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CO 1, '■ • V/A CQ Q __ N^xixy>^ Q -<55^r- O iHxiiNS S3 1 ava a n li b rar i es^smithsonian”'institution^ NoixnxixsNi’^NvmosHxiiAis 2 r- Z r- 2: IZ ^ ^ zCastitTTx O ZogT/?x O ZC^^’^^coX \v O m xc^osv^^ m x4^os>3>^ r; m — CO _ CO CO _ IONIAN INSTITUTION NOIXHXIXSNI NVINOSHXIINS S3iavaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN — CO z CO . z: z a n~LI B RAR I ES^^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNIMVIWOSHillAIS^Sa I aVH 3 H^LI 5 S < ..v4S',. 2 < ^ - — .n ^ W 2 (/) •|ON‘^NOIiniliSNI NIVINOSHilWS S3iavyan_LlBRAR I ES SMITHSONIAN _INSTITUTION^NC 5 UJ “ 5 m 5 ^ O “ a n'^L I B RAR 1 ES^SMITHSONIANj^lNSTITUTION^NOUniUSNI^NVINOSHillMS^Sa I BVy a IT^UI UJ m vS§y ^ \ivAsv^ix rr| riON^^NOliniliSNrNVINOSHlIWS S3 I y va 9 n ^1-1 B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^NC CO i ? > I -" ' ^ I ^ . a n^LI BRAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIiniliSNI_NVINOSHilWS^S3 I BVa a n_L ^ (n ^ 2! \ ,,. ^ Z2 O - — 2 ■ *' _j 2 riON^NoiiniiiSNi^NviNOSHiiiNS^ S3 1 ava a n^^Li b rar i es^smithsonian institution ^n O >C7zvZr^ ~ ■■ O o . ,-n ^ m D.c^ ^ a n^LI B R AR I E S^SMITHSONIAN “institution ^^NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHilWS^Sa I BVa 9 II^L „ ^ > 'W" ^ § TI0N'^N0UniliSNI^NVm0SHilWs"s3 lavaan^LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION UJ q: m g S 5 ffl 5 g a n^'ui B RARI ES^SMITHSONIAN“'lNSTlTUTION^NOIiniliSNlgNVINOSHimS^S3 I ava 8 IT^l TION'^NOliniliSMI NVIN0SHillNS^S3 I ava a IT LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^^ i I V E I V P ) ■ Journal of Mammalogy Published Quaeterly BY THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MAMMALOGISTS Volume 2 1921 VOLUME 2 Actual dates of publication Number 1 (February). Number 2 (May) Number 3 (August) . . . Number 4 (November) . . . February 10, 1921 May 2, 1921 August 19, 1921 . .November 29, 1921 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2 Number 1 PAGE Resemblances and Contrasts between Zoologic and Pal^eontologic Research in Mammalogy. Desirability of Uniform Standards and Systems in Classification, in Description, in Measurement, in Reasoning. Henry Fairfield Oshorn A Note on the Habits of the Timber Wolf Charles Eugene Johnson The Ano Nuevo Steller Sea Lion Rookery Barton Warren Evermann Notes on the Mammals of Interior Alaska Lee Raymond Dice The Status of Merriam’s Shrew (Sorex merriami)... . Hartley H. T. Jackson John Macoun, 1832-1920 R. M. Anderson General Notes Recent Literature Correspondence Editorial Comment 1 11 16 20 29 32 35 41 49 50 Number 2 Banding Bats A. A. Allen The Present Status of the European Bison or Wisent Theodor G. Ahrens Capturing Small Mammals for Study. Vernon Bailey The Mammals of Itasca County, Minnesota Alvin R. Cahn Desert and Lava-dwelling Mice, and the Problem of Protective Coloration in Mammals Francis B. Sumner The “Hand-stand” Habit of the Spotted Skunk. . . .Charles Eugene Johnson On the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee C. R. Aschemeier The Red Squirrel of the Sitkan District, Alaska H. S. Swarth Revised List of the Species in the Genus Dipodomys Joseph Grinnell Description of a new species of Phenacomys from Oregon.. A. Brazier Howell Notes on the Snowshoe Rabbit ./. Dewey Soper General Notes Recent Literature The Northern California Section of the American Society of Mammalogists.. Number 3 Unit Character Variation in Rodents L. C. Dunn A Hybrid Deer of the F2 Generation Hartley H. T. Jackson Fossil Cetaceans from the Florida Phosphate Beds Glover M. Allen Two Unrecognized Shrews from California Hartley H. T. Jackson The Coat Color of Moles Loye Miller General Notes. Recent Literature 53 58 63 68 75 87 90 92 94 98 101 109 118 123 125 140 144 161 163 167 176 V VI CONITENTS Correspondence The Third Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists Number 4 On the Habits of Trichosurus vulpecula Frederic Wood Jones The Occurrence of a Sternal Gland in Orang-utan Adolph H. Schultz Some Observations on Beaver Culture with Reference to the National Forests Smith Riley A Tree-climbing Woodchuck Harold St. John On Three New Mammals from Japan Nagamichi Kuroda A New Pinniped from the Upper Pliocene of California. .Remington Kellogg A Review of Some Recent Work on the Mammalian Reproductive Cycle George W. Corner Two New Rodents from Oregon and Nevada E. A. Goldman General Notes Recent Literature Index to Volume 2 182 184 187 194 197 207 208 212 227 232 234 240 249 LIST OF PLATES IN VOLUME 2 1 1 FACING PAGE 2. >Steller sea lions 18 3.1 4 1 >Bandmg bats 56 o.J 6. Peromyscus crinitus stephensi on block of dark lava 86 7. Skulls of Phenacomys 100 8. Skulls of Odocoileus 142 9. ' >FossiI cetaceans from Florida. IGO 12. 13. Trichosurus vulpecula 192 14. Sternal gland of orang-utan 196 15. New England woodchuck 207 vii Vol. 2 FEBRUARY, 1921 No. 1 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Published Quarterly by the American Society of Mammalogists CONTENTS Resemblances and Contrasts between Zoologic and Palseontologic Research in Mammalogy. Desirability of Uniform Standards and Systems in Classification, in Description, in Measurement, in Reasoning Henry Fairfield Oshorn 1 A Note on the Habits of the Timber Wolf Charles Eugene Johnson 11 The Ano Nuevo Steller Sea Lion Rookery Barton Warren Evermann 16 Notes on the Mammals of Interior Alaska .Lee Raymond Dice 20 The Status of Merriam’s Shrew (Sorex merriami) Hartley H. T. Jackson 29 John Macoun, 1832-1920 R.M. Anderson 32 General Notes 35 Notes on the Habits of Blarina brevicauda, A. B. Klugh; Red Bat at Sea, A. K. Haagner; The Black Bear as a Destroyer of Game, A. B. Howell; The Tree-climbing Wolverine, O. B. Orinnell; Curious Palatal Obstruction in Mustela longicauda, J. D. Soper; Erroneous Ideas Concerning Skunks, L. B. Dice; Dates of Shedding of Antlers, C. E. Brown; Notes on Nomenclature of South American Mammals, W. H, Osgood; Notes on the Mammals of the Lower Yukon Region, A. H. Twitchell. Recent Literature 41 Correspondence 49 Editorial Comment 50 PUBLISHED AT MOUNT ROYAL AND GUILFORD AVENUES BALTIMORE, MARYLAND WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, U. S. A. Entered as second-class matter, November 22, 1919, at the Postoffice, Baltimore, Md., under the Act of March 3, 1879. The American Society of Mammalogists Founded April 3, 1919 Incorporated April 29, 1920 C. Hart Merriam, President E. W. Nelson; Wilfred H. Osgood, Vice-Presidents H. H. Lane, Recording Secretary Hartley H. T. Jackson, Corresponding Secretary J. W. Gidley Treasurer N. Hollister, Editor Additional Directors 1919-1921 Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. Glover M. Allen WiTMER Stone Joseph Grinnell John C. Merriam 1920-1922 T. S. Palmer Rudolph M. Anderson M. W. Lyon, Jr. W. D. Matthew Edward A. Preble Standing Committees Publications: N. Hollister, Chairman. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., Edward A. Preble, Hartley H. T. Jackson, J. W. Gidley. Life Histories of Mammals: Chas. C. Adams, Chairman. Rudolph M. Anderson, Vernon Bailey, Harold C. Bryant, Lee R. Dice, Hartley H. T. Jackson, T. S. Palmer, Ernest Thompson Seton^ Walter P. Taylor, Herbert Lang. Study of Game Mammals: Charles Sheldon, Chairman. George Bird Grinnell. Anatomy and Phytogeny: W. K. Gregory, Chairman. John C. Merriam, H. H. Donaldson, Alexander Wetmore, Hermann von W. Schulte. Bibliography: T. S. Palmer, Chairman. Wilfred H. Osgood, Hartley H. T. Jackson. Conservation: Wilfred H. Osgood, Chairman. E. W. Nelson, Jonathan Dwight. The Journal of Mammalogy Subscription rates, $3.50 per year; single numbers $1.00 each. Sent free to all mem- bers of the American Society of Mammalogists not in arrears for dues. Manuscripts for publication, books and papers for notice and review, etc., should be sent to the Editor, N. Hollister, National Zoological Park, Washington, D. O. Subscriptions, changes of addresses, requests for missing numbers, applications for adver- tising rates, etc., should be sent to the Corresponding Secretary, Dr. Hartley H. T. Jackson, Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. Journal of Mammalogy Published Quarterly by the American Society of Mammalogists VoL. 2 • FEBRUARY, 1921 No. 1 RESEMBLANCES AND CONTRASTS BETWEEN ZOOLOGIC AND PAL^ONTOLOGIC RESEARCH IN MAMMALOGY. DESIRABILITY OF UNIFORM STANDARDS AND SYSTEMS IN CLASSIFICATION, IN DESCRIPTION, IN MEASURE- MENT, IN REASONING! By Henry Fairfield Osborn In submitting this paper the author presented a model of the skull of Eotitanops gregoryi, the diminutive Eocene ancestor of all the titan- otheres; a fossil skull of Palwosyops major, an extremely short-headed titanothere; a fossil skull of DoUchorkinus hyognathus, an extremely long-headed titanothere; also, for comparison, recent skulls of a broad- headed bulldog and of a long-headed greyhound. He further sub- mitted recent papers by several leading mammalogists, namely, Messrs. Allen,^ Merriam,^ Osgood,^ and his own memoirs on the “Systematic Revision of the Equidae”^ and the “Craniometry of the Equidae,”® as examples of resemblances and contrasts in palaeontologic and zoologic methods. 1 Paper presented by the author, under this title, at the meeting of the Society, May 3, 1920, in the American Museum of ISTatural History. ^ Allen, J. A. Ontogenetic and Other Variations in Muskoxen, with a Sys- tematic Review of the Muskox Group, Recent and Extinct. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. S. vol. I, part IV, March, 1913. 3 Merriam, C. Hart. Review of the Grizzly and Big Brown Bears of North America. North American Fauna, no. 41, February 9, 1918. ^ Osgood, Wilfred H. Revision of the Mice of the American Genus Peromys- cus. North American Fauna, no. 28, April 17, 1909. ® Osborn, H. F. Equidse of the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene of North America, Iconographic Type Revision. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. S. vol. II, part 1, May, 1918. ® Osborn, H. F. Craniometry of the Equidse. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. S. vol. I, part 3, June, 1912. 1 JOURNAIi OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2, NO. 1 2 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Mammalogy began as the science of mammalian life, of the structure of mammals as well as of their habits, of their classification based on existing life, of the changes shown in geographic distribution (Buff on). The founders of this science, Linnaeus and Buffon, naturally paid greater attention to external characters, to obvious osteological and dental characters, than to some of the internal characters. Buffon was impressed with the geographic variation of mammals. The older classification up to the time of Owen was based partly upon habits of feeding (e.g., Insectivora, Carnivora), and partly on external characters (e.g., Pachydermata) . With Cuvier,^ deBlainville,^ and Owen® began the more intensive study of the osteology and odontography of the mammals, together with the foundations of mammahan palaeontology as developed in the master hands of Cuvier and of Owen. Flower paid closer attention to the osteology of the mammals and did little to develop the odontography. In the time of Darwin the subject divided into (a) the zoology and (b) the palaeontology of the mammals. This division has gradually led to different principles and methods of research based on the differ- ent nature of the materials, such as the absence of all soft parts, and the fragmentary nature of the hard parts in fossil mammals. An intensified and philosophic study of the hard parts became essential to progress. The more recent tendency among palaeontologists is to bring these two branches “ together again (Lydekker, Scott, Wortman, Osborn, Matthew, Gregory, Gidley, Miller, and others). The first in this country to study the zoology of mammals on Darwinian principles, i.e., geographic and ontogenetic variation in color and form, was Allen (1876).^® The older school of vertebrate palaeontologists of this coun- try, Leidy, Cope, and Marsh, worked almost exclusively on the oste- ology of the extinct mammals, but in his later years Cope developed the odontography by founding the tritubercular theory. He also ^ Cuvier, Georges L. C. F. D. Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles de Quad- ruples. Tomes I-IV, 1812. 8 deBlainville, H. M. Ducrotay. Osteographie des Mammiferes. 1839-1864. ^ Owen, Richard. Description of Teeth and Portions of Jaws of Two Extinct Quadrupeds (Hyopotamus vectianus and H. bovinus) .... with an attempt to develop Cuvier’s idea of the classification of Pachyderms by the number of their toes. Quarterly Journal of Geol. Soc. of London, vol. IV, 1848, pp. 103- 141, pis. VII, VIII. Allen, J. A. The American Bison, Living and Extinct. Mem. Mus. Com. Zool., Harv. Univ., vol. IV, no. 10, 1876. OSBORN — ZOOLOGIC AND PAL^ONTOLOGIC RESEARCH 3 Fig. 1. Skull Proportions Among Titanotheres A, Brachycephaly, short-headed, Palceosyops major. B, Mesaticephaly, medium-headed, Manteoceras manteoceras. C, Dolichocephaly,] long-headed, DoUchorhinus hyognathus. Fig. 2. Skull Proportions Among Canids A, Primitive, subdolichocephalic {Daphcenus hartshornianus) . B, Brachy- cephalic (bulldog). C, Dolichocephalic (Russian wolf-hound). 4 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY developed the mechanical interpretation of the bones and of the teeth in relation to function but without close regard to musculature. Marsh and Cope began to observe the phylogeny of the mammals. Marsh came near the truth in the phylogeny of the horse. Independently in Europe Gaudry^^ made great contributions to the phylogeny of the mammals. Kowalevsky (1872)^^ was the first to study the details of tooth and foot structure in relation to the Darwinian principles of adaptation, survival, and extinction. Of the leading mammalogists of this country Allen followed his earlier observations on the pelage and other external characters by the intensive study of the variations of the skeleton, of the skull, and of the dentition in several groups of mammals, especially the bison and the muskoxen. In the former he took account of extinct forms. The present honored president of this Society, Merriam, has led the way in studying the skull intensively with its modifications in relation to the function and distribution of the muscles, in the rodents especially. Many of the colleagues and junior workers of these two leaders have won distinguished success in the study of the geographic variations of the skull and skeleton, especially Miller, Osgood, Grinnell, and Holhster. One of the most marked evidences of the appreciation of this school of American research is the invitation to Miller by the Trustees of the British Museum to write the ‘‘Mammals of Western Europe,”^^ a work now recognized in Europe as a classic. The younger school of mammalian palaeontologists in this country, mostly of the school of Osborn and Scott, have made a distinct advance upon the work of Leidy, Cope, Marsh, Gaudry, and Kowalevsky in the following five directions: I. Intensive study of the teeth, leading to the use of a new odontog- raphy of the Mammalia, based primarily on the tritubercular theory of Cope. This odontography in the hands of Osborn, Scott, Matthew, Gregory, and other colleagues has become the standard odontography of the Mammalia. It was founded upon the original studies of Osborn suggested by the original tritubercular theory of Cope; the homologies have been modified by studies of Gidley and Gregory; the terminology stands. Gaudry, Albert. Les Enchainements du Monde Animal dans les Temps Geologiques Fossiles Primaires (1883) and Secondaires (1890). 12 Kowalevsky, W. Sur L’Anchitherium Aurelianense Guv. et sur L’Histoire Paleontologique des Chevaux. Mem. LAcademie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, VII® Serie, tome XX, no. 5 et dernier. 13 Miller, Gerrit S. Mammals of Western Europe, 1912. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. OSBORN — ZOOLOGIC AND PALiEONTOLOGIC RESEARCH 5 II. Intensive study of the evolution of the living and fossil ungulate skull and skeleton and of the teeth by the means of indices (measure- ments of a single bone or tooth) and of ratios (comparative measure- ments of two bones or of teeth and bones). This has been especially the work of Osborn and of Gregory on the titanotheres and of Osborn on the horses. In the limbs, Cope (1889)^^ adumbrated this idea. In 1900 Osborn^® worked out the angulation, which was developed by Gaudry (1906).^® R. C. Osburn (1906) a student of Osborn, applied the idea in aquatic adaptation. Matthew (1909)^^ took up the limb- ratios of Carnivora in relation to weight and speed. III. Phylogenetic intergradations of skeletal and tooth form as observed in the finely intergrading ascending and descending geologic stages of evolution. This has been the work of Osborn, Scott, Matthew, Granger, and Gidley in this country, and of Deperet in France. IV. Application of the principles of mechanics to the muscles and evolution of the proportions of the limbs. This has been chiefly the work of Osborn and of Gregory. Gregory, especially, has developed the mathematical aspect of this subject -and the means of restoring the musculature of extinct mammals.^® This method has been partly anticipated by the physical anthro- pologists, also by the leading students of animal motion. This extended investigation by Osborn and Gregory in perissodactyls, compared with amblypods and proboscideans, opens up principles which apply equally to all quadrupeds and bipeds, reptilian, avian, mammalian. V. Substitution of a vertical phylogenetic or phyletic classification for the horizontal geographic classification of Linnaeus, Flower, and Cope. Osborn, especially, has worked out this system of classification Cope, E. D. The Mechanical Causes of the Development of the Hard Parts of the Mammalia. Journ. of Morphology, vol. Ill, pp. 137-290, 1889. 15 Osborn, H. F. The Angulation of the Limbs of Proboscidea, Dinocerata, and Other Quadrupeds, in Adaptation to Weight. Amer. Nat., vol. XXXIV, pp. 89-94, 1900. 15 Gaudry, Albert. Fossiles de Patagonie. Les Attitudes de quelques Ani- maux. Ann. de Paleontologie, tome I, pp. 1-42, 1906. 1^ Osburn, R. C. Adaptive Modifications of the Limb Skeleton in Aquatic Reptiles and Mammals. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. XVI, no. 9, part III, pp. 447-482, March 1, 1906. 15 Matthew, W. D. The Carnivora and Insectivora of the Bridger Basin, Mid- dle Eocene. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. IX, part VI, 1909. 15 Gregory, W. K. Notes on the Principles of Quadrupedal Locomotion and of the Mechanism of the Limbs in Hoofed Animals. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. XXII, pp. 267-294, 1912. 6 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY in the rhinoceroses and horses, as well as in other perissodactyi families and in the proboscideans. This mode of classification has been more or less widely accepted. The most debatable point is the adoption of the special family term ending in -ince for the phylum. For example, the family of rhinoceroses is divided by Osborn into six phyla,^® each of which is assigned a subfamily name. Similarly Osborn divides the Proboscidea into six phyla,^^ each of which takes a subfamily name. Some of these subfamilies or phyla are shown to be extremely ancient, to go back milfions of years, e.g., the long-jawed phyla of the Pro- boscidea, which goes back to the Lower Ofigocene. In the case of the titanotheres, extending over more than a third of the Tertiary period, the family is subdivided into twelve subfamilies or phyla, which are separated by distinct evolutionary tendencies leading to different extremes of structure. In mammalian palaeontology Merriam, Lull, Loomis, and Stock have been advancing both the phyletic and zoogeographic methods of research. In the meantime equally intensive observations have been made by Osgood, Grinnell, Nelson, G. M. Allen, Bailey, Howell, and other mammalogists on two very important principles of mammalogy, namely: 1. Intensive , study of the relation of geographic distribution and vertical range on proportional characters of the skull and skeleton, and on the color characters of the pelage. 2. The finking up of distinct geographic forms through geographic connecting intergrades. The special paper to which I allude is the paper by Osgood on Peromyscus. The latest phase of zoologic mammalogy in this country is seen in the work of Sumner^^ in attempting to analyze the variations of Pero- myscus from the standpoint of the mutation theory of DeVries, of 20 Osborn, H. F. Phylogeny of the Rhinoceroses of Europe. Rhinoceros Contributions no. 5. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. XIII, art XIX, pp. 229-267, Dec. 11, 1900. 21 Osborn, H. F. A Long-Jawed Mastodon Skeleton from South Dakota and Phylogeny of the Proboscidea. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 133-137, Mar., 1918. 22 Sumner, F. B. The Role of Isolation in the Formation of a Narrowly Localized Race of Deer- Mice. Amer. Nat., Vol. LI, pp. 173-185, March, 1917. Genetic Studies of Several Geographic Races of California Deer-Mice. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIX, pp. 688-701, Nov., 1915. Continuous and Discontinuous Variations and Their Inheritance in Pero- OSBORN — ZOOLOGIC AND PALiEONTOLOGIC RESEARCH 7 Mendelism, and of modern genetics, as well as from the older standpoint of geographic and climatic variation. One of the newer aspects of field and museum work is the careful notation and emphasis on habit, habitat, and environmental relations, as developed in the Congo collections of the American Museum of Natural History and the publications thereon by Lang and Chapin. SUMMARY In the above very imperfect review, which does not pretend to men- tion all the notable workers nor all the various fields of work, it is seen that there has been a gradual and entirely natural divergence between zoologic and palceozoologic workers in mam^malogy. It is- obviously desirable to bring these workers together and to select the most consistent and philosophic methods from each. Such a union is now in progress in the joint researches of Gidley (a palaeontologist) and Miller (a zoologist) on the phylogeny, evolution, and classification of the Rodentia. All these observers and natural philosophers are treating exactly the same animal — the mammal — ^from different points of view. Yet in reading some of their writings and comparing them with my own, I am reminded of the old East Indian fable of the blind men and the ele- phant. Each of the blind men formed an entirely different opinion of the character of the elephant from the particular part of the animaFs anatomy on which his hand rested, namely, trunk, tusk, the limb, the chest, etc. My desire in the present communication is to point out that these different modes and methods of research which have sprung up inde- pendently among zoologists and palaeontologists should be harmonized, It is important that zoologists and palaeontologists should read each other’s papers, speak the same language, and use the same terminology. It is important that they should use similar methods of measurement, similar indices and ratios, similar terms in the nomenclature of tho teeth and of the skeleton. I am confident that such harmonic meth- ods will be developed, especially among the younger members of this Society, such as Anthony and Gamp, who have been trained both in the school of zoology and of palaeontology. myscus. Amer. Nat., Vol. LII, pp. 177-208; 290-301; 439-454, April-Sept., 1918. Autonomy of the Tail in Rodents. Biological Bulletin, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 1-6, Jan., 1918. Several Color “Mutations” in Mice of the Genus Peromyscus. Genetics, voh. 2, pp. 291-300, May, 1917. 8 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY PRINCIPLES AND NOMENCLATURE OF PROPORTION CHARACTERS I have recently pointed out that in mammals the larger percen- tage of the characters employed in specific and subspecific description are proportion characters and color intensity characters. The remaining smaller percentage are new characters or presence and absence characters (see Miller’s “Mammals of Western Europe”)- As a beginning, we mammalogists might adopt one system of obser- vation and description in the matter of the proportions of the skeleton and of the skull and unify the different modes of description which prevail at present as, for example, in Miller’s “Mammals of Western Europe,” in Merriam’s recent studies of the bears of North America,^^ in researches on limbs and skulls of ungulates of Osborn, and in the craniology introduced by Osborn of the horse and of the titanotheres. In respect to limb proportion also, recent discoveries by Osborn and Gregory among the ungulates show that the very precise proportions expressed by indices and ratios enable us to divide the ungulates into ambulatory, submediportal, mediportal, and graviportal types, and into cursorial and subcursorial types. These are convergent or homo- iplastic types quite irrespective of ancestry. For example, a horse and an antelope, capable of carrying the same body weight at the same speed, exhibit exactly similar indices and ratios in their limbs. These similar proportions are adaptations to speed and weight which evolve quite irrespective of family lines. SIX DIVERSE CAUSES OF VARIATION Another principle of skeletal proportion also requires reconsidera- tion from the standpoint of the newer biological studies enumerated by Osborn in his recent work, “The Origin and Evolution of Life,” in which the close relation of the proportions of various parts of the body to the internal secretions of the endocrine glands is demonstrated. The principal endocrine glands are the interstitial (sex), the thyroid, the thymus, the pituitary, the suprarenal, the pineal; all are now known to influence growth and development. For example, the pro- portion of the pelvis in the horse has a direct relation to the secretion of the interstitial tissues of the sex glands; a stallion pelvis has different proportions from that of a gelding, as well as from that of a mare. 23 Merriam, C. H. Review of ‘the Grizzly and Big Brown Bears of North America. North American Fauna, no. 41. 1918. OSBOEN^ — ZOOLOGIC AND PALiBONTOLOGIC EESEARCH 9 Consequently, differences which have been classed and lumped together in long tables of measurement hitherto as variations of pro- portion may be now analyzed as partly due to one or more of a great number of different causes, namely: (1) Proportions due to differences of habit and modes of locomotion. (2) Proportions due to differences of nutrition, kinds and habits of feeding. (3) Proportions due to normal differences of sex, male and female. (4) Proportions due to internal or endocrine secretions, e.g., of the male and female sex glands. (5) Proportions due to adaptive changes during age and growth correlated with precocity or helplessness in the young, and juvenile, mature, and senescent development of the sex glands. (6) Proportions due to the withdrawal of the internal secretions after the natural close of the activity of the sex glands. (7) Proportions due to compensatory growth. First : it is obvious that older systems of measurements, which lumped all measurements together as ‘‘variations,” irrespective of cause, lacked such analysis of the causes of proportion. Second: it is clear that many of the differences that have been treated as hereditary variations — as material for natural selection — are not variations at all in the true sense of the term, but are really adaptations to seven or more different sets of causes which vary with conditions of life. Third: we have reason to suspect that the mean fluctuating variations of size and proportion may be mere individual and ontogenetic phenomena, nonheritable, and consequently without bearing on racial evolution. Compensatory changes of proportion are often profoundly impor- tant. For example, it has been shown that a dog with the fore limb experimentally removed tends to develop saltatorial proportions in the hind limbs, byway of compensation for the loss of the fore limb, that is, to imitate the springing type of limb, e.g., the hare. It follows that ontogenetic changes in hind limb proportion may be brought about through defects in fore limb proportion. I have reached the opinion that if we could eliminate these seven or more causes of modification and variation, and measure a very large number of similar bones (the pelvis, for example) of animals of (1) the same habits, (2) the same food, (3) the same sex, (4) the same intensity of endocrine secretion, (5) the same age, (6) the same sexual stage, (7) of exactly the same strain or race, there would be a standard length and breadth. I believe that nature tends to standardize every hone in all pure breeds and to eliminate variations in proportions. Otherwise 10 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY we should not observe such uniform powers of rapid locomotion in wild herds of mammals and wild flocks of birds. Consequently a large part of the elaborate tables of variation signify little except that there is an incessant change of 'proportion in every hone of the body from birth to death, some of which is adaptive, some* accidental or fortuitous, some really hereditary and significant. Nor is there any single part of the skeleton which can be taken as a norm or base by which other parts can be measured. This is not inconsistent with the fact that skeletal indices and ratios based on animals of the same sex and same age may constitute excellent subspecific and specific characters, and may also be much more reliable in definition than the present descriptive terms ‘Tonger,” ‘‘shorter,” “broader,” “deeper,” etc. As good a definition of a race, of a subspecies, or of a species, as any other, would be a num- ber of its indices and ratios taken from different parts of the skeleton. It appears that direct measurements are profoundly altered by gigan- tism and dwarfing, but indices and ratios remain the same. Again Allen (1887) has led the way by applying the method of ratios in his discussion of the skeletal characters of Monachus in comparison with three other phocids. In his paper on M. tropicalis^^ he presented com- parative ratios for the skull (pp. 11, 12, with table), skeleton and limb segments (pp. 12-17) with important and suggestive results. CONCLUSION In this paper I have pointed out only a few of the many resemblances and contrasts between zoologic and palseontologic research in mam- malogy. The palaeontologist who does not study living mammals is out of date; the modern palaeontologist is constantly studying living mammals to supplement his limited material in tooth and bone and to check his constructive imagination as regards habits and habitat. The zoologist who does not study fossil mammals fails to perceive some of the most fundamental processes of mammahan evolution. For by a strange paradox, which I have pointed out many times, every char- acter in a living mammal appears to be static or in a state of rest,^^ Allen, J. A. The West Indian Seal {Monachus tropicalis Gray) . Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. II, pp. 1-34, April, 1887. 25 ‘‘Within historical times we have absolutely no evidence of serious evolu- tionary change. A system that would have sufficed for three thousand years in the past will probably do for an equal time in the future. By the time evolu- tionary change introduces serious disturbance in the present scheipe of things it is probable that our whole classification system will have been scrapped for something better or else altered beyond recognition.” — P. A. Taverner: The Test of the Subspecies. Jour. Mamm., vol. I, no. 3, p. 125, May, 1920. JOHNSON — HABITS OF TIMBER WOLF 11 while every character observed in a phylum of extinct mammals is found to be kinetic or in a state of motion. Palseontology reveals many other paradoxes, unsuspected by zoology. For example, unprotected animals which may be breeding very rapidly and varying widely, like the mice, may be evolving very slowly, while highly protected mammals which are breeding slowly, like the ele- phants, may be evolving very rapidly. In these and many other animals, as recently pointed out by Conklin, there is an inverse ratio between the law of selection (survival and elimination) and the rate of adaptive evolution. This shows that in Nature evolution is not has- tened by rapid breeding and selection, but that rapid evolution may be due to other causes. American Museum of Natural History, New York City. A NOTE ON THE HABITS OF THE TIMBER WOLF By Charles Eugene Johnson Opportunities for close-up view of the wild timber wolf in action are, I believe, sufficiently rare to justify submitting the following notes. The summer of 1912 was spent in making some studies and collec- tions of mammals in northern Lake County, Minnesota, in a portion of the Superior National Forest. The evening of September 1, my companion, Harold N. Hanson, and I, traveling by canoe, returned to one of our main camps after a four days’ absence in a more remote locality. As we pulled up at our landing place, which was at the upper end of a rapids and about half a mile from our camp, we observed numerous wolf tracks in the mud along the river bank; these had not been there when we left camp a few days before. But it was now after sundown and too late for further investigation. The next day a strong northwest wind was blowing and at 3 : 30 in the afternoon, taking a couple of large traps and my rifle, I set out to dis- cover if possible the meaning of the many wolf tracks. Upon approach- ing the landing place I moved very cautiously, more as a matter of habit than with any expectation of seeing anything unusual. Just before emerging into the open space by the landing I caught the sound of gentle splashing in the water and, peering through a httle opening in the bushes, I saw a timber wolf in the river, stationary, but rising and falling as if ‘Treading water” and taking savage bites at a large body 12 JOUKNAL OF MAMMALOGY which was afloat but apparently anchored in the stream. For a few moments I stood intently gazing at this unexpected sight before it became clear to me that the animal was feeding upon something. Thereupon, with eyes still fixed upon the wolf I proceeded as cautiously and as speedily as possible to deposit my traps upon the ground, but before I was able to free myself entirely of the encumbrance a shght clank of the metal sounded and, instantly pricking up its ears, the wolf ceased its exertions and started for the shore, swimming towards me, obliquely to my left. This shore for the wolf was not more than about ten feet distant. Hastily but with the utmost confidence I took aim through the swaying leafy branches and fired just as the wolf was about to disappear behind a large boulder at the edge of the water. My next move was to run quickly out upon a drift-log in the only immediately accessible part of the river in order to have the animal in view and to get in another shot if necessary. When I reached the log I saw the wolf standing motionless on the shore, its head and shoulders concealed behind some bushes, facing diagonally away from me. Steadying myself with as much alacrity as the uncertain footing would permit I fired at the exposed body only to see the wolf flinch and dis- appear in the thick woods, to be seen or heard no more. Upon my return after 'an attempt to track the beast I inquired into the failure of my first shot and discovered that the bullet had struck the projecting edge of a rock concealed by the foliage. The wolf when it landed was therefore untouched. Its hesitation on the bank, while it seemed the height of cool nerve and presence of mind, was no doubt due merely to a momentary bewilderment and uncertainty as to the direction in which the danger lay. The noise from the rapids together with the high wind clearly rendered it difficult to tell the direction of the shot as well as of the lesser disturbance caused by myself in rushing out from the bushes and onto the drift-log. The animal was further- more entirely dependent upon the sense of hearing in this instance, for it seemed certain from all appearances that the wolf had not had even a glimpse of my person during the entire time up to the moment when my second shot was fired, and possibly not then. That it swam to my side of the river instead of retreating to the opposite bank was probably also due to its inability to accurately locate the source of the first dis- turbance; but on the other hand this shore was the nearer, the other being fully three times as far away. In looking over the situation later I found that at no time had the wolf been more than about forty feet distant from me and that when the first shot was fired it was JOHNSON — HABITS OF TIMBER WOLF 13 approximately twenty-five feet away. Its size indicated a full-grown animal. The floating object upon which the wolf had been feeding proved to be an adult cow moose, recently dead. It lay in a pool about six or seven feet deep, but a short distance above the swift water of the rapids and was held in place by a long pole lying crosswise in the current. The nearer shore would probably have presented some difficulty in landing for an animal the size of a moose because -of a number of large boulders at the edge of the water, while upstream passage was entirely barred by a mass of drift ; but the opposite bank offered easy hauling- out places down as far as the turbulent water of the rapids. Whether the moose had accidentally drowned or had died suddenly from some natural cause while in the river to feed is a matter of speculation, and the possibility remains that the . cow had been frightened or driven into the river by wolves and had there floundered about until exhausted. In the back, opposite the kidneys, a large deep hole had been eaten into the carcass and it was here the wolf was feeding when surprised. No other part of the moose, so far as could be observed in the difficult situation, bore any signs of attack. On August 14 of the present year another opportunity presented itself for a near view of a timber wolf in its native haunts, this time with more disastrous termination for the wolf. It was in the same general region of the Forest Reserve but further out, namely on the upper courses of the Isabella River, at what is known as Rice Lake. Accompanied by my wife I was spending a few weeks’ vacation in some further observations in that territory, under federal and state permits. At 10:30 in the forenoon on the date mentioned we were on our way, by canoe, for a day’s exploration about the shores of Rice Lake and had stopped to fish for a little while in a favorable spot in the Isabella River, at the entrance into the lake. Below this point the river is flanked on each side by a meadow of grass and low shrubbery extending back at different points from perhaps twenty-five to a hundred or more yards before the timberline proper is reached. While thus quietly engaged we noticed an animal moving along the edge of the river on the east bank, about three hundred yards down stream. A glance through the field glass revealed it as a wolf and it was then moving at a slow trot. We determined to follow it on the chance that an opportunity for a near approach should present itself, for although we were but poorly equipped, our only arm being a little 410-gauge shot-gun, we 14 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY had the day before prepared for just such an emergency by loading a couple of shells with two small buck-shot, in addition to the regular “dust shot” they contained which served as “packing.” By good fortune I had these two shells in my pocket. Hastily drawing in our hne we paddled rapidly but cautiously down river. We had not covered a quarter of the distance when the wolf disappeared from view, having, we feared, caught sight of us; for the slight breeze that was blowing was in our favor and there was httle likelihood that the animal had scented us at that distance. We never- theless continued towards the spot where it had last been seen and when about a hundred yards distant waited and listened. After what was perhaps not more than two or three minutes we were rewarded by the sound of rustling grass and bushes and the wolf burst into full view' directly in front of us. It was now loping, beating after the manner of a hunting-dog and clearly in search of small prey. A number of times as we watched it would turn and trot back a httle way to sniff and re-examine hurriedly some spot that it had just passed. Again it would make a short detour into the meadow and be lost from view for what seemed minutes, and each time this happened we feared it would not return ; but it always came rushing back to the water’s edge to con- tinue on its way, as if it had a definite destination toward which it was heading but could not resist the temptation . of a few side excursions en route. In the meantime we had been urging our canoe nearer and nearer and, by taking advantage of our opportunities when the wolf was for the moment concealed by the tall grass or pre-occupied with its inves- tigations, had by this time approached to within perhaps sixty or sixty-five yards. The wolf was in full view much of the time and it seemed that it must be only the matter of seconds before we should be detected. Two or three times the animal turned on its quartering course and came back a few steps almost directly toward us and I each time carefully laid down my paddle and raised the little gun ready to pull the trigger on the instant that the wolf should show signs of ' eeing us; for although there was not the slightest chance that two buck-shot might find a vital spot at that distance I felt that we ought not to deny ourselves what satisfaction we might get out of frightening the beast to the utmost of our ability. But the wolf turned and resumed its running hunt, its attention apparently concentrated upon the ground in its immediate proximity. JOHNSON — HABITS OF TIMBER WOLF 15 We followed in the rear and on its left flank. We had been gaining considerably and were not more than forty yards away. The wolf’s mouth was open and its tongue shghtly extended from its restless activity. At this moment it turned broadside and trotted out onto a little point of land ahead of us. The river is here about seventy-five feet wide but rather shallow, the main channel, which is about fifty feet across, having a depth of only about two and a half or three feet. Without a moment’s hesitation the wolf walked deliberately into the river and started swimming. My wife and I stuck our paddles in the bottom and held still, tingling with keenest expectations. Restraining ourselves until the wolf had nearly reached the middle of the channel we shoved ahead and with our best efforts at silence raced to overtake the beast before it should reach the opposite bank, our course lying at an angle of about forty-five degrees. We had come to within perhaps twenty-five feet of the animal and it was fast nearing the shallow water before it suddenly beheld the rapidly approaching canoe. Abruptly it ceased swimming and for a brief second glared flxedly at the strange sight; then it turned hurriedly about and started back towards the shore it had just left. Checking ourselves we set a diagonal course and with a few vigorous strokes brought up within six or eight feet of the wolf as it now crossed our bow in desperate exertions to reach the land. The little shot gun held true at this distance and both buck-shot entered the brain. The wolf’s head sank instantly at the report but its momentum was such that its body doubled up and turned almost completely over in the water. The wolf proved to be a young male, heavy-boned and in splendid condition. It measured 3 feet, 10 inches, including the tail which was 13 inches long. We had no means for weighing but estimated the weight at about 35 pounds. When the stomach was opened it was found to be completely filled with hair and several pieces of hide of a moose. No other kind of food had apparently been devoured that morning, although the wolf was clearly beating for smaller prey when observed. The pieces of moose hide still had the hair flrmly attached but were evidently the dried parts of the skin of an animal that had been dead for some time. University, of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 16 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY THE A^O NUEVO STELLER SEA LION ROOKERY By Barton Warren Evermann [Plates 1-3] For many years the relation of the sea lions to the commercial fish- eries of the California coast has been a matter of much concern. The commercial fishermen have, with scarcely an exception, contended that the sea lions are very destructive to the fisheries. There are two species, the Steller sea lion {Eumetopias stelleri) and the California sea lion (Zalophus calif ornianus) , and they are both condemned by the fishermen. The former has rookeries from San Miguel Island north- ward, the latter ranges from San Francisco southward, the two species overlapping at the Golden Gate. Complaints that the sea lions are very destructive to the fisheries, especially of Monterey Bay and vicinity, come in periodically to the Lighthouse Service and to the California Fish and Game Commission. The commercial fishermen have urged that the seals be exterminated, or at least that their numbers be greatly reduced. Usually these requests have been denied, chiefly on the ground that the feeding habits of the sea lions of the California coast have not been studied sufficiently to determine to what extent, if at all, they are destructive to the com- mercial fisheries. In the summer of 1899, the late Prof. L. L. Dyche made some study of this question in and near Monterey Bay. Professor Dyche exam- ined the stomachs of 25 sea lions and found not a trace of fish in any of them. In the summer of 1901, at the instance of the California Fish and Game Commission, the matter was again taken up, and a special commission of three naturalists was appointed to make an investiga- tion. The commission consisted of the late Cloudsley Rutter of the United States Fish Commission, Prof. Edwin C. Starks representing the California Academy of Sciences, and Robert E. Snodgrass for the California Fish and Game Commission. These investigators began their work July 10, at the Purissima rookery, a few miles south of San Francisco. They visited most of the rookeries on the coasts of Cali- fornia, Oregon, and Washington, including Ano Nuevo and the Faral- lons. They killed and examined stomach contents of 18 Steller sea lions and 24 California sea lions. The stomachs of only 26 (13 of each species) contained food. All of the Stellers had eaten fish, and five had eaten squid or octopus. The number of squid was small, six being EVEKMANN — STELLEB SEA LION BOOKEKY 17 the maximum number in one sea lion, while the quantity of fish was large, at least 35 pounds being taken from one stomach. Of the 13 California sea lions whose stomachs contained food, five had eaten fish and eleven had eaten squid. The quantity of fish was trivial, 17 small fish being the maximum, while the remains of 100 to 300 squid were found in each of five stomachs. These studies indicated that the Steller sea lion is largely a fish eater and that the California sea lion feeds chiefly on squid. Further north, off the mouth of the Columbia, the fishermen claimed that the Steller sea lions do great damage to the salmon fisheries, but Mr. Rutter was not able to secure much convincing evidence. While the investigations of the Rutter party were not sufficiently comprehensive or prolonged to warrant a final decision, they show rather definitely that sea lions cause very little damage to the fisheries, and the little injury that is done is caused by the Steller sea lion, the Cahfornia sea lion being almost entirely guiltless. It is a matter for regret that these investigations were not continued. Apparently no further study of the habits of the sea lions on the Cali- fornia coast has been made since 1901. Recently representations have been made to Capt. H. W. Rhodes, superintendent of lighthouses, 18th District, that sea lions are doing great damage to the commercial fisheries and permission to kill sea lions on the lighthouse reservations has been requested. On June 24, 1920, the Bureau of Fisheries wired me asking whether I would recom- mend granting to private companies the privilege of killing sea lions for commercial purposes on the lighthouse reservations. Before reply- ing to the Bureau I decided to visit Ano Nuevo Island and make a study of the present condition of that rookery. This I did in company with Mr. Joseph Mailliard, curator of birds and mammals in the museum of the California Academy of Sciences. Permission to land on the island was given us by Captain Rhodes who also kindly instructed the keeper to show us every courtesy and assist us in everyway possible. We reached the island soon after noon June 27 and remained until noon the next day. The largest and most important Steller sea lion rookery now on the Cahfornia coast is that on Ano Nuevo (or New Year’s) Island. This island lies about one-half mile off shore, 13 miles below the quaint little village of Pescadero, or 63 miles down the coast from San Francisco. The island consists of one main body with an area of two or three acres and a number of outlying rocks upon which the sea lions haul out and JOtJENAL OP MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2, NO. 1 18 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY have their breeding grounds. These rocks are a hard, flinty, evenly bedded shale of the Chico Cretaceous, and considerably tilted, the dip being southwest and seaward at an angle of 10 to 50 degrees. The surface is relatively smooth, one end being always a-wash, the other 10 to 20 feet above the water except at unusually high tides or during storms. The island and its outlying rocks constitute a lighthouse reservation and the sea Hons and sea birds breeding thereon have always been protected. Permission to kill the sea hons on this rookery has been sought by commercial fishermen and others but has never been granted. Permits have, however, been given on two or three occasions to kill a few animals for museum purposes. During the time of our visit the weather was ideal and we were able to observe and study the animals quite satisfactorily. We found the sea lions occupying five principal rocks, with a few on two or three smaller rocks. On the five larger rocks the animals apparently cov- ered all the available space; in many places they were lying so close together as to make a continuous mass. On the smaller, lower rocks they were not so closely placed and were moving about more than in the larger, more compact masses. Most of them were quiet and apparently sleeping, but many kept moving about more or less, the old bulls holding their heads high, roaring now and then, often gaping as if drowsy, or chasing other bulls away, sometimes fighting savagely. In these fierce fights between rival bulls the cows and pups often suffered severely. Several old bulls were seen with great gashes or wounds evidently inflicted by their rivals. At least four old bulls were seen so severely wounded that each had withdrawn from the rookery proper and retreated to some rock or unoccupied, isolated station. One large dead bull was seen, evidently killed in some conflict. The nearest occupied rock contained seven adult bulls, two cows and one pup. This was apparently not a permanent part of the rookery and all the seals took to the water upon our approach. The next rock was completely covered. As a result of four counts, we placed the number on this rock at not fewer than 200. At the right were other sloping smooth rocks on which there were between 300 and 400 seals. A smaller rock beyond these contained at least 100 animals. Still further away were two much larger, oblong rocks, on each of which we counted about 500 seals. To the right of these were some low-lying rocks, always a-wash, on which there were usually 10 to 30 seals. As the seals seemed to come and go on these rocks they probably do not constitute a permanent part of the rookery. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2 PLATE 1 Steller Sea Lion Habitat Group in the Museum of the California Academy op Sciences It shows a portion of the rookery on Ano Nuevo Island. Group prepared under the immediate direction of John Rowley. Background painted by Charles Abel Corwin. Photo by Gabriel Moulin. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY. VOL. 2 PLATE 2 Fig. 1. Ano Nuevo Steller Sea Lion Rookery On each of the large rocks in the distance there were about 500 sea lions June 28, 1920. Fig. 2. Ano Nuevo Steller Sea Lion Rookery, in Part On the rock in the distance there were about 500 animals June 28, 1920. Photos by Joseph Mailliard. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY. VOL. 2 PLATE 3 Fig. 1. Ano Nuevo Steller Sea Lion Rookery This part of the rookery contained about 800 animals June 27-28, 1920 Fig. 2. A Portion op the Steller Sea Lion Rookery on Ano Nuevo Island When approached too near the animals take to the water. Note the large number of old bulls. June 28, 1920. Photos by Joseph Mailliard. EVERMANN — STELLER SEA LION ROOKERY 19 As a result of counting the animals six to nine times in each of the groups we agreed that the total number was between 1500 and 2000, with the probability that 2000 is more nearly correct. The two things that impressed us most were the preponderance of adult bulls and the scarcity of pups. The light keeper, J. 0. Becker, estimated the number of bulls at twice the number of cows. This may be an overestimate, but it is quite conservative to say that the number of adult bulls is at least half as great as the number of cows. The number of young bulls was also large. The greatest number of cows seen in any one harem was 7 ; usually there were only 1 to 5. Very few pups could be seen on the rocks, certainly not more than 100 all told. But in the little nooks and coves, both in the water and on the beach, fully as many more w^ere seen dead or dying. In one place we counted 34 dead pups in the water washing back and forth with the waves. In another protected cove were 24 pups, 19 dead and 5 evidently dying of starvation. In yet other places from 1 to 12 or 15 were counted. The total number of dead or dying pups actually counted was 106; there doubtless were many others. This condition was caused by a severe storm which occurred about the middle of June when the sea washed over the entire rookery, washing practically all the pups off the rocks and into the water. At that time the pups had not yet learned to swim and many were drowned outright. Others were probably so seriously injured they could not get back upon the rocks, and still others were washed ashore. The mothers do not appear to make any search for them and they crawl about and finally starve. It is quite evident that there is a large excess of adult bulls in the Ano Nuevo herd. The presence of these surplus bulls on the rookery results in severe fighting in which cows are injured and pups trampled to death. These surplus bulls should be killed and I have recom- mended that the Lighthouse Service kill 100 for their hides and oil. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, JOUBNAIi OP MAMMOIiOGY, VOL. 2, NO. 1 20 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF INTERIOR ALASKA By Lee Raymond Dice From July, 1911, to September, 1912, the author was in the interior of Alaska serving as deputy fur warden in the Alaska Fisheries Service. During this time a small collection of mammals was made and many notes on habits and distribution were secured. The publication of these notes is with the permission of the United States Bureau of Fisheries. The regions visited were: Fairbanks, Tanana, Cosna River, the Kuskokwim from the head of the North Fork to Bethel, Takotna, the Yukon from White Horse to Birches and from Russian Mission to the mouth, and St. Michaels. A few records of specimens collected by Chief Warden H. J. Christoffers at Fairbanks are also included. Descriptions of the various habitats of interior Alaska have already been given.^ Thanks are due Mr. E. A. Preble for help in identifying the species, and to Dr. B. W. Evermann, then chief of the Alaska Fisheries Service, for cooperation in securing the specimens and notes. The specimens collected are preserved in the National Museum. ANNOTED LIST OF MAMMALS Sorex personatus arcticus Merriam. Arctic Shrew. — Taken in white spruce forest, in black spruce forest, in willow thickets, in the grass at lake borders, and among nigger-heads. It occurs in the valleys and along the small streams up to timber-line. The runways of mice, especially of the Drummond vole, are com- monly used by it. On January 6, 1912, one was taken in a cabin in the hills near Tanana, where he had been feeding on bacon and dried fish. Specimens were taken at Tanana, Mount Sischu, on the North Fork of the Kuskokwim at its head and at its junction with the McKinley Fork, and others were collected by H. J. Christoffers at Fairbanks. A female taken June 6 on Mount Sischu contained 8 embryos each about 2.5 mm. in length. Sorex tundrensis Merriam. Tundra Shrew. — One was trapped September 7, 1911, in grass and short brush near nigger-heads in the Yukon Valley at Tanana. June 6, 1912, one was trapped under a log in burned white spruce-paper birch forest on Mount Sischu just below timber-line. Sorex obscurus obscurus Merriam. Mountain Shrew. — One was captured November 13, 1911, in a cabin 10 miles north of Tanana, where he came to feed on dry fish. Another was trapped in willows beside the Kuskokwim near Aniak, August 12, 1912. ^ Dice, L. R., Univ. Mich., Mus. Zook, Occ. Papers, No. 85. 1920. DICE — MAMMALS OF ALASKA 21 Microsorex eximius (Osgood) . Alaska Microsorex. — A male was taken Novem- ber 17; 1911, in the nigger-heads of the Yukon Valley near Tanana. This speci- men was taken in a trap set in a tiny runway through the snow, which as shown by the tracks had been used a number of times by the shrew. One was trapped in a cabin 10 miles north of Tanana December 30, 1911, and another in the same cabin January 15, 1912. Ursus alascensis Merriam. Alaska Grizzly. — 'No certain reports of grizzlies or brown bears were obtained from the valleys of the Yukon or upper Kuskok- wim. A bear, probably of this species, was seen in August, 1912, swimming across the Kuskokwim near the mouth of the Aniak River. Ursus americanus americanus Pallas. Black Bear, or Cinnamon Bear. — Noted at Fairbanks, Tanana, and along the Kuskokwim near the head of the North Fork, just above the East Fork, and at Big River. Tracks were found on mud-bars, and gravel-bars, in willows and alders along the rivers, in white spruce- paper birch forest, and in black spruce forest. Bears are also reported to be frequently found in blueberry patches. At Tanana the last fresh bear signs in 1911 were noted September 10; and at the head of the North Fork of the Kus- kokwim the first track in 1912 was found May 7. In May and June signs were numerous near camp at this latter place. June 11 most of the bark was torn off a white spruce tree about four inches in diameter over a space between four and six and one-half feet above the ground. The bear had made no attempt to climb the tree, but had merely clawed it. A female killed by natives on the Redlands River near Tanana, February 8, 1912, contained 3 embryos, each about 5 inches in length. Another female killed about the same time and place contained 2 embryos of about the same size. Canis occidentalis Richardson. Wolf. — Reported to occur in the region north of Fort Yukon. Reported only very rarely by trappers from the valleys of the Yukon and Kuskokwim and no certain records were obtained. Alopex lagopus innuitus (Merriam). Arctic Fox. — One is reported to have been taken by a trapper on the Yukon Flats, and it is said by the Indians to cross over occasionally from the Arctic slope. Vulpes alascensis alascensis Merriam. Alaska Red Fox. — Few in the willows, alders, and cottonwoods, and in the white spruce-paper birch forests along the Yukon and Tanana Rivers near Tanana. Their tracks were frequently seen in snow on the river-bars. On the divides between the Cosna and Kuskokwim, fox tracks were very numerous during March, 1912, in the open blueberry and dwarf birch areas, and to a less extent in the patches of stunted black spruces. Martes americana actuosa (Osgood). Alaska Marten. — Sparsely distributed throughout the wooded interior of Alaska. It is reported to occur as far west as Georgetown on the Kuskokwim, and Andreafski on the Yukon. Along the main streams and in the other more accessible regions it has been almost completely trapped out. At the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim in March, 1912, marten tracks were abundant in the black spruce timber of the low hills, and a few were noted in the adjacent blueberry and dwarf birch patches. No tracks were noted in winter in the white spruce-paper birch forest along the rivers al- though one specimen was taken December 19, 1911, in a growth of young paper birch, white spruce, alder, and willows on a low hillside near Tanana. In sum- mer, however, martens are reported by trappers to occur commonly in the white 22 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY spruce-paper birch forests along the streams. The mating period at the head of the Kuskokwim is apparently in March. March 21, 1912,. tracks in the snow showed that a male had been pursuing a female the previous night. April 2 a female was taken containing four embryos, each about 5 inches in length; but another female taken April 16 contained no embryos. The skin of a male caught at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim March 18, 1912, was perfectly prime; a female taken April 2 had several unprime spots on the skin; and the skin of a female taken April 16 in the same locality was very unprime. Gulo luscus (Linnaeus). Wolverine. — Several skins taken in the Yukon Flats were seen. Over most of interior Alaska the wolverine is rare or absent and we saw no signs of it. Mustela arctica arctica (Merriam). Arctic Weasel. — Specimens were taken at Tanana, at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim, and by H. J. Christ- offers at Fairbanks. Tracks have been noted during the winter in nigger-heads, in the grasses and in sedges about lakes, in willows and alders along streams, in white spruce-paper birch forest, in black spruce forest, in burned forest, and in patches of blueberries and dwarf birches both in the valleys and on the hills at timber-line. One inhabited the walls of a cabin in the hills north of Tanana dur- ing October and November, 1911. Owing to their small value trappers seldom make any special effort to trap ermine, though quite a number are taken in marten traps. October 5, 1911, a male was obtained by H. J. Christoffers near Fairbanks on which the head and tail were mostly brown, the back about half white, and the belly pure white. Four days later a completely white male was obtained in the same region. At Tanana a fully white weasel was seen October 1. Weasels which were watched feeding on frozen pieces of rabbit and grouse did not handle nor hold the food in any way with the feet, but only with the mouth. When running the tail is carried off the ground usually at an angle of about 45 degrees. Weasels when excited were several times heard to give a bark, some- what similar to the bark of the mink, though not so loud. Mustela vison ingens Osgood. Alaska Mink. — Common along the streams and lakes west to Bering Sea. Tracks were frequently noted on river-bars, in low- land willows and alders, in white spruce-paper birch forest, and in nigger-heads. Minks are most common in the grasses and sedges about lakes and swamps. Tracks of a few individuals were noted in black spruce forest on low hills, but these were apparently traveling overland from one river or lake to another. A specimen taken by H. J. Christoffers near Fairbanks August .1, 1911, was very fat and the skin was unprime. Two young taken near Tanana November 7 had skins not fully prime. The skin of a male taken March 9, 1912, near the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim was fully prime, but the skins of two males taken at the same place April 23 and May 2 respectively had unprime spots. The skin of a partial albino was seen in the possession of a trader at Tanana. A female taken May 13 near the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim con- tained a number of embryos, each about 16 mm. in length. A mink which en- tered a cabin north of Tanana to obtain some frozen pieces of grouse was watched for over an hour on the evening of November 1, 1911, at a distance of six feet. In feeding, it never used its front feet to handle or hold the food in any way, but manipulated it entirely by the mouth. When caught in a trap the mink often gives a hoarse bark. I DICE — MAMMALS OF ALASKA 23 Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber). Canada Otter. — Several were trapped by Indians in the winter of 1911 on Sullivan Creek near Tanana. Otters were reported to be common at the heads of the Tozi and Melozi. In March and April, 1912, trails and slides were common along the North Fork of the Kuskok- wim near its head. The trails led from the water-holes of the river to the snow- covered river-bars, and also into willow thickets and into the adj acent white spruce-paper birch forest. One was seen swimming in the Kuskokwim near Big River on July 13. The species is reported to occur commonly on the Bering Sea tundra near Bethel. A male trapped at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim April 7, 1912, was very fat and weighed 13 pounds. Lynx canadensis Kerr. Canada Lynx.— A few tracks were noted near Tanana, along the Cosna River, and near the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim. Its trails were found in willows along the streams and in white spruce-paper birch forest. In walking in soft snow it apparently tries to step each time in its previous tracks. This habit is sometimes taken advantage of by trappers, who place a trap under one of the tracks. Synaptomys dalli Merriam. Dali Lemming-Vole. — One was taken in scrub willows at the bottom of a small valley 10 miles north of Tanana December 2, 1911. Another was taken July 4, 1912, from the runway of a Drummond vole in horsetails near a lake at the junction of the McKinley Fork with the Kuskokwim. Lemmus yukonensis Merriam. Yukon Lemming. — Two young were taken June 12, 1912, in grass mostly of the tussock type, at the border of a small lake near the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim. Continued trapping in the region failed to secure any more specimens. Evotomys dawsoni dawsoni Merriam. Dawson Red-backed Vole. — The naost abundant mammal of interior Alaska. It was taken in equisetum, sedges, and grassy areas about lakes; in nigger-heads; in willows and alders, both in the larger valleys and at timber-line; in paper-birch forest, white spruce forest, and black spruce forest; in growths of blueberries and dwarf birch, both in the valleys and above timber-line; on the high ridges above timber-line in sphagnum, grass, and low brush ; in cabins and caches in the woods ; and in burned timber. It was found most abundantly under shrubs in the black spruce forest. Specimens were pre- served from Fairbanks, Tanana, Mount Sischu, and Takotna; and on the North Fork of the Kuskokwim from near the head of the stream, from the junction with the McKinley Fork, and from near the East Fork. At Bethel one was taken at the border of the tundra in a tent pitched at the edge of a slough. This mouse makes short runways under logs and low bushes, but in general its runways are not well defined, for it does much traveling without following a defi- nite path. It has also been taken in the runways of the Drummond vole. In the winter it, as well as the other voles and the shrews, pushes its way at the surface of the ground through the very light snow. These burrows may be used only once, as shown by the tracks, or they may be traveled enough to form runways. Mice and shrews also sometimes come to the surface to travel, especially when the snow is crusted. Red-backed voles cause some inconvenience to trappers by feeding on stored food, by eating bait, and sometimes by springing the traps set for marten or mink. A female taken at the head of the North Fork of the Kus- kokwim May 21, 1912, contained four embryos each about 10 mm. in length; and one taken May 27 showed recent birth of young. One taken above timber-line 24 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY on Mount Sischu, June 5, contained six embryos. A female with a black dorsal stripe instead of red was taken June 5 on Mount Sischu and a male with the same coloration was secured June 12 beside the North Fork of the Kuskokwim River near its head. All other specimens seen were in the normal color. Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondi (Audubon & Bachman). Drummond Vole. — The voles of the M, 'pennsylvanicus group occurring in the interior of Alaska differ from typical druni'mondi in being much larger and in being decidedly darker in color. Two were taken at Tanana in the nigger-heads of the Yukon Valley. Along the North Fork of the Kuskokwim a few were taken near the head of the stream; and they were common at the junction with the McKinley Fork and above the East Fork, occurring about small lakes in horsetails, in sedges, in grasses, and in willows. Several were taken during August, 1912, in the short grass and moss at and above timber-line on the hills near Takotna. A female taken June 17, 1912, at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim contained nine embryos, each about 18 mm. in length. Another taken July 3 at the junction with the McKinley Fork contained 7 embryos. Many young were taken between July 3 and 12. Microtus operarius operarius (Nelson). Tundra Vole. — The runways of this vole were very numerous in the grass along the banks of a slough at Bethel, and a number of specimens were trapped August 21-23, 1912. Microtus operarius endoecus Osgood. Interior Vole. — A female containing five large embryos was taken August 4, 1911, in brush and grass in a burned white spruce-paper birch forest on the shores of the Tanana River near Fair- banks. Others were taken near Tanana during the fall and winter in the nigger- heads of the Yukon Valley, in willows along a little creek in the hills, and under shrubs in a burned black spruce forest. In these places it apparently uses the same runways as the red-backed vole. The winter pelage of the interior vole is strikingly different from the summer pelage, being much heavier in fur and lighter in color. Microtus xanthognathus (Leach). Chestnut-cheeked Vole. — Several speci- mens were taken in 1911 by H. J. Christoffers south of Fairbanks in a swampy region sparsely covered by cut-over spruce. Another specimen was secured near the mouth of the Takotna River in the winter of 1912-13 by Mr. Edward Cone. Fiber zibethicus spatulatus Osgood. Northwestern Muskrat. — A few are reported from the small streams and lakes near Tanana. Several were seen in a small lake near Lake Minchumina, and one muskrat house was noted June 23, 1911, among the horsetails at the edge of this lake. In a small lake near the junction of the East and North Forks of the Kuskokwim trails were noted in horsetails and in sedges, and one individual was seen. Several were seen in the Takotna River and one shot August 2. Muskrats are reported to be abundant along the lower Kuskokwim and lower Yukon. A female taken May 8, 1912, in a small lake near Lake Minchumina contained no embryos and had a prime skin. A male taken in the same lake June 23 had an unprime skin. The Indians use the muskrat extensively for food. The usual method of securing it is by shooting in the spring after the ice has broken in the sloughs and lakes. Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben). Norway Rat.— Common during the winter of 1911 in the warehouses and stores of Tanana. Four specimens were taken. DICE — MAMMALS OF ALASKA 25 Erethizon epixanthum myops Merriam. Alaska Porcupine. — A specimen was taken by H. J. Christoffers beside a small slough about nine miles from Fairbanks where tooth marks were numerous on small alders and white spruces. Another specimen was taken July 9, 1912, under a growth of large willows along the North Fork of the Kuskokwim a few miles above the East Fork. It is reported to be numerous along the Kuskokwim below Georgetown, and one was seen August 12 on the gravelly shores of the river below the mouth of the Aniak River. Citellus osgoodi (Merriam). Yukon Ground Squirrel. — Reported by natives to occur in the mountains northeast of Tanana and in the mountains near Takotna. Sciurus hudsonicus hudsonicus Erxleben. Northern Red Squirrel. — Common at Fairbanks, Tanana, and along the Kuskokwim at the head of the North Fork, at the junction with the McKinley Fork, and near the mouth of the Takotna River. A few were seen along the Takotna River and near the mouth of the Aniak River. It lives in the forests of white spruce and also occurs rarely in black spruces. It is seldom seen far from spruces probably because of its depen- dence upon these trees for food. In opening the cones it bites off the scales beginning at the base. Huge piles of the discarded scales mark the places where the squirrels live. October 16, 1911, one was observed to bite off and eat the buds of black spruces. The nests are placed from six to twenty feet above the ground in large white or black spruce trees. Often several are found close together in the same tree or in adjacent trees. They are supported by some of the smaller branches and are usually though not always placed near or against the tree trunk. These nests are spherical structures mostly of dried grass, each nest being about a foot in diameter. No food or excreta was found in the few nests examined. In the fall of 1911 before the snow became deep, spruce cones were collected in great numbers and either buried in the ground, placed in the branches of trees^ piled on the ground, or stored in the old piles of scales. At the bottoms of the trees in which squirrel nests were placed, piles of cones a foot to two feet in height and extending four or five feet around the tree were made. Near Tanana the first cutting and piling of the cones was noted September 6, and the work was still in progress though nearly complete on October 13. The cones may be cut singly, but often they are cut in the natural clusters of several cones and stored in that shape. September 6, 1911, near Tanana a red squirrel was watched while he was cutting cones from the top of a high white spruce. The cones were thrown away from the tree by a backward toss of his head and fell in all directions. He seemed to have no regular method of going over a branch for its cones, and I think several times returned to the same branch. During fifteen minutes he worked continuously, dropping cones sometimes one per second, though they usually fell more slowly. No other squirrels were near, but twice during the fifteen minutes he stopped to give his rattle. A red squirrel on October 1, 1911, had a nest on a shelf in an old cabin north of Tanana. This squirrel had collected a great many mushrooms and stored them on the shelves. Those not entirely dry were spread out separately from the others. Every open can in the cabin was packed tightly with the dried fungi. A grouse head later put out for a weasel was picked up by the squirrel and placed with the mushrooms. 26 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY When the temperature drops below ~30“F. very few squirrels are active, and they become dormant at lower temperatures. Trails are worn in the snow con- necting the various trees visited by the squirrels, and sometimes tunnels through the snow are used for the same purpose. When passing from tree to tree on the ground the squirrels usually run hurriedly and often whimper nervously as though afraid. Squirrels bother trappers by springing the traps set for fur animals. This is perhaps done out of curiosity, as no case was observed where the squirrel had eaten the bait or disturbed any animal taken in the traps. A red squirrel strug- gling with a half-grown mink was noted July 15, 1912, on the bank of the Kus- kokwim a short distance above the mouth of the Takotna River. Our boat drifted by before the result of the struggle could be determined, but the squirrel was constantly screaming, and it seemed certain that the result would be a victory or the mink. Mating behavior in 1912 was first noted at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim on March 1. A squirrel about half-changed to summer pelage was seen at that place June 10. One child’s parka (outer winter garment) of red squirrel skins was seen near Tanana, but the fur is not used to any extent by the Indians and is seldom purchased by traders. Glaucomys sabrinus yukonensis (Osgood). Yukon Flying Squirrel. — One was trapped October 15, 1911, and two November 2, in a white spruce and paper- birch forest in the hills 8 miles north of Tanana. One specimen was taken in a steel trap set near a stump and baited with a grouse head. This animal and another specimen caught at the same place in a mouse trap had bitten off and destroyed their tails before dying. A third specimen caught in a rat trap and held in such a manner that it could not reach its tail was in perfect condition. Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl. Canada Beaver. — A number of workings were noted at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim; ten skulls were seen on the roof of a cabin at the junction with the McKinley Fork, evidently taken at that place, and beavers were reported on good authority to occur rarely along the Takotna River. The Indians are very fond of beaver flesh, and they are said to kill them in spite of the closed season. A beaver house was located near the spring camp at the head of the North Fork and a number of observations were made on the members of this house. The house was placed on the lower end of a point of land where a slough joined the Kuskokwim River, here about ten yards in width. The number of individuals living in the house was five, as nearly as could be determined. Willow cuttings were extensive along the slough above the house, along the river above the house, along a small slough entering the river opposite the house, and for a short distance down the river below the house. A few poplars and small birches had been cut down. A small dam of sticks and mud was thrown across the mouth of the small slough opposite the house. The beavers first appeared in the spring of 1912 on April 28, when the water had risen in the river and the ice was going out. On that date two beavers were :seen about 5 p.m. in the slough near the house. By May 3 the ice had cleared out of this part of the river, and a number of fresh cuttings appeared in the nearby willows and birches. The beavers were to be seen only during the darker part of the night; during June, however, this was only a slightly modified daylight. In April they usually DICE — MAMMALS OF ALASKA 27 started work about 6 p.m., but toward June 15 they did not come out till nearly 11. In early May they continued operations till about 7 a.m., but in the longer days of June they were not often seen after 5. Each individual as he came out of the house in the evening seemed to spend a few minutes swimming about, at intervals slapping his tail and diving. In these dives the animal remained down only an instant and then immediately reappeared and continued swimming. In such cases the other beavers showed no alarm at the splashing. However, they can dive silently and when at work they do not slap with the tail. When really alarmed a beaver dives with a loud slap and remains down a long time. Sometimes when one beaver became scared and dived with a resounding flap of his tail another not far distant continued unconcernedly eating or working, though usually the danger was noticed by all. This indicates that the splash is not always an alarm-signal. Sticks were usually held in the mouth while being carried up on the house or dam, and the fore feet were often used to help balance or hold the material. Sometimes two or more small pieces were carried at one time. In placing a stick one end was inserted among the material already in place and the stick pushed in as far as possible by sidewise pushes of the animaks head. It was a frequent habit for the animal to walk on the hind legs and tail when carrying material. Several individuals were noted at different times in shallow places near the banks feeding on sticks with green bark. The fore feet were used to manipulate the stick and to hold the pieces of bark cut off by the incisors. The stick was continually turned on its axis, and as the bark was removed the stick was pushed endwise through the mouth, so that the portion of stick gone over was completely stripped of its bark. Lepus americanus macfarlani Merriam. Macfarlane Snowshoe Hare. — Rec- ords were secured from Fairbanks, Tanana, Cosna River, and along the Kuskok- wim from the head of the North Fork down as far as the East Fork. It was abundant in 1911 and 1912 in the willows, both along the streams and at higher elevations, and in white spruce-paper birch forest. A few were found also in black spruce forest. In summer it plays in the evenings and mornings on the river- bars. In this region as elsewhere in its range it has years of abundance succeeded by years of scarcity. In the winter of 1911-1912 the hares were approaching their maximum abundance. These hares feed mostly on the bark and small twigs of willow and paper birch, but in winter hunger sometimes drives them to eat alder and spruce. On willow- bars along the rivers in winter they often cut down the young willows almost to the surface of the snow, eating stems up to three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Sometimes they nibble the moss and snow along the sled trails, apparently to secure the salt. Most of their foraging is done at night or in twilight, and it is seldom that they aye seen moving about in the daytime. In winter they some- times make their forms under branches laden with snow, but they apparently never burrow into the snow. They usually use an uncovered form which is only partly protected on the sides. About September 1, 1911, at Tanana some of the hares had started to turn white, beginning on the feet and ears. They were all changed by the last of October, though many were fully white long before that time. In the spring of 1912 at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim they started to change 28 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY color about the first of April, and by the end of the month most of them were brown. On July 25, 1911, half-grown young were numerous at Tanana. August 2 a female containing six large embryos was taken at Fairbanks. At the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim a female containing a number of formless embryos was taken May 3, 1912, and one with 3 embryos, each about 110 mm. in length, on May 15. May 29 a juvenile about one-third grown was seen. A female with 6 large embryos was taken June 24 on the Kuskokwim-Minchumina portage. Except during the breeding season, when they are stated to be strong in flavor, the hares are used a great deal for food, especially by natives and by prospectors. They are commonly taken in snares of picture wire set over the runways in the snow. The snares used by the Indians are attached to a spring-pole, but white men commonly attach the snare merely to a short stick, which is stuck in the snow. The natives sometimes organize a small drive, and then take the hares in snares or shoot them with a small rifle. Alces gigas Miller. Alaska Moose. — A few tracks were noted during August, 1911, in the Tanana Valley near Fairbanks. In the neighborhood of Tanana moose have been entirely killed off, but a few still occur at the heads of the Cosna and Redlands (Chitanana) rivers. Along the North Fork of the Kuskokwim they are numerous down as far as the McKinley Fork, and are reported to be rarely found west to Big River. Tracks were found in white spruce-paper birch for- est, in lowland willows and alders on river-bars, in areas of nigger-heads, in black spruce forest, and in burned timber. In summer moose frequent the edges of lakes, and several were seen swimming in lakes and wading in rivers. July 4, 1912, one was watched feeding on horsetails at the edge of a small lake on the North Fork of the Kuskokwim at the junction with the McKinley Fork. In winter they feed on the twigs of willow and birch. Rangifer stonei Allen. Stone Caribou. — A few caribou were reported to occur on the hills about fifty miles north of Tanana. Many old trails were noted in grass and sphagnum on the ridges of Mount Sischu and near Takotna in the sum- mer of 1912, but caribou are rare in those regions. In the early winter of 1911-12 a band of about ten visited Mount Unsuzi at the head of the North Fork of the Kuskokwim, where tracks were noted in black spruce forest. In the region between Fairbanks and Circle caribou are reported to be abundant. Ovis dalli dalli Nelson. Dali Sheep. — Reported to occur on the northern slopes of the Alaska Range. University of Michigan, Ann Arhor, Mich. JACKSON — STATUS OF MBRRIAM^S SHREW 29 THE STATUS OF MERRIAM^S SHREW (SOREX MERRIAMI) By Hartley H. T. Jackson There is so little generally known about the shrews Sorex merriami Dobson and Sorex leucogenys Osgood, that a brief summary of our present knowledge of these two forms might not be amiss and might stimulate men doing zoological field work to, make a special effort to secure more of these rare mammals and learn something of their habits. Once one has become familiar with these two shrews they are com- paratively easily distinguished from other forms. In size they are some- what larger than individuals of Sorex personatus, rather pale (a grayish drab above), and with distinctly whitish underparts and feet. The skull is relatively short and broad, flattened through the braincase but rela- tively high and swollen interorbitally, with a short, broad rostrum, which, compared with that of other members of the genus found within its geographic range, is abruptly truncate anteriorly (nares region). The third upper unicuspidate tooth of most of the west American shrews is smaller than the fourth. Exceptions to this are found in Sorex per- sonatus and Sorex richardsonii, both species which may possibly occur within certain parts of the geographic range of shrews of the merriami type, and, like them, have the third upper unicuspid larger than or, infrequently in personatus, equal to the fourth. Both merriami and leucogenys, however, have the unicuspids relatively narrow and elon- gate, and tending to be more crowded together than in personatus or richardsonii. A glance at the accompanying figures will enable one to grasp some of the differences in the rostra and dentition. In the scanty material available there appears no difference in color between mer- riami and leucogenys. The latter, however, is slightly larger than merriami and. shows cranial differences in being distinctly higher through the braincase and having the anterior halves of the unicus- pidate tooth rows less approximated and less nearly parallel. The type-specimen, an adult female, skin and skull in good con- dition, is the only known specimen of Sorex leucogenys. It was caught August 12, 1908, about 200 yards from running water on a dry rocky Upper Sonoran slope, where the vegetation was scant and practically restricted to Juniperus, Artemisia, and Atriplex, about 3 miles east of Beaver, Beaver County, Utah (Osgood, W. H., Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington, vol. 22, p. 52, April 17, 1909). The type-specimen of Sorex merriami is an alcoholic with skull removed. The skull is practically perfect. It was collected by Maj. 30 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY Charles E. Bendire, who caught it at the post garden, on the Little Bighorn River, about 1| miles above Fort Custer, Montana (Merriam, C. H., North Amer. Fauna, no. 10, p. 88, Dec. 31, 1895). Since then four additional specimens of this rare mammal have come to light, all of them now being in the Biological Survey Collection. Unfortunately, none of these is a perfect specimen. On June 23, 1896, Mr. Vernon Bailey found a dead and dried shrew in a creek valley, 7 miles southeast of Antelope, Oregon. In his field notes Bailey remarks: “It may have been killed near the creek or may have been brought from a distance, as the valley is mainly Sonoran. Fig. 1. Lateral View op Rostrum and Unicuspids op Sorex personatus per^ sonatus (X 6) No. 227410, United States National Museum, Biological Survey Collection; from Crescent Lake, Oneida County, Wisconsin. Fig. 2. Lateral View op Rostrum and Unicuspids op Sorex merriami (X 6) No. 186441, United States National Museum, Merriam Collection; from Fort Custer, Montana. Fig. 3. Lateral View op Rostrum and Unicuspids op Sorex richardsonii (X 6) No. 69163, United States National Museum, Biological Survey Collection; from South Edmonton, Alberta. Perodipus tracks and holes were common all around where the Sorex was picked up.” From this specimen, a mere fragment of skin and body which has been in alcohol, I have had the partly crushed skull removed and find it agrees well with that of the type of Sorex merriami, except that it seems to have been a trifle higher through the braincase. The remains of a small shrew were found among the rocks on a high butte near Medora, North Dakota, on June 13, 1913, by Mr. Stanley G. Jewett. Some animal had killed the shrew and eaten its head, so that all available for study is the skin of the hind half of the body, the hind feet, and tail. The color indicates that the specim.en is with httle doubt Sorex merriami. JACKSON STATUS OF MBRRIAM’S SHREW 31 Another specimen (skin and broken skull) was secured by Mr. Edmund Heller, November 26, 1914, at Desert Ranch, 100 miles north- east of Golconda, Elko County, Nevada, where it had been caught by a house cat. The skull of this specimen is slightly larger and has a somewhat higher braincase than that of the type-specimen of S. mer- riami, but it is decidedly more nearly like this form than 8. leucogenys. The last specimen to make its appearance, a skin accompanied by a broken skull, was collected by Mr. George G. Cantwell, November 18, 1919, at the entrance to an old badger digging on top of a ‘^high bunch grass hill,” at Starbuck (altitude 645 feet), Columbia County, Wash- ington. It shows no appreciable differences from the type-specimen of merriami. The specimens enumerated above represent all that are to be found of these species in the larger American collections. It can be seen that we have entirely insufficient material with which to work ' out the relationships of the two forms. Moreover our entire knowledge of the habits of these mammals is disclosed in this brief account, the out- standing fact being that these shrews are rather aberrant in their habitat, as compared with other American members of the genus Sorex, in that they inhabit an arid sagebrush association of the Sonoran Zone. It is hardly probable that these little mammals are anywhere very abundant. On the other hand, in view of their extensive geo- graphic range, it does not seem probable that they are actually as rare as the few present in collections would indicate. We are accus- tomed to looking for shrews in their time-honored habitats among mossy logs, along grassy streams, and in damp woods. It seems very possible that a methodical search in proper ecological associations in favorable localities, with the definite object of Sorex merriami or Sorex leucogenys in mind, might produce results. Biological Survey , Washington, D. C, 32 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY JOHN MACOUN, 1832-1920 By R. M. Anderson Professor John Macoun, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.C., the dean of Cana- dian naturalists, died at his home in Sidney, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, on July 18, 1920, aged a little over eighty-eight years. He was born near Belfast, Ireland, April 17, 1832, and came to Canada with his parents in 1850. A number of his early years he spent in teaching school, terminating that career as professor of natural science at Albert College, Belleville, Ontario, in 1882, at which time he became naturalist of the Geological Survey of Canada. Before that time, however, he had done considerable work for the Government, joining Sir Sanford Fleming’s exploratory party in 1872 at Port Arthur, and crossing the plains. From Edmonton he went with a small party through the Peace River Pass to the coast. Three years later he again crossed the continent travehng from the Pacific coast eastward. In 1879, 1880 and 1881, he exhaustively explored the little known parts of the Great Northwest country, and his capable reports had a great deal to do with making known the immense poten- tial resources of that vast territory which is now the great grain-produc- ing region of Canada. From his profound knowledge of field botany, the relation of wild plant ecology to agriculture, and the time required for ripening of seeds of the native flora, he was fully convinced of the agricultural possibilities of the prairie provinces of Canada, at a time when the Canadian Pacific Railroad was still unbuilt, and the future of the great west of Canada was considered by most people a speculative dream. In devoting his energies to diffusing correct knowledge of the west. Professor Macoun was for a long time regarded as a more or less vision- ary enthusiast, but time has justified his prophecies and he is entitled to rank as an empire builder of the best sort. His book entitled ‘‘Man- itoba and the Great North-west,” 687 pages, published privately by World Publishing Co., Guelph, Ontario, 1882, gives a graphic descrip- tion of the pioneer conditions on the prairies, and much of natural history interest. Chapter XX, Mammals of the North-west, pp. 324- 353; Chapter XXI, Birds of the North-west, pp. 354-373; and Chap- ter XXII, Notes on Reptiles, Fishes and Insects, pp. 374-398, give much valuable data of long-gone faunal conditions. The Annotated Catalogue and Guide to the Publications of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada 1845-1917, gives 61 titles of Professor ANDEBSON — JOHN MACOUN, 1832-1920 33 Macoun’s writings on natural history subjects, covering all parts of the Dominion from the Atlantic maritime provinces to the Yukon. Many of these are buried in the Report of Progress, Annual Reports and Summary Reports of the Survey from 1875 to 1915. The reports of earlier times particularly, when field trips were largely reconnaissance of virgin fields and before government publications were as specialized as at present, were often enlivened by much varied information of general interest by keen observers like Macoun. His most important technical papers were the Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part I, Poly- petalae, 1883; Part II, Gamopetalae, 1884; Part III, Apetalae, 1886; Part IV, Endogens, 1888; Part V, Acrogens, 1890; Part VI, Musci, 1892; Part VII, Lichenes and Hepaticae, 1902. Professor Macoun resided in Ottawa until 1912, when failing health caused him to move to the milder climate of British Columbia. Here he continued actively at work, specializing on the mosses and fungi of British Columbia, and up to the last months of his hfe contributed articles on local botany to the press. For about forty years he was assisted by his son, Mr. James Melville Macoun, C.M.G., F.L.S., also a noted naturalist and recently botanist and chief of the Biological Division, Geological Survey of Canada, and the work of the Macouns founded the National Herbarium of Canada and built it up to over 100,000 specimens. The late Professor Macoun, while best known as a botanist, was one of the old school of naturahsts who took the whole field of natural science for his province. Writing of him as a field worker, one of his old scientific friends said in 1917, ^‘He did not do much work with the micro- scope, but few men have the power to do what he could with the eye. His power and facility to set a present percept against a remembered image and perceive the likenesses and differences was marvellous. And he can exercise the power yet.’^ In addition to his botanical work as naturalist of the Geological Survey from 1882, he gathered a collection of several thousand birds and about 2,000 mammals, before giving up active museum work. He was an associate member of the American Ornithologists’ Union from 1883 for many years. As an ornithologist he contributed many notes to the old Ottawa Naturalist^ and his best known work was the Catalogue of Canadian Birds, Part I, Water Birds, Galhnaceous Birds and Pigeons, 1900; Part II, Birds of Prey, Woodpeckers, Flycatchers, Crows, Jays and Blackbirds, 1903; and Part III, Sparrows, Swallows, Vireos, Warblers, Wrens, Titmice and Thrushes, 1904. As this contained most of the published refer- 34 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY ences to distribution and habits of Canadian birds, and a large amount of new material from Professor Macoun’s numerous correspondents as well as a great deal of information based on his own extensive field notes and experience in all parts of Canada, there was such a demand for this publication that it was soon out of print, and in 1909 a new revised and enlarged edition of 761 pages was published in one volume, both English and French editions. The 1909 edition bears also the name of James M. Macoun, assistant naturalist, as collaborator. As a mammalogist. Professor Macoun did not publish so much, although he was keenly interested in the mammals of Canada. He was a charter member of the American Society of Mammalogists. Many years ago he considered the publication of a catalogue of Canad- ian mammals, somewhat similar to his Catalogue of Canadian Birds, and began a list of species, working up a partial synonymy and notes on distribution, but advancing years and lack of sufficient material caused him to lay this work aside when he left Ottawa. Professor Macoun was always liberal with his material, whether botanical or zoological, and a good part of the rather extensive small mammal material collected by himself and his son and by Mr. William Spread- borough, his field assistant for many years, notably along the Inter- national Boundary in Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, v/as sent to Washington from year to year for comparison by the United States Government scientists, with many of whom he carried on an extensive correspondence. Professor Macoun received many honours in his time. He was a charter member of the Royal Society of Canada, a member of the Linnsean Society, and received the degree of M.A. from Syracuse University. In consideration of his distinguished scientific work for his government, a special Order-in-Council was passed at the time Professor Macoun left Ottawa, retaining him on the active list on full pay for life. One genus, Macounastrum, and forty species of plants bear his name, as do two mollusks, Boreotrophon macouni and Turbonilla {Pyro- galampros) macouni Dali and Bartsch; one starfish, Leptasterias macouni Verrill; one beetle, one butterfly, Oneis macounii Edwards; and a viperfish, Chauliodus macouni Bean. In 1862 Professor Macoun married Miss Ellen Tyrrell, who survives him. In addition he is survived by his son, Mr. W. T. Macoun, Domin- ion horticulturist, Ottawa, and three daughters, Mrs. A. 0. Wheeler of GENEKAL NOTES 35 Sidney, B. C,, Mrs. R. A. Kingman, Wallingford, Vermont, and Mrs. Wm. M. Everall, Victoria, B. C. His eldest son and lifelong assistant Mr. James M. Macoun died at Ottawa in January, 1920. Victoria Memorial Mmeum^ Dept of Mines, Ottawa, Canada, GENERAL NOTES NOTES ON THE HABITS OP BLAEINA BBBVICAUDA While I was in camp at Lake Missanag, Ontario, in August and September, 1919, two short-tailed shrews {Blarina brevicauda) came about the tent frequently, and I was able to learn something of the habits of these usually rather elusive little mammals. They were active both by day and night. By day they, avoided brightly lighted spots, traveling to the tent under the cover of dead leaves, herbs, and logs; and passing over open places like a flash. In the tent they kept mostly close to the side-walls, or to the pile of wood beside the stove. They were cease- lessly active, never resting for a moment unless engaged in eating something. They kept up a continual, rather musical, chirping squeak, which resembled very strongly the twitter of American goldfinches. This ‘‘song” of theirs was loud enough that we could hear them coming some time before they entered the tent. The Blarinas fed on insects, both living and dead. They caught and con- sumed all the crickets {Gryllus assimilis and Nemobius fasciatus) which pre- viously had been common under the sod-cloth along the base of the walls of the tent, and also devoured any dead insects which I had rejected after killing in the cyanide bottle. On one occasion I saw one of them jump repeatedly at a sphinx larva which was suspended on a dead poplar twig a few inches above the ground, and at last succeed in pulling it down and into a tunnel in the dried grass. They ate with avidity anything of an animal nature, including pieces of salty chipped beef, and their particular delight was to get into the frying-pan and feed on the cold fat which it contained. So engrossed did they become in their gormandizing of this fat that they paid no heed to my presence and several times I took up the pan and walked about with it while they were thus engaged. They were not at all expert climbers and it was quite a feat for them to clamber over the high edge of the frying-pan. Once on top of the edge they tumbled in head-first. In hunting for food they seemed to depend entirely on their sense of smell, and when thus prospecting they wriggled their long pink snouts continuously and inserted them into every nook and crevice. They appeared to use their eyes merely in avoiding well-lighted situations. — A. Brookbr Klugh, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY, ¥OL. 2, NO. 36 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY RED BAT AT SEA On the first day of September, 1920, when still 3 days out from Philadelphia on our voyage from Cape Town, South Africa, I found a red bat (Nycteris borealis borealis) clinging to the ledge under the manger of the giraffe box. The record may be of interest to American mammalogists. — A. K. Haagner, Pretoria, South Africa. THE BLACK BEAR AS A DESTROYER OP GAME On June 12, 1920, while approaching a camping site on the Lamar River, Yel- lowstone National Park, in company with M. P. Skinner, park naturalist, I noted a black bear {Ursus americanus) hunting around through the sage brush on a nearby hillside. Five minutes later we stopped for the night, and as I descended from the machine, I turned my ten power glasses on the bear, and was surprised to see that he was making off, at a leisurely gait, with an elk calf in his mouth. He paid not the slightest attention to the presumable mother of the calf, which followed him anxiously within fifteen or twenty feet; she, in turn, being followed by three other cows. Shortly, the bear entered a small grove of aspens into which the cows were afraid to follow, and they walked back and forth along the border of this for some time. Three of the cows soon dispersed, but the fourth wandered about disconsolately until dark. When with the cows, the elk calves are reasonably safe, but the latter are usu- ally hidden in the brush or forest while their mothers are feeding in the meadows, and it is at such times that the bears have a chance to make a meal, which oppor- tunity, according to Skinner, they never fail to embrace. I have observed the ‘‘hidden’' calves in the woods, and have noticed that as long as a person is in motion, although only six feet away, the calves remain absolutely still, with neck extended along the ground, but the instant the person stops, they are up and sprawling through the timber at their best gait. These notes may be of in- terest to those who contend that the black bear is harmless to game, and confines his attentions to more humble fare. — ^A. Brazier Howell, Pasadena, Calif. THE tree-climbing WOLVERINE Perhaps no apology is needed for this addition to my note on the tree climbing of the wolverine recently printed in the Journal, but I regret that it was delayed. Mr. John B. Burnham of New York, who went to Alaska at the time of the Klon- dike excitement, tells me that wolverines climb trees, and that this habit is well known there. These animals are constant plunderers of tree caches — stores of food or other articles placed high up in trees to protect them from the ravages of ground dwelling animals — and such tree caches are always built, where this is possible, with an overhang to prevent the wolverine, when it climbs the tree, from reaching the platform on which the articles are placed. When available, sheet iron or tin is sometimes nailed around the trees below the cache to make climbing more difficult. In the winter of 1897-98, a wolverine one night climbed a single spruce tree standing near the corner of Mr. Burnham’s cabin, and pulled down a piece, of meat that had been hung on a limb seven or eight feet above the ground. The wolverine’s tracks were plain in the snow, and its claw marks on the bark of GENEEAL NOTES 37 the tree. This wolverine frequently visited the neighborhood of the cabin, and at ength was trapped in a dead fall strong enough and heavy enough, it was thought, to have held a young bear. The animal was not killed — although the faU log and what had been put on it must have weighed 800 or 1000 pounds — but pulled itself out and went off, leaving blood and hair which told unmistakably what animal had been caught. Mr. J. P. Holman of New York has often seen in Alaska caches protected by tin nailed about the tree trunks. Mr. T. H. Bowler, M.E., of New York, a former member of the Northwest Mounted Police, states to me that there is no question but that wolverines climb trees to rob caches. He also speaks of the common practice of splitting tin coal oil cans and nailing them around the tree trunks below the caches to prevent the wolverines getting support for their claws. Notwithstanding this precaution, he knows of instances where wolverines have robbed caches in trees that were thus protected. Apropos of the ancient story that the wolverine throws down bits of moss to attract the deer under the tree in which he is concealed, an observation by Mr. Burnham seems interesting. In his deer park he has seen deer attracted to oak trees in which gray squirrels were nutting, by the sound of the squirrels barking. The deer had learned that the gray squirrels dropped many acorns. He says, “Several years ago there was a very heavy crop of acorns on an oak ridge. I hunted this ridge three or four different days, and as I was searching particularly for large bucks I had abundant time to watch the deer. Several times I saw feeding deer raise their heads when they heard the squirrels barking at a distance and look intently in the direction of the sound. . If they saw any nuts dropping, they walked over under the tree in which the squirrel was working and ate the acorns. They had learned to associate the sound with the food.” — Geo. Bird Grinnell, New York City. CURIOUS PALATAL OBSTRUCTION IN MUSTELA LONGICAUDA While collecting on the prairies north of Islay, Alberta, Canada, I took among others on October 31, 1919, a specimen of Mustela longicauda disclosing a rather curious circumstance. Upon cleaning the skull I found a tough length of vege- table stalk, in diameter about the size of a knitting needle, firmly wedged in the cups formed by the rearmost and second molariform teeth. The piece fit securely 38 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY and neatly and was removed only after a surprising degree of pressure. By the depression of the palatal cartilage I judged the obstruction to have been in posi- tion for a considerable time. The animal doubtless engulfed it along with food; and by a singular chance, the piece being of precisely the right length, it caught and lodged permanently in the position as shown in the sketch. The working of the tongue against the unnatural protuberance would serve daily to force it more securely into the cups. Beyond an early and temporary irritation the animal doubtless suffered but little material disadvantage. The stalk on dis- section seemed peculiarly gritty and hard as if undergoing as it were a kind of saline petrifaction. Upon examining several skulls of longicauda taken at the same time and place the cups or pits of the one under discussion seemed just per- ceptibly enlarged by the obstruction. The individual was large of frame (total length, 450 mm.; t. vert., 155; foot, 50; d') and in perfect physical condition. — J. Dewey Soper, Guelph, Ont. ERRONEOUS IDEAS CONCERNING SKUNKS It is commonly believed that if a skunk be picked up by the tail he is power- less to discharge his scent; it is also believed by many people that if the fluid from the scent glands reaches the eye it will cause blindness. Evidence secured during this summer seems to demonstrate that neither of these beliefs is tenable. August 10, 1920, a member (not the writer) of a Michigan Museum of Zoology expedition working near Little Girl's Point in Gogebic County, Michigan, caught a nearly grown male skunk {Mephitis hudsonica) in a trap. A wire noose on a stick was slipped over the skunk’s head, and after it was drawn tight and the ani- mal partly choked, the trap was removed. The skunk, however, was not quite dead and to prevent him from getting his feet up on the noose, where he could have discharged his scent, the wire was given a slight jerk from time to time. At one of these jerks the wire broke. To keep the skunk from escaping while a new noose was being made the animal was held up by the tail. At this time he was nearly dead from the choking he had received, but he soon began to recover and suddenly without any warning he discharged a small quantity of the scent fluid into the left eye of his captor. The injured eye smarted sharply and both eyes immediately produced many tears. The eye was wiped out with a hand- kerchief, for there was no stream of water within a mile, and in about flve minutes the smarting passed away, leaving, aside from the odor, no after effects. I know of another case where, while a trapper was skinning a skunk, the scent fluid was accidentally discharged into the eye. The eye was well bathed in water and no permanent damage to the vision resulted. Skunks seemingly cannot discharge the scent if held up off the ground by one foot where this has been caught in a trap. But if they can get the hind feet upon the trap which is holding a front foot the scent can be discharged. An instance of this kind happened in Gogebic County on the expedition above men- tioned. If often happens, however, that a skunk which is handled slowly and cautiously in a trap can be lifted off the ground by a pole and will not discharge the scent even though three or all of his feet are on the pole. It may be possible then that a skunk might sometimes be held off the ground by the tail without disastrous results, but there is no question but that he is fully able to discharge the scent under these conditions. — Lee R. Dice, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. GENERAL NOTES 39 DATES OF SHEDDING OF ANTLERS The data on the shedding of antlers at the National Zoological Park in the November number of the Journal of Mammalogy were of intense interest to me and I append data on same in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden for the year 1920: Axis deer {Cervus axis) March 19. Barasingha deer (Rucervus duvaucelii) April 1, 6. Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) January 3; April 14. Black-tailed deer {Odocoileus columbianus) February 3. American elk {Cervus canadensis ) March 27, 28. European red deer {Cervus elaphus) March 10. Japanese deer {Sika nippon) April 12; May 2, 7. Kashmir deer {Cervus hanglu) April 30. Hog deer {Hyelaphus porcinus ) February 1. — C. Emerson Brown, Zoological Gardens, Philadelphia. NOTES ON NOMENCLATURE OP SOUTH AMERICAN MAMMALS Dasypus hybridus Desmarest. — This name should be cited from Desmarest 1804 (Nouv. Diet. d’Hist. Nat., vol. 24, Tab. Meth. Mamm., p. 28, 1804) instead of from Fischer 1814 (Zoognosia, vol. 3, p. 126, 1814). Lama guanicoe Muller. — Molina’s name Camelus huanacus (Saggio sulla Storia Nat. del Chili, pp. 317-320, 342, 1782) for the large southern guanaco is antedated by Camelus guanicoe Muller (Natursyst. SuppL, p. 50, 1776). The southern form, therefore, should be known as Lama guanicoe and the small Peruvian guanaco described by Lonnberg (Archiv f. Zook, vol. 8, no. 19, p. 8, 1913) becomes Lama guanicoe cacsilensis. Tayassu pecari Link. — Fischer’s specific name pecari (Zoognosia, vol. 3, pp. 285-287, 1814) now commonly cited for the white-lipped peccary is antedated by Sus pecari Link (Beytr. z. Naturgesch., vol. 2, p. 104, 1795). The earlier ref- erence, therefore, should be used. Dasyprocta paraguayensis Liais. — Although provisionally and somewhat irreg- ularly proposed (Climats, Geol., Faune du Bresil, p. 536, 1872), this name is clearly based on Azara’s Acouti. As shown by Thomas, Azara’s animal is not the one named azarde by Lichtenstein but a smaller species which has been called felicia. This species, therefore, should take the name paraguayensis and Dasyprocta felicia Thomas (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., (8), vol. 20, p. 310, 1917) becomes a synonym. Sciurus boliviensis nom. nov. — This name is proposed as a substitute for Mac- roxus leucogaster Gray which is preoccupied by Sciurus leucogaster F. Cuvier 1831 (Suppl. Hist. Nat., Buffon, vol. 1, p. 300, 1831). Cuvier’s name is a synonym of Sciurus aureogaster, which applies to a species of the subgenus Echino sciurus, while Gray’s name stands for a species of the subgenus Leptosciurus. For those who regard these groups as full genera, therefore, the leucogaster of Gray would not be invalidated by a previous leucogaster belonging to a different genus. If the respective groups are regarded only as subgenera, however, action as above is required. 40 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Sciurus gerrardi inconstans nom. nov. — This name is proposed as a substitute for Sciurus versicolor Thomas 1900 (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), vol. 6, p. 385, Oct. 1900) which is preoccupied by Sciurus versicolor Zimmermann 1777 (Spec, Zool. Geogr., p. 520, 1777). Mystax ursulus Hoffmannsegg. — Although usually quoted from Humboldt or Geoffroy 1812, the name Ursula for the black tamarin marmoset appears to have been used first by Hoffmannsegg in 1807. The citation is as follows : Saguinus Ursula Hoffmannsegg, Mag. Gesellsch. Naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin, vol. 1, 2tes Quart., p. 101-104, Apr.-June 1807. Cebus nigritus Goldfuss. — Buffon’s Sajou negre (Hist. Nat. Suppl., vol. 7, p. 109, pi. 28, 1789) was given the technical name Cercopithecus nigritus by Goldfuss in 1809 (Vergleichende Naturbeschreibung d. Saugeth., vol. 1, p. 74, 1809). Hence the current name Cebus cirrifera Humboldt 1812 should be supplanted by Cebus nigritus Goldfuss 1809. — Wilfred H. Osgood, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, III. NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF THE LOWER YUKON REGION The following notes refer in general to the region roughly bounded by the Yukon River from Holy Cross to Russian Mission, and by the Kuskokwim from McGrath to Bethel, 500 miles by river. They relate unless otherwise indicated to the year 1919. This region has periods when wild life is abundant. These are followed by periods of scarcity. This applies to our resident game birds as much as to mammals. For some years there has been a very notable scarcity of small mammals generally in this section. A marked increase is noticeable in the various species this winter (January, 1920) and we may look forward with confidence to a rapid increase during the next few years. To be more particular, I will say the Canada lynx, common generally over this range in 1915 and 1916, disappeared almost entirely. The brush rabbit or varying hare is another striking example of a species which becomes excessively abundant and then disappears suddenly almost to the last one. In 1914, I often walked along the river bank near McGrath Postoffice with a gun and killed twenty or more of these hares, hanging them in bushes and leaving them for a native to pick up with a boat, as the load was often too much to carry. During the years 1915 to 1918, I do not remember to have seen one of these rabbits. The foxes also were very scarce and the few that remained seemed hungry and were not fat. Foxes in this locality get quite fat when food is plentiful, but the various species of mice also were gone, as were our resident game birds. But now we see a few lynxes returning, there are also more foxes, and rabbits are common, but not abundant, in a few localities, and there is an abundance of mice. If local conditions are a guide, then Alaska should receive more money for its furs this season than ever before in its history; and this notwithstanding the fact that two important furs, marten and beaver, are protected by law. The catch of mink this season has been large and the price very high. Weasels also are plentiful; probably more have been taken in the Lower Yukon region than ever before. Muskrats, that were not generally considered worth shipping fifteen years ago, are now one of the most important furs of the terri- tory. I have no statistics, but muskrat may now be our leading fur. The regu- RECENT LITERATURE 41 lations protecting the beaver and the pine marten are not very generally enforced and many of these animals will be taken this season. The territory in Alaska is very large and the money appropriated for protection of game and fur animals is very little, amounting this season to much less than the value of illegally caught furs that were seized. — A. H. Twitchell, Flat, Iditarod Region, Alaska. RECENT LITERATURE Fitzsimons, F. W. The Natural History of South Africa. Mammals. Vol. 3, pp. i-xiii, 1-278, 47 plates; Vol. 4, pp. i-xix, 1-271, 30 plates. London; Longmans, Green and Co., 1920. The last volumes of this work, copies of which have recently reached America, are filled with interesting facts in the history of the mammals of South Africa, presented in an original and unusually readable form. The third volume, deal- ing with the ungulates, pictures a sad record of extermination rarely equalled in historical times in any part of the world. It is a vivid reminder of the passing of the Age of Mammals. While the solitary and smaller antelopes have held out to a surprising degree, even in settled communities, the gregarious and conspicu- ous species have been literally swept away since the advent of the white man. Of the bluebuck it is stated that the last known individual was killed as early as 1799 or 1800, and that only five specimens are preserved in the museums of the world. A few quaggas existed until about 1878. The typical form of BurchelFs zebra is extinct, or nearly so; but one of its subspecies, threatened with the same fate, has been saved by the establishment of game reservations and by the enforce- mence of strict government regulations. The beautiful bontebok, which formerly occurred in tens of thousands, is extinct in a wild state; only three or four hundred animals, some of which are mixed with blesbok blood, remain today on carefully guarded preserves. The blesbok, too, has virtually ceased to exist as a wild crea- ture, but is said to be in no danger of extermination as it is kept in numbers on fenced farms; the meat commands a good price in the markets and there is a regular demand for specimens. The white-tailed gnu exists only under similar- conditions. The typical white rhinoceros has been reduced to about 20 individuals on the- game reserves in Zululand, while possibly “one or two may exist in remote parts; of southern Rhodesia,” where one, supposed to be the last, was shot in 1895. The case of the elephants of the Addo Bush, practically the only survivors of the South African herds, is reviewed at some length. It has been variously estimated that these numbered from 90 to 150 animals; but 75 are now being killed under official direction, and it has been predicted that within four years the elephant will be extinct in South Africa. In spite of this harrowing detail of man’s destruction of interesting creatures, the accounts of the former abundance of the gregarious species are fascinating, and particularly interesting are the stories of the early migrations of the enormous herds of springboks. The hippopotamus is known to migrate at sea between the mouths of rivers. The fourth volume includes accounts of the insectivores, rodents, cetaceans, the elephant-seal, pangolin, and aard-vark. It is stated: “Shrews vary in their 42 JOTJENAL OF MAMMALOGY habits in the winter in South Africa. In those districts where the winter is very cold and sharp frosts prevail, the Shrew lies dormant and bereft of the power of movement.” It is in connection with his general remarks on the Soricidae that the author makes the astonishing statement that ‘‘In Europe and other countries where the winter is very cold, and insect life exceedingly scarce, the Shrews seek out some snug, sheltered situation, and hibernate until the return of warm weather, which brings with it an abundance of insect life.” Of particu- lar interest in this volume are the chapter on the South African hedgehog and the account of the introduced North American gray squirrel. The gray squirrel is said to have become such a source of vexation to fruit growers that it has been placed on the “vermin list” at Cape Town, and a bounty has been authorized for its destruction. — N. Hollister. Dixon, Joseph. Notes on the Natural History of the Bushy-Tailed Wood Rats op California. Univ. California Publ. Zook, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 49-74, pis. 1-3, 3 figs, in text, December 10, 1919. “It is the function of the present paper,” writes the author, “to place on record such facts as have been learned to date in regard to the habits and associ- ational relationships of the bushy-tailed wood rats occurring in California.” Following adequate descriptions of the two Californian forms (iV eotoma cinerea cinerea and A. c. occidentalis) the status of the fossil form Teonoma spelaea Sin- clair from Potter Creek Cave is considered, the author confirming Kellogg’s ref- erence of it to the recent N . c. occidentalis. The species cinerea is boreal in dis- tribution, its altitudinal range being from 5,000 feet, as in Kings River Canyon, to 13,090 feet, on the summit of Mount Lyell. The life history is taken up under 13 headings, as follows: local associations, mannerisms and behavior, timidity and reflexes, tracks and other sign, houses, hibernation, breeding season, growth of young, relation to other animals, forag- ing, food, population, and economic status. Of particular interest is a compara- tive statement of the relative speed of nervous impulses in individual wood rats and certain other small rodents based on shutter-speed necessary to stop all motion when the animals were photographed. second stopped motion in the bushy-tailed wood rat; sV second, alpine chipmunk {Eutamias alpinus) ; second, California pocket gopher {Thomomys hottce), Great Basin pocket mouse (Perogna- thus parvus olivaceus), Tahoe chipmunk {Eutamias speciosus f rater), and Nelson antelope ground squirrel (Ammospermophilus nelsoni); tV second, California ground squirrel {Citellus beecheyi). — Walter P. Taylor. Adams, Chas. C., George P. Burns, T. L. Hankinson, Barrington Moore, AND Norman Taylor. Plants and animals of Mount Marcy, New York. Ecology, vok.l, 1920: part 1, pp. 71-94, (April) August; part 2; pp. 20F-233, (July) October; part 3, pp. 274-288, (October) November. (Contains remarks upon the ecological distribution of mammals on Mount Marcy.) Anderson, Malcolm Playfair. The discovery of the Chinese takin. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, pp. 428-433. September-October, 1920. RECENT LITERATURE 43 Andrews, Loring. A chamois hunt in Switzerland. Forest and Stream, vol, 90, pp. 231-233. May, 1920. Andrews, Roy Chapman. In Mongolia and North China. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, pp. 356-373. September-October, 1920. (Some experiences in collecting mammals on the American Museum Asiatic Expedition.) Bannon, Arthur H. A bear hunt on the Clearwater. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 103-106, 144, 146. March, 1920. (Experiences along one of the tributaries of the Stikine River in British Columbia.) Bannon, Henry. The game ranges of Klappan. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 485^87, 513-518. September, 1920. (Account of the hunting grounds south of the Stikine River in British Columbia.) Caribou and moose in Klappan. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 629- 631, 660, 661. December, 1920. (Hunting in the Cassiar district, northern British Columbia.) Barber, W. E. Commission’s state-wide hearings. Wisconsin Conservation- ist, vol. 2, no. 4, p. 5. September, 1920. (Summary of hearings upon meth- ods of protecting the muskrat, mink, and deer from possible extermination in Wisconsin.) Barnaby, W. C. Whitetail deer in New Hampshire. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 581-584, 612-614. November, 1920. Belitz, a. F. On the trail of the white-tail. Wisconsin Conservationist, vol. 1, no. 5, p. 1, November, 1919; no. 6, pp. 5, 6, January, 1920; vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 33, 34, March, 1920; no. 3, pp. 7, 8, July, 1920. (An attempt, based upon imaginary grounds and rather illogical reasoning, to prove that the original habitat of the white-tailed deer was in Wisconsin. Uses the name Cariacus wisconsinensis for the Wisconsin white-tailed deer, l.c., vol. 1, no. 5, p. 1, November 15, 1919.) Blair, W. Reid. Notes on the birth of a chimpanzee. Zool. Soc. Bull., vol. 23, pp. 104-111. September, 1920. (A young chimpanzee, born in the gardens of the New York Zoological Society, lived for eight days.) Brown, W. S. Doe with three fawns. California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 37. January, 1920. (Observed in the Lava Bed section of the Modoc National Forest, August, 1919.) Brownlow, O. P. Where do deer sleep? California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 88. April, 1920. (Mule deW in southern Sierras stated to bed within thick cedars or other forest trees on moonlight nights, and in more open spaces during the dark of the moon.) Burgess, Thornton W. The Burgess animal book for children. Pp. i-xvii; 1-363. Boston: Little, Brown, and' Co. Price, $3. November, 1920. (The delightful and now famous characters of the ‘‘Bedtime Stories” in book. With numerous colored plates by Louis Agassiz Fuertes.) Burnett, W. L. Notes on rodent pests.. Eleventh Ann. Rept. State Entomolo- gist of Colorado, pp. 47-62, 5 maps and figs. August, 1920. (Contains maps showing the distribution of Citellus elegans and the forms of Cynomys in Colorado.) 44 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Burnett, W. L. A contribution to the life history of the Wyoming ground squirrel {Citellus elegans) in Colorado. Part I. Circ. 30, Office of State Entomologist, Colorado Agr. Coll., pp. 1-12, 2 figs. September, 1920. Burrell, Harry. Field notes on the life history of the monotremes. — I. Austral- ian Zool., vol. 1, pt. 8, pp. 231-240, figs. 1-6. July 30, 1920. (Interesting accounts of the echidna and platypus.) Carhart, Arthur H. Live game and forest recreation. Amer. Forestry, vol. 26, pp. 723-727, 9 figs. December, 1920. Casey, Thos. L. Remark on family names. Science, n. s., vol. 52, pp. 491, 492. November 19, 1920. (Objects to Oberholser’s proposed method of dealing with family names based upon almost identical names of genera.) Cleaves, Howard H. Rabbit on her nest. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, p. 123. March, 1920. (Description of nest containing seven young found in yard of dwelling house.) Coffman, J. D. Notes on the life history of the black-tailed deer. California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 15, 16. January, 1920. (Based on a report by the officials of the Trinity National Forest, California.) CoLTAR, Charles. The intelligence of monkeys. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 15, 34. January, 1920. Davis, Morgan. Alaska brown bear protection. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 361, 362, 414, 415. July, 1920. (The widespread interest felt in this matter among sportsmen’s associations is evidenced by many letters received by the Boone and Crockett Club.) Dearborn, Ned. Trapping on the farm. Yearbook Dept, of Agriculture, 1919, pp. 451-484, figs. 1-23. 1920. Maintenance of the fur supply. U. S. Dept. Agriculture Circ. 135, pp. 1-12, plates 1-9. November, 1920. (Read before the second annual stated meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists, New York City, May 4, 1920.) Evermann, Barton Warren. The northern fur-seal problem as a type of many problems of marine zoology. Papers on the Exploration of the North Pacific Ocean, Bull. Scripps Instit. for Biol. Research, no. 9, pp. 13-26 (dated Dec. 15, 1919), 1920. Scientific and economic problems of the mammals and birds of the North Pacific. Papers on the Exploration of the North Pacific Ocean, Bull. Scripps Instit. for Biol. Research, no. 9, pp. 27-34 (dated Dec. 15, 1919). 1920. Ferguson, Harry L. A Cassiar hunt in nineteen-six. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 5-8, 38. January, 1920. (Observations to the southward of Tele- graph Creek, and in the Dease Lake region.) Flower, Henry C., Jr. On the trail of the Lord tiger. Asia, vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 893-897. October, 1920. (Account of hunting a tiger at Dalat, French Indo China. Animal measured in total length, 9 ft., i inch; length without tail, 6 ft., 3 in; weight, 375 lbs.) Gidley, J. W. a Pleistocene cave deposit of western Maryland. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1918, pp. 281-287, pis. 1-6. 1920. Gillespie, T. H. Annual report of the Zoological Society of Scotland for the year ending 31st March, 1920. Pp. 1-20. 1920. KECENT LITERATURE 45 Goldthwaite, G. Tarleton. a moose hunt in Nova Scotia. Forest and Stream, vol, 90, pp. 638, 657-659. December, 1920. Grayson, Andrew J. Game in the San Joaquin Valley in 1853. Callifornia Fish and Ganie, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 104-107. July, 1920. Haagner, a. K. National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, Pretoria, Trans- vaal. Keport for the year 1918. Pp. 1-15. 1920. (On December 31, 1918, the Pretoria gardens collection contained 492 mammals of 164 species.) Hartman, Carl G. Studies in the development of the opossum Didelphys virginiana L. V. The phenomena of parturition. Anatomical Record, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1-11 (of separate), October (September 13), 1920. (This impor- tant contribution seems to settle all controversy as to how the newly-born marsupial reaches the pouch. Ten-day old opossum embryos, after release by the mother from the liquid medium of ‘‘birth,’’ immediately crawl the full three inches to the pouch, without aid, and attach themselves to nipples.) The free-martin and its reciprocal: opossum, man, dog. Science, n. s., vol. 52, pp. 469-471. November 12, 1920. Hausman, Leon Augustus. Mammal fur under the microscope. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, pp. 434-444, 9 figs. September-October, 1920. (A study of the structures and identification characteristics of hairs of mammals. Zoologi- cal and industrial importance of methods of determining hairs.) Hinton, Martin A. C. Note on the duikers hitherto referred to Cephalophus maxwelli. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, pp. 529-533. December, 1920. Hogg, John Edwin. Boar hunting on Santa Cruz. Outers’ Recreation, vol. 63, pp. 194-196, 238-240. September, 1920. (These pigs are said to be descended from stock placed on the island in 1582. Other mammals mentioned.) Holland, R. P. How much does a wild deer weigh? Outers’ Recreation, vol. 62, p. 340, May, 1920. (White-tailed deer killed near Trout Creek, Michi- gan, weighed 354 pounds, dressed.) The spread of the coyote. Outers’ Recreation, vol. 62, p. 453, June, 1920. (Report of a coyote, suspected to be an escaped animal, shot near Ithaca, New York.) Wolf, fox, or dog? Outers’ Recreation, vol. 63, p. 99. August, 1920. (Account of an animal of doubtful relationships, possibly a hybrid, taken at Rosedale, Winchester County, New York.) Elk swim the Columbia. Outers’ Recreation, vol. 63, p. 421. Decem- ber, 1920. Hollister, N. Popular guide to the National Zoological Park. Published by the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 1-60, pis. 1-46. Price, 35 cents. October, 1920. Report on the National Zoological Park. Report of Smithsonian Inst., Appendix 4, pp. 75-89. December, 1920. (On June 30, 1920, the collection of animals in the National Zoological Park at Washington included 496 mammals of 166 species.) Hopkins, L. S. The hoary bat in Ohio. Ohio Journ. Science, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 35-37. December, 1919. (Account of a specimen taken at Kent, Ohio, August 12, 1919.) 46 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY Hornaday, W. T. The “apes” of Gibraltar. Zool. Soc. Bull., vol. 23, pp. 102- 103. September, 1920, (Reported that it is necessary to reduce in numbers the Barbary apes living on Gibraltar.) The rescued fur seal industry. Wisconsin Conservationist, vol. 2, no. 4, p. 2. September, 1920. Hunt, H. H. Food of the bobcat. California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 37. January, 1920. (Observations in Monterey district of Santa Barbara National Forest.) Lawyer, George A., Frank L. Earnshaw, and Ned Dearborn. Laws relating to fur-bearing animals, 1920. A summary of laws in the United States, Can- ada, and Newfoundland, relating to trapping, open seasons, propagation, and bounties. Farmers’ Bull. 1165, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 1-32, 1920. Lyon, M. W., Jr. Family and subfamily names in zoology. Science, n. s., vol. 52, pp. 291-292. September 24, 1920. MacCallum, G. a. Autopsy of a black fish. Science, n. s., vol. 52, p. 387. October 22, 1920. (Account of a specimen of Globicephalus melas from Woods Hole, Massachusetts.) Matthew, W. D. The three-toed horses. A fossil record that provides direct evidence of evolution. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, pp. 473-478. September-October, 1920. Maxey, D. W. Wild cat eats chicken. California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 37. January, 1920. (Observations at Gorman, California.) McCracken, Harold. When the sea otter flourished. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 298, 332, 333. June, 1920. (Some interesting information regarding the life-history of this animal, and the manner in which it was almost exterminated.) Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Conflicting views on the problem of man’s ancestry. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthr., vol. 3, pp. 213-245; 2 plates. 1920. Moodie, Roy L. The works of Ameghino. Science, n. s., vol. 52,. p. 469. No- vember 12, 1920. (A complete edition of the scientific writings and corre- spondence of the late Florentine Ameghino is being financed by the minister of public works of the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic.) Murphy, Robert Cushman. Far-distant parks of zoology I. The zoological park of Lima, Peru. Zool. Soc. Bull., vol. 23, pp. 95-100. September, 1920. Nelson, E. W. Report of chief of Bureau of Biological Survey. U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Pp. 1-36. 1920. (Contains a summary of the work of the Survey for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920.) Making the game last. Outers’ Recreation, vol. 63, pp. 182-186, 248- 250. September, 1920. (Regarding control and protection of game animals on reservations, national parks, and national forests.) Osborn, Henry Fairfield. The hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, pp. 229-246; 14 figs. May-June,1920 (rec’d. September 10) . (Interesting accounts of murals depicting extinct mammals and their relations to early man.) Patterson, J. T. A new variety of the roof rat. Science, n. s., vol. 52, pp. 249- 250. September 10, 1920. (A cinnamon variation among specimens of Rattus alexandrinus in Texas.) RECENT LITERATURE 47 Perrin, Edwin O. On the trail of a deer-mouse. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 306, 307. June, 1920. (General account of habits of Peromyscus, with photographs.) Pickett, L. M. Raising deer. Country Life, vol. 37, pp. 84, 86, 88, 90. January, 1920. (Experiences in breeding white-tailed deer.) Pope, Saxton. Hunting grizzly with the bow. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 533-536, 565-568. October, 1920. (Account of killing grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park by means of bows and arrows.) Ransom, Bratton Howard. Synopsis of the trematode family Heterophyidse with descriptions of a new genus and five new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 57, pp. 527-573. 1920. (Mentions definite mammalian hosts of certain species of trematodes.) Roeth, Valentine. Conserve our deer. Wisconsin Conservationist, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 2-3, July, 1920. (Upholds the ‘‘one buck law.’’) Rondthaler, Harold. Trailing the Kadiak. Outers’ Recreation, vol. 63, pp. 276, 277, 323-326. October, 1920. (Account of a trip to Alaska in search of the big brown bear.) Rothschild, Lord. Preliminary description of a new warthog. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, p. 416. October, 1920. (Phacochcerus barkeri, sp. nov., from southwest of Bahr el Ghazal.) Rutledge, Archibald. The deer of coastal islands. Country Life, vol. 37, pp. 70, 72, 74, 76. February, 1920. (Account of wild deer along coast of South Carolina and Georgia.) Schwarz, Frank. Mammals of Missouri. Bull. Saint Louis Nat. Hist. Mus. Assoc., vol. 1, pp. 38-44. June, 1920. (List of mammals of Missouri, with brief annotations.) Scott, H. H., and Clive E. Lord. Studies of Tasmanian Cetacea. Part IV. Delphinus delphis (the common dolphin). Royal Soc. Tasmania, Pap. and Proc., 1920, pp. 1-10, pis. 1-5. May 29, 1920. Studies in Tasmanian mammals, living and extinct. Number I. Noto- therium mitchelli (a marsupial rhinoceros). Royal Soc. Tasmania, Pap. and Proc., 1920, pp. 13-15. May 29, 1920. Studies in Tasmanian mammals, living and extinct. Number II. Section 1. The history of the genus N ototherium. Section 2. The osteology of the cervical vertebrae of N ototherium mitchelli. Royal Soc. Tasmania, Pap. and Proc., 1920, pp. 17-32. July 24, 1920. Sheldon, Charles. The protection of Alaska game. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 107, 158, 159. March, 1920. Shiras, George, 3rd. A raccoon explores new country. How one of these pio- neers visited a camp on the south shore of Lake Superior, and was encouraged to remain. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 10, 11, 44. January, 1920. Shoemaker, Clarence R. Report of the Canadian Arctic expedition 1913-1918. Vol. VII: Crustacea. Part E: Amphipods. Pp. 2-30. Ottawa, September .7, 1920, ‘(Contains records of stomach contents of seals.) Shufeldt, R. W. Mammalogy — an anatomical and taxonomic consideration of the group to which man belongs. Medical Record, vol. 98, no. 11. Sepa- rates repaged 1-38, figs. 1-8. September 11, 1920. Concluded in vol. 98, no. 17, pp. 673-683, figs. 9-14. October 23, 1920. (General account of mam- 48 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY mals; definition, relationships, history, evolution, distribution, anatomy, and classification. Closes with a full page table showing the author’s views on the classification of the families and higher groups.) Foxes — and what we know of them. Amer. Forestry, vol. 26, pp. 673- 681, figs. 1-10. November, 1920. (A popular account of the North Ameri- can representatives of the group.) The American antelope. Amer. Forestry, vol. 26, pp. 747-754, 13 figs. December, 1920. Stigand, C. H. The bongo — wariest of antelopes. Forest and Stream, vol. 90, pp. 596, 597. November, 1920. Stivers, Charles G. Forest fires destroy game. California Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 36, 37. January, 1920. (Killing of deer, rabbits, and squirrels in the Angeles National Forest, California, in autumn of 1919.) Thomas, Oldfield. On mammals from the lower Amazons in the Goeldi Mu- seum, Para. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, pp. 266-283. Septem- ber, 1920. (Describes Depanycteris Isabella, a new genus and species of bat, and eight other new forms of mammals.) On small mammals from the Famatina Chain, northwestern Rioja. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, pp. 417-422. October, 1920. (New forms: Akodon gossei, Abrocoma famatina', Ctenomys famosus, and Lagidium famatinoB.) On mammals from Ceram. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, pp. 422-431. October, 1920. (New species: Rattus feliceus, R. manuselce, Ste- nomys ceramicus, Uromys fulgens, U. cerosus, U . fraterculus. New genus and species: Rhynchomeles prattorum.) Report on the mammals collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during the Peruvian expedition of 1915 under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society. Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, vol. 58, pp. 217- 249, pis. 14-15. 1920. (Lists 65 species, of which one, Holochilus incarum, from Santa Ana, is new.) New small mammals from New Guinea. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, vol. 6, pp. 533-537. December, 1920. (New: Pipistrellus papuanus collinus, Emballonura meeki locusta, Pogonomys sylvestris, P. forbesi vultur- nus, P. /. mambatus, Distoechurus pennatus dry as, D. p. amcenus.) Travis, Thomas. Wilderness dwellers. Forest and Stream, Vol. 90, pp. 130, 132, 148, 149, March, 1920; pp. 202, 204, 206, April, 1920; pp. 260, 275-277, May; pp. 316, 318, 337, June; pp. 388, 390, 409, July; pp. 452, 454, 458, August; pp. 506, 508, 510, 512, September; pp. 554, 556, 558, 560, October; pp. 602, 604, 606, 608, November; pp. 650, 652, 654, 656, December, 1920. (Observation and photographing of moose, deer, and other animals in the Tobique region. New Brunswick.) Washington Park Zoological Society. Tenth annual report; Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 1920. (The Milwaukee zoological gardens collection of mam- mals includes 102 specimens of 66 species.) CORRESPONDENCE ^ 49 CORRESPONDENCE CENSUS OP PRIVATE MAMMAL COLLECTIONS Editor Journal of Mammalogy: There is an undeniable scarcity of private mammal collections in this country, and it seems to me that the Journal, as well as the active members of the Society, should endeavor to increase the interest along this line. For one thing, it is con- ceded that the enthusiasm of most earnest workers in zoology was first stimulated by starting ‘‘a collection.” Those of us who are not so fortunate as to be located near some large museum must, to a great extent, depend upon our private col- lections as a basis for any systematic work which we wish to do. If a person desires to work on a certain genus or order, it is advisable to secure, by exchange or purchase, specimens from different parts of the country, but he will usually find it difficult to get in touch with other collectors who are in a position to furnish the material desired. With these facts in view, I suggest that a census be taken of the private mam- mal collections of North America, and a summary of the information gathered could then be published in the Journal. If this plan meets with your approval, I should be only too willing to act as compiler. The value of such a list depends upon its completeness, so everyone with a private collection of mammals, even though it be but a small one, should send in full information as to its size, terri- tory covered, special interests, et cetera. Yours truly, 268 S. Orange Grove Ave., A. B. Howell, Pasadena, California. SUBSCRIPTIONS RECEIVED TOWARD THE PUBLICATION OF ‘‘tHE COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY OP THE PROCYONID^ ” Editor Journal of Mammalogy: My letter published in Ihe Journal of Mammalogy (Vol. 1, No. 4, August, 1920) on the question of raising the funds to publish the above mentioned work needs no comment. The amount to be raised will be somewhere between $1000 and $1300, and the following sums have been either pledged or sent for the purpose. 1. The Elizabeth Thompson Fund of Harvard University $200.00 2. George T. Welch, M.D., Passaic, New Jersey 6.00 3. H. J. Boldt, M.D., New York City, N. Y 2.00 4. A. B. Howell, Esqr., Pasadena, California 2.00 5. Mrs. Anna Botsford Comstock, Ithaca, New York 2.00 6. E. Gordon Alexander, Esqr., Lexington, Mo. . 2.00 7. Prof. Glover M. Allen 2.00 8. E. B. Trescott, Petaluma, Cal 2.00 9. Prof. Davidson Black, Peking, China 4.00 10. Dr. H. H. T. Jackson, Washington, D. C 2.00 Very truly, R. W, Shufeldt. 50 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY EDITORIAL COMMENT The third annual stated meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists will be held at the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., May 2 to 4, 1921. This is by far the most pleasant season of the year for a visit to Washington. The complete success of the second annual meeting in New York last spring makes it certain that there will be a large attendance, and a full and interesting program, with added social features, is expected. Announce- ments giving full particulars will be mailed by the corresponding secretary to all members. From the suggestions for change of style for the Journal of Mammalogy made by members of the Society during the past year, four plans have been approved by the committee on publications. These are: (1) Whenever possible the descriptions of illustrations shall appear as legends under the plates instead of in a special ‘‘explanation of plates.’’ (2) Author’s address shall be printed after each regular article or general note. (3) In listing titles under “Recent Literature,’’ instead of repeating author’s name, when there are two or more titles, use a long dash. (4) Print brief reports of the activities of Sections of the American Society of Mammalogists, signed by the secretaries of such sections. A full and ready response should be made to Mr. A. B. Howell’s request, in the correspondence department of this issue of the Journal, for information regarding the private collections of mammals in North America. The statistics gathered by such a census will furnish valuable and interesting data. Let every member of the Society and reader of the Journal who has a study collection of mammal skins and skulls, no matter how small or how local it may be, write to Mr. Howell at once. The editor would suggest that the census be not restricted to private collections, but include all collections in universities, museums, and public institutions as well. The more information that is given regarding the extent and scope of each collection the more useful will Mr. Howell’s final report be to all, and most of the members of the Society will be interested in knowing something of the size of our larger American collections, as well as what regions they particularly cover. Many libraries nowadays bind scientific serial publications with all the covers in place. Those who do much work with bound volumes of journals appreciate the many advantages of this system and always encourage its use. The colored covers of heavier paper help one to find the initial page of the number or part one wishes to cite, and they make more readily accessible the date of publication of any particular page. It was a common practice at one time to destroy the orig- inal covers when the parts were assembled for binding, and in many an old volume the lack of these covers is now a distinct loss. The later idea of binding the covers at the back was a step in the right direction, and the modern idea of leav- ing each brochure intact, exactly as received, is a still greater improvement. With this idea in mind the Journal of Mammalogy will issue the title page for each volume as a separate sheet, to be mailed with the first number of the suc- ceeding volume. The index for the entire year will be printed in its proper place EDITORIAL COMMENT 51 in the last issue, and there will be no necessity to mutilate any number when the volume is sent to the binder. It may be argued that the danger of loss of the separate title page is a dis- advantage, but it is believed that the chances of this are small, and after all the lack of the title page in a bound volume would not be a serious matter. It would be far outweighed by the knowledge that each separate number is in the exact form as received from the publisher, and that each plate and page is in its right place. One advantage in having the title page mailed with the first num- ber of the succeeding volume, rather than with the last number of the volume with which it belongs, is that the actual date of publication of each number may be listed in it. This advantage of having the exact date of publication of each page readily obtainable in a uniform place in each bound volume will be appre- ciated by those using library sets of the Journal in the years to come. — N. H. MAY, 1921 No. 2 Vol. 2 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Published Quarterly by the American Society of Mammalogists CONTENTS Banding Bats A. A. Allen The Present Status of the European Bison or Wisent Theodor G. Ahrens Capturing Small Mammals for Study Vernon Bailey The Mammals of Itasca County, Minnesota Alvin R. Cahn Desert and Lava-dwelling Mice, and the Problem of Protective Coloration in Mammals Francis B. Sumner The “Hand-stand” Habit of the Spotted Skunk Charles Eugene Johnson On the Gorilla and Chimpanzee C. R. Aschemeier The Red Squirrel of the Sitkan Districb, Alaska H, S. Swarth Revised List of the Species in the Genus Dipodomys Joseph Grinnell Description of a new species of Phenacomys from Oregon A. Brazier Howell Notes on the Snowshoe Rabbit J. Dewey Soper General Notes Opossum in Vermont, G, L. Kirh; Opossum Carries Leaves with its Tail, L. L. Pray; Notes on the European Hedgehog, J. A. Loring; Shrews and Weasels, G. L. Kirk; Tla.e Hog-nosed Skunk in Colorado, E. B. Warren; The Elephant Seal off Santa Cruz Island, California, A. W. Anthony; Mice and Chipmunks Help Restock Forests, U. S. Dept. Agric.; Recent Migration of the Gray Squirrel in Wisconsin, H. H. T . Jackson; Caesarian Operation on Lepus alleni, and Notes on the Young, C-. T. Vorhies; Dates of Shedding of Horns in Yellowstone Park, M. P. Skinner; Shed Horns of the American Antelope, G. B. Grinnell; Field Suggestions, A.B. Howell. Recent Literature The Northern California Section of the American Society of Mammalogists 53 58 63 68 75 87 90 92 94 98 101 109 118 123 PUBLISHED AT MOUNT ROYAL AND GUILFORD AVENUES BALTIMORE, MARYLAND WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, U. S. A. Entered as second-cla^Bb matter, November 22, 1919, at the Postoffice, Baltimore, Md., imder the Act of March S, 187®. The American Society of Mammalogists Founded April 3, 1919 Incorporated April 29, 1920 C. Hart Merriam, President E. W. Nelson; Wilfred H. Osgood, Vice-Presidents H. H. Lane, Recording Secretary Hartley H. T. Jackson, Corresponding Secretary J. W. Gidley Treasurer N. Hollister, Editor Additional Directors 1920-1922 Jr. T. S. Palmer Rudolph M. Anderson M. W. Lyon, Jr. W. D. Matthew Edward A. Preble Standing Committees Publications: N. Hollister, Chairman. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., Edward A. Preble, Hartley H. T. Jackson, J. W. Gidley. Life Histories of Mammals: Chas. C. Adams, Chairman. Rudolph M. Anderson, Vernon Bailey, Harold C. Bryant, Lee R. Dice, Hartley H. T. Jackson, T. S. Palmer, Ernest Thompson Seton^ Walter P. Taylor, Herbert Lang. Study of Game Mammals: Charles Sheldon, Chairman. George Bird Grinnell. Anatomy and Phytogeny: W. K. Gregory, Chairman. John C. Merriam, H. H. Donaldson, Alexander Wetmore, Hermann von W. Schulte. Bibliography: T. S. Palmer, Chairman. Wilfred H. Osgood, Hartley H. T. Jackson. Conservation: Wilfred H. Osgood, Chairman. E. W. Nelson, Jonathan Dwight. The Journal of Mammalogy Subscription rates, $3.50 per year; single numbers $1.00 each. Sent free to all mem- bers of the American, Society of Mammalogists not in arrears for dues. Manuscripts for publication, books and papers for notice and review, etc., should be sent to the Editor, N. Hollister, National Zoological Park, Washington, D. 0. Subscriptions, changes of addresses, requests for missing numbers, applications for adver- tising rates, etc., should be sent to the Corresponding Secretary, Dr. Hartley H. T. Jackson, Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. 1919-1921 Gerrit S. Miller, Glover M. Allen WiTMER Stone Joseph Grinnell John C. Merriam Journal of Mammalogy Published Quarterly by the American Society of Mammalogists VoL. 2 MAY, 1921 No. 2 BANDING BATS By a. a. Allen, Ph.D. [Plates 4-5] The interesting article by Mr. A. B. Howell on “Some California Experiences with Bat Roosts’^ in the August number (1920) of the Journal inspires me to put on record a few observations that I have made on the bats in central New York, and a recent attempt that I have been making to mark individual bats with the aluminum bands of the American Bird Banding Association. Seven species of bats are known to occur at Ithaca, New York, five of which are common and widespread. The hoary bat, Nycteris cinerea, is known only as a migratory species from a few specimens taken during October, and the Say^s bat, Myotis suhulatus, has been found but twice, July 2, 1904, and June 11, 1914. Of the others, the large brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus, and the small brown bat, Myotis lucifugus, are abundant about buildings, the latter being the more common. The other three, Nycteris borealis, the red bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans, the silvery-haired bat, and Pipistrellus subflavus, the pipi- strelle bat, usually roost about trees or in crannies in the rocky sides of the gorges. The pipistrelles, however, frequently assemble in dark corners of buildings along the edges of the ravines. The onlj^ ones I have found roosting in colonies are the little brown and the pipistrelle, the former occurring during the breeding season in colonies often of several hundreds, in dark attics, cupolas, etc., while the latter usually roost in small clusters. The accompanying photo- graph shows a cluster of 18, the largest I have seen. On June 24, 1916, a neighbor, Mrs. Willard Austen, living close to Fall Creek gorge, informed me that some bats had been roosting in a 53 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2, NO. 2 54 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY dark corner of her porch for some time and were making a nuisance of themselves by soihng the floor. She wished me to do away with them. Upon examination I found four female pipistrelles hanging in the dark- est corner of the ceiling of the porch, which was partially shut in, in their characteristic tight cluster. Mrs. Austen informed me that they had been there the previous summer and that efforts to dislodge them by turning the hose on them, and poking them with brooms, were only temporarily successful, as they alw^ays returned the next night. This interested me and I wished to determine whether it was always the same bats that came back in spite of the disturbance or whether this porch was a roosting place known to many bats. Accordingly I ascended to their retreat and picked them off without their making any effort to fly. It was at this time I discovered that they were females carrying large embryos and I surmised that they had come here to have their young. I then took four of the smallest size bands of the American Bird Banding Association and placed them on their legs, taking c^ire not to close them completely, but pinching them on tightly enough so that they would not come off. I then carried the bats three blocks to my home where after observing them for a time, I released them. Mrs. Austen promised to inform me if the bats returned but as I never heard from her, the incident was forgotten until three years later, June 29, 1919, when she telephoned me that the bats had again been annoying her. She had invited a small boy to shoot them and when they picked up the dead bats they found the aluminum bands on their legs. I secured the bats of which there were again four, and three of them bore the bands that I had put on three years before. The numbers w^ere 15899, 15901, 15902. Number 15900 had either been lost from the leg or else the bat had disappeared and its place been taken by another. The fourth bat was a female and all again were carrying large embryos. I inquired of Mrs. Austen whether the bats had been roosting on the porch during the two preceding summers but as she had been away each summer she was unable to inform me. This curious incident of the same three, and probably the same four bats, staying together or returning to each other after three years had elapsed, reminded me of how little we know of their habits. Again, Mr. Howell, in his suggestive account of the California bats, states his belief that most of our bats are migratory, but the very fact that we cannot state so definitely shows how httle we know about them. He speaks, for instance, of the large brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus fuscus, ALLEN — BANDING BATS 55 as absent or very rare during winter in California, but with us it is the only species for which we have definite winter records. On several occasions I have seen them fiying about in the day time during Feb- ruary or March, and, nearly every winter in January or February, one comes out of hiding and flies about the halls of the Zoology building at Cornell University. All these facts point to the need for further study of these interesting little beasts. The valuable results that are now being obtained by banding birds could no doubt be duplicated with bats if only enough persons would cooperate in the project of banding. Illustrating the ease with which the banding can be done when the opportunity offers, I discovered this year a cluster of pipistrelles clinging to the gable of my barn; holding an insect net beneath them, I touched one of them with a stick and instantly the whole eighteen dropped into the net. This was on June 5 and I observed that sixteen of the num- ber were females heavy with young. (The pipistrelles, in this locahty, normally bear two young.) Each of these bats was banded as described above and liberated. Most of them returned to the barn sooner or later as the size of the cluster seemed to be about the same a few days later. They cling so closely to one another that it is impossible to count them and, at this time, close observation of them was made impractical by their roosting beside a large hornets^ nest. Between the first and the middle of July, apparently, the young were brought forth but it was impossible to tell exactly. On the night of the fifteenth, however, two of the young were large enough to be left alone, for when I scanned the gable with the aid of a flash light, I discovered them hanging where the whole cluster had been during the day. On the twenty-fifth of the month the pipistrelles had moved away from the hornets^ nest and the young seemed to be of good size so I again held the net beneath the cluster. This time I did not hold it quite so care- fully and two of the old bats escaped. Ten adults and sixteen young were captured, however, and of these nine of the adults bore the bands that had been placed upon them the fifth of June. The bands were somewhat scratched, probably by the bats’ teeth, but the skin showed no signs of abrasion by the bands. All the young but one could fly, and they were much darker and grayer than their parents. Nine were females and seven were males. If each of the twelve females had had two young and there were but sixteen left, it bespeaks a rather high mortality, doubtless at the stage when they were learning to fly. The young were banded and all were released. After that time there 56 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY was a cluster of varying size in the barn up to the last of August but by September first they had dispersed or found another roosting place. It will be interesting to learn if they come back next year, if exactly the same ones keep together, and if the young return with them or, if their numbers are not augmented by the young, as was the case with the four banded in 1916. Whether the pipistrelle migrates or hiber- nates I am unable to say from my own observations. They appear in the spring about the first of May about the time that the migratory silvery-haired bats appear, and I have seen them as late as the first of November. Wliile on the subject of bats I should like to describe a breeding colony of the small brown bat, Myotis lucifugus, which I examined a number of years ago, July 5, 1907. It was in the attic of a house in Homer, New York, 22 miles from Ithaca. The house was of brick with a fiat tin roof sloping toward one end, the attic ranging from 18 inches to four feet in height. At the lower end of the roof the tin had become loosened from the brick, causing a crack of from half an inch to an inch in width through which the bats gained entrance. The bats congre- gated at the lower end of the attic hanging head downward from the roof trusses in large mats. They did not, however, chng to one another or form such dense clusters as do the pipistrelles. These masses were composed chiefly of adult females and young nearly grown. In one place where the roof was scarcely 18 inches from the floor, a large cuboidal space had been formed in the brick wall owing to the rotting away of a large joist. Here large numbers of the oldest young had congregated with a few females carrying young. The place most populous with bats, however, and the place where probably all of the young were born, was the space above the brick wall and below the roof between the trusses. Here the pregnant females had gathered in large numbers. From one of these spaces, thirty females were removed, all with small young or large embryos. Of course there was no pretense of a nest, the young being brought forth on the bare bricks. These were moist with urine but the excrement was apparently all ejected onto the floor where it had accumulated in piles several inches deep. No female containing more than one embryo was found although some of the females were accompanied by two young of very different sizes. In fact there seemed to be three distinct sizes of young in the attic of which from thirty-two to thirty-six of each size were secured. The smallest had apparently been born but a short time. Of these four- JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY. VOL. 2 PLATE 4 Fig. 1. One of the Female Pipistrelles, Showing Attachment of the Band. June 5, 1920 Fig. 2. A Cluster of Eighteen Pipistrelles Hanging to the Gable of the Barn. June 5, 1920 These bats were captured and banded JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2 PLATE 5 Fig. 1. Large Brown Bat {Eptesicus fuscus) with a Bed Bug {Cimex pilosellus) Behind Each Ear A flashlight photograph taken immediately after the capture of the bat, before the bugs had moved. Fig. 2. A Cluster of Four Female Pipistrelles Hanging to the Ceiling OF A Porch These bats were banded June 24, 1916, and three of them were found in the same place June 29, 1919. ALLEN—BANDING BATS 57 teen were males and nineteen were females, averaging 52.5 mm. in length. They had very black skin, almost naked, what hair they had being pale brown. The second size, of which there were twenty-one males and fifteen females, averaged 60.8 mm. in length. They wore a thin covering of hair, more sparse on the venter, more buffy in color than that of the adults. The third size, of which there were thirteen males and nineteen females, averaged 72.8 mm. in length. They were fully haired, the color being much darker than that of the adults. A few females were found accompanied by two young of the smallest and largest sizes and a few others that contained embryos were accom- panied by medium-sized young which seemed to be nursing, indicating the possibility of more than one fitter in a season. There is a bare possibility that in the confusion resulting from my disturbance some of the young might have become frightened and clung to the wrong mother. I am inclined to the belief, however, that this species never has but a single young at a birth and that it has two fitters a season. The red bat, the silvery-haired bat, and the pipistrelle, on the other hand, normally bring forth two young and have but one fitter. I did not succeed in capturing all of the bats in this roost as there were many crevices from which I could not force them. In all, how- ever, I secured 101 young and 135 adults. Of these 48 of the young were males but only four of the adults were males, indicating that while the sexes are normally of about equal number, they segregate during the season of gestation and care of the young. The presence of a few males may indicate that the males rejoin their mates for a short time between fitters. There is a popular superstition that bats carry bedbugs and during my stay in the attic I had plenty of opportunity to verify this belief as well as that they have innumerable fieas and mites. I made quite a collection from the bodies of the bats but unfortunately they were lost in transit and never identified. I have since, however, taken speci- mens from the large brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus, a photograph of which accompanies this article, which were identified for me by Mr. Van Duzee as Cimex pilosellus Horvarth, a species which never seems to infest man. I can supplement this statement by the fact that though I was in the attic for nearly two hours and saw them crawling all around, I received no bites, and careful examination of my clothes failed to reveal a single specimen. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 58 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE EUROPEAN BISON OR WISENT By Theodok G. Ahrens Originally there existed two types or species of wild oxen in Europe: The ur (urus), auerochs, Slavonic tur = Bos primigenius; and the wisent, Polish zubr, Roumanian zimbr = Bos honasus L. or Bison europaeus. The ur had no mane, resembled our domestic cattle, but had larger horns. The wisent has a mane, long hair on neck and shoulders, a hump, short horns and is a counterpart of our American bison. The ur became extinct in Europe, with the exception of Russia and Poland, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Aristotle mentions the wisent in his history of animals with the title of “bonasos’^; Pliny, Calpurnius Siculus, and Seneca describe it, refer- ring to the Paeonian species. Pausanias and Dio Cassius (150-235 A.D.) speak of the wisents as ‘‘Paeonian bulls.’^ Wisents and urs lived in Switzerland in the middle ages, but became extinct in France before 1400. The wisent is mentioned in Sweden in the eleventh century and wisent hunts are described in the Vilkina-saga, written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The wisent may have existed in England in the twelfth century, if certain references in the literature of the time may be believed, but the so-called “Wildwith cattle” in Chilhngham Park and other herds of half-wild cattle in private estates are presumably descendants of the ur. A classic mention of both species of wild cattle is to be found in the Nibelungenlied, the celebrated middle high German epic. Here the exploits of Siegfried, the principal hero of the poem, during a hunt in the Odenwald are described: Dar nach sluoc er sciere einen wisent und einen elch, Starker ure viere (After which he slew quickly a wisent and an elk, four powerful urs . . . .) It should be mentioned that the words “auerochs” and “ur” have caused much confusion. These expressions were generally used for the wisent after the extinction of the ur in Germany. The word “wisent” was forgotten and did not come again into use until 1850, but has been generally used again since 1880. As “auerochs” was the official name for wisent — bison — zubr (Polish for wisent) from 1450 to 1850, we may be pretty sure that when “auerochs” is used in the literature of this AHRENS — THE EUROPEAN BISON 59 period, “wisent” is meant; but Baron Herberstein, who was German ambassador in Russia from 1516 to 1518, has correctly distinguished the two animals and illustrated them in his book “Moscoviter wunderbare Historien” (Wonderful Moscovite tales), calling the auerochs “auerox” and wisent “bisont.” The province of East Prussia, which belonged since 1511 to the Hohenzollerns, harbored a very considerable number of wisents. Many wisent hunts are mentioned in literature, and the animals enjoyed considerable protection. In 1726, 117 wisents were still counted, but in 1755 the last animal in East Prussia was killed by a poacher. In Brandenburg the wisent existed till the eighteenth century. It was carefully protected and in 1743 eleven were still accounted for. In 1768 the last Brandenburg wisent perished. Wisents hved in Austria and Hungary throughout the middle ages, but became extinct there in the sixteenth century. Finally the forest of Bieloviesh (Russian), Bialowies (German) or Bialowicza (Polish), in Lithuania near Grodno, and a district in the Caucasus Mountains are or were the only remaining regions in which any considerable numbers of indigenous wisents lived. To be sure, upon the estates of the Prince of Pless in southeastern Upper Silesia, and in Ascania Nova in southern Tauria (north of Crimea), belonging to the recently deceased F. von Falz-Fein, a small number were main- tained, but these animals had been imported and were not indigenous. The great forest of Bieloviesh had been a royal hunting preserve since the eleventh century and wisents could only be hunted there by special permission from the ruling dynasty. The Polish-Saxon kings protected the wisents and ceased to allow any economic use of the forest. After the dismemberment of Poland, the Russian czars continued this policy of protection so that up to our own times the forest remained a carefully protected sanctuary. To give some idea of the hunts which took place in Bieloviesh under Polish rule, we learn that at one hunt, in 1744, 30 wisents were killed; 42 in 1752, and at the latter 1000 peasants were forced to act as beaters to drive the game together. Since 1820 the czars prohibited the cutting down of trees and serious efforts were made to protect game in general, and wisents in particular. In 1860 the first imperial hunt took place. Two thousand peasants acted as beaters; many foreign princes and a great number of persons of all ranks were present. Twenty-eight wisents and much other game were killed. In 1897, 37 wisents Tvere killed at an imperial hunt; in 1900, 45. 60 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY In 1828 Brincken remarks that: ^‘a la fin de la derniere guerre le nombre des Bisons etait diminu4 jusqu^ a se reduire a 300.’^ Nevertheless in 1826 from 700 to 800 were counted; in 1829, 711; in 1830, 772; but in 1831, probably in consequence of revolutionary movements, 657 only. For the next fifty years this average must have been maintained; for in 1884r-1885, 500, and in 1891, 479, were quoted. Thereupon a ukase of the 3/15 February, 1892, gave absolute protection to the wisents for all time, so that at the beginning of the present century more than 1200 are mentioned. In the following years severe epidemics broke out, so that only 727 remained in 1914. The war was naturally disastrous, so that when the German admin- istration of the forest started, scarcely 160 remained. Since this event the wisents were counted every month as far as possible, and in March, 1917, the count showed 121, consisting of 18 old and 18 young bulls, 30 old and 36 young cows, and 19 calves. In 1918, after 30 square kilometers of the forest had been reserved as a natural sanctuary, the herd seems to have increased to 170 or 180 head. The German efforts to protect the wisent began in March, 1915, when Professor Conwentz, head of the “Staathche Stelle ftir Naturden- kmalpflege in Preussen” (Prussian Bureau for the Protection of Nature) called the attention of several army commanders in the East to the endangering of the wisent. The ninth army therefore caused a strict prohibition of wisent shooting to be issued, and on October 1, 1915, Captain (later Major) Escherich, a Bavarian Forstrat (forest commis- sioner), was appointed commander and head of the German forest administration of the occupied district. Owing to the energetic efforts of this active and experienced forest official complete protection of the remainder of the wisent herd in this extensive forest, the inaccessible recesses of which rendered any con- trol extremely difficult, was finally carried through. As early as September 25, 1915, a ruhng regarding hunting was issued by Lieutenant-General von Seckendorff, which declared: ^‘We desire to preserve the Wisent herds as far as possible, although this is enemy territory, so as to convey to posterity a Natural Monument of pecuhar value. Thus the best hopes for the future were entertained, but then came the collapse of the German power and the revolution of November, 1918. On December 16, 1918, shortly after the revolution. Major Escherich wrote to the ‘‘Staathche Stelle’^: “In consequence of the events of the past weeks the mihtary forest administration can no longer exercise any control over the protection of game in the forest AHRENS — THE EUROPEAN BISON 61 of Bialowies and consequently the Wisent herd of 170-180 head is seriously reduced. The imminent retreat of the German troops increases considerably the danger of extermination of the animals and thus extinction of the species is to be feared.^^ In fact it seems that all or nearly all the remaining wisents have been shot by the inhabitants and the retiring German soldiers, among whom disciphne had been undermined by the revolution. Notwithstanding, Professor Matschie of Berhn, who is well acquainted with the territory, told me that in his opinion it is very possible that wisents may still exist in impenetrable thickets of the forest. Unfortunately, there has been no corroboration of this view. About the end of the seventeenth century the first news of wisents in the Caucasus reached Europe. Since then little was known of the species till Professor Filatow made three trips to the district between 1909 and 1911 for the express purpose of studying the animals. The Caucasian wisent varies but slightly from the type in Bieloviesh; the shape of the skull and the horns, which resemble those of the American bison, being the chief peculiarities. It is known as Bos (Bison) bonasus caucasius Greve. At one time the Caucasian wisent lived in the district of Mount Elbrus, but its territory has been reduced to a comparatively small area in the Kuban region in northwestern Caucasia. Cutting down of the forests was the chief cause for the diminution. The last known area, where Caucasian wisents hved is as follows: Its northern limit is south of the towns of Atschcha and Atscheschbok, then along the bend of the Umschten and Schischa Rivers to the mouth of the Besymjanka, and somewhat south at the mouth of the Maltschepa. The whole area is 50 versts between east and west and 20 versts between north and south. According to Filatow, the number of ani- mals was ^‘scarcely less than 100, but under no conditions as many as 1000.’’ Since the revolution the Kuban cossacks have demanded the return to them of these hunting grounds, which had been leased by them to the Grand Duke Sergius Michaelowitsch who endeavored to protect the wisents there, and thus an extermination of the species is also to be feared. Professor Matschie thinks that the remaining Cau- casian wisents have abandoned their old range and emigrated to other regions, at present unknown. The herd of Pless above mentioned was founded in 1864 or 1865, when a bull and three or four cows were presented to Prince Pless by Czar Alexander II. and the former placed them in his extensive estates in southwestern Upper Silesia. The animals increased there consid- 62 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY erably. In 1893, 5 more cows were introduced from Bieloviesh. In 1918 there were about 60 animals there, but according to Professor Pax of Breslau the animals in Pless have been severely decimated since the German revolution and total extermination is to be feared at the hands of poachers. The present war between Poland and the Bolsheviki has again passed over the Bieloviesh region, continuous disturbances are taking place in the Caucasus, and Upper Silesia is in perpetual unrest because of the differences and antipathies between Poles and Germans. Besides the wisents still extant in Pless, and possibly in Ascania Nova, there remain a few specimens in zoological gardens. But, if we sum up, we must nevertheless conclude that the extinction of the species is imminent. There exists a very extensive hterature upon the wisent, of which a few works may be quoted: 1. Baron de Brincken: Memoire descriptif sur la For^t Imp4riale de Bialowicza en Lithuanie. Varsovie, 1828. 2. von Jarocki, Felix Paul: Zubr oder der lithauische Auerochse. Hamburg, 1830. 2. Eichwald, E. : Naturhistorische Skizzen von Lithauen, Volhynien und Podo- lien. Wilna, 1830. 4. Buchner, Eugen: Das allmahliche Aussterben des Wisents im Forste von Bjelowjeska. St. Petersburg, 1895. 5. Bialowies in deutscher Verwaltung. Herausgegeben von der Militarforst- verwaltung Bialowies. 1 und 2 Heft, 1917. 3 und 4 Heft, 1918. 5 Heft, 1919. Berlin. Besides countless articles and essays in hunting periodicals, in the literature appertaining to the protection of nature, etc. Landauerstrasse 4, Berlin Wilmersdorfj Germany. BAILEY — CAPTURING SMALL MAMMALS 63 CAPTURING SMALL MAMMALS FOR STUDY By Vernon Bailey As we look backward the field study of mammals seems a compara- tively recent development in North American mammalogy. Briefly, the published works of Richardson in 1829, Audubon and Bachman in 1845, Baird in 1857, Coues and Allen in 1877, and Merriam in 1884 mark the development of mammal study in this country. Among these Baird was the pioneer in the formation of a North American collection of mammals, but the fact that satisfactory methods of collecting and preserving small mammals had not been devised, pre- vented the accumulation of series of specimens meeting the demands of modern methods of study. It remained for Doctor Merriam and his associates to develop the science along these lines, and under his guidance the large series of specimens which laid the foundation of our present knowledge of the mammals of North America were brought together. The methods of collecting were gradually standardized and improved until today we have many museums stocked with well-pre- pared and carefully labeled specimens. Intensive collecting should be continued until the gaps in our museum series are filled, and every college, normal school and high school has its collection of local species. The series of mammal specimens in the Biological Survey collection have now reached such proportions that along certain lines of collecting we are slowing up. The present policy of the survey is to collect fewer and only choice specimens except in special cases or in unworked areas. This affords what many of us have long felt the need of, more time for a closer study of fife-histories. The recent outlines for field study of fife-histories by Seton, Nelson, Taylor, and Anderson are steps in the right direction. These are mere outlines, however, and while rich in suggestions they need to be ampli- fied for the benefit of beginners. The first question that arises is where and how to find something to collect or study. Take the abundant and easy things first. One can find plenty of meadow mice and white-footed mice almost anywhere outside of city limits. Go into the meadows, old fields, or grassy fence rows, get down on your knees, part the grass, and you will prob- ably find little trails or runways over the surface of the ground. Their appearance, bits of cut grass stems, and other signs of occupation generally tell you if the mice are there. Or go into the woods or to a rocky slope and look under logs, in hollow trees, under stones, in little 64 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY caves and niches of the chffs and ledges for tracks or traces of white- footed or red-backed mice, or for tiny burrows and runways of shrews, or for larger burrows and hollows where chipmunks hve. Or go into the woods and find the homes of flying squirrels by pounding on the sides of hollow trees or trees with old woodpecker holes in them, and watch the flying squirrels peep out and in response to harder pounding soar away to other trees. Listen for the chatter of red or pine squirrels and then steal up quietly and watch them at work or play and get their home range located so that you can come and watch them at any time. Learn how to find , the common species and you will gradually learn to find the rare ones. The next step is to get the animals you want for specimens or to catch them ahve for closer study. If you wish specimens, set any of the half dozen kinds of snap traps that come down across the necks or backs and Idll quickly, selecting the right sizes for the animals you are trapping. In runways set the trap across the run so the trigger will be in the way of passing mice, and sprinkle rolled oats over it. For white-footed mice and others that do not make runways place the traps where they feed or travel and sprinkle plenty of rolled oats over the trigger and a little around the trap. For chipmunks and flying squirrels use larger traps, generally the size made for rats, set on logs or stumps or in hollow trees or fittle shelves on the sides of trees, and baited with nuts or bread fastened to the trigger and sprinkled over with rolled oats. For shrews set mouse-size traps under logs or rocks or banks or at little burrows in woods earth, with a bit of fresh meat or bacon on the trigger and also a sprinkle of rolled oats. A great variety of baits may be used, grains, seeds, nuts, bread, meat, and vegetables according to the tastes of the animals, but rolled oats seem to appeal to the greatest number. There are several pamphlets giving directions for preparing specimens. While catching animals for specimens is a very necessary and fun- damental part of our study, the process does not teach us much of their habits. Catching them ahve for study is just as easy. Forty years ago I had to make all of my traps for small mammals and most of the traps caught the animals ahve and uninjured. The simplest trap is the inverted bov/1. A glass bowl is good but a tin can, pan, bucket, or box will do. A fight dish or box may need a stone on top for weight. Cut out of a thin board or shingle a trigger, rounded at one end and pointed at the other. Fasten some bait to the pointed end and place the rounded end under the edge of the bowl or BAILEY — CAPTURING SMALL MAMMALS 65 box and the baited end about the middle underneath. The mouse wiggles the bait and the bowl drops over him. You shde a paper, tin or bag under the bowl and pick up your mouse and place him in a bag Fig. 2. Tin Can Trap for Capturing Mice Alive or box or cage. Some food and nest material may be placed inside the trap if the weather is cold or you cannot come back soon to examine the trap. A tin can makes a good hve trap. Cut a piece of tin to fit inside of the open end. Hinge it with a wire loop at one edge so it swings in 66 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY and not out. Fasten a springy wire along the outside and attach to the hd so that it is drawn shut. Push the hd in and place a baited spindle under its lower edge to hold it open until the mouse wiggles the bait. Then the spindle drops and the door snaps shut with the mouse inside. A still simpler trap may be made by cutting a hole in one end of a tin box and placing a sloping hinged door inside that easily hfts up for the mouse to enter and drops down behind him. The regular figure-four trap or one of the various forms of rabbit traps may be made of tin or boards for animals of larger size up to woodchucks and raccoons. In fact much of our fur could be taken in such traps with less cruelty and less injury to the fur than in steel traps. Deep holes in the ground near the burrows or runways of some species of mice and shrews will catch the animals, but other kinds will not fall into them. Many mice may be caught in your hands if you know where to find them under the haycocks and grain shocks when the grain and hay are being hauled. With a httle practice you can catch any mice that are uncovered in the field and hold them so they will not bite you. By following the tracks of white-footed mice on the snow to their underground winter dens you can easily dig down and catch them in your hands. I have caught as many as four at a nest in this way. With a fight pick and shovel you can dig out many bur- rowing species and in doing so learn much of their habits, homes, nests, young and food, besides catching the animals alive for study. The next thing is how and where to keep your menagerie. Simple wire screen cages with wooden or tin bottoms and ends and sliding BAILEY — CAPTUKING SMALL MAMMALS 67 doors are easily made and prove the most satisfactory of any I have tried. These can be kept on a table in your library where you can watch the animals, play with them in your spare moments, and learn much of their habits in captivity that you will never learn in the field. It is a fascinating study. I have had a pocket gopher, a meadow mouse, six white-footed mice of three species, and four pocket mice on a table in my library all winter and am finding out new habits every few days^ — new at least to me. The little pocket mice are especially gentle and easily handled. With their silky coats and quiet ways they are the favorites with the children who love to hold and play with them. The white-footed mice are still too nervous and sensitive to be handled much and it may take a second generation to make them sufficiently domestic for good pets. They are the most beautiful, graceful, and animated of the lot. The meadow mouse has more individuality than I ever credited it with. A female in my collection is not afraid, but objects to being handled or petted, and will bite if caught and held. She will sit in my hand and run over my arms and clothes, but prefers her independ- ence. She is quick and skillful but cautious. For over six weeks her cage door stood open and she ran over the table and among the cages as she pleased but never fell or jumped off. Then the cages were moved so she got onto the window sill and down to the floor and she soon learned to get down, even if she had to jump. The pocket gopher has undergone the most surprising reformation. Instead of trying to eat me up as he did at first he often begs me to take him up out of his box of earth and will climb into my hand and scratch my arm and pull at my sleeve, and is happiest when I hold him and stroke his glossy coat. He is too full of energy to be quiet for long, and soon wants to get down to run round and round the room or out in the yard where he can burrow in the ground, or in his barrel of earth where he digs furiously by the hour. We have to be careful not to touch him until he knows who is there, for he does not see well and when surprised his first impulse is to bite whatever comes within reach. But even the children have learned to play with him safely and have great fun watching him dig in the ground and push out loads of earth, and fill his capacious cheek pouches with food. All of these animals were caught when practically full grown and it has taken a long time to get them gentle. Still there are advantages in studying their habits which had become fixed and natural in the wild state. There will be other advantages in studying young raised in captivity as they will be free from any restraint or nervous tension. 68 JOUKNAL OF MAMMALOGY All of the mice are interested in little “ferris wheels’’ in which they spin and ride by the hour, getting their exercise and much evident enjoyment from them. Even the little pocket mice, usually so quiet, become enthusiastic, spinning their wheel. We have learned much that is new to us of their habits, dispositions, tastes, voices, calls, signals, hours of work and play, sleep, nest-building, sanitation and general home-making. Their time and manner of molt have been carefully noted. Their breeding habits are still to be studied. The only trouble is for busy people to get time enough to watch them, but there are many who need just such occupation and would greatly enjoy it. I hope to see a large number of people started in this kind of study, the results of which will be far-reaching in practical knowl- edge of our numerous species of small mammals. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. THE MAMMALS OF ITASCA COUNTY, MINNESOTA By Alvin R. Cahn Itasca County, one of the largest of the Minnesota counties, lies in the north central part of the state, Koochiching County intervening between it and the Canadian boimdary. Sparsely settled, with few cities of any size, the county retains a considerable variety of primitive qualities, though lumbering years ago and frequent forest fires have done much to ruin an otherwise ideal environment. A myriad of lakes, countless small streams and sphagnum bogs, hemmed in and surrounded by pine woods, however, still shelter and protect an abundance of animal life. Yet this county, like so many of the unsettled regions of the north, is doomed in the not far distant future to undergo great changes. Fur- ther Ihmbering, clearing of land, homesteading, and road building will open up what is now almost inaccessible territory, and these develop- ments will of course exert great influence upon the wild life of the region. The transition from the primitive conditions of the woods to their present state has led to the total extinction of several mammals, and to the reduction of others almost to the point of extermination. Further change will stamp out these latter and greatly reduce other species. CAHN—MAMMALS OF MINNESOTA 69 It seemed advisable, when the opportunity presented itself, to investigate the vertebrate fauna of this region before further changes occurred. This chance came to the writer during the last half of July and in August, 1919. During this period much of the county was covered, and the results of that portion of the investigation relating to mammals are herewith presented. A report on the avifauna of the county has been published elsewhere.^ The data upon which this paper is based are from two sources: per- sonal investigation, and information furnished the writer by Mr. George Dwigans, a woodsman who has spent years within the county, and who is perfectly famihar with its big game., The investigation was made possible through the kindnesses of Dr. Sydney Kuh, who has a cabin in the heart of the county, and to him the writer expresses his appreciation. A list of the mammals of Itasca County follows. 1. Northern Virginia Deer. Odocoileus americanus borealis Miller. — Still rea- sonably common throughout the county. The great areas available for its habi- tation— including a considerable amount of forest and game preserve — together with the scanty settlement of large sections of the county are conducive to the welfare of the species. In spite of the fact that the deer are relatively undis- turbed during most of the year, they are shy and suspicious as compared with those found in northern Michigan and Wisconsin. However, during the early summer, deer visited the vegetable garden near the cabin almost nightly, as disclosed next morning by the tracks in the soft earth. On the morning of August 1, Doctor Kuh and Mr. Jacobsen surprised a doe and two fawns on the road near Lawrence Lake (Prairie River) and their automobile came within a few inches of running one down. 2. Moose. Aloes americanus Jardine. — Rapidly nearing extinction in Itasca County, and very seldom seen. The species is probably more of a migrant from the country to the north and west than a permanent resident within the county. During the early summer — June, 1919 — the tracks of a large sized moose were found one morning traversing Doctor Kuh’s garden on Lake Minnewanka, an incident which has occurred several times during previous years. Doctor Kuh has the mounted head of a bull which was killed during the hunting season in 1911. If the moose is to be saved anywhere outside of forest and game preserves, it is high time that it be protected to the full power of the law. The moose is about to be added to the list of animals that formerly inhabited the county, to which list already belong the caribou, elk, fisher and marten. 3. Canada Lynx. Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr. — Because of its secretive habits, the lynx is very seldom seen. It occurs, however, throughout the county, and is quite often taken by trappers during the winter months. During August, 1 Cahn, A. R., Bird Notes from Itasca County, Minnesota. Wilson Bull., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 103-122. December, 1920. JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2, NO. 2 70 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY 1917, Mr. Dwigans and party “spotted” a fine specimen on Lake Elizabeth. Confused by the light, the lynx permitted the canoe to approach within ten feet. The animal was on the ground, and had evidently come to the lake to drink. 4. Wild Cat. Lynx rufus rufus (Giildenstsedt). — The writer has, unfortu- nately, little information to offer regarding this species. It occurs sporadically throughout the county, but in no considerable numbers. 5. Domestic Cat. Felis catus Linn. — Included in this list because there are a great many “house” cats that have taken to the woods, where they spend all their time. These animals are self-sufficient; they are essentially wild, as they can not be approached, and are dependent entirely upon their own wits and skill for their subsistence. 6. Timber Wolf. Cams nubilus Say. — Still fairly common within the county, but greatly reduced in numbers over former years. Although it is heard occa- sionally, the timber wolf is rarely seen during the summer. During the winter, however, so Mr. Dwigans tells me, it is frequently seen in clearings and crossing the frozen lakes. As the species travels considerably in winter, it is altogether likely that there is an influx of wolves during the cold weather. 7. Brush Wolf. Canis latrans Say. — This smaller wolf — never, by the way, called “coyote” in the north woods — is considerably more common than its larger relative, and is distributed throughout the county. Seldom seen in the summer, but heard by the writer during the night on many occasions. 8. Red Fox. Vulpes fulva (Desmarest). — The red fox, once rather common in Itasca County, must now be considered rare. The writer found no evidence of its presence, but during the last few years Mr. Dwigans has taken several very fine specimens within the territory under discussion. Of the color phases of the red fox, two have been taken: the cross fox, and the silver fox. As these phases are considered by the natives to be distinct species, a word regarding them may not be out of place. The silver or black form is the dark phase of the red fox; the cross fox is intermediate between the red and the silver. Both are, then, merely individual color phases of the red fox. “In a litter of fox cubs born of red parents, perhaps there may be a silver. On the other hand, one or more of the cubs of a silver vixen are quite certain to be red. ”2 Under domestication this tendency of silvers to throw red cubs can be overcome by selective and careful breeding. 9. Northern Black Bear. Ursus americanus americanus Pallas. — Very nearly extinct in Itasca County. Those individuals that remain are so wary that they are very seldom seen. However, tracks and signs are met with occasionally, and no doubt the forest preserves and the more inaccessible places still hold their occasional bear. Although the black bear is by all odds the most common, the cinnamon phase is not unknown. Doctor Kuh has a very beautiful pelt of a brown bear taken near his cabin a few years ago. The black bear is another of the mammals that will not long survive within the county unless rigidly protected. 10. Racoon. Procyon lotor lotor (Linn.). — Somewhat more common in Itasca County than the following species, but still a rare animal in the county, being 2 Dearborn, Ned, The Domesticated Silver Fox. Farmers Bull. no. 795, U. S. Dept, of Agr., p. 4, March, 1917. CAHN — MAMMALS OF MINNESOTA 71 seen and taken only occasionally. Doctor Kuh has the skins of several racoons taken in the vicinity of Lake Minnewanka, and ail are typical in size, color and markings. 11. Badger. Taxidea taxus taxus (Schreber). — The badger must now be con- sidered very rare in Itasca County, and is rapidly approaching extinction in this area. Once not uncommon, it is now almost unknown. At Ely the writer found a skin of this animal that was taken within Itasca County during October of 1918, but the exact locality — other than that it came from the northwestern section — could not be ascertained. Mr. Dwigans has taken the animal several times in the county. 12. Canadian Otter. Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber). — Common throughout the county, and steadily and rapidly increasing in numbers. Along the shores of Beaver Lake ‘‘otter runs” were in evidence. Several individuals were seen in Lake Minnewanka during the writer’s stay, and on the shore of Rice Lake five old signs were found, all being 100 per cent crayfish remains. With the otter as common as it is in Itasca County, it would not be amiss to open the trapping season for two years. If opened, however, the situation should be carefully watched by the game warden department and by competent ob- servers, and closed again at the end of that period if conditions warrant. 13. Mink. Mustela vison letifera Hollister. — Common throughout the county, frequenting the lakes and rivers, where it feeds largely upon crayfish, frogs and some of the smaller shore fishes. Successfully trapped during the open season; the fur is of high grade both in quality and in color. 14. Least Weasel. Mustela rixosa rixosa (Bangs). — This little weasel (length about 6| inches), easily recgonized by the absence of the black tip on the tail, is relatively common in spots, and is apparently local in distribution. Two indi- viduals were seen on August 14 near Cedar Lake. 15. Short-tailed Weasel. Mustela cicognanii cicognanii Bonaparte. — Consid- siderably larger than the preceding (length about 12 inches), this weasel is told at a glance by the always present black tip of the tail. Several skins were seen at Ely, and one live individual was seen on July 30 at Lake Minnewanka. It seems possible that the long-tailed weasel (Mustela longicauda spadix Bangs) may occur occasionally, though this area probably is about the northern limit of the species. The writer was told that occasionally a much larger weasel, with a black tipped tail, is taken, which may well be this larger species. 16. Skunk. Mephitis hudsonica (Richardson). — Abundant throughout the county, and often in evidence. During the summer of 1919, one of these animals insisted on living under the cabin floor, much to the joy of Bubbles, the family “badger dog,” who persisted in his endeavors to dig it out. These performances were unsuccessful in many ways, and were unpleasant particularly because Bubbles usually became interested about meal time. Every evening after dark the skunk wandered down to the garbage dump, and we could hear him rattling around for several hours. It is interesting to note that the dominant form is the “full stripe,” and Mr. Dwigans assures me that he has not had any “black” specimens among the many skunks which he has taken. 17. Minnesota Varying Hare. Lepus americanus phceonotus Allen. — The only rabbit of which the writer could get any trace was the big “white rabbit” or' ‘‘snow-shoe.” This interesting form is common, and was seen frequently during ) 72 JOUKNAL OF MAMMALOGY rambles through the woods, and along the roadside when traveling by machine at night. Some species of cotton-tail is present, but no specimen v/as procurable for identification. 18. Red-Squirrel. Sciurus hudsonicus hudsonicus (Erxleben). — Common everywhere in the woods and about the towns. The oak trees furnish the chief item of food for the species, though the hazelnut {Corylus sp.) is common enough to be of some use. Young were seen playing about the nest on July 21. 19. Lake Superior Chipmunk. Eutamias quadrivittatus neglectus (Allen). — Two species of chipmunks are found within the county, of which this is the more common. Found everywhere through the wooded areas where it feeds upon any available nuts. Unlike the next species, this little fellow shows a marked inclination to climb. 20. Gray Chipmunk. Tamias striatus griseus Mearns. — Quite common throughout the county, both in the hardwood and evergreen thickets. Found co-existent with the preceding species, and both seem to show a preference for the hardwoods. This species shows a decided preference for the ground, and is seldom found “up a stump.” Food consists of berries and nuts. Called the “gray” chipmunk because of the gray tinge of the upper parts. 21. Gopher. Citellus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill). — Rare in the cleared lands, but found occasionally in the cultivated areas about the towns and farms. This county probably represents about the northern and eastern limit of the species in the state. 22. Woodchuck. Marmota monax canadensis (Erxleben). — Quite common throughout the county and often seen, either in the clearings or along the roads. A woodchuck took up his residence under the cabin floor, but departed hurriedly when the family — and Bubbles — arrived. This hole was quickly — and per- manently— occupied by the afore-mentioned skunk. 23. Flying Squirrel. Glaucomys sabrinus sabrinus (Shaw). The flying squir- rels are always very little in evidence, and unless special search is made their presence would never be suspected. This species is relatively common through- out the county, both in the woods and about the homesteads and towns. 24. Porcupine. Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum (Linn.). — Common throughout the county in all suitable places, yet not nearly as common as the writer found the species either in northern Wisconsin or in northern Michigan. This is, of course, not to be regretted, for the animal does a large amount of damage. Pre- fers the hardwood thickets, and feeds largely on the top-most branches of the ash {Fraxinus americanus) and the aspen {Populus tremuloides). Along the lake shores it feeds upon the succulent stems and roots of the arrow-heads {Sagit- taria sps.) and the white water lily (Castalia odorat'a). 25. Beaver. Castor canadensis michiganensis Bailey. — Very nearly extermi- nated within the county limits. The writer saw but a single colony, apparently healthy and in a thriving condition, on Beaver Lake. The house here was of good size, and of the shore-line type, with the entrance in about eighteen inches of water. Evidence of activity was found in well worn log-shoots, and in a small ash {Fraxinus americanus) cut the night before. Until a year ago (the fall of 1918) there was a colony of two small houses in Rat Creek, between Little and Big Rat Lakes. Here a dam had been built, which seriously damaged fourteen tons of good hay belonging to a homesteader. Now the beaver — and CAHN — MAMMALS OF MINNESOTA 73 a part of the dam — are gone : the conclusions are obvious. There is another col- ony, which the writer did not visit, on McCabe Lake, just north of Beaver Lake, and so far as the data go, these are the only two colonies in the county. 26. Muskrat. Ondatra zibethica zihethica (Linn.). — Common throughout the county wherever there are suitable conditions, but surprisingly little in evidence as compared with northern Wisconsin and northern Michigan. Seen swimming in Lake Minnewanka, in Cedar, and Rice Lakes, as well as in many of the small unnamed lakes, and heard splashing almost every night. Several houses were seen, though none was of considerable size. 27. Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord). — Abundant throughout the county, and seen usually as a dark moving object in the leafy underbrush. The species is more active at night than in the day time. An individual of the species was seen crawling about on a pile of drifting wood in the locks where the Mississippi River leaves Lake Winnibigoshish. Evidence of damage to young fruit trees was common in new orchards. 28. Norway Rat. Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben). — Found commonly about the homesteads and in the towns, and probably quite local in distribution. How- ever, it mysteriously appears upon the scene shortly after a house is built, prob- ably being transported with the lumber or boxes. 29. House Mouse. Mus musculus Linn. — Common about the homesteads and in the towns. 30. Northern Deer Mouse. Per omy sens maniculatus gracilis (LeConte). — This beautiful rodent is very common throughout the county, and is frequently seen both in the woods and about the houses, in which it makes itself perfectly at home. Gets into the food supply, but does no serious damage. 31. Jumping Mouse. Zapus hudsonius (Zimm.). — The writer is unable to offer any information as to the abundance of this species in the county, but its occur- rence is undoubted. A skin found at Ely was taken within the county in July, 1917, and the presence of the species is known generally to those familiar with the smaller animals of the region. 32. Short-tailed Shrew. Blarina hrevicauda br evicauda {Ss^y). — Seen by the writer only once; little information can be offered at the present time as to the abundance of the species. 33. Common Shrew. Sorex personatus personatus St. Hilaire. — A single speci- men of this little shrew was found in the woods under a pile of cut logs, near Lake Minnewanka, on August 12. The animal measured 84 mm., and the stomach contents were entirely cricket remains. 34. Richardson’s Shrew. Sorex richardsoni Bach. — Two shrews of this spe- cies were found, one dead near the cabin, and another brought in by Bubbles. They measured 110.5 mm. and 114 mm. respectively. 35. Marsh Shrew. Neosorex palustris (Rich.). — This, the largest of the shrews found, is recorded from a single specimen caught in a swamp near Cedar Lake, and from another seen at Balsam Lake. The former measured 151.5 mm. 36. Say’s Bat. Myotis subulatus subulatus (Say). — This bat is very common everywhere in the county, and is found both in the woods and around the home- steads. 37. Little Brown Bat. Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (LeConte). — One of these bats was taken and two more seen, all near camp on Lake Minnewanka. The 74 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY two were seen almost every evening, beginning their twilight excursions about seven o’clock. 38. Red Bat. Nycteris borealis borealis (Muller). — Several were seen on August 8, between Bovey and camp. The stomach of one examined contained unidentifiable insect remains, mostly Diptera. EXTERMINATED MAMMALS The following species of mammals are known to have existed in Itasca County within the last fifteen or twenty years, but the writer is unable to offer any data whatsoever that would indicate that they are at present to be found therein. 1. Woodland Caribou. Rangifer caribou sylvestris (Rich.). — Formerly pres- ent, though it is doubtful if the type of country is such as to have attracted the species in any great numbers. Reported by Herrick^ from the St. Louis River (which is in St. Louis County) a few miles east of Itasca County. 2. American Elk. Cervus canadensis canadensis Erxleben. — Never really com- mon in Itasca County, owing to the fact that it is a forested country. Reported by Herrick^ as common from Lake Itasca (in Clearwater County, about 35 miles west of Itasca County) in 1885. There are no records of either species within the last fifteen years. 3. Marten. Maries americana americana (Turton). — Disappeared, appar- ently, soon after the caribou and elk. It is possible that an occasional marten may still be caught as a wanderer from another part of the coniferous area. 4. Fisher. Maries pennanii pennanii (Erxleben). — The most recent of the exterminated mammals, and there is a bare possibility that it may still exist, though the writer can find no recent records of its presence. Like the marten, probably a wanderer from adjacent territory. Texas Agricultural & Mechanical College, College Station, Texas. 3 Herrick, C. L., Mammals of Minnesota. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn., Bull. 7, 1892, p. 277. ^ Herrick, C. L., ibid., p. 280. SUMNEB — DESEKT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 75 DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE, AND THE PROBLEM OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION IN MAMMALS By Fkancis B. Sumneb [Plate 6] The prevailing tendency of desert animals — particularly the mam- mals, birds and reptiles — to assume a buff or pallid hue is a phenom- enon which has long attracted the attention of naturahsts. In many cases these colors harmonize strikingly with those of the bare sand and gravel, as well as with the commonly parched and stunted vegetation amid which such animals dwell. Oftentimes the creature need only come to rest in order to disappear from view, its presence becoming evident only when running or flying is resumed. At a first glance it would seem perfectly evident that we here have to do with the well-known phenomenon of concealing coloration. This, we might suppose, has been acquired by these various creatures through the process of natural selection. The vegetable feeders among them have become more and more invisible to their carnivorous pursuers, while the latter have profited in being concealed from their prey. It is commonly assumed by those who hold this view that the color varia- tions which are selected for survival are quite random in. their origin, at least to the extent that they are not influenced in any direct way by the environment. Various facts make it evident that this explanation is quite inade- quate in the case at hand. I will mention but a few of the more obvi- ous objections here. Later, I shall discuss certain special lines of evidence, based upon my own field and laboratory observations. (1) Most desert rodents are strictly nocturnal in their habits. (This, admittedly, is not a conclusive argument, since the moonlight of the desert is brilliantly clear, and it is probable that owls, at least, among the predators, are largely guided in their search for prey by sight.) (2) One group of these rodents — the pocket gophers — spend practi- cally their whole time beneath the ground. Nevertheless, strikingly pale species are to be found in certain desert regions. (Here again, it must be admitted that carnivorous animals, both birds and mam- mals, lay a heavy toll upon the gophers, catching them frequently when they are half emerged from their holes.) (3) The process of depigmentation apphes to parts of the body which are not exposed to view. For example, the soles of the feet of 76 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY desert deer-mice are nearly or quite lacking in pigment, while those of mice from the more humid coastal regions vary from purplish to nearly black. Again, the fur of the ventral surface of the body is whiter, in desert forms, owing to the relatively greater length of the terminal unpigmented zone of the individual hairs. Akin to this is the fact that the ventral white area of the pelage tends to extend higher upon the sides of the body, a circumstance which would seem to render the ani- mal more, rather than less conspicuous. (4) The dorsal white stripes of the skunk are broader in the desert races.’ It has rarely been contended that the skunk owes its peculiar fur pattern to the need for concealment. The class of facts cited in the last two paragraphs seems to indicate that depigmentation, rather than concealing coloration per se, is the thing which results from life in arid regions. (5) I shall offer evidence below which tends to show that the need for concealing coloration on the part of these rodents has been greatly overestimated. The general correlation between depth of pigmentation and atmos- pheric humidity is, of course, a widely recognized fact. Not only may we contrast the pale desert races with their dark relatives from the humid coast belt of the northwest, but various intermediate sta- tions may be chosen, whose birds and mammals display intermediate shades in their feathers and fur.^^ This principle is not, of course, one of universal application, the correlation in respect to color-tone being very imperfect. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is so widespread and so well known that I need not even cite specific cases in the present discussion. Now the hypothesis of conceahng coloration through natural selec- tion might doubtless be advanced with a certain degree of plausibility to cover this entire situation. It could be pointed out that regions with more humid climates (at least those having a higher rainfall) have darker (appearing) soils than the less humid ones, and that therefore the effective correlation may be between pigmentation and soil color, rather than between pigmentation and humidity per se. But the fact that outside of the desert regions the ground, in a state of nature, is commonly covered by vegetation renders such an argument very unconvincing. Green grass is doubtless somewhat darker than dry ^ See Grinnell (Univ. of California Pub. Zool., vol. 12, p. 257). Instances of this tendency among mice are discussed in papers by the present writer, in the American Naturalist (April-May, 1918,) and the Journal of Experimental Zoology (April 5, 1920). SUMNER — DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 77 grass, but a seal brown mouse would probably be no better concealed in the former than in the latter. We come now to cases in which narrowly localized races have been described, that are said to harmonize more or less strikingly with some special habitat, in respect to color-tone, and to differ noticeably from their near kin in regions closely adjacent. In some of these cases, at least, the argument that the responsible agent has been opti- cal, rather than atmospheric, assumes a higher degree of plausibility. Several writers have recorded the existence of very pale races of wild mice upon isolated beaches or sandy islands along the coast. ^ In a previous paper,^ I have analyzed one of these cases rather carefully. I there dealt with a paler sub-race of Peromyscus maniculatus ruhidus, inhabiting a practically isolated sandy peninsula on the northern California coast. Through the use of an accurate method of color determination,^ I am now able to indicate the relative shades of the skins from the peninsula and from the redwood forests of the mainland across Humboldt Bay. The proportion of black in the two cases is 89.0 per cent for the former and 90.9 for the latter. These figures are based upon 21 and 29 mature skins respectively. The difference (1.9 per cent) is not great, but it is about 12 times its probable error (±0.16) and therefore cannot be accidental. Furthermore, it is to be remarked that all but one of the peninsula mice show less than 90 per cent of black; while all but three of the redwood mice show more than 90 per cent. Indeed, the difference between the two series is quite evident to the eye, even upon casual inspection.^ 2 For instance, Bangs (see Osgood, North American Fauna, No. 28, 1909, p. 121) described such a race from the island of Monomoy on the Massachusetts coast. See, also, interesting recent accounts by G. M. Allen and by A. H. Howell (Journ. Mamm., November, 1920). 2 American Naturalist, March, 1917; Osgood (Revision of the Genus Pero- myscus, p. 66) had already referred to the case in question. ^ Flat skins, prepared according to a uniform method, and cleaned in benzine, are subjected to color analysis by means of the Hess-Ives Tint Photometer. In the present paper, the figures given represent the average tone of an area of the pelage, 24 mm. wide by 17 long (the dimensions of the visible field) and lying sym- metrically, near the posterior end of the dorsal surface. One great advantage of the instrument used is that the area under analysis is rendered perfectly homo- geneous and is thus strictly comparable with another homogeneous field which serves as the standard. Later I hope to discuss the use of this instrument in the study of mamnialian pelages. ® If we consider the percentages of white, rather than of black, we have 9.2 and 8.0 respectively for the two series. This makes the difference 15 per cent of the lesser number, A much smaller increase in the proportion of white upon a color-wheel is very evident to the eye. 78 JOUKNAL OF MAMMALOGY I have already reported® that these differences appear to be heredi- tary. Unfortunately, only three specimens of the peninsula stock have been reared at La Jolla, but all of these are paler than the palest of the redwood stock, reared at the same time, and under identical conditions. The mean percentage of black in the three skins is 88.3. This case may be seized upon in support of the protective colora- tion hypothesis, but I am still disposed to adopt the view expressed in the paper cited (1917, p. 180): ‘L ... it seems more Kkely that the pale coloration of these mice stands in some more direct rela- tion to the humidity of their immediate surroundings.’’ Referring to the latter, I stated (p. 179) : “Despite the nearness to the ocean and the high atmospheric humidity, the peninsula region seems dry in com- parison with the redwood forests. This is due in part to the loose, sandy character of the soil — where, indeed, any real soil exists — and to the comparative lack of shelter from the prevailing westerly winds. Evaporation here is doubtless more rapid than in the comparatively stagnant air of the forests.” I might have added that the humidity of their subterranean abodes, in which these mice are reared and spend the greater part of their existence, is almost certainly lower in the sandy region. The case which has chiefly prompted the publication of the present paper is that of the alleged effect of black lava in darkening the pelage of certain rodents and other animals which make it their habitat. In his well-known “Results of a Biological Survey of the San Fran- cisco Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona,”^ Dr. C. Hart Merriam mentions four different animals which were cap- tured in the lava fields of this district, and which differed strikingly in color from their nearest relatives in the neighboring desert regions. These animals are (using revised nomenclature) : Citellus spilosoma obsidianus Onychomys leucogaster fuflginosus Perognathus flavus fuhginosus Phrynosoma hernandesi The first, a squirrel, was described as a new subspecies, the second (a true mouse) and the third (a pocket mouse) as new species. The last (a “horned toad”) is referred to by Doctor Stejneger, who reported ® American Naturalist, March, 1917, June-July, 1918. ^ U. S. Department of Agriculture. North American Fauna, No. 3. Wash- ington, 1890. SUMNER — DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 79 upon the reptiles, as melanistic form.’^^ In each case, considerable stress is laid upon the dark coloration of the lava-dwelling forms, it being more than once stated that we have to do with ‘‘protective coloration.’’ It may seem to be worse than reckless for one who has neither seen the specimens nor visited the locality under consideration to call in question such circumstantial statements by an eminent naturalist. It should not be necessary for me to explain, however, that the only point at issue is the interpretation of Doctor Merriam’s findings. In view of the wholly negative results of my own investigations, to be described shortly, I think that I need offer no apology for questioning whether some interpretation alternative to that adopted by Doctor Merriam is not possible here. Two such alternatives suggest themselves. The first of these is that the color correspondences observed were due to accident. Mice of the same species and subspecies are known to vary widely in color, pale and dark specimens being trapped in the same neighborhood. One may readily form premature conclusions from an insufficient number of specimens, owing to “errors of random sampling.” In the present case, it is to be noted that the first of the four named species was represented in Doctor Merriam’s collections by two specimens, the second by five (two being listed as “somewhat intermediate”), the third by a single specimen, and the last by two. Moreover, several of the specimens (including the single Perognathus) are listed as “immature,” a cir- cumstance which raises the question whether the darker shade of the pelage was not due, in part at least, to this fact. One would naturally lay less stress upon this first alternative expla- nation, particularly since Mr. Vernon Bailey (as he informs me) is able to corroborate from his own observation these impressions regard- ing the darker pelage of certain rodents of the region in question. A second possibihty seems to be more worthy of consideration. It is to be noted that in the case of the mammals, at least, the darker race was taken in the “pinon and cedar belt,” while the paler race, with ® It must be insisted that the case of the reptiles is quite different from that of the mammals in respect to adaptive coloration. Some lizards, as is well known, have chromatophores v/hich are under the direct control of the nervous system, and are therefore capable of fairly rapid color adjustments. It may well be that many other species possess this power to a less striking degree. On the other hand, it would hardly be claimed that mammalian hair is subject to such influences. 80 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY which it was compared, came from the Desert of the Little Colorado. Now it is evident from both the maps and the text of the report, that the former region occupies a considerably higher altitude than the latter, there being an average difference of more than a thousand feet between the two. Indeed they are assigned to different Hfe zones. While no meteorological records are accessible to me, it seems very probable that the precipitation in this belt of pinons and junipers on the mountain slopes is considerably greater than on the desert plains below. Are we, then, justified in ehminating humidity as the respon- sible factor in bringing about the color differences in these two locali- ties? Or is it not, indeed, possible that some unknown third factor is the one chiefiy concerned? Certain other opinions regarding the effect of lava in determining the colors of rodents should be referred to before leaving this discussion. W. H. Osgood, in his valuable “Revision of the Mice of the American Genus Peromyscus”^ tells us (page 16) that “if the range of a given form includes a few square miles of lava beds, specimens from that area show an appreciably darker color than the normal form occupying the sur- rounding region.” Again (p. 70) “in northeastern California, the mice of the semidesert lava beds are more like the dark gambeli than the pale sonoriensis. Throughout the desert region sonoriensis is the pre- vailing form, except on the lava beds.” It is unfortunate that more specific instances are not given in sup- port of these statements. We should like to know more of the rainfall, vegetation, etc., of these lava beds of northeastern Cahfornia; likewise (and this is vitally important) their distance from regions in which tine gamheli is abundant. Some of Osgood’s other statements (pp. 16, 70) regarding the effects of narrowly localized environmental differ- ences, apparently in the absence of any form of isolation, are not sup- ported by the experience of various other collectors. They must, I think, merely voice impressions based upon accidental coincidences. The careful experiments of H. H. Colhns (not yet pubhshed) show that the more marked color differences, occurring in a given locality within the range of a single subspecies, are hereditary and not due to any immediate environmental influence. Goldman^® has recorded observations similar to those of Osgood. Of one wood-rat, Neotoma intermedia desertorum, he writes (p. 77): ® U. S. Department of Agriculture. North American Fauna. No. 28. Wash- ington, 1909. Revision of the Wood Rats of the Genus Neotoma. U. S. Department of Agriculture, North American Fauna,* No. 31. Washington, 1910. SUMNER — DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 81 ‘‘Specimens taken in lava beds are usually darker than those inhabit- ing hghter-colored rock formations.’^ Similar statements are made in respect to other species on pages 81 and 102. Unfortunately, we have no record of the number of individuals on which these statements are based, save that in the case of N. lepida stephensi but a single speci- men was recorded from the lava beds. We likewise have no informa- tion as to the altitude, meteorological conditions, etc., of the particular lava fields where the species in question were trapped. The chief direct evidence which I have to offer on the present subject was obtained during a collecting trip undertaken in the spring of 1920. The choice of locality was due primarily to the suggestions of Prof. Joseph Grinnell, director of the University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Doctor Grinnell, succeeded by Mr. Richard Hunt, of the same museum, together with the writer, constituted the field party. The lava field on which the mice were trapped lies in the Mojave Desert some 12 miles west of the village of Ludlow, and just south of the main line of the Santa Fe Railway. Unfortunately, no Geological Survey or other reliable map of this region exists. The outline of the field is very irregular, the greatest length being perhaps five miles and the greatest width three. Regarding the age of this eruption I can learn nothing definite. The lava, throughout much of the area, looks extremely fresh, and a beautifully preserved cinder-cone (“Mt. Pisgah”) occurs near the northern border. On the other hand, there are, so far as I know, no hot springs, fumaroles or other evidences of recent volcanic activity in this part of the desert. Whether the age of the field is to be reck- oned in hundreds or in thousands of years I am unable to learn from the geologists whom I have consulted. The surface of this lava bed is raised well above the general level of the desert. It is extremely rugged and difficult of passage, being crossed in every direction by jagged ridges and yawning fissures. Sand has drifted in from the surrounding desert and become deposited in cracks and depressions, affording soil for the support of scattered shrubs and annuals, even a mile or more from the nearest border. Despite the presence of occasional sand pockets of considerable extent, the prevailing tone of the lava field is extremely dark. Viewed from neighboring hilltops it everywhere stands in extreme contrast to the pale sand and gravel which surrounds it on every side. Furthermore, it must be emphasized that the mice are not confined to the small 82 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY areas of pale sand, but appear to wander freely over the barest and blackest masses of lava rock, in which positions they were frequently trapped. Preliminary trapping revealed the fact that there were several species of mice on this field. By far the most frequent was Peromyscus crinitus stephensi, but P. maniculatus sonoriensis and two species of Perognathus were met with. Circumstances pointed to the first of the foregoing species as being best adapted for the test which I had in view. As is well known, this mouse shares the prevailing buff or sandy hue so characteristic of desert rodents. Furthermore, it has one very great advantage for present purposes, namely, that it is restricted in its habitat to rocky regions, in the crevices of which it finds its shelter. Here, then, we seemed to have the conditions favorable for a crucial natural experi- ment. This rather extensive lava field was surrounded on all sides by areas of sand and fine gravel. Trapping, undertaken to test this point, revealed the fact that the crinitus mice rarely, if ever, left the lava beds and strayed for any distance into the open desert. Live- traps, which I set for 175 “trap nights’ upon the desert areas adjacent to the lava field yielded but two specimens of crinitus, both of these within 150 feet of the lava. Furthermore, Mr. Hunt, during two weeks’ use of spring traps in this region, did not catch a single speci- men of this species away from the lava beds. In contrast to these negative results, it must be pointed out (1) that large numbers of mice of other species were taken in these sandy areas, and (2) that crinitus was extremely common throughout the lava field, where it predominated over all other small rodents. It would seem likely that for centuries, and perhaps for a vastly greater period, this colony of Peromyscus crinitus stephensi had been isolated by fairly rigid barriers from other mice of the same species.^^^ Since the statements of Merriam, Osgood and Goldman, cited above, relate to species and to localities concerning which no such claim of isolation is advanced, it would seem that in This useful unit of trapping activity is due to Grinnell (An Account of the Mammals and Birds of the Lower Colorado Valley, University of California Publications in Zoology Vol. 12, 1914, p. 92). 11^ Doctor Crinnell suggests that “periodic eruptions” of these mice, due to over-population, might carry them, from time to time, across these barriers. I can only reply (1) that we have no knowledge of such migrations here; (2) that such a diffusion process is at least as likely to occur in those localities where a darkening effect of lava has been alleged. SUMNEK — DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 83 the present case, if anywhere, the darkening effect of the lava would manifest itself. Five hundred and thirteen trap nights on the lava field yielded me 157 specimens of crinitus, along with 23 specimens of mice of other species. From the former rather more than fifty skins were prepared. No selection whatever was made in choosing the individuals for skin- ning, save that mice with immature or with badly damaged pelage were rejected, while many others were unavailable owing to early decom- position. The first results of this trapping made it plain that these mice belonged to no specially modified lava-dwelling race. They had retained the pale brown-gray hue, sprinkled dorsally with black, so familiar to us in desert rodents generally. When laid upon the dark lava rocks, they certainly could not be called inconspicuous, as the accompanying figure shows. (Plate 6.) The fact that this seemingly conspicuous rodent flourishes in such numbers upon these lava fields gives us good ground for skepticism as to the need for concealing coloration among closely related species. And it surely justifies us in challenging those who assume without evidence the existence of a selection so rigid that trifling differences in shade are of frequent survival value. It should also be mentioned here that none of the other species of mice and rats which were trapped upon this lava field by Mr. Hunt and myself gave any evidence of modification in the direction of deeper pigmentation. The species taken comprised one other Peromyscus, two species of pocket mice and a wood-rat. While no extensive series of skins was prepared for these other species, any very pronounced darkening would doubtless have been observed. With a single possible exception, the only noticeably dark pelages were those of juvenile specimens. Although it was evident that no considerable degree of darkening had occurred among these lava-dwelling representatives of Peromyscus crinitus, the question still remained whether there had been any modi- fication whatever, which might be revealed by careful quantitative methods. For this purpose a control set of specimens was necessary. The control series I should naturally have collected in the Bullion Mountains, a rocky range, a few miles to the southwest, in which I knew that these mice occurred. But the presence of another extensive lava field upon the nearby slopes of this range, was regarded as com- 84 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY plicating the situation.^^ We therefore moved to a considerably more distant point. The spot chosen was a rocky range of hills near the village of Oro Grande, on the Mojave River, between fifty and sixty miles to the westward of our previous station. The new locality was some seven or eight hundred feet higher than the previous one, and perhaps differed somewhat climatically, as it did in respect to vegeta- tion. It was, however, a typical stretch of desert country, and many of the more abundant plant species were common to the two regions. The hills along the base of which we trapped were covered with large masses of igneous rock, whose prevailing hues were pale gray, buff and pinkish, interspersed with areas of finer materials (gravel and sand) of a still paler hue. No lava fields or other extensive masses of dark rock occur in this vicinity. One hundred and thirteen specimens of P. crinitus, together with thirteen belonging to other species, were taken in my live-traps in the course of 478 trap nights. Fifty skins were preserved, care being exercised, as before, that the choice of individuals should bear no rela- tion to the color of their pelage. A superficial comparison of this series of skins with that from the lava field revealed no obvious difference in their average color-tone. A careful quantitative study confirms this first impression. Indeed it seems rather remarkable that two random collections comprising such limited numbers, should agree so closely. The mean readings of the two series,^^ through the three color-screens of the Hess-Ives Tint Photometer, are as follows: EED GREEN BLUE- VIOLET Lava 26.2 19.2 16.0 15.9 Oro Grande 26.7 19.4 12 This second field is rather more than a mile distant (at the nearest point) from the “Pisgah” lava bed on which the trapping was done. The intervening area was occupied by level ground, entirely devoid of rock and likewise appar- ently of Peromyscus crinitus. Elsewhere, the “Pisgah” field is separated by much wider intervals from the nearest rocky hills. 12 A few skins were rejected from each series owing to immaturity, or to obvious loss of hair. There remained 45 in the lava set, 46 in that from Oro Grande. SUMNER — DESERT AND LAVA-DWELLING MICE 85 Reduced to terms of black, white, and color (in this case a shade of yellow) we have BLACK . WHITE COLOR Lava 79.8±0.19 16.0 4.2 Oro Grande 79.6=t0.18 15.9 4,5 The trivial excess of black in the lava series is of no statistical signifi- cance, as appears from the fact that this difference is less than its probable error. It is to be noted that the lava series likewise shows a trivial excess of white, which is further evidence of the ^^accidentaF’ character of all these shght differences between the two sets of figures. Various objections may perhaps be brought forward by critics to the propriety of drawing any general conclusions from this single instance which yielded negative results. It will perhaps be pointed out that I have dealt with a wholly nocturnal animal. I should, it may be urged, have chosen some diurnal species, for which concealing coloration would be more necessary. In reply, I need only remark that two of Doctor Merriam’s species (the Onychomys and the Perog- nathus) are as completely nocturnal in their habits as is Peromyscus crinitus, while the remarks of both Osgood and Goldman likewise apply to nocturnal species. It may be urged, too, that the lava fields on which I have trapped my specimens are of unknown age and that they are perhaps much more recent than those of the San Francisco Mountain district. I cannot, I confess, meet this argument directly. It is certainly pertinent to point out, however, that the pale crinitus mice of this Mojave Desert lava field still succeed in maintaining themselves in great abundance, after a period which is certainly to be measured in centuries, and per- haps by even greater periods of time. This fact does not harmonize well with the assumed rigid selection on the basis of color-tone. Another objector may insist that Peromyscus crinitus may, by reason of special habits, have no need for protective coloration, whereas the same may not be true of various other rodents. This, indeed, is quite possible. If it be true, however, we may well query why this species Those who have had no experience in color analysis may be surprised by my characterizing as “pale” a shade containing nearly 80 per cent of black. I will merely point out that a piece of faded khaki which I tested gave photometer readings very close to those for these mouse skins, but that the former was slightly darker. JOTTENAIj of mammalogy, VOL. 2, NO. 2 86 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY has ever adopted the familiar pale hue, which seems to be an adjust- ment to the prevailing tones of the desert at large. Either way we take it, the argument seems to lead us into difficulties. I am prepared, too, for the disparaging comments of such biologists as regard the experimental method as the only key to scientific truth. All this field observation, I may be told, is beside the mark. I should have subjected my animals to experimental tests in the laboratory. As a matter of fact, I have done this very thing, not with Peromyscus crinitus, to be sure, but with various subspecies of maniculatus. I have thus far found no evident tendency toward convergence on the part of these several races, even after a considerable number of generations in captivity under identical life conditions. Possibly photometer tests of prepared skins will reveal a slight change of color, but this is not yet obvious to the eye. The direct effect of humidity or other physical agents upon pigmentation, if such exists, must manifest itself very gradually in the case of these mice. In conclusion, let me say that I make no claim that the single case which I have studied intensively affords a disproof of the effect of a lava background upon the coat color of every other mammal. But I do urge that the wholly negative result derived from this seemingly critical case, gives ground for reasonable skepticism, and that it throws the burden of proof upon those who have, thus far, offered us merely generalized impressions or very limited data. Scripps Institution, La Jolla, California. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY. VOL. 2 PLATE 6 Peromyscus crinitus stephensi from Lava Field, Seen Against a Block of Dark Lava Skin prepared by R. Hunt; photograph by H. R. Fitch. Reduced. The lighting conditions make the anterior half of the mouse appear somewhat too pale. Mus. Vert. Zook, no. 31393. (Sumner: Desert and Lava-Dwelling Mice.) JOHNSON — HABIT OF THE SPOTTED SKUNK 87 THE ‘‘HAND-STAND^’ HABIT OF THE SPOTTED SKUNK By Charles Eugene Johnson In the Journal of Mammalogy for February, 1920, there appeared a note by A. H. Howell with regard to a Florida spotted skunk which he had suddenly met with, standing erect on its fore legs. Seton, in the following (May) number of the journal tells of having seen a similar attitude assumed by the large northern skunk {Mephitis putida)^ when the animal apparently was in a playful mood. Since httle seems to be known concerning this rather pecuHar habit among skunks the following notes which I was fortunate enough to obtain a few weeks ago may be of interest. On December 28, 1920, while in the field near Lawrence, I came upon one of the little spotted skunks {Spilogale interrupta), common in this region, which at the time was travehng leisurely across a wheat field. It was 11 o’clock in the forenoon and the day was very mild, the temperature being about 50°. When first seen the skunk was about 60 or 70 yards distant. I got out my kodak and gave chase with the intention only of securing a photograph. When the skunk saw me as I came running toward it, it hastened its gait somewhat and arched its tail and waved it menacingly. I had set the focus at 8 feet and as I caught up with the skunk I dropped into a fast walk and then took a few quick steps toward it in order to get my distance. As I did so, but before I could properly aim the kodak and press the bulb, the skunk, which was proceeding at a rather slow, deliberate trot, suddenly threw its hindquarters into the air and actually ran a few steps on its fore legs. Its body seemed almost perpendicular and the hind legs were spread apart but were also drawn up somewhat toward the flanks; the tail was erect but drooped more or less over the back and sides and twitched threateningly. As the animal threw up its hindquarters it also turned sHghtly on its fore legs and twisted its body in an endeavor to face me. I stopped short but the skunk immediately dropped back. to all fours again and con- tinued running. In making further attempts to get a photograph of the animal I discovered to my great disgust that the shutter, long unused, refused to function properly, so that I ceased my efforts in this direction and gave my attention entirely to the skunk. On three separate occasions while endeavoring to get a photograph of the skunk I quickly stepped up to within about 6 feet of it as it was running before me and each time the animal performed a perfect 88 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY “hand-stand’’ act. After my last futile photographic effort I stopped a moment to examine the shutter and the skunk meantime gained a httle distance. I hastened after it and when near enough threw a clod of earth which struck the ground within a foot or two of its side. Like a flash the skunk threw up its hind legs and half faced about, pivoting on its fore legs, and uttered a hissing snarl. The “hand-stand” atti- tude, however, was not maintained for more than about half a second, the whole performance being but a momentary pause on the part of the animal to defend itself. Following closer after a brief interval I again startled it, this time by suddenly clapping my hands together and hissing. The skunk merely tossed up its rear to an angle of about 45° and kept on going. We had now drawn near the edge of the field and desiring to experi- ment further I endeavored to head the skunk back in the direction whence it came. In this I succeeded for a time but only after much clapping of hands, hissing and various other outbursts on my part. In every instance when I got up rather close to the animal, within 8 or 9 feet to the best of my judgment, and suddenly startled it, it gave the “hand-stand” reaction. Altogether in the relatively short time that I was occupied with this experiment I induced about a dozen of these reactions. A number of times, when I was at a httle greater distance, the skunk did not raise its rear so high from the ground; but on several occasions, when I suddenly stepped up close, the body was held in a perfectly upright position with the head straining toward the horizontal. The last performance the skunk made before I let it go was the most interesting one, and of longest duration. Despite my efforts to pre- vent it the animal had succeeded in working its way nearer and nearer to the edge of the field where there was cover and where it evidently had a retreat, for it was headed toward this place when it was first seen. A number of times this httle beast actually charged me as I stepped in front of it while trying to turn it back, but I retreated has- tily and it did not press the pursuit. The last time, however, I held my ground as the skunk bristled and charged directly at me. When within probably 8 or 9 feet of me it stopped abruptly and elevated its rear end, standing perfectly balanced on its fore legs for what seemed at least a couple of seconds. It did not need to turn this time in order to face me; its back was toward me, and its tail drooped shghtly over the back as it was waved from side to side in a dehberate but some- what jerky fashion. The attitude was so erect that the vent was com- pletely exposed to view from where I stood, and was directed upwards. JOHNSON — HABIT OF THE SPOTTED SKUNK 89 It seemed as though the animal was endeavoring to aim the charge over its back at me, its instinct to face the enemy being too strong to permit it to turn about and thus be in a more favorable position to direct its weapon. My companion, who had remained an interested spectator from a httle distance, declared afterwards that whenever the skunk rose upon its fore feet a fine spray of vapor could be seen issuing from the vent. This I did not observe, probably because of my proximity and the angle of view. I was perfectly aware of course that discharges were being made. The anal sphincter was actively working whenever the erect posture was assumed; that is, when the skunk was in a position so that the vent could clearly be seen. After witnessing the above-described performance of the spotted skunk I am strongly inclined to believe that what has here by way of brevity been referred to as the “hand-stand” attitude is a common habit of this and perhaps also other species of skunks, under certain conditions. It is manifestly a defensive attitude primarily, and seems to be taken for the purpose of better directing the discharge of the vile secretion with which nature has provided these animals. The above noted facts are not sufficient in themselves to permit too many infer- ences or conclusions to be drawn from them, but they at least appear significant. The idea suggested itself that the erect attitude may possibly be resorted to by the skunk, and especially against such of its enemies as stand up higher from the ground, in order to aim the fluid at the most vulnerable part, namely the face. Against an intruder as tall as a man, at close range, there would seem to be no other way to effectively place its shot. Instinctively it is aimed at the face; and the higher the target the greater the elevation of the weapon. If it were attacked by a small dog it hardly seems likely that the skunk would elevate its body to the extreme that has been observed when on its defense against man, for that would be to overshoot the mark. On the other hand it may be that by assuming this attitude the skunk is able more quickly to surround its entire person with a defensive zone. But such points must be left for future observations or experiments to decide. Department of Zoology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. 90 JOTJKNAL OF MAMMALOGY ON THE GORILLA AND THE CHIMPANZEE By C. R. Aschemeiee There have been several articles of late, in magazines and news- papers, regarding the gorilla and the chimpanzee, with particular reference to the bravery in an advance to the attack, as well as to the relative abihty to defend themselves, shown by these great apes. The authors have, in some cases, behttled the gallant courage of the gorilla and pictured the chimpanzee as a brave beast. I wish to give an account of several instances when the gorilla proved himself the gallant; and to express my opinion that the chimpanzee is a coward, as compared with the larger ape. These are based on over two years’ experience in hunting these animals in the Fernan Vaz District of the French Congo, which is considered the best region for both the gorilla and the chim- panzee. Contrary to the opinions of many, the gorilla is, in my experience, just as intelhgent as the chimpanzee. I found in every case that, in time of danger, the gorilla used his head better than did the chim- panzee. The latter ape seemed frequently to get ‘‘rattled,” whereas the gorilla, although not necessarily slow, was, at critical times, much more dehberate in his actions. A chimpanzee always makes off at the first sign of danger, but one never knows when the gorilla may attack. Their cries, in times of great danger, are characteristic of the natures of the two beasts. When I ran into a chimpanzee there was a wild scramble, a piercing scream, and the animal disappeared into the bush. With the gorilla it was quite different. There was usually a single yell, one that seemed fairly to make the earth tremble, and this was sometimes accompanied by a beating or thumping of the chest. The gorilla, in his deliberate retreat, usually keeps a tree between himself and the hunter. I was a witness to several instances when gorillas refused to desert their fallen comrades. One morning on the Rembo Elandi, not far from our camp, we encountered a family party of five or more gorillas. Some of them, apparently, had not yet risen from their beds. One old male was on the ground, two were in the trees eating, and the rest were in the nest. One of my native guides advanced as far as was safe, actually to almost under the tree in which the two were feeding, and had the opportunity for close observation of what followed. I shot at one of these gorillas, an animal about two-thirds grown, and saw it tumble from the tree. I ran forward, to find the native standing in ASCHEMEIER — THE GORILLA AND THE CHIMPANZEE 91 surprise at what he had seen. Just as he was beginning his explana- tion^ an old gorilla that had still remained in its bed arose and with a mighty yell retreated into the timber. The guide explained that the gorilla I had shot from the tree fell to the ground, apparently dead, but that another gorilla had rushed up, gathered it in his arms, and carried it into the bush. Another time, Pambo, my best guide and helper, went into the bush with another native. Not long after I heard shots and very soon both natives came running, scratched from the bush and out of breath. They said that soon after entering the bush they encountered a large family of gorillas. Pambo said he shot a large female and that a male immediately approached in a very threatening manner, picked up the wounded female, and made off. On turning around the men saw another large male making at them. This one apparently meant busi- ness so they ran as fast as they could to get out of his reach. On two occasions I captured young chimpanzees, but only once did I come near to getting a young gorilla ahve. In this case a mother gorilla strayed a bit farther than usual while the baby was feeding. We had heard the animals in the bush, and were advancing cautiously when we saw the young one on the ground. We were closing in to capture it when suddenly we heard, on both sides, the swishing of bushes. Both parents were coming to the rescue as fast as they could. The smaller, presumably a female, went straight to the youngster, picked it up, and stood looking us full in the face. The old male arrived near these two very quickly, and on seeing us gave the terrible gorilla cry, and started off in the lead. As we followed, he dropped to the rear to guard the mother and young. This was one of several times, when the parents showed signs of wilhngness to sacrifice their own lives for the young, that I did not shoot. I have frequently been asked as to the probable result in a combat between a gorilla and a chimpanzee. To begin with, one must take into consideration the weight, height, and reach of the two beasts. I shot two grown gorillas that measured five feet, one inch and five feet, three inches in height. The largest adult chimpanzee I got meas- ured four feet and weighed about 150 pounds. The gorillas weigh from 300 to 350 pounds, practically twice as much as the chimpanzees. The chimpanzee is undeniably a strong beast, but the gorilla is just as strong, comparatively, and has the natural advantage of larger size and strength. I think that in the event of an encounter, the gorilla would by sheer weight and strength, wear the chimpanzee down. I 92 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY asked native gorilla and chimpanzee hunters which one was the most dangerous game, and the answer was always in favor of the gorilla. To get a real good close-up view of a live gorilla is a treat indeed. Other questions often asked me on my return from Africa were: Do gorillas or chimpanzees capture native women and carry them off into the bush? And: Will the gorilla advance to attack unless he is wounded? As to the first question, I asked natives in all the localities I visited if such was the case and the answer was always in the nega- tive. I saw several natives, both men and women, however, who had been badly wounded by gorillas. As to the second question, yes. I had gorillas deliberately advance on me and on account of the density of the brush I had to retreat. I found, though, that when a gorilla came at me it always gave up the chase in a httle while. U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C, THE RED SQUIRREL OF THE SITKAN DISTRICT, ALASKA By H. S. Swarth The red squirrel of southeastern Alaska was placed with Sciurus hudsonicus vancouverensis by J. A. Allen in his “Revision of the Chick- arees,^^ where vancouverensis was first described (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 10, 1898, p. 269). The present writer, in a report upon a collection of birds and mammals from Vancouver Island, comments upon certain features that distinguish the red squirrel of southeastern Alaska from typical vancouverensis of Vancouver Island (Swarth, Univ. Calif. Publ. ZooL, vol. 10, 1912, p. 88), without formally naming the Alaskan race. Further study of the red squirrels of the northwest coast region has emphasized the desirability of giving a name to this Alaskan form. It may be diagnosed as follows: Sciurus hudsonicus picatus new subspecies KUPREANOF RED SQUIRREL Type. — Male adult, skin and skull; no. 8767, Mus. Vert. Zool. ; Kupreanof Island, 25 miles south of Kake Village, at southern end of Keku Straits, south- eastern Alaska; April 23, 1909; collected by H. S. Swarth; original no. 7281. 1 Contribution from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology of the University of California. SWARTH — RED SQUIRREL OF SITKAN DISTRICT 93 Diagnosis. — A red squirrel with the general characters of Sciurus hudsonicus. Cranially, most nearly resembling Sciurus hudsonicus petulans; externally, more nearly like S. h. vancouverensis. Comparisons. — Sciurus h. petulans, as compared with vancouverensis, is stated by Osgood (N. Am. Fauna, No. 19, 1900, p. 27, pi. V, figs. 1, 2) to have the “nasals longer and posteriorly more compressed than in vancouverensis; orbital arch with a sharp indentation between lachrymal and postorbital process.” These differ- ences do not exist between petulans and picatus. There are individuals in the latter series that show intergradation toward vancouverensis in shape of nasals or in partial elimination of the orbital indentation described, but the series as a whole is, cranially, not to be distinguished from petulans. As regards color, Sciurus h. picatus is dark as compared with petulans, but it is distinctly brighter than vancouverensis. The differences are most apparent in winter pelage; in the summer coat the two forms are closely similar in general appearance, differing only in certain minor details. In the winter coat vancou- verensis is nearly uniform dark chestnut above, with the reddish dorsal stripe poorly defined; the tail is reddish above, but decidedly grayish on the ventral surface. In picatus the reddish color is generally brighter, there is a fairly well- defined hazel dorsal stripe and the center of the tail below is reddish. The black lateral stripe on the body is much more prominent. In all pelages picatus has the tip of the tail much less extensively black than is the case with vancouver- ensis. Sciurus h. picatus is slightly the larger of the two. For external measure- ments of Sciurus h. picatus and S. h. vancouverensis see Swarth, Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 10, 1912, p. 88. Distribution. — The area inhabited includes parts of the Sitkan district, Alaska, and extends for an undetermined distance southward. There are specimens at hand from the following islands: Kupreanof, Kuiu, Mitkof, Wrangell, Zarembo, Etolin, Revillagigedo, and Sergief . From mainland points : Taku River, Thomas Bay, Stikine River, Bradfield Canal, Chickamin River. (For details of distri- bution see Swarth, IJniv. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 7, 1911, pp. 118, 153, map, fig. 1.) Remarks. — The material upon which the above comparisons are made is as follows: Sciurus h. vancouverensis, 28 specimens from Van- couver Island (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Sciurus h. picatus, 36 specimens from the Alaskan localities previously indicated (32 in Mus. Vert. Zool., 4 in the E. P. Walker collection). Sciurus h. petulans, 17 from Glacier Bay (Mus. Vert. Zool.), 4 from Wells, Chilkat Valley (E. P. Walker collection). The Glacier Bay specimens appear to be typical of petulans. The four skins from Chilkat Valley are, in color, intermediate between petulans and picatus; the skulls are not available. In his description of petulans, Osgood (loc. cit.) treats vancouverensis as a distinct species, a view that has since been disregarded (see Miller, List of North Amer- ican Land Mammals, 1912, p. 321), and which my own material con- troverts. The race picatus is in itself intermediate between petulans 94 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY and Vancouver ensis, and in the picatus series there is individual varia- tion tending to bridge the gap in either direction. The indentation in the orbital arch, given by Osgood as a feature distinguishing petulans from Vancouver ensis, is not a character to be absolutely relied upon. This httle notch is sharply indicated in the petulans series, as I beheve it is in the red squirrels of the interior of the northwest generally. In the Vancouver Island skulls at hand there are none in which it is at all deeply cut. In some it is entirely absent, but usually there is a sug- gestion of a notch at that point. The southern Alaskan series contains none in which the notch is as nearly eliminated as in most of the Van- couver Island skulls, and as a rule it is as apparent as in the petulans series. It is not a character the presence or absence of which can be indicated in each of the skulls; it appears in all degrees from one extreme to the other. Berkeley, California. REVISED LIST OF THE SPECIES IN THE GENUS DIPODOMYS^ By Joseph Grinnell A bare hst of names is a pretty poor offering, not ordinarily worth printing. But in the present revised hst enumerating sixty species and subspecies of kangaroo rats a good deal of new information is set forth in a concentrated form. The main basis of this contribution is a relatively extensive systematic and distributional study of the genus as occurring within the hmits of Cahfornia. The more comprehensive report upon this study is hkely to be long delayed in the press, if, indeed, it ever sees the light of pubhcation. The 33 forms now known to occur in this state (Cahfornia) have been determined upon after examination of a large amount of material, over 2800 skins with skulls. Confidence as to their status is much greater than with most of the remaining forms, of which material has been accessible in only scant amount. Still, first impressions, as gained of the latter, may be worthy of consideration, when gathered upon the basis of the rather intensive study of the other forms. The ‘‘ordii group” is accepted practically as revised by Goldman (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 30, 1917, p. 113). 1 Contribution from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology of the University of California. GRINNELL — THE GENUS DIPODOMYS 95 The species are arranged by ^‘groups” from what appears to be the most generalized type to the most speciahzed. These groups are not at all comparable in rank to the subgenera currently recognized in some other families of rodents; in fact the genus Dipodomys as it stands seems to be remarkably compact and homogeneous. Yet the groups indicated do serve to express probably more close genetic relationship among the constituent species of each group than that obtaining between species representing different groups. HEERMANNI GROUP Dipodomys heermanni heermanni LeConte Dipodomys heermanni californicus Merriam Dipodomys heermanni eximius Grinnell Dipodomys heermanni tularensis (Merriam) Dipodomys heermanni dixoni (Grinnell) Dipodomys heermanni berkeleyensis Grinnell Dipodomys heermanni goldmani (Merrian) Dipodomys heermanni jolonensis Grinnell Dipodomys heermanni swarthi (Grinnell) Dipodomys morroensis (Merriam) Dipodomys mohavensis (Grinnell) Dipodomys leucogenys (Grinnell) Dipodomys panamintinus (Merriam) Dipodomys stephensi (Merriam) Dipodomys ingens (Merriam) SPECTABILIS GROUP Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis Merriam Dipodomys spectabilis cratodon Merriam Dipodomys nelsoni Merriam PHILLIPSII GROUP Dipodomys phillipsii Gray Dipodomys perotensis Merriam Dipodomys ornatus Merriam Dipodomys elator Merriam MERRIAMI GROUP Dipodomys merriami merriami Mearns Dipodomys merriami ambiguus Merriam Dipodomys merriami atronasus Merriam Dipodomys merriami parvus Rhoads Dipodomys merriami simiolus Rhoads Dipodomys merriami arenivagus Elliot 96 JOUKNAL OF MAMMALOGY Dipodomys merriami melanurus Merriam Dipodomys nitratoides nitratoides Merriam Dipodomys nitratoides exilis Merriam Dipodomys nitratoides brevinasus Grinnell Dipodomys platycephalus Merriam Dipodomys margaritse Merriam Dipodomys insularis Merriam Dipodomys mitchelli Mearns ORDII GROUP Dipodomys ordii ordii Woodhouse Dipodomys ordii columbianus (Merriam) Dipodomys ordii monoensis (Grinnell) Dipodomys ordii utahensis (Merriam) Dipodomys ordii chapmani Mearns Dipodomys ordii obscurus (Allen) Dipodomys ordii montanus Baird Dipodomys ordii longipes (Merriam) Dipodomys ordii luteolus (Goldman) Dipodomys ordii richardsoni (Allen) Dipodomys ordii palmeri (Allen) COMPACTUS GROUP Dipodomys compactus True Dipodomys sennetti (Allen) AGILIS GROUP Dipodomys agilis agilis Gambel Dipodomys agilis simulans (Merriam) Dipodomys agilis peninsularis (Merriam) Dipodomys agilis cabezonse (Merriam) Dipodomys agilis perplexus (Merriam) Dipodomys venustus venustiis (Merriam) Dipodomys venustus sanctilucise Grinnell Dipodomys elephantinus (Grinnell) MICROPS GROUP Dipodomys microps (Merriam) Dipodomys levipes (Merriam) DESERTI GROUP Dipodomys deserti Stephens GRINNELL — THE GENUS DIPODOMYS 97 Certain names which have been bestowed upon kangaroo rats will not be found in the above list for the reason that they are considered by the present reviewer as applying to forms named previously. These synonyms, and their allocations, are as follows: helleri of Elliot = deserti of Stephens kernensis of Merriam = merriami of Mearns mortivalUs of Elliot = merriami of Mearns nevadensis of Merriam = merriami of Mearns nitratus of Merriam = merriami of Mearns pallidulus of Bangs = californicus of Merriam similis of Rhoads = simiolus of Rhoads streatori of Merriam = heermanni of LeConte trinitatis of Kellogg = californicus of Merriam wagneri of LeConte = agilis of Gambel These cases have been worked* out at some pains and are reasonably certain. There are very hkely a few names in the main list above that will eventually have to be synonymized also. But on the other hand there are undoubtedly many more good new forms to be named. So that future systematic workers in this interesting genus will find much yet to do. Berkeley, California. 98 JOUENAL OF MAMMALOGY DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF PHENACOMYS FROM OREGON By a. Bkaziek Howell [Plate 7] Among some skins with uncleaned skulls, which were kindly loaned me for study by Stanley G. Jewett, was a Phenacomys which appeared to belong to a new species; and after the skull was cleaned all doubts of this were removed. Mr. Jewett has generously given me permis- sion to describe this new form, which may be known as Phenacomys silvicolus new species FOREST LEMING-MOUSE Type. — Young adult female; No. 1214, Coll, of S. G. Jewett; 5 miles southeast of Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon; October 25, 1916; collected by Peter P. Walker; Orig. No. 40, Coll, of Alex. Walker. Diagnosis. — Externally, closest to Phenacomys longicaudus, with a general appearance and tail very similar to that form; but darker and with smaller ears. The skull is longer than that of longicaudus of corresponding age, with narrower braincase having temporal ridges, with much heavier molariform teeth of a different pattern, and with pterygoid plates which flare anteriorly on their outer edges. Description. — The hairs on the back of silvicolus are fine and long, some of them reaching a length of 15 mm. The bases are plumbeous, and the distal ends sayal brown, sparsely tipped with black. The coloration is slightly paler on the sides, and rather abruptly white on the ventral surface, the hairs of the latter area having plumbeous bases. The feet are soiled whitish with long toes and claws as in longicaudus; and the tail is covered with long, blackish hairs as in that species. The ears are small and do not project beyong the body hairs. The skull is quite different from those of P. orophilus, P. albipes, or P. longi- caudus. In comparison with the last-named species, which is evidently its clos- est relative, the skull of silvicolus exhibits the following characters. The brain- case is flattish, long and comparatively narrow. The nasals are somewhat constricted at a point posterior to the middle, with the ascending extremities of the premaxillae narrower. The zygomatic processes of the maxillae slope rather evenly from the rostrum, and the zygomatic width is greatest in the anterior region of the jugals, with the latter converging somewhat posteriorly. The temporal ridges are very pronounced and are parallel in their posterior halves, thence joining the vertical ridges of the squamosals. The postorbital processes of the squamosals are poorly developed and are not ‘‘peg-like.” The incisive foramina are large and are not in the least constricted posteriorly. There is a distinct “hump” at the juncture of the basi-occipital with the basi-sphenoid. HOWELL — NEW PHENACOMYS FEOM OREGON 99 and the anterior portion of the latter is very narrow, forming considerable vacu- ities between it and the pterygoids. The pterygoid plates are unusual in that they gradually form lateral shelves anteriorly, and the interpterygoid fossa is wide, with the palatal pits more pronounced, although smaller, than in longi- caudus. The audital bullae are slightly larger. The molariform teeth are even heavier and broader than in oropMlus, with the tooth row considerably longer than in longicaudus. The teeth are further characterized by the wide, sweeping lines of the enamel folds, and by the tendency of all the molar angles in the lower jaw to remain open. This species of Phena- comys is unique in having not more than three closed triangles in Ml. There are no closed triangles in S©, and the antero-external loop is wide open. MS is simple and somewhat as in longicaudus. The upper molariform teeth show no notable peculiarities in the enamel pattern. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 191^ mm.; tail, Sl^; foot, 32b Length of skull, 25.1 ; zygomatic width, 14.4; interorbital width, 3.4; mastoid width, 11.8; upper molar row, 5.9. Remarks. — The type specimen was found dead on a log on a ridge which is covered with first-growth Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia). The writer spent several weeks in this region during September, 1920, and, with the generous cooperation of P. P. Walker and A. Walker, to both of whom he is deeply indebted, made a search for this animal. All convenient patches of second-growth fir were searched for nests, and many hundreds of traps set without result. Virgin timber was also examined, but with very httle hope of success, for the trees are so large, and so festooned with long moss, that each might contain a score of hidden nests. P. longicaudus is the only species of the genus that is definitely known to lead an arboreal fife. Also, it was previously the only known form with a long, hairy tail. Our knowledge of the habits and char- acters of other families (e.g., Sciuridse) gives us grounds for presuming that hairiness of tail may be considerably increased by a life in the trees. The tail of silvicolus is just as hairy as is that of longicaudus, and, in addition, both have toes and claws that are unusually long and well fitted for climbing. Hence, it is a logical conclusion that one species is just as arboreal as the other. Mr. Jewett informs me that longicaudus has been taken as far north as the Columbia River, so this form probably occurs in scattered colonies throughout the coast district of Oregon. The type locality of silvicolus is typical of all the humid, timbered area of that state, and one may presume that the new species is rather widely distributed. 1 Collector’s measurements; that of the foot is obviously an error and should be 22 mm. 100 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Therefore, the two species may well occur together, for although both are undoubtedly arboreal, they may occupy different ecological niches, and have different food habits. It is interesting to note that P. albipes is found on the floor of these humid forests, its association seeming to be definitely riparian, and thus there are three distinct species of this genus inhabiting the same faunal area — a condition that is, so far as known, unique. The relationship of silvicolus is not clearly indicated. As mentioned, the external appearance places it with longicauduSj and it is probably closest to that form, but its skull does not resemble skulls of longicaudus to any greater degree than it does skulls of albipes, and the apparent similarity may be due solely to the influences of parallel habits acting upon two separate stocks. Pasadena, California. JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY, VOL. 2 PLATE 7 Skull of Phenacomys longicaudus. X 2 Skull of Phenacomys silvicolus. Type, X 2 (Howell: New Phenacomys from Oregon.) '•■ ■ r . V’)'.* “V': \ ' >; • ,1 '.fW- V'i' -Vs j^'''Xt y-5 ','^'4 ■ , •/',■). ' : H' ’.;A.,.- .1, -.^ ‘t ^-. m ..“r" \ '4^!» < ^ , ' ^ .^X' ,i'V ",, ' ''VXV ^ V '■, >.v‘c „ ^ X vM'' ■' ■ "■ '''<' '^ ‘ . .. ■■* ' • .c-* >'.- • I'v.'.' : Vj'i*** r< -Cl <-1 I - ^ ^ >' !?.%##• ^ -.^V',, ' f’, ''S4' ^ J^- ' ' - i‘{,'i'' • r '■ V'-* ■ ' •v\' :•.'■> „ , ;•' ' j, ■ , ■<»' ■ ’v;. 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