlarged ; fingers not excavate at tips.
This subfamily includes most of those typical forms which group
themselyes around the common Laia, in which the carapace 18
usually triangular or elongate-triangular, the rostrum emarginate
or two-spined, the orbits large, well defined and yet incomplete,
eyes completely retractile, anterior legs with fingers acute, and
ambulatory legs usually of moderate length.
Stimpson proposed to separate as a distinct subfamily (Lepto-
pine) the group typified by Hyeria (Leptopus, Latr.), on account
of the broad and somewhat cordiform merus joint of the outer
maxillipedes. Hgeria could not in any case be taken as typical of
the group, as init the merus joint of the outer maxillipedes is not
cordiform, but truncated at its distal end. A certain affinity un-
doubtedly exists between the genera in which the merus joint is
cordiform, as also between those (typified by Camposcia) which
have the merus joint elongated, often rounded at the distal end,
and articulated with the next at the summit; but these characters
cannot be employed as a basis for a general classification, and do
* Thave not had an opportunity of consulting Dr. Schramm’s work, ‘ Crus-
tacés de la Guadeloupe d’aprés un manuscrit du docteur Desbonne, Ire partie,
Brachyura. Basse-Terre, Svo, 1867.” In referring to it I haye followed M.
A, Milne-Edwards’s citations.
654 MR. BE. J. MIERS ON THE
not always harmonize with the characters derived from the struc-
_ ture of the orbits and antenne.
§ Rostrum vertically compressed and laminated, bifid, or notched at
the extremity. Orbits shallow and very open above, so that the
eyes, when retracted, are more or less visible from above, the eyes
themselves short and thick.
* Ambulatory legs extremely long and slender.
Eaerria, Latr. (Leptopus, Lamk., pt.). Carapace broadly tri-
angular, spinose. Rostrum prominent, notched. Orbits with
two wide fissures below. Basal antennal joint rather narrow.
Anterior legs of male rather small. Type Eyeria longipes (Herbst).
CuoriLiBinia, Lockington. Carapace triangular. Rostrum
long, the spines coalescent at base and divergent at tip. Basal
antennal jot moderately enlarged. Upper orbital margin very
prominent. Hye-peduncles short. Type Chorilibinia anqusta,
Lockington.
** Ambulatory legs of moderate length.
a. Carapace not spinose.
*Humus, A. Milne-Hdwards. Rostrum deflexed, notched at
the extremity. Basal joint of antenne enlarged; the second and
third joints also dilated and visible from above, with lateral wing-
like expansions. Merus joints of the ambulatory legs consider-
ably dilated. Type Hemus cristulipes, A. Milne-Edwards.
Ifvas, Leach. Rostrum bifid; the median fissure narrow.
Basal joint of antennee not much enlarged, the second joint mo-
derately dilated, the third joint narrow. Ambulatory legs not
dilated or compressed. Type Hyas araneus (Linn.).
Cniona@cetrs, Kroyer (Peloplastus, Gersticker). Rostrum
notched, not deflexed. Basal jomt of antenns very narrow,
second and third not dilated. Ambulatory legs in the adult with
the joints somewhat compressed and flattened. Type Chionacetes
opilio, Kroyer.
b. Carapace spinose.
Herzstia, Milne-Hdwards (Rhodia, Bell, Aeropisa, Stimpson),
Rostrum notched. Carapace broadly triangular,with the regions
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 655
well defined. Second and third joints of antennw slender. Am-
bulatory legs slender, cylindrical.
Subgenus 1. Herzsria. Inferior margin of orbit without a
tooth. Ambulatory legs not spinose. Type Herbstia condyliata
(Herbst).
Subgenus 2. *HErpstieLna, Stm. Inferior margin of orbit
toothed. Merus joint of ambulatory legs spinose. Type Herb-
stiella depressa, Stm.
This genus establishes a relationship to Withraa.
*Camtocerus, d. Milne-Hdwards. Carapace suborbiculate.
Rostrum prominent, with a shallow notch at its distal end, and
its lateral margins involuted. Second and third joints of antenne
slender. Legs short. Type Celocerus spinosus, A. M.-Edwards.
Is nearly allied to Lebinia; and it may be desirable so to mo-
dify its characters as to include any species of that genus which
may have the orbital margin incomplete or notched. The involu-
tion of the margins of the rostrum is of minor importance, as the
same character occurs in a lesser degree in the typical species of
Libinia (L. emarginata).
§§ Rostrum composed of two more or less distinct divergent spine
Orbits deep, so that the eyes, when retracted, are concealed; the
eyes themselves small, the eye-peduncles slender.
+ Orbits large, with a forward aspect, usually very incomplete below,
the upper orbital margin usually prominent, with two deep fissures
and long spines.
* Flagellum of the antenne arising within the orbital cavity.
Mata, Lamarck. (Plate XII. figs. 7,8.) Spines of rostrum
divergent from their base. Carapace triangulate-oblong, the
interorbital space broad. Basal joint of antennse very much en-
larged. Anterior legs in male rather slender; wrist elongated,
not carinated. Type Alaia squinado (Linn.).
*%* Flagellum of the antenne arising within the orbital margin, and
separated from the cavity of the orbit by a narrow process of the
basal joint.
ParamitHrax, I-Hdwards. Carapace subtriangular. Spines
of rostrum divergent from their base. Anterior margin of buccal
cavity straight, or nearly so. Basal joint of antenne very much
LINN. JOURN.— ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 49
656 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
enlarged. Merus joint of outer maxillipedes notched at its an-
tero-internal angle.
Subgenus 1. Lepromrrurax, Miers. Anterior legs in male
elongated, slender; hand and wrist subcylindrical; wrist not
ridged, fingers meeting along their inner edges when closed. (Cara-
pace not spinose above.) Type Leptomithrawx longimanus, Miers.
Subgenus 2. Paramirnrax, W.-Hdw. Anterior legs in the male
enlarged; hand compressed, fingers with a vacant space between
them when closed, wrist with two ridges, the outer usually oblique.
(Carapace usually spinose above.) Type Paramithrax Peronit,
M.-Hdw.
As regards external form, every gradation appears to be estab-
lished between the typical Paramithrax aud Acanthophrys, in which
the carapace and legs are more or less spinose, the upper orbital
margin produced above; but the spine at the antero-external
angle of the basal joint of the antenne projects laterally instead of
forward, as in that genus; and the form of the merus joint of
the outer maxillipedes is different.
(The genus *Phycodes, established by A. Milne-Edwards on a
species, P. antennarius, from St. Vincent, has, I believe, never
been figured, but should perhaps be referred to the vicinity of
Paramithrax, The carapaceis pyriform. Spines of rostrum short,
acute. Orbits large, ill-defined, emarginate above; eyes par-
tially retractile; postocular spine large. Basal antennal joint
long, enlarging distally, ending in two spines, of which the outer
is very prominent; fiagellum inserted outside rostrum. Third
joint of outer maxillipedes much larger on its outer than its inner
side. Ambulatory legs long; dactyli curved. There appears to be
some inconsistency in the generic and specific descriptions of the
frontal and orbital region.)
*Opnopisa, 4. Milne-Hdwards. Carapace pyriform. Spines
of rostrum straight, divergent. Anterior margin of buccal cavity
much more prominent on the sides than in the median portion.
Merus joint of outer maxillipedes much dilated at its antero-
external angle. Ambulatory legs short, and regularly spinose.
Type Oplopisa spinipes, A. Milne-Edwards.
Acanrnornrys, A. Milne-Edwards. Carapace subtriangular.
Spines of rostrum divergent. Upper orbital margin prominent.
Supraocular spine produced above the eye. Basal antennal joint
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOLID CRUSTACEA. 657
with a spine at its antero-external angle, which projects forward.
Anterior margin of buccal cavity straight, or nearly so. Merus
joint of outer maxillipedes dilated at its distal margin, rounded
and entire, without any notch for the insertion of the next joint.
Type Acanthophrys cristimanus, A. Milne-Edwards.
I propose to restrict this genus to species characterized by the
entire merus joint of the outer maxillipedes, as there appears to
be no other certain distinction between it and Paramithrax, and
accordingly cite A. cristimanus as the type, because (if the figure
be correct) it presents this peculiarity. ‘Two species of the genus
are in the British-Museum collection.
Ty Orbits small, with a lateral aspect; orbital margin not pro-
minent, with ahiatus above and below (rarely im Pisa there are
two hiatus above).
Pisa, Leach. (Plate XII. figs. 9,10.) Carapace triangular,
rounded behind. Procular spine usually large. Spines of ros-
trum long, parallel, or in contact, to near their extremities. Epi-
stome transverse, rather narrow. Basal joint of antenne much
enlarged, and terminating at its distal extremity in one or two
spines or tubercles.
Subgenus 1. Pisa, Leach (Blastus, Leach). Anterior legs in
the male with the palm dilated ; fingers curved, and meeting only
at the ends. Carapace ovate-triangular. Type Pisa tetraodon
(Pennant).
Subgenus 2. Arcrorsis, Lamarck. Carapace subtriangular.
Anterior legs in the male with the palms elongated and rather
slender; fingers straight, and meeting along their inner edges.
Type Arctopsis lanata, Lamarck.
*PrsorpEs, Milne-Hdwards & Lucas. Carapace subtriangular.
Spines of rostrum short, subparallel. No preocular spine. Epi-
stome very narrow, nearly linear. Basal antennal joint with a
tubercle at its distal end. Type Pisoides Hdwardsit (Bell).
Norotopas, Stimpson. Carapace with the back flattened, and
bounded posteriorly by a broad concave lamella. Rostrum with
the spines divaricate. A preocular spine. Basal joint of an-
tenn with a lobe at its distal end. Type Wotolopas lamellatus,
Stimpson.
49*
65
io 9)
MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
Hyastrenus, White (Lahaina, Dana). Carapace triangular,
rounded behind. Spines of rostrum long, straight, divergent
from their base. Preeocular spine small or obsolete. Orbits
small, with a hiatus above and onebelow. Basal joint of antennze
not much enlarged. First ambulatory legs greatly elongated.
Subgenus 1. Hyasrenvs. Carapace smooth and even above,
with none or with few long spines. Basal joint of antenne without
a spine at its distal end. Anterior legsin male small and slender.
Type Hyastenus Sebe, White.
Subgenus 2. Cuorin1a, Dana. Carapace uneven and tuber-
cular above. Basal joint of antenne usually with a spine at its
distalend. Anterior legs in male usually enlarged, with the palm
compressed. Type Chorilia longipes, Dana.
(The genus Lahaina, Dana, is intermediate between Hyastenus
and Chorilia. In the form of the carapace and rostrum and an-
terior legs it resembles the first ; in the presence of a preocular
spine, and the existence of a spine on the basal joint of the an-
tenn, the second. Nevertheless, as the subgenera Hyastenus
and Ohorilia represent two types of the genus differing much in -
external appearance, it seems better to retain them as distinct.)
Naxta, JL-KHdw. (Naxioides, A. Milne-Edwards; Podopisa,
Hilgendorf). Carapace subtriangular. Spines of rostrum pa-
rallel, and bearing near their extremities an accessory spinule.
Preocular spine usually present. Orbitsasin Hyastenus*. Basal
joint of antenne longer than broad; its antero-external angle
tuberculiform. First ambulatory legs very long. Type Wazia
serpulifera, M.-Edwards.
Searcely distinct, perhaps, as a genus, from Hyastenus.
MicrrvorpeEs, A. Milne-Edwards. Carapace subtriangular.
Spines of rostrum rather short, deflexed, acute. No preocular
spine. Basal joint of antenne enlarged, without spine or tubercle
at its distal end. Anterior legs in male with the palm dilated.
Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type MWicippoides angustt-
frons, A. M.-Edwards.
Marks a transition to Prionorhynchus among the Periceride.
* Tn young specimens of NV. serpulifera the fissures of the orbits are wider,
and constitute a veritable hiatus. It appears, therefore, necessary to unite
Naxioides, A. M.-Edwards, with this genus, as it is only distinguished by the
absence of a preocular spine, a character which by itself cannot be considered
of generic importance,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 659
Euryyome, Leach. Carapace subtriangular, tuberculated, and
spinose. Spines of rostrum laminate at base, acute at ends,
slightly divergent. No preocular spine. Basal antennal joint
enlarged at base, longitudinally sulcated, without a spine at its
distal end. Anterior legs in male elongated, much longer than
the ambulatory legs, which are all of moderate length. Type
Hurynome aspera (Pennant).
This genus has been placed by Milne-Edwards and other
authors in the Parthenopide; but in all structural characters
it 1s obviously allied to Pisa and Hyastenus.
Peta, Bell. Carapacesubpyriform. Rostrum with the spines
united at base, afterwards divergent. No preocularspine. Basal
antennal joint elongated ; its distal half visible from above at the
side of the rostrum. Legs all of moderate length. Type Pelia
pulchella, Bell.
Subfamily 2. ScH1zOPHRYSIN&.
Carapace very broadly triangular, or oval, or nearly circular. Rostrum
very short or obsolete. Anterior legs in male small, slender ; the fingers
usually excavated at the tips.
This subfamily establishes the transition of the Maiide to the
subfamily Mithracine in the Periceride, and includes those
Maioids in which the rostrum is reduced, until in Cyclax its spines
are represented only by two small tubercles, the orbits often
nearly complete, or marked with very narrow fissures, the ca-
rapace broadly triangular or nearly circular, the epistome short,
the basal antennal joint very largely developed, and the anterior
legs with the fingers more or less excavated.
§ Anterior legs with the fingers acute at the tips.
*Temnonotus, A. Milne-Hdwards. Carapace ovate-elliptical,
convex and tuberculated above, with a horseshoe-shaped pit on
the dorsal surface. A preocular spine present. Spines of ros-
trum simple, well developed. Orbital fissures narrow; eyes short,
thick. Basal-joint of antenne much enlarged. Type Zemnonotus
granulosus, A. M.-Edwards. ;
Only females of this genus are known; and it is possible that
in adult males the fingers may be excavated as in other genera of
the same group.
660 : MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
§$ Anterior legs with the fingers excavated at the tips.
Scuizopurys, White (Dione, De Haan, nom. preoce.). Cara-
pace orbiculate-triangular or rarely elongated. Spines of rostrum
distinct, with one or more accessory spines upon their outer mar-
gins. Orbits large. Basal joint of antenne rather slender, with
two spines at its distal end. Type Schizophrys aspera (Milne-
Edwards).
The fingers are acute and not excavated in 8. dama (Herbst),
a species which differs from others of the genus in its more elon-
gated form, and approaches the Maiide.
Crcnax, Dana. Carapace orbiculate or oblong-orbiculate.
Spines of rostrum simple, very short or rudimentary. Orbits
large. Basal joint of antenne usually much enlarged.
The accessory spines of the rostrum of Schizophrys constitute
the only positive distinction (although an arbitrary one) that can
be employed to separate the species of that genus from Cyclax
and Nemausa.
Subgenus 1. Crctax, Dana. Spines of rostrum longer. Hye-
peduncles longer. Basal joint of antenne slenderer, with two
spines at its distal end. Type Cyclar Perryi, Dana.
Subgenus 2. Crctomata, Stimpson. Spines of rostrum rudi-
mentary. Eyes large. Basal joint of antenne very broad, with
three spines at its distal end. Type Cyelomaia suborbicularis,
Stimpson.
(The genus * Plewrophricus of Alphonse Milne-Edwards, founded
upon a species, P. eristatipes, from Australia (Journ. Mus. Godef-
froy, iv. p. 84, pl. xii. fig. 6, 1873), is placed by that distinguished
carcinologist among the Oxyostomata; but judging from the de-
scription and figure of the third maxillipede, I should certainly
suppose its true position to be in this subfamily of the Oxyrhyncha.
It is distinguished from Cyclaw, Schizophrys, and Temnonotus by
the anterior legs, which are short and somewhat enlarged, and
by the front, which is quadridentate.)
Subfamily 3. Micrppinm. (See Plate XIII. figs. 1, 2, 3.)
Carapace suboblong. Rostrum vertically, or nearly vertically, deflexed,
usually broad, lamellate. Anterior legs with the fingers acute at tips.
Basal antennal joint very much enlarged. Eye-peduncles very long, geni-
culated, and laterally projecting.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 661
Notwithstanding the great dissimilarity of Micippa and Picro-
cerus, which stand at opposite extremes of the series, a recular
gradation may be traced between the genera of this group. In
Picrocerus the broad and lamellate rostrum of Micippa and Para-
micippa is reduced to a single vertically deflexed spine, the pre-
ocular spines are enormously developed, and constitute the appa-
rent rostrum; the anterior part only of the upper wall of the
orbit is developed, the posterior part, which is complete in Ai-
cippa, being represented only by two or three spines: hence the
carapace behind the eyes appears constricted ; the basal antennal
joint, moreover, is narrower and elongated. Criocarcinus oceupies
an intermediate position between Mficippa and Picrocerus.
§ Orbits very incomplete, the anterior portion partially surrounding
the eye-peduncle, and usually of the form of a tube open below, the
posterior portion often represented only by one or two spines.
Crrocarctnus, Jf-Edwards. (Plate XIII. fig. 8.) Orbits
tubular, open below; preocular spines small. Rostrum lamellate
at base, and terminating in two divergent spines. Lees of mode-
rate length. Type Criocarcinus superciliosus (Herbst).
PrcorocEerus, Alphonse Milne-Edwards. Orbits tubular, open
below. Rostrum rudimentary, composed of a single vertically
deflexed spine. Preocular spines enormously developed, hori-
zontal, and slightly divergent ; constituting the apparent rostrum.
Legs long and slender. Type Picrocerus armatus, A. M.-
Edwards.
Pseupomicrers, Heller. Orbits not tubular, covering the eye-
peduneles above, not defined below, with a hiatus above. Ros-
trum obliquely deflexed, composed of two divergent spines. Pra-
ocular spines small. Legs of moderate length. Type Pseudo-
micippe nodosa, Heller.
Establishing the transition to Tyche and its allies.
8$ Orbits of a narrow oval form, well defined; basal antennal joint
much enlarged.
Micrppa, Leach. (Plate XIII. figs. 1, 2.) Rostrum nearly verti-
cally deflexed. Anterior legs in male with the palm elongated
and rather slender; fingers meeting along their inner edges when
closed. Type Micippa cristata (Linn.).
662 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
Paramicrepa, JZ-Hdwards. Rostrum less vertically deflexed.
Anterior legs in the male with the palm enlarged, shorter, smooth ;
fingers, when closed, meeting only at the ends. Type Parami-
cippa platipes (Ruppell).
The eyes are, I believe, retractile in both genera; and the cha-
racters derived from the orbital and antennal region are subject to
variation.
Family II. PERICERIDA. (Maiens cryptophthalmes, M.-Kdwards,
part.)
Eyes retractile within the small circular and well-defined orbits, which
are never incomplete as in the Mande. Basal antennal joint well
developed, and constituting the greater portion of the inferior wall of
the orbit ; this joint is usually very considerably enlarged.
Subfamily 1. Pericertnm. (See Plate XIII. figs. 4,5.) (Pericerine,
Stimpson. )
Carapace more or less subtriangular in shape. Rostrum well deve-
loped. Second joint of antenne not dilated. Anterior legs with the
fingers acute at the tips.
In this subfamily are included those which may be regarded as
the typical genera of this family, in which the spines of the ros-
trum are well developed, and often in contact with one another.
The interorbital space is very broad, and the orbits tubular ; the
basal joint of the antenne very much enlarged, the epistoma
short, the legs of moderate length, and the fingers acute at
tips. One or two of the genera (Scyra, Sphenocarcinus), in which
the basal antennal joint is least developed, are related to the
Epialtine.
§ Rostrum emarginate at apex only.
Liprnia, Leach. Carapace orbiculate-triangular, convex, spi-
nose. Preocular spine distinct. Basal joint of antenne mode-
rately enlarged. Legs of moderate length. Type Libinia emar-
ginata, Leach.
PrionoruyNncuus, Jacqguinot § Lucas. Carapace subtriangular.
Preocular spine absent. Rostrum broad, lamellate, deflexed and
emarginate at its distal end. Basal joint of antenne greatly en-
larged. Type Prionorhynchus Kdwardsii, Jacq. & Lucas.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 663
§§ Rostrum composed of two distinet spines.
* Basal joint of antenne without a spine at its distal extremity.
Scyra, Dana. Preocular spine present. Spines of rostrum .
lamellate at base, acute at distal end. Basal joint of antenne .
narrow. Anterior legs rather long, palm carinated. Ambula-
tory legs not compressed. Type Scyra acutifrons, Dana.
*Pyria, Dana. Preocular spine absent. Spines of rostrum
lamellate. Anterior legs slender. Ambulatory legs much com-
pressed. Type Pyria pubescens, Dana.
Nothing is said respecting the orbits and basal antennal joint ;
if the orbits are incomplete, this genus would probably be placed
near Chionecetes.
Lissa, Leach. Carapace very convex. Preocular spine pre-
sent. Spines of rostrum flattened, contiguous, and produced at
their extremities into a lateral lobe. Basal joint of antenns much
enlarged. Anterior legs with the palm compressed but not cari-
nated. Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type Lissa chi-
ragra (Fabr.).
*Racuinia, A. Milne-Edwards. Preocular spine present.
Spines of rostrum slender and divergent. Anterior legs with
the palm compressed but not carinated. Ambulatory legs very
slender. Type Rachinia gracilipes, A. Milne-Edwards.
’ The description of this genus is taken from the figure in ils
‘ Mission Scient. Mexique, Crustacés Podophthalmaires,’ pl. xvi.
fig. 1. The species is noticed, but not described, in a footnote on
p-86. Of this fine work, which contains descriptions and figures
of many new genera and species, only a portion, referring to the
Crustacea Xiphosura and a part of the Oxyrhyncha, has yet ap-
peared (5me partie, livraisons 1-3. Paris, 4to, 1873 & 1875).
*LEPTOPISA, Stimpson. Carapace narrow, with perpendicular
sides. Spines of rostrum very slender and contiguous. Anterior
legs in the male large; fingers widely gaping. Ambulatory legs
long and slender. Type Leptopisa setirostris, Stimpson.
*SpuEnocarcinus, A. J.-Hdwards. Carapace triangular. |
Rostrum elongated, its spines contiguous to within a very short |
distance of their extremities, which are acute. Anterior legs
small. Ambulatory legs of moderate length. Type Sphenocarci- |
nus corrosus, A. M.-Edwards.
664 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
This genus is only known to me from M. A. Milne-Edwards’s
figure in the ‘ Mission Scientif. Mexique’ (pl. xvii. fig. 5), from
which the diagnosis is taken. Its nearest ally among the Perice-
rine seems to be Sceyra, Dana. If the orbits are incomplete, it
would probably be placed among the Epialtine. It agrees, how-
ever, with most of the Periceride in having a short epistome.
** Basal joint of antenne often very much enlarged, with one or
more spines at its distal extremity.
T Carapace narrow and elongated, nearly vertically deflexed in front
of gastrie region.
Crpnocarcinus, A. 1f.-Hdwards. Spines of rostrum slender
and divergent. Spine of basal antennal joint small. Type Cypho-
carcinus minutus, A. M.-Hdwards.
TY Carapace subtriangular, not deflexed in front.
1, Spine at antero-external angle of antennal joint very short,
and not visible from above.
Trarinta, Dana. Carapace tuberculated, without a distinct
series of lateral spines. Spines of rostrum very slender and con-_
tiguous. Interorbital space broad. Anterior legs in male with
the palm short; fingers gaping. Ambulatory legs nodose or
spinose. Type Qiarinia cornigera (Latreille).
Tynocarcinus, Miers (ridos, a knob). Carapace tuberculated,
without lateral spines. Spines of rostrum slender, divergent.
Interorbital space narrow. Basal antennal joint not much en-
larged. Anterior legs in male with the fingers nearly meeting
when closed. Ambulatory legs spinose or nodose. Type Zylocar-
cinus styx (Herbst).
Pericera, Latreile. (Plate XIII. figs. 4, 5.) Carapace with
a series of lateral spines. Spines of rostrum long and divergent.
Interorbital space broad. Basal joint of antennee very much en-
larged, with two small distant spines at its distal end. Anterior
legs long, palm slender and elongated, fingers not gaping. Am- —
bulatory legs smooth. Type Pericera cornuta, Latreille.
2. Spine at antero-external angle of basal antennal joint very long,
and visible from above.
Micropuryrs, Iilne-Hdwards (MMilnia, Stimpson; Perinea,
.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 665
Dana; Fisheria, Lockington). Carapace broadly triangular.
Spines of rostrum slender and more or less divergent. Branchial
spine small. Orbits not tubular. Anterior legs in male en-
larged; fingers arcuate, and mecting only at the tips. Antenne
visible from above at sides of rostrum. Type Microphrys bicor-
nuta (Latreille).
(The genus Omalacantha of Hale Streets, of which I have seen
no specimen, is very closely allied to this genus, and ought
perhaps to be united with it, as M. A. Milne-Edwards has
pointed out. It is, however, stated by its author to be sufli-
ciently distinguished by the flattened club-shaped joints of the
antenne ; and I prefer, for the present, to regard it as distinct.
In the genus Perinea, Dana, which establishes the transition from
Microphrys to the next genus, the carapace is convex and the ros-
trum very short.)
Macroc@toma, Miers. Carapace very convex. Branchial
spine very large. Spines of rostrum parallel, or nearly so. Orbits
tubular and laterally projecting; interorbital space very broad.
Anterior legs in male with the palm elongated, and fingers meet-
ing, or nearly meeting, when closed. Type Macroceloma trispi-
nosa (Latreille).
This genus is proposed for that section of the old genus Peri-
cera in which is included P. trispinosa and its allies.
*AnaprycHus, Stimpson (Ala, Lockington). Carapace broadly
triangulate, with the lateral margins laminated, produced over the
bases of the ambulatory legs, and regularly dentated. Spines of
rostrum short. Anterior legs in male rather slender ; fingers
nearly meeting throughout when closed. Type Anaptychus cor-
nutus, Stimpson. :
Subfamily 2, OTHontIn&%. (See Plate XIII. fig. 6.) (Othonine, Dana,
Stimpson.)
Carapace suboblong; interorbital space very broad. Rostrum almost
obsolete. Second jomt of antennz enlarged. Anterior legs with the
fingers slightly excavated at the tips. :
This subfamily is restricted to the single genus
Ornonta, Bell (Pitho, Bell). (Plate XIII. fig, §.} Carapace
with the margins regularly dentated. Type Ofhonia seaxdentata,
Bell. De
666 MR. B. J. MIERS ON THE
Subfamily 3. Miruracina. (See Plate XIII. figs. 7, 8-)
(Mithracine, Stimpson.)
Carapace broadly triangular, sometimes transverse, with the sides
slightly arcuate; interorbital space narrow. Rostrum short or obsolete.
Second joint of antenne not dilated. Anterior legs with the fingers exca-
vated at the tips.
In this subfamily are included those Periceridz which most nearly
approach the Cancroids of the subfamily Chlorodiine in the form of
the carapace, the obsolescence of the rostral spines, the small and
completely defined orbits (which do not project laterally as in the
Pericerinz), the extremely short epistoma, and the form and de-
velopment of the anterior and ambulatory legs. Mithraculus,
which stands at the end of the series, is indeed hardly to be di-
stinguished in external form from the Cancroid Phymodius or
Chlorodius, from which, however, it is in reality separated by the
position and great development of the basal antennal joint. NVe-
mausa, on the other hand, marks the transition to the Maiide.
Nemavsa, Alphonse Milne-Edwards. Carapace longer than
broad ; spines of rostrum well developed. Basal joint of antennz
with a long spine at its distal end. Anterior legs in male not
much enlarged; palm slender. Ambulatory legs not compressed.
Type Nemausa spinipes (Bell).
This genus presents affinities with AWicrophrys, and aiso with
Herbstia and Schizophrys among the Maude.
PararHok, Miers. Carapace triangular, rounded behind.
Front very small and narrow, truncated or notched. Basal an-
tennal joint narrow as in Scyra, longer than broad, and without
any spine at its distal end. Anterior legs with the palm dilated,
and fingers arcuate, meeting at the tips. Ambulatory legs not
dilated,and compressed. Type Parathoé rotundata, Miers.
Its habitats (the Gulf of Suez and Fiji Islands) are of great in-
terest, as the subfamily is almost exclusively American. The ex-
amples before me have nearly the aspect of Thoé ; hence the generic
name.
(The genus Paramaya of De Haan was founded upon a species
which he subsequently referred (rightly I believe) to Maia. The
name may, however, have to be retained for the Paramaya Dehaani
of White, referred to in his ‘ List of Crustacea in the British
Museum,’ p. 7 (1847). This species is founded upon a single
female specimen, bleached and probably immature, which closely
resembles IWithrax, but differs from the species of that genus in
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 667
there being no tubercles or spines on the lateral margins of the
carapace and yery obscurely marked tubercles on the branchial
regions. The orbital margins, also, are smooth. The much dilated
basal antennal joint has a single spine at its extero-distal angle;
the legs are smooth.)
THot, Bell (Platypes, Lockington). Carapace triangular,
narrowed anteriorly. Rostrum very short, its spines reduced to
tubercles. Basal antennal joint with a very short spine at its
distal end. Anterior legs in male enlarged, palms short, dilated,
fingers meeting only at tips. Ambulatory legs compressed and
dilated. Type Lhoé erosa, Bell.
Mirurax, Leach. (Plate XIII. figs. 7,8.) Carapace broadly
triangular, usually transverse. Spines of rostrum short or
obsolete. Basal antennal joint dilated, with short spines at its
distal end. Anterior legs in male usually enlarged. Ambulatory
legs not dilated and compressed.
Subgenus Mrrurax, Leach (Teleophrys, Stimpson). Carapace
with the branchial regions not sulcated, sides usually spinose.
Subgenus Mrruracutus, White. Carapace depressed, with
shallow smooth interspaces or sulci between the tubercles on the
branchial regions, antero-lateral margins tuberculate (anterior
legs greatly enlarged). Type Withraculus sculptus (Lamarck).
Scarcely distinct even as a subgenus from Mithrax, although of
very different external aspect; the characters of the orbital and
antennal region are not constant. Zeleophrys of Stimpson marks
the transition from Mithrax to Mithraculus.
Family IV. PARTHENOPIDA. (Parthénopiens and Cancériens crypto-
podes, M.-Kdwards).
Eyes usually retractile within the small circular and well-defined orbits;
the inferior wall of the orbit is continued to within a very short
distance of the front. The antennz are very slender, the basal joint
does not, as in the Periceride, constitute a great part of the interior
orbital margin, but is very small, and usually does not reach to the
front, and with the next joint occupies the narrow hiatus intervening
between the front and inner orbital angle.
The structural relationship of this family with the Oxystomata,
best evidenced in the genus Mesorhea, has been already adverted
to; and there are resemblances also in external characters, such
as the lateral extension of the carapace over the ambulatory legs
668 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
in Cryptopodia, and the form of the anterior legs in certain forms
(e.g. Githra), in which they are capable of being closely applied
to the body. On the other hand, the structure of the orbits and
position of the basilar portion of the antenne very nearly re-
sembles that of certain Cancroid genera, as Pilumnus and Tra-
pezia. The Parthenopide are related, as already stated, with
the typical Oxyrhyncha through Jnachoides and Inachus.
Subfamily 1. ParTrHENOPIN”. (See Plate XIII. figs. 9, 10, 11.)
Carapace equilaterally or transversely triangular or elliptical. Rostrum
simple. A strongly marked depression separating the branchial from the
cardiac and gastric regions. Anterior legs greatly developed, with the
palm trigonous, fingers acute.
§ Carapace not laterally eapanded.
Lamprus, Leach. (Plate XIII. fig. 9.) Carapace equilaterally
triangular, with the regions convex, tuberculate. Basal antennal
joint short and not reaching to the front, the inner orbital hiatus
usually occupied by the second joint, which is longer than or as
long as the first. Anterior legs with a tuberculated or spinose
crest along the upper margin of the palm. Anterior legs usually
very long. Ambulatory legs very short, smooth or minutely
spinose. Type Lambrus longimanus (Linn.).
PartuENoPE, Mabricius. Carapace equilaterally triangular.
Basal antennal joint longer than the second, but not reaching
the inner orbital hiatus. Anterior legs rather compressed, tuber-
culated, but not cristated. Ambulatory legs longer, with long
spines. Type Parthenope horrida (Linn.).
Scarcely distinct as a genus; but it appears better to retain it
as a designation for the single species P. horrida, than to unite
it with Lambrus, when the rule of priority would compel the
adoption of the generic term Parthenope for all the numerous
species of the former genus, which have been universally desig-
nated as species of Lambrus.
* SotpnotamMeErvs, Stimpson. Carapace pentagonal, smooth,
convex, with the margins acute. Rostrum short and blunt, or
faintly tridentate. Basal joint of antenne about as long as the
second. Pterygostomian regions ridged as in Heterocrypta. An-
terior legs nearly as in Lambrus. Ambulatory legs slender, com-
pressed. Type Solenolambrus typicus, Stimpson.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 669
* MesorHaa, Stimpson. Resembles Solenolambrus in the
carapace, legs, pterygostomian and hepatic channels; but the
efferent branchial channels meet in the middle of the endostome
or buccal cavity, which has a triangular projection and a deep
notch in its vertical lamimiform wall. The third joint of the
outer maxillipedes is produced forward at its internal angle and
conceals the palpus. Type Mesorhwa sexspinosa, Stimpson.
This remarkable genus indicates an approach on the part of the
Maioidea to the Oxystomatous crabs, as has already been stated.
S$ Carapace more or less laterally expanded.
Crypropopia, MMilne-Hdwards. Carapace transversely tri-
angular, with the lateral margins greatly produced, and conceal-
ing the ambulatory legs, the posterior margin also prolonged
backward. Front very prominent. No ridges on the ptery-
gostomian regions. Type Cryptopodia fornicata (Fabr.).
HetErocrypta, Stimpson. Carapace as in Cryptopodia, but
without the posterior expansion. A strongly-marked ridge on
the pterygostomian region, defining the afferent channel. Type
Heterocrypta granulata (Gibbes).
Cirnra, Leach. (Plate XIII. fig. 10.) Carapace transversely
oval or elliptical, with the lateral margins produced as in Crypto-
podia, and dentated. No posterior expansion. No ridge on the
pterygostomian region. Type Wthra scruposa (Linn.).
This genus, although somewhat resembling Cancer and Etisus
in external form,is much more nearly allied to Cryptopodia in
the characters of the cephalothorax and antenne, and must be
arranged with that genus, as has been done by Stimpson and
S. I. Smith.
(The genus Hurynolambrus, which is placed by MM. Milne-
Edwards and Lucas and by Dana with the Parthenopidsz, and
which in the triangular and expanded carapace has certainly
much resemblance to Cryptopodia, has really far more affinity
with Cancer in the form of the orbital and antennal region. The
basal joint of the antenne, as in that genus, is much enlarged,
and excludes the flagellum from the orbital hiatus. The front is
bilobate ; and the anterior legs have not the trigonous form charac-
teristic of Cryptopodia and its allies. The lateral expansions of
the carapace are far smaller, and do not conceal the ambulatory
670 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
lees. I propose, then, to refer this genus to the Cancerine, where
it marks the transition of that group to the Parthenopide.
The genus Zelmessus of White, which was originally placed by
its author among the Plagusiine and subsequently assigned to
the Matide (Voy. Samarang, Crust. p. 14) has externally some
resemblance to Anaptychus. In the characters of the orbital and
antennal regions, however, it has more affinity with the Cancroid
than the Maioid crabs; and its most natural position is perhaps
among the Corystoidea, where Dana placed it.)
Subfamily 2, KUMEDONINZ.
Carapace usually rhomboidal or subpentagonal, with a spine at the
junction of the antero-lateral and postero-lateral angles. Rostrum usually
bifid or emarginate. Depressions separating the regions of the carapace
obscure or non-existent. Anterior legs of moderate length, not tri-
gonous.
§ Carapace flat and smooth above. Ambulatory legs with all the
joints greatly dilated and compressed.
Zesriva, White. Spines of rostrum and lateral spines of cara-
pace large, laminate. Basal antennal joint large and filling the
orbital hiatus. Type Zebrida Adamsii, White.
$$ Carapace uneven or convex. Ambulatory legs slender.
*Eumeponus, Milne-Edwards. Carapace depressed. Rostrum
long and emarginate at its extremity, where the spines are di-
vergent. Anterior legs rather large. Ambulatory legs slightly
compressed, with the third joint somewhat cristated. Type
Eumedonus niger, Milne-Edwards.
Gonatonotus, Adams and White. Carapace uneven above.
Rostrum broad, lamellate, rounded, and very slightly emarginate
or entire at its distal extremity. Anterior legs of moderate size.
Ambulatory legs slender, not dilated and compressed. Type Go-
natonotus pentagonus, Adams and White.
Creratocarctnus, Addams and White. Carapace tuberculated
above. Rostrum composed of two slender widely separated
spines. Anterior, legs of moderate size. Ambulatory legs
slender. Type Ceratocarcinus longimanus, Adams and White.
In this remarkable genus, the inner orbital hiatus is completely
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 671
closed and the slender antenne consequently excluded from the
orbit.
Harrovia, Adams § White. (Plate XIII. fig. 11.) Carapace
slightly tuberculate, lateral spine small. Front broad, truncated,
and divided by three fissures into four lobes, of which the
median are truncated and the lateral acute. Anterior legs elon-
gated, ambulatory legs slender. Type Harrovia albo-lineata,
Adams and White.
This genus was wrongly placed by Adams and White with the
Leucosiide. By Stimpson it was considered synonymous with
Ceratocarcinus ; but it is ag distinct as any other of the group.
With the preceding, it appears to constitute almost a connecting
link between the Parthenopine and the Hriphiide (Trapezia).
As the specimens are dried and almost unique, I have not been
able to examine the buccal cavity ; but in the allied genus Gronato-
notus there are clearly-marked longitudinal ridges on the endo-
stome, as in the Eriphiide.
APPENDIX.
*GontoTHoRaXx, A. If-Hdwards. This genus, which has been
described since my paper was read, is allied, according to its
author, to Hpialtus and Acanthonyx, but differs in the length of
the non-prehensile ambulatory legs and in the structure of the
antennal region. The antenne define the orbits below; their
basal joint is small, not reaching to the summit of the antennu-
lary fosse ; the two following joints are nearly as thick as the first,
the third being remarkably long. Type Goniothorax ruber, A.
M.-Edwards.
*Tmprponaxia, Zargioni-Tozetti. I have not been able to con-
sult the author’s recently published ‘ Report on the Brachyurous
and Anomourous Crustacea collected during the voyage of the
corvette ‘Magenta ;’’ but, to judge from the description of this
genus, quoted by V. Martens in the ‘ Zoological Record ’ for 1877,
it would seem to be allied to Ayastenus, differing, however, in
the form of the basal antennal joint, which is dilated and unarmed
externally, unidentate posteriorly and in the middle. Type Lepi-
donaxia Defilippii, Targ.-Tozetti.
PLATYLAMBRUS, Stimpson. This generic name was suggested
by Stimpson in case it should be found practicable to separate
from Lambrus the L. crenulatus, Saussure, and such allied species
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. 50
672 MR. E. J. MIERS ON THE
as are characterized by a depressed carapace and excavated ptery-
gostomian and subhepatie regions, this excavation forming, when
the chelipedes are retracted, passages to the efferent branchial
apertures.
_ This excavation, however, varies not only in direction and
depth, but is traceable in species not otherwise very nearly allied ;
and I would suggest the following as more convenient subgeneric
divisions :—
Subgenus 1. Lamprus. Carapace subrhomboidal, not produced
at its postero-lateral angles over the bases of the ambulatory legs.
Anterior legs greatly elongated and spinose (usually more than
three times as long as the carapace). Type Lambrus crenulatus,
Sauss.
Subgenus 2. Partnenoporpes, Miers. Carapace subtriangular
with the posterior margin nearly straight, and produced at the
postero-lateral angles over the bases of the ambulatory legs. An-
terior legs rarely spinose and of moderate length (rarely exceed-
ing 23 times the length of the carapace). Type Parthenopoides
massena (Roux).
This subgenus includes those Lambri which approach Parthe-
nope in the lesser development of the anterior legs, and includes
several species which have been described as members of that
genus.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
Prats XII.
Fig. 1, Stenorhynchus rostratus (Linn.). Front of the cephalothorax, dorsal
view, showing the laterally projecting eyes and the absence of orbits ;
xX nearly 3 diameters.
2. Inferior view of the same, showing the slender basal antennal joint
and large epistome ; X nearly 3 diam.
3. Oregonia hirta, Dana. Front of the cephalothorax, showing the pro-
jecting rim which covers the base of the ocular peduncle and the
prominent postocular spine; X 3 diam.
4, Inferior view of the same, showing the form of the narrow basal an-
tennal joint and of the epistome; X 3 diam.
5. Xenocarcinus tuberculatus, White. Inferior view of the front of the
cephalothorax, showing the immobile eyes and the form of the basal
antennal joint; x 3 diam.
. Acanthonyx lunulatus, Risso. Inferior view of the front of the eepha-
lothorax, showing the form of the basal antennal joint and the partial
concealment of the eyes beneath the prominent preocular spine; x 3
diam,
ior)
Fig. 1.
5.
6.
)
10.
11.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAIOID CRUSTACEA. 673
. Maia squinado, Linn. Dorsal view of the front of the cephalothorax,
showing the form of the upper orbital wall, which is formed of long
spines, beneath which the long and slender eye-peduncles are retrac-
tile ; natural size.
. Inferior view of the same, showing the form of the inferior margin of
the orbit and of the enlarged basal antennal joint ; natural size.
. Pisa (Aretopsis) lanata, Lamk. Dorsal view of the front of the cephalo-
thorax, showing the narrow hiatus in the upper orbital margin and
the short eye-peduncle; x 2 diam.
. Inferior view of the same, showing the hiatus in the lower orbital
margin and the basal antennal joint; x 2 diam.
Prats XIII.
Micippa cristata, Leach. Inferior view of the front of the cephalo-
thorax, showing the deflexed rostrum, greatly dilated basal antennal
joint, and nearly complete orbits; natural size.
. Lateral view of the orbitand deflexed rostrum ; natural size.
. Criocarcinus superciliosus (Herbst). Inferior view of the front of the
cephalothorax, wherein the posterior part of the orbit is represented
only by the postocular spine, and the anterior part surrounds the
laterally projecting eye-peduncle in the form of a tube open below;
natural size.
. Pericera cornuta, Latreille. Inferior view of the front of the cepha-
lothorax, showing the short epistome and greatly-developed basal an-
tennal joint ; natural size.
Lateral view of the orbital cavity (the eye-peduncle being removed)
showing its circular form and complete margin ; natural size.
Othonia aculeata(Gibbes). Inferior view of front of cephalothorax,
showing the extreme development of the basal antennal joint (which
has coalesced with the surrounding parts), the dilated second an-
tennal joint, and obsolescent rostrum; X 14 diam.
. Mithrax hispidus, Herbst. Dorsal view of the front of the cephalo-
thorax, showing the form of the rostrum and orbits; natural size.
. Inferior view of the same, showing the form of the epistome and basal
antennal joint; natural size.
Lambrus macrochelos, Herbst. Inferior view of the front of the cepha-
lothorax, showing the small antennz inserted in the hiatus between
the inner orbital angle and the front; x 2 diam.
Cithra scruposa (Linn.), Similar view of the front of the cephalothorax ;
natural size.
Harrovia albotineata, Ad, & White. Similar view of the front of the
cephalothorax; X 3 diam.
50*
C74 MR. F. SMITH ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULEATE
Descriptions of new Species of Aculeate Hymenoptera collected
by the Rev. Thos. Blackburn in the Sandwich Islands. By
Freperick Smiru, F.Z.S. (Communicated by ArrHur G.
Burier*, F.L.S8.)
[Read March 20, 1879.]
Tuts small collection of Hymenoptera from the Sandwich Islands
is an extremely interesting one. It is so not only from the cir-
cumstance of the locality being so completely isolated (the nearest
point of land of the American continent, California, being about
2500 miles distant), but also in consequence of so little being known
of the Hymenopterous fauna of these islands; only some half a
dozen species are in the collections of the British Museum, which
were obtained on Capt. Beechey’s voyage.
The general aspect of the collection is certainly North- Ameri-
can, with a slight mixture of Californian, Mexican, and South-
American species. The eight species of Ants are afi most diverse
in character. One, Camponotus sexquttatus, is distributed through-
out Brazil and South America. Another, Phedole pusilla, the
house-ant of Madeira, observed and described by Professor Heer
on his residence in the island, is said to be one of the commonest
Ants in the Sandwich Islands, where it lives at large, nesting
under stones; the species is cosmopolitan, and in northern lati-
tudes takes up its abode in houses; it is also a common green-
house species, and in London is found in bakehouses. Another
of the Ants, Solenopsis geminata, has a wide geographical range ;
it is common in Calcutta, is found in most of the islands of the
Fastern Archipelago, and also throughout South America and
Brazil. The little European Ant, Ponera contracta, we should
scarcely have expected to receive from so remote and isolated a
locality ; but both the female and worker are in the collection.
Seven species of Odyneri are described as new on the authority
of Dr. Saussure, whose work on the American Wasps is so well
known. Of Apide, six species of Prosopis are in the collection,
only one of which was previously described. A new species of
Megachile and the common Hiye-Bee (Apis mellifica) complete the
list of the Bees.
* [The MS. of this paper was placed in my hands for publication subsequent
to the death of the author,—A. G. B.]
HYMENOPTERA FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 675
Fam. Formicipz.
—— Camponorvs sexautrratus, Fabr. Ent. Syst. ii. p.354. $ 2 8.
Hab. Honolulu. South America ; Brazil.
A nest of this ant occurred in an old drawer ina house (7. B.).
PRENOLEPIS CLANDESTINA, Mayr, Neue Formiciden (1870), p. 10.
Hab. Oahu. Java.
Fam. PoNERIDA.
PonERA ConTRACTA, Latr. Glen. Crust. et Ins. iv. p. 128.—For-
mica contracta, Latr. Hist. Nat. Fourm. p. 195, tab. 7. fig. 40.
Hab. Oahu. South America; Madeira; Europe.
This species is rare; I have never found anest. (7. B.)
LEPTOGENYS INSULARIS, n. sp. Worker. Uength 34 lines.
Opaque black, and thinly covered with ashy pile. Head widest
anteriorly ; the eyes ovate, placed forwards, at the sides near the
base of the mandibles, which are falcate, and pointed at their apex,
which is ferruginous ; the flagellum of the antenne rufo-testa-
ceous, obscurely so above; the clypeus produced; the antennz
inserted at the sides of a prominence above the clypeus. Thorax
oblong, compressed from the prothorax to the apex of the meta-
thorax ; the tarsi more or less rufo-testaceous. Abdomen ob-
long, posteriorly narrowed to the apex; the node of the peduncle
subglobose, of the width of the metathorax, but narrower than
the first segment of the abdomen, which is slightly constricted ;
the apical segment pale ferruginous, and with a few fulvous hairs.
Hab. Island of Oahu.
Not rare; it forms its nest under stones; workers only taken.
CEB)
Fam. Myruicipa.
TETRAMORIUM GUINEENSE, Fabr. Ent. Syst. i. p. 857. &,
Hab. Oahu. Guinea.
PHEIDOLE PuSILLA, Heer, Ueber die Hausameise Madeira’s (1852) ;
Ann. §& Mag. Nat. Hist. (1856) xvii. p. 221. 3g Q ¥ major, §
minor.
Hab. Honolulu.
One of the commonest Ants here, forming its nests under
stones. The nests always contain three forms ; but I have never
found the male. (7. B.)
676 MR. F. SMITH ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULEATE
Sotnnopsis GemMinata, Mayr & Roger.—Solenopsis cephalotes,
Smith, Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. iv. p. 140. % major—Atta gemi-
nata, Habr. Syst. Piez. p. 428,
Hab. Honolulu. South America; India; Aru, Celebes, Bat-
chian.
I found a single nest in a palm-tree, which seemed to contain
no other sex than the worker ; it stings very venomously. (7 B.)
Fam. SPHEGIDE.
PELOP@US FLAVIPES, KHabr. Syst. Piez. p. 204.
Hab. Honolulu. North America; Mexico.
Very abundant everywhere. Ihave caught the female carrying
spiders. (7. B.)
Fam. Larripa.
PISON IRIDIPENNIS, n. sp. Male. Length 3 lines. Black;
head and thorax finely and closely punctured, and slightly shi-
ning ; abdomen shining, and very delicately punctured. The face
with silvery-white pubescence as high as the emargination of the
eyes ; the palpi rufo-testaceous. The metathorax obliquely and
finely striated ; having a central longitudinal channel, and with
silvery-white pubescence laterally ; the wings hyaline and splen- _
didly iridescent, the nervures black; the legs with silvery pile,
which igs very bright on the posterior tibie within. Abdomen—
at the basal margin of the second segment laterally a little sil-
very-white pubescence, on the apical margins of the segments
laterally a little silvery pile, only observable in certain lights.
Hab. Honolulu.
Rare ; a single female taken, which differs sexually as in the
following species. (7. B.)
PIsoN HOSPES, n. sp. Female. Length 5} lines. Black, shi-
ning, with the head and thorax closely and finely punctured, the
abdomen with fascie of silvery-white pubescence. Head—the
face below the antenne with bright silvery pubescence, also a line
on the margin at the inner orbit of the eyes, as high as their
emargination; the anterior margin of the clypeus rounded.
Thorax—the hinder margin of the prothorax with a little silvery-
white pubescence, and also on the sides of the metathorax, which
has a deep central longitudinal ‘channel ; the wings subhyaline,
the nervures black; the lees covered with silvery pile; the cal-
caria black. Abdomen much more finely and closely punctured
than the thorax; the segments slightly constricted; the apical
HYMENOPTERA FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 677
margins of the segments with fasciz of fine silvery pubescent
pile, which are very brilliant in certain lights, and which are
widened laterally.
The male only differs in being smaller and in having an addi-
tional joint in the antennex and an extra segment to the abdomen.
A common but not abundant species; it was taken in the
islands of Oahu, Kauai, and Maui. Mr. Blackburn says that he
has bred this species from the same collection of cells as those
which produced species of Pelopewus and of Crabro. This obser-
vation appears to indicate the habit of the genus to be parasitic ;
but this cannot be the case, their economy having been observed
and published by Mr. Horne in the seventh volume of the Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society. The species construct cells of
mud, which they provision with spiders, the food of their young
brood. The genus Crabro usually provisions its cells with Dip-
tera,
Fam. CRABRONIDS.
CRABRO AFFINIS, n. sp. Female. Length 44 lines. Black ; the
abdomen shining, and having two yellow fascia, the first inter-
rupted. Head and thorax semiopaque; the former with the ocelli
in a curve on the vertex ; the basal half of the mandibles and the
scape of the antenne in front yellow; the clypeus with a longi-
tudinal carina, and thinly covered with silvery pile. Thorax—
the mesothorax with two abbreviated longitudinal ridges on the
disk; the scutellum obsoletely bituberculate ; the metathorax
with a central longitudinal channel; wings subbyaline, the ner-
vures black; the outer margin of the tegule flavo-testaceous.
Abdomen with a slightly interrupted yellow fascia on the basal
margin of the second segment; and a narrow uninterrupted one
near the basal margin of the fourth; the apical margin of the
fifth segment narrowly flavo-testaceous, and fringed with short
white pubescence ; the sixth segment with a few scattered punc-
tures.
Hab. The island of Kauai.
This species was captured very sparingly. It resembles the.
C. vagus of Kurope, and belongs to the same division of the genus,
having the ocelli in a curve, the Solenus of St. Fargeau.
CRABRO MANDIBULARIS, n. sp. Hemale. Length 5 lines.
Black, and slightly shining ; the head and thorax very closely and
finely punctured, and having a few yellow markings. Head—the
ocelli in a curve on the vertex ; the clypeus and anterior margin
678 MR. F. SMITH ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULEATE
of the face with bright golden-coloured pubescence ; the scape of
the antenne in front, and the basal half of the mandibles above,
yellow ; the cheeks with changeable silvery pile. Thorax—a mi-
nute spot on the collar laterally, the tubercles, and the postscu-
tellum yellow ; the wings hyaline, the nervures black ; the meta-
thorax with a central longitudinal channel, and a few short carine
at its extreme base, and without the usual enclosed semicircular
space at its base. Abdomen smooth and shining, the three or four
apical segments with thin short white pubescence ; the apical
segment with the margins raised, shining, and with a few strong
punctures.
Hab. Coasts of Maui.
Taken on flowers on sandy coasts. (Z. B.)
CRABRO DENTICORNIS, n. sp. Male. Lengths3—4lines. Black;
the head and thorax slightly shining, the abdomen smooth and
shining. Head—the ocelli in a curve on the vertex; the fifth
joint of the flagellum produced beneath into a tooth or tubercle ;
the elypeus with bright silvery pubescence; the mandibles biden-
tate at the apex, and having a large acute tooth on their inner
margin. Thorax—the postscutellum yellow and subinterrupted
in the middle; the scutellum slightly bituberculate; the meta-
thorax with a central longitudinal channel, slightly impressed at
the base and deeply so towards the apex; wings fusco-hyaline,
palest at their base. Abdomen smooth, shining, and impunctate ;
occasionally the second segment has a small yellow spot laterally.
Hab. Sandy coasts of Maui.
This may possibly be the male of C. iridipennis ; but the silvery
clypeus and dark wings obliged me to hesitate about uniting them.
CRABRO UNICOLOR, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. pt. iv. p. 421. @.
Hab. Honolulu.
Fam. Evmenip2.
Group of Odynerus pratensis, Saussure’s American Wasps, p. 292.
ODYNERUS LOCALIS, n. sp. Hemale. Length 7 lines. Head
and thorax not strongly but very closely punctured ; the clypeus
convex, strongly punctured and truncate at the apex. Thorax—
the puncturing of the mesothorax is a mixture of large and small
ones ; the postscutellum with strong punctures and crenulated ;
the metathorax rugose and truncate ; wings dark shining reddish
brown. Abdomen shining, truncate at the base, but not sharply
ridged ; the first and second segment with very fine distant pune-
tures, the puncturing being strongest and closest at the base of
HYMENOPTERA FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 679
the second segment; the third and following segments with
stronger punctures than the first or second; the apical margins
of the first and second segments with white fasciz, that on the
first narrower than that on the second.
The male only differs in the usual sexual difference in the struc-
ture of the antenne and abdomen; but the white bands on the
abdomen are narrower, and the basal segment is rounded, not
truncate.
Hab. Kauai.
Abundant on the island Kauai, but not found anywhere else.
(T. B.)
ODYNERUS MAURUS, n. sp. Female. Length 63 lines. En-
tirely black, with dark fuscous wings that have a violet iridescence,
and some semifusco-hyaline spots about the second and third sub-
marginal cells. The head and thorax very closely punctured ; the
clypeus with stronger punctures, its apex truncate, concave, and
with the lateral angles sharp and apparently bidentate. Thorax
—the scutellum flattened; the postscutellum rugose, and with
ihe margin crenulated; the metathorax truncate, having a central
longitudinal channel, on each side of which it is obliquely rugose-
striate. Abdomen—the basal segment obtusely rounded, not
ridged, and, as well as the second segment, with very fine, distant,
shallow punctures ; the apical margin of the second segment and
the following segments with distant large shallow punctures.
The male is smaller, but closely resembles the female ; the hooked
joint at the apex of the antenne is ferruginous.
Hab. Honolulu &e.
Apparently common all over the Archipelago, constructing
mud-nests of 1 to 10 cells against stones, trunks of trees, &c.,
under eaves of houses, often inside houses. (Z. B.)
Group of Odynerus vagus, Saussure’s American Wasps, p. 314.
ODYNERUS RUBRITINOTUS, n. sp. Female. Length 43 lines.
Black, with the postscutellum, the metathorax, basal segment
of the abdomen, and the lateral and apical margins of the
second segment dark blood-red. Head—a triangular red
spot at the insertion of the antenne above; the clypeus con-
vex, narrowed anteriorly, its apex truncate, the lateral angles
of the truncation subdentate. Thorax—a red spot beneath
the wings, and a minute one on the tegule in front and behind ;
the thorax, as well as the head, closely and not very strongly
680 MR. F. SMITH ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULEATE
punctured; the seutellum flat, and with a central longitudinal
impressed line; the metathorax concave-truncate, the cavity
black; wings dark fuscous, with a violet iridescence, along the
course of the nervures is a more or less hyaline line. Abdomen
shining ; the first segment campanulate, and with rather strong
distant punctures; the rest of the segments more finely punc-
tured; the red lateral margins of the second segment haye a
united red spot.
Wale. Length 33 lines. Very closely resembling the female ; the
terminal hook of the antenne red. Thorax—two ovate spots on the
scutellum, also two beneath wings, frequently united ; the second
segment of the abdomen has a larger spot at the sides, and no red
band on the apical margin.
Hab. Kauai.
This species is not rare on Kauai. (7 B.)
Group of Odynerus totonacus, Saussure’s American Wasps, p.346.
ODYNERUS MONTANUS, n. sp. Female. Length 6 lines. En-
tirely black and shining; wings deep brown-black, with a violet
iridescence, very brilliant ; the stigma and costal nervures bright
steel-blue. The clypeus convex, finely punctured, with the apex
truncate. Thorax not so strongly or closely punctured as the
head ; the seutellum flat, the postscutellum slightly convex, shi-
ning, and sparingly punctured ; the metathorax concaye-truncate ;
having a central longitudinal channel ; obliquely rugulose in the
middle, the sides coarsely rugose. Abdomen—the first segment
campanulate, strongly but not very closely punctured, the apical
margin rebordered ; the second segment very convex, elevated to
a subconical shape, finely and not very closely punctured; its
apical margin, as well as the following segments, with large shallow
punctures.
Male. Uength 54 lines. Closely resembling the female ; the
clypeus more strongly punctured, the terminal hook of the an-
tenn rufo-piceous, the thorax and abdomen as in the female.
Hab. Mountains of Oahu, where it is common. (7. B.)
ODYNERUS CONGRUUS, nu. sp. Female. Length 43 lines. Black,
punctured, and shining ; the wings fusco-hyaline, with a dark fus-,
cous stain along the anterior margin of the front pair. The head
with distant fine punctures; the clypeus very convex, and with
a small truncate projection at its apex, impunstate, or with only
a few very fine distant punctures. Thorax smooth and shining
HYMENOPTERA FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 681
above, having only a few very fine shallow punctures; the scn-°
tellum slightly convex; the metathorax opaque, oblique, and with
rather large shallow indentations, the lateral margins rounded,
without any excavation; the claws of the tarsi ferruginous. Ab-
domen—the first seement campanulate, as long as broad, finely,
evenly, but not very closely punctured ; the second segment large,
impunctate, or with only a few very fine shallow punctures, its
apical margin, as well as the following segments, with shallow
fine punctures.
Male. Smaller than the female, but of the same form and si-
milarly sculptured ; differs in having, at the apex of the clypeus,
two little pale yellow lines, and also a small ovate-yellow spot
just above the insertion of the antenne ; the terminal hook of the
antenns and claw-joint of the tarsi ferruginous.
Hab. Honolulu.
This species is not rare. (7. B.)
ODYNERUS DUBIOSUS, n. sp. Male. Length 4 lines. Black,
with fuscous wings, not very dark, but with bright violet irides-
cence. Head closely punctured; the clypeus impunctate, or
with a very few fine shallow punctures ; its apex notched above,
giving it the appearance of bemg bidentate ; the terminal hooks
of the antenne pale at their tips. Thorax punctured, not strongly
so; the lateral angles of the prothorax acute; the scutellum and
postseutellum only slightly convex, and sparingly punctured ; the
metathorax with confluent rather shallow punctures, concave in
the middle, with the sides rounded ; the scutellum with a central
longitudinal impressed line. Abdomen—the first segment cam-
panulate, as broad as long, and evenly punctured; the second
segment large, convex, the sides rounded; impunctate, or with
only a few very fine shallow punctures ; the following segments
with fine shallow punctures, but stronger than those on the
second segment.
Hab. Honolulu.
ODYNERUS AGILIS, n. sp. Male. Length 43 lines. Black,
with a narrow yellow fascia on the apical margins of the first and
second segments. Head very closely punctured ; a minute yellow
spot between but a little above the insertion of the antenne ; the
clypeus very convex, and bidentate at the apex; the terminal
hook of the antenne obscurely testaceous ; the entire insect with
a fine cinereous pile, which is most dense on the head and thorax.
Thorax—the scutellum rather conyex, and with a central lon-
682 MR. F. SMITH ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULNATE
citudinal impressed line; the metathorax concave-truncate; wings
subhyaline, with a fuscous line along the costal and marginal
cells; the wings iridescent. Abdomen—the basal segment cam-
panulate, and with very shallow punctures; the second segment
with very fine shallow punctures; the apical segment with shal-
low punctures.
Hab, Maui.
Apparently rare; I have not seen the female. (7. B.)
Fam. VESPID®.
POLISTES AURIFER, Sauss. Mon. Guépes Soc. p. 78.
Hab. Honolulu.’ California.
Fam. ANDRENIDZ.
Prosopis BLACKBURNI, n. sp. Memale. Length 3 lines. Black,
and closely resembling the female of P. facilis, but has the fla-
gellum of the antenne fulvous beneath. The metathorax with a
few short striz at the base; wings subhyaline and iridescent, the
recurrent nervures uniting with the transverse nervures of the
second submarginal cell, as in P. facilis. The abdomen smooth,
shining, and impunctate.
Male. The size of the female; the front of the head as high as
the autennze, yellow, the scape with a yellow line in front, the fla-
gellum fulvous beneath. The tibie and tarsi yellow, with a small
black spot on the tibiz behind, and the apical joint of the inter-
mediate and posterior tarsi fusco-ferruginous ; wings and abdo-
men as in the female.
Hab. Island of Maui.
Tt will be seen that the male of this species differs greatly in
colouring from the same sex of P. facilis, although the females
have little specific distinction.
PROSOPIS FUSCIPENNIS, n.sp. Wale. Length 44 lines. Black,
the head and thorax semiopaque ; the abdomen smooth, very finely
punctured, sparsely so at the base, bright and shining; wings
fuscous, inclining to fulvous, and brightly iridescent. The head “
closely and finely punctured; the clypeus somewhat produced,
and truncate anteriorly ; the scape of the antenne compressed,
its lower margin narrowly white. Thorax—the margin of the
prothorax white; the mesothorax and scutellum closely punc-
tured ; the metathorax rugose ; the anterior tibie and tips of the
HYMENOPTERA FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 683
femora fulvous within, and the four apical joints of the tarsi rufo-
testaceous.
Hab. Sandwich Islands.
This species occurs rarely on the mountains of Oahu. I possess —
a single female, which differs from the male in having the body
shorter and stouter, with the terminal ventral segments pointed,
and the basal joint of the antenne narrow and cylindrical. (7. B.)
PROSOPIS FACILIS, n. sp. Female. Length 33 lines. Black ;
the head and thorax very closely and finely punctured ; abdomen
shining and impunctate. Head suborbiculate; the clypeus cori-
aceous, with some large shallow punctures. The mesothorax with
a short impressed line over the tegule ; the metathorax with short
longitudinal striz at the base, the sides having a little white pu-
bescence; the wings fusco-hyaline, hyaline at their base, and
brightly iridescent. Abdomen smooth, shining, and impunctate.
Male. Very like the female, but more slender; the clypeus
and a line at its lateral margins, on the face, yellow; the scape
of the antenne swollen, but black. The anterior tibix and tarsi
in front, and also the apex of the femora, yellow; the wines
paler than in the female; the base of the intermediate and pos-
terior tibie rufo-testaceous. Abdomen oblong-ovate, smooth,
shining, and impunctate.
Hab. Island of Maui.
PROSOPIS HILARIS, n. sp. Male. Length 3 lines. Head and
thorax black, the two basal segments and the base of the third
ferruginous. Head—the front as high as the antenne, and on
each side, along the margin of the eyes, a little above them, yel-
low ; the scape of the antennee and the mandibles yellow, the latter
ferruginous at their tips; the scape dilated; the flagellum ferru-
ginous. ‘Thorax—the legs ferruginous, with the coxe and femora
towards their base black ; wings hyaline and iridescent, their apex
faintly clouded; the metathorax subrugose. Abdomen smooth
and shining.
Hab. Occurs rarely on flowers in the island of Maui. (7. B.)
PROSOPIS VOLATILIS, n. sp. Male. Length 3 lines. Head
and thorax black, the two basal segments of the abdomen ferru-
einous. Head—the front, below the antenne, yellow ; the flagel-
lum fulvous and more or less fuscous above ; the scape has a ful-
vous line in front ; the mandibles ferruginous towards their apex.
Thorax—the anterior tibie, tarsi, and tips of the femora ferrugi-
684 ON NEW SPECIES OF ACULEATE HYMENOPTERA.
nous; the metathorax finely rugulose, opaque, and with a few
short strie at the base; wings subhyaline, iridescent, and faintly
clouded at their apex. Abdomen smooth and shining; the apical
margin of the second segment, and the following segments, black.
Hab. Island of Kauai.
Taken sparingly on flowers. (7. B.)
Fam. APIDz.
MEGACHILE DILIGENS, nu. sp. Hemale. Length 43 lines. Black;
the pubescence on the head and thorax obscure pale fulvous, be-
coming cinereous on the metathorax and on the face anteriorly ;
the abdomen with ferruginous pubescent fasciz. Head—the
mandibles with four teeth, the two apical ones acute, the others
blunt ; the cheeks with long cinereous pubescence ; the legs with
a little short black pubescence above, on the tarsi beneath it is
reddish brown; the claws ferruginous, tipped with black; wings
subhyaline, the nervures black. Abdomen cordate, and densely
clothed with bright ferruginous pubescence beneath.
Male. Rather smaller than the female, but very closely resem-
bling it. Differs in having the clypeus densely covered with very
pale fulvous pubescence ; the anterior tarsi fringed behind with
pale pubescence; the fifth and sixth segments of the abdomen
densely clothed above with short ferruginous pubescence; the
sixth segment deeply emarginate, forming two blunt apical teeth.
Hab. Honolulu.
Not rare; forming nests of leaves of a species of Acacia rolled
up into cylindrical cells, which are joined one at the end of another
to the length of several inches, and are placed in crevices of
masonry. (Z. B.)
XYLOCOPA HNEIPENNIS, De Geer, Mlém. ii. p. 573, tab. 28.
fic. 8, 9; St. Harg. Hym. i. p. 186,92.
The male is ferruginous and clothed with fulvous pubescence ;
the mandibles black, with a pale spot at their base; the scape of
the antenne above and the second joint of the flagellum black.
Thorax black beneath; the anterior trochanters black, with a
pale ferruginous spine beneath; the intermediate and posterior
coxee and trochanters, and also the femora, black ; wings flavo-
hyaline, with ferruginous nervures. The apex of the abdomen
pubescent in the form of two dense tufts.
fab. Honolulu. Mexico; Peru; South America; Brazil.
MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. 685.
Very abundant and destructive, boring long galleries in wood,
with apparent indifference whether the wood be dead or living.
(CE E:)
~—— Apis meniirica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 955.
Hab. Sandwich Islands, &e. &e.
Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By R.
Bowpier Suarer, F.L.S8., F.Z.8. &e.—Part VI. On Collec-
tions made by the Rey. W. G. Lawes in South-eastern New
Guinea.
[Read April 17, 1879.]
Tue collections which have been made in the neighbourhood of
Port Moresby during the last few years seem to have tolerably
well exhausted the ornithology of that part of New Guinea, and
each consignment which reaches England is more or less a repe-
tition of those which have gone before. The Rey. Mr. Lawes,
however, has made a small collection of birds; and as he hag
visited one or two places to the eastward of Port Moresby, I have
thought it advisable to give a list of his specimens, as the range
of the birds in an easterly direction is one of considerable interest -
to the student of the avifauna of South-eastern New Guinea.
Walter Bay, Mr. Lawes informs me, is situated a few miles to
the east of Port Moresby; but Hood Bay is about sixty miles
east of the last-mentioned place. Ihave referred to my former
paper on Mr. Stone’s collection (Journ. Linn. Soe. xii. p. 486).
The “ Laroki’”’ river there mentioned is the same as the Laloke
river of the present paper, as Mr. Lawes tells me the latter is the
more correct pronunciation.
1. HALIASTUR GIRRENERA (V.); Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soe, xiii.
p. 490. Walter Bay.
2, MicROGLOSSUM ATERRIMUM (Gim.); Sharpe, t. ¢. p. 491.
Hood Bay.
3. GEOFFROYIUS ARUENSIS (Gray); Sharpe, t.c.p.491. Laloke
River.
4. CycLopsitra svuavisstma, Sclater; Sharpe, t. ec. p. 491.
Laloke River.
686 MR. BR. B. SHARPE ON THE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA.
5, TrrcHoGLossus MASsENA, Bp.; Sharpe, t.c. p. 491. Hood
Bay ; Laloke River.
6. CHALCOPSITTACUS SCINTILLATUS (Lemm.); Salvad. Ann.
Mus. Civic. Genov. xiv. p.87. Hood Bay ; Laloke River. Count
Salvadori, in his account of Signor D’Albertis’s Fly-River collec-
tions, has reunited his C. chloropterus of South-eastern New
Guinea to C. scintillatus, which conclusion appears to me to be
perfectly correct.
7. Hos ruscata, Blyth; Sharpe, anted, p.628. Walter Bay.
8. Ecnectus potycutorus (Scop.); Sharpe, op. cit. xii. p. 491,
Port Moresby; Laloke River.
9. ScyTHROPS NOVH-HOLLANDIA, Lath.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 492.
Walter Bay.
10. Merors ornatus, Lath. ; Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Glenov.
xiv. p. 47. “A very common bird on the coast and inland, Lays
eges in sand” (W. G. Lawes).
11. Dacero mvrerMentvs, Salvad. ; Sharpe, t.c. p.493. Laloke
River.
12. Daceto Gavupicnaunt (Less.); Sharpe, t. c. p. 493. Hood
Bay.
13. Ruyripoceros ruricoLuis, V.; Sharpe, t.c. p. 493. Hood
Bay ; Laloke River,
14. Eurystomus CRASSIROSTRIS, Sclater; Sharpe, t. ec. p. 493.
Laloke River.
15. Evrystomus PAciFicus (Lath.); Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic.
Genov. xiv. p.538. Walter Bay.
16. Hatcyon sanota, V. f H.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 492. Laloke
River.
17. Hatcyon Macueayy, J. f 8.; Sharpe, t.c. p. 492. Laloke
River.
18. Syma Torororo, Less.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 492. Walter
Bay.
19. TaNYsrPTeRA MicHRoRuYNcIA, Sharpe; id. ¢. ¢. p. 493.
Walter Bay.
20. Poparcus Papurnsts, Q. & G.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 498.
Walter Bay.
MR. R. B. SHARPE ON TILE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. 687
21. Pirra nova-auinem, WL. Ff Schl.; Sharpe, t.c. p. 494.
Laloke River.
22. CHLAMYDODERA CERVINIVENTRIS, Gould; Salvad. t.c. p. 495.
Port Moresby.
23. TROPIDORHYNCHUS NOVH-GUINER, S. Mull.; Sharpe, t. e.
p- 497. Laloke River.
24. Monarcha MELANOPSIS, V.; Sharpe, Cat. B. iv. p. 480.
Laloke River.
25. Maturus auBiscarunatus, Meyer; Sharpe, Cat. B. i.
p. 297. Laloke River; Walter Bay.
26. Cracricus casstcus (Bodd.); Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soc.
xii. p. 499. Laloke River.
27. Cracticus mMentTais, Salvad. § D’ Albert.; Sharpe, t. c.
p. 499. Laloke River.
28. Onions striatus, Q. JF G.; Sharpe, t. c. p.500. Walter
Bay.
29. SPHECOTHERES Sanvaportr, Sharpe; t.c. p. 500. Port
Moresby; Laloke River.
30. PSEUDORECTES FERRUGINEUS (Bp.); Sharpe, Cat. B. iii.
p. 287. Laloke River.
31. CHreia CARBONARIA (Mdull.); Sharpe, t. c. p. 499. Laloke
River.
32. PARADISEA RAGGIANA, Sclater; Sharpe, t.c.p.500. Laloke
River. A considerable series. All the specimens are true P.
raggiana, and do not exhibit any of the curious hybridization with
P. nove-quinee noticed by Signor D’Albertis on the Fly River.
(Cf. Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. xiv. p. 80.)
33. Corvus orru, Mull—Corone orru, Sharpe, t. c. p. 501.
Akeva River, Hood Bay; Laloke River.
34. Eutases Dumont (Less.); Sharpe, t. c. p. 501. Walter
Bay; Laloke River.
35. Menranopyrenus Rosertrsoni, Sharpe, anted, p. 6338.
Laloke River.
36. CALORNIS VIRIDESCENS, Gray; Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soc.
xiii. p. 501. Walter Bay; Hood Bay ; Laloke River.
LINN. JOURN.—ZOOLOGY, VOL. XIV. ol
688 MR. R. B. SHARPE ON THE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. -
37. ARTAMUS LEUCORHYNCHUS (Z.).—A. leucogaster, Salpad.
Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. xiv. p. 69. Port Moresby.
38. Donacota niaRicees, Ramsay; Sharpe, t.c.p. 501. Laloke
River.
39. Munra cantcers, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. 1x.
p- 88. Port Moresby; Laloke River. “These Finches come in
flocks about September, and feed on seeds of the dried grasses ”’
(W. G. Lawes).
40. CAMPOPHAGA SPILORRHOA, Gray.—Myristicivora spilorrhoa
(Gray); Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civic. Genov. ix. p. 276. Laloke
River.
41. Carpornaca Murnuert, Zemm.; Sharpe, t. ce. p. 502.
Laloke River.
42. CarpopHaca PINON (Q. & G.); Sharpe, t. ¢. p. 502.
Laloke River.
43. CARPOPHAGA PUELLA (Less.); Sharpe, t. ec. p.503. Laloke
River.
44, PPILONOPUS AURANTIIFRONS, Gray; Sharpe, t. c. p. 503
Laloke River.
45. PriLonoPus tozonus, Gray; Sharpe, t.c. p. 503. Walter
Bay.
46. PriILoNoPus coronuLAtTUs, Gray; Sharpe, t.c. p. 503.
Laloke River.
47. Goura ALBERTIstt, Salvad.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 503. Laloke
River.
48. GEOPELIA HUMERALIS (Zemm.); Sharpe, t. e. p. 503.
Walter Bay.
49, LoBIVANELLUS MILES (Bodd.); Sharpe, t.c.p.504. Laloke
River.
50. ARDEA sacra, Gim.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 504. Port Moresby.
51. PorpHyrio MELANOPTERUS, Temm.; Sharpe, t. c. p. 505.
Port Moresby.
52. TapoRNA RADIAN, Glarn.; Sharpe, t.c. p. 505. Laloke
River.
53. TACHYPETES MINOR (Gm.).—Fregata minor, Salvad. Uce.
Born. p. 364. Port Moresby. One specimen of the smaller
Frigate-bird was also in Mr. Goldie’s collection.
no
MR. FRANCIS DAY ON MORRHUA MACROCEPHALA. 689
On the Occurrence of Morrhua macrocephala* at the Mouth of
the Thames. By Francis Day, F.LS.
[Read April 17, 1879.]
(Puatz XIV.)
In the month of January this year I obtained, through the kind-
ness of Mr. Carrington, Naturalist to the Royal Westminster
Aquarium, an example of alarge-headed Cod-fish, which had been
captured at Southend, at the mouth of the Thames, but had died
during its transit between there and London. }
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STRUCTURE OF ORBITAL AND ANTENNAL REGIONS
CBesjeon OF THE MAIOID CRABS. (OXYRHYNCHA) — Hanhart ump
Linn, Soc. Journ. Zoon Vou. XIV. Pu 13.
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STRUCTURE OF ORBITAL AND ANTENNAL REGIONS
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Ocroser 24. Price 2s.
THE JOURNAL
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. No. 73.
CONTENTS.
On the Conditions favouring Fermentation and the Appear- a
ance of Bacilli, Micrococci, and Torule in previously Boiled
Fluids. By H. Cuartron Bastran, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
Professor of Pathological Anatomy in University College,
London, and Physician to University-College Hospital.
GAVE WOOCUUSY) iin tld cn caulen Mam el anonee 1
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1877.
NOTICE.
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers
The price of each separate number, whether Zoological or
Botanical, is 2s. to the public, and 1s. 6d. to Fellows.
Each yolume of eight numbers, when subscribed for and paid
in advance, will be charged 12s. to the public, and 9s. to Fellows.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more ‘Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth lable to an-annual Contribution of £3, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed: in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-80, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.
Members are requested to apply at the Apartments of the
Socicty, to Mr. Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may
be entitled to, or be desirous to purchase: but no volume can be
delivered gratis to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in
arrear, nor can any be delivered unless applied for within five
years from the time of publication—Of the 2nd Series of the
Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I-IV., Zoology and Botany, are
now ready for delivery. A few copies of the several papers con-
tained in the later volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been
printed off for separate sale; and most of them may still be had.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books
from the Library.
The Council-room, which will in future be used as a Reading-
room, will be open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on
Saturdays, when till 4 o’clock only.
Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, or to the Secretary, at the Society's Apartments, Burlington House,
Piccadilly, London.
May 23. Price 3s.
THE JOURNAL
OF
HE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. RS No. 74.
CONTENTS. \~. ($5
Bobs Size
I. On the Conditions favouring Fermentationand. the
Appearance of Bacilli, Micrococci, and Tortie m-pre--—~
viously Boiled Fluids. By H. Cuariron Bastian,
MMOL URIS PRIS. (Ooneluded.)...!.. vo.s fool oe. 65
II. Note on eee Finches of the Genus eee
By Captain Wiuiiam EB. Armit, F.L.S. 95
III. Report on the Insecta (including nite) collened
by Captain Feilden and Mr. Hart between the
Parallels of 78° and 83° North Latitude, during the
Recent Arctic Expedition. By Ropert M‘Lacutan,
E.R.S., F.L.S., &. (With Sketch Map.) ............ 98
IV. Preliminary Notice on the Surface-Fauna of the Arctic
Seas, as observed in the recent Arctic Expedition.
By Epwarp L. Moss, M.D., late Surgeon H.M.S.
‘Alert? Communicated by Dr. J. Morts, F.L.S. ... 122
V. Onthe Annelids of the British North-Polar Hieped con
By W. C. M‘Invosu, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.S.... 126
VI. Report on a Small Collection of ee obtained .
Dr. J. C. Ploem in Java, with a Description of a new
Species of Hoplia. By Cuartes O. WarerHouse,
Esq. Communicated by Dr. J. Murts, F.LS. ...... 134
VII. Notes touching Recent Researches on the Radiolaria.
By Sr. Grorer Mivarr, Zoological Secretary, Lin-
nean Society. (With 16 Woodeuts. Deas cette 3 136
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY'S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1878.
The increase of matter and illustration in the Linnean Society’s Journals
haye necessitated a revision of the price of each Number and volume, for which
see notice on back of wrapper.
Memoranda concerning Communications, Manuscripts,
and Specimens for Exhibition.
Iy cases of lengthened communications or others of a purely
technical character, or where the author cannot be present at the
reading of his paper, as in the instance of Fellows resident abroad,
the business of the meeting and interest of the writer will be
greatly facilitated if an abstract for reading be sent in along with
the manuscript.
It is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. It is to be regretted that
difficulties and delay have already occurred through want of atten-
tion to the above matter.
Manuscript ought to be clearly and legibly written on one side
of the paper only, and lengthened corrections, additional para-
eraphs, or other notes of interpolation either pasted on fly-slips
close to their proper places, or written on separate pages, a, b, &e.
being added to the consecutive running number of pages. All
drawings for illustration should be accompanied by full de-
scriptions.
Tt is desirable also that several inches of space should be left
blank on the first page above title of paper and author’s name
&c., whereon instructions to printer may afterwards be inserted.
Similarly a couple of lines of interspace between title of paper
and text will enable date of reading and notice of plates, if any,
to be duly filled in.
Specimens intended for exhibition at the Meetings during the
Session, or Diagrams, Maps, and objects intended to illustrate
papers to be read, ought, if convenient, to be sent to the Society’s
Rooms not later than the forenoon of the day of Meeting in
question, but earlier if possible, and with memoranda concerning
same.
Communications intended to be made to the Society may be
addressed to the President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secre-
tary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House, Piccadilly,
London.
NOTICE.
From Vol. TX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
- numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public, and
2s 3d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete, 24s.
to the public, and 18s. to Fellows.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-30, 4s. to the |
public, and 3s. to Fellows.
Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I.—VI.
Zoology, and Parts 1—V. Botany, are now ready for delivery.
A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been printed off for sepa-
rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
are thenceforth liable to an annual Contribution of £3, which
may be compounded for at any time by one payment of £30 in
lieu of all future contributions.
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr.
Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to,
or be desirous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis
to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can
any be delivered unless applied for within five years from the time
of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books.
The Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is
open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.m., except on Saturdays, when
till 4 p.m. only.
Aveusr 381. Price 3s.
THE JOURNAL
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Vou, STV). 7 ZOOLOGY. No. 75.
CONTENTS.
Page
I. On the Minute Structure of Stromatopora and its .
Allies. By Prof. H. Atnteynz Nuicuotson, F.L.S.
&e.,and Dr. J. Muniz, F.L.S. &. (Plates L-IV.,
a PH NVOOUEUESS) Mee ue re i ok ie 187
II. Description of New Species and Genera of Fumolpide.
By Joserx 8. Bary, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.LS. ......... 246
III. Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wasps.
—Part V. Ants. By Sir Joun Lupzock, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.LS., D.C.L., Vice-Chancellor of
the University of London. (With 5 Woodcuts.) ... 265
1V. On the Butterflies in the Collection of the British
Museum hitherto referred to the Genus Huplea of
Fabricius. By Arruur G. Burizr, F.LS. &e. ...... 290
V. On the Development of Filaria sanguinis hominis, and
on the Mosquito considered asa Nurse. By Patrick
Manson, M.D. (Communicated by Dr. SUSE CR
E.RBS., F.LS.) SE SOU aU IE BB ASE Er APNE nei aees 304
% 47
SB cy
LONDO NS, ‘YO/
AN ng POS)
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,
1878.
Memoranda concerning Communications, Manuscripts,
and Specimens for Exhibition.
In cases of lengthened communications or others of a purely
technical character, or where the author cannot be present at the
reading of his paper, as in the instance of Fellows resident abroad,
the business of the meeting and interest of the writer will be
greatly facilitated if an abstract for reading be sent in along with
the manuscript. :
It is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. It is to be regretted that
difficulties and delay have already occurred through want of atten-
tion to the above matter.
Manuscript ought to be clearly and legibly written on one side
of the paper only, and lengthened corrections, additional para-
graphs, or other notes of interpolation either pasted on fly-slips
close to their proper places, or written on separate pages, a, b, &e.
being added to the consecutive running number of pages. All
drawings for illustration should be accompanied by full de-
scriptions.
It is desirable also that several inches of space should be left
blank on the first page above title of paper and author’s name
&c., whereon instructions to printer may afterwards be inserted.
Similarly a couple of lines of interspace between title of paper
and text will enable date of reading and notice of plates, if any,
to be duly filled in.
Specimens intended for exhibition at the Meetings during the
Session, or Diagrams, Maps, and objects intended to illustrate
papers to be read, ought, if convenient, to be sent to the Society’s
Rooms not later than the forenoon of the day of Meeting in
question, but earlier if possible, and with memoranda concerning
same.
Library and Reading-room.
By order of the President and Council, the Library and Read-
ing-room will be closed from the 12th August till 7 th September
inclusive, for cleaning and revision; for this purpose it is re-
quested that all borrowed books be returned prior to the former |
date.
Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments,
Burlington House, Piccadilly, London.
ALTERATIONS IN THE BysE-Laws.
The following Alterations in the Bye-Laws, proposed by the Council on
the 18th of April, having been hung up in the common Meeting-room of
the Society, and read by the President, or Vice-President in the Chair, at
two successive General Meetings of the Society, viz. 18th April and 2nd of
May, were again read by the President at the Anniversary Meeting, May
24, 1878, put to the Ballot, and confirmed by the Fellows at large, in the
terms of the Charter :—
New Bye-Laws.—Chap. II.
Section II].—Every Fellow who shall be elected after the Twenty-fourth
day of May, 1829, and before the lst day of November, 1878, shall, be-
sides the Admission-Fee, further contribute towards the Funds of the
Society, previous to his Admission, by paying the Sum of Thirty Pounds
in lieu of all future Payments; or he shall sign an obligation for the regular
Payment of Three Pounds per annum to the Society, so long as he shall
continue a Fellow.
Section [V.—Every Fellow elected after the 24th day of May, 1829,
and before the Ist day of November, 1878, may at any time compound
for his future Contributions by paying the sum of Thirty Pounds in One
Year instead of the Annual Contribution for that year ; in which case his
obligation to make Annual Payments shall be void.
Section V.—The Yearly Contributions of all Fellows elected after the
24th day of May 1829, and before the Ist day of November, 1878, shall be
considered due and payable at each Anniversary Meeting, for the year pre-
ceding; but no such Fellow who shall have been elected on or after the
First Day of February, 1878, shall pay the Annual Contribution falling due
at the Anniversary Meeting of that Year.
Section VI.—Every Fellow elected on or after the Ist of November,
1878, shall, in addition to the Admission-Fee of Six Pounds, also pay Three
Pounds as his Annual Contribution in Advance for the year commencing
on the preceding 24th of May, and a similar Contribution of Three Pounds
annually on each successive 24th of May, so long as he shall continue a
Fellow. Provided, however, that any such Fellow, if elected between the
Ist of March and the 24th of May in any year, shall not be hable to the
Contribution for the year commencing on the preceding 24th of May, but
shall pay his first year’s Contribution mm advance on the succeeding 24th
of May. Every such Fellow shall sign an Obligation for the regular pay-
ment of his Annual Contribution of £3.
Section VII.—Every Fellow who shall be elected on or after the Ist of
November, 1878, may at any time compound for his future Contributions,
including that for the then current year, by paying the sum of Forty-five
Pounds. If he should have already paid the Contribution for the current
year, such payment shall be allowed in part of the Composition.
Section VI[I.—In case any Fellow be not usually resident within the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, such Person shall within
Six Months after his Election, or within such other time as the Council
shall permit, and before he be admitted, either provide such Security for
the Payment of the Annual Contributions as shall be satisfactory to the
Council or shall pay to the Treasurer in lieu of Annual Contributions such
sum as is hereinafter mentioned,—that is to say, If such Fellow shail have
been elected after the 24th of May, 1829, and before the lst day of No-
vember, 1878, the sum of £30, and if such Fellow shall have been elected
on or after the lst day of November, 1878, the sum of £45.
Section IX.—If any Fellow paying Yearly Contributions should fail to
bring, or send in the same to the Treasurer, then unless the said Payment
be remitted in whole or in part by special Order of the Council, his Obli-
gation shall be put in suit for the recovery thereof, and he shall be lable
to ejection from tbe Society; upon which the Council shall proceed as
they may see cause.
FREDK. CURREY,
Secretary.
NOTICE.
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public ‘and
95. 8d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete 24s
to the public, and 18s. to Fellows. i
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or mote
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-380, 4s. to the
ublic, and 3s. to Fellows.
Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I-VI.
Zoology, and Parts L—V. Botany, are now ready for delivery.
A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been printed off for sepa-
rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac.
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
an annual Contribution of £3, which latter may be compounded
for at any time by one payment of £45 in lieu of all future con-
tributions. ‘
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee ; ‘and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr.
Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to,
or be desirous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis
to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can
any be delivered unless applied for within five years from the time
of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books.
The Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is
open daily from 10 a.m, till 6 P.M., except on Saturdays, when
till 4 p.m. only.
Ocroser 31. ; Price 8s.
THE JOURNAL “zy
OF
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
4
ZOOLOGY. |G» F No. 76.
Vou. XIV.
CONTENTS. NEY ~ igs)
ol O/ Page
‘ TN
I. Revision of the Hippidea. By Eowarb~J-SMimrg,
E.LS., F.Z.S., Assistant m the Zoological Depart-
ment of the British Museum. (Plate V.) ............ 312
II. Deseriptions of new Species of Phytophagous Coleo-
ptera. By Joszpy 8. Bary, M.R.CS., F.LS., &e.... 336
III. The Life-history of Filaria Banerofti, as explained by
the Discoveries of Wucherer, Lewis, Bancroft, Man-
son, Sonsino, myself, and others. By T. Spmncrer
Cossotp, M.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology, Royal Veterinary College ...... 356
IV. On the Anatomy of the Elk (Alces malchis). By
Prof. Morrison Watson, M.D., and A. H. Youne,
M.B., Owens College, Manchester. (Communicated
by Dr. J. Muniz, F.L.8.) (Plates VI. & VII., and a
AWAY Ta rGYGICGA Does) UR MINTS Sly ME el LASER ent 1 ON Eo 371
V. On the Geographical Distribution of the Gulls and
Terns (Laride). By Howarp Saunpmrs, F.LS.,
HELE SO URN CCS UCR aM CEOs viet has EN Ak aad hh Ca a aya 390
Vi. On the Action of Limpets (Patelia) in sinking Pits in
and abrading the Surface of the Chalk at Dover.
By J. Cuarxe Hawxsuaw, M.A., F.G.8. (Commu-
micated by Drvd MiuRrE BTS i)ee ee 406
Vil. Notes on the Presence of Tuachyglossus and Orni-
thorhynchus in Northern and North-eastern Queens-
land. By Capt. Wintram E. Arm, F.L.S.......... 411
Vil. Remarks cn the Skull of the Echidna from Queens-
land. By Dr. J. Muniz, F.U.8S. (With a Woodcut.) 412
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY'S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1878.
[The increase of matter and illustration in the Linnean Society’s Journals
haye necessitated a revision of the Price of each Number and Volume, for which
see notice on back of wrapper. |
\
Memoranda concerning Communications, Manuscripts,
and Specimens for Exhibition.
iw cases of lengthened communications or others of a purely
technical character, or where the author cannot be present at the
reading of his paper, as in the instance of Fellows resident abroad,
the business of the meeting and interest of the writer will be
greatly facilitated if an abstract for reading be sent in along with
the manuscript. t
It is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication ; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. It is to be regretted that
difficulties and delay have already occurred through want of atten-
tion to the above matter.
Manuscript ought to be clearly and legibly written on one side
of the paper only, and lengthened corrections, additional para-
graphs, or other notes of interpolation either pasted on fly-slips
close to their proper places, or written on separate pages, a, 6, &c.
being added to the consecutive running number of pages. All
drawings for illustration should be accompanied by full de-
scriptions.
It is desirable also that several inches of space should be left
blank on the first page above title of paper and author’s name
&c., whereon instructions to printer may afterwards be inserted.
Similarly a couple of lines of interspace between title of paper
and text will enable date of reading and notice of plates, if any,
to be duly filled in.
Specimens intended for exhibition at the Meetings during the
Session, or Diagrams, Maps, and objects intended to illustrate
apers to be read, ought, if convenient, to be sent to the Society’s
Roots not later than the forenoon of the day of Meeting in
question, but earlier if possible, and with memoranda concerning
same. i
Srsston 1878-79.
Muertines (Thursday evenings) as undermentioned.
Chair taken at 8 PM.
1878. November 7. 1879. February 6. 1879. April 17.
9° €
Bs Pale Ue May 1.
December 5. March 6. June 5.
7 19. i 20. Wey Qs
1879. January 16. April a
The Anniversary Meeting takes place Saturday, May 24,
at 3 P.M.
Communications intended to be made to the Society may be addressed to the
President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Society's Apartments,
Burlington House, Piccadilly, London.
ALTERATIONS IN THE BYE-LAws.
The following Alterations in the Bye-Laws, proposed by the Council on
the 18th of April, having been hung up m the common Mecting-room of
the Society, and read by the President, or Vice-President in the Chair, at
two successive General Meetings of the Society, viz. 18th April and 2nd of
May, were again read by the President at the Anniversary Meeting, May
24, 1878, put to the Ballot, and confirmed by the Fellows at large, in the
terms of the Charter :—
New Bye-Laws.—Chap. II.
Section I11.—Every Fellow who shall be elected after the Twenty-fourth
day of May, 1829, and before the Ist day of November, 1878, shall, be-
sides the Admission-f'ee, further contribute towards the Funds of the
Society, previous to his Admission, by paying the Sum of Thirty Pounds
in lieu of all future Payments; or he shall sign an obligation for the regular
Payment of Three Pounds per annum to the Society, so long as he shall
continue a Fellow.
Section 1V.—EKvery Fellow elected after the 24th day of May, 1829,
and before the Ist day of November, 1878, may at any time compound
for his future Contributions by paying the sum of Thirty Pounds in One
Year instead of the Annual Contribution for that year; in which case his
obligation to make Annual Payments shall be void.
Section V.—The Yearly Contributions of all Fellows elected after the
24th day of May 1829, and before the Ist day of November, 1878, shali be
considered due and payable at each Anniversary Meeting, for the year pre-
ceding; but no such Fellow who shall have been elected on or after the
First Day of February, 1878, shall pay the Annual Contribution failing due
at the Anniversary Meeting of that Year.
Section VI—livery Fellow elected on or after the Ist of November,
1878, shall, in addition to the Admission-Fee of Six Pounds, also pay Three
Pounds as his Annual Contribution in Advance for the year commencing
on the preceding 24th of May, and a similar Contribution of Three Pounds
annually on each successive 24th of May, so long as he shall continue a
Fellow. Provided, however, that any such Fellow, if elected between the
Ist of March and the 24th of May im any year, shall not be liable to the
Contribution for the year commencing on the preceding 24th of May, but
shall pay his first year’s Contribution m advance on the succeeding 24th
of May. Every such Fellow shall sign an Obligation for the regular pay -
ment of his Annual Contribution of £3.
Section VII.—Every Fellow who shall be eleeted on or after the Ist of
November, 1878, may at any time compound for his future Contributions,
including that for the then current year, by paying the sum of Forty-five
Pounds. If he should have already paid the Contribution for the current
year, such payment shall be allowed im part of the Composition.
Section VIII.—In case any Fellow be not usually resident within the
United Kingdom of Great Brita and Ireland, such Person shall within
Six Months after his Election, or within such other time as the Couneil
shall permit, and before he be admitted, either provide such Security for
the Payment ef the Annual Contributions as shall be satisfactory to the
Council or shall pay to the Treasurer in lieu of Annual Contributions such
sum as is hereinafter mentioned,—that is to say, Ifsuch Fellow shall have
been elected after the 24th of May, 1829, and before the lst day of No-
vember, 1878, the sum of £30, and if such Fellcw shall have been elected
on or after the Ist day of November, 1878, the sum of £45.
Section [X.—If any Fellow paying Yearly Contyibutions should fail to
bring, or send im the same to the Treasurer, then unless the said Payment
be remitted in whole or im part by special Order of the Council, his Obh-
gation shall be put in suit for the recovery thereof, and he shall be lable
to ejection from the Society; upon which the Council shall proceed as
they may see cause.
FREDK. CURREY,
Secretary.
NOTICH.
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public, and
2s. 3d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete, 24s.
to the public, and 18s. to Fellows.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. ‘The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-30, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.
Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I.—VII.
Zoology, and Parts I—V. Botany, are now ready for delivery.
A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been printed off for sepa-
rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
an annual Contribution of £3, which latter may be compounded
for at any time by one payment of £45 in lieu of all future con-
tributions.
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr.
Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to,
or be desirous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis
to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can
any be delivered unless applied for within five years from the time
of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.a.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books.
The Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is
open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.M., except on Saturdays, when
till 4, p.m. only.
JANUARY 81. ie Price 3s.
THE JOURNAL
OF
Ph LINN AN SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. No. 77.
CONTENTS.
1. Notice of some Shells dredged by Capt. St. Jo
in Korea Strait. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, ai D.,
TB Tag eT Sta Sah PSU SOUT hes TNS aa NEU eg
Il. On the Asteroidea and Hchinoidea of the Korean
Seas. By W. Percy Szrapen, F.L.S., F GS
(CEES) TU 1) OE eS ae ee aU ae ty
III. On some Ophiuroidea from the Korean Seas. By
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.(Lond.), F.R.S.,
&e. (Communicated by W. Percy Stapen, F.L.S.)
lslaiie sp UNG ONG) epee I ey nla IN Mt Slt
1V. Descriptions of New Hemiptera ae ioe RS Bue
cHanan Wuirts, M.D., F.LS. She eA
V. The Anniversary Address of the President, Prof.
Attman, M.D., LU.D., F.R.S.—Recent Progress
in our Knowledge of the Structure and Development
of the Phylactolematous Polyzoa ..........
LONDON:
424
445
. 482
. 489
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1879.
[The increase of matter and illustration in the Linnean Society’s Journals
have necessitated a revision of the Price of each Number and Volume, for which
see notice on back of wrapper. |
LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Elected May 24, 1878.
PRESIDENT.
Professor George J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G-S. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
SECRETARIES.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. | Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S.
TREASURER.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S8.
COUNCIL.
Prof, G. J. Allman, LL.D., F.R.S. | Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D.,
John Ball, M.A., F.R.S. E.R.S.
Thomas Boycott, M.D. Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.G.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.G.8. Robert Hudson, F.R.S8., F.G-.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G.S. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Hsq., LL.D., F.R.S.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. Jobn Millar, F.G.S8.
F. DuCane Godman, F.G.S., F.Z.S. Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S. Richard C. A. Prior, M.D.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY. LIBRARIAN.
James Murie, M.D., LL.D. | Richard Kippist, A.L.S.
ASSISTANT IN THE LIBRARY.
James West.
Szssion 1878-79.
Meetings (Thursday evenings) as undermentioned.
Chair to be taken at 8 P.M.
1879, February 6. 1879, March 20. 1879, May 1.
Ht 20. April 3. June 5.
March 6. Bian br 19.
The Anniversary Meeting takes place Saturday, May 24, at 3 p.m.
Memoranda concerning Communications and Manuscripts.
Tt is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. Manuscript ought to be
clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, and
lengthened corrections, additional paragraphs, or other notes of
interpolation either pasted on fly-slips close to their proper places,
or written on separate pages, a, 6, &c. being added to the consecu-
tive running number of pages. All drawings for illustration
should be accompanied by full descriptions. :
MS. &c. may be addressed to the President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-
Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London.
ALTERATIONS IN THE BreE-Laws.
The following Alterations in the Bye-Laws, proposed by the Council on
the 18th of April, having been hung up in the common Meeting-room of
the Society, and read by the President, or Vice-President in the Chair, at
two successive General Meetings of the Society, viz. 18th April and 2nd of
May, were again read by the President at the Anniversary Meeting, May
24, 1878, put to the Ballot, and confirmed by the Fellows at large, in the
terms of the Charter :—
New Bye-Laws.—Chap. IT.
Section I[].—Every Fellow who shall be elected after the Twenty-fourth
day of May, 1829, and before the lst day of November, 1878, shall, be-
sides the Admission-Fee, further contribute towards the Funds of the
Society, previous to his Admission, by paymg the Sum of Thirty Pounds
in lieu of all future Payments ; or he shall sign an obligation for the regular
Payment of Three Pounds per annum to the Society, so long as he shall
continue a Fellow.
Section [V.—Hvery Fellow elected after the 24th day of May, 1829,
and before the Ist day of November, 1878, may at any time compound
for his future Contributions by paying the sum of Thirty Pounds in One
Year instead of the Annual Contribution for that year; in whieh case his
obligation to make Annual Payments shall be void.
Section V.—The Yearly Contributions of all Fellows elected after the
24th day of May 1829, and before the lst day of November, 1878, shall be
considered due and payable at each Anniversary Meeting, for the year pre-
ceding; but no such Fellow who shall have been elected on or after the
First Day of February, 1878, shall pay the Annual Contribution falling due
at the Anniversary Meeting of that Year.
Section VI.—Every Fellow elected on or after the Ist of November,
1878, shall, in addition to the Admission-Fee of Six Pounds, also pay Three
Pounds as his Annual Contribution m Advance for the year commencing
on the preceding 24th of May, and a similar Contribution of Three Pounds
annually on each successive 24th of May, so long as he shall continue a
Fellow. Provided, however, that any such Fellow, if elected between the
Ist of March and the 24th of May in any year, shall not be hable to the
Contribution for the year commencing on the preceding 24th of May, but
shall pay his first year’s Contribution in advance on the succeeding 24th
of May. Every such Fellow shall sign an Obligation for the regular pay-
ment of his Annual Contribution of £3.
Section VII.—Every Fellow who shall be elected on or after the Ist of
November, 1878, may at any time compound for his future Contributions,
imcluding that for the then current year, by paying the sum of Forty-five
Pounds. If he should have already paid the Contribution for the current
year, such payment shall be allowed in part of the Composition.
Section VIII.—In case any Fellow be not usually resident within the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, such Person shall within
Six Months after his Election, or within such other time as the Council
shall permit, and before he be admitted, either provide such Security for
the Payment of the Annual Contributions as shall be satisfactory to the
Council or shall pay to the Treasurer in lieu of Annual Contributions such
sum as is hereinafter mentioned,—that is to say, Ifsuch Fellow shall have
been elected after the 24th of May, 1829, and before the Ist day of No-
vember, 1878, the sum of £30, and if such Fellow shall have been elected
on or after the 1st day of November, 1878, the sum of £45.
Section [X.—If any Fellow paying Yearly Contributions should fail to
bring, or send in the same to the Treasurer, then unless the said Payment
be remitted in whole or in part by special Order of the Council, his Obli-
gation shall be put in suit for the recovery thereof, and he shall be liable
to ejection from the Society; upon which the Council shall proceed as
they may see cause.
FREDK. CURREY,
Secretary.
NOTICE
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public, and
2s. 38d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete, 24s.
to the public, and 18s. to Fellows.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any, Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-80, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.
Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I.—VII.
Zoology, and Parts I.-V. Botany, are now ready for delivery.
A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been printed off for sepa-
rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
Awny Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
an annual Contribution of £3, which latter may be compounded
for at any time by one payment of £45 in lieu of all future con-
tributions.
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Hee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr.
Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to,
or be desirous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis
to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can
any be delivered unless applied for within five years from the time
of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 p.m.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books.
The Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is
open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 P.m., except on Saturdays, when
till 4 p.m. only.
Aprin 23. Price 3s.
THE JOURNAL
ah LINN AN “SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. No. 78.
CONTENTS
1. Motuvusca oF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ ExPED
1. Preliminary Report to Prof. Sir C. BSI
THOMSON, ERS., Director of the Civilian Séien=—~
tific Staff, on the Mollusea dr edged during the Ex-
ploring Voyage. By the Rev. Rozurr Boog
Watson, B.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S. .... 806
11. The SoLeNoconcHta, comprising the Coe Den
talium, Siphodentaliwm, and Cadulus. By the Rev.
Re Boog Watson, BAL WULS. &. 508
II. Descriptions of new Coleoptera of Geographical In-
terest, collected by Charles Darwin, Esq. By Fre-
pERICK H. Waternouse, Librarian to the Zoological
Society of London. (Communicated by Dr. J. Murts,
TEL USI HB NO eS URIBE NORE cAI 530
HII. Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater
Fishes.—Part III. Conclusion. By Francis Day,
Sse ye WS Gute a tueiy ene at ERNIE ek ye 584
IV. Description of two new Shells. By Syzvanus Han-
ONES Ope eS RPA LY GRU ON ee el a eet Tab 580
V. On the Relations of Rhabdopleura. By Prof. G. J.
Attman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President. (With a
NiOLOUGI AUIS) Liv RACINE ele ae ARO Me RM RE Cah a8. TERRE mM A eyi 581
VI. Mo.xuusca oF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ ExPEDITION.
11. Trocuip#, viz. the Genera Seguenzia, Basilissa,
Gaza, and Bembix. By the Rev. R. Boog Warson,
SCA ais icone evan Neen e zone ny nema n Se nan 586
VIL. Note as to the position of the Genus Seguenzia among
the Gastropoda. By J. Gwyn Jrrrreys, LU. Dy.
RAR S SSR AS Se Ie Son ree Ae cet a aes ig ead Noa e 605
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1879.
LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Hlected May 24, 1878.
‘ PRESIDENT.
Professor George J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
George Busk, F.R.S8., F.G.S. Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G.8. | J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
SECRETARIES. .
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. | Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S,
TREASURER.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
COUNCIL.
Prof. G. J. Allman, LL.D., F.R.S. Albert C. L.-G. Ginther, M.A., M.D.,
John Ball, M.A., F.RS. | E.R.S.
Thomas Boycott, M.D. Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.G.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.G.S. Robert Hudson, F.R.S8., F.G.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G.S. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Hsq., LL.D., F.R.S.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. John Millar, F.G.S.
F. DuCane Godman, F.G.S., F'.Z.8. Prof. St. George J. Mivart, H.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S. Richard C. A. Prior, M.D.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY. LIBRARIAN.
James Murie, M.D., LL.D. | Richard Kippist, A.L.S.
ASSISTANT IN THE LIBRARY.
James West.
Szssion 1878-79.
Meetings (Thursday evenings) as undermentioned.
Chair to be taken at 8 p.m.
May 1. June 5. June 19.
The Anniversary Meeting takes place Saturday, May 24, at 3 p.m.
Memoranda concerning Communications and Manuscripts.
lt is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. Manuscript ought to be
clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, and
lengthened corrections, additional paragraphs, or other notes of
interpolation either pasted on fly-slips close to their proper places,
or written on separate pages, a, b, &c. being added to the consecu-
tive running number of pages. All drawings for illustration
should be accompanied by full descriptions.
MS. &c. may be addressed to the President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-
Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London.
ALTERATIONS IN THE BYE-LAWS.
The following Alterations in the Bye-Laws, proposed by the Council on
the 18th of April, having been hung up in the common Meeting-room of
the Society, and read by the President, or Vice-President in the Chair, at
two successive General Meetings of the Society, viz. 18th April and 2nd of
May, were again read by the President at the Anniversary Meeting, May
24, 1878, put to the Ballot, and confirmed by the Fellows at large, in the
terms of the Charter :—
New Bye-Laws.—Chap. II.
Section I1I.—Every Fellow who shall be elected after the Twenty-fourth
day of May, 1829, and before the lst day of November, 1878, sliall, be-
sides the Admission-Fee, further contribute towards the Funds of the
Society, previous to his Admission, by paying the Sum of Thirty Pounds
in lieu of all future Payments; or he shall sign an obligation for the regular
Payment of Three Pounds per annum to the Society, so long as he shall
continue a Fellow.
Section 1V.—Every Fellow elected after the 24th day of May, 1829,
and before the Ist day of November, 1878, may at any time compound
for his future Contributions by paying the sum of Thirty Pounds in One
Year instead of the Annual Contribution for that year; in which case his
obligation to make Annual Payments shall be void.
‘Section V.—The Yearly Contributions of all Fellows elected after the
24th day of May 1829, and before the Ist day of November, 1878, shall be
considered due and payable at each Anniversary Meeting, for the year pre-
ceding; but no such Fellow who shall have been elected on or after the
First Day of February, 1878, shall pay the Annual Contribution falling due
at the Anniversary Meeting of that Year.
Section VI.—Every Fellow elected on or after the Ist of November,
1878, shall, im addition to the Admission-Fee of Six Pounds, also pay Three
Pounds as his Annual Contribution im Advance for the year commencing
on the preceding 24th of May, and a similar Contribution of Three Pounds
annually on each successive 24th of May, so long as he shall continue a
Fellow. Provided, however, that any such Fellow, if elected between the
lst of March and the 24th of May in any year, shall not be liable to the
Contribution for the year commencing on the preceding 24th of May, but
shall pay his first year’s Contribution in advance on the succeeding 24th
of May. Every such Fellow shall sign an Obligation for the regular pay-
ment of his Annual Contribution of £3.
Section VII.—Every Fellow who shall be elected on or after the Ist of
November, 1878, may at any time compound for his future Contributions,
including that for the then current year, by paying the sum of Forty-five
Pounds. If he should have already paid the Contribution for the current
year, such payment shall be allowed in part of the Composition.
Section VIII.—In case any Fellow be not usually resident within the
United Kingdom of Great Brita and Ireland, such Person shall within
Six Months after his Election, or with such other time as the Council
shall permit, and before he be admitted, either provide such Security for
the Payment of the Annual Contributions as shall be satisfactory to the
Council or shall pay to the Treasurer in lieu of Annual Contributions such
sum as is hereinafter mentioned,—that is to say, Ifsuch Fellow shall have
been elected after the 24th of May, 1829, and before the lst day of No-
vember, 1878, the sum of £30, and if such Fellow shall have been elected
on or after the lst day of November, 1878, the sum of £45.
Section [X.—If any Fellow paying Yearly Contributions should fail to
bring, or send in the same to the Treasurer, then unless the said Payment
be remitted in whole or im part by special Order of the Council, his Obli-
gation shall be put in suit for the recovery thereof, and he shall be liable
to ejection from the Society; upon which the Council shall proceed as
they iaay_see cause.
FREDK. CURREY,
Secretary.
NOTICE.
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public, and
2s. 3d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete, 24s.
to the public, and 18s. to Fellows.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the Ist to the 20th at £1 per
volume, from the 21st to the 25th at £2 per volume; and
single volumes, or parts, to complete sets, may be obtained at the
original prices. The price of the Index to Vols. 1-25 is 8s. to the
public, and 6s. to Fellows; of the Index to Vols. 26-30, 4s. to the
public, and 3s. to Fellows.
Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I.—-VII.
Zoology, and Parts 1—V. Botany, are now ready for delivery.
A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
volumes (from Vol. 26 onwards) have been printed off for sepa-
rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
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tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council. ;
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
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lished after they shall: have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
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May 20. Price 8s.
THE JOURNAL
THE LINNEAN SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. ry Si o. 79.
i CA" eA
WAM SS),
AOS
ay ¢
CONTENTS. Wa, 207
EP POSPage,
bl
. Observations on the Habits of Ants, Bees, and Wass
Part VI. Ants. By Sir Jonn Lusnock, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S., F.L.8., D.C.L., LLB. D. , Vice- Slheavaalll ae of the
Uni versity of lennon yl na LR SIC ae RE UT 607
if. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By
R. Bowpinr Saares, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &.—Part V. On
recent Collections from the Neighbourhood of Port
Moresby Sei: NewrGiinea (2 A ee 626
JIj. On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxy-
rhyneha, with a Synopsis of the Families, Subfamilies,
and Genera. By Epwarp J. Miurs, F.L. S. ,.Z.S. As.
sistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum.
(Plates OMT dam we RTS yy ae Oe ee se scan ok 634
IV. Descriptions of new Species of Aculeate Hymenoptera
collected by the Rev. Thomas Blackburn in the Sand-
wich Islands. By FrepEericx Surry, F.Z.S8. (Com-
municated by ArtHuR G. Burier, F.L.S.)........ 674
Y. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. By
R. Bownrter Suarrs, F.LS., F.Z.S. &¢.—Part VI.
On Collections made by the ‘Rev. W. G. Lawes in
South-eastern New Guinea. sic nese a Oa. 685
LONDON: :
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1879.
LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Elected May 24, 1878.
PRESIDENT.
Professor George J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.G.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., #.G.S.
Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
SECRETARIES.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.58.
| Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S.
TREASURER.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
COUNCIL.
Prof. G. J. Allman, LL.D., F.R.S.
Jobn Ball, M.A., F.R.S.
Thomas Boycott, M.D.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.G.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S.
F. DuCane Godman, F.G.8., F.Z.8.
Lieut.-Col. J. A. Grant, C.B., F.R.S.
Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D.,
E.R.S.
Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.G.S.
Robert Hudson, F.R.S., .G.S.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.
John Millar, F.G.S.
Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S.
Richard C. A. Prior, M.D.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
James Murie, M.D., LL.D.
LIBRARIAN.
Richard Kippist, A.L.S.
ASSISTANT IN THE LIBRARY.
James West.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.
This takes place on Savurpay next, 24th May, at 3 P.m., when
the President will deliver his Annual Address, the Council and
Officers be elected, and the Secretary and Treasurer read their
reports, &c.
Fellows are respectiully invited to attend.
The usual Meetings for Scientific business on Thursdays, at
8 P.M.; are
June 5.
June 19.
The current Session closes on the latter date.
NOTICE.
From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical portions of the
Journal have been published separately, and each consists of Hight
numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and Vol. XVII. Botany, the
price of each separate number will be 3s. to the public, and
2s. 3d. to Fellows; and that of each volume, when complete, 24s.
to the public, and i8s. to Fellows.
The First Series of the Transactions is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
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for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
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Of the 2nd Series of the Transactions, Vol. I. Parts I.—VII.
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A few copies of the several papers contained in the later
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rate sale; and most of them may still be had.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
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ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and
an annual Contribution of £3, which latter may be compounded
for at any time by one payment of £45 in lieu of all future con-
tributions. :
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council.
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr.
Kippist, Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to,
or be desirous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis
to a Fellow whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can
any be delivered unless applied for within five years from the time
of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily,
between the hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 P.M.
With certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books.
The Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is
open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 Pp.M., except on Saturdays, when
till 4 p.m. only.
Memoranda concerning Communications and Manuscripts.
The Council desire it to be understood that authors are alone
responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective
papers.
It is to be noted that the sequence of the papers as printed in
the Society’s Journals do not in all cases absolutely follow date
of reading. Some communications of necessity may require re-
consideration of Council ; and others depend somewhat on exigen-
cies and convenience in printing, illustrations &c., which on
occasion may delay or expedite their publication. As far as pos-
sible, however, precedence is given to date of reading of papers,
especially when not of too lengthy a character.
(Transactions ZooLoey).
2nd Ser. Vol. I, Part 8, containing the following papers :— (1)
The Butterflies of Malacca (Plates LX VIII., LXIX.), by Arthur
G. Butler, .L.8.; (2) On certain Organs of the Cidaride
(Plate LXX.), by Charles Stewart, F.L.S.; (8) On Hypsi-
prymnodon, Ramsay, a Genus indicative of a distinct Family (Pleo-
podide) in the Diprotodont section of the Marsupialia (Plates
LXXT., LXXII.), by Prof. Owen, C.B., F.R.S.; and (4) De-
scriptions of some minute Hymenopterous Insects (Plate
LXXIIT.), by J. O. Westwood, F.L.S.; with Index and Con-
tents, concluding the Volume, is now being printed off, and will
be in the Binder’s hands early, so as, if possible, to be delivered
to the Fellows on application on the Anniversary.
2nd Ser. Vol. II. Part 1, containing a Monograph—On the Genus
Actinometra, Mill., with a Morphological account of'a new Species,
A. polymorpha, from the Philippine Islands, by P. H. Carpenter,
M.A. (Plates I—VIII.), is also well forward in Press, and, it is
expected, will be ready for delivery about the end of June.
lt is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. Manuscript ought to be
clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, and
lengthened corrections, additional paragraphs, or other notes of
interpolation either pasted on fly-slips close to their proper places,
or written on separate pages, a, b, &c. being added to the consecu-
tive running number of pages. All drawings for illustration
should be accompanied by full descriptions.
MS. &c. may be addressed to the President, the Secretaries, or Assistant-
Secretary, at the Society’s Apartments, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London.
SEPTEMBER 2. Price 3s.
THE JOURNAL
THE LINNHAN SOCIETY.
Vou. XIV. ZOOLOGY. tl eee
CONTENTS. N se eS
“¢ agi
I. On the Occurrence of Morrhua macrocep wt ‘Atos
fouth of the Thames. By Francis Day, Pub-S.—
Cet EY rs DU Yas) EAN INN Le OO 689
JI. Moznuusca oF THE ‘ CHALLENGER’ EXPEDITION.
IV. Trocurp continued, viz. the Genera Basilissa
and Trochus, and the TURBINIDA, viz. the Genus
Turbo. By the Rev. BR. Booe W arson, BAGS,
AB) se SW OGON Wn et ue Cau aA MaMa I oR ONah ay lib ia. Uy 692
III. On the Structure and Development of the Skull in
the Urodelous Amphibia. By W. K. Parker,
RES HS ele. (CADSinach ya Matar iau ha: 717
TV. Ona Remarkably Branched Sylis, nedeed by H.M.S.
‘Challenger.’ By W. C. M‘Inrosu, UL.D., F.
EIS) A ei UNV CII ee a) ES aaNet 720
V. On Recent Species of Heteropora. By Groner Busx,
i ase olnSi 4 (Blatep ev Me eGn e ae can: aes, 724:
VI. An Analysis of the Species of Caddis-flies (Phryg yganed)
described by Linneus in his ‘Fauna Suecica.’ By
Pastor H. D. J. Wattencren. (Communicated
(with Notes) by R. M‘Lacuuan, F.R.S., F.L.S.)... 726
Vil. New Species of Nudibranchs from the Eastern Seas.
By Curnprerr Conminewoop, M.A., M.B., F.L.S.
(Arb Strate nae ese ce De ptlnuatek ean nus cal anal ti 137
VIII. On the Anatomy of Ants. By Sir Jonn Luszoox,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.8., D.C.L., LL.D. , Vice-
Chancellor of the University of London. (Abstract. ) 738
Index, Titlepage, and Contents, &e. to Vol. XIV.
LONDON:
SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S APARTMENTS, BURLINGTON HOUSE;
AND BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER,
AND
WILLIAMS AND NORGATE.
1879.
LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Hlected May 24, 1879.
PRESIDENT.
Professor George J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
John Ball, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I1.A. Arthur Grote, F.G.S., R.A.S.
William Carruthers, F.R.S8., F.G.S. "| J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
SECRETARIES.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.8. | Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.8.
TREASURER.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
COUNCIL.
Prof. G. J. Allman, LL.D., F.R.S. F. DuCane Godman, F.G.S., F.Z.S8.
John Ball, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. Arthur Grote, F.G.S., R.A.S.
Thomas Boycott, M.D. Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D.,
William Carruthers, F.R.S8., F'.G.S8. E.R.S.
Frank Crisp, B.A., LL.B. Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.G-S.
Rey. James M. Crombie, M.A., F.G.S. | J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Hsq., LL.D., F.B.S.
Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. Robert MacLachlan, F.R.8.
William Sweetland Dallas. Prof. St. George J. Mivart, F.R.S.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY. LIBRARIAN.
James Murie, M.D., LL.D. | Richard Kippist, A.L.S.
ASSISTANT IN THE LIBRARY.
James West.
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These will be closed for cleaning, and revision of the books, from
Monday, 11th August, till Saturday, 6th September, inclusive.
Session 1879-80.
Murrines (Thursday evenings) as undermentioned.
Chair taken at 8 P.M.
1879. November 6. 1880. February 5. 1880. April 15.
0 9
3 , May 6.
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re 18. 3 18. poten 7 (s
1880. January 15. April dL.
The Anniversary Meeting takes place Monday, May 24,
at 3 P.M.
Memoranda concerning Communications, Manuscripts,
and Specimens for Exhibition.
The Council desire it to be understood that authors are alone
responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective
papers.
It is to be noted that the sequence of the papers as printed in
the Society’s Journals do not in all cases absolutely follow date
of reading. Some communications of necessity may require re-
consideration of Council ; and others depend somewhat on exigen-
cies and convenience in printing, illustrations &c., which on
occasion may delay or expedite their publication. As far as pos-
sible, however, precedence is given to date of reading of papers,
especially when not of too lengthy a character.
It is requested that all communications forwarded to the Society
to be read before the Scientific Meetings be written out complete,
paged, and with proper references, fit for publication; otherwise
there is possibility of their rejection. Manuscript ought to be
clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, and
lengthened corrections, additional paragraphs, or other notes of
interpolation either pasted on fly-slips close to their proper places,
or written on separate pages, a, 6, &c. being added to the consecu-
tive running number of pages. All drawings for illustration
should be accompanied by full descriptions.
In cases of lengthened communications or others of a purely
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reading of his paper, as in the instance of Fellows resident abroad,
the business of the meeting and interest of the writer will be
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London.
f
#
hy - Mempersure ano Privinnans.
Any Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed on a
written Certificate, to be signed by three or more Fellows, from
their personal acquaintance with him, or knowledge of his charac-
ter or writings.
Fellows, on their election, pay an Admission Fee of £6, and an
annual Contribution of £3, which latter may be compounded for at
any time by one payment of £45 in lieu ofall future contributions.
Fellows residing abroad, and not compounding, are required to
provide such security for the payment of their annual Contribu-
tions as shall be satisfactory to the Council. ;
The Fellows are entitled to receive, gratis, all Volumes, or Parts
of Volumes, of the Transactions and Journal, that may be pub-
lished after they shall have paid the Admission Fee; and’ they
may be supplied with any of the Society’s publications at a reduc-
tion of 25 per cent. under the common selling prices. They are
requested to apply at the Apartments of the Society, to Mr. Kippist
Librarian, for such volumes as they may be entitled to, or-be desi-
rous to purchase ; but no volume can be delivered gratis to a Fellow
whose yearly Contributions are in arrear, nor can any be delivered
unless applied for within five years from the time of publication.
The Library is open to the Fellows and their friends daily, be-
tweenthe hours of 10 and 4, and on Meeting-days at 7 p.m. With
certain restrictions, Fellows are allowed to borrow Books. The
Council-room, which is also used as a Reading-room, is open daily
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PUBLICATIONS.
Journals—From Vol. IX. the Zoological and Botanical por-
tions of the Journal have been published separately, and each
consists of Hight numbers. From Vol. XIV. Zoology, and
Vol. XVII. Botany, the price of each separate number will be
3s. to the public, and 2s. 3d. to Fellows; and that of each volume,
when complete, 24s. to the public, and 18s. to Fellows.
Transactions.—The First Series of the Transactions, contain-
ing Botanical and Zoological contributions, is now completed in
30 Vols. Sets of the first twenty volumes will be supplied
to the Fellows at the reduced price of £20; or of the first
twenty-five volumes, with the General Index to the whole,
for £30. Any Fellow purchasing, at one time, ten or more
volumes, may obtain those from the 1st to the 20th at £1 per
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Vol. I. Zoology (2nd Ser.), containing eight Parts, and illus-
trated by seventy-three plain and coloured Plates is now pub-
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fore now be had by Fellows at the Society’s rooms.
Vol. I. Botany (2nd Ser.): of tis six Parts have already appeared,
and material for the conclusion of the volume is now in hand;
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To facilitate scientific workers in obtaining any single paper published in the
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tained, a few copies of each memoir have been printed off separately for sale.
Most of these (from Vol. 26 onwards) can still be had at the Society's Rooms.
ly
‘Nl
by
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SENN
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