THE

OURNAL OF

AND

NATURAL SCIEN

J

i '

THE JOURNAL OF

THE POSTAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY,

EDITED PA'

ALFRED ALLEN,

Honorary Secretary of the Postal Microscopical Society.

ASSISTED BV

SEVERAL MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE.

VOL. IV.

Xon^on :

BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & COX, KINCr WILLIAM ST.,

STRAND, W.C.

Batb :

I, CAMBRIDGE PLACE.

18 85.

uu

^^1

HE second title of our Journal, The Journal of
Natural Science, has given to it an extended scope,
of which we have availed ourselves, and by so
doing we think that the interest in the Journal has
been much increased. It is not easy in so many
good papers to specify any particular one, but we
would direct attention to " The Rambles of a
Naturalist," by Miss Charlesworth ; "What is a Plant?" and
" How Plants Grow," by Mr. H. W. S. Worsley-Benison. Papers
like these could not have found a place in this Journal had it
been confined to Microscopy alone. While the paper on "The
Microscope and how to use it," by Miss Latham, still maintains a
claim to its first title. This last, we may observe, is the com-
mencement of a series of papers from the same pen, which we
hope to continue.

Another special feature introduced in the present volume has
been the more extended Reviews of New Books relating to every
branch of Natural Science. In writing these notices, which have
in most cases been undertaken by specialists in the various
departments of science, our object has been not so much to give
a critical review of each book, as to place before our readers as
briefly as possible such a description of the work under notice as
will at once enable them to decide whether it is worth their
purchase. These notices, although voluminous, have not taken

IT". PREFACE.

np space usually devoted to other mattei*s, for in addition to
nsing much smaller type, a number of extra pages have been
added to each part. It is our intention in future to name, where
possible, the price of each hook.

We think it better that the Reports of the Annual Meetings
of the Postal Microscopical Society should not in future be
included in the Journal, but be printed separately, and issued
to members only as a supplement.

We ha^e also a very important announcement to make —
namely, that on January ist, t886, will be commenced an addi-
tional Journal, to be called The Scientific Enquirer. Its
pages will be devoted to —

I. — Questions on all subjects relating to any branch of Natural
Science.

2. — -Answers to the same by Subscribers.

3. — Contributions on points of interest in any locality — e.g.^
occurrences of certain plants and insects^ and notes on
observed habits, etc.

4. — Extracts from recent Foreign Journals,

5. — Letters to the Editor.

6. — Answers to Correspondents,

7. — An Exchange and a Sale Column.

In conclusion, we beg very heartily to thank our numerous
contributors and subscribers for their assistance and support, and
•hope not only to deserve a continuance of this support, but that
all will kindly exert their influence on behalf of The Scientific
Enquirer, just noticed, which will appear simultaneously with
the Journal on the ist of January, 1886-

THE JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY

AND

NATURAL SCIENCE :

the journal of
The Postal Microscopical Society.'-v^^^^^ '

JANUARY, 1885.

preeibential abbreee.

Read before the Members at the Annual Meeting, held

By C. F.

^kx

October 8th, 1884.
George, M.R.C.S,

ETC.

T is with much diffidence that I accept the honour
you have done me, of electing me to the post of
President of the " Postal Microscopical Society."
Residing, as I do, far from all the centres of science
— so isolated, that the meeting with a scientific
friend is a delightful pleasure of rare occurrence,
and my knowledge of the progress of science being
almost entirely gleaned from periodicals and our
own boxes and note-books, I must be considered
eminently unfitted to fill such a post as President of this Society.

I have, however, been greatly reassured by the remarks of
former presidents, which lead to the conclusion that the situation
is by no means an arduous one, and that, with the exception of

VOL. IV. B

2 PKESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

the annual address, it may be considered as " Otiwn cuvi digni-
tatem^ and, therefore, pecuHarly adapted to myself. I am proud to
say that I was one of the first group of members, and am sorry
to find that only six of the number are left on the list. Death
has robbed us of some ; others have emigrated to distant lands,
and these, we hope, will continue their researches, and perhaps
lay the foundations of other microscopical societies; indeed, I
have recently discovered that this has been actually the case, a
former active member of this Society having been instrumental in
forming a Postal Microscopical Society in New South Wales. I
refer to Mr. Kyngdon, against whom I sat at the first of our
dinners. The rest have left us for some reason or other best
known to themselves.

Our numbers have varied somewhat, but the last list, I believe,
contains the greatest number we have ever had, and although the
prosperity of a society is not always shown by mere numbers, yet
the sinews of war must be thus estimated — i.e.^ if they all (as I
have no doubt all our members do) pay up their subscriptions.

About four years after the formation of our Society (that is, in
1877), Mr. Tuffen West inaugurated the delivery of a presidential
address, giving very good reasons why this should be an annual
custom. Since that time, one has been prepared yearly, and now
that I, in my turn, am called upon to do the same, I find the task
one of considerable difficulty.

Our Society welcomes every user of the microscope, no matter
whether he be simply a collector of choice slides prepared by
others, or himself an adept at mounting ; whether he uses
the instrument for occasional amusement only, or dips deep
into one single branch of microscopic study ; whether he
uses it as a tool in his business or profession, or as an
instrument for general scientific purposes. In fact, whether
he be an amateur or professional, he may be a useful member
of our Society ; we only require that he will do his best to
impart what knowledge he possesses, and try to extract from
the other members any information he may require for the benefit
of all. It may be that we have members possessing time, oppor-
tunity, energy, and skill, and desiring to use them, who yet do no
real work, simply because they have not yet found out the fine of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

research suitable to them. A single word or hint may set the
stone rolling, may produce the " tide, which, taken at the flood,
leads on," if not " to fortune," at least to benefit to science in
general, and to the " Postal Microscopical Society " in particular.

I desire, therefore, to bring before you this evening, as a
theme, perhaps, not entirely unworthy of our annual address, my
own particular microscopic hobby. Not that I thereby intend
for one moment to depreciate other lines of research, or to check,
hinder, or divert any of our members from that especial one which
they have already adopted, but only to point out to those who
have not as yet found out their particular groove, that there is a
wide and easily divided field — one so much neglected as to call
urgently for observers and recorders of readily ascertained facts;
one that can be taken up and laid down at any time ; one that
requires only moderate skill in the use of the instrument we all
possess ; and one in which, interest having been once roused, will
not readily be given up. I think many of you will agree with me,
that living creatures, as a rule, create greater interest to ordinary
microscopic observers, than any other objects, and for the best
work in the line I am about to point out, the creatures should be
seen and examined whilst alive. Those of you who have taken
interest in the slides I have circulated for some years past, will
know that I allude to Mites — British Mites. The first and
greatest reason for the study of these interesting atoms is that so
little is known, or at least recorded, about them in this country.
The only general text-book that I know of in our language is that
very excellent and cheap book (one of the South Kensington
Museum Science Handbooks), " Economic Entomology," by the
late Andrew Murray. This book, being a compilation, contains
errors, many of which will doubtless be corrected in a second edi-
tion. There are, however, very excellent papers scattered in the
various scientific periodicals, such as " The Microscopical Trans-
actions," " The Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,"
" The Linnsean Transactions," " The Journal of the Quekett
Microscopical Club," and "Science Gossip"; and for all further
information we must go abroad, and examine French, German,
and even Italian and Russian publications. There is, however, a
new manual, in English, on one of the famiHes of mites — the

4 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

OribatId?e (examples of which have been circulated in our boxes
by Mr. Bostock and myself), the first volume only of which has as
yet appeared. It is by my friend Mr. Michael, and is published
by the " Ray Society." It is in all respects an admirable work,
well illustrated, and is a model for all would-be workers on mites.
The perusal of this book is a great treat in store for those who
have not yet seen it. I have myself devoured it with pleasure,
for it is a work such as one only meets with very occasionally.

But we ought to pay more attention to mites, because they are
so common, occurring at times almost everywhere : any neglected
corner, any stone not recently disturbed, under the bark of any
rotten piece of wood, any neglected morsel of food prepared for
man or animals, in our entomological cabinets, parasitic on insects
of all kinds, birds, mammals, and not sparing man himself, living
on his secretions, without causing him much or any annoyance, as
in the case of Acariis foUiculoj'um^ or else producing that most
troublesome and loathsome disease, known by the very character-
istic name of "the itch." Then, again, their external anatomy is
so varied and curious, that it necessarily claims much attention
from the microscopist. The skin is sometimes smooth and very
flexible, plain, or covered with markings like that of our fingers ;
at other times, it is formed of chitinous plates of various sizes and
shapes like arm.our, and ornamented with markings of different
kinds.

Their very hairs are extremely various, sometimes simple,
long, or short ; at other times serrate, like the teeth of a saw, or
plumose, like a beautiful feather, sometimes knobbed, at others,
flattened out into a scale, and these sometimes like a leaf, and in
one case the hairs are like Japanese fans. Their differences so
attracted the attention of Hermann a century ago, that he pro-
posed their use in the classification of the TroiJihididce.

The legs are also remarkable for variety in their structure ;
sometimes the first pair is scarcely used at all for progression, but
act more like antennae or feelers, in some mites being threadlike,
and four or five times the length of the body, as in Linapodes ; in
other cases, they are remarkably short and stout, and armed with
enormous claws, like sickles, as in Disparipes bonibi and Pygme-
phorus spinosus. Sometimes it is the second pair that is so

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

curiously enlarged and modified, as in certain of the Gamasi.
Then, again, it may be the third pair, as in some of the Derma-
letchi, notably the one (first described and figured by Hermann)
found on the sparrow ; and, finally, it may be the last pair of legs
which is so remarkably different from the others. These modifi-
cations are generally found in the male, and are then of a sexual
character.

The mouth-organs, also, are modified in a most marvellous
manner ; they are admirably adapted to the necessities of the
creature, and furnish us with numerous and beautiful, as well as
instructive objects. All these remarkable variations assist us to
recognise and classify these wonderful creatures. Nor must we
forget colour ; for among the mites we have the most vivid and
beautiful, as well as the most varied tints ; various shades of red
are the most frequent. But we have other striking and bril-
liant colours, such as blue, green, yellow, black, and white, espe-
cially in the HydrachnidcE, and often have I wished for the skill of
a "West or a Hammond, that I might have recorded the beautiful
colours and shades of those lovely creatures.

Although I have so slightly and concisely glanced at some of
the characteristics of these living atoms, I hope you will allow that
I have made out a case for a record of their more minute and
accurate study, and I trust that at least some of our members will
be so influenced as to take up the matter seriously, and enrich our
note-books with accurate drawings, notes, and descriptions of the
specimens they may meet with, so that at some time in the near
future their collection may be of service to the microscopist in
general, and the acarologist in particular.

In conclusion, I trust that every member of our Society will
contribute to the success of the coming session, not only by circu-
lating good slides, accompanied by appropriate notes, but by
asking questions when in doubt^ when wishing for information, or
where anything might be better or more clearly explained ; for the
asking of questions may cause members to write valuable notes,
who otherwise would take it for granted that everybody else was
as well informed as themselves. Let us all show that we are in
earnest, and the success of the session and the Society will be
ensured.

[6]

a piece of Iboniwracft : 3t0 Jnbabitante

ant) 6uc6t6.

By Arthur S. Pennington_, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Plates I and 2.

JOHN ELLIS, the father of English Zoophytology, amongst
the other features which characterise his work, was careful
to give plain English names to the various objects described
by him. It is well for us to know that there is such a genus as
Flustra, and that it includes the species Foliacea^ Securifrons,
Carbasea, Papyracea^ and Barleei ; but to sit down on the sea-
shore and chat with a fisherman or a little child about Flustra
foliacea would not certainly be a very profitable task. Just as the
Church of England graciously permits anyone to use her prayers
privately in any language he understands, but enjoins the public
use of a language " understanded of the people," so Ellis, whilst
retaining for scientific men the generic and specific names known
to them, carefully provided popular names for ordinary use.
The aptness of these names we shall observe frequently in this
paper.

Barren and forsaken indeed must be the coast upon which the
ebbing tide does not leave some bunches of Hornwrack. Growing
at varying depths in the sea in bunches of foliaceous expansions
or narrow ribbon-like segments, the various species of Hornwrack,
or Sea-mats as they are sometimes called, are ubiquitous. The
five species before named are found in Britain. The first,
Flustra foliacea^ grows, as its name implies, in leaf-like expansions,
and has each cell armed with two spines at each side of its upper
half F. sccurifrons is divided into narrow ribbon-like segments,
and has its cells oblong and without spines. F. papyracea grows
in small glistening tufts. All these species have cells on both sides
of the fronds. F. carbasea has large somewhat oval cells without
spines and growing in a single layer. The remaining species,
uP. Barleei^ has only been found in Shetland.

A PIECE OF HORNWRACK, ETC. 7

It is however of the first species, F. foliacea^ or " the Broad
Leaved Hornwrack," that I propose to write at present. Taking
it into the hand, it appears like brownish sandpaper, but placed
under the microscope the roughness of its surface is seen to be
caused by innumerable cells ranged semi-alternately, and each
shaped, as Mr. Gosse not unaptly suggests, like a child's cradle,
narrow and straight for the lower half, and bulging out into a
semicircle in the upper half, with a couple of blunt spines on each
side of the upper margin, and often a single one in the centre. A
reference to Plate I., Fig. 2, will show the appearance of the cells
under the microscope.

The Rev. P. H. Gosse in " Tenby " ^ has published a calcula-
tion showing the number of cells in a square inch of the Fhistra.
He reckoned these to be as many as 6,720, and as there are, in
many specimens, at least 5 square inches on each side, it follows
that the cells number not less than 67,200. The inhabitants of
these cells exhibit the characteristic polyzoan structure. From the
orifice of each cell when aHve a bell of tentacles may be seen
protruding, in the centre of which is the mouth leading into an
oesophagus, and thence to a stomach and intestine. The latter
opens outside the bell. Attached to the oesophagus on one
side is a small nervous ganglion. The polypide is connected
with the base and sides of the cell by a structure known as the
funiculus^ which passes through the base of the cell and serves not
only as the usual source of origin of the reproductive organs, but
also as the connecting link between the various members of the
polyzoan colony. From the sides of the cell (which is called the
zooeciuni) to the stomach and tentacles extend a series of muscles
serving to expand and retract the tentacles and their sheath, and
to unfold and fold the body of the polypide The growth of a
colony takes place by gemmation, but new colonies are formed by
sexual reproduction.

. The Polyzoa occupy a very undecided position in the scale
of classification. They are considered by some as belonging
to the Vermes, but by most English naturalists they are included
among the Molluscoida, a sub-division of the Mollusca. The

* "Tenby, a Sea-side Holiday," by Rev. P. H. Gosse, p. 196, where a
most poetical but interesting and accurate description of this species is given.

8 A PIECE OF HORNWRACK :

marine Polyzoa are divided into two groups, the Ectoprocta,
in which the orifice leading from the intestine is outside the tenta-
cular bell, and the Endoprocta, in which both the orifices of the
alimentary canal are within the bell. About the latter of these
groups I do not propose to say anything. The Ectoprocta are
divided into three suborders, the Cheilostomata, Cyclosto-
MATA, and Ctenostomata. In the first of these — to which the
Flustra itself belongs — the orifice of the cell is protected by a
moveable operculum or valve. In the second suborder the cells
are tubular, and the orifice has no such moveable operculum, al-
though Mr. Waters (Trans. Lin. Soc, Vol. XVII. , Zool.^ page 400)
has pointed out that in all this group there is a calcareous partition
which closes up the cells, in order probably to protect the tubes of
the colony from being choked up with mud and dirt, on the death
of the terminal polypides. To this suborder belong the Crisice^
which I shall shortly describe. In the third suborder the poly-
pides never form calcareous cells, and the cell-orifices are pro-
tected, not by opercula, but by fringes of seice or bristles.
An example of this class will be referred to later.

Such an expanse as that formed by the frond of the Flustra

is a convenient locality for the founding of other colonies of

Polyzoa, and accordingly we find several species growing here

and there upon its segments in great luxuriance. First, we

notice the " Creeping Coralline " or Scrupocellaria reptans^

Plate I., Fig. i (a)^ a species that rejoices in at least a dozen

synonyms. In the catalogue of slides of a leading Microscopical

Society this species occurs under three different names. Heptans,

or creeping, has always been the favourite specific appellation,

and is a very suitable one. The zoophyte creeps along the

surface of stones, algae and other zoophytes, and forms crowded

patches. Under the microscope each cell is seen to be armed with

four spines, and protected by an operculum, which has a distinct

antler shape (Plate L, Fig. 3). When once this operculum is seen,

no mistake can be made as to the species under consideration.

Each cell is also armed with a long whip, called a vihraciduin^

which sweeps the cell clean, and no doubt wards off intruders.

The cells are oval, and arranged in a double line side by side, but

so that the orifices of the cells on one side are half way between

ITS INHABITANTS AND GUESTS. *" % 9

those of the cells on the other side. This arrangement is called
" alternate." The different species of the genus Bugula, which
comprises the " bird's-head " zoophytes, are often found on the
Flustra. On the present specimen we observe a bunch of B.
aviadarta, Plate I., Fig. i (b). The Biigidce may be easily distin-
guished by the '^ avicularia " or bird's-head processes attached to
the sides of the zooecia. These are modified cells, taking in this
genus the form of birds' heads, with distinct beaks, which, during
life, are in constant motion fsee Plate L, Fig. 4). The object of
these curious structures is not properly made out. In some cases
they serve doubtless to catch passing prey, and hold it until
the polypide is ready to devour it, or until, by the decay
of some captured worm, crowds of infusoria are gathered
in the neighbourhood, but this cannot be the universal pur-
pose, as the appendage is fixed in some species so far from the
orifice as to be useless as a food-holder. One thing is clear that
they are modified forms of ordinary zooecia. The Rev. Thomas
Hincks has traced their development very fully from the zooecium
proper, through the various forms of fixed avicularia, to the free-
moving, jointed, and elaborate appendages of the Biigtdce. The
more common English species of the genus may be distinguished
from each other as follows : — B. pliwwsa has an elongated cell,
with a large orifice armed with a single spine ; B. turbitiata has an
oblong cell, with a single spine at each of the upper angles ; B.
avictdaria has two spines on the upper outer angle, and one on the
inner angle ; and B. flabellata has two spines (one much larger than
the other) on each of the upper angles. The modes of growth are
very varied. Plumosa grows in slender shoots ; Tiirbinata in grace-
ful spiral coils ; Avictdaria in small white tufts ; and Flabellata in
small but dense fan-shaped shoots, which are of a beautiful light
brown colour in life, but after death change to a dull ashy tint.
Amongst other species of Cheilostomatous polyzoa found on the
Flustra are the "Bull's Horn Coralline," Eucratea chelata (PI. II.,
Fig. 10), which has the cells shaped like a "bull's horn" or a shoe,
and growing in single series ; the " Creeping Stony Coralline,"
Scrupocellaria scrtiposa, which much resembles »S. reptans^ but has
only two spines, and wants the antler-shaped operculum ; and the
" Ciliated Coralline," Bicellaria ciliata, whose soft white feathery

10 ' A PIECE OF HORN WRACK :

tufts, with zooecia protected by six or seven long spines, and dis-
tinct round ovicells, form beautiful microscopic objects, especially
with a background of polarised light.

The Cyclostomata delight in the fronds of Flustra as
habitats. Tufts of the '' Ivory-tufted Zoophyte," Crista ebur-
nia, Plate I., Fig. i (c); the "Goat's Horn CoraUine," C.
cornuta, Plate I., Fig. 5; and the "Black-jointed Coralline," C.
denticulata, Plate II., Fig. 6, may be found often on one frond of
Hornwrack. The Crisice are very beautiful zoophytes ; C. cornuta
is excedingly delicate, looking almost like white hairs tangled to-
gether, but under the lens appearing as " branches of single cells
shaped like goats' horns inverted, placed one above the other, on
the top of each of which is a small circular opening which inclines
inwards. At the back of this rises a fine upright hair, near the
insertion of the next cell above it." — Ellis (see Plate I., Fig. 5 a.).
The brittle C. ebuniia, or " Ivory-tufted zoophyte," is easily distin-
guishable by its brilliant white appearance, and no more beautiful
object can be seen under the condenser than a tuft of this species.
The cells are arranged in intervals with from three to nine cells in
each, and are tubular and covered with minute granulations. The
ovicels, which are often present, are pear-shaped and, like the
zooecia, are perfectly white,- and spotted with minute dots (see Plate
II., Fig. 7). In C. de7iticidata the internodes are longer, having a
much larger number of cells, and the joints between the internodes
are usually black. The last species is much duller in appearance
than C. eburnia, grows more erect and to a greater height, and is
more branched. I have recently found this species, as well as C.
cornuta, crowding the margins of rock pools on Filey Brigg. We
sometimes find (Plate I., Fig. i,d) on Flustra a small round white
wart-like polyzoon, with the base expanded slightly as a thin border.
Under the lens this is found to be a colony of tubular cells, ex-
tending from the centre outwards in radiating lines. The cells are
marked with minute dots. This is the " Wart-like Coralline " of
Couch, or Diastopora patina.

Amongst the Ctenostomata, Bowerbankia imbricata (Plate
II., Fig. 8), is often found upon the Flustra. The cells are
arranged in groups upon a creeping stolon, and are horny and so
transparent that the structure of the polypide, and notably its

ITS INHABITANTS AND GUESTS. 11

prominent gizzard, may be distinctly seen. The polypide has ten
ciliated tentacles, and is often figured as an illustration of polyzoan
structure in works on natural history.

Before parting with our specimen of Flustra, we notice (see
Plate I., Fig. i e) running along it a slender brown thread, ap-
parently knotted here and there, and sending off short erect shoots.
Occasionally a larger knot appears ; this is not a polyzoon but a hy-
droid, Sertularella nigosa, or the "Snail-trefoil Coralline." Under
the lens the apparent knots are seen to be the calycles or cells of
the polyps, which are wrinkled and shaped like little barrels. The
larger knots are the reproductive capsules which have three teeth
at the upper end. Ellis gave this hydroid its popular name from
the resemblance of its cells to the seed-vessels of the " Snail-
trefoil " plant. It is a very common object on Flustra, but not
less beautiful on that account (see Plate II., Fig. 9).

I have only named here a few of the many zoophytes (polyzoa
and hydroids) which find a resting-place on the Broad-leaved
HornwTack, but, as this is usually deemed so common as not to be
thought anything of, I considered it not inopportune to point out
that not only is it in itself an object of great beauty, especially when
freshly taken from the water and having its characteristic scent of
verbena or bergamot, but that it is even of greater interest as the
habitat of other interesting forms of zoophytes, which run the risk
of being overlooked and neglected owing to the universal distribu-
tion of their host. The generic name of the Flustra is derived from
the Anglo-Saxon y?//j/r/^;;, to weave ; and the richest lawns or silks
are not woven with greater delicacy than is manifested in the fronds
of the various species. As Dr. Landsborough remarked in speak-
ing of the genus, " He alone who gathered together the waters of
the sea could teach these marine manufacturers to construct amidst
its waves such elegant tabernacles."

EXPLANATION OF PLATES L and IL

Plate I.

Fig. 1. — Frond of Flustra foliacea, showing growing upon it fa) Scrupo-
cellaria reptans, (b) Bugula avicularia^ (c) Crisia eburnia^ (d)
Diastopora patina, (e) Sertularella rugosa.

12 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

Fig, 2. — Zooecia of F. foluicea magnified.
,, 3. — 5, ,, 8. reptans ,,

,, 4. — ,, 5, -B. avicularia ,,
,, 5. — Crisia cornuta ; natural size, 5a ; Zooecia magnified.

Plate II.

,, 6. — Crisia denticulata, natural size
,, 7. — Zooecia of C. ehurnia, magnified.

J)
J)

8. — Bowerhankia imbricata, natural size.
9. — Calycles of S. rugosa, magnified.
10. — Zooecia of E. chelata, magnified.

All drawn by Mrs. A. S. Pennington.

IRaniblee of a maturaliet near Hmberlci^.

By Miss A. M. Charlesworth.

IT is a real pleasure to me to recall the few happy weeks of my
visit to Amberley, by describing the various flora and fauna
found during my stay in the neighbourhood. The first rare
flower that I found at Amberley was the Anemone puhatilla. It
is very locally distributed, growing only on limestone soils and in
exposed places where the wind can blow freely round it. I think
it by far the most beautiful of our spring flowers ; its rich purple
contrasts so well with the bright yellow of its stamens, and it is
covered externally by long silky hairs. There is a legend that
this flower only grows where Danish blood was spilt. From
such names as " Woeful-Dane-bottom," one might certainly con-
clude that fierce battles may have been fought with the Danes
in the neighbourhood of Minchinhampton. This anemone is
called the " Pasque flower," as it is in bloom about Easter-tide.
I will relate a curious little incident connected with it. I was
talking to the owner of one of the most beautiful gardens near
Amberley about the wild flowers I had found, and amongst

Journal of Microscopy, Vol. 4, Pi. 1

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NEAR AMBERLEY. 13

Others I mentioned the Pasque flower. I was asked to describe
it, and when I said the botanical name was Anemone Pulsatilla^
I was amused to find that our friend had written up to a well-
known London florist for roots of this flower, and had received
the reply that they had not got any, but would try to get some.
And yet in sight of that garden was the slope of hill where I
had gathered quite a bunch of the purple flowers. The plant
blooms close to the ground, but later on the stem shoots up,
and in summer the pretty winged seeds are lifted about a foot
from the ground, ready for the wind to waft them away.

There grows where Danish blood was shed

(So says the legend old),
A blossom, clad in purple vest,

With heart of yellow gold.

It points us to the hidden tomb

Where lie the warriors brave ;
'Tis like the poet's sad, sweet song

That blossoms on a grave.

The next flower found was the Fritillaria meleagris^ and for this I
went to some fields at Oaksey, not far from Cirencester. This is also
very local, being quite unknown in some counties, though plentiful
in others. At Oaksey there are fields so full of them that they have
gained the' name of the Oaksey gardens. The flower is a very
curious one, checkered all over with small squares of a red-brown
colour, reminding one somewhat of a chess-board. It is not unlike
a tulip in shape, but hangs its head instead of holding it erect.
Fritillaria comes from a Latin word meaning a dice-box, which I
suppose it is thought to resemble. While gathering the flowers, rain
came down in torrents, and we returned home drenched to the skin,
but quite happy with our arms full of flowers. I may here say
that, in asking our way to the field, we had to inquire where the
" toad's heads " grew, this being the country name for them. As
Fritillaj'-ias they would be quite unknown. They were formerly
called " turkey hen," or " guinea flowers," and in many places are
now called " snake's heads " — names all evidently given on
account of the curious markings to which I have referred.

14 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

Hellebore foetidus is another rare plant that I found for the
first time at Amberley. It is nearly related to Hellebore niger (the
Christmas rose of our gardens), and, like it, has its petals changed
into little nectaries. If you look closely into either of these
flowers, you will find that what at first sight appear to be petals,
are only sepals^ and that the true petals are like minute green
pockets surrounding the stamens. These, with the stamens, soon
fall off, leaving the carpels standing alone in the centre of the
sepals. There is one other wild Hellebore, namely, H viridis^
but neither are truly indigenous, having been probably introduced
into English gardens during the middle ages, when they were
much used medicinally. It grows in a wood near Box, and is
very plentiful on some waste ground to the left of Selsley Hill.
Minchinhampton Common is remarkably rich in Orchidaceous
plants. I was too early to find many in flower, but was pleased to
see my favourite Ophrys muscifera. It is of a purple-brown hue, hav-
ing on the lower part of the corolla (termed the labellum) a square
patch of pale blue. Even the antennas are represented by the upper
petals, and anyone not knowing the flower would certainly take it to
be an insect perched on the stalk. I have found it on the Surrey
Hills with as many as eight or nine flowers open at different intervals
up the stem, when it is a most curious sight. Nearly all flowers
are dependent upon insects for the fertflisation of their seeds ;
whilst many are most curiously armed against the visits
of creeping insects, for these would, if able to get at the
flowers, in some cases eat them, and in others rob them of their
pollen to no purpose. Those flowers, therefore, that only want to
attract bees or other flying insects have their stems, leaves, and
calyx covered by a paUsade of hairs, sometimes placed with the
points inclined out or down, so as to form a sort of " chevaicx-de-
frise^^ thus keeping off intruders, as we do by our fences and
spiked palings. It is only under the microscope that some of
these defences are revealed. The leaf of the garden Deutzia {D.
scabra) is a remarkable instance. Here the leaves and stem are
covered by the most beautiful little stellate crystals of silica, whose
sharp points would doubtless incommode the pedestrian insect-
tramps as much as broken glass would those of our own species.

Many people look upon the scents and colours of flowers as

NEAR AMBERLEY. 15

though they were intended solely for their pleasure, little thinking
that honey, scent, colour, and even the delicate pencillings and
quaint irregularities of some flowers, have all some special refer-
ence to their insect visitors. Now, orchids are among the clever-
est; so to speak; in their strange contrivances for securing the safe
conveyance of their pollen. Space will not allow me to speak of
the many tropical orchids I have watched in hot-houses ; but over
and over again I have seen unwary insects taken in their cunning
traps. In his " Reign of Laws," the Duke of Argyll says of
them : — " ' Moth-traps and spring-guns set on these grounds '
might be the motto of the orchids. There are baits to tempt the
nectar-loving lepidoptera, with rich odours exhaled by night and
colours to shine by day ; there are channels of approach along
which they are surely guided, so as to compel them to pass by
certain spots ; there are adhesive plasters nicely adjusted to fit
their proboscis, or to catch their brows ; and there are hair-triggers
carefully set in their necessary path, communicating with explosive
shells which project the pollen stalks with unerring aim upon their
bodies." The little Fly Ophrys not only attracts flies by its like-
ness to one of themselveSj but also by the shining patch on its
labellum, which it is supposed they take to be honey. Ophrys
apifei'a grows plentifully near Amberley ; and on any bright day in
July the bees may be seen bustling in and out of its handsome
brown and pink flowers. It is not, however, so like a bee as the
former is like a fly. Ophrys arajiifera is very like the large
garden-spiders found in the autumn. The mutual adaptations of
flowers and insects are most curious. The butterflies that flit
from flower to flower, only bent on sucking out honey
for themselves, are insuring the permanence of the species
they frequent. But while bees and butterflies have greatly
increased the scents and colours of flowers, there can be
no doubt that we owe the dingy hues and noxious smell of others
to flies. Not long since, I had a curious specimen of one of these
last in the Stapelia, a native of South Africa, with a smell exactly
like tainted beef. This plant has become dependent on flies for
the conveyance of its pollen. Now, flies do not appreciate colour
or scent, but seek out carrion in which to lay their eggs. The
Stapdia^ therefore, is just the thing to suit them. It is shaped

16 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

very like a starfish, is of a brown-red colour, and covered with
hairs full of a liquid resembling blood, while the smell is almost
unbearable. The specimen given to me from the Botanical
Gardens at Cambridge was covered with the eggs of the Blow-fly,
thus showing how well the fly had been deceived.

The Listcra (or Neottia) 7iidus avis I had not seen before
finding it at Amberley under the beech-trees, on the road below
Rodborough Fort. It gets its name of " bird's nest orchis " from
the root, which is a dense bunch of thick, rather succulent fibres.
At Longfords I found the pretty Geuvi rivale, which I have often
found in Switzerland, but never before in England. It is not very
unlike the Geum urbamwi ; but, instead of being yellow, the
flower is a pinkish orange, with purple veinings ; it is also larger
and drooping. A variety is sometimes found resembling both
species. The Geranium lucidem, which I found here very plenti-
fully on the walls, is also uncommon. It has a smaller blossom
than the Geraniu7n Robertianum^ and is of a brighter pink ; while
the shining leaves are exceedingly beautiful, and turn in autumn
to a brilliant red. In the Wood at Highlands I found the rare
Lathrcea sqiiamaria (toothwort). It grows parasitically on the
roots of the hazel, and gets its name from the curious appearance
of its underground stem, which is sheathed by succulent scales,
the abortive forms of what ought to have been its leaves. It is a
pale, sickly-looking flower, sometimes, when growing in sunlight,
of a mauve tinge, but usually a pale yellow-white, and quite
scentless. The secret of its miserable appearance is that it is
living entirely at the expense of another. By drawing the pre-
pared juice from another plant, it has lost its own leaves in
accordance with Nature's stern rule, that "loss follows disuse."

I am writing this paper beneath a grand old tree, shaded by
that glorious green web of Nature's own weaving upon the warp
of last year's dead leaves and blossoms. Here as elsewhere true
freedom is only found in obedience to law. The smallest details
are not left to chance, and there is as exact a geometry here as in
the mineral kingdom. Just as certainly as the angles which the
axes and planes of different crystals form with each other are
determined, the leaves follow a regular plan, and the flowers
appear not only at the appointed time, but at the appointed

NEAR AMBERLEY. 17

part of the plant. The usual arrangement is the spiral. As
a poet beautifully puts it, " Each leaf climbs up its jewelled
winding stair." If a thread is drawn round a twig of one of
our fruit or forest trees from the base of one leaf to the base of
the next, and so on to the base of each following leaf, it will des-
cribe a spiral line ; the spiral ending with the leaf directly above
the one from which it commenced. We can see that the leaves
are thus prevented from interfering with each other by excluding
light and air, or otherwise impeding each other. This arrangement
of the leaves with regard to their placement on the stem is called by
botanists, phyllotaxis (from <pvX\ov, a leaf, and rd^ig, arrangement),
and it may be expressed in fractions of which the numerator indi-
cates the number of turns of the spiral forming the circle; while the
denominator expresses the number of leaves on that circle. Thus
in the oak there are two turns and five leaves ; the fraction I will
therefore represent the phyllotaxis of that tree There is the same
spiral arrangement in the blossom, only here instead of being drawn
out as in the foHage, it is compressed like the rings of a spiral
spring that has been pressed down at one end. I have read in
one of Hugh Macmillan's delightful books that the angles at which
the leaves of the plants diverge as they grow from the stem, express
Euclid's idea of the problem of inscribing a regular pentagon in
a circle. Those w^ho care to follow out this interesting subject for
themselves will find that in different species the number of turns
made round the stem in completing the cycle differs, but that both
the nature of the spirals and the number of leaves are always
determined.

To return to the Amberley flora ; I found the AlUwn ursinum
very plentiful in most of the woods, and very tantalising too, some-
times, when I took them from a distance to be a bed of the Con-
valleria majalis. The latter lovely flower grows very plentifully
in woods above Selsley Hill, but whether truly wild there I cannot
say. I was much pleased to find fine specimens of the rare Paris
quadrifolia in the woods at Longfords. I had not found it in
England before, though specimens had been given me from Derby-
shire. It used to grow wild near Cambridge, but has now been
quite exterminated. May it long five and flourish in the Glouces-
tershire woods ! Paris comes from the hsitmj^ar, because all the

VOL. IV. c

18 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

parts of this curious plant are in fours. The flower springs from
a slender stem that rises in the centre of a whorl of four leaves.
It consists of a calyx of four green sepals, a coralla of four narrow
yellowish petals, eight stamens, and a bluish-black germen of four
cells terminating in four stigmas. Without doubt it is poisonous,
as are nearly all green flowers. The dark centre is supposed to
serve the purpose of attracting insects, as the flower has neither
scent nor bright colour. In the same woods I found the fern
Polypodium calcareum (limestone polypody), by some botanists
regarded as a distinct species, by others a mere variety of P.
dryopteris, commonly called the oak fern. It is generally of a
stouter growth than this last ; the rhizome is stronger and the
whole plant more rigid, while the frond is expanded instead of
drooping. Scolope7idi-ium vulgare is also found near Nailsworth,
with several other of the commoner representatives of that tribe
which so long ago abdicated the throne of the vegetable kingdom.
Yes, the ferns that nestle in the shade among moss-covered stones,
or droop over our streams with blue-eyed forget-me-nots and sweet-
scented rushes, are links connecting the solemn periods of geology
with our busy utilitarian age. How much we owe to their ancestors !
Age after age those giant tree-ferns grew up, flourished, and died,
to be locked up securely under immense rock-pressure, that they
might give to us one day the treasure it was foreseen we should
require. Foreseen, not by a blind force, that cannot foresee, but
by One whose ever present will upholds and directs all things
towards that end planned from the very beginning.

One day I noticed a curious appearance on an Anemone leaf.
It appeared covered with tiny punctures like those made by the
gall-fly, and yet I could see no decided signs of insect life. I
solved this puzzle, as I had done many a one before, by the aid of
the microscope, and could not prevent an involuntary exclamation
of surprise and dehght at the fairy scene which filled the field
under my inch objective, and which proved to be the lovely
fungus^ ^cidhwi quadrijidiwi. I can most heartily recommend
the study of these lower forms of vegetable life under the micro-
scope. Whether it be the lichens that paint our old walls with
their many-hued frescoes, or the deUcate mosses, or tiny fungi
found clinging to dead leaves and decaying fruit, all are very

NEAR AMBERLEY. 19

beautiful and full of interest, while there is no need to go out of
our way to find them. Whilst examining the exquisite spore-urns
of our mosses I have often thought what pretty models they would
make for jars, jugs, and pitchers. Then the contrasts and har-
monies of colour shown by lichens and their fructifications are
enough to delight any artist's eye.

I have a few words to say about pond life. There is nothing
in the wide range of microscopic research that seems to me so full
of interest. Here we see the marvellous workings of life ; and
surely none but the most stolid and unreflecting mind could study
them without awe ; for while we can understand more or less of
the results, the cause is hidden in mystery. Each discovery
which leads us to some elementary law or principle only shows us
how much lies behind it. There is a wonderful charm in all
efforts to trace beginnings in nature, especially where we can see
in the simple structures and faculties of the lower forms of life a
foreshadowing of their completion in the frame and mind of man.
For a long time all the microscopic inhabitants of water were
called Animalculse, and until the recent improvements in the instru-
ments used for observation, little was known about them. Much
has been done of late years by means of the microscope to
classify the teeming myriads of our ponds, but very much yet
remains to be done. Among some of the most marvellous of
these creatures are rotifers. About two hundred species have
been discovered and named, but hardly a month passes without
some fresh form being noticed, while the male of the commonest
species ( R. vulgaris) has not yet been identified. What a good
opening here awaits all who care to make drawings of what they
find by means of the camera-lucida. In a pond at Bowbridge, to
which I was kindly directed by Mr. Mayo, I found fine specimens
of the tube-building rotifer, Melicerta ri?tgens. This marvellous
creature builds for itself a home in the shape of a tube, out of clay
contained in the water. It has a small cup-like process in which
it moulds the clay into compact rounded pellets. These it places
one by one, as they are made, round the edge of its tube. By
putting a little carmine paint into the water, I have seen them
very plainly, for the Melicerta devours the carmine greedily, and
also uses it for building. I have timed them at work, and find

20 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

they usually take from three to five minutes to make one pellet.
The fringe of cilia round the edge of their lobes moves so rapidly,
with an undulatory motion, that it appears like a tiny chain
revolving round and round. In a good light the crushing move-
ment of the gizzard may be clearly seen.

On the same weed (the Anacharis) was another creature,
well-named the Beautiful Floscule {Floscularia ornatci). This also
lives in a tube, but it is a gelatinous one, very difficult to see,
except with a dark-ground illumination, as it is of the same
refractive power as the water. The Floscule seems a nervous
creature, the least shake of the table, or change in the light,
sending it down to the bottom of its tube. When it emerges it
pushes out before it a bunch of long fine hairs, looking not unlike
one of our old-fashioned hearth-brushes ; then, if not frightened
in again, it soon unfolds its fringed lobes like some lovely flower
expanding in the sunlight. I think (under a really good micro-
scope), there is not anything to be compared to it for beauty. Its
long hairs glisten with a bluish-white lustre, and it looks like a
crystal vase filled with gems ; these being the desmids, Eugleiia
viridis^ and monads it has swallowed. The Vorticellce are well
known to all who have seen anything of pond-life. There are
different species, some of which are as large as the Stentors, and
can be well observed under a low power. I have frequently
found them on Cyclops and Daphnia, and I once found a large
water beetle completely enveloped by them. It is a curious sight
to watch a cy clops swimming through the water almost hidden by
a forest of Epistylis or Carchesium. When thus fastened to these
active little Crustacea, they seem to lose the sensitiveness that
makes them pop down at the sUghtest jar or movement of the
live-box. These Vorticellae, be it understood, do not prey upon
their hosts, they only look for lodging and provide their own board.
There is a creature, now supposed to belong to the Vorticellae,
that much resembles the Floscules, and is called Acineta. I found
it in the Amberley ponds among the colonies of Vorticellae. It
may be distinguished from the Floscules by having no gelatinous
case, and by there being no visible opening or mouth into the
interior. I found plenty of the Stylojiichia^ oval animalcules
surrounded by ciUa, and covered with styles both straight and
curved, the latter called uncini, or little hooks. It is most amusing

NEAR AMBERLEY. 21

to watch these queer Httle folk swimming steadily on, and then
darting back, but not quite so far as they advanced. They will
keep up this peculiarly unrestful motion by the hour together.
Increasing by self-division, they multiply so rapidly that it has been
calculated that one Stylonichion might produce a million in ten
days. Who can gauge the usefulness of all these minute beings,
so delicate that a touch will crush them ! and yet so important
that without them every stagnant pond would become a centre of
infection spreading death to all around. Professor Owen calls
them " Nature's invisible Police," and indeed they are Uke
watchful sentinels, ever waiting to arrest all the particles of decay-
ing matter, to turn them back into the ascending stream of animal
life. Thus they prevent the gradual diminution of the quantity of
organised matter, taking that which would harm us into their own
living tissues, and then becoming the food of larger Infusoria,
which in their turn are devoured ; food fit for more highly
organised beings coming back by this short route from the extreme
limits of the world of organised matter. Wherever decay com-
mences, the invisible fairy band of scavengers will be found, and
they never, fortunately for us, leave their work unfinished. In
their crystal goblets poison changes into food.

I found Hydra plentiful in the ponds near Stroud ; both H.
vulgaris and H. viridis which some naturalists tell us is only a
variety of the former. They are very tenacious of life, and I have
divided them into many pieces and found each division speedily
grow a fresh crown of tentacles. It is known that they have the
power of stinging their prey by means of tiny lassoes which they
can throw out at will. I had not time to examine the ponds
round Amberley, as I should have liked, but from what I saw I
should think the ponds, canal, and the Brimscombe basin would
repay careful research.

Those who take an interest in conchology may care to know
that in " Hardwicke's Science Gossip " for July, there is mention
of a rare slug to be found at Brimscombe. It is the variety
Bicolor of Arion ater^ which I believe at present has only been
found in Ireland. It is always pleasant to see what sort of free-
masonry exists between naturalists ; they seem as a rule very free
from the selfishness of some collectors, and can rejoice in each
other's prizes.

[22 ]

^be flDicro6Cope anb bow to '^ec it

By V. A. Latham, late Hon. Sec. Norwich Branch U.J.F.C.

First Part.

IN the following series of papers, it will be our endeavour to
give some of the best methods for the Preparation and
Mounting of microscopic objects.

We will state frankly at the commencement that the methods
given will not, in many instances, be original, and perhaps our
articles may not be complete, but we trust that they will prove
helpful to the general microscopist. But whatever the failings of
these papers may be, they have this recommendation, that all the
methods herein given have proved themselves thoroughly efficient,
and therefore are unhesitatingly recommended.

The Microscope opens up innumerable sources of entertain-
ment and amusement to all classes of students. To the zoologist
it is a necessary co-operator. To the geologist it reveals, among
other facts, that our coal-beds are the ruins of a gigantic vegeta-
tion. Its influence as an instrument of research upon the struc-
ture of bodies has been compared to that of the galvanic battery
in the hands of Davy upon chemistry. To the pathologist, bota-
nist, and numerous others, has it ever been the source of assisting
and forwarding science, adding greatly to our store of knowledge,
and as many good microscopes may be purchased for merely
nominal sums, every student of science should possess one.

The following notes may be of use : — The microscope having
been placed in a convenient position, taking care that the stand is
•firm and perfectly steady, the mirror is to be adjusted so as to
throw a beam of light through the stage-aperture and along the
central axis of the tube. Direct sunlight should not be used for
illumination, but that thrown from some bright cloud is strongly
recommended. The eye-pieces and object-glasses, as well as the
mirror, must be kept perfectly clean and free from dust by means

THE MICROSCOPE AND HOW TO USE IT. 23

of a soft piece of wash-leather, which should on no account be
used for any other purpose. Specimens should invariably be exa-
mined, first with the lowest power and then with the next higher^ and
so on until the highest power is reached, using with the low powers
a medium-sized diaphragm, and a somewhat smaller one with the
higher powers. Before placing or removing specimens, the objec-
tive is always to be withdrawn some distance from the stage by
drawing the microscope-tube upwards with a gentle turn of the
coarse adjustment-screw. When placed in position, the object
may be brought to a focus by gently lowering the tube with the
coarse adjustment till the specimen is fairly in view, and then,
slightly turning the fine adjustment-screw until a clear and distinct
image is obtained. Care is to be taken that this fine adjustment-
screw is not turned too much to the left so as to rise far out from
the stand, nor too much to the right and so become fixed.

It is best to accustom oneself to working with both the left and
right eye, at the same time keeping open the one not directly in
use. By this means the eyes become less tired^ and after a little
practice the whole attention will be thrown upon the object under
examination. This plan is also of great assistance in making
sketches of the preparations. It is a good plan to make drawings
of all objects under examination. Our method of procedure is to
place the sketch-book or drawing-paper on the right-hand side of
the microscope level with the stage, and to draw a faint outline of
the object with an "H." pencil, and afterwards carefully finish
with the " H.B.," shading where required ; coloured chalks or
water-colours may be used. The latter, however, we consider
preferable.

All drawings should be made of the apparent size as seen in
the microscope, and a note to this effect should always be made at
the left-hand corner of the paper. It should state the power of
the objective, number of eye-piece, and degree of enlargement;
e.g.^ I in. A x 25, ^ in. A x 120, as the case may be.

The degree of magnification may always be ascertained by
substituting a micrometer slide for the actual slide, and by drawing
a few of the lines on the paper at exactly the same distance apart
as they appear in the microscope; thus, if 10 lines which are on
the micrometer plate ^^ of an inch apart appear to occupy one

24 THE MICROSCOPE

inch, we know that the object is magnified ten times ; if only four
of these lines occupy an inch, the object is magnified twenty-five
times, and so on. But this method of drawing objects from the
microscope may not be applicable for all users of the microscope,
and those who are unable to adopt it will do well to purchase a
camera lucida, or, if expense be an item of consideration, one of
the many forms of neutral-tint reflectors will be found to meet
every requirement.

We will now describe more particularly some of the principal
accessories : —

The Object-glasses possess various magnifying powers, accord-
ing to the distance at which they require to be placed from the
object for distinct vision. This, though not absolutely correct,
yet may serve as a general expression. Thus, we have i-inch,
J-inch, ^-inch, ^-inch, 25-inch object-glasses, etc. As the coarse
movement raises or depresses the body and object-glass through
comparatively large distances, it must be used only on the lower-
power object-glasses, as the 2-inch, i-inch, or ^-inch, or, to bring
the object-glass near the focal distance with the higher powers, as
the ^-inch, etc. Care should also be taken not to place a slide
which has been warmed in any experiment near the object-glass
until it has become quite cold.

Eye-pieces. — With all microscopes, one, two, or more eye-
pieces are supplied. These possess different magnifying powers,
and are lettered or numbered accordingly, the lowest powers with
the earliest letters of the alphabet, or with the smallest numbers ;
thus, A, B, C, or i, 2, 3, etc.

The following instruments are required for general work ; of
course, the list does not include all, but others may be added at
the convenience of the student, and those students who make
histology their special subject will naturally require many more.

Stage-forceps for holding insects and small objects under the
microscope; straight and curved forceps for general manipulation;
live-box for holding living insects whilst under examination ; a pair
of straight and a pair of curved-bladed scissors ; a few mounted
needles for " teasing " out structural details ; a set of dipping
tubes ; a razor or two ; and an ether freezing microtome,
or a small hand microtome for those whose means are

AND HOW TO USE IT. 25

limited. For general use, we strongly advise the student to'
purchase the freezing microtome, as it will be found much
more efficient. A dozen porcelain paint-saucers or watch-
glasses, camel-hair pencils ; sUdes, covers (both square and round),
and a bull's-eye side-condenser. This last accessory we have so
seldom used, that when we have required one we have filled a
clear white glass bottle with water, and fastened it between the
lamp and the object, when it has proved almost as efficient as the
bull's eye ; but where the student is giving his attention more par-
ticularly to opaque objects (Foraminifera, etc.), he will find the
bull's-eye condenser very serviceable. A small paraffin oil lamp
with a white paper shade is very useful for winter-evening work ;
Canada Balsam and Benzole, Glycerine Jelly, and various stains
and cements. Experience will best teach what stains and cements
are most required, and these it will be best to purchase as needed,
as it will depend on the class of work.

In studying the microscopic structure of various bodies, it is
necessary to add different reagents and staining fluids. Fre-
quently, it is best to put up the object and then add the fluid,
which may be done : — {a) By the use of a glass rod or blotting-
paper ; or {b) by using the rod and a fine capillary tube.

Testing. — By using reagents in the above manner, many sub-
stances may be detected under the microscope by certain charac-
teristic reactions. As examples of this, the reactions of starch and
cellulose may be mentioned.

Starch. — Mount a few granules of starch by mixing some
in cold water and covering a drop upon a slide. Examine under
a high power. Now add by capillary attraction a dilute solution
of Iodine, and the granules will turn blue ; this is a well-known
and characteristic reaction.

Cellulose. — Mount some scrapings from the cut surface of a
potato. Examine under a high power, and run in a little Iodine
solution ; the starch-granules present turn blue, and the walls of
the cell-spaces containing them take a yellow tint. If, in a similar
manner, dilute hydric sulphate be now added, this yellow tint will
change to a blue one, indicating cellulose. The same reaction is
given by cotton fibres, or the walls of yeast-cells.

26 THE MICROSCOPE

Foreign Bodies, etc.—

In making microscopic preparations, certain foreign bodies
from time to time become present which it is necessary to care-
fully distinguish from the tissues under examination. The more
common of these should, therefore, be placed under the micro-
scope, and sketches made of them, in order that their characteris-
tics may be known.

I. — Brownian* movement.— This vibratory movement should
be carefully distinguished from any vital one. Although it is
shown by some specimens of living matter, it is also observed in
;^^;2-living matter, and is essentially a physical phenomenon. It
may be studied in —

(a) Gamboge. — Grind some gamboge in water, and examine a
drop under the high power. Various currents will be detected,
and also this vibratory Brownian movement of the small granules.

(b) Bacteria. — Mount a specimen from a watery extract of
boiled meat, which has been allowed to stand a few days. Some
very fine Bacteria will be seen which will show a similar motion,
and which lasts after their death, brought about by the addition of
iodine or by boiling the solution. Another way is to infuse some
hay in warm water for half-an-hour, filter, and set aside the fil-
trate ; note the changes which go on in it. At first, it will appear
clear ; in 24 or 36 hours, it will have become turbid ; later on, a
scum forms on the surface, and the infusion acquires a putrefac-
tive odour. Treat as above, with Iodine.

2. — Cotton Fibres. — These are one of the pests of mounters.
Mount a few fibres of cotton wool in water, cover and examine
under both low and high powers. They appear as long, flat
threads with a distinct twist, and turn blue on the addition of
iodine and hydric sulphate.

3. — Flax Fibres. — Examine in a similar manner some flax
fibres. These are long and flat, but, unlike cotton, do not show
any twist.

4. — Air-Bubbles. — Shake a solution of gum in a test-tube till a
froth appears, then mount a drop of the under fluid, and examine
under both low and high powers. By transmitted light, each air-

AND HOW TO USE IT. 27

bubble appears as a bright centre, surrounded by several dark
rings of various depths ; by alteration of the focus, these rings will
change. With reflected light, a reversion takes place, the centre
becoming dark and the periphery light.

5. — Fat-globules. — Mount a small drop of milk and compare
the fat-globules with No. 4. Notice their sharp definition and
variation of size. Pass in a little sodium hydrate, and they imme-
diately run together. .

Objects which have been mounted in glycerine or any
media liable to evaporation, require the cover-glass to be sur-
rounded and slightly overlapped by some cementing fluid, which
will gradually dry and form a firm ring. For this purpose, zinc-
white varnish, or the brown cement (prepared by E. Ward, of
Manchester) are good.

These cements are best appfied by centering the slip upon a
turn-table, fixing the slide down wath the clips, and while rapidly
turning to gently bring a camel-hair pencil holding the cement
down to the edge of the cover-glass. The object must be care-
fully centered and the slide firmly clamped, otherwise the rapid
rotation will throw it off the turn-table. If square covers are used,
the cement may be applied by gently painting it along each edge.

Dry Mounting.— The easiest objects that a learner can begin
vrith are those that are merely mounted dry in a shallow cement-
cell, such as wings and the scales removed from the wings of
butterflies, delicate pollen-grains, fern-spores, fish-scales, cuticles,
etc. In commencing work, it will be found advisable to prepare
a number of slides by putting them on a turn-table, and with a
brush charged with brown cement (Ward's), or some similar viscid
preparation, the solvent of which should be spirit, run circles upon
a number of slides, and put on one side to dry ; those, with brown
cement, will, to a certain extent, dry quickly, when, if the cell is
not deep enough, another and yet other layers may be added.
Now, the slides being ready, suppose we wish to mount a slide of
scales from the wing of a butterfly. Cut a piece of ordinary print-
ing paper, about i inch by \ inch ; fold it in the middle, and then,
placing in the fold a small piece of the wing, press steadily, and
with a slight sliding motion, when the scales from both sides will

28 THE MICROSCOPE

be pulled from the wing and remain upon the paper. If now the
paper be divided^ and a clean cover-glass of the chosen size be
taken, it will be found that by breathing upon the cover, and then
at once putting down upon it first one and then the other of the
papers, scale side to the glass, the scales will adhere to the glass
cover, and then, by gently warming over a spirit-lamp one of the
slips prepared as described, the ring of cement will be softened,
and the cover-glass with scales may be pressed closely to it, and
when cold all will be found firmly fixed. If it is desired to mount
a small piece of the wing, see that the cell is sufficiently deep, and
then, placing the wing in the centre of the cell ; by warming the
cover-glass, and at once putting it down on the cement-ring, it will
attach itself firmly, and may be thus put on one side. In
mounting portions of butterflies' wings, it will be found that a
more pleasing effect will be produced by arranging it in such a
manner that the light will fall on the scales from a certain direc-
tion, which should be first ascertained, and the piece of wing
arranged on the sUde accordingly.

For pure diatom gatherings or deposits that it is desired to
mount dry, it is only necessary, after sufficient cleaning and wash-
ing, to put a drop of the fluid containing them upon a cover-
glass, and allowing this to dry, not by heat, but by slow evapora-
tion ; then warming the slide and cell as described for butterfly
scales ; the cover may be pressed down and securely fixed. It
will be noticed that in all these processes either cover-glass or
slides must be warmed. This will be found one of the most
important advantages of this method, for it will prevent any possi-
bility of fungoid growths from imprisoned moisture, and the slides
will probably be permanent objects of interest.

We will now try to give a few examples of dry mounting,
where a deeper cell is required than can possibly be made with
cement. Make as before a ring of cement upon a glass slip, pro-
vide cells of cardboard, metal, glass, etc. ; make the slip hot to
soften the cement, and the cell may be pressed on, and when cold
will be found fixed, and may at once be used for any object of
which it is advisable to show both sides. Of this class of objects
are some of the polyzoa, ferns with fructification and hairs, and
leaves with hairs or scales on both sides. Should the object be

AND HOW TO USE IT. 29

such that a piece can be stamped out nearly the size of the cell,
no gum will be necessary to keep it in its place ; but should the
object be very small, or with branches, it will be necessary to put
a small spot of gum (and the gum must be rendered safe from
fungoid growth by the addition of a few drops of carbolic acid) on
the slip at the junctions of the cell and glass, so that it may not
be seen. The object being placed in the cell, and the gum, if
gum be used (| gr. saHcylic acid to every ounce of gum, or a little
carbolic acid to keep it), being quite dry, the slide should again
be placed upon the turn-table, and the top of the cell-wall coated
with brown cement. In a few minutes, a warmed cover-slip may
be put down upon the cell, a clip placed upon it ; it may then be
put on one side, to be finished at leisure. For objects having
only one side to be inspected, we would always recommend a
black ground, of asphaltum if a bright one is preferred, or of matt
black if the ground is desired dull. This ground being thoroughly
dry, the objects may he^ placed on it, and the slides finished as last
described. It is much better to paint the asphaltum on the top of
the slide than under, as it is less Hable to be scratched off.*

Mounting" in Canada Balsam, etc.— Some preparations which
it is desired to keep are usually mounted in Glycerine or in
solutions of Canada Balsam or Gum-Dammar. The solvent of
the last two substances evaporates and leaves a clear, hard edge,
so that no cement is required as in the case of Glycerine. The
mounting medium should be quite admixable with that from
which the specimen is last taken, it being necessary in some
cases to use several fluids to obtain this result.

Tissues and sections, both stained and unstained, are, as a
rule, kept in spirit, so the following order should be carried out : —

For mounting in Glycerine. — The objects should be removed
from Spirit into Water, and then into Glycerine.

For mounting in Canada Balsam or Gum-Dammar, they must
be removed from Spirit to Absolute Alcohol, then into Turpen-
tine 4 parts. Creosote i part, or Oil of Cloves or Oil of Cajuput,
and finally into Canada Balsam, or Balsam and Benzole, or Gum-
Dammar.

* We think there is really no need for any dark-ground cell, because by
proper management such a dark ground can be formed outside the glass. — Ed.

30 THE MICROSCOPE

«
Glycerine. — Pure Glycerine may be used, or a mixture of
equal parts of glycerine and water, which is somewhat preferable.
For quick mounting, for specimens which are unstained or hyaline
in character, and for those which require testing, itj_is better than
Canada Balsam. A section-lifter is required in handling speci-
mens, and great care should be taken in removing them from spirit
to water, the surface-currents causing rapid movements which may
lead to the breaking-up of a section. The time during which they
should remain in water before removal to glycerine depends upon
their size and density, from five to ten minutes being generally
sufficient.

In the preparation and mounting of many things from the
vegetable kingdom, as mosses, algae, cuticles, sections, etc. ; or
from the animal kingdom, as eyes and wings of insects, gastric
teeth, palates of the mollusca, it is only necessary, if they are suffi-
ciently clean and not too dark in colour, to put them for a few
hours into a mixture of methylated spirit, glycerine, and water
(about equal parts of each),* although exactness is not necessary, as
the mixture may be varied to suit circumstances. When they are
taken from this mixture, they must be placed upon the centre of
the slide, and the surplus liquid absorbed by blotting-paper, and
sufficient pure glycerine added to thoroughly fill the cell. The
cover-glass should now be made quite moist by breathing upon it,
and carefully lowered down on to the object, and secured by the
spring clips.

Or, instead of pure Glycerine, Glycerine-Jelly may be used^
when either of two plans may be followed. Glycerine-Jelly may
be liquified by placing the bottle in hot water, and then
dropping the liquid jelly upon the slide, or, as is frequently
preferred, a small piece may be cut from the bottle, and put upon
the object, and the slide gently warmed, when the jelly will diffuse
itself through the object, which will be found exceptionally free

* A very excellent mixture is that known as Hantsch's fluid, and is com-
posed of —

Alcohol ... ... ... •••3 parts.

Water ... ... ... ... 2 parts.

Glycerine ... ... ... ... i part.

This fluid will also be found most suitable in which to keep all kinds of insects
preparatory to mounting. — Ed,

AND HOW TO USE IT. 31

from the enemy, " air-bubbles " ; but whether or not there be air-
bubbles, it is of great value to boil the jelly and object upon the
slide, but care must be taken, or the mount may be ruined. If
boiling be chosen, a wood clip should be used, and the slide held
by it directly over, but not too close to the flame of a spirit-lamp.
It will at first begin to bubble from the centre outwards. If the
slide be now carefully watched, a very perceptible crack may be
seen and heard at this moment, when, without delay, the slide
must be withdrawn from the heat, and placed upon a cold surface
(a block of marble, or a brick previously soaked in cold water),
when the jelly will rapidly become cold and solid.

Canada Balsam has largely given place to Balsam and Benzole,
Balsam and Chloroform, or Dammar, each of which medium has
advantages over the others for certain objects ; but our choice for
general work is Balsam and Benzole, which we have used for
years. For many descriptions of work, pure Canada Balsam, or
Balsam and Turpentine or Chloroform, or Dammar, are used for
less transparent and for stained tissues, rendering specimens which
are mounted in them very clear. The media required in mount-
ing from spirit are to be applied in the order given above, the
specimen being changed from watch-glasses containing them by a
section-lifter, after removing any excess of each fluid clinging to
the specimen by the back of the hand or a piece of blotting-
paper. The former is preferable, as less likely to cause any hairs
or pieces of cotton to touch the object. The specimen may
remain on the slide, and the medium applied by pipettes and
removed by the hand or blotting-paper after their action. Five to
ten minutes is usually sufficient time for a section to remain in
each fluid.

To better explain the method of mounting, let us take some
objects from the animal kingdom — say parasites. It vvifl in most
cases be advisable to put them in liquor potassce for a short time.
When they have been softened and sufficiently reduced in colour
they must be well washed in water, and if they are brushed under
water with a stiff camel-hair pencil, the legs will frequently be
found right for mounting. The last washing- water having been
poured off, and methylated spirit added, let them remain in this

32 THE MICROSCOPE

for a few hours, and then removed to absolute alcohol. After the
lapse of a few more hours, pour off the spirit, and add Oil of
Cloves or Cajuput. The latter is quite equal to, and much cheaper
than Clove Oil ; Creosote and Turpentine may be used if pre-
ferred. From this the object may be placed upon a clean slide,
and any surrounding oil should be absorbed by the hand or
blotting or filter-paper; a drop of Balsam and Benzole being
then put upon it. The slide may be left for a few seconds,
and then a warmed cover-glass placed upon it (which must
be held in position by a wire clip), and the operation of
mounting is so far complete. The slide now requires deposit-
ing in a warm place for a few days before the later finishing
touches can be applied to it. If it be Polycistina, Foraminifera,
Sponge or Gorgonia spicules, etc., or any such object that it is
wished to mount, a thin smear of gum should be placed on one
side of the centre of the slip, when, if the thumb be drawn firmly
over the slide, a very thin, almost invisible film will remain, which
must be allowed to dry. If then a small heap of the dry material
be put on the centre of the smear, and the slide, while held in the
fingers at one end, be gently tapped on the other by the forceps,
or anything hard that happens to be handy, the material will be
seen to spread itself over the gummed surface, and its disposal
may, with a little practice, be greatly controlled. The slide now
requires breathing upon, and when again dry a drop of the Balsam
and Benzole must be put over the object, a warmed cover-glass
placed in position, and held with a wire clip. The slide should be
gently heated over a spirit-lamp until the medium just begins to
boil, when it must be quickly removed to a moderately cool spot.
This boiling has the effect of driving out the air from in or around
an object, and should any bubbles appear about the slide, they will
almost invariably disappear if the slide is left in a warm place.

In mounting starches in Dammar, for polariscope, a similar plan
may be adopted to spread the material ; but in this case no gum is
required, the breath upon the slide being enough to hold the gran-
ules as they move over the slide. When the breath has evapo-
rated, it is not advisable at once to drop on the Dammar, but, first
placing over the starch a clean cover-glass, put at each edge of the
cover, but not exactly opposite, a drop of Dammar, which, run-

AND HOW TO USE IT. 38

ning under the cover from each side, will imprison the object. If
the Dammar wave does not appear to travel freely, a little move-
ment with a needle at the edge not touched by the medium will
accomplish the purpose, and the slide may then be put away to
dry ; but in the case of starches it is not well to put them into a
very warm place. The same plan may be adopted with pollens,
fern-spores, &c., and the two waves of Dammar will do what is
otherwise very difficult, namely, keep such delicate objects in the
centre of the slide, where we wish them to be.

Farrant's medium is used in a similar manner to the above,
the chief difficulty being to ring the cover, as the medium does
not dry like balsam. The best way to accomplish this is to wash
carefully with a soft brush all the medium from around the
cover, put the slide aside to dry ; when dry, ring it with white
Zinc Cement. When that is dry, thoroughly wash the slide, and
give it a second coat. Yet one other process, viz., Carbolised
Water, which is useful in cases where the object would be spoiled
by the heat necessary to melt glycerine jelly.

Carbolised Water, about one or two drops of Carbolic Acid
to ten ozs. of water. Having an object suitable for this mode of
mounting, it may be kept in the preservative fluid till ready, and
one of the slides, already prepared with Brown Cement, may be
again centered upon the turn-table, and a further coat of the same
cement, or some other sticky varnish or gold size, or mastic applied.
The cell must then be filled with Carbolised Water, and the object,
fresh water algae, diatoms in their natural state, starches, etc., at
once put into it ; a cover-glass of the right size having been pre-
viously cleaned, it may be taken up in the forceps, and one side
being moistened with water, it must be gently lowered upon the
convex surface of the fluid, and by its weight it will force out the
surplus fluid, which must be absorbed by blotting-paper. As the
cover touches the cement, it sticks, and may now be pressed closely
to the cell ; but in this little matter care must be exercised, as, if
the pressure is applied at one side only, the opposite side rises,
and the air enters ; but if the points of the forceps be opened to
rather less than the diameter of the cover-glass, pressure may be
applied at both edges at the same moment, and repeated applica-

VOL. IV. D

34 HALF-AN-HOUR

tions round will firmly fix the object, when another coat of the
Brown Cement will make the slide secure. Great care should be
taken that all needles, section-lifters, etc., are quite clean from one
fluid before being placed in another ; and on no account must
the rod or brush of one re-agent bottle be allowed to touch
another re-agent.

1balf^an===1bour at tbe flfticro6cope

Mltb /Iftr. XTutfen Mest, 3f.X.S., ff.lR./ID.S., 6lc.

Plates 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

Plagiogramma. — A name first given to a species of diatoms in
1859, in a paper which appeared in the "Quar. Jour. Micro. Sci."
in July of that year (p. 207). Ehrenberg appears to have pre-
viously described some-forms under the name of '''' Hetei'omphala)^
this name it would have been desirable to retain. Even Ralfs (in
Pritchard) doubts the propriety of forming a new genus for it. It
comes near to Fragilaria^ Odontiiim^ and De?iticula: forming short
filaments, probably attached to their entire base, at least in their
early state. The first specimen which led Dr. Greville to form a
new genus for its reception, was found by the late Dr. Gregory in
dredgings from the Clyde, and described by him with figures in a
remarkable paper on that subject. It is now dedicated to him
under the name P. Gregoria7mm. Thirteen so-called species are
known, with two doubtful ones ; they mostly run very close, in
several instances single examples only were met with, and I am
persuaded the numbers will eventually have to be much reduced.
P. elongatum does not appear amongst those enumerated by Ralfs
(loc. cit.)^ from some of which, however, it scarcely differs. It
would be desirable to know where descriptions of this form are to
be met with.

Most of Dr. Greville's forms were found in material ob-
tained from the Caribbean Sea; he says in a note (p. 207) : — "I

AT THE MICROSCOPE. 35

take the opportunity of recommending that those who are interested
in this subject, and have friends in the West Indies, should en-
deavour to prevail upon them to collect the smaller sea-weeds,
especially such as are cast ashore in quiet bays and creeks. It
should be explained to them that the object is not the sea-weeds
themselves, but the diatoms to be obtained from them, and that
those sea-weeds are to be preferred, which are covered with para-
sites, and entangled with zoophytes, forming what the mere col-
lector of algge would call unsightly tufts. They must on no account
be washed, but dried in the rough, just as picked up, and then
packed in course paper. Small parcels of this kind (a few ounces
in weight), from the coasts of the different islands (and from dif-
ferent localities of the same island), could not fail to produce
objects of the highest interest to diatomists." It should have been
stated in the present instance whether the gathering was pure, or
if not, what were the associated forms ?

Hydrodictyon on TJtriculatum (Plate 3, Fig. 2) appears to
have been dried before mounting, whereby the remarkable character
of the endochrome is entirely lost. It should have been mounted
in a cell with Hantsch's fluid, without crushing, or no more than is
absolutely necessary. In Johann Nave's " Collector's Handy-
Book " it is specially mentioned as one of those puzzling forms, at
one time abundant, at another entirely vanished from the spot,
without any apparent reason. " It is quite astonishing in what
abundance this species will suddenly fill some pond or ditch, at
times almost obstructing the flow of water, only to disappear again
without leaving a trace behind. So that if a person is anxious to
gather a large number of specimens (for the sake, say, of making
exchanges), he must be careful to do so w^hile he has the oppor-
tunity, and not leave them to a future period, under the idea that
they will await his convenience, for he is likely enough in that case
to deceive himself, and, on returning to the piece of water, to find
only emptiness where the year before there was superfluity. It is
far better to secure the requisite number of examples on first
coming across the species ; indeed, if necessary, the whole stock
may be taken, as there is little likelihood of extirpating any kind
of algae." — (Spicer's Translation, p. 4.)

Coleosporium tussilaginis (Plate 3, Fig. 3) is the name of
the fungus on Coltsfoot leaf. Where the latter plant occurs, its
special fungal parasite is generally to be found abundantly at
this time of the year (July) by turning up the leaves. It does
not make a satisfactory mounting when just dried on the leaf
(both always losing colour and assuming a dull, dead look).
Thin sections should be made with a razor, by laying a por-

36 HALF-AN-HOUR

tion of the material on a glass slip, and moistening with water,
holding down with the tip of the left middle finger, and draw-
ing the razor carefully from left to right. With a little practice
it is not difficult thus to obtain very thin slices, showing all the
structures. The sections can be floated to where they are wanted,
or removed with a very fine sable pencil, and put up permanently
in glycerine.

These remarks will answer questions put some little time ago
by a member as to obtaining sections of leaf-fungi. It must be
remembered that the structures are exceedingly delicate, will not
bear drying, and therefore cannot be satisfactorily mounted in
balsam.

Early in the season the mycelium will be found bearing globu-
lar spores with a granular cuticle — the uredo form. These are
succeeded later in the year by 3-4 septate asci ; from each chamber
of which is emitted in germination a long slender thread, bearing a
minute reniform sporidmm. The full signification of these facts is
not yet ascertained.

Stellate Hairs from Niphobolus lingua (Plate 3, Fig. 4). —
This fern and the Platycerium alckorne, both yielding stellate
hairs, belong to the PolypodicEe. I have a small portion of a
New Zealand fern, kindly given me by E. G. Piper, of the Old
Change Microscopical Society, widely known as the inventor of
the portable horizontal slide cabinets. The piece of fern I
allude to shows thickly-clustered stellate hairs amongst the fruc-
tification, very beautifully.

Maple, trans, sec. (Plate 3, Figs. 5, 6). — If an engineer were
shown the ends of a number of pipes entering into some piece
of complicated machinery, he would probably, almost before
asking their uses, wish to learn something of the character of
the tubes in their length ; the arrangements for elasticity in the
one case, for rigidity in another, for porousness in a third set,
and so on. Just such explanatory sections are required^ when
only transverse sections are given on a slide. These merely
illustrate the -arrangement of the ends of the tubes (as in the
above supposed case, how they are packed), but reveal none
of the essential characters of ducts, fibres, cells. As botanical
illustrations they are to that extent imperfect. These remarks
apply specially to the trans, sec. of Maple before us, but not
less to the major proportion of wood sections ordinarily seen.

Mercurialis, Sphseraphides in (Plate 3, Fig. 8). — Thanks
to the indefatigable energy of Professor Gulliver, the importance
of studying the Raphidian characters of plants is becoming

AT THE MICROSCOPE. 37

increasingly recognised. He has shown (and his observations
may be readily confirmed and extended) that certain natural
orders are characterised by the presence of special types of crys-
talline matters, whilst others of these great divisions are equally
conspicuous by their absence. There are, however, a few genera
possessed of them amongst orders which (with these exceptions)
have them not. Mercurialis is an example of this remark, and
a very interesting one.

The EuPHORBiACEiE being mostly free from raphides ; but
their nearest natural order is that of the TjRTiCACEiE, which are
eminently raphidiferous (using the term in its widest signification).
Now, Herb Mercury, though the fructification is truly Euphorbia-
ceous, yet undoubtedly has the habit of a nettle. Possessing such
habit, and abundant " sph^raphides " as well, it forms evidently a
connecting link between the two orders. It will be desirable to
examine the composition of these crystals. In some similar instances
the larger have been found to be carbonate, the smaller oxalate of
lime. The gradual alteration of the crude sap by abstraction of
mineral matters in the course of circulation is beautifully seen here.
It will be observed that there are multitudes of Sphaeraphides
present in the midrib, along which the sap rushes after coursing up
the stem, to the marginal parenchyma of the leaves. Some of the
veins, in the earlier part of their course^ also show raphides, but
these gradually become fewer, and presently the veins are seen to
be entirely free from them — thus showing clearly how the mineral
matters have been successively parted with, to combine with al-
buminous material, for which they have a great affinity.

Cowrie shell (Plate 8, upper half). — In the transverse section
of Cowrie, it is impossible not to be struck with the general resem-
blance in the structures present to dentinal tissue. Both externally
and internally is a hard, glassy layer, formed of prisms placed at
right angles to the varying surfaces, which may be compared to
enamel. The intervening coloured portion is laminated. At the
thickened bases of the hollowed cone (to which the shell in its
general form may be compared), the structure closely resembles
that of the dentinal tubuli, or the shell of some of the larger
Crustaceans.

In the arched vault of the shell interlacing fibres are seen more
or less distinctly, whose general direction is at an angle of 45 '^ to
the surface. This appears to be due to a secondary arrangement
of the crystalline particles of the shell. The effect of such disposi-
tion must be enormously to increase the strength of the materials
entering into its composition. In connection with such structural
arrangement, it is interesting to recall the interlacing fibres found in

38 HALF-AN-HOUR

scales of fish (Micro. Die. sub-lite, and in the bony epicarp of many
fruits, as may be seen on examining a cherry or plum stone, or the
seed of a currant, blackberry, or hawthorn-berry. When J. Quekett
first lighted on such structure in the vegetable-ivory nut, he was
much puzzled at the close juxtaposition of fibre-cells running both
longitudinally and transversely to the axis of the section (Lectures
on Histology, Vol. I., p. 64). Further examination, especially in
the early stages of its development, would have shown this acute
and tireless investigator the real explanation of the fact.

Development of Culex Pipiens (Plate 4, Figs, i — 4). — The
Society is deeply indebted to the contributor of this slide. Few
pupae are so well adapted to display the development of the
imago as Culex on account of the transparency of the covering
membrane. A full description is given in the explanation accom-
panying the plate.

Antennae of Diptera (Plates 5, 6, 7). — Sixteen examples of
Antennae show well what may be done by thoughtful care and
patience. Members will do well to see what they can do after
this style, and even if the result should be unsatisfactory at first,
time and patience will give the requisite skill in the end. May I
say it is of no use wishing without pains are taken to bring about
the results wished for. There is a considerable resemblance be-
tween Fig. 14 (Plate 7), and those of Miisca vomitoria, even to
the strong spine proceeding from the dorsum of the second joint ;
they are evidently congeneric.

Eristalis teiiax is the great Drone-fly, the antennae of which
may be compared with Fig. 13 (Plate 7.) Chrysops caciitiens (Fig.
5, Plate 5) is the Gad-fly. The peculiar tapering antennae oi E^npis
livida (Fig. 6, Plate 5), is worthy of notice.

It may indeed be said of the Diptera, "Their name is Legion;"
but if the fine typical examples of parts, as mouths, antennae, wings,
limbs, which pass round, be carefully studied, and Notes and
Drawings 7nade by our members^ a clue will in time be obtained
through the labyrinth of forms. These would illustrate admirably
what I wish so to impress, the absolute necessity of systematic
work, and of doing thoroughly whatever is taken up.

Aleurodes Chelidonii.— This insect is not Lepidopterous, as
some suppose, but truly Homopterous, as may be readily ascer-
tained by observing the various stages of development, and the
parts of the mouth in the mature insect. I do not know how the
name Chelidonii came to be conferred on it ; it is true, an occa-
sional specimen may now and then be met with on the Great
Celandine, but its natural habitat is on the under side of leaves of

AT THE MICROSCOPE. S9

cabbage and broccoli, and their allies. Here, though not occurring
in "countless thousands " (a serious exaggeration), it may frequently
be met with in sufficient plenty to furnish materials for microscopic
examination. The female seems never to move from her place,
when engaged in the act of oviposition, till she has " had out her
lay," as henwives call it when speaking of fowls. Hence the eggs,
usually from 12 to 20 in number, are placed on the arc of a circle,
in describing which the end of the abdomen would be the pointer;
they (the eggs) are of a long oval in shape, and shortly stiptate ; the
young, when hatched, disperse to different distances along the leaf
on its under side ; they have a short and simple J>romusa's, which is
deeply plunged into the tissues. They exuviate several times,
moving further apart on each occasion. A delicate fringe of waxy
rods is formed by exudation from openings placed around the
margin of the flattened scale-like body : these doubtless serve as a
protection from parasites, which are probably acarine. Both larvae
and pupae have the strongest resemblance to Coccus. At maturity
the imago breaks through the anterior part, leaving the pupa skin
behind, still attached to the leaf It is a most beautiful and inter-
esting creature, which might be said to be a Coccus in its early
stages, and (but for its mouth) a Lepidopteron at maturity. In this
connection it may be specially noted that the feet of the adult in-
sect conform to the Lepidopterous, and not to the Homopterous
type.

The perfect insect may, as to its general aspect, be fairly
displayed by killing on a slide, with the gentlest pressure, as a thin
covering glass, and mounting dry. The exuvia of the pupae also
show well in the dry state. Dissections must be mounted in shallow
cells, in fluid, and also the eggs and the larval condition. These
latter may be detached from their connection with the leaf, with-
out injury, by means of a dissecting knife, such as may easily be
made out of a tailor's needle, stuck into a handle and ground flat
towards the point, on a hone. With a watchmaker's eye-glass pass
this carefully underneath for a little distance towards one end, lift
gently, and then remove the insect with a fine sable pencil.

ThripS' (Plate 8. lower half)— Examples of this insect may
be obtained in abundance at the present time (July). They especi-
ally haunt flowers; those of the Great Hedge Bindweed ( Coiivol-
vuhis sepium)^ of the Vegetable Marrow, or Datura stramonium^
win yield many specimens ; three examples have flown on to my
book lately whilst reading in the shade these blazing days. They
are easily preserved by taking up with the wetted end of a finger,
transferring to a slide on which a drop of glycerine has been placed,
and cementing the covering-glass with gum dammar in benzole.

40 SELECTED NOTES FROM

They form a small osculant order between Orthoptera and Neurop-
tera, in neither of which do they find a natural place. " The
relations of this order are very difficult: the nature of the metamor-
phoses would unite it with the Orthoptera or Hemiptera ; whilst the
structure of the wings and mouth remove it from both these orders :
the mouth indeed seems to be of a character almost intermediate
between the Mandibulata and the Haustellata ; the seti-form mandi-
bles are very like those of the Hemiptera, whilst the other parts
of the mouth, in their general distribution, are more like those of
a real mandibulated insect. It appears doubtful to me, however,
whether the action, even of the maxillEe, can be transverse, or
whether the insect can be said to bite its food." — (Westwood's
Intro., Vol. II., p. 5.)

Hairs of Antelope. — I wish to direct attention to the perfection
of their structure for lightness and warmth ; hollow like delicate
quills ; filled with air, and therefore lights and at the same time
packed with layer upon layer of a felty substance, the essence of
warmth. If we could but have clothes equally adapted to comfort
in our present temperature (SS*^ in the shade), we should not need
to echo the Rev. Sydney Smith's merry wish that " we could take
off our flesh, and sit in our bones ! "

TuFFEN West.

Selecteb IRotea from tbe Societ^'0

IRotc^Boofte*

Antennse of Diptera (Plates 5, 6, 7). — The most noteworthy
feature in these Antennae is the large size of the olfactory capsules.
A considerable resemblance will be observed between the Antennae
of Sargus and those of Stratioinys^ Figs, i and 2, and the alHed
genera, although their outward form varies much. Perhaps Fig.
1 1 is the most interesting pair of antennae on the slide. Figs. 9
and 10 belong to a genus very nearly related to the fly which
owned the antennae. Fig. 8. Although the antennae are so different,
the flies themselves might easily be confounded by a young student
of entomology. Figs. 6 and 7 belong to flies allied to the Bom-
bylidae, which are described in Science Gossips 1875.

H. M. J. Underhill.

THE SOCIETY S NOTE-BOOKS.

41

Fowl Flea, showing muscles all over the body, the large mus-
cles of the thorax and legs being particularly visible, was mounted
in the following manner : — It was killed with ether, and allowed to
soak in that medium for three to six days, then soaked successively
for a day at a time in water, methylated spirit, absolute alcohol,
and oil of cloves, and finally mounted in balsam. The process is
easy, and as a number of objects may be done at one time, there
is no real waste of time. Objects so prepared should be mounted
without pressure, which may be effected by allowing the cover-glass

to rest on three fragments of thin glass.

F. J. Allen.

Cowrie Shell Section.— Hugh Miller, in that delightful book,
the " Testimony of the Rocks," dwells at some length on what he
calls the " human cast and character " of the contrivances which
the organisms of the geologic period exhibit, and familiar as I am
with every kind of mechanical and structural device in the dock-
yard, this idea is brought frequently before me with peculiar force,
and I could not help recalling it when looking at Mr. West's ex-
quisite drawing of the section of Cowrie shell, and the description
of it in the text. Every one knows that the framework of a ship
is composed, so to speak, of two elements, viz., the timbers or
perpendicular framing, and the horizontal planking laid there-
on as indicated by the upright and horizontal lines here shown —

Fig.

I.

\!Nr4NN\l44^

^^ssss

L/

//

but perhaps it is only those who
have opportunities of seeing the
thing who are aware that in many
of our ships of war, at all events,
the structure is further strength-
ened by diagonal tie-bars of iron | | | | |^ |
inside, as indicated by the lighter

cross lines, which thus answer exactly to the interlacing diagonal
fibres of the Cowrie shell, as mentioned by Mr. West. See page 37.

A. Hammond.

Hantsch's fluid as a mounting medium, is a very valuable
one for many purposes ; it is composed of three parts alcohol, two
parts distilled water, one part glycerine. Its density approaches
closely to that of common water ; hence it may be used for mount-
ing the most delicate structures, as alg?e, &c., which by osmosis
become instantly spoilt by the action of pure glycerine. By repeated
additions, the alcohol and water evaporating, the specimen will
remain in glycerine alone. Of course it must be carefully protected

42 SELECTED NOTES FROM

from dust in the meanwhile. Rev. W. W. Spicer speaks in the
highest term of this process, saying — " I have had the opportunity
of examining sHdes of Desmidiaceae prepared in Dresden after Herr
Hantsch's method. Nothing can exceed the beauty of these pre-
parations ; the form of the plant, and the colouring of the endo-
chrome, having undergone no change whatever." — Johann Nave's
Handy-book, p. 59.

T. West.

Mounting Dry Opaque Objects without Cover -Glass.— Dr.

Carpenter, in his work on the Microscope, Sec. 155, p. 209, says
that he has a large collection of objects mounted in this way, and
as regards myself I will add that my rather extensive collection of
Polyzoa is for the most part without cover-glasses. I find that —

I St. — Objects are better seen by reflected light when there is
no cover intervening.

2nd. — You avoid the condensation of moisture on the under side
of the cover-glass, which, after a time, damages good slides.

3rd. — A still worse evil which, unfortunately, very frequently
occurs, viz., a beautiful growth of a Fungus ( Penicilmm)^
interesting in itself, but a dangerous intruder into the
cabinet. When the object to be preserved is delicate, it
should undoubtedly be covered, and the risk of these evils
must be incurred.

[This may be in a great measure prevented by previously wash-
ing the object to be mounted in a solution of carbolic acid, and
thoroughly drying before mounting. — Ed.]

But where it is of a coarser character, much is gained and
nothing lost by leaving it uncovered. The slides may be laid flat
upside-down in the cabinet, and labelled on the back^ or^, as Dr.
Carpenter says, a number of them may be packed closely together
in boxes or held by an elastic band. Much economy in space is
thereby gained, and no dust enters, and if dust is observed, the
coarser objects I speak of may be lightly brushed with a soft camel-
hair pencil. I may add that the cedar slips I use are cheaper than
the more complicated way of mounting ; they cost 6d. or 8d. per
dozen, and I make the bottom to the cell by fixing on a piece of
black paper.

G. D. Brown.

False Crystals in Becolourised leaves.— I should like to ask,
Is not the process of decolourising leaves by chlorinated soda likely

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 43

to produce false or unnatural crystals in them ? In many leaves
which I have bleached I have noticed, besides the natural Raphides
and Sphseraphides, numbers of small crystals, some irregular in
shape, like very small Sphseraphides and some larger, giving beau-
tiful rosette-like appearances with polarised light. I am convinced
that false crystals are produced if a solution of chloride of lime is
used, particularly the rosette-shaped ones, and I am afraid that the
same thing takes place sometimes with the soda solution.

W. H. Hammond.

I agree with the possibility of the above taking place, but have
not yet seen any evidence of its actual occurrence. It would be
more likely to happen with lime, as soda salts are far more soluble
than those of lime, and would be probably washed away in the free
rinsings which the process of preparing involves.

G. D. Brown.

[We think a weak solution of acetic or nitric acid in the last
washing but one, would effectually get rid of any traces of either
soda or lime that might be adhering to the leaves. — Ed.]

EXPLANATION OF PLATES III., IV., V., VL, VIL, VIIL

Plate III.

Fig. 1. — Plagiogramma elongatum.

a. — Side view of an ordinary-sized specimen, mag. 250 diam.
h. — Side view of another specimen (I sporangial).
c. — Front view ; outline of missing valve supplied.

,5 2. — Hydrodictyon utriculatum.

a. — Natural size of the specimen. It is said to grow from 4
to 6 inches in length, and I think I have seen a pressed
specimen reaching nearly to this latter size.

6. — Portion magnified 15 diameters.

c. — Another piece, magnified 50 diameters, to show the knots
at the junction of the cells.

,, 3. — The specimen of Goleosporum tnssilaginis.

a. — Restored to its natural appearance. The outline of the
leaf gives the position from which it has probably been
taken.
6. — Echinulate spores ; the early or Uredo form of fruit,
c. — Four-septate ascus.

,, 4. — Stellate hairs from Niphoholus lingua.

44 SELECTED NOTES FROM

Fig. 5. — Transverse section of Maple, natural size. The regular
cracking of the bark into six equal divisions is well seen.

,, 6. — Segment of the same, magnified 25 diameters, p., Pith;
S.V., spiral vessels; m.r., medullary rays, forming the means
of communication between the central and outer portions ;
l.f. , liber fibres ; c.|j. , cortical parenchyma ; c. 6. , cellular
layer of the bark ; c./. , corky layer of the bark ; w.l, ring
of wood of the first year's growth ; iu.3, ditto of second year's
growth; e.p. , the outer layer of cells forming the cuticle or
epiderm. The lines show the direction of the sections re-
quired to illustrate the subject completely, ur. , Vertical
radial — i.e., in a line with the medullary rays ; v.t., vertical
tangental — i.e., across the medullary rays.

,, 7. — Very small leaf of Mercurialis perewnis, natural size.

8. — Sphseraphides in the same, magnified 100 diameters.

jj

Plate IV.

Figures illustrating early stages of Culex pipiens.

Fig. 1. — The Larva in the position, head downwards, usually assumed
by it. It is drawn from a mounted slide, and is somewhat
contracted by the preservative fluid. a., Antenna; r.t.,
respiratory tube, closed at times by valves (two only of the
six are here well seen) ; v. , vent, four delicate sub-triangular
plates guard the aperture.

The normal number of segments in an insect's body is 13.
It is necessary for descriptive anatomy, or indeed for any
right understanding of what is seen, to be able to count them.

1. — The head; 2, 3, 4. — Pro- meso- and meta-thorax.
The remainder are the abdominal segments. The apparent
tail, r.t. , is thus proved not to be a tail at all, but is really a
pair of members united to bear between them two large
tracheae, with their appendages.

,, 2, 3, and 4. — Three successive stages in the development of the
Fupa.

t.r.l., in Figs. 2 and 3. — A pair of trachiferous thoracic
limbs. These may be seen in life to move occasionally.

The fifth segment, or second abdominal, bears a remarkable
pencil of hairs. a.L, Anal limbs, arising, like those forming,
by their union, the respiratory tube in the larva, from the
penultimate segment. They are terminated, each, by one or
two fine tactile hairs, indicated by t.h., in Fig. 4. Indeed, all
the hairs are tactile, or answer to the whiskers of higher
animals.

In Fig. 4, the pro-thoracic spiracle, and the various abdo-
minal spiracles of the imago are marked, as also the haltere,
h.; p.r.s., pro-thoracic spiracle ; a.s,, abdominal spiracles.

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THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 45

Plates V., VL, VII.

Figures illustrating Aiitennse of Diptera.

Fig. 1. — Sargus, species of.

2. — Stratiomys viridis.

3. — Hcematopota pluvialis, ^

4.— Ditto, ditto, 5

The differences of Figs. 3 and 4 appear to consist princi-
pally in the larger size of the latter ; the more globose outline
of the basal, and smaller size of the second joint, in the
female.

Chrysops ccecutiens, Golden-eyed Gad-fly.

Empis livida, Common Snipe-fly.

Empis tesselata, another species of Snipe-fly.

Gonipes (leptogaster) cylindricus.

(I do not see any reason why the name of this fly should
have been altered to leptogaster, and prefer that adopted by
Westwood, which is well known and recognised. — Tuffen
West)

9. — Diodria flcmpes.

10. — Diodria (another species).

,, 11. — Dolichopus (? species j.

12. — Chrysotoxum (? species).

13. — Erlstalis Q species).

14. — Musca (? species).

15 . — Tetanocera ferruginis.

16. — Fam. Musddce, genus unknown.

3)

5.

33

6.

3J

7.

33

8.

33
33

33

33
33
33
3)

Plate VIII.

Upper Half. Transverse Section of Cowrie Shell.

Fig. 1. — Section through the entire shell to show the arrangement of
the difi"erent structures.

,, 2. — Portion of the arch more enlarged.

Lower Half. Figures illustrating Thrips (species unknown).

Fig. 1. — Thrips, magnified 50 diameters.

2. — The left anterior foot in its natural state seen from above.

3. — Parts of the mouth, after Westwood. m. , Mandible; m.x.,
maxilla, with its palp; I., labium, with its pair of minute
palpi ; m. , mentum.

4. — Profile view of right anterior foot in its contracted condition.

5. — The posterior limb of the right side, with the bladder-like
foot fully expanded.

6. — End of Abdomen, showing a pair of minute saws.

Figs. 2,^4, and 5 are from a Thrips infesting flowers of Datura
Stramonium. All drawn by Tuflen West.

33
33

33
3>

33

[46]

®ur annual flDecting*

THE Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Postal Microscopical
Society was held in the Prince of Wales's Salon at the
Holborn Restaurant, on Wednesday, the 8th of October, 1884.

At the meeting summoned for business purposes at 6.30 p.m.,
the following members were present : — Ur. C. F. George, Presi-
dent-Elect, in the chair ; the Rev. R. K. Corser (Bath), Mr. A.
Hammond (London), Dr. Kesteven (Enfield), Mr. Martin (Old
Charlton), The Rev. E. T. Stubbs (Bath), The Hon. J. G. P.
Vereker (London), Mr. G. H. Robinson (Huddersfield), and the
Secretary.

The following report of the Committee was laid before the
members : —

Your Sub-Committee have held several Meetings during the
year, notably one on the 14th of March, which was attended
by Dr. Coombs, President. At that Meeting, with a view to obtain
a greater increase of Members, your Secretary suggested a scheme
for the admission of Members of the Medical Profession to a new
section of the Society, to be called the " Medical Section." In
furtherance of this scheme, the President inserted a letter in many
of the Medical Journals, and several Medical men have joined the
Special Section.

The Roll of Members at the present time consists of —

Members of the General Section ... ... 165

Members of the Medical Section* ... ... 9

Total ... ... ... ... 174

We believe the new method of filling the Circulating Boxes
has proved in a certain degree a decided success — many Members
having written very full and comprehensive Notes in elucidation of
their Slides ; the method also of each Member supplying at least
six Slides has proved decidedly advantageous, as in most cases the
Slides so contributed have formed a Series.

The thanks of the Society are especially due to those of our
Members who make special efforts to render their Slides and
Notes interesting.

With respect to our Journal, your Committee and the Editor
are still looking forward with much faith to very satisfactory results

* Twenty Medical Members are now on the roll.

OUR ANNUAL MEETING.

47

in the near future. It has not yet reached the high tide of success
which we hope it is fairly on the way for, but it is confidently be-
lieved that the day is not far distant ; in the meantime, your Editor
assures you that he is sparing no efforts to bring it about, and he
would again beg of you, not only personally, but by the help of
your friends, to furnish him with suitable Papers for insertion, and
by your individual influence to endeavour to promote its sale.

Owing to an extraordinary pressure of work from various sources
connected with the Society and the Journal, and from an unusual
share of ill-health during the past summer, your Hon. Sec. has
allowed many Members to become defaulters. The Balance Sheet
annexed was made out Sept. 8th. It is hoped that before our
meeting the adverse balance will be considerably reduced, as
the Society is really in a greater state of prosperity than at the
corresponding date last year.

The Secretary produced his Annual Statement of Receipts
and Payments, a copy of which was handed to each member
present, and was as follows : —

The Treasurer hi account with the Postal Alicroscopical Society.

Dr.
To Receipts

£ s. d.
96 5 o

To Balance due to

Treasurer ... 16 17

o

Cr. £, s.

By Balance brot. forward 13 16

Postages, Stamps, etc. 34 1 1

Journey to London for
i\nnual Meeting ...

Two Visitors

Dinner-Cards

Christmas-Box to Post-
man

Printing Circulars, etc.

New Note & Ac. Books

Envelopes ...

Repairing Boxes

Circulating Journals . .

181 copies P. M.S. Jul.
to Members

5J

5?

J)

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

2
O
O

o

7

2

o
o
6

2
10

o
10

12

9
9

o
o
6

6

o
o
6
6
o

45 5 o

^113

2 o

The Secretary explained that there were still outstanding subscrip-
tions which he considered would reduce the deficit appearing in
the balance sheet to a nominal amount. So large an amount of
arrears was in some degree to be accounted for by his illness, in
consequence of which some portions of his work had been allowed
to fall into arrear.

48 OUR ANNUAL MEETING.

The various items were then gone through and closely criti-
cised, to ascertain if any saving in the expenses of the Society
could be effected.

The Secretary explained that the sum oi £6 2s., charged for
circulating Journals, was repaid to the Society by members who
received them, and who paid an extra subscription for the privi-
lege of reading them.

The Chairman explained that the gross receipts were about
the same as those of last year, because last year the cost of the
Journal was not included in the subscription.

The Rev. R. K. Corser understood that the Journal was the
Secretary's private account.

The Chairman replied that the Secretary was responsible in
every way for the Journal, but he charged the Society for as many
copies as there were members in the Society.

The Chairman thought they ought to have a clean balance
sheet before starting on a new year.

Mr. Hammond considered that the unpaid subscriptions might
be treated as an asset.

A long discussion ensued on the other items in the account,
and various suggestions were made ; but with the exception of the
new note and account books and repair of boxes, which were not
likely to recur again for some years, it was not found possible
to greatly decrease the expenses of the Society.

The report was then adopted.

The Secretary then brought up the question whether there
should be a conversazione instead of a dinner at future annual
meetings of the Society.

The Rev. E. T. Stubbs inquired if the dinner was a loss to
the Society.

The Secretary replied that the members paid for the dinner
if 25 were present. He had made inquiries as to the cost of a
room suitable for a conversazione, and he could not get one under
2J guineas, with an extra charge if refreshments were supplied.

Some considerable discussion took place, in which it was
pointed out that the question was not so much one of expense as
the loss of time necessarily taken up by the dinner, which pre-
vented the members meeting freely after the cloth was removed.

Eventually, Dr. Kesteven proposed, "That at the next
annual meeting of the Society, a conversazione should be held
instead of a dinner."

The Rev. E. T. Stubbs seconded the resolution,

OUR ANNUAL MEETING. 49

Mr. Hammond suggested that a charge should be made for
the tickets sufficient to cover cost of hire of room, etc.

The Chairman put the resohition to the meeting, which was
carried ; the arrangements for the meeting being left to the
Committee. Mr. Hammond's resolution was not supported.

This concluded the business part of the meeting, and the
members and friends assembled at the dinner-table.

TIbe 2Dinner»

The following ladies, members, and visitors were present at
the dinner, the visitors' names being distinguished by an asterisk :
Miss Aston,* Miss S. Aston,* Mr. W. Leigh Bernard,* Mr. J. C.
Christie, Mr. Thomas Curteis, Rev. R. K. Corser, Mr. James
Epps. Junr., Mr. H. E. Freeman,* Dr. C. F. George, Mr. F.
George,* Mr. Henry George,* Mr. Arthur Hammond, Mr. James
H. Izod,* Mr. L. Jeaffreson,* Mr. F. Martin, Mr. John Martin,*
Mr. H. N. Maynard, Dr. Pocock,* Dr. Malcolm Poignand, Mr. G.
H. Robinson, Rev. E. T. Stubbs, Rev. J. E. Symns,* Hon. J. G.
P. Vereker, Mr. B. Wells, Mr. E. Wells,'* Mr. P. Wells,* Mr. B.
H. Woodward,* Mr. A. R. Wright,* Mr. Alfred Allen.

In the absence of Dr. Coombs, the President, Dr. C. F. George,
President-elect, was voted to the chair.

At the close of the dinner, the President proposed the first
toast, "The Queen," which was received most loyally.

The Secretary then collected the votes for the Vice-Presi-
dent for the ensuing year.

The President announced as the result of the poll that a
number of members had received one or more votes each. Two
members. Dr. Measures and Mr. Elcock, had 6 votes each, and
the Rev. E. T. Stubbs had received ii votes. He therefore
declared that gentleman duly elected Vice-President for the
ensuing year.

The Rev. E. T. Stubbs expressed his thanks for the honour
the Society had conferred upon him in electing him Vice-Presi-
dent for the ensuing year. The honour was exceedingly unexpec-
ted, and, he might also say, extremely undeserved. He would do
his very best to fill the office to the satisfaction of the Society.

The President, in proposing the toast, " Prosperity to the
Postal Microscopical Society," observed that the Society was not
quite so prosperous in a monetary way as could be wished. He
hoped that next year the balance would be on the right side.

The toast having been duly honoured,

VOL. IV. E

50 OUR ANNUAL MEETING.

The Secretary rose, and said he had a special duty to per-
form that evening. The members were aware that the late
President (who, he was sure, they were all very sorry not to see
with them that evening, but who was unavoidably absent), a short
time ago, interested himself very much on his behalf, the result
being that Dr. Coombs had recently sent him a very hand-
some cheque as a testimonial of the goodwill of the members
towards him. It, therefore, became him that he should say
something on the subject, and he did not think he could put the
matter better than he did in his letter of thanks to the President,
'which he would now read.

Mr. President and members of the Postal Microscopical
Society : —

I feel that there is a duty devolving upon myself to perform, —
a very pleasant and at the same time a very difficult one. The
pleasant duty that I refer to, is to thank the many members of the
Society most heartily and sincerely, who helped to provide the
very handsome testimonial that was so kindly sent me a short time
ago by Dr. Coombs, the late President. The difficulty of the
task before me is to express in suitable terms, my appreciation of
the same. That, however, I do very heartily esteem your kind-
ness, I trust you all believe.

It is not for me to tell you how much interest I have always
felt, and trust I shall always continue to feel, in the success of our
Society, or of the Journal,, which I look upon as an offshoot of it.
That the Journal has added very considerably to my labours, you
will, I am sure, all readily understand. If only I could see a very
small amount of profit attached to this extra labour, I should be
thoroughly satisfied. I hope, however, that the Journal is making
to itself a name, and that very shortly its sale will very rapidly
increase, and as one of the surest ways of accompHshing this end,
I trust each member of the Society will do all he can to make it
known.

It is with much regret that I am again compelled to show an
adverse balance sheet. In a Society like ours, when the members
are scattered throughout the length and breadth of Great Britain
and Ireland, and when but few are personally known to each other,
it is difficult, although I do sometimes send a "dunning" letter, to
get all arrears paid up. If there were no arrears, the adverse
balance of last year would be nearly cleared off

The roll of members contains a larger number than last year,
and I am looking forward to much success, both in the Society,
and with the Journal in the future.

Again thanking you, Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen,

OUR ANNUAL MEETING. 51

for the handsome manner in which you have shown your appreci-
ation of my services,

I am, very faithfully yours,

Alfred Allen,

Ho7i. Sec, F.M.S.

The Hon. J. G. P. Vereker begged to be allowed to propose
" The Health of the President." It was he who kept the Society
together, looked after the members, and saw everything went on
smoothly. He need not say he was a gentleman whom they all
honoured. — The toast was warmly received.

The President, in acknowledging the toast, said that it was
with much diffidence that he accepted the honour the Society had
offered him in electing him President of the Postal Microscopical
Society ; and after a few more remarks of a complimentary nature,
the President read the address, which will be found in the present
part of the Journal.

Mr. Hammond proposed a vote of thanks to the President
for his very able and instructive address.

Mr. Curties begged to be allowed to second the vote of
thanks to the President for his address, which, although brief, was
most interesting and suggestive, and well calculated to be useful
to the Society. He therefore hoped the President would kindly
allow the address to be pubUshed in the Journal.

The President returned thanks for the kind way in which
Mr. Hammond and Mr. Curties had spoken of him. Ever since
the formation of the Society, he had done what he could to help
it, and he hoped the members would all do the same. He had
brought with him a few of the mites he had mentioned in his
address, and he would especially direct attention to a peculiarly
beautiful one, whose body was surrounded with processes shaped
like Japanese fans. He hoped to show these to the members
and friends present, if time permitted, at the close of the meeting.

The President proposed, '• Success to the Royal Microscopi-
cal, the Quekett, and kindred Societies," coupled with the name of
Mr. Curties.

Mr. Curties expressed his obligations to the President for
coupling his name with this toast. Having been a Fellow of the
Royal Microscopical Society for nearly twenty years, and actively
engaged in promoting the interests of microscopy, he was in a
position to say that the parent Society was now, as in the past,
doing good and useful work. Witness its Journal, which, under
the present able editorship, had reached a high position, and its

52 OUR ANNUAL MEETING.

varied information rendered it valuable to all microscopists. He
did, however, regret that the Postal Microscopical Society, the
Quekett Club, and other similar local Societies, could not be
more closely associated ; for the Royal Microscopical Society
possessed a fine library and an admirable cabinet of objects, which
he would wish to see better utilised. Perhaps he might say a word
for the Quekett Club, of which he was also proud to be an active
member. It was an admirable Society, and if the members of the
Postal Society wished to increase their knowledge, they could not
do better than join it. He trusted that other gentlemen would
respond for the Societies with which they were connected, and
concluded by thanking the ladies and gentlemen present for the
hearty way in which the toast had been received.

Mr. B. H. Woodward, in responding for the Kindred Socie-
ties, said he was called upon quite unexpectedly to say a few
words. He did not know that he could add much to what had
already been said. The Quekett was, of course, the older Society,
but its meetings were held at too great a distance for members
living in the Northern suburbs to attend ; therefore, many similar
Societies had sprung up. He had been secretary of the High-
bury Microscopical and Scientific Society for the last four or five
years. It was a small Society, but it brought men together, and
induced them to take up some scientific work, and he hoped it
would do still more in the future, and that these Societies would
bring forward some good work and add to the knowledge which
had been gained by the use of the microscope. He stated that
the Highbury Society would hold their 7th annual Soiree the
next evening at the Highbury Athenseum. There would be 80
microscopes and other apparatus and natural history specimens
exhibited, and any members of the Postal Microscopical Society
would be welcome. He thanked the members for receiving the
toast so cordially.

The Rev. R. K. Corser felt very much honoured in being
invited to propose the next toast, " The Vice-President and
Officers of the Society." Unfortunately for him, this was the
first dinner of the Society he had attended, and it was the first
time he had seen so many members of the Society. They were
scattered so far apart, and only meeting once a year he really
felt unable to express himself as he should Hke to do. He,
however, happened to live in Bath, and he found that the " fair
Queen of the West,'* as she is termed by many of her inhabit-
ants, contained rather a large proportion of the Committee, and
he certainly knew that some of the most highly esteemed
members, and the Secretary especially, worked very hard. He

OUR ANNUAL MEETING. 53

had often gone to the Secretary's house, and found him sur-
rounded with books, and literally up to his eyes in the work of
the Society and the Journal, and always most ready to give any
information. It was also his privilege to know the President-
elect, the Rev. Mr. Stubbs. He was quite justified in saying
that if these gentlemen were a fair specimen of the other officers,
it was a highly-favoured Society, and would be most useful so
long as they had such gentlemen to superintend their affairs.
He had great pleasure in proposing the toast, "The Vice-
President and Officers of the Postal Microscopical Society." —
The toast was received with enthusiasm.

The Rev. E. T. Stubbs, in acknowledging the toast, said it
was his duty to thank them for so kindly receiving the health
of himself and brother officers. He felt it to be a very great
privilege to live in Bath because they lived in the neighbourhood
of the Secretary. The Secretary must, of course, have the Com-
mittee round him ; otherwise, he could not convene meet-
ings and expect them to attend. Thus it was he was able to
know a great deal of the working of the Society, and how
untiring the Secretary was in the discharge of his duty. He
thought that the Society was exceedingly fortunate in having a
Secretary of such experience as Mr. Allen. He hoped that the
other officers would please the Society as well.

The President proposed the health of " The Visitors," and
especially the ladies who had honoured the Society with their
presence that evening. He had hoped to have seen more ladies
present. On a former occasion, a much larger number had been
present. Their absence this evening was probably due in a
great measure to the exceedingly unfavourable state of the
weather.

Mr. W. Leigh Bernard returned thanks on behalf of the Visit-
ors for the kind reception accorded to them. They had enjoyed
the hospitality of the Society, and he hoped that it would not be
the last time they would be present at a similar gathering. He
was very glad to see the President in the chair. He felt it
might be said of the Society with the celebrated poet —

" On active worth, the laurel, war bestows,
Peace rears her laurel for industrious brows ;
Nor earth uncultured yields her kind suppHes,
Nor heaven its flowers without a sacrifice."

Mr. H. George, as a visitor^ also wished to thank the Society
for the kind way they had drank the health of the guests. He
also begged to respond on behalf of the ladies. On the last

54 REVIEWS.

occasion he believed that several of the ladies present were
members of the Society and interested in the microscope. He
was much interested in his father's microscopic work, and took
great delight in looking at his many very beautiful objects. He
was very proud to see his father in the chair as President of
the Society. He thanked them for so kindly receiving their
health.

At the close of the dinner, the members and friends spent
the short time remaining in examining various apparatus and
objects of interest brought by the President and other friends.

The following were the principal objects shown : —

A series of mites, illustrative of the remarks in his presiden-
tial address, especially the curious nymph of Leiosoma palmi-
cindum, one of the Oribatidas, which has plumes round the body
closely resembhng Japanese fans. ... ... The President.

A very large old-fashioned Microscope, chiefly remarkable for
giving a field 27 inches in diameter. ... ... The Secretary.

A Portfolio of Drawings illustrative of the structure and eco-
nomy of the Larva of the Gnat, Chironomus plumicornis.

Mr. Hammond.

Improved form of Microtome, capable of very minute adjust-
ment. ... ... ... ... ... ... Dr. Kesteven.

Anatomical and other slides. ... ... Dr. Poignand.

Photograph of the recent Eclipse of the Moon. ... Mr. Martin.

A variety of Crystals by polarised light and other slides.

Mr. B. Wells.

Myobia of Bat, two new species, recently discovered by the
Rev. C. K. N. Burrows ; also, several species of Plumed Mites — •
Glyciphagiis painiifer, G. plumiger, Cheyletus habellifci^^ and
Haematopinus of Seal, etc. ... ... ... Mr. Freeman.

11\CViCW)6»

The Lichen Flora of Great Britain, Ireland, and the
Channel Islands. By the Rev. W. A. Leighton, B.A. Third
edition; pp. xviii. — 547. (London: W. P. Collins.)

We are pleased to learn that Mr. W. P. Collins has secured
the entire edition of this important work. Hitherto it has only
been privately sold by the author, the late Rev. W. A. Leighton.

REVIEWS. 55

It is a valuable book, and will doubtless be found of the greatest
service to all those who are interested in the study of Lichens.
The number of species and varieties described is 1710. The
work is preceded by an introduction to the study of Lichens, with
their geographical distribution, general and local, and their uses.
The glossary and index at the end of the book will be found most
useful to the student. Lichenologists will do well to secure a copy
of the work, as we understand the stock is limited.

Manual of the Mosses of North America. By Leo
Lesquereux and Thomas P. James ; with six beautifully executed
plates illustrating the genera. Pp. v. — 447. {Boston^ U.S.A. :
Cassiiio and Co.)

The manual is believed to include descriptions of all the
species of mosses (about 900) that are known to occur on the
North-American Continent within the limits of the United States
and northwards; to which is added a valuable glossary and index.
The six Htho. plates show anatomical dissections of all the genera.
The work will form a good addition to the library of every
botanist.

Aids to Botany. By Armand Semple, B.A., M.B., etc.
Pages X. — 103. [London : Bailliere^ Tindall, and Cox.)

Easy Lessons in Botany, according to the requirements of
the New Code. By Edward Step ; with 120 illustrations by the
author. Third edition; pp. 48. {London: T. Fisher Umvin.)

Field Botany : a Handbook for the Collector, containing
instructions for gathering and preserving plants, and the formation
of the Herbarium. By Walter P. Manton. Illustrated; pp.41.
{Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard.)

Three little books valuable and useful to the students to whom
they are addressed. The "Aids to Botany" is a very concise
note-book, just such a one as may be read through with profit by
the student to refresh his memory on the eve of an examination.
The "Easy Lessons" are well adapted for use as an adjunct to
class-teaching. The book is well and copiously illustrated, and
contains a large amount of information compressed into a small
space.

The " Hand-book of Field Botany " is essentially a collector's
hand-book, and furnishes instructions as to Outfit, Collecting,
Pressing and Preserving, Herbarium, Leaf-Photography, Printing
Plants, Floral Designs, and Skeleton Leaves. The aim of this

56 REVIEWS.

little book is to render assistance to the young student in his
collecting expeditions.

Microbes in Fermentation, Putrefaction, and Disease.
By Charles Cameron, M.D., LL.D., M.P. Pp. 32. {Londoji :
Bailliere^ Tindall, ajid Cox.)

This is a paper read before the Glasgow Philosophical Society
in Dec, 1881. Professor Tyndall, writing to the author in
acknowledgment of a copy, says : — "Will you permit me to thank
you for the pleasure I have derived from the perusal of this article?
Matthew Arnold himself could not find fault with its lucidity ;
while as regards knowledge and grasp of subject, I have rarely
met its equal."

Petland Re-visited. By the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., F.L.S.,
etc. ; with numerous illustrations. Pp. xvi. — 310. 1884. {Lon-
don : Longviafis, Green, and Co.)

A charming book, giving an account more particularly
of a favourite cat named Pret, and of several dogs, more espec-
ially one named Roughie ; followed by the history of several other
more unconventional pets, such as a chameleon, a hedgehog,
rabbits, mice, etc. Their histories are told in a most amusing
way. It must, however, be acknowledged that few masters would
suffer their pets to take the liberties that our author allowed. One
favourite trick of Master " Pret '' was to put all the dead rats
which he had killed into his master's bed ! The book is well
illustrated, and is extremely suited for a gift-book at this season.

Zoological Notes on the Structure, Affinities, Habits, and
Mental Faculties of Wild and Domestic Animals, with Anecdotes
concerning and Adventures among them, and some Account of
their Fossil Representatives. By Arthur Nicols, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
etc. Illustrated ; pp. vii. — 370. (London: L. Upcott Gill. 1883.)

Natural History Sketches among the Carnivora, Wild
and Domesticated ; with observations on their habits and mental
faculties. By Arthur Nicols, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., etc. Illustrated;
pp. 257. {London: L. Upcott Gill. 1884.)

Two interesting books not designed, perhaps, on any tho-
roughly scientific basis, but full of information and anecdotes,
written in a very easy style, the author drawing largely on his own
experience. We notice how very different an estimate is formed
of the cat by the writer of these books to that of the Rev. J. G.

REVIEWS. 57

Wood in " Petland Revisited." Mr. Wood believes firmly in the
domesticity of the cat, and its strong attachment to persons — a
view that we ourselves also hold ; whilst the writer of these books
looks upon it as still being in a more or less semi-domesticated
state. Both books are deserving of careful reading.

The Honey-Bee : Its Nature, Homes, and Products. By W.
H. Harris, B.A., B.Sc. Pp. xv. — 272. {London: The Religious
Tract Society. )

A popular book, and well illustrated, going very thoroughly
into the history of bees. Commencing with a historic sketch, it
then takes up the natural history of bees, and describes the various
members of the bee community, followed by their anatomy,
swarming, rearing, etc. The illustrations, of which there are ^2^
are excellent.

Our Insect Allies. By Theodore Wood. Pp. 238. {Lon-
don: Society for Promoting Christian Knotvledge. 1884.)

This book consists of a series of short papers, giving the life-
history of some of the most common insects of this country.
The work is a good illustration of the truth of a remark which
occurs in the introduction — " Science is no longer a mere accu-
mulation of dry facts, complicated by pedantic and often mean-
ingless phraseology, but has been proved capable of affording
instruction and interest, not only to the few, but the many."

Leisure-Time Studies, chiefly Biological ; a Series of Essays
and Lectures. By Andrew Wilson, F.R.P.S.E., etc. ) with nume-
rous illustrations. Third edition; pp. xv. — 381. {London:
Chatto and Windns. 1884.)

To say that this book is written by Dr. Andrew Wilson is say-
ing sufficient to recommend it to the notice of all students of
natural history. The subjects treated in the work before us are
chiefly biological, and relate to " The Study of Lower Life,"
" Facts and Fictions of Zoology," " Animal Architects," " The
Law of Likeness and its Workings," " The Origin of Nerves,"
" Animals and their Environments," etc. etc. The book is illus-
trated with 67 well-executed engravings.

First Natural History Reader for Standard XL, accorduig <f\i
to the requirements. {London : T. Fisher Unwin.) ^'oi7>v.

'!ii LI^RAR

58 EEVIEWS.

This capital little book, published according to the require-
ments of the new Education Code, is devoted to the description
of quadrupeds and birds, and contains 6i illustrations.

Practical Taxidermy, a Manual of Instructions to the Ama-
teur in collecting, preserving, and setting up Natural History
Specimens of all kinds ; to which is added a chapter on the pic-
torial arrangement of a museum. Illustrated by Montague
Browne, F.Z.S., etc. Second edition; pp. viii. — 354. {Lofidon :
L. Upcott Gill. 1884.)

We have the various methods described of trapping, skinning,
and preserving fishes, birds, animals, and reptiles ; dressing and
softening furs and skins ; collecting and preserving insects. In
short, the book contains a large amount of information, and
affords great assistance to the practical naturalist. The instruc-
tions given towards the end of the book on the arrangement of
museums are very good. The work is illustrated with 5 7 engrav-
ings and 5 plates.

Taxidermy without a Teacher, comprising a complete
Manual of Instruction for Preserving Birds, Animals, and Fishes.
By Walter P. Manton, M.D. Second edition ; illustrated; pp. 56.
{Boston^ U.S.A.: Lee a7id Shepai^d.)

Insects : How to Catch and how to Prepare them for the
Cabinet. By Walter P. Manton, M.D. Illustrated; pp. 32.
{Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard.)

These are admirable little hand-books, small enough to be
carried in the pocket, at the same time giving those practical
directions which we sometimes fail to find in some of the larger
manuals. These are just the books to give to our young natu-
ralists.

Beginnings with the Microscope : A Working Hand-book,
containing simple instructions in the art and method of using the
Microscope and Preparing Objects for Examination. By Walter
P. Manton, M.D. Illustrated; pp. 73. {Boston, U.S.A.: Lee
and Shepard. 1884.)

We only wish we could have seen this book when we first
began to use the microscope. It gives a list of working tools and
accessories, with instructions for making a number of them. We
find also chapters on preparing, staining, and embedding objects,
section-cutting and mounting, and, last though not least valuable,
two chapters on " How to Work " and " What to Work with."

REVIEWS. 59

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. By (the
late) Robert Chambers, L.L.D. Twelfth edition, with an Intro-
duction by Alexander Ireland. {^London and Edinburgh : W. and
R. Chambers. 1884.)

It is now forty years since the first edition of this work
appeared. The alarm and hostility which it then occasioned have
died away, and in the interval a great change has taken place in
the public mind, and the book will doubtless find a place in every
well-selected library.

Elements of Surgical Diagnosis. By A. Pearce Gould,
M.S., M.B.Lon., etc. Pp. viii. — 584. {Lo?idon : Cassell and Co.,
Limited. 1884.)

An excellent manual for the medical student.

Aids to Practical Physiology. By J. Brindley James,
M.R.C.S. Pp. viii. — 60. {London: Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox.
1884.)

This is also intended for the use of the medical student, it
being one of the " Students' Aids Series." At the end will be
found a few pages for MS. notes.

Dental Caries, a Critical Summary ; and the Prevention of
Dental Caries. By Henry Sewill, M.R.C.S., L.D.S.Eng. Pp. 66.
{London: Bailliere, Tindall, a?id Cox. 1884.)

This book consists of a series of papers reprinted from the
" Journal of the British Dental Association," " in the hope that
they may facilitate the study of the most important of Dental
Diseases."

The Brain and the Nerves : Their Ailments and their
Exhaustion. By Thomas Stretch Dowse, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. Pp.
136. {Lofidon : Bailliere, Ti?idall, afid Cox.)

The work treats in a great degree of Nervous Energy, Exhaus-
tion, and Fatigue.

A First Book in Geology, designed for the Use of Begin-
ners. By N. S. Shaler, S.D. Pp. xvii. — 255. {Boston, U.S.A. :
Ginn, Heath, and Co. 1884.)

A good book for a beginner. The facts described are judi-
ciously selected, and the author has the rare art of knowing what
to leave unsaid. Thus the student is not overwhelmed with an

60 EEVIEWS.

immense mass of facts and phenomena, but is given a general
view of the scope and range of the science of geology, and is
better able afterwards to grasp the multitude of necessary detail.

Text-Book of Descriptive Mineralogy. By Hilary Bauer-
man, F.G.S. Pp. vi. — 399. lyLondo7i : Longmans, Green, mid Co.
1884.)

This is one of the well-known text-books of science, another
of the series being Systematic Mineralogy, by the same author.
The present work is illustrated by 237 well-executed engravings.

Electricity and its Uses. By J. Munro. With numerous
illustrations; pp. xxii. — 180. {London: The Religious Tract
Society^

The recent advances made by electricity have excited much
public interest ; that these advances may be explained to the
reader is the object of the book before us. The work is illus-
trated with 83 engravings and i plate.

Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. By William
Morris Davis. Pp. 90. {Boston, U.S.A.: Lee and Shepard.)

This is one of the Boston " Science " series. In it the author
gives us a clear and popular account of the various descriptions of
storms.

Photography for Amateurs. By T. C. Hepworth. With
illustrations ; pp. 160. {London: Cassell and Co., Limited. 1884.)

This little shiUing book is a non-technical manual for the use
of all interested in the art of photography ; the instructions given
are plain and simple.

Report of the Commissioners of Agriculture for the year
1883. Pp. 496. {Washington, U.S.A.: Government Printing
Office. 1883.)

In the department of agriculture many subjects are treated
having special interest for the microscopist and naturalist. Thus,
we find a paper on the diseases among sheep in Texas, with five
plates of the worm, Strongylus contortus ; one on Grasses, with 25
plates ; and another on Cabbage-Caterpillars and other destructive
insects, in which their life-history is worked out, and in many cases
their enemies are pointed out. This paper is illustrated with 13
plates, some of which are coloured.

CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA. Gl

The Stars and the Earth ; or, Thoughts upon Space, Time,
and Eternity. Revised and enlarged, with Notes by Richard A.
Proctor, B.A. Pp. 60. {London: Bailliere^ Thidall^ and Cox.)

Mr. Proctor's books are always interesting. This is no excep-
tion to the general rule, and much food for thought will be found
in its pages.

The Diseases of the Will.

Animal Automatism.

The Birth and Growth of Myth.

The Scientific Basis of Morals.

Illusions, Parts I. and II.

The Origin of Species, Parts I. and 11.

The Childhood of the World.

Miscellaneous Essays.

The above form ten monthly parts of the "Humboldt Library,"
published by /. Fitzgei-ald^ of N'e-iu York, U.S.A., at 15 cents
each. The complete series, of which 61 are already published,
wdll form a very interesting set. Darwin's papers are double size,
and consequently double the usual price.

Notes on Natural Selection and the Origin of Species.
By Frances P. Pascoe, F.L.S. {London: Taylor and Francis. 1884.)

In this little pamphlet of 20 pages, the author discusses
Darwin's great work, and whilst acknowledging the great
principle of evolution, does not appear to accept the whole of the
Darwinian theory. It is a carefully written publication.

Current IRotee anb flDcnioran&a,

We have pleasure in announcing that the third volume of Mr. A.
C. Cole's very valuable series of " Studies " will shortly be
commenced.

The work will be divided into four divisions : —

I. — Botanical Histology, in which the descriptive letterpress
will be written by Mr. David Houston, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

2. — Animal Histology, by Mr. Frederick Greening.

62 CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

3. — Pathological Histology, by Mr. W. Fearnley.

4. — Popular Microscopic Studies, in which the descriptive
letterpress and practical instructions will be written by the editor.

Each series will be issued at monthly intervals, and will consist
of four pages of descriptive letterpress, a lithographic plate, and a
slide prepared by Mr. A. C. Cole. Mr. Cole will edit the whole
series.

The Chester Society of Natural Science have favoured us with
a copy of Nos. i and 2 of their Proceedings, together with a
Short Hand-Book of Natural History for use at the Annual
Conversazione and other meetings of the Society. The Proceed-
ings contain several papers of interest, and show that much useful
work is done in the Society. The Hand-book will be found very
suitable to promoters of microscopic soirees, exhibitions, etc., in
the scientific arrangement of objects for exhibition. It is pub-
lished at sixpence.

The LiNNiEAN Society.

At the last meeting of this Society, a paper by Mr. Alfred Tylor
was read in part. The whole was entitled " On the Growth of
Trees and Protoplasmic Continuity." The portion of the paper
which dealt with the growth of trees was that read before the
Society. Mr. Tylor's chief object was to show the principles
that underlie the individuality of plants, and to prove that plants
have a dim sort of intelligence, and are not merely an aggrega-
tion of tissues responsive to the direct influence of light. Not
only this, but that the tree as a whole knows more than its
branches, just as the species knows more than the individual, and
the community than the unit. The result of Mr. Tylor's experi-
ments, which have extended over many years, has been to show
that many plants and trees can adapt themselves to unfamiliar
circumstances, such as avoiding obstacles artificially placed in
their way, by bending aside before touching, or by altering the
leaf arrangement, so that at least as much voluntary power must
be accorded to such plants as to certain lowly-organised animals.
Finally, Mr. Tylor contends that a connecting system, by means of
which combined movements take place, is to be found in the
threads of protoplasm which unite the various cells, and that this
connecting system is found even in the new wood of trees. He
has also observed that the new wood of nearly all trees point
upwards, but that year after year it changes its direction, showing
much mobility. — The Tirnes^ Dec. 6th, 1884.

CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA. C3

Mounting Diatoms. — After picking out and mounting singly
some specimens of Pkiwosigma, I find that each has collected
round it a small quantity of moisture, quite spoiling the markings :
the diatoms were prepared with Nitric Acid, and burned on the
thin glass cover, and mounted dry with a ring of gold-size. Is
the moisture the vapour of the size condensed, or was the acid
not properly washed away ? , E.

We have received Reports and Proceedings of the following
Societies : —

Chichester and West Sussex Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.

Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society.

Manchester Scientific Students' Association.

Specimen Numbers of The British Naturalist and The
Canadian Scientific Monthly have been received from Mr.
Collins, 157, Gt. Portland St., London.

Mr. John Wheldon's Catalogue has been received, in which we
notice two copies of Leeuwenoek's Select Works, and many other
Works relating to Microscopy and Natural History.

Mr. Fred. Enock sends us a mounted slide of the Marsh-fly,
Tetanocera 7'eticulata^ $ in which the whole of the structure and
the arrangement of the internal muscles are very beautifully dis-
played ; this slide will afford many hours' profitable study.

Mr. Chas. Collins, Jun., 25, St. Mary's Road, Harlesden,
London, has sent us three nicely mounted slides of Heads of
Insects. These are: — Head of Earwig, showing the mouth-organs
adapted for biting, and Heads of Crane-fly and Oak-fly, in which
the mouth-organs are suited for sucking. These objects are
mounted without pressure, and the various mouth-organs are well
displayed.

Cement for Glass, Porcelain, &c. — Take soft cheese, grind
and wash it in hot water, then when it is freed from all soft matter,
and nothing remains but pure caseine, press it in a fine cloth so
as to squeeze out all the liquid. There remains a white matter,
which is to be dried, reduced to powder, and preserved in a wide-
mouthed bottle, or well-fitting box.

To make use of it, it must be ground up with a small quantity
of water, which makes a very adhesive paste. It must be used
immediately, and in the cold.

64 CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

This cement sets rapidly ; when once dry, it cannot be redis-
solved, either by moisture or heat. — Moniteur des Produits Che-
7niques.

The above is extracted from the " Chemical Review," to which
the editor adds : — " According to our experience, the dry caseine
should be ground up, not in water, but in ammonia, solution of
borax, or in lime-water. We prefer to obtain the caseine, not
from cheese, but from butter-milk, which is precipitated with
acetic acid, using as little as possible. The precipitate is repeatedly
stirred up in hot water, and thus washed by decantation, until all
the fatty matter is removed. It may then be dried and pressed
as above."

If this cement cannot be re-dissolved either by moisture or
heat, we think it will make a splendidly firm cement for affixing
glass or metal cells to glass slips ; at any rate, it is worth a trial.

Mr. J. Walter Fewkes, of Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., has
very courteously sent us No. 9 of Vol. XL of the " Bulletin of
the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harwood College." This
is a most instructive and exhaustive paper "On the Development of
Certain Worm Larvae." It is illustrated with 8 double plates.

Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., has kindly sent us a reprint of
his paper " On the structure, the occurrence in Lancashire, and
the source of Origin oi Naias grami?iea, Del, var., Z^<i'///^/, Magnus,"
read to the Leeuwenoek Microscopical Club, and to the Man-
chester Literary and Philosophical Society. Some idea of the
exhaustive nature and interest of this paper may be formed from
its consisting of 31 pages, illustrated with 89 engravings, and 4
litho plates.

Offers of Exchange or otherwise wanted for a first class No. 1 1
Immersion, o.g., by Hartnack and Prazmowski. Apply to J. S. G.,
14, High Street, Chelmsford, Essex.

Many notices and other important articles have been pressed
out of the present issue ; they will appear in the April part.

THE JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY

AND

NATURAL SCIENCE :

the journal of
The Postal Microscopical Society.

APRIL, 1885.

Cbironomu0 praeinu^*

By a. Hammond, F.L.S.
Plates 9 and 10.

p-O

iCVJ

Part I.

HE subject of this paper has been kindly identified
for me under the above title, by Mr. Kirby of the
British Museum. In all its stages the Chironomus
prasiiius much resembles another very common
denizen of our ponds, water-butts, etc. — ChiroJiomus
plumosus^ the larva of which is called the blood-
worm, but appears to be a distinct species. It
eventually becomes a minute Tipulid fly, which is
not unfrequently mistaken for a gnat ; a deception
which the small size of the insect and the plumose character of
the antennae favour, but a glance at the head of the insect as seen in
Fig. 28, PI. 10, will at once show, that the formidable rostrum
and lancets of the gnat are replaced by a pair of fleshy lips, flanked
by a pair of five-jointed palpi, forming a very harmless piece of
apparatus.

VOL. IV. F

C6 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

In this Journal I have on previous occasions illustrated the
structure and economy of three species of Dipterous larvse,* which
may form useful points of reference and comparison in dealing
with our present subject. Of these, that which it most resembles,
both in external form and in internal structure, is the larva of
Ta?iypus macidatus^ the most conspicuous difference being that of
colour, for whilst the larva of Ta7iypus is colourless, that of Chiro-
7iofnus is bright red, a distinction which, I have Mr. Sorby's
authority for saying, is due to the presence of hoemoglobin in the
blood. As in the annelids, however, Tiibifex, e.g., the colouration
resides not in the corpuscles of the blood but in the plasma itself.
Like Ta7iypus, the body is furnished wdth two pairs of grappling
feet, having coronets of booklets. These are evidently homologous
with the prolegs of the Lepidoptera. I have found a dipterous
larva in which all the abdominal segments were provided with
similar organs, but, like a great many others with which I am
acquainted, I am quite unable to identify it. It should, however,
be noticed that while the first pair of Hmbs in our present subject
is found on the prothoracic segment, this never occurs in cater-
pillars, and also that as contrasted with Ta?iypcs, where they are
partially fused, they are here quite separate. The crop, which in
Ta?iypiis assumes the form of a simple enlargement of the alimen-
tary canal preceding the proventriculus,t and in the Blow-Fly that
of a pendent pouch or sac, is in the present case entirely wanting,
and the oesophagus opens directly into the proventriculus, a
difference which may result from the nature of the food, which in
the two former cases consists of animal matter, but here is com-
posed of fine mud and such nutritious materials as it may contain.

Another point, too, is remarkable, As contrasted with the
Blow-Fly, Psychoptera, and most other insects, this larva is, in the
earlier stages at all events, distinguished by the almost total

* On the Larva of Tanypus macidatus. See this Journal, Vol. I., p. 83,
On the Maggot of the Blow Fly., Vol. II., p. 33. On Psychoptera paludosa,
Vol. III., p. 69.

+ Mons. Felix Plateau, in a paper on the digestion of insects in the
Memoires de 1' Academic Royale de Belgique, Tom. xli., 1S75, advocates with
considerable force of reasoning the abandonment of all the nomenclature
usually applied to the alimentary canal of insects, which presupposes the exist-
ence of an organ analogous to the stomach of vertebrates. I think it best,
however, to use the ordinary nomenclature, at all events for the present.

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 67

obliteration of the tracheal system. A very few tracheal branches
are seen to ramify in the thoracic segments, and as the period of
pupation approaches these become more conspicuous ; but with
this exception, there is no appearance of a tracheal system. How,
then, is respiration effected ? Partly, it may be presumed, through
the general integument, but more particularly, undoubtedly, by
particular portions of that integument, which seem to be specially
differentiated for the purpose of supplying the deficiency of tra-
cheae, viz., the four finger-like processes which are appended to the
penultimate segment of the larva (see PL IX., Figs. 2 and 3), the
cuticle of which is more deficate than elsewhere, and, therefore,
well adapted for the purpose. Lastly, we may notice that the
antennae which in Tanypus are retractile are not so here, and there
is no reason to think that they act differently from the same organs
in other insects.

Having thus pointed out the main outhnes of agreement with,
or divergence from, the subjects of preceding papers, I will now
proceed to give some details of structure and other observations
which seem to me of special interest, confining my remarks in the
present paper to the larval condition of the insect, and reserving
the pupa and imago stages, and also the tgg^ for a future oppor-
tunity. I may premise that these larvae are found abundantly
in muddy streams and brooks, in the mud of which they live,
and where they sometimes form rough, muddy tubes ; more
generally, however, these tubes are little more than tracks, con-
solidated by the secretion from the salivary glands, which is poured
out in such quantity as to form the substance of the mud into a
kind of consistent felt, traversed in all directions by their burrows.
In the vessel in which I keep them, this muddy felt can be lifted
out en masse with a pair of forceps, and the bottom of the brook
where I find them has a thick carpet of it, the presence of which
must materially modify the detrital action of the stream.

To commence with the integument. This consists, as else-
where, of an external cuticle and an internal layer of hypoderm,
beneath which again there is, I think, a basement membrane.
These structures have been more or less observed in many Insects
and Crustacea by Leydig, Haeckel, Weissmann, Grueber, and lastly

68 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

by Viallanes, in an important work on the Histology of Insects.*
The cuticle is a secreted layer, formed by a secretion from the
cells of the hypoderm beneath it. Mr. Lowne, I may mention,
considers the cuticle of the Blow-Fly as formed by the coalescence
of cells ; t but this view is not, as far as I am aware, supported by
any other authority. It is a structureless layer, very thin in young
larvae, but thicker and presenting a stratified appearance (see Fig.
25), in older specimens. If a larva be crushed beneath the cover-
glass in a drop or two of methylated spirit, the cuticle swells out
almost immediately to quite ten times its thickness in some places,
and the stratification is rendered beautifully apparent; between
twenty and thirty stratified lines becoming visible between its
inner and outer surface. Underneath the cuticle is a cellular
layer, the hypoderm. Each cell of the hypoderm secretes the
portion of cuticle immediately above it, and the portions of cuticle
thus formed, unite together into a continuous investment. Gegen-
baur says that the hypoderm is the homologue of the epidermis
in the higher animals, so named from its overlying the dermis or
true skin. We must bear in mind that there is no structure in
insects comparable to the dermis of Vertebrates, I and that the
cuticle does not correspond to any structure found in the latter,
whether bearing that name or not, but is a super-added covering.

The transparency of the cuticle in the larva allows the hypo-
dermis to be easily made out in many parts of the integument
with a J-inch objective, especially in the thoracic segments, and in
the aforementioned respiratory processes on the penultimate seg-
ment. A drawing of it is given in Figure 24a,§ and an optical
section together with the cuticle somewhat more magnified in Fig.
25. It will be observed in Figs. 25 that the central portion of the
cells enclosing the nucleus project into the cavity of the ccelom or

* Recherches sur L'Histologie des Insectes Annales des Sciences Naturelles
Zoologie, 6th Ser., torn. 14, 1882.

t Lowne's Anatomy of the Blow-Fly, p. 10.

+ I am not aware that any such structure has been recognised.

_ § Compare Maggot of Blow-Fly, loc. cit,, Fig. 2, Plate XX. Although
this- figure undoubtedly represents the condition of the hypoderm as it may
be sometimes seen, there are, nevertheless, variations in its appearance, which
at present I am unable to explain.

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. G9

body cavity ; and in certain situations, especially along the inter-
segmental folds of the thoracic segments, the substance of the
cells seems to be still more gathered up about the nucleus, so that
the cells project more strongly, and are drawn apart from each
other, thus breaking the continuity of the cellular layer. Where
this occurs, too, the cells lose their regularity of outline, and assume
a plastic, amoebiform appearance (see Fig. 2/!^b).

These changes are not, I think, without their bearing on the
processes of growth of the larva. It need scarcely be pointed out
that we have not to do here with a cellular layer, whose elements
are in a formed, horny condition like those of the outer layer of
the epidermis in the human body. They more nearly resemble in
condition those ^of the inner layer or I'ete miicosiwi. If there is
a cell-wall at all, it must be of the thinnest and most delicate
description ; Lowne indeed describes the cellular layer beneath
the cuticle of the Blow-Fly as consisting of indurated pigmented
cells : and probably this is the case in the perfect insect, where the
processes of growth are completed, and no further increase is
required or can take place until the assumption of the imago state;
we see here, at least, that the hypodermic cells are in a highly vital
and plastic condition. The basement membrane of which I have
spoken, is only visible in living larvae under very favourable con-
ditions, such as the newly forming integument of the anterior feet.

The organs of the mouth consist of a labrum, a labium, and a
pair of mandibles, the maxillae being only represented by a pair of
minute rudimentary palpi. These organs are represented in Figs.
13 and 14. The labrum is furnished with a number of minute
and variously formed hooklets, and with a row of very minute
chitinous teeth beneath (see Fig. 14). The mandibles are strongly
toothed, as is also the labium, on either side of which the integu"
ment presents a fan-like arrangement of radiating striae. The
mouth of this creature, both in its larval and perfect conditions,
presents great similarity to that of the Crane-fly, as described by
me some years ago in "Science Gossip."*

The alimentary canal exhibits the following parts, viz. : the
oesophagus, proventriculus, ventriculus or chyle stomach, and the

* ((

Science Gossip," Vol. x., p. 155, and vol. xi., pp. 10, 171, and 201.

70 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

small and large intestine, the posterior part of which, surrounded
by a strong muscular coat, may be considered as a rectum. With
reference to the embryonic origin of this canal, it may be stated
that the oesophagus and intestine (including both its divisions) are
derived by invagination from the epiblast layer of the embryo, and
have received the names respectively of stomodeum (fore gut),
and proctodeum (hind gut), while the stomach, or mid gut, is
derived from the hypoblast, and corresponds to the mesenteron or
primitive digestive cavity. It has at least four coverings, though
these are not equally present in every part. Its internal wall is a
structureless cuticle, continuous with that of the integument, and
extending the whole length of the canal. It is reflected around
the termination of the oesophagus, where the latter hangs in
the proventricular cavity.* It passes by without entering the
cavities of the proventricular cgeca and the malpighian tubes. It
is this membrane which in other insects is often solidified at the
upper part of the canal and developed into rows of strong, horny
teeth, as is well known in the cricket, etc. Here, however, this
is not the case, but it forms a smooth membrane more or less
separated from the epithelial layer to which it owes its birth.f

The epithelial coat comes next in order, and is continuous
with the hypodermis of the integument. It secretes the cuticular
lining just described. It varies greatly in character in different
parts. In the oesophagus and small intestine it is difficult to
trace, having, I think, become atrophied to a great extent. The
occasional occurrence of nuclei between the two membranous
coats of the canal in these parts, attests the original continuity
of this all-important structure.

It is, however, in the proventriculus and stomach that the
epithelial coat attains its greatest development, where it functions
as a glandular layer of cells, secreting probably an alkaline fluid
concerned in the process of digestion.^ The cells differ some-

* See Fig. 12, and compare this organ in Psychoptera paludosa, page 72
and Plate IX., Fig. 9a.

t This cuticle has been hitherto overlooked in the Blow-Fly by both
myself and Mr. Lowne ; I have, however, recently ascertained its presence
in that insect to my entire satisfaction.

X Plateau denies the existence of an acid gastric juice in insects. He says
that the contents of the alimentary canal in every case give alkaline or neutral

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 71

what in character in different parts, but are all of considerable
size, nucleated, and generally polygonal from mutual pressure.
In the anterior portion of the stomach some of these cells are
lodged in short, dome-shaped, csecal projections of the external
membrane; which occur in the midst of square areas, marked by the
crossed, longitudinal, and transverse fibres of the muscular coat —
see Figs. 5, 26, and 27 — and these frequently present a regularly
granulated aspect, and are then more hyaline and colourless than
elsewhere ; but in every part of the stomach, and in the proventri-
cular caeca the cells are frequently invested with a thick secreted
envelope, through which pass a multitude of radiating pores (pore
canals ; see Fig. 20), by which the contents of the cells are
retained in communication with the surrounding fluids, the pro-
cesses of growth and secretion are enabled to be carried on.

Sometimes the secreted envelope retains its integrity while a
process of cell multiplication goes on within it, the envelope
increasing in size with the multiplication of its contained cells; thus,
larger aggregations of cells are formed, surrounded by a common
envelope, as shown in Fig. 20. I will here take the opportunity
of quoting one or two extracts from Kblliker * on the subject of
these cells and their envelopes : — " My observations on the
cuticular structures have shown that secondary depositions from
the cells, analagous to the cellulose membrane of vegetable cells
are to be found in a great many places, and are often characterised
by a very particular structure, especially by the existence of a
large number of extremely fine pores, pervading them in the
direction of their thickness." And again, KoUiker states that
such cells are found on the villi of the human intestine ; for in
reference to this subject, he says : — " I have recently shown that
the membranes of these cells " (the epithelial cells of the vilH)
" are thickened and very finely striated at their free surface, and
that these thickened parts represent as it were, in their totality, a

reaction, and concludes that it is by the aid of these alone, that in insects the
digestive process is carried on. He endeavours to show, on chemical grounds,
that this is far from being so impossible as it might at first sight be supposed
to be. He thinks that in insects there is nothing corresponding to the stomach
of vertebrates, and that, what is usually, and as above, called the stomach, is
more akin to the vertebrate intestine.

* Kolliker's Manual of Human Microscopic Anatomy, pp. 26 and 328.

7^ CHIKONOMUS PRASINtrS.

special membrane covering the cells similar to the cuticula of
plants." Such is the uniformity of Nature's plan in creatures so
widely different. The zona radiata of many ova is, probably, also
a phenomenon of this nature. The epithelium of the malpighian
tubes consists also of polygonal, granular^ nucleated cells lining
the cavity of these organs. That of the small intestine is as
inconspicuous as that of the oesophagus, but in the large intestine
we again meet with a prominent epitheUal covering, the large
nucleated granular cells of which bulge out irregularly between
the crossing fibres of the muscular coat. In general, it may be
stated, that the cellular elements of the alimentary canal contrast
with those of the integument, first by reason of their superior
size, and secondly by the granular character of their contents.

The third coat of the alimentary canal is a very delicate,
structureless, basement membrane, upon which the epithelial coat
rests, and as such it forms also the investment of the malpighian
tubes. We may here remark that in the integument there are
three layers, viz., cuticle, hypoderm, and basement membrane; so
also in the alimentary canal, there are three layers corresponding
thereto, viz., cuticle, epithelium, and basement membrane. I do
not know whether this last is to be regarded as a membrana
propria, secreted like the cuticle by the epithelial cells, or whether
it is a form of connective tissue. ^'^

The fourth coat is the muscular one consisting of longitudinal
and transverse muscular fibres. It differs much in character in
different parts, being scantily represented in the stomach and
large intestine, but very thick and prominent in the oesophagus
and small intestine. In the stomach and large intestine it forms
a loose mesh of delicate fibres crossing at right angles, and
leaving square inter-spaces, where the basement membrane
bulges out between. In the oesophagus and small intestine,
it consists almost, if not exclusively, of transverse fibres ranged
side by side, without any interval, round the canal, and is
of considerable size. These fibres are shown in Fig. 15, where

* From the above it appears difficult to avoid the conclusion that the
digestive juices in insects have to act upon the food through an interposed
cuticular membrane, and that the chyle so prepared must pass through this
membrane on its way to the blood. I do not know whether anything has
been written on this curious subject, but it is eminently worthy of note.

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 73

their optical sections on either side give at first sight the impres-
sion of a row of cells, but on more careful examination their true
character is revealed. They are, I believe, simple, fusiform,
nucleated muscle cells, each extending for a considerable distance
round the intestine.

It is said * that the muscular tunic of the alimentary canal of
the Arthropoda presents an exception to the general rule, in that
its fibres are of the striped variety. If these fibres are striated,
the striation is very faint indeed ; so much so, that I doubt
whether it be striated,t and the more so as it contrasts strongly
with a cincture of undoubtedly striated fibres which surrounds the
rectum, whose elements resemble in all respects those of the
sub-cuticular muscles. There is a distinct cell membrane envelop-
ing the contractile substance, which forms the contour of the
cell-like optical sections shown in my drawing, in which, here and
there, a nucleus may be distinguished occupying the centre of the
section, which is therefore evidently placed in the midst of the
contractile substance and not on the surface. In certain places
the pointed ends of the fibres may be seen, but I have not been
able to trace the whole extent of any single fibre. Each of them
however, extends, I think, at least half round the canal ; at one
part of the small intestine this muscular layer is double.

At times I have, I think, detected evidence of a fifth mem-
branous investment to the canal surrounding the muscular coat,
and as this observation exactly tallies with one of Newport's, I will
quote what he says upon the subject J : — " The peritoneal coat or
layer is an exceedingly transparent white, shining, and delicate
membrane, and is observed only with great difiiculty. It covers
the outer surface of the muscular coat throughout the whole
course of the canal. It is seen most distinctly extending along
the sides of the canal, directly across the angles formed by the
contraction of some part of the muscular coat, where this is
thrown into folds or depressions." Whether or not this membrane
is correctly described as peritoneal, will depend upon the view
that is taken of the homologies of the ccelom or body cavity in

* Ranvier, Lecons d'Anatomie Generale, Paris, 1880, page 462.

"t Since writing this, I have satisfied myself that these fibres are striated,

+ Todd's Cyclopoedia of Anatomy. Art. Insecta, page 99.

74 WHAT IS A PLANT ?

the Arthropoda generally. It probably belongs to the class of
connective tissue structures.

[The Explanation of Plates will be given at the end of Part II.]

Mbat 16 a plant ?

By H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Botany at Westminster Hospital, President of the
Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society.

Part I.

SO powerful is the influence of early education, or of any long-
cherished notion on the mind, that at first sight the ques-
tion forming the title of this paper would appear to many
readers one almost absurd, and certainly one easily answered in a
sentence.

Let us see how far this idea is a true one.
' The popular description of a plant would be that it is a more
or less green-coloured organism, with (in most cases) a stem and
branches bearing leaves and flowers ; that it is fixed in the soil,
having no motile power ; that it is devoid of all power of sensa-
tion or digestion ; finally, that by these characters it is easily and
clearly distinguished from any member of the sister kingdom.

As a rough-and-ready diagnosis between the two kingdoms,
this, in times gone by, has done duty. In the present state of
scientific knowledge, and in the light of later discoveries in bio-
logy, such a conception becomes not only useless, but absolutely
illogical and impossible. We must abandon, not this set of
characters alone, but even those distinctions which were at one
time held by Cuvier himself. The result is, that as the former
typical distinctions break down one by one, we find our self-set
task of defining what a plant is, as opposed to an animal, by no
means so easy as in our complacent ignorance we imagined it to
be.

WHAT IS A PLANT ? 75

Among the higher forms on either side, no difficulty of any
moment presents itself. We do not confuse the antelope with the
herbage on which it browses, nor the tiny humming-bird with the
foliage under which it loves to nestle. The points of agreement
between the bride and the orange-blossom are not numerous.
They all possess what we call " life," but in form, power of motion,
and sensation, and other characters, we seem to find differences
wide enough to enable us to assign to each its proper position with
absolute certainty.

Now, go much lower down the scale in both kingdoms, and we
are beset with difficulties on all sides. The arduous nature of our
task begins to assert itself. Enter the newly-found world of the
microscopist, where the width of an eye-lash is an almost gigantic
measurement, and we are face to face with perplexities that baffle
the efforts of even our most earnest and patient searchers after
truth. Many of these lowest forms, such as the Protozoa, are
certainly animals ; many, such as the Protophyta, are indubitably
plants. Thus, our definition, to be comprehensive and logical,
must needs embrace all these forms ; therefore, we must investi-
gate them, and learn their life-history. Here it is that our greatest
difficulties meet us ; here it is that we find our work is hard and
laborious.

Our older naturalists found similar perplexity in the case of
the Sponges, which, after being bufi'eted about unceremoniously
from one kingdom to the other, finally found rest on the animal
side. The red corals were only some 170 years ago first assigned
to the zoologist, who still holds claim over them. Over Volvox
globator there waged many fierce battles, until the botanist once
and for ever gained the victory. Of such cases as these the poet
Crabbe wrote : —

" Involved in sea-wrack, here you find a race
Which Science, doubting, knows not where to place."

Professor Haeckel proposes the formation of a third kingdom,
which he calls the ^''Regiiuni Frofistiaim,'^ for the reception of those
doubtful organisms which cannot be absolutely assigned to either
the animal or vegetable side, under the collective title of the
'''Protista:' To establish this " refuge for the destitute " is at the

76 WHAT IS A PLANTS

same time to confess the hopelessness of research and the futility
of work. As Professor Huxley aptly observes, "To form this
biological ' No-man's Land ' simply doubles the difficulty, which
before was single," because we must take a scientific census of
this new kingdom, in order to define and classify its members.
Still, the very proposal indicates the difficulties in which modern
biologists are placed.

We will glance seriatim at the various distinctions, which from
time to time have been supposed to exist ; in so doing, we shall
see how, by exceptions on one side or on both, they successively
fail to be diagnostic, if we are to include all forms of life, until we
are reduced to so narrow a ground, that in the lowest and most
minute organisms certainly, and even among some of the higher
and more complex forms, the difference between a plant and an
animal comes to be one of degree rather than of kind.

I. — Form. This, although a safe guide among the higher
types, fails as we descend the scale. Thus, among animals, the
Sponges, belonging to the sub-kingdom, Porifera, resemble plants
in their external form, and were for some time classed as such.
Among the Ccelenterata^ we find the graceful silver Sertularia,
or Sea-Fir ; the Pennatula, or Sea-Pen, with its feathery branches,
phosphorescent on irritation ; the Gorgonia^ or Sea-Shrub, whose
spicules are familiar to all microscopists ; the Coralliitm, or Red
Coral, and its allies ; (the term " Zoophytes," or plant-like ani-
mals, is to this day applied to these last four and others of a
similar nature ; ) while higher still, among the Polyzoa, we find
Flustra, the Sea-Mat, which is, perhaps, the best-known case of
resemblance. Flustra is a pale-brown, arborescent organism
gathered every summer at the seaside, and dried as a " sea-weed,"
usually not named by the finder, because he is unable to detect its
photograph anywhere in the sea-weed books. He does not
know that it is, in reality, a " colony " of comparatively highly-
organised animals, each in its own cell, each provided with a crown
of tentacles for seizing its prey, and each having a mouth, stomach,
nervous system, and other organs !

On the plant-side, there are certain of the Algae, or water-weeds,
microscopic forms, which, during part of their fife, develop tiny,
hair-like processes, called cilia, by which they propel themselves

WHAT IS A PLANT? 77

through the water. In this state, they closely resemble many of
the Infusoria, a group of Protozoan animals, including the so-
called " animalcules." Examples of these are seen in the motile
forms of Frotococcus, residing in our water-butts and roof-gutters ;
in Vaucheria^ ColeochcBte, Chlajtiydamonas, and Volvox globator,
the " Globe Animalcule " ; notably, in Pero7iospo7'a infestajis^ the
fungus causing potato-disease, which, both in the development of
cilia and in the use it makes of them, bears decided resemblance
to an Infusorian. Form, therefore, supplies us with no distin-
guishing character on either side.

II. — Presence of Cellulose. Microscopically speaking, the
structure of animals and plants consists of multitudes of minute
hollow bodies, termed cells, seen in diverse forms. It was for-
merly held that the enveloping membrane, or cell-wall, of these
cavities was in animals composed of gelatine, in plants of cellu-
lose (CcHioOs). A distinction was accordingly founded on this
presence of cellulose in plants. It is now known that this sub-
stance exists abundantly in the outer tunic, or test, of the Asci-
dioida^ or " Sea-Squirts," a molluscoid group of animals, standing,
according to modern systematic zoology, next below Vertebrata.
Archer, of Dublin, found it not long since in the self-secreted case
of Chlamidoniyxis^ a fresh-water Protozoon.* Cienkowski, a Russian
naturalist, discovered it in the inner wall of the capsule of Vaui-
pyrella.\ This organism is seen in the shape of minute brick-red
capsules attached to the filaments of the well-known water-weed
Spirogyra, with whose chlorophyll it literally gorges itself, perforat-
ing cell after cell of the plant, and abstracting their green contents.
In all these cases, the presence of cellulose is proved by the cha-
racteristic blue reaction under the action of iodine and sulphuric
acid.

This distinction, therefore, breaks down. So constant a
feature, however, of plant-life is this cellulose wall, that we may
say that, morphologically, the most distinctive feature of plant-life
is the presence of a cell-wall containing cellulose ; that of animal
life its absence.

* Journal Lhui. Soc, Zoology, Vol. XIIL, p. 281.
t Ibid, p. 419.

78 WHAT IS A PLANT?

III. — Presence of Starch. Protoplasm excepted, the most
widely-distributed of al^ vegetable cell-contents is starch ; still, it
is not confined to the plant-kingdom. Bernard found it in the
liver of the calf and pig — i.e.^ he obtained from them a substance
called "glycogen," allied to, if not absolutely identical with,
starch. It is also found in the human brain, liver, and placenta ;
in the protoplasmic substance of Thalassicolla and other Radiola-
rians (a group of Protozoan organisms which secrete shells of
exquisite beauty and delicacy), there are minute bodies termed
yellow cells. These Haeckel finds to contain starch, *
answering at once to the iodine test, and in some cases making
up more than half the entire bulk of the animal. Cienkowski
(1871) thinks these may be plant-parasites, a possibility requiring
further research.f On the plant-side, starch is absent in the
Fungi as an order, so far as we know at present. Here again,
therefore, we fail in finding a distinction of any real value.

IV. — Presence of Chlorophyll. This is the green colour-
ing matter of plants, occurring usually as fine granules, these being
most abundant immediately below the surfaces of leaves ; it is
formed only under the action of light, with two exceptions, viz. — •
the germinating seeds of some conifers and the fronds of ferns,
where, under certain conditions of temperature, its formation goes
on in the dark. Chlorophyll, however, like cellulose and starch,
has found its way into the animal kingdom. Among Protozoa,
it is found in Sfentor, the trumpet animalcule, and as a dense layer
beneath the body-surface in two of the Heliozoa — Raphidiophrys
and Heterophrys^ discovered by Archer, of Dublin. J Among
Porifera, it is abundantly present in Spongilla, the fresh- water
sponge. Among Ccelenterata, we find it in Hydra viridis, the
green fresh-water polype. Among Turbellarian worms, Mr. P.
Geddes discovers it in Mesostomiim viridis, and again in Convo-
hiia, the little green Planarian that basks in the sand, and ooze
on parts of the Russian coast. § It has also been thought to exist

* Journal Linn. Soc. Zoology, Vol. XIIL, p. 427.

f Ibid, Vol. XIV., p. 145. Vide note at end of Part II. of paper.

X Journal Linn. Soc, Vol. XIIL, pp. 292, 297.

§ Royal Soc. Proc, No 194.

WHAT IS A PLANT? 79

in Afitheaj the common green anemone ; in Bonellia^ one of the
Spoon-worms (Gephyrea) ; and as high up as Crustacea, in Idotea,
a member of the Isopoda, or the wood-louse order.*

Chlorophyll, like starch, is absent in the Fungi. No less is it
absent in many higher plants, when parasitic, as in Broom-rape,
Fir-rape y and some Orchids.

However, although its presence fails as a diagnostic feature of
plants, we may take that presence as a pretty safe indication that
the organism possessing it is a plant.

V. — Function of Locomotion. For many years this was
held to be peculiar to animals alone. Cuvier himself, in 1828, f
speaks of " animated beings " possessing sense and motion,
and " inanimated beings " possessing neither, but simply " vege-
tating"— a term, by the way, not wholly misapplied to many
members of the genus " Homo " in our own time. But the rapid
progress of science during the last fifty years has done away
with motile power as a distinctively animal function. True, the
upward or downward movement of stem or root, and the various
motions of leaves and other organs of certain plants cannot be
said to be voluntary ; but there are many cases of movement in
plant-life that have their counterpart among animals, and that
place the existence of this function among plants beyond scep-
ticism.

Upon this power of movement in plants, Cuvier, as we shall
presently see, founded his first great distinction between them and
animals. His argument breaks down, however, in this its first
link. We note four kinds of movement seen in plants : —

I. — We see in the protopias?n of many of the lower forms of
Algce the phenomenon of " rhythmical pulsation " — {i.e., periodic
movement of certain spaces called the " contractile vacuoles " ) —
which is characteristic of Amoeba and other animals.

2. — There is motion, undoubted and regular, of the granular
contents of cells in many plants. For example, in the Stoneworts
(Characae), first noted by Corti ; in Stratiotes, the water-soldier ;
in Anacharis (the American water-weed, which is the pest of our
canals and ditches) ; in the well-known Vallis7ieria j in the hairs

* Vide note at end of Part II. of this paper,
t " Rfegne Animal," 2nd ed.

80 WHAT IS A PLANT ?

of Urtica^ the stinging-nettle ; in the beautiful purple hairs grow-
ing in the centre of Tradescaritia^ the spider-wort, a discovery due
to Robert Brown fifty years ago, and in many other cases.

3. — Certain Alg^e give rise to bodies known as zoospores^
from their likeness to some Infusoria ; these are embryonic forms
of future adult Algae, and being set free, move rapidly by the aid
of their cilia, already named. Good examples of these are seen
in the motile forms of Pi'otococcus^ Vaiicheria^ our old friend,
Pero?iospora, and others.

4. — Many e?itire plaiits spend their whole life in a state
of brisk activity. For example, the Desviids and Diatojns^
microscopic organs of wonderful variety, beauty, and delicacy
found in fresh-water pools, show this power, and the closest
attention of such observers as Huxley and Dallinger has so far
failed to detect either the mechanism of the movement, or the
distinction (if any) between it and the motion of Infusorians.
Volvox globator is a kind of hollow sphere, formed of numerous
green bodies, each owning two vibrating cilia. By means of these
it rolls over and over, hither and thither, paddling with great
rapidity, as if it were a kind of " Queen's messenger " in the plant
realm.

On the other hand, many animals spend all their lives in a
fixed condition. Such are the Sponges^ the Corals^ and many of
the Polyps (therefore once thought to be plants) ; many Rotifera,
as Fioscularia, Melicerta the building rotifer, and others, termed
" tube-dwellers " ; Flustra^ and most of the Polyzoa ; some Crus-
tacea, such as Balanns (acorn-shell), Lepas (Barnacle) ; finally,
some MoLLUSCA, such as the Oyster^ Mussel^ and Ship-worm^ and
the Ascidioida, or sea-squirts, our supposed ancestors. Locomotive
power, therefore, as a distinctive character of animals, being
brought up before the Bar of Science, must have the verdict
given against it, let the counsel for the defence say what he may.

VI. — Function of Digestion. The presence of a digestive
cavity formed, in Cuvier's judgment, the most important charac-
ter of animals. He made this therefore his primary distinctio?i.
He held that they must needs possess it, because, being more or
less constantly in motion, they needed some internal compartment,
or digestive cavity, whence their food might be taken by the

WHAT IS A PLANT ? 81

blood-vessels to be sent to the various organs. We have seen
that Cuvier s argument for the existence of this cavity has failed ;
his deduction, we shall now see, fails also, z>., as a diagnostic
character, if we apply to it our strict and universal test.

The Amceba and many of its allies, little masses of soft,
gelatinous matter found in our fresh-water ponds, possess neither
mouth nor digestive sac, but are able to take in solid food, and,
so to speak, form temporary " stomachs " at any part of their
bodies. Again, many animals are parasites, />., they reside in
or on other animals, feeding on their substance ; examples are
seen in the Gregarinidce, which are Protozoa parasitic in the
Earth-worm, Lobster, Frog, Rabbit, and in the intestine of the
much-despised Cockroach ; in the Opalina^ a Ciliate Infusiorian,
living in the intestine of the Frog and Toad ; in the Taenia^ or
Tapeworm, resident in warm-blooded Vertebrata. All these are
devoid of mouth and stomach, living wholly by imbibition of the
juices of their hosts, through their body-walls ; their food being
already cooked and digested for them, they need no digestive
cavity ; it therefore disappears, and the parasite assumes a de-
graded form, subsisting entirely by a " sponging " process, which,
together with the degradation in nature, is very often seen in the
" parasite " among the human race. Among the Rotifera, the
males are nearly all destitute of the digestive function, their
existence being almost wholly given to the reproductive function.

On the other side, we now know of very many plants that
" digest " the solid matter of animal food, only their digestion
goes on outside the organism, the nourishing material being then
in some way absorbed. Darwin's researches on this subject are
well-known to all lovers of science, and are clearly set forth in his
wonderful book on " Insectivorous Plants." Drosera, the Sundew
of our peat-bogs and heaths, is an excellent example. Its red-
tinted leaves are covered with hair-like bodies, called tentacles
(they are not true hairs), whose tips secrete a viscid fluid on being
touched by an unwary insect alighting on the leaf The leaf-edges
and tentacles then bend over towards the centre of the blade, the
insect being now in a kind of hollow basin, held fast and sure
there, and bathed in the copiously-secreted fluid. After some
hours the leaf opens again. What has happened ? All the

VOL. IV. G

82 WHAT IS A PLANT ?

nutrient matter of the intruder has been absorbed (a fact easily
proved by famiUar experiment), while the harder, non-edible parts
are cast aside, and the plant is ready for another meal ! We can
try this experiment for ourselves by using minute pieces of cheese,
meat, or egg, when similar results will be obtained. If we use
bits of china, coal, or stone, the leaf responds slightly, and secretes
some fluid, but it rapidly ceases to do so, the articles being not to
its taste. Dmicea^ a member of the same order, known as Venus'
Fly-trap, possesses leaves formed of two halves connected by a
hinge ; on each half are three filaments, while around the edges is
a row of long spikes. Let a fly touch one of the filaments ; the
two halves close with a snap, the insect is caught, and detained
until fully digested by a fluid secreted by the numerous glands on
the leafs surface. Here we note that rapidity of action takes the
place of viscidity. The Finguicula, or Buttervvort, acts in a
similar way to that of Drosera, i.e., by secreting a sticky fluid :
and the Laplanders use the leaves of these plants as a strainer
for milk, the secretion rendering it soHd.

Ufriadaria, the Bladdervvort, possesses small bladders attach-
ed to its branches ; these bladders, by a delicately-arranged
mechanism, form traps for aquatic insects, and even for minute
Vertebrata in the shape of tiny fishes.* Whether in this case
nutrient matter is digested, or only the products of decay
absorbed, we do not at present know. We must not omit to
name Nepe?ithes, the Pitcher-plant of tropical Asia, where brilliant
colour and attractive odour first lure the victim to its fate at the
hollow end of the pitcher formed by the metamorphosed tip of
the leaf. Moore, of Dublin, found in one pitcher, 91 ants,
16 wasps, 4 flies, i cockroach, 5 earwigs, 7 wood-lice, besides
a putrid mass quite beyond recognition ! In Sarraceiiia, the
side-saddle flower of N. America, Hooker speaks of the attract-
ive, conducting, glandular, and detentive surfaces, words grimly
significant of their functions in respect of intruders on their
domain. Beside these we have Drosop/iylhim, the Fly-catcher of
the Oporto villagers, the African Roi-idula, the Australian Byblis,
and others, while some of our own genera, such as Lychnis and
Saxifraga, have similar relation towards certain insects. All these

* Observations on the Bladderwort, G. E. Simms, The Field, June 26, 1884.

WHAT IS A PLANT ? 83

cases furnish good examples of digestion by plants.

There are two more recent discoveries to which we must briefly
refer. Mr. Francis Darwin has found, by a series of ingenious
experiments, that the protoplasmic filaments protruded from the
glandular hairs on the leaf of the Commo7i Teasel '^ are able to
absorb nutrient matter from the bodies of insects drowned in the
water which lies in the cup formed by the opposite leaves
at their base. In young plants, these filaments absorb Ammonia
from the rain and dew, a not less interesting discovery made by
experiments on Dipsaais pilosus, a Teasel not possessing
connate leaves, and therefore unable to entrap insects, as the
Dipsacus sylvestris, or Common Teasel, can do.

The other experiments to which we must direct attention were
made by Reiss and Will, of Erlangen,t on Drosera, and by Dr. S.
H. Vines, of Cambridge, % on Nepenthes. These observers found
in the glands of both these plants a digestive " ferment " soluble
in glycerifie, and exert ijig its action only in the presetice of an acid,
i.e., a ferment precisely resembling those of the pancreatic and
peptic glands of animals, namely " pancreatin " and " pepsin " ;
moreover, just as, according to Heidenhain, the animal glands do
not directly secrete these ferments, but a ?ieutral body called
Zymogen, and only when this is decomposed by acids, are the
respective ferments set free in an active state, so Dr. Vines finds
in Nepenthes a neutral body resembling Zymogen, the decom-
posing of which by acids sets free the digestive ferment.
The characteristic odour of pepsin can be detected in the
secretion of Drosera, and Prof Boulger tells us that the glands
of Nepenthes pitchers, after having absorbed nitrogenous matter,
become bright red, a process strikingly akin to the blushing
of the walls of the stomach after the action of the peptic glands.

All these researches show the solution of proteiu; or nutrient
matter, by plants, to be a process resembling in minute detail a
similar process in the animal economy.

Thus we see that Cuvier's primary test will not hold good as
he states it ; but just as the presence of Cellulose or Chlorophyll

* " Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science," 1877, p, 245.
+ Bot. Zeitung, Oct., 1875, No. 44.
X Journ. Lin. Soc. Botany, Vol, XV,, p. 472.

84 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

would indicate a plant organism, so the presence of an alimentary
cavity, more or less complex, is a fairly constant feature of animal
organisation. We may state the case thus : — Ajiimals can take
solid food into the body, and there digest it ; and as Huxley says —
" The definition so changed will cover all animals, except certain
parasites, and the few and exceptional cases of non-parasitic
animals which do not feed at all ; on the other hand, it will
exclude all ordinary vegetable organisms."

Plants get their food from the soil, or air, in a liquid or
gaseous state, by absorption through their surfaces ; animals
obtain theirs from plants, or plant-feeders, taking it into their
bodies, and there digesting it. The solvent process in plants,
although corresponding accurately with that process in animals, is
carried on ontside the body, the resulting matter being afterwards
absorbed, so that the carnivorous plants are really included in our
summary, only in their cases, the food is animal in constitution,
and not derived from either air or soil.

animal fIDctamorpboeie*

By J. B. Jeaffreson, M.R.C.S., etc.
Plate II.

Part I.

THE subject selected for consideration in the present paper is
that of Animal Metamorphosis. By the term Metamorpho-
sis we understand the series of changes undergone by many
creatures after their exclusion from the egg, and before they
assume the characteristics of their adult condition ; changes which
frequently alter extensively the general form of the individual, or
so modify its functions that its appearances and mode of life, at
different periods of its existence, are totally dissimilar.

We are so used to seeing that " the child is father to the man,"
and that the young of most of the animals with which we are
acquainted differ only from their adult representatives in size and
some trifling peculiarities, that we are in the habit of regarding it as a

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 85

law of nature, that the offspring of any animal shall, at birth, resem-
ble its parent in form and structure, needing only to increase in size
to assume all the parental characteristics. Nothing, however, can
be more erroneous than such a supposition. On the contrary, we
find that the large majority of the lower animals, at some period
of their existence, differ so vastly from their adult condition that
we can hardly conceive them to be the same creatures ; and
indeed, in many cases, the immature or larval forms have been
looked upon and described as distinct organisms until more care-
ful study has traced out their life-history, and proved them in
reality to be only transitional stages leading up to the mature
individual.

Every creature in journeying through the successive phases of
its embryonic development assumes an immense variety of forms ;
but in the higher orders of the animal world, these changes are
concealed from the view of the ordinary observer, and occur
before the individual is capable of existing as an independent
being. No change can be more decided than the transformation
which a mammal undergoes at its birth ; when, owing to modifica-
tions of its respiratory and circulatory systems, it ceases to depend
for its nourishment on its parent, and becomes capable of enjoying
an independent existence. But this is not the change to which
the term metamorphosis is properly applied. Here the newly-
born animal at birth has all the parental features in miniature, and
has only to increase in size until it attains its full development.
The mode of performance of the principal functions is definitely
fixed, and though some of the organs may still be imperfectly
developed, yet all are there and none disappear. But in many
members of the animal kingdom important changes take place
after complete separation from the parent has occurred : modifica-
tion either of external form, or of some important organs directly
influencing the mode of life. We may find in the offspring some
complete apparatus undiscoverable in the parent ; or, on the other
hand, the parents may have organs which are entirely absent in
the offspring.

Closely connected with metamorphosis, though differing from
it in the fact that one animal does not undergo the series of
changes in its own person, is what is called alternation of

86 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

generation, where the parent does not produce an organism like
itself, or one which even ultimately develops into a form like
itself, but something entirely different, which acts merely as an
intermediate or " nurse " form, furnished with the necessary
organs to preserve its existence until it is able to mature the
reproductive elements, or to produce in its substance a young
organism which, after various changes, assumes the form and
characteristics of the original parent.

Strange would our experiences be if the processes of metamor-
phosis and alternation of generation were adapted to our terres-
trial zoology. A popular writer recently suggested, " It would be
as though rats produced mice and mice rats ; in fact, that every
two sets of animals combined to maintain each other's species,
neglecting their own. To obtain sheep we should have to keep
goats ; to breed horses, donkeys. Or supposing we had animals
that were never the same thing for four and twenty hours together.
The cat that sat down on the hearth-rug would gradually develop
a multitude of legs and absorb its own head till it looked like a
furry crab. Looking round by-and-bye, we should find it in a
snake-like form, delicately fringed with alternate ears and tails.
Half-way down the street, the cab-horse would become completely
spherical, and round the next corner would become elongated
microscopically." And, strange as these suggestions seem, they are
not more wonderful than what we find actually occurring in the
animal world. Organisms in their infancy swimming about mer-
rily, lose their active locomotive powers, and creep about upon the
ocean floor, some of them at an intermediate stage of their exist-
ence being for a time fixed to the bottom Hke a stony plant.
Others, which, when young, possess eyes and locomotive organs,
lose them in advanced life, and become simple, sac-like parasites,
or, encasing their body in a shell of many valves, are rooted for
the remainder of their existence to the rock on which they happen
to settle. The same creature which at one time has all the char-
acteristics of a fish, at another exists as a four-footed amphibian.
Eyeless, footless grubs develop into lively insects sporting in the
sunshine ; while others, again, passing their infant days crawling on
the bottom of a muddy pond, which they match in colour, take on
the glittering colours of the emerald and turquoise, and on gauzy

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 87

wings flit over the surface of their aqueous birthplace ; — transfor-
mations more wonderful than those produced by the fairy wand of
Cinderella's grandmother.

We will now consider, as far as space will permit, some of the
most striking instances of metamorphosis in the different divisions
of the animal world.

Many of the earlier forms of animal Hfe possess various modes
by which the reproduction of the species is effected. The simplest
methods are those technically known as " fission " and " gemma-
tion," the former of which consists in a gradual division or cleav-
age of the body into two parts, each of which then develops into
a separate and independent individual exactly like the parent
form ; while in the case of gemmation or budding, the animal
throws out buds from some part of its body, which, after a more
or less complete development into the parental form, are detached
to lead a separate existence. Both these processes are non-sexual,
and as they are exhaustive to the parent they cannot be carried on
indefinitely. In order to ensure the continuance of the species,
the sexes must present themselves^ and ova and sperm-cells must
be developed and allowed to come into contact with each other.
And it is in this mode of development that we meet with the
variations we are now considering.

In the development of the lowest forms of the Protozoa —
those minute organisms which appear to exist on the confines of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms — in many instances reproduc-
tion appears to take place only by gemmation and fission, no
differentiated sexual organs having at present been discovered. In
these cases, as we have seen, the young immediately grows up into
the likeness of the adult, no metamorphosis being apparent, but
in others, the changes are so various, that at one period of their
life they exhibit an aggregate of phenomena, such as to justify us
in speaking of them as animals, while at another they appear to
be as distinctly vegetable. This is strikingly the case with some
of the Myxomycetes, which were formerly considered as plants,
but since the discovery of their life-history it has been proposed by
Saville Kent to transfer them from the vegetable to the animal
world under the name of Mycetozoa. Here, on the rupture of
the spores, the protoplasm escapes, forming uniciliate zoospores,

88 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

which are indistinguishable from certain of the flagellated monads.
These soon lose the cilia, and pass through an intermediate form,
in which they closely resemble an ordinary amoeba. Ultimately,
these amoeboid particles run together, forming a compound zygo-
spore, from which fresh spores are again developed. Other forms,
though passing through an equally distinct series of metamorpho-
ses, retain their animal characteristics throughout life.

Among all animals of higher organisation than the Protozoa,
we find that the processes of gemmation and fission are almost
invariably accompanied by the production of ova. The first step
in development after the fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm-cell
is the division of the yelk into two. In like manner, these two
cells, by continued sub-division, separate into four, these into
eight, and so on. Each of the outside cells now puts forth a
minute cilium, or lash, so as to form a fringe round the whole
body, and the embryo, known as a " primula," is capable of free
locomotion, and so exceedingly like an infusorian that there is no
doubt many of those supposed organisms are nothing more than
the early condition of more advanced forms into which they ulti-
mately develop themselves. In the next stage the cilia vanish; a
central cavity is formed, which communicates with the exterior by
an aperture placed at one end. It is now called a gastrula.
The gastrula stage, according to Haeckel, is passed through during
the development of all tribes of animals, (the lowest group of the
Protozoa alone excepted) but in the higher orders it is only an
embryonic condition, before the individual is capable of a sepa-
rate existence ; while the Sponges, Hydrozoa, Coelenterata, and
Annulosa all spend the first independent stage of their life as free-
swimming planulae and gastrulae, passing by various processes of
metamorphosis to their full development. Thus the cihated
embryos of Sponges and Hydrae, after freely swimming about for
some time, find a suitable locality, and fix themselves to some
solid object. In the young sponge, spicule begin to appear and to
be aggregated into bundles, and they are ultimately developed
into perfect Spongillae ; while the young Hydra developes a row of
tentacles round the mouth, and takes on the form of the adult
animal.

In some of the Compound Hydrozoa the process is still more

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 89

complicated. These animals, which by those unacquainted with
their true nature, are often mistaken for seaweeds, consist of a
number of hydra-like creatures, which, instead of separating from
each other, and living an independent existence, like the pond
Hydra, continue to multiply by budding, the separate members
being united together into a plant-like colony by means of a
common flesh or csenosarc. In many of these organisms there
are two distinct sets of zooids : one devoted to the duty of pro-
viding food for the colony ; the other generative buds or gono-
phores (whose office is the production of ova and spermatozoa),
and are altogether unlike the nutritive zooids. In some cases they
remain permanently attached to the parent organism, as in the
Sertularia or sea-firs ; but in others, the generative buds become
detached from the colony, and develop into free-swimming, bell-
shaped organisms, which are identical, structurally, with the jelly-
fish, or Medusae, and sometimes attain a comparatively gigantic
size ; individuals having been found as much as seven feet across,
with tentacles over fifty feet long, though the parent from which
they were produced was only a minute fixed polype, not more
than half-an-inch in height. At certain seasons of the year, these
huge jelly-fish drop from their under surface a vast number of
minute ova, which, after passing through the planula stage, settle
down upon the rocks, and develop, not into the free-swimming,
bell-shaped organism, by which they were actually produced, but
into the plant-like, rooted zoophyte from which the buds were ori-
ginally given off.

Sea-anemones are also able to increase in three ways : either
by fission, gemmation, or, as is most common, by hatching the
young from ova within the body of the parent. Nothing can be
more unlike the parent Actinia than their minute embryos, some
flattened, some elongated, and others with irregular prominences
as if composed of two or more unequal spheres, but all are
covered with cilia, and it is not until they are eighteen or twenty
days old that the rudiments of tentacles are visible, and they settle
down and gradually assume the adult form. By carefully watching
an anemone, the young may often be seen coming out of the
mouth of the parent, sometimes in the shape of little ciliated
Swimming bodies, but more often they are hatched within the

90 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

body-cavity of their mother, and retained there until they have
developed their tentacles. The same process of development
takes place in the Corals.

The Echinodermata, which include the sea-urchins, star-fishes,
crinoids, and sea-cucumbers, constitute one of the most interesting
divisions of the animal kingdom, and undergo some of the most
extraordinary changes in the passage from the ovum to the adult
animal, these changes forming one of the most remarkable sets of
objects to the microscopic enquirer. Their earl}' history was for a
long time unknown, but the problem was solved with great skill,
industry, and success by Johann Miiller. The striking character-
istic of their development is the formation of an intermediate or
" nurse " form — often wrongly called a larva — which is totally
unlike the parent, and does not attain the adult form by a process
of metamorphosis, but exists solely to give origin to the young
Echinoderm by a kind of internal gemmation (see PI. XI., Figs.
I, 2, 3).

Take, first, the Echini, or sea urchins. Here, as with all
the Echinodermata, the first condition developed from the egg is
a ciliated, free-swimming Planula, which, by the formation of a
mouth and intestinal cavity, becomes a Gastrula. Presently, from
the gastrula is produced the intermediate form, which exists as a
sort of scaffold, on which the young Echinus is built up. So dif-
ferent is it from the parent that it was originally described as a
distinct organism, under. the name of Pluteus, so called from its
resemblance to a painter's easel (Fig. i). The body is composed
of colourless, transparent jelly; it is dome-shaped behind, ex-
panded, and slightly hollowed out in front, and prolonged
inferiorly into straight, slender legs, in which delicate rods of cal-
careous matter are perceptible, forming a kind of frame-work not
unlike the French clocks which we see on our mantel-pieces. It
has a distinct internal cavity, and propels itself by powerful cilia
grouped in two bunches on the sides of the body, resembling
epaulettes, and also by a fringe encirchng the dome, and continued
on all the columns up one side and down the other. After a time,
at the upper part of the body, a number of fine plates of lime
begin to form in the shape of a tiny round box. This gradually
extends over the gelatinous mass, and developes tubercles which

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 91

push through the transparent dome of the Pluteus, which gradually
disappears, and the transformation is complete. The remarkable
point is that the young Echinus is developed out of only a portion
of the Pluteus, and the greater part of the latter, including the
skeleton, is cast away as useless.

In the Brittle-stars the growth of development is sometimes
direct, the young commencing life at once in the parent form, but
more commonly they start from the egg as the same ciliated, jelly-
like substances. As they proceed to develop^ four long calcareous
rods are formed — two in front and two behind — with connecting
pieces going across in a peculiar manner, and meeting at the top
in a slender head (Fig. 3). On the upper part of this delicate
framework are placed the soft parts of the body, a clear gelatinous
flesh, which displays a large cavity, into which a sort of mouth
ever and anon admits a gulp of water. The lower parts of the
rods are merely encased in the flesh without any mutual connec-
tion. Delicate cilia cover the whole integument. Its appearance
is most beautiful, its colour pellucid white, except at the summit
and extremities of the rods, which are of a lovely rose colour. Its
length is about one-fortieth of an inch, and it swims in an upright
position, with a calm and deliberate progression. Meanwhile, a
small round disc is gradually produced in a particular part of the
body of the Pluteus ; by-and-bye, a trellis-work of lime is formed
over this disc, and from it five arms begin to grow out like the
rays of a star. A stomach, mouth, and set of water-tubes are
formed within the disc, the rods drop off, and a complete Brittle-
star is formed. Strange to say, the plane of the future star-fish is
not even the same as the plane of the larva, but one quite inde-
pendent of it and oblique to it ; and, as with the Echinus, the
young star does not absorb into itself the body of the larva, but
throws it off as so much useless lumber, flesh, rods, and all.

The Asteroidea, or ordinary star-fishes, show the same general
phenomena as are characteristic of the class ; but the larvae pos-
sess no calcareous frame-work as do the Echini and Ophiuroidea.
In some the larval form possesses six or more fin-like lappets,
fringed with cilia, and the posterior part is prolonged into a sort
of pedicel, which is also covered with cilia. This was formerly

92 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

described as a distinct organism under the name of Bipinnaria
(Fig. 2).

The common five-fingered star-fish, immediately after exclusion
from the egg, presents an ovoid, sub-spherical shape. It remains
for some time attached to the sides of the incubatory cavity of the
parent. After a few days, four club-shaped appendages begin to
appear, sprouting, as it were, from the anterior extremity of the
body. It swims about vivaciously, with the four arms in advance,
by means of vibratile cilia. By degrees, the body assumes a pen-
tagonal outline, from the angles of which five blunt rays begin to
grow. It now ceases to swim, and sinks to the bottom of the sea,
where it goes on increasing in size for two or three years, the
blunt knobs gradually lengthening out into pointed rays, and the
animal takes on the form of the ordinary star-fish, with which we
are all familiar.

When first seen, no one could suspect that the Pentacrinus
Europeus was the young stage of a star- fish, the Comatula or
feather-star. In its first stage, the larval Comatula presents itself
as a cylindrical, jelly-like body, furnished with an alimentary
canal having a lateral aperture, and four transverse bands of cilia.
It swims about freely in this condition for some time, when lime-
plates begin to form, in the shape of a cup, in the upper part of
its body; while below these, other and smaller plates take the form
of a stalk (Fig. 4). After a time, the whole sinks to the bottom
of the sea, and attaches itself, by a strong lime-plate, to some
marine object, where it remains, looking like a stony plant (Fig. 5).
From the cup are developed ten radiating arms, produced by the
splitting into two of live primary rays, and it is thus transformed
into a Pentacrinus^ or stone-lily. When sufificiently matured, the
body drops off the stalk, and again assumes a free condition of
existence as a fully developed Comatula (Fig. 6).

The last order of the Echinodermata comprises the Holothu-
rians, or sea-cucumbers. The young Holothurian, on leaving the
egg, develops into a barrel-shaped, transparent larva (Fig. 7),
without any skeleton, but surrounded by transverse rows of cilia,
by means of which it swims about, rapidly rotating on its long
axis. In this stage it used to be described as a distinct genus,
under the name of Auricularia, As it advances in growth, it

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 93

elongates itself into a long, sausage-shaped body, develops a series
of feathery tentacles round the mouth, and five rows of tube-feet
along the sides of the body, by means of ^Yhich it draws itself
along the bottom of the sea.

The changes which take place in the members of the next
sub-kingdom, the Scokcida^ or worms, are, in many respects, the
most curious and interesting in the animal kingdom.

The simplest worms with which we are acquainted are the
Turbellarians. They are small, ciliated, flattened, soft bodies,
mostly aquatic in their habits, which glide along with a slug-like
motion over wet surfaces, or swim by the vibration of their cilia.
The egg of the Turbellarian gives rise to a larva, totally unlike the
parent, from which the adult is developed in a manner closely
analogous to that of the Echinodermata. This early form is often
a small, helmet-shaped organism, ciliated on the edges and side-
lobes, with a long flagellum attached like a plume to the summit
of the helmet. It was described by Johann Miiller, under the
name of Pilidium (Fig. 8). After swimming about for a time, a
worm-like body forms on the side of the larva ; eventually, it grows
round the alimentary canal, which it appropriates, and detaches
itself from the Pilidium^ and develops into the perfect adult.

Many species of worms are parasitic, and not only undergo
various metamorphoses in the processes of their development, but
are also obliged in each stage to become the tenants of a different
host, in which alone that particular stage can be carried out. The
tape-worms and the cystic or bladder-worms were formerly sup-
posed to be distinct animals, but it is now known that the latter
are merely immature forms of the former. The egg of the tape-
worm, on reaching the digestive organs of a suitable animal, sets
free a little oval body, armed in front with hooks or boring-spines,
by which it travels through the tissues till it reaches a suitable site,
where it anchors, and developes from its hinder end a kind of
bladder filled with fluid. It is now a cysticercus, or bladder-worm
(Fig. 9), and in this condition may remain stationary for any
length of time, but for its further development it must be intro-
duced into another host. If, then, the flesh of an animal contain-
ing such cystic worms be eaten by another (of a suitable species),
the young tape-worm is liberated from its cyst ; attaches itself by

94 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

its head to the mucous membrane of the intestine, and develops
to its perfect form, consisting of a minute rounded head (Fig. lo),
with organs of attachment, which are a crown of hooks and
suckers, followed by a long-jointed, tape-like body (Fig. ii), which
is produced by a process of budding from the head, each joint
containing both male and female reproductive organs, and pro-
ducing innumerable eggs, which, under favourable circumstances,
again go through the life-circle we have just been considering.

The Trematodes, or Flukes — another order of parasitic worms
— also undergo transformations as various and strange as those of
their relatives, the tape-worms. As an illustration, we may take the
Fasciola hepatica, or Liver-Fluke, which in its adult form is a flat,
lozenge-shaped organism, about an inch long and half-an-inch
broad, furnished with two suckers, inhabiting the gall-bladder or
biliary ducts of sheep, and giving rise to the disease known as the
"rot." When a sheep is affected with flukes, the eggs, to the number
of several hundred thousands, pass with the bile into the intestines,
and so on to the fields. Under suitable circumstances, these eggs
are hatched, producing a minute, conical, ciliated embryo, which
swims about until it comes into contact with a special water-snail
(the Liimiceiis trunculatus)^ into which, and which alone, it bores
its way till it gets into the pulmonary chamber or body-cavity,
when it undergoes metamorphosis. It loses its external layer of
ciliated cells, changes from the conical to the eUiptical form, and
becomes a sporocyst, or mere brood-sac, in which the next genera-
tion is produced. This next generation — the members of which
are called " redise" — burst through the wall of the sporocyst, and
migrate to other parts of the snail, especially the liver, on which
they feed. The adult rediae may develop daughter rediae for one,
two, three, or even four generations, but ultimately each redia
produces in itself about a score of germs, which develop into the
next stage, called " cercarise." The free cercaria has an oval
body, about one-thirtieth of an inch long, provided with two
suckers, the anterior part covered with spines. Two lobed, lateral
masses extend the whole length of the body, on each side of the
middle line. It has a tail, and is exceedingly active, but soon
comes to rest, and encysts itself on surrounding objects, when it is
taken up by the sheep as it grazes on the damp roots of the grass,
and in them ultimately reaches its stage of maturity.

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 95

We next come to the Ttmicata — the Ascidians, or sea-squirts —
many of which undergo a very definite metamorphosis. These
marine animals, which have been compared to a double-necked
leathern bottle, are found immoveably attached to rocks, stones,
and weeds on the sea-bottom (Fig. 12). They are protected by a
tough elastic integument, with two openings, situated close toge-
ther at the free extremity of the animal, through which a constant
current of water passes. The egg of the Ascidian gives rise to an
active, free-swimming organism shaped very much like the tadpole
of a frog, which it resembles not only in general form, but also in
its internal structure (Fig. 13), the only important difference being
in the position of the two mouths, and in the fact that the Asci-
dian has one eye, while the frog has two. The axis of the tail
consists of a cartilaginous or gristly rod (Fig. 13^), thus fore-
shadowing the notochord or primitive backbone of vertebrate
animals, on which account it has been proposed by some zoolo-
gists to raise the Ascidians to the rank of a sub-kingdom. Button-
like warts bud out from the fore-part of the head, by which, when
the time for its transformation arrives, the infant Ttunicate cements
itself to some fixed body. The tail atrophies, the body grows,
and gradually changes, its shape becoming wide and sac-like, a
large cloacal chamber forms, the eye disappears, the outer skin
becomes tough and leathery, and from being a free-swimming,
active tadpole, it becomes a mere stationary sac, absorbing
nourishment and laying eggs (Fig. 12).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL

Fig. 1. — Larva of Echinus (after J. MuUer). A, Anus ; F, Mouth
processes ; B, Posterior side-arm ; a, Mouth ; a', (Esophagus ;
b, Stomach; 6', Intestine; d, Ciliated bands ; f.f.f., Ciliated
epaulettes; c, Disc of future Echinus.

,, 2. — Larva of Star-fish, Bipinnaria asterigera. a, Mouth ; a',
(Esophagus ; h, Intestinal tube and Anal orifice ; c, Furrow,
in which the mouth is situated ; d,d', Bilobed peduncle ;
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,. (), 7, Ciliated arms.

,, 3. — Larva or Pluteus form of the Brittle-star, Ophiolepis. m.,
Mouth ; s. , Stomach ; c. , Calcareous skeleton.

J J 4. — Larva, with rudiments of the stem- joints of Comatula.

96 THE MICROSCOPE

Fig. 5. — Fixed young of Comatula rosacea (after Forbes).

,, 6. — Comatula rosacea, free adult.

,, 7. — Young stages of Holothuria tubulosa, one of the Sea-cucum-
bers.

8. — PiUdium, the " pseudembryo " of a Nemertid. a, Aliment-
ary canal ; b, Rudiments of the Nemertid.

9. — Cysticercus longicoUis, or Bladder-worm.

,, 10. — Head of adult, Tcenia solium enlarged, showing the hooklets
and cephalic suckers.

,, 11. — Portion of a Tape-worm (Strohila), showing the alternate
arrangement of generative pores.

,,'12. — Adult Ascidian, Sea-Squirt, Molgula socialis (after Lacaze
Duthiers).

,, 13. — Tadpole of Ascidian, showing— a, Notochord ; h, Spinal cord;
c, Brain ; d, Mouth ; e, Gills.

5>

5)

Zbc niMcro6cope anb bow to use it.

By V. A. Latham, Late Hon. Sec. U.J.F.C, Norwich.
Part IL — On Mounting Microscopic Objects.

FUNGI. — If good mounts of the spores of fungus — such as,
for example, the P^iccijiia — are wanted, the spot should be
removed from the leaf by means of a very sharp-pointed
scalpel, and then, the slip being breathed upon, the fungus will
adhere to the glass ; but in some few cases, as in Xenodochus, the
spores are so dense that it is not well to add Dammar imme-
diately ; but in such a case, a drop of Benzole, placed by means
of a piece of rolled paper or a match by the side of the spores,
wall quickly penetrate them. When this has nearly evaporated, a
drop of Dammar may be put direct upon the spores, after which
the cover-glass should not be placed upon it for half-an-hour, and
it will be found that, when warmed and put down, it will not move
the objects so easily as it would have done if this plan were not
followed. A short list of the Puccinias may be of use.

Pucciiiia gramiiiis (Wheat Mildew), common on grasses and
straw in the autumn, forming long, blackish lines. The spores are
two-celled, borne on a slender, colourless stalk, and accumulated

Journal of Micros copy, Vol. 4, PL 11.

An vrnciO MzZ(x;rnor/^b/'wsv

AND HOW TO USE IT. 97

in tufts, bursting through the cuticle. — P. corojtata, a very distinct
species from the last, and occurs on the leaves of more delicate
grasses. The apex of the spore bears three or four tooth-like
processes. — F. Apii, a similar brand, with two-celled spores, is
found on the wild and cultivated celery-leaves. The entire leaf is
generally closely sprinkled with patches of coffee-coloured spores.
— P. Anemones, very common in the spring, on leaves of wood
anemone, or wind flower. The surface of the spores is rough,
with little points or projections. Other brands, with two-celled
spores, occur on willow-herb, thistles, ground-ivy, violets, bedstraw,
primroses, knot-grass, asparagus, etc., but all are similar in char-
acter.— P. sframinis, on wheat, rye, etc. — P. Ment/ice, on various
mints.

Meadow-sweet Brand {Triphragmiiim Ubnarice). — This Brand
has a similar habit to the foregoing, but the spores are divided into
three cells. The meadow-sweet is common by the sides of streams
and ditches everywhere, and the brand is nearly as common in
autumn on the under surface of the leaves. — Bramble Brands,
(yPhragmidium biilbosiwi), common on bramble leaves in autunm.
The black patches are good objects, in situ, viewed opaque with
the i-inch objective. The spores are borne on a transparent pedi-
cel in tufts. Each spore has three or four divisions, and the
surface is rough with projections.* Amongst other fungi may be
mentioned strawberry, raspberry, rose, and great burnet Brand ;
nettle, buttercups, white-spotted gooseberry, coltsfoot, bedstraw,
violet, berberry, goatsbeard, buckthorn, daisy, and dock Cluster-
cups ; with those from other plants, all similar in their general
character.

Wheat Bunt {Tilletia caries) fills the whole interior of the
grain of wheat with a foetid olive powder, which, viewed with the
-J-inch objective, is found to consist of globose, reticulated spores,
mixed with branched threads. Rye Smut, on leaves and sheaths
of rye, consisting of many-celled spores ; interesting as the type of
the so-called " Cholera fungus." Wheat-Rust is the " Red rust " of
farmers, and is but too common on the green leaves of growing
corn. . -, >

* Some of these Brands are shown on Plate XIII. 'I'Xv' .-^-^rr**>

H , <?^^'^^ ^
VOL. IV. , *^ /^ -C>0^fe

^*^ 'libra

98 THE MICROSCOPE

Star-spotted fungus {Asterosporiiun Hofimanni). — The beautiful
stellate spores of this fungus ooze out in a black mass from orifices
in the bark of the beech, forming sooty patches. They have three
or four separate rays, and may be mounted in Glycerine, or Canada
Balsam and Benzole. Grape-fungus, found in damp weather
oozing from bark of the beech in a black gelatinous mass, some-
thing Hke printer's ink. Cabbage Mould {Macrosporiuni chei-
ranthi)^ on decaying leaves of field beet, and those of some other
plants. Common Plant-Mould, found on almost all damp, decay-
ing vegetable matter. Potato-Mould appears on the stems and
leaves of the potato in the form of delicate branched threads.

The mycologist is advised to make drawings of all fungi, or at
least of the principal forms which come under his notice. Those
species of fungi which are parasitic on the leaves of phanerogam-
ous plants must be treated in a different way. The leaf itself, not
giving sufficient support to the cutting instrument, must be laid
between two pieces of cork — a common wine-cork, divided longi-
tudinally, answers perfectly well. Then, by cutting clean through
the cork and leaf, sections of the required thinness may be obtained
without difficulty. To keep the two pieces of cork from shifting
during the operation, they may be thrust through a metal ring of
suitable size, or a piece of gummed paper may be affixed round
them ; a still simpler plan is to tie them together with strong
thread or thin string. The section can be placed at once on a
slide with a fine-hair pencil. The following re-agents may be used
with advantage in the examination of the spores : sugar, sulphuric
acid (H2 SO4), iodine, and caustic potash in solution (see Dr.
Beale, "How to Work with the Microscope").*

Examination and Preservation of Fungi. — The examination
of Fungi scarcely requires any special remarks. They should be
viewed, first, as opaque objects under a low power, and then
sections should be made, or the textures separated with mounted
needles. There is some difficulty in moistening the filamentous

* Always apply water by capillary attraction when examining Fungi, as,
from some unknown cause, the "pedicels" no sooner come in contact with
water than they "lose their heads." The fruit drops oft", and the observer
misses the chance of ascertaining the way in which the pedicel and acrospore
were united.

AND HOW TO USE IT. 99

Fungi with water, which is requisite in the determination
of the arrangement of the spores upon the branches. Hence we
find the best plan is to lay the Fungus upon a slide, apply a cover,
then add a drop of spirits of wine {sp. Vin. red.), and afterwards
a little water to the edge of the cover. When thus wetted, the
spores may be more or less removed with a wet hair-pencil, when
the ends of the branches will become perfectly distinct. In exa-
mination of the dried smaller Fungi, as the Sphcerice^ the capsules
should be macerated for a time in water. The softer Fungi are
very difficult of preservation in the entire state ; but the sections
or minute structures may be mounted in chloride of calcium or
glycerine. The harder and drier Fungi may be preserved by dry-
ing and gentle pressure between coarse, absorbent paper. They
may then be glued to pieces of paper and labelled, in the same
manner as the flowering plants. Specimens of the capsules — as of
the Sp/icericE, etc. — may also be mounted in the dry state, the asci
being preserved in the chloride of calcium or glycerine, in which
liquids most of the smaller Fungi will keep extremely well.

Higher orders of the Vegetable kingdom. — A few choice spe-
cimens only are described. The spiral vessels of plants can,
in many instances, be obtained by boiling the stem of the plant
for some time in water. Those of rhubarb are very large, and
may be selected for examination. The spiral vessels in leaves
may be beautifully shown by allowing some coloured fluid to enter
them. If the stalk be placed in the fluid, and evaporation from
the surface of the leaf be encouraged by exposure in a warm
place, the fluid will enter the vessels. If the carmine fluid (see
Part III.) be used, the germinal matter of the cells near the
vessels is stained at the same time that the tubes are injected.
Thin sections of soft vegetable tissues in any direction may be
very easily obtained with a very sharp knife. The method of
cutting thin wood sections is as follows : — Various woods and
other vegetable textures of a certain degree of firmness may be
cut with the aid of the hand-microtome. A piece of wood, after
having been allowed to soak for some time in water, is placed in
the well, and kept in position by the side-screw. Upon turning
the lower screw, the wood is forced above the brass plate. A
clean section may now be made with a strong, sharp knife or

100 THE MICROSCOPE

razor. By thus turning the screw beneath very slightly, sections
of any degree of thickness can be obtained.

The cellular tissues of plants (certain leaves, flowers, and
fruits) are softened, and at length destroyed by weak nitric or
hydrochloric acid (i part acid to from 20 to 50 of water), while
the fibrous and vascular textures remain behind, constituting the
skeleton of the leaf, flower, calyx, or fruit. Almost all vegetable
tissues are more easily investigated when they have been preserved
for some time in viscid media, which are admixable in all propor-
tions with water. Leaves and stems, when well saturated with
syrup or glycerine, are easily dissected into their component
tissues. They must first be placed in very dilute solutions, which
may be concentrated by very gradual evaporation, or the strength
of the solution may be increased by the addition of small quanti-
ties of strong syrup or glycerine from day to day. The beginner
is advised to examine various specimens of jams and preserved
fruits, as they, having been long soaked in syrup, have become
exceedingly transparent, and are admirably fitted for microscopic
demonstration. The spiral vessels, woody and cellular tissues, can
be obtained without any trouble, and the minute structure of the
different vegetable tissues may be most clearly demonstrated.

Pollen Grains are among the most interesting objects. They
can easily be obtained by shaking the anther of any fully-expanded
flower upon a glass slide, and may be mounted dry in aqueous
fluids, or in Canada Balsam and Benzole. The external markings
of seeds of plants are deserving of attentive examination. They
may be examined as dry objects without any preparation whatever,
by reflected light.

Seaweeds, to be preserved permanently, should be allowed to
soak for some time in pure water. Small pieces may then be
removed and transferred to glycerine.

Some of the most beautiful vegetable sections which we have
seen have been mounted in glycerine. The mixture of gelatine
and glycerine, or gum and glycerine, will also be found good media
for mounting many vegetable structures ; chloride of calcium
forms a useful preservative fluid in many instances. Creosote

AND HOW TO USE IT. 101

fluid, carbolic acid water, very dilute spirit and water, and even
distilled water, will preserve some vegetable tissues for a great
length of time. The pith from the stem of various plants, the
epidermis, and many other vegetable tissues may be preserved as
dry objects very satisfactorily.

Preparation of Vegetable Sections. — Not only do we find, as
a rule, that the texture of many vegetables is of too great density
to be readily cut in the natural condition, but they also contain
much resinous and other matter, of which it is highly desirable to
get rid. Let us take a stem or root, and first cut it into short
lengths, which are to be placed in water for three or four days, by
which time all the soluble, gummy matters will have disappeared.
The pieces are now transferred to a v/ide-necked bottle, containing
methylated spirit, which, in the course of a few days, will dissolve
out all the resin, etc. Many kinds of woody tissues are by these
processes reduced to a fit condition for immediate cutting. Others,
however, are so hard as to render it necessary to give them ano-
ther soaking for some hours in water, to bring them to a sufficient
degree of softness to cut easily. If the wood (as will happen
sometimes) be still too hard for cutting sections, a short immer-
sion in warm, or, if necessary, boiling water, will not fail effect-
ually to soften it.

Unprepared Vegetable Tissues. — Special directions are given
in text-books on the subject. For instance, it is recommen-
ded to lay the leaf, etc., on a piece of fine cork, and with a
sharp knife to shave oft' thin slices, cutting down upon the cork,
etc. No method, however, is at once so simple and successful as
the process of imbedding in paraffin. To do this, it is necessary
to make a paper mould, by twisting a strip of stout writing-paper
round a thin ruler, and turning in the paper over the end of the
ruler. This mould, the height of which may vary from an inch to
an inch and a-half, should now be half filled with melted paraffin-
mixture, which is made by mixing paraffin with one-fifth its weight
of common, unsalted lard, a gentle heat applied, and the two sub-
stances thoroughly stirred together; the leaf or other object
plunged into it, and held in position by forceps till the paraffin has
become sufticiently solidified to yield it a support. Take care that

102 THE MICROSCOPE

the mixture is not too hot when the stem is first dipped in ; it is
best to dip the stem in and withdraw it again for a minute, and
then finally plunge in and proceed as above. More of the paraf-
fin mixture is now poured in, until the specimen is thoroughly
imbedded. The whole is to be put away in a cold place for an
hour or so, when the mass will be firm enough to be cut with ease.
Sections may be made with a razor, kept constantly wetted with
water; or, if the preservation of colour be no object, methylated
spirit may be employed for the purpose.

Embedding Agents. — Insects enclosed in chitinoiis cases may,
according to Hyatt, -^ be advantageously embedded in shellac. For
this purpose, the insect is to be placed in alcohol, and allowed to
remain there until it is thoroughly permeated by the spirit. It
must then be removed to a clear alcoholic solution of shellac, in
which it may remain for a day or two. A cylinder of soft wood is
now to be so prepared that it will fit accurately into the tube of
the microtome. This cylinder is now to be split longitudinally
down the middle, and a groove cut into one or both half-cyfinders
sufiiciently large to admit the object without pressure. The two
halves, with the object enclosed between them, are now to be
fastened together with thick shellac varnish, and a thread passed
around them to keep them in position. In a day or two the
shellac will become quite hard. The cylinder is then to be soaked
in warm water to soften the wood, then placed in the microtome,
when thin sections may readily be obtained from it. If the sec-
tions should be rendered so opaque by the presence of the shellac
as to interfere with their satisfactory examination, the addition
of a few drops of solution of borax will soon render them trans-
parent.

Bleaching Vegetable Sections. — The agents most commonly
used for bleaching are : — (i) Alcohol ; (2) Solution of Chloride of
Lime ; (3) Labarraque's Solution of Chlorinated Soda, made by
decomposing Lime Chloride by the action of Sodium Carbonate.
There are, in certain cases, objections to these methods, and we
much prefer the plan recommended by Dr. Marsh, which is as

* " American Monthly Microscopical Journal," 1880.

AND HOW TO USE IT.

103

follows : — Apparatus required — (i) Two small, wide-necked bottles
(those in which chemists sell one ounce of Citrate of Iron and Quinine
are very suitable) ; (2) perfectly sound corks, accurately fitting the
bottles ; (3) 6 or 8 inches of narrow glass tubing ; (4) some shellac
varnish. By means of a cork-borer or a rat-tail file, a hole is to be
made through the centre of each cork, just large enough to grasp
tightly the glass tubing. With the aid of a spirit-lamp, the tube is
to be bent at right angles at each end, as shown in Fig. 2. The

Fig. 2.

C

I

^^<u

two arms are not to be of equal length ; one should be about
I inch and the other about 2\ inches. These arms must now be
passed through the holes in the corks themselves, then made air-
tight by a liberal application of the shellac varnish. A notch
having been cut in the edge of the cork carrying the longest arm
of the glass tube, the apparatus shown in the figure is complete.
To use it, proceed as follows : — About three parts fill bottle A
with filtered ram-wafer, and to this transfer the sections to be
bleached. Into bottle B put a sufficient quantity of crystals of
chlorate of potash just to cover the bottom, and pour upon them
one drachm or so of strong Hydrochloric Acid. Fit in the corks,
taking care that the one carrying the long arm of the glass tube be
applied to the bottle containing the sections. Immediately, the
yellow vapour of chlorine (or, strictly speaking, of euchlorine) will
be observed to fill the bottle B, whence it will pass along the con-
necting tube into the water contained in A, and effectually and
safely bleach the sections. When the water becomes super-satu-

104 THE MICROSCOPE AND HOW TO USE IT.

rated, the excess of chlorine will accumulate in the bottle above
the hquid, and find an exit through the notch in the cork. As to
the time required for bleaching, this will vary in accordance with
the nature of the sections operated upon. As a rule, if the
apparatus be set to work at night, putting it out of doors in a
covered place to avoid the smell of escaping chlorine, the bleaching
will generally be found to be complete in the morning ; if not,
further time may be allowed without any danger to the sections
being incurred.

Washing the Sections. — Decolouration having been effected,
nothing now remains but thoroughly to wash the sections, for it is
necessary to eliminate all trace of chlorine before employing any
staining agent. The usual method is to put the sections into a large
basinful of water, and to repeatedly change the water. Dr. Marsh's
way is much the best — i.e.^ continuous washing. Asmall, wide-necked
bottle (C), similar to those already described, must be procured.
Into the side of this, half-an-inch or so below the bottom of the cork,
a small hole, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, must be drilled
(any tinman will do this for a few pence). A well-fitting cork being
provided, this must be pierced through the centre, so as to allow
the stem of a small funnel to pass through it. By means of
small India-rubber tubing (feeding bottle-tube), the funnel-stem is
to be prolonged till it reaches the bottom of the bottle on the
side "which is opposite to that side containi?tg the perforation.
All being ready, half fill the bottle with filtered water and put the
bleached sections into it. Fit in the cork carrying the funnel, and
place a disc of filtering paper into the funnel ; put this beneath the
water-tap, and allow a gentle stream to trickle into it. The water
will pass to the bottom of the bottle, gradually ascend, and then
pass out at the hole in the side, by which means a constant change
of water and a continuous washing system is established. Do
this at night. Set the tap running when you go to bed, and the
washing will be effectually accomplished by the time you get up
in the morning.

* This process was described in No. 43 of the " QuekeLt Journal,"
p. 54, &c.

[105]

Iponb OLifc.*

Lectures delivered to the Albany Naturalists' Club, Edinburgh,

By William Evans Hoyle, M.A. (Oxon),
F.R.S.E., M.R.C.S.,

Naturalist to the " Challenger " Expedition Commission.

First Lecture, Nov., 1884.

Plate XIL

IT is not necessary for me to commence this Lecture by
defining a pond. The definition of a lake, which you can
find in any of the geography-books, will do as well if you add
the words " a little smaller." It is possible that many of you may
have thought that a pond was here, there, and anywhere, because
it happened to be placed there when the world was made. But if
you look at any of the ponds that you know, you will see that
there are certain conditions which are essential to there being a
pond in any particular place. You will find that there is water
falling, as rain, upon all the country round about, and as this
water falls upon the hills, it runs down their sides into the valleys,
where it forms streams : and then you can easily imagine that
there will be certain places where, owing to the valley being partly
filled up, the water will collect ; and this is the manner in which
every lake and every pond is formed. If you will remember the
Braid Hill pond, there are hills all round it, and from these hills
little streamlets trickle down into the pond. But even on the low
part where the road runs, the road is higher than the pond, and
so it keeps the water in. There is only one small channel where
the water runs out and finds its way down into the valley.

The surrounding hills, too, determine the nature of the bottom
of the pond, which consists simply of small fragments which
have been washed down from them, so that it contains the

* The reader is requested to look upon this Lecture not as a contribution
to knowledge, but merely as an attempt to describe a few natural phenomena
in language as simple and free from technicality as possible. The fact that it
was delivered as a lecture, and is now printed from the reporter's notes, must
excuse the many deficiencies in literary style.

106 POND LIFE.

substances which are most easily washed away from the hills.
If these be of red sandstone, you may expect to find a red sandy
bottom to the pond ; if the hills be of blue or of grey clay, the
bottom of the pond will consist of a similar clayey mud.

Now we may attack the question, how did life get into ponds ?
There must have been a time when there was a pond without
anything living in it. It is not my intention to tell you how living
things came to be in the first instance ; that is a question upon
which we can only speculate. We have no knowledge about it.
But we may assume that there is plenty of life in the world, and
that there is a pond left to itself, and we can try to ascertain how
it would become stocked with living animals and plants. In the
first instance, the air is not pure, even in the country, but is full of
dust of all kinds, amongst which a very careful examination
reveals living organisms. Many different kinds of these germs are
to be found in the atmosphere, so that the very fact of rain falling
through the atmosphere into a pond, will bring living things
into it. But these are exceedingly small, and if our pond
depended simply upon them we should not have any of the higher
forms of life in it. ^ ou will have noticed that many plants have
exceedingly small seeds, so small indeed that they can be carried
about by the wind ; some of these might reach the pond. Again,
many seeds are eaten by birds, and thus carried away and dropped
in various places, and often in ponds or on their banks. Animals,
too, can be carried in a similar manner. There are instances of
birds caught at sea, far from land, which, when examined, have
been found to have small snails, frog-spawn, and other similar
matters sticking to their legs. So that it is easy to see how by
these means many animals could be transferred from one pond to
another. These facts are interesting, not principally as regards our
pond, but most especially when we come to consider similar
questions in relation to islands which are situated far out in the
ocean, and to find out how they have been stocked with plants
and animals.

The fact of plants and animals living in the water has
a great influence upon their structure, and modifies them in
many ways, so that those which live in the water are, in general,
fitted to live nowhere else. Not many animals, and still fewer
plants, can live both on land and in water.

POND LIFE. 107

However, I have occupied enough time in speaking of ponds
in general, and so will now proceed to the immediate subject —
the living creatures which are found in them ; and I will venture
for one moment to dwell on the question, what do we mean by
living creatures ? I do not intend to give a learned disquisition
on life, but there are certain points in which you can easily see
that a living thing differs from a not-living thing, and it is just as
well that these should be very briefly put before you, so that
you may have clear ideas regarding living animals, and their
relations to other things about them. In the first instance, most
of you know that living things move ; that is the ordinary test of
life. We instinctively poke the body of an animal we have found
to see whether it move or no, and if it do not, we say " It is
dead." Of course there are instances in which this test will fail.
You do not expect to see an egg or a seed move, yet an egg is
alive, and so is a seed. Again, there is another point in which all
living things agree, and in which they differ from not-living things;
they take in substances which are about them, and convert them
into a part of themselves^ or, in one word, they feed. Now, no
living thing can exist for more than a very limited time without
food, and every living thing feeds at some period of its life. So
that what we do when we eat our dinner is precisely analogous
to what the plant does when by its roots it sucks up nourishment
from the earth, or takes it in from the atmosphere by means of its
leaves.

Then a third, and perhaps the most characteristic of all the
points of difference is that living things have somehow or other
the power to bring about a reproduction of themselves ; that is to
say that each plant produces seeds, or spores, or something of
that kind, which give rise to a new plant exactly resembling the
old one ; and each animal lays eggs, or something of that kind,
and has young which grow up exactly to resemble their parents.
So that each living being has the power by some means or other
of reproducing a being similar to itself. Living things therefore
inove^ feed, and reproduce themselves, and in these three points
they differ most clearly and most definitely from any not-living
thing.

I shall come now to speak more especially about the plants

108 POND LIFE,

which we find in our fresh-water ponds. First, however, I wish
you to bear in mind that plants and animals are really parts of one
great whole, and that the inanimate world is to be put on one
side, and the living or animate world on the other. You are not
to go away with the old nursery division of the whole universe
into animal, vegetable, and mineral, because that is unscientific.
The division is not into three, it is only into two; the aimiiate and
the iiianimate. Plants and animals are very closely related, they
are distant cousins. So that if you had the first living thing, you
would find it had reproduced itself, and these reproductions
diverged into a family tree with two branches, the one of which
became plants and the other animals. The truth of this is very
easily seen when we come to study the lower forms of animal and
vegetable life. Of course, it is very easy to separate the higher
forms from each other, but when we come down to where the two
branches begin to diverge, we shall find that we cannot tell
whether a given form is a plant or an animal. In other words,
we get a group of forms that are equally related to animals and
plants, and it is very much more reasonable to regard them as all
belonging to one big family, rather than to separate them into two
families, and they thus form a group which has been called
Protista, from the Greek, meaning " the most primitive creatures."
One of these is a creature which is sometimes found in the
fresh-water pools ; it is known as Protamceba (Plate XII.,
Figs. 25, 26). It consists simply of a lump of protoplasm (the
name given to living matter). If we examine this Protamceba
with the microscope, we shall find that it is a pulpy, almost
colourless, shapeless substance.

Now, how do we know that this creature is alive ? We apply
our three tests to it. First of all, does it move ? You watch it
and it appears to be quite still, but if you make a drawing of it
and look at it again in a few minutes, and make another drawing,
you will find it is not the same shape as it was before. It shrinks
a little at one side and expands at the other, so that it is contin-
ually pushing itself out in certain directions, and so moves along.
Secondly, does it feed ? There are in the water in the ponds
numbers of very small plants (Diatoms), of which I shall have
more to say by-and-by. The Protamceba puts out these feelers

POND LIFE. 109

until they quite enclose the unfortunate Diatom, and presently it
has in a very literal sense surrounded its dinner. Now as to the
third question, does this little creature produce beings similar to
itself? At times there forms a groove all round it, and by-and-by
it becomes completely split across, and we have two creatures
where there was only one before (Fig. 25). But that is not the
only way in which this takes place. Our Protamceha draws itself
up into a kind of globule, and then shrinks together, forming on
the outside a knob, the protoplasm inside of which divides into a
large number of portions, and each of these forms a fresh creature.
So that in these two ways creatures are formed like the original.
The Protamceha^ therefore, fulfils the three distinctions between
living and not-living substances. Now, is it an animal or a plant?
It is very difficult to say ; this species has always been placed in
text-books of Zoology rather than of Botany, but it seems, on the
whole, advisable to regard it as one of a group intermediate
between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It is, in fact, a
representative of the very simplest form that a hving being can
exhibit. Much more common, however, is a creature which makes
a step in advance upon Protamceha, inasmuch as the central part of
its body seems to be drawn together into a more solid mass than
the rest, called a " nucleus." This is the Amceha^ and when it
is about to split into two, and thus reproduce itself, the nucleus
divides before the rest of the body.

Now, there is a curious plant which is a step in advance of the
Amccha, sometimes found in the water and in damp places. It
forms a kind of jelly, and on examination with the microscope,
is seen to consist of a number of little cells, arranged in strings,
twisted and curled about in a serpentine manner (PI. XII., Fig. 24).
This is just one step in advance of the form we have been
considering, for that consisted of only one cell, but here a
number of cells are produced. Originally, however, it consisted of
one cell only, which split up and became two, and these in their
turn formed new ones, and so on.

Another very curious plant is the Spirogyra (PI. XII., Figs.
19 — 23), which occurs very abundantly in the green scum on the
surface of ponds, and consists of a long string, divided into cells by
a number of partitions ; it is crossed by green colouring matter which

110 POND LIFE.

is spirally arranged. In each of the cells is a nucleus, and certain
fibres or strings, which are the protoplasm — the living matter of the
cell — so that it consists of four parts. First, the nucleus (a)^ in the
centre of it ; secondly, the living protoplasm (b), round the
nucleus ; third, the green colouring matter, which is the same as
the green matter of leaves {c); and fourthly, the husk (d), or " cell-
wall," which is formed or excreted by the protoplasm. It grows
in the following manner : — First of all the nucleus divides, just as
in the case of the Amceba. The protoplasm which forms the
substance inside the cell also divides, and while this is going on
the wall gradually begins to draw in, until at last it forms a division
quite across, so that where there was only one cell before, there
are now two, which soon attain the same size as the original.

But more than this may be observed in this plant. Most
commonly in the autumn, and at night, where these thread-like
plants form a thick mat, two cells, side by side, will put out
certain processes, which presently come into contact, and form a
tube connecting the tw^o cells (Fig. 19). All the substance from
one cell collects into a ball, and passes over into the other
(Fig. 20). After this it forms an outer coating, like the AvicEba^
and remains thus throughout the winter (Fig. 23.) In the spring it
buds out again, to form a new filament like the parent (Figs. 21, 22),
so that this plant has the power of doing two different actions.
First, by the process of " cell-division," it grows, that is to say,
producing a larger plant ; and, in the second place, by means of
two elements which unite together, it forms an entirely new plant.
By the one process the plant is enlarged, and by the other a
new one is produced.

There is another interesting plant which may be found pretty
commonly in ponds about Edinburgh, and is called Volvox
globator (PI. XII., Fig. 11). It is always turning and twisting itself
about when alive, by means of a number of hair-like threads,
projecting from it on all sides. It is really a colony; that is,
each of the little green bodies which bear the hairs is a cell,
and the whole round body a mass of cells. Inside it you may
notice a small yellow globe, covered with wart-like projections
resembling a raspberry. Each wart afterwards becomes separated,
and then has two fine hairs. In the colony there are also other

POND LIFE. Ill

plain, round, green globules, and after a time the yellov/
bodies have become scattered, and the little things inside it go
swimming about by the aid of their long tails, like tadpoles.
They collect round the green globules, into which some of
them penetrate ; then a kind of husk grows round the globule,
which rests for a time and afterwards divides into a number of
smaller spores, each of which is competent to reproduce a
colony just like the original one. So that here again we have
small plants budding off from each other, and also the union
of two parts to produce a spore which gives rise to a new plant
exactly like the parent.

But these are not the only plants in our ponds. There are a
number called Diatoms (Fig. i — lo), because they consist of
two equal parts ; in fact, they are constructed very like a pill-box,
one of these parts being a little larger than the other. In
many cases the walls are very beautifully sculptured, the pattern
varying so much that several thousand species have been
described, which can be distinguished by their different markings.
Now, these creatures have a habit of expanding, very much as a
pill-box would do if you lifted the lid partly off it, and when the
depth of the box had been about doubled, a division takes place,
and the two halves separate and form two Diatoms, where there
was only one before (Figs. 9, 10). Of course, the one just formed is
not quite so large as the original. But this process goes on again
and again, until a very small one indeed is formed ; two of these
meet together and split into halves, their contained protoplasm
escaping and fusing into a single mass (Figs. 2 — 6) with a husk
about it, and remains still for a time, and then grows to the same
size as the original Diatom, thus constituting what is called an
" increasing spore " {auxospore) (Fig. 6), and furnishing a means
for restoring the plant to the same size as the parent of the
family (Figs. 7 — 10),

There is one other family of these low plants, which we call
Desmidiacece (Figs. 13 — 15), and which are found in enormous num-
bers in our ponds. The Desmid, like the Diatom, is divided into
similar halves. When reproduction is to take place, the two halves
separate a little from each other, and each one bulges out in the
centre (Fig. 13). Then a partition divides the bulged part into

112 POND LIFE.

two prominences, which grow gradually larger, until finally
each becomes as large as the original half of the cell (Fig. 13);
so that instead of one creature there are two. But these plants
can reproduce their kind in another way. Two of them, each
consisting of two similar halves open a little and a very thin
portion of the internal green matter projects out (Figs. 16, 17).
These two projections gradually meet, and form a peculiar round
mass in the centre ; and around it may be seen the four halves of
the two original Desmids, each of which shows a hole out of
which all the contents of the cell has come (Fig. 18). This
round, green globule, with its protecting husk, now remains for
some time, after which it starts afresh and produces a new plant
like the parent. So that we have here also two means of repro-
duction : one of them by dividing across in the middle line, and
the other by two individuals joining together, and producing a
kind of spore.

Now, there is just one more instance that I should like to bring
before you, and that is a plant which goes by the name of (Edo-
gonhmi (Fig. 12). It grows generally upon some other plant, and
it will be seen that it consists of small cells, one of which forms a
kind of root, and the others form the stem; there are no branches,
but there is a long hair at the top. When the plant grows a
little, a large round Cell forms here and there in it. To
this becomes attached a minute cell, shaped like an urn, having a
curious lid upon it ; by-and-by the lid comes off, the
contained substance passes through a hole formed on the top of
the large round cell. The protoplasm of the two cells mixes
together, and forms a kind of spore inside the large cell which
remains for a while, and then gives rise to a new plant or plants,
going through the same process. So that here the same
process which we have seen before, takes place, but in a modified
fashion. Instead of two individuals uniting to produce a spore,
we have a large round cell, and a small urn-shaped one, and the
result is a plant just like the original. These are some of the
most interesting of the lower plants found in ponds, and I have
brought them under your notice, not simply because they are
interesting and curious in themselves, but because they illustrate
general laws which run through the whole animal and vegetable

Journal of Microscopy, Vol. 4,P1. 12

J)

55

POND LIFE, 113

kingdoms ; because they enable us to see what are the characters
which distinguish living things from not-living things, and because
they show us, in simple organisms, laws which will be found
carried out in a more complete fashion in the higher groups of
plants and animals.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Figs. 1 — 10. — Reproduction of a Diatom (Cocconeis pediculus, Kg.),
after Carter. Two small diatoms, one less than the
other (Fig. 1) become united by a mucous-like excre-
tion, and the valves open (Fig. 2) ; the contents fuse
(Fig. 3) ; become spherical (Fig. 4), and afterwards
elliptical in shape (Figs. 5 and 6) ; a line then appears,
dividing the spore into two halves (Fig. 8), which com-
pletely separate (Fig. 7) ; and in their complete condi-
tion are seen in Figs. 9 and 10.

11. — Volvox glohator, after Nave.

12. — (Edogonium ciliatum, after Pringsheim. The stem consists
of four cells, above which are two large, oval, spore-forming
cells. Attached to these are the small, urn-shaped cells, in
which the small, moving, fertilising spores are formed.

13 — 15. — Reproduction of a Desmid (Cosmarium hotrytes), by
division, after De Bary. The two halves of the cell (Fig.
14j commence to separate a little, and a division (Fig. 13)
runs across the intermediate part, which gradually enlarges
until two cells, each as large as the original one, are formed
(Fig. 15).

16 — 18. — Conjugation of the same Desmid, after De Bary. Two
cells, each like Fig. 16, lie together in a mass of jelly, and
its contents protrude (Fig. 17). The contents of the two
cells mix together, and form a round spore with a gelatinous
wall, beside which lie the four empty halves of the two ori-
ginal cells (Fig. 18). The round cell eventually forms in its
interior two bodies like the original Cosmarium (Fig. 14).

,, 19 — 23. — Conjugation of Spirogyra longata, from Sachs.

A small prominence protrudes from each of two cells lying
near each other (Fig. 19). These unite and form a commu-
nication between the two cells, through which the contents
of one cell passes into and mixes with the contents of the
other (Fig. 20). The result is the formation of a spore
(Fig. 23), which germinates into a new plant (Figs. 22, 21).

,, 24. — Nostoc, sp.

Showing the strings of cells lying in a jelly-like mass.

,, 25 — 26. — Protamceha Scliidzeana, after Hseckel.

Fig. 25. — The Amcaha, undergoing division ; Fig. 26. — One
of the young Amcehce formed by the process.

VOL. IV. I

))

5)

[114]

1balf^an='1bour at tbe fliMcroecope

mitb /IDr* UutCen Mest, jf.X.S., if.lR./llb.S., ^c.

Crystals of Strychnine.— This slide is not interesting. Lists
of excellent objects for the polariscope are to be found in all
good text-books on the microscope. It is well that all who work
with this instrument should have a good knowledge of them, and
have in their cabinets a good illustrative series, but they are nof
desirable subjects for our boxes. They reduce to child's play
what should be considered as valuable opportunities for mutually
imparting and gaining knowledge. Writing as I am now doing,
far from home, books, and specimens, I would not be positive, but
my belief is that there is nothing specially distinctive in these
needle-shaped crystals, and, therefore, no knowledge whatever is
to be gained from the inspection of this slide.

Crystals of Oxalic Acid.— I am quite sure of the correctness
of my proposition in this case, which, for anything that here
appears, might just as well be crystals of any other salt, so many,
when rapidly crystallised from weak solutions, form just such as
we see here, and which have nothing whatever of the forms
whereby crystals of oxalic acid, or salts isomeric with it, may be
recognised when present. Our readers may remember some
interesting descriptions, with figures by Lewis G. Mills, LL.B., of
Armagh, of crystals found by him in the fang of a spider and in
the sting of a wasp. The accounts of these appeared in parts of
Science Gossip of a few years ago, and I have myself remarked in
these "Notes" on similar crystals present on a slide of " Sting of
Scorpion."* These, though probably not exactly oxalic acid, were
" isomeric " — that is, identical in form with the typical crystals of
that salt, and, as I have already pointed out, illustrate well the
application of the polariscope as an adjunct, at times of much
importance in scientific investigation.

Crystals of Sulphate of Cadmium.— The quadrifid, petraloid
character of the crystals is, so far as I know, unique, and may,
therefore, be considered to have a claim to admission into our
boxes.

Batrachospermum moniliforme is a very remarkable form of
alga, and might be compared to such fungi as Peiiicillium or
Oidium^ borne in dense whorls ; both stems and branches ex-

* See this Journal, Vol. III., pages 113, 251 ; also, on Fang of Viper,
with plate, Vol. III., PI. 28.

HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE. 115

tremely slender and transparent, the latter short, closely borne,
and either alternate or opposite. I should have liked to have seen
fruit on the specimen. The interest of this slide is increased
through its having also some good illustrations of such Diatoma-
ceae as grow along with it, in small boggy streams. Amongst
them may be noted Himantidium pectinali, AfelosU'ci variaiis^
Meridion circiilare^ and Syncdra radians. I suppose the specimen
to be mounted in one of the camphor solutions, which really
seems to me to be disposed rather than otherwise to favour the
growth of that tiresome fungous mycelium, which is such a plague
to some of our best slides. I should be disposed to try if a weak,
spirituous solution of corrosive sublimate could not be introduced
at one edge of the covering glass^ so as to stop the inroads of the
pest, and so save a valuable mounting.

Aregma bulbosum (PL XIII., Figs, i — 8). — This fungus (in a
way not yet sufficiently understood) gains access to the interior of
the plant appointed for its "host." At the seat of development (the
leaves) a cushion of mycelial filaments is formed; numerous
branches appear, the tips of which swell, become constricted, and
the separated portions are cast off as " protospores," capable of an
independent vegetative existence. These protospores have their
analogues in the " bulbilli " of mosses, jungermaniae, ferns, and
the " gonidia " of lichens, as also in the " bulbs " of the tiger-lily,
and a few other of the higher plants. They differ from true
" spores " and seeds in not being products of generation, but
simply portions of tissue specialised to a sufficient degree to be
capable of independent life. By rapid internal growth of the
fungus, the epidermis of the leaf is raised in blisters, and bursts.
The earlier condition adverted to receives in the bramble the
name of Lecythea rubornm. After this, more branches, swollen at
their tips, are formed. The contents become increasedly granular,
and mapped out more and more distinctly into four portions, the
" endochromes," in each of which appears a clear vacuole, the
" nucleus." The subsequent changes consist in increased differen-
tiation of structure, the formation of a horny, brown outer coat
around the cell-contents, but within the original cell- wall — i.e.^ the
branch. The distinct appearance of "pearly beads" form corru-
gations on the outer cell-wall. It is hoped that by the aid of the
figures on Plate XIIL, these various processes will be understood.

The plan of duplex mounting adopted by some of our mem-
bers is worthy of high commendation. In the Plate, figures of
related forms have been added, to tempt members whose attention
has not yet been turned to these beautiful and interesting objects
to collect and study them.

116 HALF-AN-HOUR

Willow Branch, transverse section. — I simply remark on this
section that Raphides in great quantities will be found in the bark
of Willow as Crystal prisms and Sphaeraphides, also Crystal-
dust. Query — Are not these larger Crystals in course of forma-
tion ?

Sclerogen from Pear. — I recommend the following plan for
preparing this object : — Cut sections and dry between slips of
glass tied together ; then mount as you would a section of bone,
of plum- or cherry-stone, of cocoa-nut shell, or of vegetable ivory,
in hard balsam. This will just make the object sufficiently trans-
parent for comfortable examination, but will not obscure the cana-
liculi by running into them. The result will be found very striking
and satisfactory.

Palate of Helix aspersa, and

Palate of Periwinkle (Littoria littorina) form a choice pair
that will be best considered together, forming, as they do, so
striking and interesting a contrast. The one (comparatively) so
short and many-toothed ; the other is very long, and having, in
comparison, so few teeth. Better types could not have been
selected. And they have the further advantage, that both the
animals whence they are taken are readily to be procured by other
members for their own study and comparison. For whatever may
be said to the contrary, it is the fact that the common objects
wherewith we are surrounded are those whose structure it is most
important we should be conversant with, as they are those which
are almost invariably selected for typical illustration by the
Masters in Science.

Palates should be mounted in cells, and not pressed flat. In
the mouth of the snail two muscles will be seen : one of these
draws the tongue up, the other is employed in drawing it down.
The forward part is drawn alternately up and down, the leaf being
held firmly by a large, strong tooth, represented by the labrum in
insects. The forward portion of the dentigerous cartilage rasps
off pieces of the leaf, which are then swallowed. It is very
interesting to notice the surprising rapidity with which this is
effected. The tongue is somewhat spatula-shaped, both in front
and behind;, the intermediate and larger portion in length being
much bent down at the sides. The hinder expansion represents
the lower portion of the walls of the pharynx. See Plate XIII.

In the Periwinkle things are very different. Here the front
(acting) teeth are seated in a narrow band along the centre of a
delicate, elongated cartilage, the remainder extending, in coil upon
coil, some distance behind the front of the head.

AT THE MICROSCOPE. 117

In the Whelk the lingual band is short, but very strong, and
the fore-part closely doubled down to fit it for its own work of an
auger.

These remarks are made to point out that it is necessary, in
the study of these mollusc's tongues, to closely investigate arrange-
ments connected with the actions of the parts during life, as well
as the number, form, and arrangement of the teeth, in which a
most inviting field, scarcely touched upon, lies open.

Bed-Bug, Cimex lectuarius, $ . — This insect, though not a
typical Heteropteron, is still, in most respects, a good example of
the important Natural order to which it belongs. The peculiar
arcuate hairs, serrate on the outer margin of the curve, with three
points at the tip, are well shown. In a consideration of the
structure of insect hairs they possess considerable value. As
special points of interest in this object may be mentioned the
various parts of the mouth and some deHcate organs of taste,
resembling the " barb-shaped appendages " to Lepidopterous
tongues. There are appendages of a very curious nature at the
wrist-joints, which are particularly deserving of attention. Their
presence or absence and exact structure denote powers of climb-
ing over smooth surfaces ; in some instances, the sexes are thus
defined, and they furnish recondite characters, easily read by
aid of the microscope, whose value will become increasingly
apparent as that instrument comes more and more to be applied
in a sensible way in the progress of research.

Tortoise-Tick (PI. XIV.). — From drawings made when
this was given to me, I have copied the accompanying figures
as well as the remarks attached to the original drawings,
I wish to point out the necessity of studying and recording
minute details accurately ; the value of this habit will become
more evident with every accession of knowledge. For 22
years this drawing slept in my portfolio. But the mind had been
prepared for the reception of further facts bearing on the subject,
and my satisfaction was great when, some seven or eight years ago,
the opportunity occurred for examining living specimens. None
of the feet in this mounted specimen were perfectly shown, but
sufficient appeared to justify the formation of an hypothesis as to
their structure, which was recorded in the bit marked " supposed
from the above." I thus found what had been a supposition
proved to be really correct.

[Further researches into the general structure and life-history
of various ticks is desirable, and we shall be glad to offer facilities
for their free discussion. — Ed.]

lis HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIIL AND XIV.

Plate XIIL

Figs. Ij 2, and 3. — Aregma hulbosum, from specimens on the slide

under examination.

Fig. 1. — p.s., J9..S. , protospores — bulbilli, or buds thrown off in the
early stage of the plant, and capable of independent growth.
The letters in sequence, a to e", illustrate the process of deve-
lopment, and the sequence of changes therein.

a, Swollen termination of a branch, with colourless granu-
lar contents, a' shows mapping out of these contents into
what will afterwards become the four " endochromes," that
being the normal number in this species. At c.d. the walls of
the spore are seen acquiring a brown colour ; the part which
is farthest from the seat of attachment being the earliest and
most advanced, as indicated by the increasing depth of
colour.

2. — Developing spore, seen with a higher power, to show how the
spore is formed, as are " asci " in the ^' Ascigerous Fungi,'' and
the formation of pearly beads by nodular corrugations of the
outer cell-wall.

3. — The same facts illustrated in diagram, sp., sp., spermatia.

4. — Aregma macromatum, from the Rose.

5. — 5, hulbosum, from the Bramble. This figure was taken
from a freshly-gathered specimen, and has the " pearly beads "
well developed.

6. — Aregma gracilis, from the Raspberry.

7. — ,, obtiisatum, from the Barren Strawberry, Potentilla
fragariastrum.

8. — Triphragmium Vlmarice, also showing the pearly beads.

3)

3)

J)

))

Lower PonTioisr — Diagrammatic Sketches.

Fig. 1. — Tongue of Snail, showing — a, Tooth by which the leaf is
held whilst being eaten ; b, Muscle for drawing the tongue
up ; c, Muscle for drawing it down.

2. — Tongue of Snail, seen from above.

3. — Ditto Periwinkle.

4.— Ditto Whelk.

5. — Flagellated Spermatozoa of Oyster.

6. — Early stage of same before the formation of tails.

J)

Plate XIV.
Illustrating Tortoise-Tick.

The Figure in the upper portion is a fac-simile on a smaller scale of
a drawing made by me (Tuffen West) many years ago, the original
drawing from which it was taken being x 25 diameters of Tortoise-
Tick.

JourRal

x'llL

oscopy; AAd1.4, M 13.

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m.

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curual of MicroscoDY" Vol. 4', PL 14.

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X/J

SELECTED NOTES FROM SOCIETY'S NOTE-BOOKS. 119

The intention of giving it here is specially to show the value of
careful drawings, which need not, however, always he finished through-
out. This has been lying by in my portfolio for nearly thirty years,
and only now finds its value in connection with the slides of Ticks
recently circulated by members of the Society.

The notes are copied verbatim from the paper (half sheet of blue
foolscap), on which the original drawings are made. It may be amus-
ing to note that "5 P" was intended evidently to denote that the
purple colour there is only half the strength it has in the other parts
where it occurs, and is so indicated in the original ; but this had been
forgotten, and was overlooked in making the copy, until it was thus
recalled to memory.

The lower portion of this plate illustrates details of Tortoise-
Tick ; the figures have had to be reduced to suit the modest size of our
note-books, but are otherwise fac-similes of the originals, as are also
the notes jotted down at the time near the drawings.

One of the feet on either side is gone ; it is interesting to note that
it is in both cases the (apparently) second foot, the real first. What
appear to be the first limbs corresponding to the antennce in true insects.
What appear to be antennae here, being not really so, but palpi —
authors diflTer much as to their identification. The fact is, the homolo-
gies have not yet been worked out.

The special design of these figures is to show the importance of
making out details clearly and accurately with higher powers than are
requisite for the entire figure. It is upon such minute details that
specific and generic characters depend.

[This plate is, we believe, an accurate copy of two of the small
plates which were drawn in one of our note-books by Mr. Tufi'en
West, and dated 20 | 11. | '75, except that the shaded portion of the
body of the Tick is coloured in Mr. West's drawing. — Ed.]

Selccteb IRotce from tbe Socict^'0

1Flote===Booft0*

Batrachospermum is a special favourite of mine, and I never
see a specimen but it calls up my first acquaintance with it and its
slippery tricks. Standing at the edge of a small pool, fed by a pipe
of clear water, I put my stick under a little patch of floating green
weed to lift it out, but it slipped off; I tried a second and third
time, and each time failed. I then coaxed it near enough to grasp
it with my hand, but could not hold it. I then tried the open
palm, but it would not stay. I ultimately captured it by closing
my palms in a cup-shape, and thus got the better of its slippery

120 SELECTED NOTES FROM

tricks. My cabinet specimen is mounted in a water-cell, and
exhibits to better effect than any others I have seen.

A. Nicholson.

Generative Gland of Oyster.— We have in this slide a very
early stage of egg-formation of the oyster, Ostrea edtilis, not many
eggs being yet present. Those present may be readily recognised
by the germinal vesicle being coloured, while the surrounding yelk
has remained free, or nearly free, from colour. The oyster is con-
sidered to be truly hermaphrodite, the bundles of spermatozoa
and eggs being produced in the same animal. I believe eggs such
as are present in this section to be the result of impregnation, the
true impregnation occurring between a clear germinal vessel and
sperm-cells before the formation of the yelk. In the spring
months, the oyster is a very interesting object of study, the pecu-
liar bundles of spermatozoa (see lower portions, PI. XIIL, Figs. 5
and 6), with their moving tails, being pretty objects ; before the
formation of tails, these spermatozoa are seen as in Fig. 6, Given
an oyster, the contents of whose generative gland you have exa-
mined, a section may easily be made by hardening in spirit or in
any other way preferred, and making sections with a Valentine's
knife, staining with carmine (Ammoniacal solution), and mounting
in glycerine or glycerine jelly.

D. Moore.

Pro-Leg of Larva of Lucanus cervus is a curious object, and
the fleshy-hke hairs, smaller at the base, are striking. When I first
came to Croydon it was a very common occurrence to dig up
these larvae in the garden, but of late years they have become
scarce, but as these larvae are some years before they attain
maturity, they cannot be expected to thrive in soil that is being
dug and cultivated every season ; so I fancy that as the perfect
insect appears as common here as formerly, the ova must be
deposited in some undisturbed localities in the neighbourhood. I
have seen drawings in which the larva of Liicamis cervus has been
shown in the solid wood of trees, but have never found it in such
situations. I have turned up numbers in the earth ; it is by no
means an inviting-looking insect ; it is, however, very local, and it
is a curious fact that the first appearance of the insect is very
regular, and does not appear to depend on the season, as is the
case with most insects. Lucanus cerims is a remarkable-looking
insect when seen flying steadily along in the dusk of the evening,
with its head and horns perfectly erect ; it flies so steadily and

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 121

slowly that it can be very easily captured. They vary much in
size. I have two specimens in my cabinet in which the contrast
is so great that the horns of one are as long as the whole of the
other, body and horns together. The large one is certainly the
largest I ever saw. From personal observation, and from the
condition of some I have caught, I have come to the conclusion
that these beetles fight, and that, too, seriously ; I once found one
with an old wound in his elytron, exactly corresponding to the tip
of a horn, or, rather, to such a hole as the horn would make, and
another had lost half a horn, although I can scarcely think that it
could have been broken off by another beetle. As regards their
powers of biting, it has often been stated that they will not and
cannot bite, but having myself had very convincing proof to the
contrary, I can safely assert that they both can and do bite. I was
once bitten quite through the fleshy part of the middle finger of
my right hand by one, and did not quickly forget it.

Edward Lovett.

Amphiocus lanceolatus (tr. sec.) from the Coast of Norway.
There is a short description, with figure of this fish, in Gosse's
" Marine Zoology of Great Britain.'^ He classes it in the Order
Cyclostornata of the Cartilaginous Fishes, and gives the generic
characters as follows : — " Skeleton rudimentary, spine an unjointed
column of cartilage ; no ribs ; no pectoral or ventral fins ; mouth
a sucking disc, surrounded by a ring of cartilage." Of A.
la?iceolatus, the only known species, he further gives the characters
as : — " Body compressed, doubly pointed ; mouth a long slit,
with a row of filaments on each side ; dorsal fin along the whole
length of the back." The average length is only from one to two
or two and a half inches. It is found, though rarely, on the
British coasts ; usually lurking under stones in pools left by the
ebbing tide. Its true position has been much debated ; it was
once looked on as a mollusc, but Yarrell, Agassiz, and others,
consider that the most recent information leaves no doubt as to
its claim to be regarded as a fish ; its peculiarities of organism,
however, separate it from most other members of its class. The
nervous system consists almost solely of a spinal cord, inclosed in
a fibrous sheath, with scarce any traces of a brain or of other
organs of sense. The blood is colourless, like that of Inverte-
bratte ; and instead of being propelled through a single heart, we
find numerous bulb-like enlargements scattered over the system
of blood-vessels. The mode of respiration, too, is altogether
abnormal. The alimentary canal is lined with cilia, and there is
no distinct trace of a Uver. In all these points the " Lancelet "

122 SELECTED NOTES FROM SOCIETY'S NOTE-BOOKS.

(A. lanceolatiis ) differs from other fishes of the present day, and
may, perhaps, be regarded as a reUc of some ancient order of
fishes now all but extinct ; which, from the softness of their
skeleton, have left no fossil traces of their existence.

J. H. Green.

Spine of Dog-Fish. — This fish belongs to the family, Scylliidce,
and is peculiar in having a sharp spine for defence or attack in
front of each of its dorsal fins. While the fish is contained in the
mother, she is protected from injury by the spines of the young,
by a knob of cartilage, secured by small cartilaginous straps to the
point of each spine. This protection is detached at birth. A
drawing and further description of this spine will be found in Vol.
I. of this Journal, p. 38, PI. III.

C. P. Coombs.

Marine Aquarium.— To those interested I may mention that I
have had eight sea-anemones, and one or two other live specimens,
such as crabs, etc., which I have kept in a small quantity of sea-
water, with sand, shingle, and shells to form a bottom, for upwards
of a month, and the water is still perfectly clear, and three young
anemones have been born since I captured the old ones. Al-
though it is only such a small affair (about a quart), it affords a
considerable amount of pleasure and instruction. If the
water is disturbed (by wind, for instance), the anemones unfold
their beautiful tentaculse, and when in the sun are indeed a beauti-
ful sight.

E. LOVETT.

Varnish for ''Ringing" Slides.— Evaporate Canada Balsam
(old is best) by gentle heat until, when allowed to get cold, it sets
hard ; then dissolve it in as much Benzole as will allow it to flow
freely from the brush. This transparent and perfectly smooth
varnish looks better in my idea than any coloured rings.

Edwin Smith.

[123]

1Review)6*

Inorganic Chemistry. By Edward Frankland, Ph.D.,
D.C.L., LL.D., etc., Professor of Chemistry in the Normal School of Science,
and Francis R. Japp, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C., Assistant-Professor of Chemistry
in the Normal School of Science ; pp. XIX. — 805. (London : J. and A.
Churchill, ii, New Burlington Street.)

This is a work which should be carefully read by every thoughtful chemical
student. The first twenty chapters are entirely devoted to theoretical chemis-
try, and in them we have an excellent resume of modern chemical theories,
embracing well-written chapters on Chemical Nomenclature, the Atomic
Theory, the Laws of Boyle, Charles, Gay-Lussac, and Avogadro, etc..
Methods of Determining and Controlling Molecular Weights, the " Periodic
Law," General Classification and Thermo-Chemistry, together with others on
the more purely physical side of the science.

Of course, the system of notation adopted in the work is that invented by
Dr. Frankland, and used by him for many years past in the Normal School of
Science. Dr. Frankland, as a pioneer, in attempting to formulate a concise
theory of the constitution of chemical compounds, has done good service to
chemistry ; yet this system, like the work of most pioneers, we anticipate, will
have to give way to a truer expression of fact.

In page 69 the authors admit the existence of another mode of combination,
not the " atomic," which they term the Molecular, and it is especially in this
direction we consider that the theory and notation advocated in this work
requires much further development.

Every teacher carefully points out to his pupils the distinction between fact
and theory, and till w^e know infinitely more than at present of the real nature
of the forces acting in the first place between Molecules containing similar, and
in the second between those containing dis-similar atoms, a constitutional
formula of whatever kind can only be accepted in so far as it expresses some
particular mode of synthesis or of decomposition. The descriptive and
technical portion of the work is lucidly written ; descriptions of the more
important substances being in bold type, whist those of more rare or less
important substances are in smaller type. The information given in the book
appears to be brought well up to date. The work is illustrated with two
plates and 50 or more engravings.

Lessons in Chemistry. By W. H. Greene, M.D., Professor

of Chemistry in the Philadelphia High School ; pp. 357. (Published by J. B.
Lippencott and Co., Philadelphia, and 15, Russell Street, Covent Garden.)

This is a work on Elementary Chemistry, containing a well-arranged course
adapted for use in schools where this science is taught as a part of the regular
course, not with the intention of making trained chemists of the pupils, but
with the object of increasing their powers of observation, and giving them
some insight into some of the more important natural phenomena.

A very good feature in the arrangement of the work is the study of some of
the more important carbon compounds in their natural connection with that
element itself, thus forming a good preliminary basis for the study of organic
chemistry. The illustrations are good.

The Elements of Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic. By
Sidney A. Norton, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor in the Ohio State University;
pp. 504. (New York : Van Antwerp, Bragg, and Co. 1884.)

124 EEVIEWS.

The arrangement of this work is that of a series of chemical experiments,
which will prove useful to pupils who, after attending a course of lectures on
experimental chemistry, wish to repeat the lecturer's demonstrations for them-
selves. A short explanation is given of the meaning of each experiment.

The work would have been far more valuable to young pupils than it is
even now, had the experimental method been adhered to in the organic as well
as in the inorganic sections.

Elementary Text-Book on Physics. By Professor William

A. Anthony, of Cornell University, and Professor Cyrus F. Brackett, New
Jersey College ; pp. IX. — 246. (John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1884.)

This is the first part of a work on physics. The present volume contains a
description of measuring instruments, the mechanics of masses, universal
attraction, molecular and fluid mechanics, and heat.

Each subject is treated mathematically ; a knowledge of plane trigonometry
being presupposed. We shall await the publication of the concluding num-
bers of the series with much interest, as the work will be of great value in
education, especially for students after a preliminary experimental course, before
proceeding to a more rigid mathematical investigation of the same subjects.

The Student's Manual of Histology : For the use of Stu-
dents, Practitioners, and Microscopists. Third edition, entirely re-written,
greatly enlarged, and newly illustrated. By Chas. H. Stowell, M. D., F.R. M.S.,
etc. ; pp. 368. (Ann Arbor, Mich., U.S.A. : Chas. H. Stowell. 1884.)

This valuable work commences with a description of the microscope, which
is followed by a great number of methods for preparing microscopic objects,
formula for making the various stains, preservative fluids, etc. ; the greater por-
tion of the book being taken up with Histology, principally human. Five new
chapters have been added to the present edition. There are 178 good illustra-
tions.

Fichte's Science of Knowledge : A Critical Exposition. By
Charles Carroll Everett, D.D. ; pp. XVI. — 2S7. (Chicago, U.S.A. : S. C.
Griggs and Co.)

This is one of the German Philosophical Classics for English readers and
students, and those who take an interest in metaphysical studies will welcome
Dr. Everitt's book. The mere names of some of the subjects treated of will
sufficiently indicate their interesting matter : The I ; Unity of Self ; Conscious-
ness ; the Infinite I ; etc. Pantheist the author is not, Theist he is ; but, in
fact, the plan of his book could not lead him further into the nature of God.

Photo-Micrography, including a description of the Wet-
Collodion and Gelatino- Bromide Processes, with the best method of mounting
and preparing Microscopic Objects for Photo-Micrography. By A. Cowley
Malley, B.A., M.B., etc. Second edition ; pp. IV. — 166. (London: W. K.
Lewis. )

We are pleased to notice the altered, and, as we think, more correct title of
the new edition of this very useful book. The instructions given will be
found plain and practical, and we have little doubt but that the book will be
eagerly bought by many microscopists. The book contains three fine photo-
micrographic plates, in addition to a number of wood engravings.

REVIEWS. 125

Manuel du Touriste Photographe, par M. Leon Vidal,

Premier Partie. Couches sensibles Negatives ; Objectifs ; Appareils portratifs ;
Obturateurs rapides ; Pose et Photometrie ; Developpement et Finage ; Rex-
for^ateurs et Reducteurs ; Vernissage et Retouche des Xegatifs ; pp. XIV. —
348. (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, Imprimeur-Libraire. 1885.)

The work before us will doubtless prove of much service to the photogra-
phic tourist. We have submitted it to one of our most successful landscape
photographers. He assures us of its great practical value ; he tells us that the
remarks found on pp. 9 to 13 inclusive, which relate to the preparation of the
emulsion, are especially worthy of notice. The book is illustrated with a pho-
totype frontispiece and 60 engravings.

The Year-Book of Photography and Photographic News

Almanack for 1885. Edited by Thomas Bolas, F.C.S. ; pp. 216. — Contains in
a condensed form a summary of the photographic work of the past year, and
deserves a place in the laboratory of every photographer.

The Magic Lantern and its Management, inckiding full

practical Directions for Producing the Lime-Light, making Oxygen Gas, and
Preparing Lantern Slides. By J. C. Hepworth ; pp. VIII. — 75. (London :
Chatto and Windus. 1885.)

In addition to all that is set forth in the title, we have an account of the
Lantern Microscope and many other matters, which every amateur exhibitor
eagerly desires to know. The instructions throughout are plain, and will be
found valuable. There are nine illustrations.

Natural Law in the Spiritual World. By Henry Drum-
mond, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., etc. Fourteenth edition; pp. 414. (London:
Hodder and Stoughton. 1884.)

The object of the author of this interesting book is to prove the harmony of
religion and science, and to show that the system of law which is established
in the natural world holds equally true in the spiritual world. We have read
this book with much pleasure.

Evenings at the Microscope; or, Researches among the
Minuter Organs and Forms of Animal Life. By Philip Henry Gosse, P\R.S.
Anew edition, revised and annotated; pp. X. — 422. (London: Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1884.)

It is a pleasure to call attention to a new edition of this very popular book,
every word of which the author assures us has passed under his eye, and has
been examined with earnest care, and that many new facts have been added to
enrich the work.

The Formation of Poisons by Micro-Organisms : A Biolo-
gical Study of the Germ Theory of Disease. By G. V. Black, M.D., D.D.S. ;
pp. 117. (Philadelphia, U.S.A. : P. Blakiston and Co. 1884.)

In the volume before us, the author traces the history of the Germ-Theory
of Disease from the days of Homer to the present time ; he also suggests theo-
retically the manner in which the germs act in producing disease.

126 REVIEWS.

The Speaking Parrots : A Scientific Manual. By Dr. Carl

Russ ; pp. VI. — 296. (London: L. Upcott Gill. 1884.)

This book gives full instructions, not only with regard to purchasing parrots,
but also for taming and training them, the preservation of their health and
treatment of their diseases ; followed by descriptions of nearly 100 varieties of
parrots. The book is illustrated with several beautifully-coloured plates.

Geology of Weymouth, Portland, and Coast of Dorset-
shire, from Swanage to Bridport-on-the-Sea ; with Natural History and
Archaeological Notes. By Robert Damon, F.G.S. ; pp. XII. — 250. (London :
Edward Stanford. 1884.)

This is a new and enlarged edition of an exceedingly interesting handbook
to the coast of Dorsetshire, so rich in its geological treasures. The book is
well got up, and illustrated with a good coloured map of the locality, besides a
number of well-executed engravings. No geologist should visit this attractive
neighbourhood without possessing a copy of this book.

The Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Limestone
Series of Great Britain. By James W. Davis, F.G.S. From the Scien-
tific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.

The work before us is one of immense research, the observations and des-
criptions having been based on material principally derived from the collection
of the Earl of Enniskillen, which has since been removed to the Natural His-
tory department of the British IMuseum at South Kensington, whilst several
other local museums and private collections were studied. There are 24 fine
coloured litho. plates, several of them of unusual size.

Wonders and Curiosities of the Railway ; or, Stories of

the Locomotive in Every Land. By William Sloane Kennedy. Second edi-
tion ; pp. XIV. — 254. (Chicago, U.S.A. : S. C. Griggs and Co. 1884.)

We have here a very interesting account of the history and development of
railways and of railway travelling, both at home and abroad. The book is
beautifully printed and the engravings are good.

Nature's Hygiene : A Systematic Manual of Natural Hy-
giene, containing also an Account of the Chemistry and Hygiene of the Euca-
lyptus and the Pine. By C. T. Kingzett, F.I.C., F.C.S. Second edition;
pp. VIII, — 343. (London : Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox.)

The first portion of this book is devoted to hygiene proper, and comprises
nine chapters, which treat of water supply, sewage, infectious diseases, treat-
ment of the sick, micro-organisms, disease, etc. The second portion treats of
the sanitary properties of the Eucalyptus, etc.

Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene : A Manual for the Use
of Colleges, Schools, and General Readers. By Jerome Walker, M.D. ; pp.
XII.— 415. (New York : A. Lovell and Co. 1884.)

In the preparation of the work before us, the author was fortunate in secur-
ring the co-operation of men distinguished in special lines of work. The book
is divided into 20 chapters, each of which is followed by a series of questions.
The chapters on emergencies will be found valuable. The illustrations, of
which there are 89, are good.

REVIEWS. 127

Comprehensive Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,

adapted for Schools, Colleges, and Families. With 140 Illustrations by John
C. Cutter, B.S., M.D. ; pp. y]6. (Philadelphia, U.S.A. : J. B. Lippencott
and Co. 1885.)

The author, who is Professor of Physiolog}' and Comparative Anatomy in the
Imperial College of Agriculture, Sapporo, Japan, tells us that this book has
sprung from his talks with his pupils. It is divided into fifteen chapters, in
which will be found outlines of the science, directions for preparing dissections,
microscopical work, etc. Questions are inserted at the bottoms of the pages.
At the end of the book is a very useful glossary occupying 23 pages. The
engravings are well executed.

A Treatise on Physiology and Hygiene, for Educational

Institutions and General Readers. By Joseph C. Hutcheson, M.D., L.L.D. ;
pp.320. (New York : Clark and Maynard. 1S84.)

In this work the author has unquestionably condensed a large amount of
information into a comparatively small space. The book is divided into twelve
chapters ; to which is added an appendix, treating of Poisons, Drowning, Care
of Sick Room, etc. etc. To assist the memory of the student, a number of
topical questions are inserted at the foot of each page, and will doubtless prove
of great help. The work is illustrated with 5 coloured plates and 71 engrav-
ings.

We can recommend either of the above books with much confidence.

Heroes of Science : Botanists, Zoologists, and Geologists.

By Professor P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., F.L.S. ; pp. X. — 348. (London:
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1882.)

The book commences with a history of the science of plants, into which is
introduced the lives of John Ray and Joseph de Tournefort, followed by the
life of Linnoeus and of De CandoUe. In Zoology we have the lives of Buffon,
Pennant, Lamarck, and Cuvier ; and in Geology of Hutton, William Smith,
Murchison, and Lyell. The book is both instructive and entertaining.

Correspondences of the Bible : The Animals. With
Additions by John Worcester; pp. 295. (Boston, U.S.A.: Massachusetts
New Church Union. 1884.)

We have here many particularly interesting natural history anecdotes of
some of the animals named in the Bible. Some of the "Correspondences"
appear to us somewhat fanciful and imaginative ; this may, perhaps, be owing
to our imperfect knowledge of the doctrines of the New Church, So far as we
understand the book, we like it well, and of the rest there is nothing of which
we disapprove.

Origin of Cultivated Plants. By Alphonse de Candolle ;

pp. IX. —468. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co. 1884.)

This interesting and valuable work deals with a kind of plants little noticed
except in works on gardening. The question of the origin of cultivated plants
is one involving immense research, and M. de Candolle has carefully distin-
guished the respective value of the means employed, giving the first place to
Archaeology and Palaeontology, as the representation of a plant on old monu-
ments, or its actual remains in deposits (as in the lake dwellings) as indubitable
proof of its cultivation at a given epoch. Botany is also a valuable aid to the

128 REVIEWS.

discovery of the origin, and historical records with the common names are also
important, though by no means infallible. M. de Candolle gives an extensive
list of 240 plants, discussing their origin in each case, and arranging them under
the heads of plants cultivated for their subterranean parts, for their stems and
leaves, their flowers, their fruit, and their seeds.

The Orchids of New England : A Popular Monograph. By

Henry Baldwin; pp. 159. (New York : John Wiley and Sons. 1884.)

This work, well and profusely illustrated, has evidently been a labour of
love to the author. He has plucked with his own fingers all the specimens of
which he speaks, and seen with his own eyes the exquisite forest-nooks which
he so graphically describes. The curious flowers of which the book treats, with
their peculiar modes of fertilisation, are well described in popular language,
enriched with quaint fancies and charming scraps of poetry. New England
appears to possess more plants of this order than our own country, especially in
the genus Habenaria, of which they have thirteen species, while we have but
three ; and, on the contrary, the beautiful and quaint forms of the bee and fly
orchids seem to be absent from the New England flora. This choice work
deserves a place in our libraries.

Studies in Life. By H. Sinclair Paterson, M.D. ; pp. 187.

(London: Hodder and Stoughton. 1884.)

The author of the book before us unmistakeably shows us that the book of
Nature and the book of Scripture are in harmony with each other. This fact
is well argued out in the eight chapters into which the work is divided, viz. : —
Nature and the Study of Nature ; Life and its Characteristics ; The Origin of
Life ; Varieties of Life ; The Record of Life ; The Natural History of Life ;
Enemies of Life ; and Results of Life. Having led the reader on by these
easy stages, he concludes by the statement that " Nature craves for a Revela-
tion, and the revelation which God has given us in Scripture explains, com-
pletes, and dignifies the lessons which we have learned in the lower school."
Too much cannot well be said in commendation of this little book, the price of
which is only one shilling. We hope to notice two others of the same series in
our next.

Helps to Health : The Habitation, the Nursery, the School-
room, and the Person ; with a Chapter on Pleasure and Health Resorts. By
Henry C. Burdett. With 19 illustrations; pp. X. — 252. (London: Kegan
Paul, Trench, and Co. 1885.)

The aim of the present volume is to give with sufficient amplitude, but in
the fewest possible words, precise information concerning matters which affect
the health and comfort of every class, from childhood to old age. This has
been well carried out in the book before us. Several chapters are devoted to
the Choice, the Structure, the Interior arrangements, and the Ventilation of
the House. The author's purpose has been well carried out, and the book will
doubtless be welcomed by the housekeeper.

The Diet Question, giving the Reason Why. By Susannah
W. Dodds, M.D. ; pp. 99. (New Vork : Fowler, Wells, and Co. 1884.)

This little book is taken from a larger work, entitled " Health in
the Household, or Hygienic. Cookery," and strongly advocates food reform, in
which all kinds of animal foods are to be utterly renounced, preference being
given to Fruits and to " Whole Meal," prepared in various ways.

KEVIEWS. 129

There is, no doubt, much good sense written on the subject of food reform,
but many of our carnivorous friends will require far stronger arguments to
convince them of the error of their ways.

Biographies of Working-Men. By Grant Allen, B.A. ;
pp. 191.

The Guild of Good Life : A Narrative of Domestic Health
and Economy. By Benjamin Ward Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. ; pp. 202.

The Cottage Next Door. By Helen Shepton ; pp. 192.

Thrift and Independence : A Word for Working-Men. By

the Rev. William Lewery Blackley, M.A. ; pp. 1S9. (London : Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. (1884.)

Four very interesting books, well suited as presents for working-men, or as
prizes to senior boys in our board schools. In the first of these will be found
biographies of Thomas Telford, stonemason; George Stephenson, engineman;
John Gibson, sculptor ; William Herschell (a citizen of Bath), bandsman ;
Jean Francois Miller, painter ; James Garfield, canal-boy ; and Thomas
Edward, shoemaker.

Sketches in Natural History, with an Essay on Reason

and Instinct. By the Rev. J. C. Atkinson. With 82 illustrations by W. S.
Coleman; pp. XII. — 340. (London: Geo. Routledge and Sons.)

The first half of the book before us is taken up with a series of papers on
many interesting objects of natural history, respecting which any additions to
our knowledge is always most welcome. The first paper is on the Ephemera; the
others, with three or four exceptions, are on birds. These papers first saw the
light in the *' Zoologist," and are now revised and in a great part rewritten for
the present book. The chapters on *' Reason and Instinct " are good, and we
commend the book to the notice of our readers.

Sketches of Animal Life and Habits. By Andrew Wilson,

Ph.D. ; pp. 208. (London and Edinburgh : W. and R. Chambers.)

These sketches have been compiled with a view of affording to general
readers, and especially to the young, some popular and at the same time trust-
worthy ideas respecting some of the most interesting groups in the animal
world, and we think the author has very satisfactorily accomplished his pur-
pose. We have chapters on Animalcules ; Life in the Depths ; Sea Anemones ;
Sea Eggs ; Crabs, etc. etc. The papers are popularly written, and are illus-
trated with 8 1 engravings. We are sorry to find no general index at the end of
this book.

Intellectual Principles ; or, Elements of Mental Science :
Intuitions, Thoughts, Beliefs. By John H. Godwin; pp. XII.— 275.

Active Principles ; or, Elements of Moral Science : Mental
Feelings, Volitions, Moral Perceptions, and Sentiments. By John H. Godwin;
pp. XII.— 304. (London : James Clarke and Co. 1885.)

The two works above mentioned will well repay a careful perusal. They
are pregnant with deep thought, the object of the author being not so much

VOL. IV. K

130 REVIEWS.

to give information as to offer aid to observation and reflection on objects
near to all and open to all. He has endeavoured to show that the old lesson,
*' Know thyself," is of universal application and importance ; that it is the
beginning of all knowledge, and is requisite for all right thinking, feeling, and
conduct.

Excursions of an Evolutionist. By John Fiske. Fourth

edition; pp. 379. (Boston, U.S.A. : Houghton, Mifflin, and Co. 1884.)

This is a work of great thought, is well written, and exceedingly interest-
ing. We have space to mention only a few of the subjects treated of, viz. —
Europe before the Arrival of Man ; The Arrival of Man in Europe ; Our
Aryan Forefathers ; Was there a Primeval Mother Tongue ? etc.

Mr. Fiske is undoubtedly a splendid writer. His arguments are clear, tho-
roughly comprehensible, and worthy of careful reading. By the perusal of
this book we have learned m.ore of the supposed date of the " Glacial Age,"
its natural causes, etc., than we knew before.

The Destiny of Man Viewed in the Light of his Origin.

By John Fiske. Third thousand; pp. 121. (Boston, U.S.A. : Houghton,
Mifflin, and Co. 1884,)

This work affords us a good view of the doctrine of evolution in its highest
aspects, as throwing light on the origin and destiny of man, and is a book that
will doubtless be read with much thoughtful interest. In his preface the author
states that " The question of a future life is generally regarded as lying outside
the range of legitimate scientific discussion. Yet while fully admitting this,
one does not necessarily admit that this object is one with regard to which we
are for ever debarred from entertaining an opinion."

The Man Wonderful in the House Beautiful : An

Allegory ; Teaching the Principles of Physiology and Hygiene, and the Effects
of Stimulants and Narcotics, for home reading. By Chilion B. Allen, A.M.,
LL.B., M.D., and Mary A. Allen, A.B., M.D. ; pp. 336. (New York:
Fowler and Wells. 1884.)

We have here an account of the Structure and Economy of the Human
Body most charmingly conveyed in the form of an allegory. The value of the
work is much enhanced by the many beautiful engravings with which it
is illustrated, and by the great number of questions, occupying 38 pages at the
end of the book, by which the reader's mind is intended to be refreshed.

The book is well suited for reading both by young and old, and all may
find profit in its perusal.

Tenants of an Old Farm : Leaves from the Note-Book of a
Naturalist. By Henry C. McCook, D.D. Illustrated from Nature ; pp. 460.
(New York : Ford, Howard, and Hulbert. 1885.)

The Rev. Dr. H. C. McCook, who is also the author of " A Natural His-
tory of the Agricultural Ants of Texas," " The Honey and Occidental Ants,"
etc. , has given us here one of the most charming books it has been our good
fortune to read for a long time. In the present work, the author introduces us
to various species of spiders, moths, ants, crickets, beetles, etc. In many

REVIEWS. 131

instances he conducts us straight to the homes of these creatures, which he
describes with great accuracy of detail, and on returning to the old farmhouse
we meet the whole family circle, who join in a general discussion concerning
their habits ; the interest of these discussions being much increased by the
quaint sayings and superstitious lore of two coloured servants, named "Old Dan"
and "Sary Ann."

We feel that we cannot say too much in hearty appreciation of this book,
Dr. McCook being a naturalist of no mean order.

A Descriptive Astronomy. By Joel Dorman Steele, Ph.D.;

pp. XII. — 326. (New York : A. S. Barnes and Co. 1884.)

" The Story of the Stars " is one of Steele's Science Series. The author,
believing that natural science is full of fascination, has sought to weave the
story of those far-distant worlds into a form that may attract the attention and
kindle the enthusiasm of the pupil, and we most certainly think he has suc-
ceeded.

The book before us is illustrated with 113 engravings and 4 plates, some
coloured, also a map of the stars of the northern hemisphere. At the end of
the various chapters we have a number of practical questions, and as an appen-
dix at the end of the book. Questions for Classes, a key to which may be had
of the publishers.

A Final Report of the Crustacea of Minnesota^ included

in the orders Cladocera and Copepoda ; together with a Synopsis of the Des-
cribed Species in North America, and Keys to the known species of the more
important Genera. By C. L. Herrick, Assistant-in-Zoology ; pp. 191,

This wide-ranging treatise on the Crustacea is divided into several chapters :
— I. The Enemies of the Entomostraca. 2. Order Cladocera. 3. Order
Copepoda. 4. Collecting, Preservation, and Miscellaneous Notes.

This splendid work is illustrated with about 24 plates, photo-printed from
the author's own drawings. These, if they have not the finish of well-executed
lithographs, yet admirably serve the purpose of explaining points of structure
which could not be communicated verbally.

The Agricultural Grasses of the United States. By

George Vasey, Botanist to the United States Department of Agriculture ; also

The Chemical Composition of American Grasses. By

Clifford Richardson, Assistant- Chemist Washington Government Printing
Office. 1884.

In the book before us we find a very careful description of about 160 of the
grasses of the United States, their mode of growth, locality most suitable, etc.,
with 120 full-page lithographic plates of the same, thus forming a very valuable
addition to our knowledge of this interesting order of plants.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution : Showing the Operation, Expenditure, and Condition _ __^_,.^
of the Institution for the year 1882; pp. 855. (Washington: Government-'X Q I ^ i'
Printing Office. 1884.) y V V)^ ^-

132 CORRESPONDENCE.

The first 264 pages only of this bulky work are occupied with the Report of
the Secretary of the Institution ; the remaining 500 form the General Appen-
dix, and are devoted to the Record of Recent Scientific Progress in Astronomy,
Geology, Geography, Meteorology, Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Botany,
Zoology, and Anthropology ; thus giving us a very large amount of informa-
tion relating to the various sciences. The value of the work is further increased
by a well-arranged index.

Correeponbence.

To the Editor of the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science,

Sir,—

Till I read the pleasant " Rambles of a Naturalist," by
Miss A. M. Charlesworth, at p. 12, I never heard of any other plant being
connected with Danish blood-spilling than the Dwarf Elder, Sambucus
ebulus. In Smith's " English Flora," Vol. 2, one of its names is given
" Danewort," and the following note added : — " Our ancestors evinced a just
hatred of their brutal enemies the Danes, in supposing the nauseous, fetid, and
noxious plant before us to have sprung from their blood." I may mention
that this plant is not common either in England, Scotland, or Ireland, and
curiously enough, two localities that I know of in the last, are spots where
history records bloody fights to have occurred in days of yore.

H. W. Lett.

7o the Editor of the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Dear Sir, —

We are so much pleased with our Journal, that we feel
like the little boy about the Christmas plum pudding, that it does not come
often enough. We would like to have it once a month, and not be " wearying"
all through the quarter for another part. Don't you think you could manage
it ? not, of course, as bulky as it is at present, but, perhaps, a third of the
size, and price sixpence. I am certain it would increase its popularity. To be
sure, it would also increase your work, but what of that when we have such a
willing editor ! And then, if space could be provided for Query and Corres-
pondence Columns, which are a necessity in every magazine of the present
day. There is just one thing more I would like to see in your pages : the
price of each book you review ; I never could understand the reason of
suppressing this most important item, and surely it would not be more trouble-
some than giving the number of pages in each volume. Many a time I see
books noticed which I long to order, but hesitate lest I should be incurring
too great expense.

You are to be congratulated on the issue of the January Part of the
Journal, which is by far the best and most readable we have yet had.

I am, yours truly,

H. W. Lett.

[133]

Current IRotea anb fiDemoranba*

The Annual Report and Proceedings of the Belfast NaturaUsts'
Field Club has reached us ; in addition to the Report, we find Notes on the
Irish Coleoptera, a paper on the Cromlechs of Antrim and Down, and on
Pre-historic Monuments at Carrowmore ; this last is by our valued member,
Mr. Charles Elcock. We are glad to notice that the Club boasts a goodly
array of Members.

Histology. — We are very pleased to have received two instal-
ments of Vol. III. of Mr. A. C. Cole's valuable studies. These are divided into
four sections, as follow : — Sec. I — Animal Histology, which is accompanied by
plate?, of Mesocarpus in conjugation, and Vaucheria racemosa ; Sec. 2 — Animal
Histology, by plates of Cornea of Cat and Ovary of Kitten ; Sec. 3 — Pathological
Histology, by plates showing Alveolar Pneumonia, in its first and second
stages ; and Sec. 4 — Popular Microscopical Studies, with plates, one showing
the Spinneret of Garden Spider, and the other the Foot of Garden Spider,
Epeira diadema. The slides by which they are accompanied are some of
Mr. A. C. Cole's best mounts.

Collectors of Land and Freshwater Shells will do well to
procure a copy of The Collector's Manual of British Land and
Freshwater Shells, by Lionel E. Adams, B.A., published by George
Bell and Son, London.

Two Numbers of the Journal of the New York Microscopical
Society, edited by Benjamin Braman, have been received. The Journal
contains papers read to the Society, Reports of Meetings, &c. We notice in
this Journal that the editor has struck out a somewhat new course in the form
of a Bibliographical list of articles of interest relating to Microscopy which
have appeared in recent journals, the date, volume, and page being given.
The Journal, which will be published during nine months in each year,
promises v/ell.

We have pleasure in directing the notice of our readers to the

Practical Naturalists' Society ; a copy of the Rides is now before us. Like
our own, this Society is essentially a Postal Society, the members being very
widely scattered. We observe the names of several of our own members
amongst the number. The fees are merely nominal, and we wish the Society
every success.

A Book of Plant Descriptions, or Record of Plant

Analyses, prepared for the use of Teachers and Students, by George G. Groff,
A.M., ALD. (vScience and Art Publishing Company, Lewisburgh, Pennsylvania.
1883).

We have here first a list of Botanical Terms, followed by a few pages of
instructions for laboratory work ; the greater part of the book is filled with
printed forms in which blanks are left for the student to fill in his descriptions.
These forms may be bought separately of the publishers.

lott CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The following valuable and interesting Pamphlets have been received from
the authors : —

The Relation of Micro-Organisms to Surgical Lesions : a
Paper read to the Section of Surgery and Anatomy of the American Medical
Association, May, 1884, by Henry O. Marcy. A.M., M,D., of Boston, U.S.A.

The Relation of Bacteria to Infectious Diseases, read before the
American Academy of Medicine, Baltimore, October, 1884, by Henry
O. Marcy, A.M., M.D.

The Best Methods of Treating Operative Wounds, read before
the same Academy, October, 1882. H. O. Marcy, A.M., M.D.

Bacteria, the smallest of Living Organisms, by Dr. Ferdinand
Cohn, Professor in the University of Breslau. Translated by Charles S.
Dolly, M.D.

The Philosophy of Protoplasmic Motion. By Th. W.
Engelmann, M.D., Professor of Physiology" in the University of Utrecht.
Translated by Charles S. Dolley, M.D.

On the Preservation of Embryonic Materials and small
Organisms, together with hints upon embedding and mounting Sections
serially. By John A. Ryder.

The Popular Science Monthly is one of those instructive
American periodicals that we always receive with much pleasure. Its papers
are scientific and at the same time popular and entertaining.

The Kansas City Review of Science and Industry is one of the
excellent Monthlies sent to us regularly from America. It has sections
devoted to all departments of Science, c-g-, Engineering, Geology, Biology,
Astronomy, Meteorolog}', Natural Plistory, Botany, Philosophy, Archreolog}',
Biography, etc., etc.

The Naturalisf s World continues to give its readers a
selection of very entertaining articles in all branches of Natural History. The
articles are short, readable, and well illustrated.

Mr. William West, of Bradford, has sent us a selection of
S. Louis's splendidly prepared material, amongst which we notice a number of
well-cut Sections of Echinus spines, a great number of Insect preparations, a
variety of Chemicals suitable for polarising objects, together with Echinoder-
mata. Zoophytes, etc. Mons. Louis's objects are too well known to need
further notice.

The Lichen Flora of Great Britain. — In the review of

this work in our January part, we spoke of the author as the late Rev.
W. A. Leighton. We are now pleased to be informed that this is a mistake, and
that the Rev. Mr. Leighton is alive and in tolerably good health. We
hope to have the privilege of reviewing many more of his very valuable
works.

Mr. W. P. Collins, 157, Cit. Portland St., offers, in his monthly
Catalogue, a good selection of books in all departments of Science.

THE JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY

AND >'

NATURAL SCIENCE:

the journal of

The Postal Microscopical Society.

JULY, 1885.

C\>6topu9, or Mbite 1Ru6t*

By George Norman, M.R.C.S., F.R.M.S., &c.

Plates 15, 16.

YSTOPUS is a fungus parasitic on living plants,
especially Crucifers, and is placed by our
English mycologists in association with numerous
well-known parasitic fungi, such as Ustilago, Uredo,
Uromyces, Coleosporiuin^ etc., in the order Caeoma-
cei, family Coniomycetes. The characteristics of
this family, according to Berkeley, are : — -" Spores,
either solitary or concatenate, produced on the tips
of generally short threads, which are either naked
or contained in a perithecium, rarely compacted into a gelatinous
mass." Berkeley also says that this family is distinguished by the
vast predominance of the reproductive bodies over the rest of the
plant, if not in size, at least in abundance; and from the ease with
which in general they fall from the point of attachment, in conse-
quence of which, as the name implies, they have a dusty appear-
ance. Cooke's definition of the order, Cceomacei^ is simply
" Parasitic on living plants ; peridium absent ; spores, of one or
two orders, simple."

VOL, IV, I,

186 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

But except for the characteristic of parasitism common to all,
Cystopus seems to have little connection with the genera it is thus
associated with ; and it seems preferable, at all events for the
present, to accept De Bary's classification, in which resemblance
of life history is made the principal feature. By this means Cys-
topus and Pero?iospora become associated together as different
genera of the same order, and closely allied to the Saproleguiece.

Cystopus, or White Rust, is one of the commonest of parasitic
fungi, and may be seen in the summer on numerous Cruciferous
plants, and unfortunately also in many kitchen-gardens, where it
attacks the cauliflowers and cabbages. The general appearance of
a plant affected by the fungus is, to use the comparison of many
observers, as though it had been splashed with whitewash. But
when the plant is closely examined, the splashes are seen to be
arranged in a somewhat concentric or spiral manner, those, how-
ever, on the leaf-stalks and flower-stems being disposed more
irregularly (PI. XVI., Fig. 21).

Experienced observers can detect the presence of the fungus
long before the white splashes or pustules are visible, by the
swollen and distorted appearance of the leaves and stems, caused
by the presence of the spawn or mycelium, which invades every
part of the plant above ground. The mycelium consists of unpar-
titioned, irregularly-branched tubes, having thick, gelatinous walls,
and containing colourless and almost homogeneous protoplasm.
It grows exclusively in the intercellular canals of the parenchyma,
and is furnished with numerous suckers, which become affixed to
the constituent cells of the host. These suckers are a character-
istic feature of the mycelium of Cystopus (PI. XV., Fig. i).

From this mycelium arise bundles of club-shaped tubes, each
of which produces from its summit the reproductive cells called
conidia (PI. XV., Figs. 1,2). The growing conidium, to use the
expression of Tulasne, is nothing less than the obtuse summit of
the club-shaped tube, which, by a partition, separates itself from
the lower part, becomes constricted till it is attached only by a
short, narrow neck, and eventually falls off. The process is, how-
ever, so frequently repeated that, as a result, each club supports a
short chain of conidia attached to one another by joints, and this
constitutes another distinguishing feature.

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 137

It is these conidia, crowded together and lying under the
surface of the epidermis, which produce the white pustules already
described. When large numbers of conidia have been thus pro-
duced, the epidermis of the host-plant bursts in an irregular manner
and the conidia are set free. The detachment of the conidia, one
from the other, is effected in the following manner : — The primary
septum or constriction separating two conidia becomes divided by
a central gelatinous lamella into two plates belonging to the
respective conidia, and by the solution of this gelatinous lamella,
the conidia are set free.

Each conidium is filled with finely granular protoplasm, and
when it becomes matured in damp air or water, a division of the
protoplasm into five or eight portions takes place, just as in the
case of the potato fungus. These secondary spores — or, rather, in
this case zoospores — are presently discharged from their conidium
or spore-case, and after remaining immoveable for a short time,
two vibratile cilia are developed from beneath, and the zoospore
sails away over any moist surface as if endowed with animal life
(PI. XV., Figs. 3-7).

Moisture of some sort, as rain or dew, seems essential for the
bursting of the sporangia and the expulsion of the zoospores ; in
dry air no difTerentiation of the contents of the conidium ever
takes place. Thus, when the conidia are fully developed, the first
shower of rain will cause them to burst into activity, till the whole
surface of the plant and every drop of water upon it is swarming
with zoospores. It is thus obvious that the fungus may pass from
leaf to leaf and from plant to plant and from weeds to food-
plants by means of these active zoospores, which seem to retain
their activity for several hours. The zoospores are also undoubt-
edly carried about in damp air and in currents of wind ; they are
also widely distributed by means of insects, birds, and small
animals. Fortunately, the mycelium, conidia, and zoospores are
not possessed of great vitality, and they easily perish by frost,
drought, or even excess of moisture. But the question then
arises, " Why is not this fungus exterminated during the winter
season?" and the answer is, that this fungus, like the Feronospora,
possesses another method of reproduction — a sexual one — which
results in the formation of the winter or resting-spores.

138 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

The mycelium of Cysfopus, besides producing the chains of
spores already described, produces also other bodies, which may
be roughly compared to the pistils and anthers of flowering plants.
The terminal portion of a tube of mycelium swells out into a
large spheroidal cell, with thickened walls and granular protoplas-
mic contents, which are shut off from the mycelium-tube by a
partition. This is the female organ or oogonium, and the granu-
lar protoplasmic contents accumulating in the centre form the
oosphere. A neighbouring portion of mycelium-tube also becomes
i:)artitioned off, assumes an obovate form, and encloses within its
thin membrane a mass of fine granular protoplasm. This is the
male organ or antheridium, which presently comes in contact with
the oogonium, projects a fine beak through its wall, and pierces
the oosphere within. This is the act of fertiUsation, answering to
the discharge of pollen on to the stigma in flowering plants. In
the same way as an ovule becomes a seed after fertiUsation, so the
oosphere becomes an oospore after the contact of the antheri-
dium. A membrane is now formed around the oospore, which is
at first very thin, but gradually becomes thickened by deposits
from the surrounding fluid, and is at length yellowish-brown in
colour, and has its surface studded with large obtuse warts, one of
which, larger than the rest, surrounds the fecundating tube (PI.
XV., Figs. 8—12). Zalewski, who has made some detailed obser-
vations of these fungij finds that the oospore is enclosed in a
double coat, composed of endospore and exospore. The endo-
spore consists entirely of pure cellulose, and the exospore is
usually clearly differentiated into three layers, the innermost of
which is thin, homogeneous, and cuticularised ; the middle layer
suberised, finely granular, and composed of very thin round or
angular columns, placed very closely at right angles to the surface;
and the outermost composed of cellulose, and dark brown, cuticu-
larised or suberised externally. The mature oospore contains a
ball of protoplasm, occupying from one-half to nearly two-thirds
its diameter, which itself contains a large amount of oil. The
protoplasm between this and the wall of the oospore is dense and
granular ; in its outer portion are a number of bright, round spots,
probably vacuoles. The oospore grows and matures itself whilst
still within the supporting leaf or stem for many months, and does

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 139

not become perfectly ripe till the host-plant has decayed. Al-
though the dead plant may be reduced to tinder by drought and
frost, the oospores or resting spores remain alive and uninjured.

The oospores germinate on the ground during wet weather in
spring, and according to observations made by numerous micro-
scopists, this is what occurs : — The brown exospore bursts irregu-
larly, and the colourless endospore protrudes in a short, thick
tube, which gradually becomes a large vesicle, into which the
protoplasmic contents of the endospore enter. Eventually, the
endospore entirely quits the exospore, and the little masses of
protoplasm accumulate in a globular mass in its centre. Finally,
the spores isolate themselves from each other ; then for some
minutes they swarm within the vesicle, which presently gives way,
and the zoospores disperse in the surrounding moisture (PI. XV.,
Figs. 13 — 15). We thus find repeated, after an interval of from six
to ten months, the phenomena described as belonging to the
chains of conidia. The zoospores produced in both cases are
exactly similar, as is also their future career.

The activity of the zoospores lasts from two to three hours ;
then the cilia disappear, and the now immoveable spore assumes a
globular form, covers itself with a membrane of cellulose, and
puts forth a germinal tube, the extremity of which swells into a
small bladder, and receives by degrees the whole of the proto-
plasm.

If the spore has not by this time come in contact with the
host-plant, it perishes. But if it does find a suitable host, it
attaches itself to, but never enters, one of the stomata; the germ-
tube is pushed forth, and at once enters the air-cavity, and with it
the entire protoplasm of the spore (PL XV., Figs. 16 — 18). The
latter remains as a delicate vesicle, containing a little watery fluid,
which soon shrinks and escapes further observation. But here a
curious point arises, and as the credit of the observation is due to
De Bary, it will be well to quote from his remarks on the subject.
He had been making an extended series of experiments on the
infection of plants with Cystopiis spores by artificial means, and in
giving his results he says : — " If one uses for experiment leaves or
stems of plants, which generally bear Cystopiis, the germs enter
the stomata quickly, take the form which has just been indicated,
but never show any ulterior phenomena of vegetation. If in a few

140 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

days, or even weeks after sowing, one examines the epidermis and
the tissue beneath, one finds the germs to all appearances fresh,
but without having changed the aspect they exhibited on the first
day." He asks then, "How are the plants infected?" and
answers, " It is only the germs which enter by the stomata of the
cotyledons, whose growth produces mycelium."

They enter in the manner already described ; soon the termi-
nal swelling lengthens out, branches, and assumes all the qualities
of ordinary mycelium. These first tubes are gifted with the
faculty of growing, and branching out to an extent only limited by
the hospitable plant ; and if the plant possesses sufficient vitality
to live through the winter they live with it and revive their vege-
tation in the spring. " I shall not hazard an explanation of these
singular facts, because one knows too little about the difference
between the composition of the leaves and that of the foliated
cotyledons of the Cruciferae. I confine myself to a detailed
account of the experiments which gave me the result indicated.
All the experiments have been made with plants of Lepidiiim
sativum, growing from seeds of the same crop. They were sown
in flower-pots, placed in a room, and watered carefully, so that
nothing might be touched by the water except the soil.

" On 29th Oct., fifty-six plants of Lepidimn had just displayed
their cotyledons. I pulled up six, and plunged them into water
containing a large number of conidial zoospores, and the little
plants fell to the bottom of the vase. On 30th Oct., the epidermis
of three of them was examined microscopically, and showed a great
number of germs penetrated into the stomata ; the three others
were planted in the ground, and continued to grow. On Nov. 2nd
the cotyledons of one of them were examined ; they contained
very fine tubes of branched mycelium growing from the germs
which had entered by the stomata. On Nov. 17th, the cotyledons
of the two remaining plants were drooping, and conidial swellings
were visible on both surfaces. On Dec. 21st, each of the plants
displayed their first two leaves, which were covered with pustules
of Cystopiis, and at the end of December the plants died. Five of
the original fifty-six plants, planted separately, received on their
cotyledons drops of water charged with zoospores. Within a
month all of them had developed Cystopus, and a fortnight later

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 141

four of them died; the fifth continued to be infected with Cystopiis
during the whole time it was under observation — viz., about six
months. The forty-five remaining plants had ordinary culture.
They passed the winter without growing, and in the spring they
developed normally.

" A fresh batch of seeds of Lepidium was sown in March.
Sixty of the young plants had ordinary culture in flower-pots, and
their growth was normal. A dozen young plants were put in
flower-pots and the soil only w^atered, with the precautions already
described, with water charged with oogonial zoospores. The
plants developed normally. On March 20th, eleven plants
received on their coytledons drops of water charged with oogonial
zoospores. On April 2nd, five of them had fine pustules of Cys-
topus on their cotyledons, and the other six produced pustules
either on their cotyledons or leaves at various intervals. None of
these plants succumbed to the attacks of the parasite, but flowered
and fructified normally. It is, however, easy to conceive that
degeneration of the invaded plants is produced by the vegetation
of the fungus." ^

The first development of Cystopiis seems, therefore, to be some-
what difficult, because it can only take place in the cotyledons ;
but this is somewhat compensated for by the enormous quantity
of reproductive organs that are formed. Thus, a single plant of
Capsella or Lepidium infected with Cystopiis can easily produce a
million conidia, each containing from five to eight zoospores,
besides a large number of oospores, each containing about a
hundred zoospores. We must also remember that the oospores
or winter resting-spores germinate on the ground in the spring,
and are thus ready to attack the cotyledons as they make their
appearance above ground.

The definition of Cystopiis given by Cooke is, " Receptacle
consisting of thick branched threads ; conidia concatenate, at
length separating ; oospores deeply seated on the mycelium." De
Bary says : — " Conidiophores growing in large bunches, the
conidia being developed in single rows, in basipetal order." Cys-
topiis possesses much fewer species than Peronospora. Four only
have been described as British, and some four or five more have

* ec

Ann, cU Sc. Nat. Bot.," Ser. iv., Vol, xx,

142 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

been noticed by European observers. The only Continental
species that need be noticed are Cystopus Bliti and Cystopus
ForiiiiaccB.

Cystopus Bliti (PL XVI., Figs. 25, 26). — In this species the
conidia are unequal, the terminal cell sterile, and smaller than the
rest ; membrane hyaline, somewhat ochraceous, often umbilicated ;
the other cells obovate or pyriform ; oospore globose, epispore
brown, surface reticulated. It is found on Amarautus Blitiim.

Cystopus Portulace (PI. XVI., Figs. 27, 28) also has the
conidia unequal ; the terminal cell larger than the rest ; membrane
clear and yellowish, often umbilicated at the base, sterile or fertile.
Other fertile conidia yellowish, cylindrical. Oospores large,
globose ; epispore brown, covered with slightly raised, loose
reticulations.

De Bary says this species inhabits both cultivated and wild
Purslane, but he had not observed it on any other plant. In the
garden where he observed it for several years in great abundance,
neither the Portulaca grandiflora nor P. lauceolata had the slight-
est trace of the fungus, though they grew quite mixed up with the
rusted Purslane. Cooke says this species should be watched for
in this country, for though the cultivation of Purslane is exceed-
ingly limited, the plant is remarkably liable to attack from this
parasite.

The four British species are — Cystopus spimilosus, C. lepigoni^
C. cubictis, and C. candidus.

Cystopus spinulosus (PI. XVL, Fig. 29) has conidia, in time
much elongated; sori crumpent on both surfaces of the leaf, white;
oospores globose, epispore brown, tubercles minute, solid, very
prominent, often acute and spinulose. This species is sometimes
called the Thistle white rust, as it is found on thistles ; most
plentiful in September.

Cystopus lepigoni. Sandwort White Rust. — Conidia unequal;
terminal cell sterile, globose ; membrane thickened ; fertile cells
sub-globose or cylindrical ; membrane hyaline ; oospores globose ;
epispore brown, tubercles minute, irregular, very convex, often
resembling spines. Found on Spergularia rubra from June to
September.

Cystopus cubicus (PI. XVL, Figs. 22—24), Goat's-beard White

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 143

Rust. — Conidia unequal ; terminal cell sterile, larger than the
rest ; membrane thickened ; ochraceous ; fertile cells shortly
cylindrical ; membrane hyaline ; oospores globose ; epispore
brown, verrucose ; warts hollow, round, or irregular. This species
attacks Conipositce^ Goat's-Beard, Salsify, Scorzonera^ etc., and is
common in summer and autumn. De Bary states that he has
never found oospores on the Tragopogon^ although he found them
very plentifully on the Sco7'zonera.

Cystopus candidus (PI. XVI., Figs. 19 — 21), Crucifer White
Rust. — Con'dia equal, globose; membrane equal, ochraceous;
oospores sub-globose ; epispore yellowish brown, with irregular,
obtuse warts ; warts solid. This species is the best known of all.
It is found on Shepherd's-purse, Cabbages, Horse-radish, and other
Criicife7-ce ; also on some few species of CapparidetE. It is
common in the summer.

The following practical remarks by Worthington Smith will
well conclude this part of our subject: — "Alternation of crops
must tend to diminish white rust. Cabbages, cauliflowers, etc.,
should not be grown for two years in succession where white rust
has prevailed. Weeds should be gathered together and burnt
when infected with white rust. No cabbage, cauliflower, turnip,
or mangel refuse should be allowed to remain in a decaying state
throughout the winter in the fields, for in these positions white
rust hibernates." *

Having given a detailed account of this group of fungi,
we will now consider its position in the mycological world. The
classification of fungi is at present in an unsatisfactory state. It
is found that many supposed genera are only the early state or
condition of some other known fungi, and a constant process of
sifting and re-arranging is continually going on, especially amongst
the smaller and microscopic forms. Any clue to a scientific
classification deserves consideration, and of late years this has been
sought for, and apparently with some success, in the study of the
reproductive organs of fungi and the details of their life-history.
Classification on this principle may still be called artificial, but it
is natural, in so far as it attempts to bring into prominence actual
affinities, and not merely difterences and resemblances of external
* " Diseases of Field and Garden Crops." — \V. G. Smith.

144 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

habit. The arrangement of Fungi suggested by Sachs and Cohn
is one of the best-known attempts of this nature. They proposed
the division of Fungi into four classes, namely — Protophyta,
ZYGOSPOREiE^ Oospores, and Carpospore^.

The first class, Protophyta, contains those simple forms, called
Saccharomycetes, or Yeast Fungi, and Sc/iizomyceks, or Bacteria,
etc. No sexual organs are found here, and even no non-sexual
organs, the multiplication of individuals being effected by the
fission or separation of the ordinary vegetative cells.

The second class, Zygospore/e, contains all those fungi in
which sexual reproduction takes place by means of conjugation,
the essential characteristics of the process being that the two cells
which take part in it are alike, and produce, by the coalescence of
their protoplasmic contents, a cell of peculiar form, the Zygo-
spore, which usually remains for a time dormant, and is then
termed a resting spore. Conjugation is the simplest form of
sexual reproduction, but the mere fact of sexuality shows an
advance in the mode of reproduction. In keeping with this, the
Zygospore.e manifest, generally, a higher degree of organisation
than the Protophyta. The principal representatives of this class
are the Miicors^ or Moulds, which are, however, also propagated
by means of a non-sexual or reproductive cell, or conidium.

To the next class. Oospore.^, belong those fungi which are
reproduced sexually by means of Oogonia and Antheridia. In
this class is included Cystopus, and as the details of the sexual
reproduction were fully described when speaking of that fungus, it
need not be repeated. It will be remembered that here also
there is an alternative, non-sexual reproduction by means of
conidia. De Bary gives the following summary of the oosporous
Fungi : — Pythiiun. — Most of the protoplasm of the antheridium
passes into the oosphere. — PJiytophthora. — A small quantity of
the antheridial protoplasm enters the oosphere. — Peronospora. —
Probably the same process as in the preceding genius. — Sapro-
legjiia. — The antheridial tube does not open into the oosphere,
and no passage of substance can be observed. — In -S. to?'ulosa
and 6". asterophera no antheridial tubes are developed, and in
another species no antheridia.

In the last class, Carpospore^, are included all the true

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 145

fungi — viz., the Ascomycdes, yEcidiofuycefes, and Basidiomycetes.
All the fungi belonging to this class are characterised by the for-
mation of a spore-fruit or sporocarp as the result of the fertiUsa-
tion of the female reproductive organ, and differ herein from all
those which have hitherto been considered. This spore-fruit
consists generally of two distinct parts : a fertile part which is
directly derived from the female organ, and ultimately produces
true spores, and an investing part, which encloses the spores and
occasionally attains a considerable size, as in the Truffle. The
sporocarp is derived from a female organ called the " Carpogo-
nium." This in the simplest forms is a single cell, closely resem-
bling the oogonium of Class III., and the resemblance is still
more complete when, as in the case of Podosphcera^ the carpogo-
nium is fertilised by a tube growing from the male organ, just as is
the case in Saprolegniece. In the majority of cases, however, the
carpogonium is multicellular before fertilisation, and its cells con-
tribute in different ways to its further development ; some absorb
the fertilising substance, whilst others give rise to that part of the
fructification which produces the spores, as in the Ascoinycetes.
The male reproductive organ occurs in various forms, but fertili-
sation is usually effected by a tubular outgrowth.

Although for the purposes of classification the ^cidiomycetes
and the Basidmnycetes are included in this class, the authors
acknowledge that no direct proof has yet been given of the
existence of sexual organs in either of them, and even in some of
the Ascomycetes the sexual organs seem in abeyance.

Seeking, therefore, fresh information on this subject, we find
De Bary, in a recent memoir, proposing a classification of Fungi
based on the theory of descent. He considers that, passing from
the typical Peronosporcc — viz., PytJiiuni — to the higher Ascomycetes
— such as E^ysiphece on the one hand, and to the Saprolegniece
on the other — the sexual process is gradually eliminated, and the
sexual organs become at first functionless and then disappear
altogether.

In PytJiiiDii itself the antheridium pierces the oogonium wall
and fertilises the oosphere by pouring protoplasm into it. In
PhytopJitJiora and Peroiwspora the process is essentially similar,
but the quantity of protoplasm passed over from the antheridium

146 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

is smaller. In the SaprolegJiicce the fertilising tubes do not open,
and no protoplasm can be observed to pass over from the antheri-
dium to the oospheres. Or in some forms no antheridia are
present at all, and the parthenogenetic spores are nevertheless
capable of germinating. Now, if the Fodosphcera^ already men-
tioned, be compared with Ferojwspora, the antheridia will be
found to correspond in both cases, and the carpogonium to be
homologous with the oogonium of Feronosp07'a. It is remarkable
that the antheridium only applies itself closely to the carpogo-
nium and does not pierce it, and there is apparently no passage of
substance from one to the other — i.e.^ there is no sexual process,
though the sexual organs are present. Numerous investigations
lead us to conclude that while the sexual organs are present but
functionless in these lower Asco7?iycefes, they disappear entirely in
the higher forms.

De Bary concludes that we may regard the FeronosporcB as
phylogenetically important in two senses : — i. — Their general
biology strongly suggests that they are derived from algal ances-
tors, possibly not very unlike Vaiicheria and its allies. 2. — That
they are the progenitors of a few chief series of true Fungi — on
the one hand, the main series of Asconiycetes and allies ; on the
other, the Saprolegniece. and forms derived from and allied to them.

The Zygomycetes are regarded as branching off from the Fero-
nosp07'C(2. Fyf/iinm seems closely allied to the ChytridecE (a group
of fungi previously described as being parasitic on the
SaprolegniecB)^ and the Chytridece seem allied to the lower Ustilagi-
nece by means of the group Frotomyces. According to this
view, the resting spores of Ustilagmece. would be the homologues
of oogonia which become developed apogamously.

The Tremelliiii^ a group of well-known gelatinous fungi,
belong to the Basidiomycetes, but possess basidiospores, so sugges-
tive of the teleutospores of the UredinecE, that De Bary does not
hesitate to place them as derived from those Uredinece which
possess no aecidia ; whilst those Uredines which form secidia
resemble the Asconiycetes in so many points of structure and deve-
lopment that we may regard them as closely allied. The Tremel-
lini would then lead us to the Hymettomycetes and G aster 0 my cetes^
which form the bulk of the Basidiomycetes.

CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST. 147

The conclusion arrived at by De Bary, and supported by other
observers, is to the effect that as we proceed along the main lines
from the lower to the higher Fungi, the sexual process and sexual
organs gradually become less and less evident, and at length
disappear altogether, and the fructification then arises by apogamy.

We are indebted to Marshall Ward for some very ingenious
suggestions on this subject. He points out that the absence or
presence of sexual organs rises or falls with the nature of the
parasitism or saprophytism displayed. In the Saproleg?iiece, for
instance, the Fungi may probably be looked upon as very highly
nourished by the decomposing proteids of animals. Their sexual
organs seem to be present in most cases, but functionless.

In the Zygomycetes^ which are essentially saprophytes on
decaying vegetable matter, etc., or parasitic on one another, and
may be probably regarded as not so highly nourished, we find the
sexual organs functionally perfect, though very simple in charac-
ter. In the UstilaginecB we meet with parasitism of a peculiarly
high order, so to speak. The fungus not only robs its host, but
has in most cases curiously adapted its life to the habits of the
latter, using it rather as a slave than as a victim to be destroyed
forthwith. The same is true for the highly-organised Uredinece,
and we here meet with the highest adaptation of all — heteroecism.
But in both these groups the search for sexual organs has hitherto
proved futile.

Again, if we proceed upwards from the E?ysiphece, whicli
are epiphytes, adapting themselves to parasitic habits of that
special kind, which leads to life in the interior of temporary
organs like leaves, through the Ascouiycetes we find, speaking
generally, more and more tendency towards close and specially-
adapted parasitism, ending in the parasitic Fezizas, forms like the
F/eosporas, etc., and especially Claviceps. There is thus strong
reason for believino; that a connection exists between the mode of
life of a given Fungus, and the extent to which it is apogamous.
We are at least assured that profound differences exist — in degree
at any rate — between the saprophytism of a mucor growing in
a solution of horse-dung, and of a FytJiium developing its
fructification in the rotting parenchyma of a plant which it has
previously killed. There is also an equally striking difference

148 CYSTOPUS, OR WHITE RUST.

between the parasitism of an Epiphyte Hke Erysiphe^ and that
of a highly speciaHsed ^cidiomycete Hke Piiccinia. I'here is not
only a difference between the mode of attacking or living upon
the substratum, but also as to the kinds and quantities of the
various matters absorbed. Thus, a Uredine in a leaf obtains
different food from a Claviceps in a grain of rye, or Ustilago in a
hypertrophied stem of Zea Mays; and that these differences may
be very important is fully demonstrated in cases of heteroecism.

May it not then be possible that the sexuality of the higher
Fungi has disappeared because its purpose has been equally well,
or better attained otherwise than by means of sexual organs ? The
two points common to all cases of sexual reproduction are : —

I. — A larger or smaller quantity of protoplasmic matter passes
from one portion (the male organ) of the same or another
individual, into the protoplasm contained in another portion
(the female organ).

2. — The protoplasm contained in the female organ therefore
becomes capable of further development ; either at once, or more
generally after undergoing a period of rest.

We have, in the germination and development of an oospore,
simply a renewal of the growth of the organism, and it seems
to imply — if the term may be allowed — a condition of weariness
on the part of the protoplasm. No doubt the molecular energy
of the protoplasm forming the oosphere is less than that of the
rest of the plant for the time being ; the access of the antherozoid,
or male protoplasm, however, reinvigorates the sluggish mass, and
renewed life ensues. This may require some time, however, and
we may possibly not be far wrong if we imagine that interval
to be occupied in molecular rearrangements in the mass. But
although we can sum up the foregoing by saying that after a
time, protoplasm requires reinvigorating by the addition of fresh
protoplasm from another source, it is extremely improbable that
the protoplasm of the male and female organs is at all similar.

While we have reasons for believing that the mass of an
oosphere consists in the main of protoplasm such as occurs in
any cell capable of growth, it would be absurd to suppose that
the protoplasm of the male element is of the same nature ; on
the contrary, there is strong evidence that it differs extremely.

CYSTOPU>S, OR WHITE RUST. 149

We need not consider here the suggestion of De Bary that
profound chemical differences exist and effect the environment, or
Sach's recently expressed view as to the analogies between ferment
actions and fertilisation. Enough for our purpose that sexual
reproduction essentially consists in the reinvigoration of a slug-
gish mass of protoplasm, by the addition of another and
different mass of protoplasm. It must be allowed that no
satisfactory theory exists to account for the gradual disappear-
ance, first of sexuality, and then of even the morphologically
represented sexual organs in the Fungi ; and any attempt to
explain the matter seems to involve more than one vicious
assumption. It has been suggested by Eidam and others that
the apogamous Fungi are not always apogamous. The Mucors,
or Moulds, for instance, may be propagated through numerous
generations by means of the asexual spores ; the sexual organs
only arising now and again under favourable conditions. But
it is not easy to conceive how fertilisation in a distant past has
transmitted its effect through countless generations to the individ-
ual plants which now reproduce without any sexual act at all.

Now, reverting to the subject of parasitism, it can scarcely
be doubted that the protoplasm of a higher plant, such as a
phanerogam, differs from that of a lower cryptogam in being
capable of doing more work ; and that the great advantage
derived by a parasitic Fungus which has its life so adapted that it
can tax the cells of a planerogamous host-plant, is, that it obtains
its food-materials in a condition more nearly approaching that of
its own substance, than would be the case if it had to work these
materials up from inorganic matters. Now, it seems not impro-
bable that the protoplasm of a phanerogam may contain so much
energy that it can not only supply the vegetative mycelium of a
parasitic fungus with all that it requires for its inmiediate growth,
but also suffices to enable that fungus to store up enough energy
in its asexual spores to last until the next generation of the fungus
gains its hold-fast on another source of life-giving substance. But
we may imagine even this to fail after a time, and that at length
the fungus derives too little benefit to be able to go on, or tliat
the season during which the host-plant flourishes is drawing to an
end.

150 CYSTOPUS, OR ^YHITE RUST.

No doubt, we have in heteroecism the salvation of such a
fungus. Not only is it carried through a dangerous period, by-
seeking relief at the hands of a second host, but (what is far more
important) it obtains reinvigoration by the new protoplasm with
which it comes in contact.

It is not pretended that the hypothesis embodied in the
foregoing, at once explains all the cases possible, or that it is not
open to numerous objections ; but at any rate it is a suggestion
which well deserves consideration.

In writing the above paper, the following works have been consulted : —
"Ann. d. Sc. Nat. Bot.," 1863. " Botanische Zeitung," 1881. " Royal
Micro. Soc. Journ.," 18S1 — S3. " Quarterly Journal Microscopy," 1884.
"Grevillea," 1872, etc. " Sach's Botany," Eng. Trans., 1882. "Cooke's
Handbook of Fungi." " Diseases of Field and Garden Crops." — Worthington
G. Smith. " Berkeley's British Fungology."

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XV. AND XVL

Fig. 1. — Mycelium of Cystopus, with suckers.
2. — Chains of conidia.
3. — Conidia, fully ripe.

4. — Conidiuni protruding a membrane full of zoospores.
5 and G. — Development and expulsion of zoospores.
7. — Free zoospores.
8. — Oogonium with oospliere.
9. — Antheridium.
10. — Remains of antheridium.
11.^ — Ripe oogonium with oospore.
12.- — Ripe oospore.

13. — Ditto, with tube of endospore protruding.
14. — Endospore fully protruded and containing zoospores.
15. — Free zoospores.
1(). — Zoospore Mxed on stoma.
17. — Zoosp(jre germinating.

18. — Germ within stoma, swollen and elongated.
10, 20, 21.— C. candidus:—

19 — Conidia. 20 — Oospore. 21 — Fungus on Cabbage-leaf.
22, 23, 24.— C. cubicas:--

22 — Conidia. 23 — Oospore. 24 — Fungus on Goat's-

beard leaf.
25, 26.— C. BUti: —

25 — Conidia. 20 — Oospore.
27, 28.-0. Fortuhuoi:—

27 — Conidia. 28. — Oospore.
29.— C. Spimdosus, on Leaf of Thistle,

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[ 151 ]

®n flDountino :BectIe6 anb otber 3u5cct6

without prcci^urc*

By Robert Gillo.

BEING desirous of obtaining as much knowledge as possible
of die structure of Beetles, and more especially of their
mouth-organs, I thought I could not do better than pre-
pare some of them as transparent objects for the microscope ; for
although a dissection, in which you may examine each part sepa-
rately, is undoubtedly best, still it is of considerable advantage to
be able to see the various organs /// situ. I therefore set to work
and prepared some by the usual process — viz., mounting in balsam
with pressure — but soon found that this method was most unsatis-
factory, for although all the organs were visible under the micro-
scope, the relative position of each and the form of the whole was
altogether altered by pressure. To attain the end I had in view,
I experimented in various ways, and after several failures finally
adopted a process by which I have prepared a large number of
insects. Some of my friends who have seen these objects have
asked me to publish an account of the process. I willingly do so,
but with much diffidence, since there is really nothing new about
it. I consider that the plan I adopt is a selection and combina-
tion of methods and dodges known to all microscopic mounters.

Let us suppose that the object to be mounted is an ordinary
Ground-Beetle, perhaps half-an-inch long. The first thing to be
done is to steep it in Liquor Potassce (full strength), and for this
purpose I use a test-tube. When the solution becomes dark-
coloured, it must be poured away and fresh added. After being
in this for ten days or a fortnight, the insect must be transferred
to water in a tea-saucer (distilled or soft water should be used),
and whilst holding it steady with a cameFs-hair brush, gently
squeeze the body with another, giving the brush at the same time
a kind of rolling motion, thus driving the contents of the abdo-
men towards the anus, from which it will presently be discharged.
The beetle should now be removed to clean water, and left for an
hour or so, when the squeezing process with the two brushes must

VOL. IV. M

152 ON MOUNTING BEETLES AND

be repeated as before, when more of the abdominal contents will
be ejected. Again place the insect in clean water, and in this
way, by several soakings and squeezings, the whole of the contents
of the viscera will be removed without the least injury to any of
the internal organs.

Throughout this process, however, the insect will be seen to be
as opaque as it was at first. It is, therefore, necessary to bleach
it ; and to effect this it must be placed until sufficiently trans-
parent, which may take a week or more, in the following solution :
A saturated solution of Chlorate of Potash, to which is added lo
or 20 drops, or more, of strong Hydochloric Acid to each ounce
of solution. A shallow but large-mouthed corked bottle is best for
this purpose. The chlorine, which is slowly liberated, in the solu-
tion, attacks the chitine, and thus gradually bleaches it, and
renders it transparent.

It is now necessary to wash all this solution out of the insect,
which is best accomplished by placing it in a small pomatum-pot
filled with distilled water, and after an hour or so to change the
water, repeating the process four or five times. Nothing will be
found so convenient as pomatum-pots for washing insects, and in
practice I generally use several of them placed in a row, and pass
the insects on from one to the other in succession.

For the next part of the process, a nest of china saucers or
palettes — such as are used by water-colour artists (these fit suffi-
ciently accurately one on the other to hold spirit for a day or two
without its evaporating) — will be required. In an empty palette
place the insect (on its back), and arrange its legs, etc., in the
positions they are intended to retain when finished. Now gently
pour methylated spirit over it so as completely to cover it, notic-
ing that the legs are not displaced, for if they are right daring this
part of the process, they will naturally assume the same position
in the final stage of the mounting. After several hours, or next
day, change the spirit for fresh ; and again, after several hours, pass
the insect into ether, but as this is such a volatile fluid, it should
be used in a test-tube tightly corked. There need be no anxiety
about the position of the legs in this stage, as they have been
already stiffened by the spirit, and if displaced now will spring
back again into their original position. After soaking some hours

OTHER INSECTS WITHOUT PRESSURE, 153

in ether, pass into turpentine, in which it may be allowed to
remain any length of time.

To mount the insect, it will be necessary to form some kind of
cell upon the glass slips, and this can be easily accomplished as
follows : — First take the insect out on a slip of glass, and notice
its extreme length and breadth, so as to know the size of the cell
required '; also notice the thickness of the insect. Select a piece
of glass rather thinner than the thickest part of the object. The
insect must now be replaced in the turpentine until all is ready.
From the selected piece of glass cut with a diamond two strips,
I — 1 6th of an inch wide; place them together, and cut off two
pieces one-eighth of an inch longer than the cell required, then
cut two more pieces the width of the cell to form the ends. This
plan of cutting two pieces together will be found the best, as it is
not only necessary to cut the strips from the same piece of glass,
but from the same part of it. The mounting medium to be used
is balsam in benzole, which should be rather thick, so that it will
just drop comfortably from a glass rod, but not so fluid as would
be used for mounting in the ordinary way with pressure. Place
the insect on a clean slip, and arrange it carefully ; now drop some
balsam both on it and around it, and put the slips of glass in a •
proper position to form the cell. The balsam between the glass
will hold them securely whilst the cell is being filled quite full of
balsam. Now place on the cover-glass, which must, of course, be
a suitable size and quite clean, and affix one or two spring clips if
the mount is a large one. It will often happen that the cell will
not be quite full, and that a bubble of air will be enclosed. This
can easily be got rid of by opening the cell at the corner with the
setting needle, and dropping in some more balsam. By a little
dodging, all air-bubbles can be disposed of. Use plenty of
balsam, and when all seems to be in a proper position, put aside
to harden for a week or more. It will often happen, when taking
off the clip, that a bubble of air will run in ; if so, instantly
replace the clip, and the bubble will go out again. Now, at the
exact spot where the air enters, place a drop of balsam and
remove the clip, when, instead of air, balsam will be drawn in,
and the slide should again be put aside for a day or two without
any clip.

154 WHAT IS A PLANT?

Owing to the large amount of balsam contained in the cell,
the slide, whilst in this state, requires to be handled very carefully,
and must be kept in a horizontal position. A good body of some
cement is therefore necessary to protect it and to give rigidity to
the whole. I have found, after many trials, that the best plan is
to give two coats of Ward's brown cement, leaving the slide
several hours to dry before applying the second coat. Next put
around the cell a good body of the following cement : — Red lead,
w^hite lead, and litharge, each in powder, mixed together in boiled
linseed oil, with a palette-knife, and put on with a penknife in the
same way as putty would be used. This cement will take a week
to harden, when it must be pared smooth, and finished off with
black varnish. It is important to remember that the process
cannot be hurried. It is, however, quite easy to do several speci-
mens at one time, and whilst some are in one part of the process
others are passing through other stages, so that it seems far longer
and more complicated than it really is. Insects prepared by this
method show the whole of the internal organs in their proper
position, and when examined with the spot-lens illumination, the
whole of the tracheal system will be very plainly visible. They
also polarise brilliantly. This is probably owing to the action of
the acid in the bleaching solution on the different tissues.

Mbat is a DMant ?

By H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Botany at Westminster Hospital, President of the

Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society.

Part II.

VII. — Function of Circulation.

THE presence of circulatory organs formed Cuvier's second
distijidion. Animals, possessing a digestive cavity, taking
various foods into it which needed sundry operations to be
performed on them, and requiring to be quite independent of the

WHAT IS A PLANT? 155

atmosphere and heat, must have some internal system, governed
by some intrinsic force, by which the prepared food could be con-
veyed to all parts of the body. Thus came about a circulatory
apparatus, culminating in the higher forms in an apparatus con-
sisting of heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, and lymphatics. Sq
argued the great naturalist ; but he admitted the absence of such
a system among some lower forms, thus practically resigning its
diagnostic value. Of course, circulation goes on in plants, but
relatively to the digestive process, and from a morphological point
of view, it presents no similarity to animal circulation, although it
performs an analogous function.

Circulatory organs, as such, are absent in Protozoa, Ccelen-
TERATA, and PoRiFERA. Still, a kind of circulation is kept up in
the animalcules by the cilia referred to before, and by the
contractile vacuoles, which probably also subserve the function
of respiration ; in the Sponges, moreover, we have a system of
canals, with "pores" for water to enter by, and " oscula," or Httle
mouths, for its escape. We are justified, however, in saying that
these animals are devoid of circulatory organs, and Cuvier's
second test thereby becomes invalid.

VIII. — Presenxe of Nitrogen. Cuvier held that because
animals needed muscles to move with, and nerves to guide move-
ment and receive impressions, therefore the chemical constitution
was more complex in animals than in plants. This was effected
by the presence of nitrogen, which he set down as his third dis-
tinction. Chemical research has made rapid strides since 1828,
and we know now that nitrogen is always present in plants, and
quite as important to them as to animals, seeing that the proto-
plasm, or " sarcode " — i.e., the living substance of plants and
animals, the "physical basis of life," as Huxley rightly calls it — is
essentially and absolutely identical in both kinds of living beings,
whether high up or low down in the scale, whether in the germ or
in the adult. Its presence, therefore, as a means of diagnosis
between the two kingdoms, is hopelessly useless, and must vanish.

IX. — Gas-Exchange ; Function of Respiration. If we fill
a wide-mouthed bottle with water, place some green leaves in it,
and expose the whole to sunlight, bubbles of oxygen gas will soon

156 WHAT IS A PLANT?

be evolved from the leaves. That the gas is oxygen could be
proved in several ways. If we boiled the water before using it,
thus expelling the carbonic acid, no bubbles would come away,
showing that the oxygen was gained by decomposition of the acid
contained in the water. Suppose that our experiment had been
performed in the dark, no oxygen bubbles would have arisen,
showing light to be necessary for decomposition of carbonic acid. We
used green leaves ; our inference is that chlorophyll is the decompos-
ing agent. It is so ; it is the talisman with which the plant works
its will with the mineral world. Grow some mustard-seeds in
moist flannel in darkness ; the first leaves are almost colourless ;
expose the plants to the sunshine, they become green ; this shows
light to be necessary in oj'der to produce chlorophyll., which shall be
competent to decompose the carbonic acid of the atmosphere.

Now, on the other hand, let an animal — say, one of ourselves
— breathe into a bottle containino; lime-water. Shake the bottle
well ; a milky fluid is seen, which, analysed, would prove to be
calcic-carbonate, obtained from the union of lime-water with the
carbonic acid from the animal's breath. In other words, the ani-
mal evolves^ not oxygen, but carbonic acid. We need not dwell
on the ascertained fact that animals absorb or take in oxygen, and
we have seen that a plant takes in and decomposes carbonic acid.
Now, Cuvier founded on such facts as hese this fourth distinction.
He held that animals gave off carbon and hydrogen in the form of
carbonic acid and water, absorbing oxygen from the air ; plants,
inversely, took in carbonic acid and water, retained the carbon
and hydrogen, giving off oxygen to the air. In short, his conclu-
sion was that evolution of oxygen^ under the agency of light, was
the special feature of plant-life — respiration — /.<?., evolution of car-
bonic acid., and absoiptio7i of oxygen., that of animal life.

How does this distinction fail in its turn ? We saw just now
that our green leaves in darkness evolved no oxygen bubbles. We
did not say that no bubbles were evolved. As a matter of
fact, our green leaves in darkness would have given rise to bubbles
of carbonic acid, and had v/e led this gas into a botde of lime-water,
precisely the same result would have ensued as that produced by
the animal breath.

Again. Either in sunshine or darkness, take some germinating

WHAT IS A PLANT? 157

seeds — such as peas, or some budding floiuers — such as chamomile
flowers, or, as a third case, some Fungi — such as mushrooms (the
order possessing no chlorophyll) ; place them in a tightly-stop-
pered bottle ; after a few hours introduce a lighted taper into the
bottle ; it will be extinguished at once. Or lead the gas evolved by
the bodies named into a solution of lime-water ; calcic-carbonate
is quickly formed. From all these experiments we gather that
green parts of plants in darkness, and parts not green, and Fungi,
in either sunshine or darkness, evolve not oxygen, but carbonic
acid, precisely as animals do. They possess, that is, the fimction of
respiration. Familiar examples may any day be seen in the
evolution of this acid in the process of malting, which is really
one of corn sprouting by artificial means ; also, in carbonic acid
coming off from yeast, which is really a case of its evolution
from a Fungus. Thus we see that on the ground of respiration
we cannot build up any distinctive diagnosis of animal-life as
opposed to plant-life. As Huxley says, " The difference vanishes
with the sunshine," even with the green parts of plants, while with
parts not green and the Fungi, no difference exists at any time.
We must, therefore, resign the distinction, or write down the oak
as a plant by day, an animal by night, a statement manifestly
absurd. Moreover, modern research, especially Bernard's
experiments, show that the green parts of plants, even in sunshine,
do truly respire, or evolve carbonic acid to some extent, only its
effects are hidden by the excess of the more marked process of
their evolution of oxygen. Still one further remark. It has been
shown with positive proof, by Mr. P. Geddes, that some animals
possessing chlorophyll, such as Spongilla, Hydra, and Convoluta,
(all before-named,) and others on which iVlgse are parasitic (in
the sense of living in their substance), such as the Radiolaria,
A?ifhea cerciis, var. smaragdina, and Helianthus, two well-known
anemones, do actually evolve oxygen, exactly like chlorophyllian
plants ! So that, on both the animal and the plant sides, our
diagnosis fails us. Therefore, we see that all the four distinctions
of Cuvier fail to be absolute and diagnostic in the light and under
the test of recent biological discovery.

X. — Function of Sensation. The possession of the power
to " feel " was long held to be peculiar to animals, and a distinction

158 WHAT IS A PLANT?

was based on this supposition, plants being devoid of any such
power. Sensation was, moreover, thought to be invariably
accompanied by the presence of a nervous system. What
do we find to be the case ? We now look on a " nerve " as
simply " a linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between
two points of an organism — one of which is able to affect the
other by means of the communication so established."'" One
of the chief properties of profoplasvi^ the living substance of
plants and animals, is '''' contractility '^ All contraction ensues as
the result of the application of some " stiniulns^''' such as light,
heat, electricity, mechanical irritation, and the like, or by the
exercise of the will. The phenomenon of " reflex action " in
animals is familiar to all. Stating it simply, in the case of any
external stimulus, the " impulse " is sent along a " sensory " tract
of nervous matter to the brain, and thence reflected along a
'' motor " pathway to the muscles, causing movement or contrac-
tion in them. Touch one of the tentacles of a snail, and it is
instantly retracted. This is due to irritation of the nervous sys-
tem acting on the muscles, and causing them to contract. In the
anemone, although no definite nervous system is present, yet,
taking the above definition of a nerve, we can understand the
evidence the creature gives of sensation by the immediate with-
drawal of its circlet of tentacles. We can easily demonstrate
reflex action in ourselves by placing our fingers in boiling
water, or by touching a hot cinder. We execute a similar hasty
retreat.

Now, protoplasm in animal and plant is absolutely identical.
The contractility in that of a plant can in no way be distinguished
from the contractility in that of an animal. Furthermore, Dr.
Burdon-Sanderson, in 1873, ^'^ Darwin's suggestion, undertook
some experiments on contractility, as seen in the protoplasm of
our old friend, DiojKsa. He found this to be accompanied by an
^^ electrical distti?imnce,'^ precisely similar to that taking place when
a human muscle, such as the " biceps," contracts, as in bending
the arm. Among plants, we find numerous cases of protoplasmic
contractility ensuing as a result of stimuli of various kinds, analo-
gous to that taking place by the agency of nervous tissue. We
^^ iiu.\ley, '' Science and Culture," p. 158.

WHAT IS A PLANT? 159

can only select a few examples. We will consider them more in
detail in a future paper on the " Power of Movement in Plants,"
when we shall classify these movements according to their respec-
tive stimuli.

Light is in many cases the acting stimulus. This is seen
notably in Desinodiiim^ the " Telegraph-Plant," where the large
terminal leaflet descends as the sun falls, the two lateral leaflets
meanwhile perpetually moving up and down ; in the Compass-
pla7it of American prairies, which invariably grows with its leaf-
edges N. and S., while their surfaces are placed E. and W., a pro-
perty made use of by the trappers on a dark night, in order to
find out in what direction they are going ; in the stem of Hdian-
thus, the Sun-flower; in the southern inclination of ripening ears
of corn ; and in many other cases.

Similarly, we have the opening and closing of many flowers at
certain hours of the day. Heat operates as a stimulus here, as
well as light. Bindweed opens at 3 a.m., Chicory at 5 a.m.,
Pimpernel at 8 a.m., Evening Primrose at 6 p.m., Evening
Campion at 7 p.m. ; Goatsbeard closes at noon, and so is called
" John-go-to-bed-at-noon " by the dwellers on the Wye; Pimpernel
at 3 p.m., Daisy at sunset. Thus Linnaeus made his "floral
clock" ! Then, again, the varying periods of the year (these
further varying with geographical position) at which flowers open
have to do with the stimuli of light and heat.

Moisture is a stimulus to plant-movement. This is seen in
many " hygroscopic " plants. Bindweed and Pimpernel close on
the approach of rain, the latter thus called the " Poor Man's
Weather-Glass." So, too, the "elaters" oi Equisetiun uncoil in
damp weather, and help to scatter the spores ; a similar cause is at
work with the " annulus " surrounding the spore-cases of some
Ferns, enabling it to contract, and set free the spores.

Something closely akin to all these is seen in the " sleep " of
leaves, such as those of Wood-sorrel, Balsam, Melilot, and notably
of Mimosa^ the Sensitive plant.

Mechanical irritation is the only remaining stimulus we can
notice. A footfall will cause the leaves of the Wood-sorrel to
close ; a touch, the vibration of a passing train, or even of a
trotting horse, will similarly affect Mimosa^ an insect, as it usually

160 WHAT IS A PLANT?

knows to its cost, can, by alighting on a leaf of Drosera or
Dio?icEa, cause it to close on itself; the leaves of Rhus can be
made literally to dance by throwing them into water. A similar
effect — i.e., a sudden movement — is seen in the irritation of some
stamens ; for example, those of Pellitory, Barberry, Knapweed,
Nettle, Periwinkle, and many others, the result being the dis-
charge of the fertilising pollen. Such movements are seen in the
caudicles of the pollen-masses of certain Orchids ; in the styles of
Cactus, Passion-flower, etc. ; in both stamens and styles in
Fuchsia, Mallow, and others ; finally, in the capsules of some
plants, as Geranium and Balsam, in which last case the writer has
seen the contained seeds scattered to a distance of over six yards !
Many other examples might be cited, all showing contraction of
plant-protoplasm as akin to that in the animal economy. The
theory that plants "feel" when plucked may not be quite so
absurd as is supposed ; we may wake some morning to discover
a " something " comparable to a nervous system in the plant
domain, and Wordsworth may have uttered a deeper truth than
he imagined when he sang : —

" 'Tis my faith that every flower
Enjoys the air it breathes."

On the animal side, the Protozoa, Porifera, and some
CcELENTERATA, are dcvoid of any nervous system ; we meet with
none until we come to the Jelly-flshes, where the brilliant re-
searches of Mr. Romanes have discovered one to exist. Still, all
those devoid of it respond, like plants, to stimuli of sundry kinds.
Sensation, therefore, fails as a distinctive mark.

Driven from our ground at every point, so far, let us make one
more attempt to find a sure standing-place ; with what success, it
remains to be seen. We will, as briefly as we can, select for this
purpose, as our " forlorn hope " —

XL — The Nature of the Food. We have seen already the
general relation of plants to the mineral world. It is this : — They
are able to decompose simple eofupoimds, such as water and car-
bonic acid. From these they get their oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon ; their nitrogen they get from ammonia, or its salts, these
being usually dissolved in the water taken up by the roots. From

WHAT IS A PLANT? 161

these simple bodies they can, by taking away their oxygen^ build up
their own compound substances, such as starch, cellulose, and the
nitrogenous body, protein, which forms the chief part of their proto-
plasm ; i.e., they are able, out of these simple substances above
named, together with some phosphates and sulphates — the " raw
materials " — to build up their own vegetable " stuffs." They are
producers.

Animals, on the contrary, are, for the most part, unable to do
this. They need their protein ready made for them. They live,
therefore, on plants, or plant-eating creatures, which contain
starch, sugar, protein, etc. ; these they bi-eak doivn into simpler
bodies, and by adding oxygen to these (the reverse of the plant
process), they reproduce the water, carbonic acid, and ammonia,
destined again to be given off, and to become the food of
plants. They are consumers. So the circle of life is kept up, and
to use Huxley's apt terms, animals are the " ideal aristocrats," as
opposed to plants, which are the " working classes " ! The plant
process is one of deoxidation and synthesis ; the animal process is
one of analysis and oxidation, or combustion.

Now, this ina7iiifacturing power possessed by plants is the only
sharp line of demarcation that we can find that shall separate
them from animals. Even to this, sharp and clear as it is, there
are modifications, to use a milder term than that of exceptions.
Let us glance at a few of these.

Many of the higher plants — the parasites, before named, as
also the Fungi, or moulds — having no chlorophyll, are unable to
decompose the simple inorganic bodies, and so to use them as
food ; still, they are manufacturers, for if we supply them with
bodies slightly more complex, such as ammonia tartrate (contain-
ing carbonic acid), they can build up their protein from these, and
are therefore plants. Suppose we sow a single spore of Fe?iicil-
lium, the mould found on old boots, or on jam, in a solution
containing ammonia tartrate, with a small addition of phosphates
and sulphates, keeping it warm, in either darkness or light, we
shall shortly find a thick film of mould many million times the
weight of our spore in cellulose, protein, etc.

All this has been manufactured. No sunshine, no chlorophyll,
and yet work done \ proving that manufacture can go on inde-

162 WHAT IS A PLANT?

pendently of both these agents, so long as the food is other than
carbonic acid.

Again. Torula, the yeast-organism, the one causing fermenta-
tion in sugary solutions, flourishes, if placed in a tartrate liquid ;
but — and mark this — it flourishes far more abundantly if pepsin, a
nitrogenous body, be added. Here it seems to feed on ready-
made protein, like an animal, and we see no reason to doubt that
Botrytis and Enipusina^ the fungi, respectively, of the caterpillar
and the house-fly, Peronospoi-a^ the potato-fungus, Ile?jiileia, the
coffee-plant fungus, Piicciniuin^ parasitic on grasses, and ^cidmni,
living on the celandine, as also the Fungi that are parasitic on
human skin, do, one and all, feed on the ready-made protein of
their hosts. Thus they resemble animals, although undoubtedly
plants.

^fhaliiu/i, or flowers-of-tan, an organism growing around tan-
pits, during part of its life has no cellulose coat, feeds on protein,
takes in solid food, and moves about from place to place, even
going so far as to chmb some little way up the trunks of adjacent
trees ; yet, at another period, it shows several distinctly plant-
features. It is, at present, a biological puzzle. The organisms
known as Monads — such as the " Heteromita " of Huxley and the
"" calycine monad " of Dr. Dallinger — are equally puzzling. The
latter is an organism only one three-thousandth of an inch in size,
possessing two cilia, the hinder one being only one one-hundred-
thousandth of an inch in diameter ! These bodies resemble
plants in many ways, and yet may with almost equal reason be
placed among animals. We cannot say which they may be until
their method of feeding has been definitely ascertained. Finally,
there are the Insectivorous plants — Drosera, etc. — that feed on the
nitrogenous compounds of their victims.

On the plant side, therefore, modifications are by no means
few or inconsiderable ; but even on the animal side, where the
absence of power to manufacture is very nearly universal, Mr.
Geddes has found that in Convoluia * fine granules of starch are
formed inside its green chlorophyU granules, looking as if the
creature were nourished in virtue of its chlorophyll — /.(?., as if it
fed on carbonic acid, like a plant ; and we are by no means sure
* Vide No. IX. in this paper, "Gas-Exchange."

WHAT IS A PLANT? 163

that this may not be also said of Spongilla and Hydra, though
this is not definitely proven.

Mr. Geddes points out that there is a strange parallel between
the Drosera — which, while imitating a carnivorous animal, tends
to lose its normal character by possessing so tiny a root — and the
Convoluta — which, imitating a green plant, loses all trace of an
alimentary canal, and is of exceedingly abstemious habits.

We see, therefore, that even the nature of the food, as a dis-
tinctive mark, fails us in some cases on both sides ; many plants
needing more complex bodies for food, many appearing to subsist
on ready-made protein, while some, possibly, could not live
without it ; some few animals seeming to possess the plant-power
of decomposing carbonic acid.

However, we may say that, pJiysiologically, the most distinctive
feature of plant-life is the power to manufacture protein from less
complex bodies ; that of animal-life, the absence of such power.

Let us now gather up our evidence, and see what reply, if any,
we may give to the query at the head of this paper. Looking
carefully through the eleven sections, and marking their details,
we find the case to be pretty much this : — In form, in the presence
of starch, or of chlorophyll, in power of locomotion, in the pre-
sence of circulatory organs, or of the body called nitrogen, in the
functions of respiration and sensation, we can by no means find
diagnostic characters ; i7i the presence of a cellulose coat in the
plant-cell, in digestion follo-zaed by absorption, and in the power to
manufacture p7'otein, we find fairly constant and well-marked dis-
tinctions ; the morphological feature of plants being this cellulose
coat ; of animals, its absence ; the physiological peculiarity of
plants, this manufacturing power ; of animals, the want of it.

Finally, seeing that some plants are devoid of the power to
manufacture protein out of the simple compounds, requiring those
more complex ; that some appear to feed on protein, as such ;
remembering the cases of ^-Ethalium, and also of the " Monads,"
bearing in mind the example of Convohita, and possibly others
among animals : we are compelled to admit that in many cases
the difference is one of degree rather than of kind, and that to the
question. Is this an animal or a plant ? we must often reply, IVe
do not know /

164 WHAT IS A PLANT?

One word of caution. We do not strive to show any origin of
animals from plants. Were that so, the lowest animal form would
be most nearly related to the highest form among plants, whereas
it is among the lowest forms on both sides that we find such per-
plexing similarity both in form and function. As Dr. Wilson puts
it, " The two series form a tree, with two branches, diverging most
widely at their highest forms " ; they become more parallel as we
- descend the scale, meeting below in the root of the tree ; the
speck of protoplasm, which, differentiated and guided by the
Divine Hand which governs all life, is directed along either the
animal or the plant branch. Should further research show a close
union of these first parallel and afterwards divergent lines of life,
and entire inability to primarily separate the one from the other in
many instances, this result will not lessen the fascination which
the study of life and its wonders possesses for us. Nay, more.
We shall not have less of reverence for Him who, behind and
above all forces and powers, ever stands as the primary cause of
all power and force ; the one Law-giver, behind all the laws of His
marvellous universe ; the Maker of all the " atoms," whose con-
course is 7iot " fortuitous," let the theorists say what they may.
The more we study the intricacy, delicacy, and beauty of the
varied creations of a Power, which, although we cannot compre-
hend, we are, through that very study, constrained to believe in,
the more surely shall we be led reverently, silently, and lovingly, to

" Look through Nature up to Nature's God."
London; February, i88^.

Notes.

I. — Presence of Starch (p. 78). Radiolarian yelloiu-cells.
These are now definitely known to be parasites, in the form of
unicellular algge. Geddes, in 1882, confirmed the views of Cien-
kowski in 1871, Hertwig in 1879, and Hamann in 1881 ; he pro-
poses the name Philozoon as the generic name of these algae. He
shows that the parasitic Philozoon renders service to the Radiola-
rian by supplying it with starch by osmosis, by evolving nascent
oxygen into the surrounding animal tissue, and by nourishing the
host in virtue of being digested by it after death ; receiving as its

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 165

reward the carbonic acid and nitrogenous waste of the Radiola-
rian, which is its own needed support, and by using which it is
enabled to multiply itself."^

2. — Presence of C/iIorop/iyll {\). 78).

It is now ascertained that the supposed Chlorophyll in Idotea
and Bonellia is not that body at all, but a green pigment, for which
the term " bonellein " is proposed. In Anthea ceretis, var. S7)ia-
ragdijia, the substance is termed " Anthea green," differing from
chlorophyll in some ways, but apparently capable of causing
evolution of oxygen ; in the variety plu/nosa, which also evolves
oxygen, there is no chlorophyll, but a great number of parasitic
algae are seen in the endodermal cells. The variety smai^agdina
also contains a few parasitic algse.f

[Erratum. — Part First, Section I., p. *]"] , for " Chalmydamonas,," read
' ' Chalmydomonas. "]

Cbironomu6 prasinue*

By a. Hammond, F.L.S.
Plates 9 and 10.

Part II.

'"T^HE Malphigian tubes are four in number ; they open into
X a slightly dilated chamber at the beginning of the small
intestine. The term " bile tubes," which I have employed
for these organs on former occasions, must, I think, be discarded,
the balance of opinion being against it. It is generally stated
that the Malphigian tubes belong to the proctodeum, and are
consequently of epiblastic origin, and there is no difficulty in
accepting this theory in the present case, so far as the structures
of the larva may be allowed to bear upon the point, but in an
allied genus t which I have investigated, the separation between

* P. Geddes, " Nature," Vol. XXV., p. 303.

+ Ibid.
X Simuliinn, species not determined.

166 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

stomach and intestine is very sharply marked both in the character
of their epitheUal and muscular coats, and the tubes here seem
decidedly to enter the lower portion of the stomach. It is
difficult to see how this comes about.

Connected with the alimentary canal are two large glandular
sacs, which open by ringed ducts, uniting to form a common duct
which opens into the oesophagus immediately behind the mouth.
I have cursorily glanced at these organs both in Taiiypiis and the
Blow-Fly. In Chironomus they are specially worthy of attention.
Their high development may be estimated by the activity and
importance of their function, as evidenced by the felting of the
mud in which the insects live. This development does not lie in
the extent of secreting surface as brought about by the methods
usually adopted in the compound glands of vertebrates. Like
other glandular structures of insects, they are simple though
somewhat irregular in shape, and the reason of their extraordinary
efficiency as secreting organs must be sought rather in the
character of their secerning elements than in their multitude, and
these present under microscopical examination two special charac-
ters, that may both, I think, contribute to this result, viz., first the
character of the nucleus, and second the shape of the cell and
the position of the nucleus therein. Figure 4 represents a portion
of the gland in a condition, as I take it, of comparative functional
inactivity, a state, at all events, in which I sometimes find it. The
cells are of considerable size, as may be seen by the scale attached,
and are nucleated and slightly granular in aspect, but there is
noticing unusual in their appearance. On other occasions, how-
ever, the nuclei present a very peculiar aspect, which I have never
seen except in structures of these and allied larvae. As these
features of the nuclei have formed the subject of a paper by Prof.
Balliani, I prefer to give succinctly the result of his observations
thereon.*

He commences by showing that structures similar to this had
been previously observed by him in other insects, etc., where the
nuclei presented granulations arranged linearly. To bring them
out he uses acetic or chromic acid for just sufficient time only to
produce the result; further action being injurious. By such

* Carus Zool. Anzeiger, 1881, pp. 637 and 662.

CHIROXOMUS PRASIXUS. 1G7

means he succeeded in showing that the germinal vesicle of the
ovarian ova of a rabbit enclosed a network formed of uniserial
rows of globules, and not homogeneous filaments. In many-
cases these nuclear grains, instead of being globular, are disc-like,
resembling rouleaux of blood-globules, and this is especially the
case in Chi7'o?iomus^ where the nuclei of the salivary glands, in
which the phenomena are most strikingly shown, enclose, firstly,
two large nucleoli, sometimes separate, sometimes more or less
united (see Fig. i6) ; and secondly, a coiled, cylindrical cord of
slightly varying diameter ; sometimes continuous, sometimes in-
terrupted, and occasionally doubled ; the extremities of which
pierce the nucleoli (see Fig. i6). At a small distance from each
extremity there is an abrupt discoid swelling, which may be
described as a ring which the cord traverses a little before the
extremity pierces the nucleolus. This ring is difficult to see in
living cells, but is brought out by re-agents, colouring matter, etc.
The structure of the cord presents alternate dark and light bands,
the former of which appear to be formed by a solid substance, the
latter by a liquid. These bands are the expression of thin discs,
which are quite independent of each other, as may be seen when
separated by pressure. It will scarcely be questioned, Balbiani
says, that the cord is the homologue of the intra-nuculear network
of other nuclei, which are generally described as consisting of
homogeneous threads continuous with the wall of the nucleus, and
branching and anastomosing therein. Are these, however, he asks,
the characters of the fresh and living nuclei ? It has been stated
that the prolonged use of re-agents beyond the time required for
fairly bringing out the phenomenon in question, destroys the
utility of their application ; nay, more, knots up the cord and fuses
the discs with one another ; and this is what he thinks has
happened with many observers who thus have only described
homogeneous, intra-nuclear networks, where otherwise they might
have described structures similar, more or less, to those so
beautifully seen in this insect. He observes, finally, that the nuclei
of CJiironomus are truly organisms — ?>., they are provided with
special parts fulfilling special functions, and perhaps this inference
may extend to both animal and vegetable kingdoms. There is
no doubt that there is exhibited in these nuclei a high degree of

VOL. IV. N

168 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

differentiation. Now, differentiation, we know, is always associated
with perfection of function. We are justified, therefore, I think,
in connecting the extraordinary secreting activity of the glands,
in the first place, with the complex structure of the nuclei of the
cells concerned in the process.

But, again, there is another point, as I have mentioned, which
bears upon this subject. Under some conditions I have found
that the cells, instead of being simple in shape, as in Fig. 4,
assume the very remarkable forms exhibited in Fig. 8, where the
nucleus, with a certain amount of the protoplasm of the, cell,
becomes almost separated from the remainder, and projects into
the cavity of the gland as upon a pedicel, the remainder of the
cell assuming a flat, polygonal form. Now, here we find that the
nucleus, the centre of the vital activity of the cell (which vital
activity is here chiefly manifested in the act of secretion) is
removed into what I think we may regard as a speciallised portion
of the cell, both on account of its marked separation from the
remainder, and on account of its projection into the cavity of the
gland — i.e.^ into a position obviously the most favourable for a
copious outpouring of the secretion from its walls. The remaining
flat portion, or base of the cell, I regard as nutritive — />., it takes
from the blood, to which it offers a large surface, the material
requisite for the growth of the whole ; and the more so, as I have
occasionally noticed secondary nuclei in this part, evidences o^
imperfect cell-division, showing that here the processes of growth
go on, but giving as yet no traces of the complex structure just
described. I think it possible that the pedicellated portion of
the cell, with its nucleus, becomes completely separated, and falls
off when its vital activity is exhausted and its mission accom-
plished, its place being taken by the new cells into which the
basal portion has by this time divided. We have, I think, in
these cells a differentiation of the nucleus, evident as a matter of
ocular demonstration, and another differentiation, equally real, of
the protoplasm, which can for the present only be a matter of
inference, but both contributing to the higher organisation of the
gland.

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 169

The Vascular System and Ccelom. — It will be well,

perhaps, shortly to compare these parts of the organism as they
are found in the Vermes and Arthropoda respectively, observing
that a reference to my paper on Tub if ex riindoriiin "■'" will help to
illustrate many of the points mentioned. The ccelom of the
Vermes is marked off into sections almost separated by the
inter-segmental septa, whilst that of the Arthropoda is continuous.
The vascular system of the former is closed and quite cut off
from the coelom ; that of the latter ij-c.^ the dorsal vessel) is in
communication with it. The vascular fluid of the former differs
in colour, etc., from that occupying the coelom ; that of the latter
is identical with it. The dorsal vessel of the former is in close
connection with the intestine ; that of the latter is separate
therefrom. The coelom of the former is circumscribed by an
endothelial lining, the peritoneal membrane of Dr. Williams ;
that of the latter is not so circumscribed, but extends between the
muscles and other organs. These differences show that it must
not be concluded, as might happen from a superficial view, that
the ccelomic cavity of the Arthropoda is homologous with that of
the worms, and Gegenbaur states that the coelom of the former is
part of the vascular system. f

The dorsal vessel, therefore, of our larva may be regarded as
part and parcel of the vascular body-cavity in which it lies. It
consists of a chambered tube commencing in the twelfth, or
penultimate segment of the larva, and extends forwards towards
the head ; its anterior termination I have not been able to trace.
It is curious that while in many allied larv?e this tube appears to
be contractile throughout its length, the contractiHty in this case
is, I think, confined to the first chamber (reckoning these in a
backward direction) in the twelfth segment, where it is very
marked, and is evidently due to the presence of a coating of
transverse muscles which produces the systole. How the diastole
is brought about is not equally obvious, but I think it is by the
elasticity of a number of almost invisible connective tissue cords
that connect the dorsal wall of the chamber with the integument.

* vSee this Journal, Vol. L, p. 14.
t Gegenbaur's Elements of Comparative Anatomy, p. 27S, English translation.

170 CHIRONOMUS PEASINUR.

I have not seen the least trace in this larva of the triangular
muscles known as the wings of the heart.* although I have
distinctly recognised them in the larva of a closely allied insect,
the Crane-Fly, where they extend nearly the whole length of the
vessel. The blood is admitted by two slits or orifices at the
posterior end of the chamber, and is prevented from returning by
two valves at its anterior end. This first chamber is much the
largest of the series, and seems pre-eminently to claim the title
of heart ; the rest of the tube may be more justly entitled' the
aorta. I can detect no other orifices for the admission of blood
except the two mentioned.

The fatty rete of this larva generally presents a number of oil-
globules of very various sizes scattered through a homogeneous
ground-substance. In young larv?e I have found nuclei instead of
oil-globules. The latter, therefore, I think, must be looked upon as
the secretion of cells of which the whole substance was originally
composed, but the divisions between them have disappeared, the
structure having become what is termed a syncitium. It assumes
two forms, the first of which is a laminated trabecular one,
consisting sometimes of irregular sheets of rounded contour, one
or more of which may intervene between the hypoderm and the
muscular tunic of the larva, and connected with each other by
anastomosing processes ; or the trabecular character being more
pronounced, it may, as in the thoracic segments, consist of a
number of intercrossing and anastomosing shreds. Sometimes
portions are found between the muscles. The second form is
found surrounding the intestine, and consists of sausage-shaped
or irregularly tubular masses of the same tissue. As I think
there is always a distinction, more or less, between the portions of
the rete, I would propose to designate them respectively by the
terms : somatic rete and splanchnic rete. At other times I have
found the somatic rete largely composed of granular cells of very
varying sizes, up to r-8oo of an inch, with no oil-globules. This
seems to be a special condition, and the larvDs in which it is found
are so swollen out by the great accumulation of it in each segment
as to assume a knotted appearance. In this condition, too, it

* Since writing this, I have l^een able to recognise the existence of the
triangular muscles.

CHlRONOMUS PRASINUS. 171

reflects light strongly, so that the larvae appear opaque and white,
as v/ell as knotted. This is only seen in mature larvae.

Perhaps the most usual condition of the blood of this larva is
that of a clear red fluid, in which little or nothing can be
discerned. Frequently, however, filamentous elements (Fig. i8)
can be seen carried along with the circulation, and in situations
such as the respiratory appendages, where the movement of
translation is occasionally from some cause impeded ; careful
watching will, I think, result in the conviction that these filaments
have a proper movement of their own, somewhat resembling that
of the filaments of Oscillatorice. and knotted portions present
slow, amoeba-like changes of shape. On some occasions I have
found the blood filled with a vast number of large, clear cells, as
much as the r-6oo of an inch in length, having an oval outline
and vacuolated appearance. Whether these could be regarded
as blood-cells I am somewhat uncertain.

The nervous system consists, as in Taiiypus^ of a supra-
oesophageal ganglion, or brain, united by a pair of crura (embracing
the oesophagus) with a double ganglionated cord (see Fig. 3),
consisting of 12 ganglia, the five anterior of which are approx-
imated, and the last two, closely contiguous. It may be remarked
that Dufour •'' states that the nervous cord of the Diptera is
invariably single and not double. It is evident that he either had
not examined the larval state of the insects, or that his statement
was meant to apply exclusively to the imago, in which sense it is
probably correct. The nervous cord of the Crane-Fly is single
in both conditions, but at the posterior end of each pair of
commissures, and immediately in front of the succeeding ganglion,
there is a small split in the substance of the cord, sufficiently
indicating that its original condition was double, as we find it in
TanypHs and Chiroiiomus.^ Four black pigment spots, two on

* Recherches Anatomiques sur les Dipteres. Memoires Presentes a
1 Institut de France. Tome II., 1851, page 176.

t The coalescence of the nervous cords in the perfect condition of Dipterous
insects must be taken, I think, as an indication amongst others of the high
grade of development of this order of Insects. It is paralleled by an equally
noticeable tendency of the integumental parts to coalesce in the ventral mesial
line. Compare the widely separated legs, for instance, of most, if not all,
Orthopterous insects with the close ap})ro.\imaiion of these organs in the
Uiptera. Notice also the great preponderance of the dorsal abdominal
plates in the latter over those of the ventral.

172 CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS.

each side of the head, serve the purpose, it may be presumed, of
eyes ; each of the inner pair is furnished with what looks like a
couple of crystalline lenses. The antennae are bifid, as shown
in Figs. 9, 13, and 14.

Muscular System. — I have little to say at present on this
subject beyond what I have mentioned in connection with the ali-
mentary canal. There is the usual muscular intestine lying under
the. integument (see Fig. 3), and consisting principally of longitu-
dinal fibres, connecting segment with segment. They are broad,
band-like, striated fibres of somewhat equal diameter throughout,
attached by either extremity to the integument, and invested with
sarcolemma. By their means the various movements of the body
are produced, and special fibres are found in the head connected
with the organs of the mouth. Transverse muscles also occur
in the abdominal segments, which in the living larva frequently
stand out from the surrounding tissues with an opalescent
brilliancy. This happens whenever the axis of the fibre corres-
ponds with the line of vision as is frequently the case during the
movements of the animal. They are thus represented in optical
section in Fig. 21, and their position is indicated in Fig. 2. One
observation I should like to make with reference to the phe-
nomenon of contractility evinced by them. If a living larva be
crushed under the cover-glass while under observation, so as to
press out the viscera, etc., and yet not disintegrate the muscular
coats, the muscles will be seen for some time to exhibit irregular
contractions, as follows : — One end of the muscle suddenly
assumes a great increase in breadth, and the transverse striae
become approximated. This swollen portion passes like a wave,
with more or less activity, to the other end, so that the whole of
the muscle does not become contracted at once, but every
portion of it swells and contracts successively ; another wave
following the first after an interval. This is an example under
exceptional conditions of the normal mode in which muscular
fibres contract, and affords a very instructive lesson.

-oumai oi

Chvrorbojni^d hrcLS vrzVyS.

JourrLal of. Microscope Vol. 4;P1.10.

Lyhhroroorrbivs

'^(/royS Ty-n.^zs.

CHIRONOMUS PRASINUS. 173

EXPLANATION OF PLATES IX. AND X.

Plate IX.
jTio-. 1. — Larva of Ghironomus ijrasinus, side view : ra, respiratory
appendages ; rp, rectal papillae.
,j 2. — Larva, showing, sg, salivary glands, the alimentary canal, and

transverse muscles, x.
,, 3. — Ditto, showing double ganglionated nerve-cord aild subcu-
taneous muscles, m.
— Portion of salivary gland, showing simple condition of cells.

—Alimentary canal : «, oesophagus ; p, proventriculus ; 8,
stomach ; mt, malphigian tubes ; si and //, small and large
intestine.

—Heart of Larva, front view.

—Pupa

—Portion of salivary gland, showing petiolated cells.

—Antenna of Larva (bifid extremity only).

—Perfect insect, male.

—Ditto, ditto, female.

—Section of proventriculus, showing the extremity of the
oesophagus hanging in tlie cavity, and reflexion of the
cuticular lining, c, around it.

55

4

•)•)

5,

•>•)

G.

5)

7,

35

8.

•>•>

9.

5J

10.

5)

11

n

12.

Plate X.

13.

14.

15.

IG.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

2G.

27.

-Head of Larva, dorsal view : «, antenna ; ??i, mandible.

-Ditto, ventral view : ?, labium.

-Portion of small intestine, showing muscular covering.

-Nuclear cord and nucleoli from cell of salivary gland, after
Balbiani.

-Portion of large intestine, showing epithelium.

-Filamentous elements in blood.

-Thickened epithelial cells from stomach.

-Ditto in groups, with radiating pores.

-Transverse section of the transverse muscles in abdominal
segments.

-Extremity of a respiratory filament of the pupa.
-Portion of somatic rete, with oil-globules.
-Hypodermic cells : a, ordinary condition ; 5, amujbiform.
-Section of integument, cuticle, and hypoderm.
-Short co3cal projections of stomach.

-Anterior portion of stomach, showing coecal projections 5
cc, cuticular lining, enclosing food masa.

174 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

Fig. 28. — Head of male fly : a, root of antenna ; 6, bulb of same ;
m, lobate mouth ; j), palp ; o, ocellar prominence.

,, 20. — Antenna, male.

,, 30. — Ditto, female.

A scale consisting of one or more divisions is placed near each
figure. Each division represents 10th, 100th, or 400th of an inch, as
per table beloAv : —

10th of an inch, Figs. 1, 7, 10, and 11.

100th „ Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 22, 26, 27, 28,

29, and 30.
400th „ Figs. 6, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, and 25.

Hniinal flDetaniorpboeit?.

By J. B. Jeaffreson, M.R.C.S., Etc.

Part 2.

Plate XVII.

THE majority of the Mollusca undergo a very definite series
of changes. Most of them commence life as a small,
ciliated, worm-like body, having at its head an expanded
lobe, richly clothed with cilia, resembling the trochal disc of
a rotifer, by means of which it swims about actively. This
process is lost in the adult, and the animal is only able to move
about with a slow, creeping mode of progression. The larvae of
all bivalves possess eyes, but they are generally lost in the process
of development, and when such organs appear in the adult they
are of secondary formation. In their embryonic stages all
molluscs possess a shell, within which tiie young can entirely
retract itself, but in the adult forms of the Nudibranchiata, or
Sea-slugs, it is entirely lost or only quite rudimentary. Young
oysters, or mussels, are hatched in the gill-chambers of the
mother, and swim about freely by means of a ciliated disc at the
anterior end of the body. The embryo oyster (Fig. 15) is

ANIMAL META:\rOIlPHOSIS. 175

enclosed in a transparent, but rather thick, shell, composed of two
convex valves united by a straight hinge. These valves are sym-
metrical in size and shape, so that the shell resembles that of a
cockle more than an adult oyster. Sooner or later the young
oysters lose their ciliated disc, settle down in life, fix themselves
to some solid body, the upper shell remains convex while the
lower becomes flat, and the animal acquires the asymmetrical
characteristics of the adult.

The young Anodon, or Fresh-water Mussel (Fig. 14), is
enclosed in a pair of three-sided valves, which are furnished with
curious barbed or serrated hooks, by means of which it attaches
itself to the fins and gills of small fish ; and so different are the
young in appearance from the adult mussels that they were
looked upon as distinct animals and described under the name
of Glochidia.

In the Cephalopoda (including the Octopi and Cuttle-fish)
development is direct, no metamorphosis taking place after they
leave the egg.

The next sub-kingdom — the Arthropoda — contains the
Crustacea and the Insecta, the young of most of which pass
through a metamorphosis.

The Crustacea include the lobsters, crabs, shrimps, entomos-
traca, barnacles, and acorn-shells. The young lobster only
differs from the adult in the possession of small outer appendages
on the walking-limbs and in the smaller size of the tail ; but the
crab emerges from the egg in a form totally unlike the adult, as a
little swimming creature, about a quarter of a line in length, with
a dorsal shield armed with a strong median spine, and followed
by a jointed post-abdomen, which bears no appended limbs. It
is now known as a Zoaea (Fig. 16). In seven or eight days,
having cast off his coat several times, he loses his spine, his back
becomes broader and more depressed ; the eyes, from being
sessile, are elevated on moveable stalks; the claws undergo an entire
revolution, the first pair becoming stouter than the others and
armed with strong nippers, and he becomes a tailed crab (Fig. 17),
although the tail is greatly diminished in size. vStill, he goes on
swimming, and after moulting a few times more his tail is folded
under, and he sinks to the bottom a true walking-crab.

176 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

Many of the Crustaceans make their appearance from the egg
as a minute, rounded, oval, or pear-shaped larva, with three
pairs of legs — the anterior simple, the others bifid. It is called
a Nauplius (Figs. i8, 22, 24, 25). In front, above the mouth,
lies a single, simple eye. It swims freely about, and by various
moultings and changings gradually assumes the adult form.
The Epizoa, Cirripedia, and Entomostraca, all commence life in
the Nauplius form, and the primitive form of one of the shrimps
(Peneus) has also been shown, by Fritz Muller, to be a Nauplius
(Fig. 18), which at first has only three pairs of limbs, but soon
acquires additional pairs and a jointed body (Figs. 19 and 20),
and gradually approximates more and more to the adult form from
which it originated.

Here, and with the Entomostraca, a gradual development
takes place to a more complex structure, but in other Crustaceans
which take on a parasitic condition we find that the Nauplius,
instead of proceeding to a higher form, takes on a kind of retro-
gressive metamorphosis. Thus, in the case of the Saccidina (Fig.
21), a parasite which infests crabs, and is a mere sac filled with
eggs and absorbing nourishment from the juices of its host by
root-like processes, and in the Ler?i(Eocera (Fig. 23), which, in its
adult condition, is an elongated, worm-like creature found attached
to the gills of fishes, the early, active Nauplius forms (Figs. 22, 24)
lose their locomotive and sense-organs, and degenerate into
comparatively simple bodies, leading an almost vegetative life, and
becoming mere re-productive machines.

In the Cirripedia — the Acorn-shells and Barnacles — a similar
retrogression takes place. The Acorn-shells (or Balani) are the
limpet-like shells which encrust the rocks along our seashore,
occurring in myriads upon every solid object between the tide-
marks 3 while the Barnacles (Fig. 26) are commonly found
attached by an elongated stalk to floating logs of wood or ships'
bottoms. They commence life in the active Nauplius form,
which every autumn can be found swimming in large numbers
along our coasts. It has the usual three pairs of legs, the first of
which is uncloven, the two subsequent pairs forked ; the back is
covered with an ample shield, often terminating anteriorly in two
extended horns, while in the Nauplius of the barnacle (Fig. 25)

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 177

the posterior part is prolonged into two elongated spines. It is
also furnished with organs of vision. After going through a series
of moultings, it comes to present a form which reminds us
strongly of a Daphnia (Fig. 27); it is now quite translucent, the
body being enclosed in a shield composed of two valves, which
are united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, while they
are free along their lower margin, where they separate for the
protrusion of a large and strong anterior pair of prehensile limbs,
provided with an adhesive sucker and hooks, and of six posterior
legs adapted for swimming. The bivalve shell is subsequently
thrown off, and, forming a broad disc of attachment, the Balanus
fastens itself to a rock, and assumes a perfectly fixed and
immobile state of existence. The eyes and antennae vanish ; the
body is enclosed in a limpet-shaped shell, composed of several
pieces, having an aperture in the summit which is closed by a
moveable lid, and from which the animal can protrude its delicate
legs, or " cirri," which look like a glass hand, and are constantly
employed in sweeping the water in search of food, so that it has
been compared by an eminent naturalist to a man standing on his
head and kicking his food into his mouth. The barnacles (Fig.
26) attach themselves to a floating piece of timber^ a ship's
bottom, the skin of a whale, or, in some species, to the abdomen
of a crab, the anterior portion becoming extremely elongated into
the peduncle of attachment.

The true spiders pass through no metamorphosis, the young
being hatched in the form of the parent, but moulting repeatedly
before they attain the size of the adult. Their cousins, the mites,
however, live a double life. Commencing with only six legs, and
then hiding themselves in some crack in the ground, they lie
motionless for many days, and ultimately come out with eight legs
like minute spiders, but distinguished from them by the fact that
their body is always one undivided piece, and not pedunculated ;
that is, jointed to the abdomen by a narrow point of attachment.

It is among the Insects that we find the best-known and most
complete series of changes known under the name of metamor-
phosis. Born in one shape, the insect dies in another; organism,
functions, and habits, all change, the adult insect differing so
widely from the young that we cannot in the least recognise the

178 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

one from the other. What can be more unUke than a caterpillar,
a crysalis, and a perfect butterfly, the mud-brown aquatic larva of
the dragon-fly, and its brilliantly-coloured imago, the rat-tailed
maggot, and its adult representative, the hoverer fly, or the pretty
little lady-bird, and its ugly, grub-like larva, which has been com-
pared to a tiny, six-legged crocodile ?

The changes differ in degree, but in their most complete form
consist of the following series of transformations : — When hatched
from the egg, the young insect is always wingless, presenting itself
generally under the form of a small, worm-like creature, usually
furnished with a certain number of powerful hooked feet, adapted
for clinging closely to the surface of the leaves on which it feeds
with its powerful masticating jaws. It is technically called a
" larva " — popularly, a grub or caterpillar. Its sole object in life
now is to eat and grow, which it does rapidly, repeated changes of
the skin being necessitated by its continual enlargement. After
attaining its full size, it passes into its second stage ; it shrivels up,
casts off its skin, takes on a new form, and becomes motionless.
It is then called a " nymph," or " pupa." This is a mere transi-
tory stage, and in this kind of temporary sepulchre transformation
into the perfect insect takes place, and when this is effected,
splitting its crysalis-case, it creeps out into the world, drying its
body and wings in the sun ; it soars ofl* to sip the flowers, and
fulfil the purpose of this third stage of its existence, namely — the
reproduction of its species.

How difterent is the perfect insect from its earlier stages !
The caterpillar-head and powerful horny mandibles have now
become useless, and a long, delicate proboscis, with which to suck
honey from the flowers, replaces them ; the vigorous feet of the
larva are exchanged for long, slender legs, which scarcely rest
upon the petals ; the minute eyes, if they still remain on the fore-
head, are supplemented by two large compound eyes, which stand
out one on each side of the head ; the tiny, stunted antenn?e have
become long and delicate ; while from the shoulders spring two
pairs of many-tinted wings, which carry it from flower to flower,
and help it to escape from the many enemies to which it is
exposed.

AXTMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 179

All insects, however, do not sliow such complete transforma-
tions as those we have been considering. In some the young
maintain a constantly active condition in every stage. In others,
as the Orthoptera (which includes locusts, crickets, grasshoppers,
and earwigs) and the Hemiptera (bugs and plant-lice), the larval
state is passed while in the egg, and the young is hatched in the
exact likeness and with the habits of the parent, with perfectly-
developed eyes, antennae, jointed legs, and maxillary organs ; the
only difference, except size, being that the wings and their cases
do not burst through the thoracic rings until after a second moult.

The larval stage is frequently aquatic. Thus, the beautiful
dragon-fly passes its early life as an ignoble water-grub, living in a
stagnant pond, soiled with mud and fiUh, gliding steaUhily along
the bottom, and greedily seizing worms, water-slugs, and even
small fishes, for its prey. The May-flies, caddis-worms, and gnats
also spend the earlier part of their existence in the water.

Many larvae, again, pass their early stage buried in the soil,
while others, as stag-beetles, goat-moths, etc., burrow in the wood
of trees, or in the bodies of other caterpillars or beetles, as the
young of the ichneumon flies, which live as parasites during their
sluggish infancy, feeding on the fatty portion of the caterpillar, in
which the eggs have been deposited by their careful parent ; while
the gad-fly begins its life inside a horse, the judicious mother
having placed her eggs on some part of the horse's body which he
is sure to lick, and so carry the young grub to its natural warm
home ; and the larva of the RJiipidius lives in the abdomen of
the cockroach.

So great is the resistance of the pupal stage to vicissitudes of
temperature, that in it insects have been known to be frozen into
a solid mass of ice, and still retain their vitality ; and in addition,
many, before passing into the crysalis state, envelope themselves
in a mantle of silk, which still further protects them from the
assaults of wind and rain, while some, as the caddis-worms, pro-
tect their larval state by building round themselves a dwelling
formed of pieces of grass or rushes, or multitudes of minute
shells, or grains of sand agglutinated together by a silken
thread ; making use, in fact, of any materials that may be
supplied to them : fragments of broken glass of various colours,

180 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

or small pieces of coral being utilised by them, when confined in
an aquarium, thus forming habitations most beautiful in
appearance.

The time taken by these transformations varies much in dif-
ferent insects. Most butterflies pass through their larval stage in
about three weeks, and, assuming the crysalis form in autumn,
pass the winter in this safe retreat, emerging from it in the first
warm days of the following spring ; but the tiger-moth lays its
eggs in autumn, the caterpillars are hatched the same month, but
after a time retire to winter quarters, re-appearing the following
spring, and then going through their subsequent stages of develop-
ment. Others, as the Ephemerae, live for nearly two years at the
bottom of the pond in which they are hatched, till at last they
acquire wings and exist only for a few hours.

The female Cockchafer, about the end of April, digs a hole in
a well-cultivated field, in which she lays her eggs (about thirty in
number). In a month, the small whitish larvce, which feed on the
rootlets of plants, are hatched ; as the cold comes on, they dig
deeper, and pass the winter in clusters ; when spring arrives, they
are larger and more ravenous, and are most destructive to plants
and even trees. This subterranean life goes on for three years, at
the end of which time each larva makes a sort of chamber of clay,
and is transformed into a nymph or pupa, remaining torpid till the
end of February, when it emerges from its case ; at first, it is soft
and uncoloured, and remains underground till about the end of
April, when its skin has become hard and strong, and for the two
short remaining months of its life it flies from tree to tree, feeding
on the leaves of the oaks, beeches, and maples.

The x^nt-lion — which, in its perfect stage of existence, is a four-
winged insect, resembling the dragon-fly — passes the first two
years of its life in the larval state, burying itself in a conical pit,
which it excavates in fine, loose sand ; from the bottom
jjrotrude only its formidable jaws, ready to seize any insects,
especially ants, which approach too near to the margin of its
pitfall and slide down its slippery walls, the sand giving way
beneath their feet. AMien about to change into a pupa, it con-
structs a coccoon of sand, which it lines with a beautiful tapestry
of silk. Having remained in this coccoon about three weeks, it

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 181

gnaws through the envelope, and though on emerging the creature
is not more than half-an-inch in length, it almost instantaneously
stretches out to an inch and a quarter, while its wings, which did
not exceed the sixth of an inch, expand to nearly three inches.

The Goat-moth lives three years in the larval form ; while the
larva of the Stag-beetle for several years burrows in the wood of
the oak before assuming its perfect form, and flying about among
the trees during the summer evenings ; and the larvce of the
Tetramera (one of the sections of the Coleoptera) pass a long
time in the pupal stage, having been known to eat their way out
of wood even after it has been made into furniture.

Some species of the Ephemerae, after emerging from the pupa,
and making use of their wings even for some considerable dis-
tance, have yet to undergo another change. Fixing themselves by
their claws in a vertical position on some object, they withdraw
every part of the body, even the legs and wings, from a thin
pellicle, which has enclosed them as a glove does the fingers.

Having passed in review through the various classes of the
Invertebrata, we now come to the second grand division of the
animal kingdom — the Vertebrata. It was formerly supposed that,
of all the Vertebrata, the Amphibians were the only class that
underwent a metamorphosis ; but of late years it has been dis-
covered that the young of some of the most lowly organised fishes
are so unlike the adult that they were described a's belonging to
distinct genera. This is the case with the Lamprey, the young of
which, until the discoveries of Auguste ]Muller in 1856, were des-
cribed as distinct animals under the name of Animoactes^ and as
other forms have never been observed with roe or milt, it is
probable that they are the larvae of some larger kinds of fish.

The young of the Amphibians invariably undergo metamor-
phosis after exclusion from the egg, though in some cases the
eggs are retained so long in the parent that there is little or no
obvious change. In the metamorphosis of the Batrachians we
seem to have the process carried on before our eyes to its fullest
extent. Not only is one specific form changed to another of the
same genus, but we have a transition from one class to another.
The fish becomes a frog, the aquatic animal changes to a terres-
trial one, the water-breather becomes an air-breather. On its

182 ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS.

escape from the egg, the young frog presents itself as a little fish-
like tadpole, with a broad head and flattened tail. From the side
of the head shoot out a few filamentous tufts, which float loosely
in the water, and imbibe from it the oxygen which it contains.
These branchial tufts rapidly develop till they attain their maxi-
mum ; they are now two on either side, each consisting of about
five leaves, and in them the circulation of the blood, as seen
through the microscope, is a most beautiful object. About the
seventh or eighth day, these external gills fade away, and more
complex branchiae are developed in chambers situated on either
side of the neck. After a few weeks, the hind limbs make their
appearance ; the fore-legs succeed these. In the meantime the
lungs have been developed, and the gills begin to be obliterated,
the circulation being gradually adapted to the altered condition of
the respiration. The tail now shrinks by a process of absorption,
and ultimately disappears, and the frog is complete.

A similar transformation takes place in the Newts, the only
differences being that the branchial tufts are retained longer than
n frogs, while the tail is not absorbed, and the fore-legs are the
first to be developed.

Among the other Amphibians are some which commence life
as water-breathing larvae, but in the adult condition also possess
air-breathing lungs, while with others the gills are transitory, wast-
ing and disappearing on the development of the lungs. The
curious Mexican Axolotl usually possesses only branchiae, and
passes all its life in water, but under certain circumstances there is
no doubt that it may lose its gills and become less aquatic in
its habits without thereby suffering any apparent change. Not
long ago, at the Paris Zoological Gardens, some of these creatures
crept out of their tank on to dry land, and when discovered were
found to have become gill-less Salamanders, breathing only
through their lungs ; thus rendering it probable, as suggested by
Cuvier, that these species are merely larval Salamanders, whose
development is arrested in their progress to the adult form.

With the Amphibians the process of extra-uterine metamor-
phosis in the animal kingdom ends, and it now only remains, in
conclusion, to see what is the object of the various changes we
have been considering, and what deductions may be drawn from

ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 183

the study of them. In a general way, it may be stated that meta-
morphosis gives its possessor an advantage in " the struggle for
existence," or assists it in carrying out the fiat of the Creator, "to
be fruitful and multiply." In some cases it seems to be a provi-
sion for the distribution of species. Thus, many of the lawer
animals which in adult life are rooted to one spot — as the Hydra,
Sponges, and Corals — or whose powers of movement are very
limited — as the Echinodermata, MoUusca, etc. — by means of
their free-swimming embryos, are enabled, either by their own
locomotive powers or by the action of waves and currents, to be
carried to a distance from their birthplace, and so to be dissemi-
nated over the surface of the globe, and to prevent the spots
inhabited by their respective species from being overcrowded by
the accumulation of their progeny. In others, as the Anoda or
Fresh-water Mussels, the same object is attained by the larval
forms being provided with prehensile organs, by which they can
attach themselves, as parasites, to the gills and fins of fishes, and
in like manner be carried away from the abode of their parents ;
these organs being lost on their attaining adult life.

Protection from various dangers to which the young are
exposed is another reason for metamorphosis, the form, shape,
and colour of the defenceless larvae being often adapted to the
food on which they subsist, so as to be better able to escape the
observation of their various enemies ; while the pupal stage
enables those which are unable to stand sudden changes of
weather and temperature to pass some part of their existence in a
condition of almost suppressed vitality, in which they are capable
of resisting a degree of cold or wet which would be fatal to the
adult form, and would speedily prevent the continuance of their
life upon the earth ; the hard and horny case of others prevents
their being a tempting morsel to the birds, which would otherwise
prey upon them. How small would be the chance of the survival
of butterflies, moths, frogs, etc., if they emerged from their minute
eggs simply as tiny representatives of their parents ! How little
would they be able to resist a sudden storm of biting east wind,
or even the downfall of a passing thunder-shower !

Coupled with the study of embryology, the facts of metamor-
phosis have thrown great light on the theory of evolution ; helping
VOL, jv, o

184 ANIMAL METAMOEPHOSIS.

to make the study of natural history, which was formerly little
more than a dry catalogue of facts, "at once a speaking history of
the past and a prophetic index of the future." Haekel, Spencer,
Darwin, and others, have shown us that every animal has been
moulded through a wonderful series of metamorphoses into its
present shape by surrounding conditions, and that each bears in
its parts, or form, the traces, where w^e can read them, of its
development or evolution. The study of embryology is difficult*
needing large opportunities and great skill in microscopical manip-
ulation, but by the study of metamorphosis many of these
changes are visible to the unaided eye of the ordinary observer.

Where a definite larval form — as the Nauplius of the Crusta-
cea, or the caterpillar of the Insecta — is common to many
members of a sub-kingdom, it seems highly probable that it is the
re-capitulative representative of an ancestral form common to all
this set of animals, which, if not exactly like a Nauplius or a
caterpillar, was not very different from it.

The permanent condition of the lower members of any divi-
sion of the animal kingdom is often represented by the transitory
stages of the higher members of the same division. The devel-
opment of the frog is a good illustration of this general zoological
law. The early condition of the young tadpole when the branchise
are external is represented permanently by the adult Proteus or
Siren, and the second stage when the gills have disappeared and
the limbs have been developed, but the tail has not been wholly
absorbed, finds its representative in the newt. Hence we are
justified in concluding that the tadpole is a re-capitulative phase of
development, and represents more or less closely an ancestor of
the frog, which was provided with gills and tail in the adult
state, and possessed neither legs nor lungs. In other words, we
may infer that, as the adult frog develops from the gilled tadpole
through the intermediate tailed stage, so, as a class, the frog-hke,
tail-less batrachia developed at a later period out of the tailed
batrachia, as the latter had developed out of the gilled batrachia,
which originally existed alone.

Again. Metamorphosis has shown that evolution has not
always proceeded towards a gradual development to a greater
complexity of form and structure, but that in some instances it

Journal' of Microscopy, Vol 4', PL 17-

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ANIMAL METAMORPHOSIS. 185

has proceeded in a retrograde direction, tending rather to a
process of degeneration than to one of advance. This has been
ably brought to notice by Dr. Dohrn, of Naples, and by Prof.
Ray Lankester. We have thus been enabled to determine the
affinities of several creatures which we should not otherwise have
dreamt of if we had only studied the adult animals. Nothing at
first sight could be more unlike than a shrimp and a barnacle, or
a lively, free-swimming Entomostracon and a parasitic Lernseocera
or Sacculina ; but the fact that all, in their early stages, pass
through the active Nauplius form shows that they are all equally
Crustaceans, some of which have proceeded to a more advanced
development, while others (especially those which have taken on
a parasitic condition) have lost their organs of sense and motion,
and retrograded in the scale of existence.

Finally, metamorphosis has been the means of introducing us
to a far-away series of our ancestors in the remote past, going
back far beyond primseval man and the anthropoid apes. The
discovery of Kalewsky, that the tadpole-like larva of the Ascidians?
or sea-squirts, possesses in its caudal appendage a cartilaginous
axial rod which is homologous with the primitive backbone or
notochord, has led certain observers to conclude that the Asci-
dian mollusc is not only the original ancestor of all the Verte-
brata, but even of man himself. Haekel goes still further back,
and concludes that " in the gastrula is now found the common
ancestral group from which all tribes of animals can, without
difficulty, be derived. It is one of the most ancient and import-
ant ancestors of the human race."

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Fig. 14. — Development of Mussel : —

1. Glochidium, Larva still within the Egg.

2. Shell of Glochidium, widely opened.

3. Glochidium, viewed from the side, showing hooks

h. b.

5, 15. — Very young Oysters.

,, 16. — ZojTea of Crab, more magnified than Fig. 17.

,, 17. — Early stage of Crab, with tail.

186 THE MICROSCOPE

Fig. 18. — Naupliiis, larval-form of Peneus.

, 19, 20. — More advanced forms of same.

, 21. — Adult Sacculina (Female).

, 22. — Nauplius Sacculina.

, 23. — Adult Female Lenictocera.

, 24. — Nau2:)lius of Leraceocera.

25. — Nauplius of Lepas, or Barnacle.

, 26. — Adult Barnacle (natural size).

, 27. — Locomotive "pupa" of Balanus: a., Eye; b., Caudal
bristles ; c, Setegerous limbs.

[Erratum. — p. 88, line i6, for " primula" read "planula."]

^be flDicroecope anb bow to wbc it

By V. A. Latham, Late Hon. Sec. U.J.F.C, Norwich.

Part III. — On Mounting jMicroscopic Objects — confim/ed.

Staining Wood Sections.

AFTER the sections have been bleached and thoroughly
washed by the methods just described, we may proceed to
stain them. This may be done by the use of carmine or
logwood ; after which, the sections may be mounted in balsam by
the ordinary process. Better effects are, however, produced if we
employ the double staining method, for the carrying out of which
various kinds and combinations of dyes have been used and
recommended. It is needless to enumerate the whole of these
here. The agents used are carmine and aniline green, and to
carry out the method, solutions of these will be required. The
solution of carmine (Beale's) is made by rubbing up in a mortar :
carmine (the finest), 1 5 grains (or about i gramme), with a few
drops of distilled water ; then adding \ drachm of strong liquor

AND HOW TO USE IT. 187

ammonice and sufficient distilled water to make 8 drachms of solu-
tion. The fluid must now be exposed to the air for two days to
get rid of superfluous ammonia, when 7 drachms of distilled water
are to be added to it. Many recommend the carmine solution to
be made with borax instead of ammonia. It is not in our opinion
nearly so good as that mentioned above, as it not unfrequently
spots the stained sections with an apparently crystalline deposit,
which utterly ruins them. This never occurs when ammonia
' carmine is employed ; that is, if the solution used be fresh. To
prepare the green dye, take 3 grains of aniline green, and by
means of heat dissolve it in 2 drachms of distilled water ; then
filter this solution into 6 drachms of absolute alcohol. If wood
sections, without any previous preparation, were to be stained with
these agents, we should find that when, in order to mount them in
balsam, the sections being passed through alcohol in the usual
manner, a great part, or the whole of the colour due to the action
of the aniline green would be discharged by the alcohol. In
order, therefore, to render the staining permanent, it is advisable
to use some kind of mordant to fix the aniline stain, and for this
purpose we have found tannic acid extremely useful. It is
employed in the form of solution made by dissolving i drachm of
the acid in 2 ounces of methylated spirit, and then filtering the
product.

The sections to be stained, having been bleached and washed
in the manner already described, must, after a short preliminary
soaking in alcohol, be placed in the tannic fluid for about one
minute, and thence transferred to the green dye for three minutes,
upon the expiration of which time they are to be rapidly washed
in distilled water, and immediately passed into the carmine fluid,
there to remain for from three to four minutes, then rinsed in
dilute acetic acid (5 drops of glacial acetic acid to i ounce of
distilled water), again rapidly washed in distilled water, and finally
transferred to clean methylated spirit. Let them remain in this
for five minutes, pour off the alcohol, and replace by fresh spirit ;
allow the sections to remain in this another five minutes, and
afterwards transfer to oil of cajuput. In ten minutes pour off the
oil of cajuput, and replace by turpentine, in which they should be

188 THE MICROSCOPE

allowed to soak for five minutes, when the sections are ready for
mounting in balsam. It must be noted that the times given
above are only approximations, and will not hold good for all
cases, since the time required for the action of the stain is
materially modified by the thickness of the section, and by its
physical structure, and very possibly also by its chemical con-
stitution. It will be found in practice, that, for the general run of
wood sections, very little variation from the times indicated will
be required. When an alteration in this direction is necessary,
it will be within very narrow limits, and to carry it out success-
fully will not tax either the ingenuity or the patience of the
experimenter very severely. Wood sections stained by this
method make beautiful preparations. Not only are certain
portions of the section dyed green and crimson respectively, but
other portions acquire various intermediate tints, so that certain
sections of much diversity and complexity of structure, when
stained by this method, rival in splendour some of the diatoms.
We will give a few examples of pretty botanical sections : —

Coffee Berry. — The unroasted berry should be soaked for
some hours in cold water until sufficiently soft (seeds should not
be allowed to remain too long in water, especially in warm
weather, otherwise they will begin to germinate, in which case
their internal structure becomes entirely changed), then imbedded
in paraffin and cut in the microtome, the section being made in
the direction of the long axis of the berry. Only a few perfect
sections can be obtained from each berry, for at the hiliim the
seed-covering turns in and penetrates the substance of the berry
to such a depth, that before many sections have been made, the
reflected covering will be cut down upon ; when this has been
reached, a circular ribbon representing the covering will — unless
in exceptional cases — fall from the centre of the section and mar
its beauty. Sections of the berry may be mounted in glycerine,
or if stained rather strongly with carmine, mounted in Canada
balsam and benzole ; the same method of treatment applies to
all other hard berries or seeds.

Chicory.— After the student has got his slide of coffee he will
do well to prepare a longitudinal section' of unroasted chicory-root

AND HOW TO USE IT. 189

for comparison. He will observe the striking difference between
the two substances, and see how easy it is to distinguish one from
the other. Thus, whilst in coffee the cells are small and more or
less angular, chicoij-cells present a round or oval outline ; the
presence of dotted duds will also be detected, which are entirely
absent from coffee. To make the comparison complete, a coffee
berry should be soaked in water until the skin, or seed coat,
becomes loosened. A portion of this is then, with the point of a
knife, to be removed to a slide and examined in glycerine, when
it will be found to consist of a hyahne membrane in which are
imbedded small, rod-like bodies of elliptical shape, and having
their long axes running in the same direction. These rods
cannot be mistaken for any of the ducts met with in chicory.

Orange Peel, common object though it be, is not to be
despised by the microscopist. Transverse sections must be
prepared by the gum method. These sections are not to be
subjected to the action of alcohol ; but after drying between
glass slips, soak them in turpentine and mount in balsam. We
shall then have a good view of the large globular glands whose
office it is to secrete the essential oil, upon which the odour of the
orange depends. Sections may also be bleached, and stained
with carmine and aniline green as before mentioned.

Potato. — From the large amount of water which it contains
thin sections cannot be cut from the potato in its natural state.
It. must, therefore, be partially desiccated, either by immersion in
methylated spirit for a few days, or by exposure to the air.
Sections may be readily obtained by imbedding and cutting in
paraffin. Such sections, mounted in balsam, are very beautiful,
the starch being seen in situ, whilst if polarised light be employed,
each granule gives its characteristic black cross.

Rush is to be prepared and cut as orange peel. Transverse
sections of this plant furnish slides of most exquisite beauty.

Sponge may readily be cut after being tightly compressed
between two pieces of cork, or its interstices may previously be
•filled up by immersion in melted paraffin or mucilage, and
sections cut in the usual manner.

Vegetable Ivory, after prolonged soaking in cold water,

190 THE MICROSCOPE

may readily be cut in the microtome. The sections should be
mounted unstained in balsam, and though not usually regarded
as polariscopic objects, nevertheless, when examined with the
selenite, yield very fine colours.

Wood. — Shavings of extreme thinness may be cut from large
pieces or blocks of timber by means of a very sharp plane. In
this way excellent sections may be procured of most of the
common woods, as oak, mahogany, pine, etc. Where, however,
the material to be operated upon takes the form of stems, roots,
etc., of no great thickness, they should, after having been reduced
to suitable consistence, be imbedded in paraffin and cut in the
microtome. Before imbedding, it must not be forgotten to
immerse the wood to be cut in weak gum-water, this precaution
being of great importance, especially in the case of stems, etc.,
of which the bark is at all rough and sinuous. If the sections are
to be mounted unstained, they are usually put up in weak spirit
(mixture of spirits of wine i part, distilled water 3 parts). For
mounting, proceed as follows : — A ring of gold-size must, by means
of the turn-table, be drawn in the centre of the slide, and put away
in a warm place for several days (the longer the better), in order
that the ring may become perfectly dry and hard. The section,
with a drop or two of the mixture, is to be put in the centre of
the ring, and a cover-glass of requisite size having been cleaned,
this must have a thin ring of gold-size applied round its margin.
The cover is now placed in position, and gently pressed down,
the pressure apparatus being employed, if necessary, to prevent it
from moving. In about twenty-four hours another layer of the
varnish should be applied, and the slide afterwards finished in the
manner already described. A very general method also of dealing
with this class of objects is to mount them dry. This plan cannot,
however, be recommended, as the sections always present a
disagreeable black or blurred appearance. To avoid this, we
may have recourse to Canada balsam, but the ordinary method of
employing it must be slightly modified, a drop of chloroform being
substituted for the clove oil, otherwise this latter agent would
cause the section to become so transparent as to render minute
details of structure difficult to recognise.

AND HOW TO USE IT. 191

A good blue stain (tending to purple) is also given by the
substance termed indigo carmine ; it is particularly good for
sections of brain and spinal cord that have been hardened in
chromic acid. A saturated solution of the powder in distilled
water having been prepared, this may either be used with the
addition of about 4 per cent, of oxalic acid, or if an alcoholic
fluid be preferred, methylated spirit may be added to the aqueous
solution ; the mixture being filtered to remove any colouring
matter that may have be^n precipitated. If sections thus stained
have an excess of colour, it may be removed by the action of a
saturated solution of oxalic acid in alcohol.

A beautiful green hue is given by treating with a saturated
solution of picric acid in water, sections previously stained with
anihne blue ; or the two agents may be used together, four or five
parts of a saturated solution of the latter being added to a
saturated aqueous solution of the former. This picro-aniline, it
is believed, may be relied on for permanence ; and it acts well in
double staining with picro-carmine.

Double Staining — A good example is seen in double staining
the frond of a fern with logwood and aniline blue 3 the sori taking
the latter, and standing out brilliantly on the general surface tinged
by the former. If a section of stem be stained throughout by a
solution of eosin (2 grains to the ounce), and be then placed, after
washing in strong alcohol, in a J grain solution of Nicholson's blue
made neutral, the blue will, in a short time, entirely drive out the red;
but by carefully watching the process, it will be seen that the
different tissues will change colour at different times, softer cells
giving up their red and taking in the blue more quickly than the
harder ; so that, by stopping the process at the right point (which
must be determined by taking out a section and dipping it in
alcohol, and examining it under the microscope), the two kinds of
cells are beautifully differentiated by their colouring. The best
effects are usually produced by carmine and indigo-carmine,
logwood and picro-carmine, carmine or logwood and aniline
blue or green.

Osmic Acid. — Various degrees of dilution of a i per cent,
solution. This agent is very serviceable in the preparation of

192 THE MICROSCOPE

delicate vegetable structures. The acid seems to be taken up by
each granule of the protoplasm, and there to be decomposed,
giving to the granule the characteristic grey colour, thus at the same
time both hardening and staining. (Parker — -Joiirnal, R.M.S.,
Vol. 7, /. 381.) We use the following mixture : — 9 parts of a
\ per cent, solution of chromic acid, with i part of a i per cent,
solution of osmic acid, which answers for many purposes better
than osmic acid alone, the brittleness produced by osmic acid
being completely avoided. After being subjected to this agent,
the specimens should be treated with 30 per cent, alcohol,
gradually increased in strength to absolute.

Molybdate of Ammonia is recommended as affording a cool
blue-grey or neutral tint general stain, which affords a pleasant
ground colour to parts strongly coloured by bright selective stains.

Chemical Testing.— The following short list will be found
useful : —

(a) Solution of iodine in water. Take iodine, i grain ; iodide
of potassium, 3 grains ; distilled water, i ounce. This solution
turns starch blue, cellulose brown ; also gives an intense brown
colour to albuminous substances.

{b) Dilute sulphuric acid (i part of acid to 2 or 3 parts of
water) gives cellulose that has been already dyed with iodine a
blue or purple hue,; also when mixed with sugar, it gives to
nitrogenous substances a rose-red hue, more or less deep. —
(Pettenkofer's test).

[c) Schultze's test is a solution of choride of zinc, iodine, and
iodide of potassium ; it detects cellulose.

{d) Concentrated nitric acid gives albuminous substances an
intense brown.

{e) Acid nitrate of Mercury (Millow's test) colours albuminous
substances red.

(/) Acetic acid, both concentrated and diluted with from
3 to 5 parts of water, is useful to the animal histologist.

{g) Solution of caustic potash or soda (the latter generally
preferable) has a remarkable solvent effect upon many organic
substances, both animal and vegetable.

AND HOW TO USE IT. 193

Aqueous Media. — Fresh specimens of minute protophytes can
often be very well preserved in —

(a) Distilled water saturated with camphor. When the
preservation of colour is not a special object, about a i-ioth
part of alcohol may be added.

{b) Salycylic acid. Small proportion that will dissolve in cold
water is very successful. For coarser structures a stronger solution
is preferable ; and this may be made by combining with the acid
a small quantity either of borax dissolved in glycerine or of
acetate of potash.

{c) A mixture of i part of glycerine and 2 parts of camphor-
water may be used for the preservation of many vegetable
structures.

{d) For preserving soft and delicate marine animals which
would be shrivelled up or curled by stronger agents, a mixture of
I part of glycerine and i of spirit, with 8 or 10 parts of sea-water,
is the most suitable preservative.

((?) For preserving minute vegetable preparations, the method
devised by Hantsch is said to be peculiarly efficient.*

To Clean Glass Slides and Covers.— First wash well in a
solution of soda or potash ; if this does not suffice, use the
following : — Bichromate of potash, 2 ounces ; sulphuric acid,
3 fluid ounces; water, 25 ounces; and afterwards thoroughly
rinse in warm and cold water.

Dammar Cement.— Dissolve gum dammar in benzole, and
add one-third of gold-size ; it dries very quickly, and is preferably
used as a fiirst coat for affixing the cover-glass when glycerine is
used for mounting. .

Gum, for attaching labels, covering papers, and objects
mounted dry (as parts of insects, foraminifera, etc.). Dissolve
2 ounces of gum arable in 2 ounces of water, and add 2 drachms
of soaked gelatine (for the solution of which the action of heat is
required), 30 drops of glycerine, and a lump of camphor.

Fluid for the Cultivation of Microscopic Fungi, sufficiendy
hygrometric to keep the spores moist, adapted to fungoid growth —
Dextrine, 2 grains ; phosphate of soda and ammonia, 2 grains j

* This formula was given on p. 30.

l94 THE MICROSCOPE

saturate solution of acetate of potash, 1 2 drops ; grape sugar,
16 grains; freshly distilled water, i ounce (Dr. Maddox). The
whole is to be boiled in a large test-tube or beaker for fifteen
minutes, and covered, whilst boiling and cooHng ; when settled,
it should be poured into perfectly clean 2-drachm stoppered
bottles and kept for use. In using Maddox's growing slide, the
fungi or spores are placed, with a droplet of the fluid required, on
a glass cover large enough to cover the tinfoil cell. This, after
examination to see that no extraneous matter is introduced, is
placed over the tinfoil, and the edges fastened with wax softened
in oil, leaving free spaces for entrance of air. CoJm^s fluid is also
good for protophytic fungi (Schizomycetes, consisting of Bacteria,
Vibriones, etc.). The solution is composed of i part of potassium
phosphate, i part of magnesium sulphate, 2 parts of ammonium
tartrate, and o'l part of calcium chloride; dissolved in 200 parts
of distilled water.

Carmine Fluid (Beale). See page 186. Staining vegetable
tissues and germinal matter : — carmine, 10 grains ; strong liquor
ammoniae, J drachm ; Price's glycerine, 2 ounces ; distilled water,
2 ounces ; alcohol, 4 drachms. Put the carmine in small
fragments in a test-tube and add the ammonia. By agitation, and
the heat of a spirit-lamp, the carmine is soon dissolved. The
ammoniacal solution is to be boiled for a fewseconds, then allowed
to cool. After the lapse of an hour, much of the excess of ammonia
will have escaped. The glycerine, water, and alcohol may then
be added, the whole passed through a filter or allowed to stand
for some time, and the perfectly clear supernatant fluid poured
off and kept for use. This solution will keep for months, but
sometimes a little carmine is deposited, owing to the escape of
ammonia, in which case one or two drops of liquor ammonias
may be added to the four ounces of carmine solution.

Solution of Osmic Acid.— Osmic acid, i part ; distilled water,
100 parts ; is the strength generally used for staining, although,
of course, circumstances will alter this. Fat-cells and oil-globules
are coloured by it.

Schultze's Test.— Wash the substance which is to be examined
in water, pour off the water, and then moisten it with a drop of

AND HOW TO USE IT. 195

syrup ; add i drop of sulphuric acid. The reaction produces a
purpHsh-red colour, if the substance contains either muscular
Tissue, corpuscles of blood, pus and mucus, epidermic and
epithelial scales, hairs, feathers, horn, whalebone, cellular parts of
algae, etc. The reaction is not produced in areolar, elastic tissue,
gelatine and chondrine, chitine, silk, cellulose, gum, starch, or
vegetable mucus. This is used as a test for cellulose, which it
colours blue. Dissolve zinc in hydrochloric acid, evaporate the
solution with excess of zinc until it acquires the consistence of
syrup, and dissolve in this enough iodide of potassium to saturate
it ; iodine is then added, and the solution diluted with water if
necessary. This reagent has the consistence of strong sulphuric
acid, and is of a pale yellowish brown. It must, of course, be
kept in a stoppered bottle.

Carbolic Acid Preservative, for animal and vegetable tissues.
Carbolic acid, i drachm ; alcohol, 2 drachms ; distilled water,
1 2 ounces ; dissolve the carbolic acid with the alcohol, then add
it to the water and boil for ten minutes, and bottle for use.

Acetate of Aluminium. — To i part of acetate of aluminium,
add 4 parts of distilled water. This is very good for preserving
vegetable colours, as in the case of desmids and other algae.

Glycerine and Acetic Acid is useful for mounting many minute
insects and other objects ; it is composed of glycerine, i ounce ;
acetic acid, \ ounce.

Siliceous Cement, for protecting corks from the fumes
of acid, etc. Mix together equal parts of colloid silica and
thick gum-water, with sufficient gilder's whiting to make it of
the consistency of treacle.

Ralph's Liquid. — Bay salt, i grain ; alum, i grain ; distilled
water, i ounce ; dissolve and mix. This makes a good pre-
servative for many algae, etc.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether (Sweet spirits of nitre) is much used
for delicate dissections of insects, and is made by a mixture of
sweet spirits of nitre and glycerine, in equal parts.

For Labelling Slides. — A good plan is to punch some squares

196 DIATOMS IN THE STOMACHS

or circles out of very thin talc ; cover the end of the glass slip
with a thin layer of gilder's whiting and gum-water ; when dry,
write on this with common ink, let it dry, put a very small drop
of Canada balsam upon it ; cover with a circle of thin talc, and
allow all to dry ; then clean the edges with benzole and water
mixed. It will not peel off or get dirty like printed labels.

®n Diatoms in tbc Stomacbe of QbclUfieh

an& Crustacea*

By E. S. Courroux.

THE text-books on the mounting of objects frequently observe
that diatoms are to be found in the stomachs of fish, par-
ticularly shell-fish, but seldom contain any statements as to
the practical results of such findings. A few remarks, therefore,
on the subject, by one who has made an attempt at investigation
in this direction, may not be out of place.

The only fish to which I have had recourse at present are
shrimps, mussels, and cockles. From shrimps I have obtained
most plenteous gatherings, as also at times from mussels. Cockles
have given a moderate supply. The quantity yielded is, however,
a matter of chance, and sometimes scarcely any diatoms will be
found ; but more often than not, the result will fully repay the
operator for his trouble.

In the case of mussels and cockles, and shell-fish of that
description, the stomach should be cut out and steeped, or even
boiled, in nitric acid until it is dissolved, and the resultant deposit
washed and cleaned after one of the methods recommended in the
text-books. A little special care, however, in the treatment of
shrimps' stomachs will not be thrown away. On removing the
shelly skin at the back of the head, the stomach will be seen as a
small, dark-coloured body, the size of a small pea. Its position
may generally be detected in the perfect shrimp from the dark

OF SHELL-FISH AND CRUSTACEA. 197

appearance at the back of the head. The stomachs may be
detached with the point of a knife, and when some 12 or 20 or
more (as the deposit obtained from them is small) have been
collected, they should (taking care that the skin of each stomach
is cut or broken) be boiled for a few seconds in a weak solution of
washing-soda or ammonia, and then immediately be thrown into a
beaker of cold water. By these means we get rid of grease, etc.,
and render the subsequent treatment by acids more easy. The
empty skins of the stomachs will float and may be picked out of
the solution.

The residue which collects after the solution has stood for
some time should first be washed free from alkali, and then treated
with acids in the usual manner. It is unnecessary to enter into
the details of the cleansing of the deposits, as a reference to Mr.
Griffin's articles in this Journal,''^ or some of the many books on
the subject, will supply all requisite information.

With regard to the specimens to be met with in these opera-
tions, I may remark that in a gathering from the stomachs of
shrimps caught off Flushing, in March, 1884, I have obtained
large specimens of Eiipodiscus argus, Cosci?iodiscus^ Aditioptychus
imdulatiis, Acthiocydus Ralfsii and others, Trice7-atiiim^ Biddul-
phia rhombus, and in larger numbers than any of these a beauti-
ful circular form, with several rays, of which I have been unable to
find the name ; possibly, it is a species of AdhioptycJms. Amongst
the small forms, I have found the beautiful Doryphora atnphiceros
in great profusion. This last form I have met with more fre-
quently in the stomachs of shrimps than elsewhere.

The method of separating deposits into different densities is
very useful here as with many other gatherings of diatoms^ inas-
much as the large forms are then more easily isolated. The often-
advised whirling in a large evaporating dish in order to separate
the diatoms from sand and debris may be frequently practised
with success. In the washings of all diatoms I have found it of
the utmost advantage to perform the later rinsings in distilled
water. The diatoms are thus more effectually cleaned from salt,
etc., and present less attraction to moisture in the case of dry
mounts.

* See this Journal, Vol. III. p. 229.

I

■

198 STRUCTURE OF DIATOMS.

The operator may be reminded that the material, even from a
considerable number of stomachs, is of course very small in quan-
tity, and must be handled carefully ; and as the most beautiful
forms are often the lightest, it is of the utmost importance to let
the deposit settle thoroughly in the washings of the lighter por-
tions of the gatherings. The water holding the diatoms in sus-
pension should be allowed to stand at least half-an-hour for every
inch of its depth, and hence time will be saved by using watch-
glasses and shallow dishes for the purpose.

A great deal more might be said on the subject of cleaning the
diatoms, but it would be a mere repetition of what is found in the
authorities on mounting, and it is only experience gained by long
practice which will enable the operator successfully to clean mixed
gatherings. But, finally, I would advise all enthusiasts on the
subject, whether with much or little experience, if they have not
tried the sources above mentioned (particularly the stomachs of
shrimps), to do so without fail.

Structure of ©latome^

From the " Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society/'

Vol. v., p. 286.

DR. G. C. AVallich, writing to the English Mechanic, Vol. xl.,
p. 496, refers to Flogel's view,* that in such genera as
Tricei^atiuni and Coscinodiscus, the little hexagonal or cylindrical
cavities, though completely closed by a siliceous film on the
internal surface of the valve, are not closed by any such mem-
brane on the outer surface of the valve ; and to Cox's, who
insistsf that the cellules are closed by a siliceous fihu externally
as well as internally.

Dr. Wallich considers the objections to the latter view insuper-

* Journal of R.M.S., Vol. IV., p. 665.
t Ibid, p. 941,

STRUCTURE OF DIATOMS. 199

able. If the cellules are closed at both their extremities during
the life of the organism, each cellule must be full either of proto-
plasm or of some other more or less fluid substance, unless, indeed,
each contains a gas, or constitutes a perfect vacuum, which is
scarcely within the bounds of possibility. If each contains proto-
plasm, it is obvious that the remains of this, during the mounting
of the specimen, would be recognisable amongst the larger species,
either by optical or chemical tests. During the boiling in acid, or
burning on mica, the fluid contents would burst the films, and in
many cases leave behind the evidence of their former condition.
In his experience, such evidence has never been forthcoming, and
judging from what is known of cellular structure in organic life
generally, there are no examples of truly vacuous cavities, inasmuch
as all organic tissues are pervious to dialytic or osmotic action.

It is no doubt true that the organic silica of the diatom, per-
fectly hyaline as it looks, is in reality a " colloid," and hence, as it
contains an infinitesimal percentage of water, just as flint itself does,
dialytic action may take place through the film under notice. But
even then the perviousness to moisture of the diatom, if it really
keeps the chamberlets full of fluid during the vitality of the
organism, would not suf^ce to settle the question ; for, if any fluid
whatever remained in the cellules, should the specimens have been
but recently taken from their element, it would burst the film on
the application of heat, and inevitably burst the walls, whilst traces
of the disruption would occasionally be visible under the micro-
scope. Again, if the chamberlets contained gas of any kind, and
in spite of the effects of the boiling in acids, this gas were too
minute in quantity to burst the walls, we should certainly be able
to detect gas-bubbles in some of the chamberlets. But, as is well
known, the bubbles so common in mounted specimens are not
due to the cellules having originally contained gaseous material,
but to the accidental admission of air during mounting.

The only remaining alternative is that the cellules cannot be
considered closed cavities, and hence that the alleged presence
of an external investing and closing film is illusory.

VOL. IV.

[200]

1Rc\)iew)0.

Scientific Papers and Addresses. By George Rolleston,

M.D., F.R.S., arranged and edited by William Turner, M.B., Hon. LL.D,,
F. R.S., with a Memorial Sketch by Edward B. Tylor, Hon. D.C.L., P\R. S.,
with portrait and plates; 2 ^"ols., pp. LXXVI. — 944. (Oxford : The Clarendon
Press, 1884.)

These two valuable volumes contain a selection of the most important
Essays contributed by the late Professor Rolleston to the Transactions of
various learned Societies and to Scientific Journals. Along with them are
also reprinted several Addresses delivered before the British Association for
the Advancement of vScience, and other learned bodies.

These reprints have been arranged in the following sections : — I. — Anat-
omy and Physiology, in which are included many important Anthropological
memoirs. H. — Zoology, including his Memoirs on Archa;o-zoolog}'. HI. —
Archaeology. IV. — Addresses and Miscellaneous Papers.

In an Appendix to the Second Volume is a digest of many of the
unpublished MSS. left by Dr. Rolleston ; these will be found of much interest
to the Archaeologist. As a frontispiece we have a fine Portrait of the Author,
and the work is further illustrated with many excellent lithographic plates and
wood engravings.

Original Researches in Mineralogy and Chemistry.

By J. Lawrence Smith. Printed for presentation only. Edited by J. B.
Marvin, B.S., M.D. ; pp. XL.— 630. (Louisville, Ky., U.S.A., 1884.)

Our best thanks are due to ^^Irs. J. Lawrence Smith for the volume before
us, which contains all the more important contributions to vScience of the late
Professor. The articles are arranged chronologically, except in a few cases ;
where two or more have been written on the same or kindred subject, they are
then grouped together." The volume represents strictly original investigations,
and treats of a very large number of subjects, amongst which we find the
description of an Inverted Microscope, invented by the author in 1850. The
papers on Meteorology are voluminous, in connection with which we have a
catalogue of 292 meteoric stones and irons which were in the possession of the
author until a few days of his death, when they were purchased by the Havard
University.

Plant Analysis : Qualitative and Quantitative. By G.

Dragendorff, Ph.D. Translated from the German by Henry G. Greenish,
E.I.C. ; pp. XVI. — 280. (London : Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox, 18S4.)

The Author and Translator may both be congratulated on the production
of this standard work on Plant Analysis in English. Although undoubtedly
more exact, and perhaps in some cases less complicated methods of Analysis
may be discovered in time, this work stands at present unrivalled, as giving
the best analytical methods for the detection and estimation of the proximate
constituents of plants. Copious foot-notes are given, referring the reader to
original articles on various processes which have appeared in different scientific
journals, thereby much enhancing the value of the work. A few illustrations
of special apparatus are interspersed throughout the text,

REVIEWS. 201

The Medical Annual and Practitioner's Index. A Yearly

Record of useful information on subjects relating to the medical profession ;
pp. i6a — 371. (London : Henry Kimpton, 1885.)

We find the second year's issue of this useful little annual much enlarged
and otherwise improved. The volume commences with a paper by Dr. J. E.
Taylor, Editor of "Science Gossip," entitled, "A Review of Popular and
General Science." We believe the chapters on Health Resorts have been in a
great measure re-written ; several new features are added to the book.

World-Life, or Comparative Geology. By Alexander

Winchell, LL.D. ; pp. XXIV., 642. (Chicago, U.S.A. : S. C. Griggs and
Co., 18S3.)

The learned Professor in this exceedingly interesting book gives us a
thoughtful view of the processes of world-formation, world-growth, and world-
decadence. He has gathered together many of the important facts observed
in the constitution and course of nature, and has endeavoured to weave them
into a system by the connecting threads of scientific inference.

Sparks from a Geologist's Hammer. By Alexander

Winchell, LL.D. Second Edition ; pp. 400. (Chicago : S. G. Griggs & Co.)
This perhaps is a more popular work by the same author ; it consists of
descriptions, essays, and discussions of subjects suited to occupy the attention
of the Geologist. The subjects range from the descriptive and literary, to
scientific, historic, and philosophic. Thus we have the ^^isthetic, where the
reader is conducted on an interesting excursion to Mont Blanc ; the Chrono-
logical, in which is discussed the age of Continents, Obliterated Continents,
and a grasp of Geologic Time ; the Climatic, the Historic, and the
Philosophic. Readers will be charmed with this book.

Geogony : Creation of the Continents by the Ocean Currents,

an advanced system of Physical Geology and Geography. By J. Stanley
Grimes; pp. 116. (Philadelphia, U.S.A. : J. B. Lippencott and Co., 1885.)
The Author argues that "All the elevations of the earth's crust have
resulted from the sinking of the ocean basins, or of smaller local basins,
beneath the weight of the sediment. And that when the ocean covered the
globe there were three pairs of elliptical currents, which collected sediment on
the ocean's floor, the weight of which produced three pairs of sinking basins,
viz. — the North and South Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean basins.

Paradise Found. The Cradle of the Human Race at the

North Pole ; a Study of the Pre-Historic World. By William F. Warren,
S.T.D., LL.D., President of the Boston (U.S.A.) University; pp. XXIV.—
505, with original illustrations. (Boston : Houghton, Mifflen, and Co., 1885.)
To many of our readers it will appear a startling assertion that the Cradle
of the Human Race was situated at the North Pole. Dr. Warren assures us,
however, that such is the fact, and in the book before us he gives us the
arguments by which his theory of Polar origin is very carefully worked out. The
work is divided into six parts. In the first we have a survey of the present
state of the question, giving the results of explorers, both historic and legend-
ary, followed in Part II. by his own hypothesis. In Part III. this is

202 REVIEWS.

scientifically tested in its bearings on Geogony, Geography, Geology,
Climatology, Palieontology, Botany, Zoology, Anthropology, &c. ; in I'arts
IV. and V. a confirmation of the hypothesis by ethnic tradition ; and, finally,
in Part VI., we have the significance of these results.

The book is a serious and sincere attempt to present what to the Author's
mind is the true and final solution of one of the greatest and most fascinating
of all the problems connected with the history of mankind, and as such
deserves careful reading ; and whilst exhibiting much deep research, it is
written in a pleasant and readable style.

Dissertations on the Philosophy of the Creation,

and the first Ten Chapters of Genesis Allegorised in Mythology. Containing
Expositions of the Ancient Cosmogonies and Theogonies, the Invention of
Hieroglyphics, and of the Ancient Hebrew Language and Alphabet. By
William Galloway, M.A., Ph.D., M.D. ; pp. XVI.— 663. (Edinburgh:
James Gemmell ; London : Hamilton, Adams, and Co., 1885.)

The Author of this interesting work gives us the result of a profound
study of Mythology, considered in the first place from an enquiry into the
origin of writing, Alphabetic and Hieroglyphic ; and next its place is assigned
in the Phcenician, Romo-Pelasgian, and Greek Theogonies. An instructive
comparison of the Celtic, Semetic, and Runic alphabets are given in two plates.

Scientific Theology. Essays toward the development of
Religious Truth on the basis of Modern Science. By Thomas Walter Barber ;
pp. X. — 190. (London : Elliot Stock, 1884.)

The writer of the book before us is evidently well acquainted with
modern scientific discoveries and theories ; he quite rejects the idea that
Science can serve us instead of religion, but believes that Science must to all
intents and purposes become conjoined with religion, and work hand in hand
with it ; an event which we believe all earnest men devoutly hope for.

The Elements of Natural Philosophy. By Sidney A.

Norton, A.M. Three hundred and fifty illustrations ; pp. 468. (Cincinnati,
U.S.A. : Van Antwerp, Bragg, and Co.)

An elementary text-book of Natural Philosophy, in which the facts are
clearly expressed, and the illustrations good. A well-selected series of
questions will be found at the end of the book.

Energy and Motion, a text-book of Elementary Mechanics.
By William Paice, M.A. ; pp. VI. — 114. (London: Cassell and Co., 1884.)

This little work contains elementary problems on those portions of Kine-
matics, Statics, and Dynamics, usually included in various preliminary
examinations. The exercises appended to each chapter are well chosen, and
the answers, so far as we have tested them, are correct.

Practical Physics. By R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.,

Fellow of Trinity College, and W. N. Shaw, M.A., Fellow of Emmanuel
College; pp. XXII. — 487. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1S85.)
The Authors have performed a real service to the student of Physical

REVIEWS. 20

o

Science by the publication of this text-book. It contains the methods adopted
in the Cavendish Laboratory for the practical determination of problems
relating to the principal Physical Sciences, together with a description of the
more important instruments used. It embraces practical work in Linear and
Map Measurement, Mechanics, Acoustics, Heat, Light, and Electricity; the
information imparted being quite distinct from that found in ordinary text-
books.

Aids to the Analysis of Food and Drugs. By H.

Aubrey Husband, M.B., CM., B.Sc, M.R.C.S., F.R.C.S. Edin. ; pp. 77.
(London: Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox.)

We are told by the Author of this little pamphlet that it is especially
intended for the assistance of candidates for sanitary degrees. We must
confess that we doubt the utility of a small volume of this kind. If it be
intended to teach analytical chemistry, we fear it will fail in its object, as in
consequence of the condensed nature of the instructions given, the minute
details essential to a correct result being insured are necessarily omitted.

The Microscope in Botany. A guide for the Microscopical

Investigation of Vegetable vSubstances. From the German of Dr. Julius
Wilhelm Behrens. Translated and Edited by Rev. A. B. Harvey, A.M.,
assisted by R. H. Ward, M.D,, F.R. M.S. Illustrated with thirteen plates
and fifty-three woodcuts; pp. XV. — 466. (Boston, U.S.A. : S. E. Cassino
and Co., 1885.)

The very valuable work before us has engaged the constant attention of
the Author since 1880. Chapters I. and II. treat of the Microscope and its
Accessories, and chapter III. of the Preparation of Microscopic Objects ;
chapter IV. of Reagents ; chapter V. of Microscopical Investigation of
Vegetable Substances. In the compilation of this work the author has
attempted the utmost completeness. It deals with the anatomical constitution
of the cell and of plant tissue, and yet its enquiries relate far more to physio-
logical and biological processes and results, rather than to matters purely
anatomical and histological.

The treatise occupies a field almost entirely to itself in the botanical
literature both of Germany and of the English-speaking world, and we trust
that its publication will stimulate investigations into the deeper problems of
plant-life. The American Editors have introduced some very valuable
additions into the text ; these are enclosed in brackets, and marked with the
initials of the respective editor. We consider this the most valuable work of
the kind that has come under our notice. It is beautifully printed on very
superior paper.

The Preparation and Mounting of Microscopic Objects.

By Thomas Davies, Edited by John Matthews, M.D., F.R.M.S. ; pp. VIII.—
214. (London : W. PI. Allen and Co.)

This useful little book, now in its fourteenth thousand, is too well known
to need any description from us.

Physiological Botany. Part I. Outlines of the Histology

of Pha;nogamous Plants. By George Lincoln Goodale, A.M., M.D., Professor
of Botany in Ilavard University ; pp. VII. — 194. (New York : Ivison,
Blakeman, Taylor, and Co., 1885.)

^04 REVIEWS.

This book, the first part only of Vol. 11. of Prof. Asa Gray's series of
Botanical Text- Books, is a valuable and interesting one to the advanced student
of Botany. Professor Goodale strongly insists upon the use of the Microscope
in botanical research, and gives many simple and clear directions for its use,
and for the preparation of the different tissues of plants for examination. The
minute structure and development of every part of the plant is clearly
explained, and well illustrated by no fewer than 141 capital engravings.

The second part of this volume will deal with Vegetable Physiology, and
will be puljlished very shortly ; it will then form a volume that no earnest
botanical student should be without.

The Microtomists Vade-Mecum. A Handbook of the

Methods of Microscopic Anatomy. By Arthur Bolles Lee ; pp. XIV. — 424.
(London : J. and A, Churchill, 1885.)

The aim of the Author of this useful work is to put into the hands of the
anatomist a concise, but complete account of all the methods of preparation
that have been recommended to the Microscopic Anatomist. We have first an
Introductory Chapter, with general instructions for preparing objects for
examination ; followed by chapters on Fixing Agents, Theory of Staining,
Hardening Agents, Theory of Embedding, with a word on Microtomes, etc.
etc. Both the Amateur and the Advanced Anotomist will find much valuable
information in this book.

Histological Notes for the use of Medical Students. By

W. Horscraft Walters, M.A., Demonstrator and Assistant Lecturer in
Physiology at the Owen's College, Manchester ; pp. VI. — 65. (Manchester :
J. E. Cornish ; London : vSmith, Elder, and Co., 1884.)

A well written and unpretentious little volume. The instructions given
are an enlargement, although still in a very condensed form, of the Author's
" sheets " given to the students of the Practical Histology Class at the College.
They are very plainly and concisely written, and will doubtless be found of
great assistance to the Histological student.

A Manual of Photography, intended as a Text-Book for

Beginners, and a book of reference for Advanced Photographers. By M.
Carey Lea. Second edition, revised and enlarged ; pp. 439, 8.4. (P'hiladel-
phia, U.S.A. : Printed for the Author.)

The work before us is one of the best Photographic Manuals which we
have seen, and one that every practical Photographer would do well to study.
It is divided into four portions ; the first gives a short and clear course of
instruction for beginners. In the subsequent parts the various subjects are
treated of in detail, e.g. : Part 11, treats of Photographic Optics and the
Theory of Perspective ; Part III. — Photographic Manipulations ; Part IV. —
Certain Theoretical Considerations as to the Action of Light on Chemical
Compounds, and the Action of various portions of the .Spectrum ; Part V, is
devoted to Photography in its Relation to Health, and also to Chemical
Manipulation.

La Photographie Appliquee a l'Histoire Naturelle.

Par M. Trutat ; pp. XIII.— 223. (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1884.)

We have here very full and carefully written instructions for the produc-
tion of Photographs in every department of Natural History, Zoology, Botany,

REVIEWS. 205

and Geology. There are 58 well executed engravings, besides 5 fine
photographic plates. We think that PL IV., a piece of red Marine Alg^
(Plocamium rubrum), printed in natural colours, by one single operation,
is the most perfect example we have met with.

Wild Flowers and Where they Grow. By Amanda B.

Harris, with 60 illustrations by Miss L. B. Humphrey ; pp. 160. (Boston :
D. Lothrop and Co.)

This book is written in a bright, popular style, with vivid recollections of
a child's delight in the beauty and abundance of wild flowers. It is, however,
a matter for regret that only the popular names of the flowers are given, for as
these appear to differ very considerably in " New " and " Old " England, it is
difficult to identify them. The work is handsomely bound, printed, and got
up, and the plates are charming.

Plant-Life on the Farm. By Maxwell T. Masters, M.B.,

F.R.S. ; pp. 132. (New Vork : Orange, Judd, and Co., 1885.)

In the little book before us the Author gives an outline of the physiology
or life-history of plants, of the way in which they are affected by circumstances
under which they exist, and of the manner in which they in their turn react
upon other living beings, and upon natural forces. The most practical part of
the book treats of the comparative values of different manures, and their
effect on the various grasses and cereals, illustrated by experiments made at
Rothamstead.

The Botanical Atlas. A Guide to the Practical Study of

Plants, containing representatives of the leading forms of Plant Life. By D.
McAlpine, F.C.S. Two Vols. : \o\. I., Phanerogams ; Vol. II., Crypto-
gams. (Edinburgh : W. and A. K. Johnson, 1883.)

The object of the Author in preparing these two truly magnificent
volumes, is to provide a guide to the practical study of Plants ; the examples
selected are always of the commonest kind, selected from every readily
available source. In the volume devoted to Planerogams, the flower and its
various parts passing into fruit and seed are mainly considered, coloured
dissections being given. In the Cryptogams a similar course is adopted, and,
as the figures of every plant, or section of a plant, are represented in their proper
colours, the student cannot fail to find these books most helpful in his
botanical pursuits.

Each volume (Atlas folio) consists of 26 coloured plates, and contains
an immense number of figures, with a page of letterpress descriptions opposite.

We feel that we cannot recommend these volumes too strongly to our
Botanical friends.

Your Plants. Plain and practical directions for the treat-
ment of Tender' and Hardy Plants, in the House and in the Garden. By
James Sheehan ; pp. 79. (New Vork : Orange, Judd, and Co., 1885.)

A useful little book, written professedly for Amateurs, giving clear and
easy directions for the culture, planting, grafting, pruning, etc., of greenhouse,
garden, and window plants ; the making of Wardian cases, etc. Mr. Sheehan
exposes the popular fallacy of supposing it to be unhealthy to keep plants in a
room ; he says the amount of carl)onic acid discharged at night from two dozen
large plants, will not equal that exhaled by one infant sleeper.

20G REVIEWS.

A Year's Work in Garden and Greenhouse. By George

Glenny ; pp. XVI. — 237. (London : Chatto and Windus.)

The Author of this work has endeavoared to show how an amateur,
without much experience, may dispense with the skilled labour which is often
diflicult, and sometimes impossible, to obtain. The work is really a calendar
of gardening operations for each month of the year. Thus we have twelve
months' work appointed for the Flower Garden, the Fruit Garden, and the
Frame Garden. Then follows a list of various tools required, with full
instructions for using them, also instructions in Budding, Grafting, etc. etc.

Tree Gossip. By Francis George Heath; pp. VIII. — 176.

(London: Field and Tuer, 1885.)

We find here much pleasing information, not only about trees individually,
but about matters relating to them generally ; as, for instance, the book begins
with a chapter on the Ages of Trees, others on Autumnal Tinting, Destruction
of American Forests, etc. In short, the book is mainly devoted to the bye-ways
of tree life. For convenience of reference the chapters are all arranged in
alphabetical order. Mr. Heath is the author of several works on Trees,
Ferns, etc., and we venture to think that this is not the least interesting of
them all.

A Manual of Botanic Terms. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. ;

pp. IV.— 118. (London: W. IL Allen.)

A useful Dictionary of Botanic terms, with their derivations. It is
illustrated with a number of plates, containing in all 307 figures.

Botany. By Professor Bentley ; pp. 128. (London: Society

for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1S79.)

This is one of those useful Shilling Manuals of Elementary Sciences
published by the above Society. It was prepared with a view of supplying
young people with a simple introduction to the study of plants. Each chapter
is followed by a series of questions ; the book is further illustrated with
134 figures.

A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi, with

especial reference to the Esculent and Economic species. By M. C. Cooke,
M.A., LL.D. Fifth edition, revised, with coloured plates of 34 species, and
numerous wood engravings; pp. VIII. — 166. (London : W. H. Allen, 1884.)
The little book before us commences with a general description of British
Fungi, which is followed by the Anatomy of the Fungi. Then the various
genera are more particularly described ; followed by a valuable chapter on
the "Discrimination and Preservation of Fungi;" and, lastly, a tabular
arrangement of the Orders and Genera.

Orchids : A Review of their Structure and History. Illus-
trated. By Lewis Castle (formerly of the Royal Gardens, Kew ; Author of
"Cactaceous Plants"); pp. 60. (London: "Journal of Horticulture"
Oflicc.)

In this little shilling review of the Orchid family the Author tells us "it

REVIEWS. 207

is not intended to describe the culture, but to endeavour to convey some idea
of the peculiarities and recommendations possessed by these remarkable
plants," The various chapters are devoted to descriptions of Orchid Life ;
Orchid Flowers, in which the Labellum and Pollen Masses receive special
attention ; Orchid Mysteries ; Mimicry ; Fertilisation ; the History of their
Structure ; Uses ; Homes ; History ; Value ; and, finally, Hybrids. Lovers
of this very remarkable flower will find much to interest them.

The Collector's Manual of British Land and Fresh-
Vater Shells. By Lionel Ernest Adams, B.A. Illustrated by Gerald W.
Adams and the Author ; pp. 125. (London : George Bell and Sons, 1884.)

A most useful book for the collector, giving a clear description of one
hundred and thirty British species of British shells, with figures of every
species, also indicating the localities where each may be found. Simple
directions are given to the collector, by following which the youngest tyro in
that most fascinating employment can hardly fail to make a well -arranged and
correctly-named collection. There are 8 very good plates.

The Book of Algoonah. Being a concise account of the

History of the Early People of the continent of America, known as Mound
Builders. (St. Louis, Mo. : Cyrus F. Xewcomb and Co., 1S84.)

This book gives the history of a people known as Mound Builders, who
inhabited that part of America where St. Louis now stands, and are said to
have lived at a time contemporaneous with the builders of the pyramids. We
are not told from whence the Author (who is nameless) procured his informa-
tion ; he, however, promises "to further elucidate the matter at no very
distant date."

Hegel's ^^^^sthetics : a critical exposition. By John Stein-
fort Kedney, S.T.D., Professor of Divinity in the Seabury Divinity School,
Minnesota ; pp. XVIII. — 302. (Chicago, U.S.A. : S. C. Griggs and Co.,

This is one of Greggs' Philosophical Classics, the object of the work
being to reproduce the essential thought of that voluminous treatise known as
" The .Esthetics of Hegel. " The original work is divided into three parts;
we have here a faithful reproduction of the first. A translation of the second
part having been already published, the Author of the present work has
substituted an original disquisition in language approaching nearer to the
vernacular, and giving the substance of Hegel's thought. Of the third part all
the important definitions and fundamental ideas are given.

The Eclectic Physiology, for use in Schools. By Eli F.

Brown, M.D. ; pp. 189. (Cincinnati, U.vS.A. : Van Antwerp, Bragg, and
Co., 1884.)

Physiology being taught in many of the schools, the information here
given is presented in a plain didactic style, common words being used instead
of technical terms, and the details of anatomy are subordinated to the more
important consideration of Physiolog)' and Hygiene. Much attention is given
to the care of proper sanitary conditions in the home, and to habits of
healthfulness in ordinary life.

208 KEVIEWS.

Technological Dictionary of the Physical, Mechanical,

and Chemical Sciences. Part I. — English-German ; Part II. — German-
English. By F. J. Wershoven, D.Sc. ; pp. 222 — 267. (London : Symons
and Co., 18S5.)

These two small volumes are the first of a series which will include the
English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish languages, and will contain
terms employed in Physics, Meteorology, Mechanics, Chemistr^^, Metallurgy',
Chemical Technolog)', and Electrotechnics ; and will, owing to the great
advances of science, and the necessary coining of new words, be found most
useful to the Science student.

Guides for Science Teaching : —

I. — About Pebbles. By Prof. Alpheus Hyatt ; pp. 26.
II. — Concerning a few Common Plants. By George L. Goodale (second
edition) ; pp. 61.

III. — Commercial and other Sponges. By Prof. Alpheus Hyatt ; illus.,

pp. 43- . . .

IV. — A First Lesson in Natural History. By Mrs. Agassiz (new edition) ;
illus., pp. 64.

V. — Common Hydroids, Corals, and Echinoderms. By Prof. Alpheus
Hyatt ; illus., pp. 32.

VI. — The Oyster, Clam, and other Common Molluscs. By Prof. Alpheus
Hyatt ; illus., pp. 65.

VII. — Worms and Crustacea. By Prof. Alpheus Hyatt ; illus., pp. 68.

XII. — Common ^Minerals and Rocks. By William O. Crosby ; pp. 131.

XIIL — First Lessons on Minerals. By Fallen H. Richards ; pp. 50.
(Boston, U.S.A. : Ginn, Heath, and Co.)

We have before us nine little books, designed to supplement Lectures
given to Teachers of the Public Schools of Boston, by the Boston Society of
Natural History. They are intended for the use of Teachers who desire to
practically instruct classes in Natural History. Beside simple illustrations and
instructions as to the modes of presentation and study, there are, in each
pamphlet, hints which will be found useful in preserving, preparing, col-
lecting, and purchasing specimens. The missing numbers are in course of
publication.

The Telephone. An Account of the Phenomena of
Electricity, Magnetism, and Sound, as involved in its action, with directions
for making a Speaking Telephone. By Prof. A. E. Dolbear ; pp. 128.

Handbook of AVood Engraving, with practical instructions
in the art, for persons wishing to learn without an instructor. By William A.
Emerson ; pp. 95.

Hints and Helps for those who Write, Print, or Read. By-
Benjamin Drew ; pp. 131.

Universal Phonography : or, Shorthand by the " Allen
Method." A Self-Instructor, whereby more speed than longhand writing is
gained at the first, and additional speed at each subsequent lesson. By
G. A. Allen ; pp. 142.

Handbook of English Synonyms, with an Appendix
showing the correct uses of Prepositions, also a Collection of Foreign Phrases.
By L. J. Campbell ; pp. 160.

REVIEWS. 209

Pronouncing Handbook of Words often INIispronounced,

and of words to which a choice of pronunciation is allowed. By Richard
Soule and Loomes J. Campbell ; pp. 99.

Handbook for Water-Drinkers. By G. L. Austin, M.D. ;
pp. 48.

The Stars and the Earth ; or Thoughts on Space, Time,

and Eternity ; pp. 88.

Handbook of the Earth. Natural Methods in Geography.
By Louisa Parsons Hopkins ; pp. "jS. (Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard,
1884, etc.)

The above nine little books form an exceedingly useful set of handbooks
on a variety of subjects. The subject matter of each is condensed into a very
small compass, so that it is by no means unlikely that the unprofessional
reader may obtain as much information from them as from a more elaborate
technical treatise on the same subject. Our readers will remember that we
reviewed four others of the same series in our January part. The size of the
pages is 6 by 4 inches.

Spon's Mechanic's Own Book : a Manual for Handicrafts-
men and Amateurs ; pp. XIL — 702. (London : E. and F. N. Spon, 1885.)

The aim of the Authors of this large and closely printed volume has been
to discuss, from an everyday, practical view, the various mechanical trades
that deal with the conversion of wood, metals, and stone, into useful articles.

The method of treatment of each branch is scientific, yet simple. First,
the character, variations, and suitability of the^raw material is considered ;
then the tools used, and the methods to be adopted for keeping them in proper
order. The book forms a complete guide to all ordinary mechanical operations,
and will be found useful both to the professional workman and the amateur.
It is well illustrated with no less than 1419 engravings; there is also a good
index.

Country Cousins : Short Studies in the Natural History of

the United States. By Ernest Ingersoll ; pp. 252. (New York ; Harper and
Bros., 1884.)

We are introduced in the work before us to a great number and variety of
Birds and Animals. There is also a good paper on Winter Work for Natural-
ists ; How a Naturalists' Club should be organised, etc. We have also an
account of Professor Agassiz's sea-side laboratory, followed Ijy descriptions of
many sea creatures, including the life, trials, and vicissitudes of an Oyster ;
Star-fishes, and the mischief they accomplish. The book throughout is most
interestingly written, well illustrated, and handsomely bound.

Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea Urchins. Being a research on

Primitive Nervous Systems. By G. J. Romanes, IVLA., L.L.D., F. R.S., pp.
VHL — 323. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., 1885.)

This deeply interesting volume (The Liternational Scientific Series, vol.
50) commences with a fine description of the Jelly-fish. The author, who is
Zoological Secretary of the Linncean Society, gives us the result of many years
spent in the study of the Medusre, etc. The work closes with an account of
the Star-Fish and Sea-Urchins. It is an important addition to physiological
science, throwing much light upon many hitherto very little considered points
of structure, and will well repay the careful perusal of the Naturalist.

210 REVIEWS.

Physical Arithmetic. By A. Macfarlane, M.A., D.Sc,

F.R.S.E., Examiner in Mathematics in the Universities of Edinburgh ; pp.
IX. — 357. (London : Macmillan and Co., 1885.)

This is a treatise on apphed arithmetic, the applications being chiefly in
physical sciences. The Author tells us that "Knowledge of the elements of
pure arithmetic is assumed, but that the more advanced methods are explained
when their application happens to occur."

The examples have been partly selected from recent examination papers
of the several universities, ancl partly prepared by the Author. The work is
divided into the following sections : — Financial, Geometrical, Kinematical,
Dynamical, Thermal, Electrical, Acoustical, Optical, and Chemical.

Looking at the examples from a student's point of view, we should have
liked to have seen the sign . •. (therefore) oftener used in the examples.

Young Folks' Ideas. A Story : by Uncle Laurence, Author
of Young Folks' Whys and Wherefores, etc., pp. 243. (Philadelphia : Lippin-
cott and Co., 1885.)

We have here the merest outline of a story into which a good deal of
Scientific and Technical Knowledge is interwoven. The subjects varying from
Bread-making, Gold and Silver, Gas, and Printing, to Wine, and even Will-
making. The young folks to whom we are introduced are certainly the most
precocious it has ever been our fortune to meet. The " get-up " of book is
everything that can be desired.

Geology and the Deluge. By the Duke of Argyle ; pp. 47.

(Glasgow : Wilson and McCormick, 1885.)

This is a lecture delivered by the Duke of Argyle at Glasgow. His Grace
veiy conclusively proves the occurrence of a Deluge of comparatively recent
date, but whether this was the same that drowned the world in the days of
Noah is we think not so satisfactorily proved ; four thousand years of Geologic
time being but a very insignificant portion. We feel sure our friends will be
glad to read this very clever address.

Comparative Physiology and Psychology. A discussion

of the Evolution and Relations of the mind and body of man and animals.
By S. V. Clevenger, M.D., pp. VI. — 257. (Chicago : Jansen, McClurg, and
Co., 1885.)

A cleverly w^ritten book, the object of the author being to elaborate as far
as possible, a practical mental science which will reconcile the observations of
Anatomists, Psychologists, and Pathologists, with direct reference to the more
intelligent treatment of insanity. The work is divided into fifteen chapters,
and exhibits a vast amount of thought and research on the part of the Author.

British Butterflies, Moths, and Beetles. By W. F. Kirby;

pp. 96. (London: W. Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1885.)

A capital little shilling book for the Young Collector. It is divided into
three portions, the first of which treats of the order of Insects generally, with
their division into orders, etc. ; the next is devoted to British Beetles, and on
the part played ])y them in the Economy of Nature ; the third to British But-
terflies and Moths. The book is illustrated with several plates and a
number of wood engravings.

REVIEWS. 211

The Ores of Heaven, or Planetary and Stellar Worlds. By

O. M. Mitchell, A.M. ; pp. VIII. — 304. (London : George Routledge
and Sons. )

Gives us a popular exposition of the Great Discoveries and Theories of
Modern Astronomers ; it is pleasantly written and well illustrated.

Education a Science. By Alexander Bain, L.L.D., Pro-
fessor of Logic in the Universities of Aberdeen ; Fifth edition, pp. XXVII. —
453. (London : Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., 1S85.)

The Author of the book before us, another of the " International
Scientific Series," views the art of teaching as far as possible from a scientific
point of view ; thus, in the opening chapters the opinions of many of our great
scientists are considered. We then have the subject of Education viewed in
connection with Physiology and of Psychology. That five editions of this
work have been called for in a comparatively short time, proves the esteem
in which it is held.

Science in Song, or Nature in Numbers. By William Richards,
A.M., Ph.D., pp. XIL— 131. (Boston : Lee and Shepard, 1885.)

In the little book before us the Author attempts to give us the various facts
and principles of Science in Verse. Some of the subjects so treated being
Steam, Electricity, the Spectroscope, Magnetism, the Telescope, &c.

School-Keeping, and How to do it. By Hiram Orcutt, LL.D. ;

pp. 244. (Boston: N. E. Publishing Company, 1885.)

The Author's design in publishing this book is first, to aid and encourage
those who need and would profit by the experience of others ; and secondly,
to awaken an interest in the subject. It is divided into seven chapters, viz. —
Theory and Practice, How to Begin, Plow to Govern, How to Teach, Physical
Culture, Morals and Manners, and Temperance in Schools.

Lessons on Elementary Practical Physics. By Balfour

Stewart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., and W. W. Haldane Gee. Vol. i. General
Physical Processes, pp. XVI. — 291. (London : Macmillan and Co., 1885.)

The volume before us is the first of a series, to be shortly followed, it is
hoped, by one on Electricity and Magnetism, and the third on Heat, Light,
and Sound. The present work is divided into a series of lessons, each one of
which being as a rule descriptive of something to be done in a definite manner
with definite apparatus. The Authors have endeavoured to render their des-
criptions as clear as possible, making but a limited use of technical words.

A Popular Exposition of Electricity, with Sketches of

some of its discoveries. By Rev. Martin S. Brennan, A.M., pp. 191. (New
Vork : D. Appleton and Co., 18S5.)

A very interesting little book, the aim of the Author being simplicity; he has
devoted his care almost entirely to the explanation of principles to the exclusion
of Mechanics. Short sketches are given of the men who have added most
to the science by their great discoveries,

212 REVIEWS.

Vocal and Action-Language, Culture and Expression. By

E. N. Kirby, pp. 163. (Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard, 1885.)

Mr. Kirby is teacher of Elocution in the Lynn (U.S.A.) High School; his
handbook originated with the lessons given by him in the class-room, and is
intended to benefit public speakers and others. His aim has been to give to
the reader a practical handbook on elocution, the authorities quoted being
specialists in their various departments. He gives descriptions of the respira-
tory and vocal organs, based upon Dr. Martin's work "The Human Body,"
with illustrations taken from that book. The work is divided into three parts :
I. Vocal Culture and Expression; 2. Action-Language, Culture, and Express-
ion; 3. Expression; and ^closes with general instructions in the art of public
speaking.

John Oldcastle's Guide for Literary Beginners ; pp. 124.

(London : Field and Tuer, 1884.)

This quaint little book is one of "ye Leadenhalle Presse oblong shilling
series ;" it is got up, except as regards orthography, quite in the old style, on
very old-fashioned blue paper. The instructions to literary beginners are
thoroughly practical and good ; specimens of the Caligraphy of many of our
famous Authors add much to the interest of the work.

The Author's Paper-Pad (by the same Publishers),
containing fifty sheets of good smooth writing-paper, is a good sixpenny worth.

Health upon Wheels, or, Cycling as a means of maintaining

Health, and conducing to Longevity. By W. Gordon Stables, CM., M.D.,
R.N., pp. VH. — 125. (London: Iliffe and Son, 1885.)

The Author of this little book is a well-known writer on Health and
Hygiene in several of our popular periodicals. He is, par excellence^ a Tricyclist,
and combined with instructions for using this very agreeable vehicle, gives no
end of good advice on Health generally, including the " Morning Tub,"
" Sleep," " Pure Air," etc. etc.

LehrbuchderGeophysik und Physikalischen Geographie.

von Dr. vSiegmund Gunther, Professor am Gymnasium zu Ansbach. Zwei
Bande ; pp.418 — 671. (Stuttgart: Verlag von Ferdinand Enke, 1884 — 5.)

These admirable volumes on the Physics of the Earth came to hand at
the moment of going to press ; we have therefore only space to acknowledge
their receipt, and hope to notice them at greater length in our October
reviews. Vol. I. is illustrated with JJ, and Vol. H. with 118 engravings in
the text.

The June Part of the Journal of Quekett Microscopical
Club is a good one, and contains papers on A New Hydroid Polyp ;
Newly-Observed Phenomena in the Conjugation of Rhabdoitema arcuatum ;
and one by Dr. ^L C. Cook on Some Remarkable Moulds. Each paper is
illustrated with one or more litho. plates.

CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 213

Corrceponbcnce*

To the Editor of flie Journal of Alicroscopy ajid Nattcral Scie?ice.

Sir,—

Referring to the letters of Mr. H. W. Lett in your April issue,
I would say that Sambucus ebulus is not so rare as his words may lead readers
to think. It is rare in the sense of being local, but it is found in 70 out of the
112 botanical "counties" into which Britain is divided according to the
"London Catalogue"—/.^-, it has the same "census number" as Typha
lati/olia, Slum AugustifoliKni, Dipsacus sylvestris, and many others, while
Sambucus vigra, the Common Elder, has only 90 for its census number.

The Banewort is often passed over by even experienced botanists, partly
because the popular idea of its rarity lessens their watchfulness in looking
out for it.

Mr. Letts' second note I agree with, in so far as his praise of your Journal
goes, but I do think it would be a pity to make it monthly at the expense of
such full and thorough papers as we now get. It fills a place that no other
journal fills in supplying us with papers that give a grasp of their respective
subjects almost impossible to obtain in shorter papers, which a monthly issue
would almost necessitate. These papers are popular and readable, and, at the
same time, scientific and accurate. The Journal is issued at a most reasonable
price, and as a "Quarterly" would be greatly missed by many. We have
many science " monthlies," but no "quarterly" that I know of other than
expensive ones, and those technical and uninteresting to general readers.

I would rather say increase its present quarterly bulk, and make it 2/-
instead of 1/6. Put in plenty of Reviews, as in the current issue, and, as
Mr. Lett suggests, start a Query and Correspondence Column. I share his
desire to have the Journal coming in oftcner, but I should be sorry to see it
lessen in the thoroughness and fulness of its pages, if the monthly issue
involved that change. I should like to hear further opinions on this subject.

5

I am, yours truly,

H, W, S. Worsi.ey-Benison.

Current Botce anb fIDcinoran&a.

Owing to pressure of valuable matter which we were anxious
to give to our readers, we have ])een obliged to extend the current part of the
Journal to 80 pages, and are still unable to find room for our usual " Half-
Hour with Mr. Tuffen West," and the "Selected Notes;" these are,
however, in type, and the plates i^rinted, and will appear, without fail, in
our next-

214 CURIIENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

We insert a letter from Mr. Worsley-Benison, who takes a
somewhat different view of the question of monthly issue to that propounded
by the Rev. H. W. Lett. We shall be glad to know how a monthly supple-
ment will meet the case, if published at a low price, say fourpence ; and
embracing the following subjects : — -I. — Questions on every branch of Science.
II. — Replies to same by Subscribers. III. — Letters to the Editor on any
matters of interest. IV. — Cuttings from Scientific Journals. V. — An Exchange
and Sale Column. VI.— Answers to Correspondents. Perhaps those of our
subscribers desiring it will write us on the subject.

Studies in Microscopical Science. Since our last issue

we have received Nos. 3,4, and 5 of each of the four sections into which these
" Studies " are now divided. The slides and plates illustrating Section
I. are Batrachospermum, showing Cystocarps ; v-s. of Solorina crocea ;
and organs of sexual reproduction of Chara. Those of Section II. are t.s.
of organ of Bojanus, from the Anodon ; Liver of Lobster ; and s. of Skin of
Frog. Of Section III. we have the third stage of Alveolar Pneumonia and
Bronchio-Pneumonia. And in Section IV. the Jaws of Epeira diadema
^ ; t.s. [Medical Leech ; and t-s. Hair of Peccary.

Entomologica Americana is a monthly journal devoted to

Entomology in general, and published at Brooklyn, N.Y. This Journal, the
third part of which is just to hand, contains much that will be found particu-
larly interesting to the Entomologist. It is, we believe, published by the
Brooklyn Entomological Society, and is edited by the Hon. Secretary.

Mr. A. C. Peale, of the United States Geological Survey, has
sent us reprints of three interesting papers, viz. — The Laramie Group of
Western Wyoming and adjacent regions ; Jura-Trias Section of South-Eastern
Idaho and Western Wyoming ; and the World's Geysier-Regions.

The following list of Chemicals is recommended in the

seventh volume of the Proceedings of the American Society of Microscopists,
as giving slides of very interesting Crystals for the Microscope : — Salicine,
santonine, helicine, asparagine, aspartic acid, bichromate of potash, arsenious
acid, cinchonoidine, hippuric acid, oxalate of ammonia, quinidine, sulphate of
cadmium, sulphate of copper, chloride of copper, platino-cyanide of mag-
nesium, pyrogallic acid.

Wanted — Members for an Entomological Evercirculator. —
Address for particulars, Mr. T. F. Uitley, 17, BrazennosQ Street, Albert
Square, Manchester.

THE JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY

AND

NATURAL SCIENCE:

the journal of
The Postal Microscopical Society.

OCTOBER, 1885.

Ibow plante (Brow*

By H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, F.L.S., '

Lecturer on Botany at Westminster Hospital, President of the
Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society.

e^O

MONO the characters which separate Living beings —
animals and plants — from Inanimate bodies, their
manner of growth occupies a foremost position.
Inanimate bodies increase by accretw?i — i.e., a
mechanical adding of similar particles to the exte-
rior, such as takes place in the making of a snow-
ball, for instance.

Living beings universally "grow" by a process
known as ifitiissuscepfion — i.e., a deposition of food-
particles between the molecules of the organism ; here we have a
positive in-taking, with resultant assimilation, nutrition, and all the
processes summarised in the word life. It is to this latter method
of increase only that the term ^'growth" can be properly applied.
In my paper, entitled " What is a Plant ? " * I stated that the
most clearly-marked morphological feature of plant-life was the
presence of a cell-wall made up of cellulose, and that the most

* See this Journal, pp. 74 and 154.
VOL. IV. o

216 HOW PLANTS GROW.

distinctive physiological character was the power to manufacture
"protein" from less complex materials.

In our present study, we must keep two main facts promi-
nently and clearly before us : — First, that all plant-growth goes on
by intussusception, not by accretion ; second, that we are dealing
with organisms whose elemental parts — i.e.^ their cells — possess
walls made of cellulose, and who are able to exercise this manu-
facturing power, in virtue of which they make their cellulose, and
all the other important chemical substances intimately connected
with their " growth."

These points being clear, I purpose to sketch in this paper the
methods by which plants increase, and, as a type, to trace the
growth of an ordinary flowering-plant from the very first cell of
the embryo — />., the initial result of the process of fertilization up
to the adult plant, with its various organs.

It is difficult to show how this first embryonic cell comes about
without trending in the direction of reproduction. It is equally
difficult to trace the after-steps of development without going too
deeply into the question of the food of plants, its uses, and the
manner in which it is taken in — in a word, the processes of
assimilation and nutrition. Therefore, I shall only say so much
concerning reproduction as will suffice to define the posiiio7i of the
primary embryo cell, and only so much about food and assimila-
tion as may be needful to show the necessity that exists for the
food to be used by the plant, and to demonstrate the function of
certain organs, which must be named. How plants feed, move,
climb, and reproduce, are subjects worthy of separate papers,
which may at a future time appear in this Journal.

I.— The Vegetable Cell.

We shall, first of all, discuss the simple plant-cell : its composi-
tion, contents, form, varieties, and so forth. Having seen it in
its initial stage, as the starting-point of the embryo, and discussed
the method by which it managed to assert its right to exist at all,
we shall trace its development into tissues and organs^ making up
the adult plant.

Take as the primary and all-important axiom of plant-life this :
All k7iGwn plants consist wholly of either o?ie cell, modified i?i various
ways in different cases, or of a number of cells, greater or smaller^
viodified in almost endless variety.

HOW PLANTS GROW. 217

Take what plant, or what part of any plant, you choose, it is
wholly made up of cells, and nothing but cells. These may be
modified so as to produce " vessels " ; they are still only cells.

If only the simple cells be present, we call the plant cellular ;
as, for example. Seaweeds, Lichens, Moulds, Liverworts, and
Mosses. If, in addition to these simple cells, we find modified
kinds, or vessels, we call it vascular^ including the Club-mosses,
Horse-tails, Ferns, and all Flowering plants.

Remembering this axiom, which, unlike the Euclidian axioms,
is capable of being demonstrated under the microscope, and is
not, on the face of it, always '' self-evident " without this pro-
cess, let us, to start with, reply to the query, " What is a cell ? "

ia) The Cell as an Individual.

Until quite recently, a cell was supposed to consist essentially
of a cell-wall enclosing certain contents, such as protoplasm, cell-
sap, nucleus, etc. The cell-wall was held by some to be the
essential feature ; indeed, many observers used the term ''cell" to
denote cases where only the cell-wall existed, the former contents
having vanished, as, for instance, pith-cells and very aged cells,
where only air is contained by the wall. Now, however, many
cells are known to exist, for part of their life at all events, witJioiit
any wall differi?ig chemically from their other substance. There
do also exist some cells devoid of a nucleus, so far as we can
ascertain. Hence, some modification of the scope of the term
" cell " was needed, and now, universally, the only essential consti-
tuent of a plant-cell is held to be the protoplasm, a viscid, semi-
fluid substance. A cell^ therefore, pure and simple, is simply a
mass of protoplasm. This protoplasm is always, sooner or later,
closed in by a solid, more or less firm, transparent membrane,
secreted by itself, and moreover possesses, in most cases, a nucleus.
Still, the one great essential feature is protoplasm. Only cells
which have it are " alive " ; only such cells can grow, change,
secrete other substances, or reproduce themselves. Destitute of
it, they are " dead," and can only subserve the uses of support,
extension of fabric or framework, attraction of fluid, or protection.

Let us now study a typical cell^ having not only the living,
acting protoplasm, but the usual concomitants of cell-wall, nucleus,
and other parts.

218 HOW PLANTS GROW.

Construction and Contents. — The typical cell consists, then, of
the following parts : —

I. — A membranous boundary, the Cell-wail, consisting of
Cellulose (CtjHioOs), coloured blue by iodine and sulphuric acid.

2. — The Protoplasfn, a semi-fluid, hyaline substance, consisting
of various organic materials, among which the albuminous (nitro-
genous) are never absent. The chief constituent is Froteifi, made
up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with a little phos-
phorus and sulphur, and a varying proportion of water. Proto-
plasm easily coagulates, has a very high absorbing power for
water, resists the passage of colouring matters, or salts, dissolved
in water, is coloured yellow-brown by iodine, and pink by sugar
and sulphuric acid, possesses powder of contractility, and is the
origin of all new development. A number of very small "gra-
nules " are imbedded in the protoplasm.

3. — The Primordial Utricle. This is a definite boundary of
the protoplasm, similar in composition, but clearer, owing to the
absence of " granules." It lines the cell-wall where there is one,
and more or less bounds the granular protoplasm when there is no
wall. It is not sharply defined on the inside, but passes insensibly
into the protoplasm.

4. — The Nucleus. A darker, more or less rounded part of the
protoplasm, in the centre at first, but afterwards often seen nearer
the wall. This is because in the young state the protoplasm
usually fills the cavity, but later on becomes merely a delicate
parietal layer, carrying the nucleus with it. The nucleus will
often creep about in a long cell like an Amoeba, and in so doing
causes the shifting bands, or " threads," of protoplasm, which it
drags after it. This may be seen very well in the cells of the
hairs of Tradescafitia (spider- wort). One or more " nucleoli," or
smaller nuclei, may often be seen within the nucleus, and the
latter may be usually detected, with careful focussing, by its being
clearer than the surrounding fluid.

To detect the utricle as apart from the cell-wall, add a little
alcohol. This coagulates the protoplasm, and separates it, with
its utricle, from the wall. This can be made still more visible by
adding carmine, which colours the separated mass, leaving the
wall uncoloured.

HOW PLANTS GROW. 219

The protoplasm, utricle, and nucleus are the three contents
which play the important part in the origin and growth of all new
cells.

5. — The Vacuoles. When the protoplasm has reached its
limit of absorbing power for water, it exudes this water in the
form of drops of varying size in its interior. These form the
vacuoles, which are cavities in the protoplasm, and contain —

6. — The Watery Cell-Sap. This may be in many small
vacuoles, or in one large one, filling the cavity bounded by pro-
toplasm, and formed from it by exudation. The sap — the
" crude " sap, as it is called — is the fluid needed for the life of the
plant ; it is absorbed by the roots, and carried up by the stem.
In it are suspended all the other contents — those taken in with it
by the roots, and those formed inside the cells themselves. There-
fore, it is never found unmixed. When it has reached the leaves,
it is, under given conditions, transformed into " elaborated " or
unmixed sap, containing the materials of growth ready for use.

We thus see that a typical plant-cell is fitly described as con-
sisting of —

^.^The Cell- Wall, lined by

2. — The Primordial Utricle, which is the outer layer of

3. — The Protoplasm, at the centre of which is

4. — The Nucleus, with usually a nucleolus ;

5. — The Vacuoles, cavities in the protoplasm, and containing

6. — The Watery Cell-Sap, a nutritive fluid.

The Cell-Wall is simply the framework of the minute work-
shops in which the marvellous operations of plant-life are carried
on.

Size. — Cells vary in size from i-6,oooth of an inch in dia-
meter (as seen in Fungi spores) to i-3oth of an inch, as seen in
some gourds and aquatic plants. Elder pith shows them i-iooth
of an inch, and ordinary cellular tissue i-4ooth of an inch. In
length, they range from i-5oth of an inch long, as in wood-cells,
to i-i2th or even 2-3rds of an inch, as in the liber-cells of
flax. Some unicellular water-weeds, being many-branched, may
measure some inches in length, while their diameter may be
expressed in hundredths of an inch. Taking i-i 200th of an
inch as a small diameter for ordinary tissue ; one cubic inch of
such tissue would contain 1728,000,000 cells.

220 HOW PLANTS GROW.

Form. — The normal form is spherical, or nearly so ; this is
rarely preserved except in the cases of unicellular plants, pollen-
grains, and the cells of loose pulp, such as Peach or Strawberry.
By mutual pressure, cells usually become polygonal, as in elder
pith.

The two conditions affecting cell-form are : — ist, Mutual pres-
stire ; 2nd, Variatio7i in vigour of growth — /.<?., nutrition. If
these be equal on all sides and at all points, the original form is
preserved ; with varying pressure, and more vigorous nutrition at
the ends than at the sides, are formed the ellipsoidal, oval, and
hour-glass shapes. This end-growth, carried yet further, gives us
the elongated, prismatic, and fusiform cells. Let nutrition ensue
more vigorously at the sides — i.e., favour breadth rather than
length, and we find the tabular and disc-shaped varieties. If
nutrition proceeds equally on all sides, but not at all poi?tts, the
beautiful stellate cell is produced, seen in all the JuncacecB, or
rush order, and in Euastrum, one of our water-weeds.

Markifigs. — Varying nutrition is the great factor in producing
markings seen on cell-walls. The primary cell-wall is a thin,
transparent membrane. Increase in thickness is due to deposi-
tion, early in life, of several layers inside the primary one, called
secondary layers ; the thickness is fairly uniform everywhere, and
the transparency is retained ; at the same time fresh matter is
absorbed interstitially by intussusception. These layers may so
increase as to wholly fill the cavity.

Now, uniform thickening obtains only in the early stages ;
afterwards, want of uniformity is seen, especially at corners and
edges, giving the cavity an appearance of being rounded off.
This may be on one side only, as in Mistletoe epidermis. It is
usually seen at certain spots, forming pitted cells — ie., cells with
pits — which, if the pit extend from wall to centre, become canals
(or pore-canals, as they are called), simple, as in Clematis pith,
or branched, as in the shell of Walnut. If the canals in two
adjacent cells meet, the membrane between them frequently
vanishes and the cells become perforated, the canals becoming
widened at their base, or point of junction, into bordered pits, the
marking so characteristic of the wood of the pine order.

According to the development of these pits, or of the second-

HOW PLANTS GROW. 221

ary layers, we get the markings which give their names to the
cells, or vessels, in which they occur. As notable instances, we
have the pitted cells, seen in Pine wood ; reticulated cells, seen in
Balsam ; spiral cells, as in Cactus and others ; armular cells, as in
Hyacinth, Sphagmwi, etc., or scalar if orm cells, seen in ferns.

Then, sometimes, depositio7i of crystals is seen in outgrowths of
the wall, as in the calcic-oxalate crystals, found in Citron leaf-cells.
Another variety of marking is produced by hifiltration or Incrus-
tation^ where particles of foreign matter are deposited among the
particles of cellulose. Beautiful examples of this are seen in the
cell-wall of the Diatomacece, where it is transformed into an almost
perfect coat of silica, marked with exquisite tracings ; as, for
instance, Pleurosigma angulatum^ so well-known to microscopists.

We have spoken of " vessels " more than once. A vessel is
formed by several cells placed end to end, their cross partitions
being wholly or partially absorbed, so that they come to form a
tube, with free communication, more or less, from end to end. If
the partitions be only partially absorbed — i.e., at certain points —
we get the perforated ones seen in what are called sieve-tubes — i.e.^
tubes with sieve-like partitions, such as are found in Lime, Gourds,
etc. If entire absorption takes place, true vessels are formed, and
these, of course, are marked in a spiral, annular, or other fashion,
according to the markings on the cells by whose coalescence they
were formed. A vessel, then, is simply a modification of several
cells, but its formation is a most important feature in cell-life.

We omit here all mention of other very prominent cell-
contents, such as starchy chlorophyll, oils, and many besides, as
being foreign to the scope of this paper. So far, we have looked
at the cell as an individual only. Now we must regard it as the
member of a group — i.e. — •

{b) The Cell in Combination.

There are two chief kinds of combinations : — i. — Cell-Fusions,
Here the separate cells unite to form a vessel (just described),
whose elements are usually indistinguishable as such. They
simply form a uniform zvhole of a higher type.

2. — Tissues. Here the separate elements can be easily recog-
nised, and retain a certain individuality, uniting only by juxta-
position, not by actual fusion, and not necessarily suffering any
absorption of partitions.

222 HOW PLANTS GROW.

We cannot now particularise the numerous tissues. That
would mean a minute study of the anatomy of root, stem, and
leaf, It is enough to say that the whole plant is made up of cell-
fusions and tissues in varying proportion, both these being com-
posed of cells, in one case fused, in the other not so. In both
cases, cells, and cells only, form the groups ; the two groups make
up the plant. We thus find our starting axiom to be true.

We must next ascertain how from any one cell, other cells are
formed. We have seen how they are fused to produce vessels,
but how are they able to produce the tissues spoken of — groups of
similar and distinguishable elements ? In other words. What is
Cell-formation ? Here again we must be content with a few broad
facts, and let theories alone.

(c) Cell-Formation and Growth.

By this is meant the origin and multiplication of cells, two
processes which are identical, if we shut out spontaneous genera-
tion, and the '' fortuitous concourse of atoms," and base our study
on the axiom, not as yet invaUdated, " Omnis cellula e cellula."

There are three types of Cell-formation : —

I. — Refiewal^ or Rejuvenescence. This is the forming of a new
cell from the entire contents of an already existing one. It is
seen among the Algce^ where a " swarm-spore" is formed out of the
entire protoplasm of a vegetative cell, swims for a time by means
of its ciha, secretes a cellulose coat, and finally settles down, to
presently form in its turn a new swarm-spore.

2. — Conjugation. Two cells approach each other, an aperture
is formed at their junction, complete union of the two masses of
protoplasm ensues, and " spores " are produced which in turn
become independent organisms. This is seen in many Algce and
Fungi: — in Spirogyra^ for example, and the Conjugatce 2iS an order,
and in Mucor^ the ordinary green mould.

3. — Cell-Multiplicatio?i. This is the formation of two or more
protoplasm masses out of one original mass ; each of the three
modes named begins by the protoplasm losing its motile power, and
shrinking into a somewhat spherical form. If the " mother-cell "
contains a nucleus, this contraction is preceded by the formation of
fresh nuclei, destined for the "daughter-cells," or new ones. This
formation may come about either by simple division of the original

HOW PLANTS GROW. 223

nucleus, or by ahsorption of it, and re-formation of as many-
fresh nuclei as there are daughter-cells to be produced. After
this point is reached, there occur two different conditions in the
process of cell-multiplication, known as " Free Cell-formation "
and "Cell-division."

Free Cell-formation. In this, the protoplasm masses of the
mother-cell gather round the previously-formed nuclei, and so form
new cells enclosed within the mother-cell, which still for some time
retains life, so that only part of its protoplasm goes to make the
daughter-cells. The cell-wall is in most cases formed while the
new cells are still inside the mother-cell, as in the " embryo-sac "
(of which presently), and in pollen-grains. In some fewer cases,
it is formed after the escape of the new cells, as in the swarm-
spores of some fungi and lichens.

Cell-division. This is by far the commonest method of multi-
plication. Only this obtains in all processes of ordinary growth,
such as tissue-forming, etc. Here the protoplasm of the mother-
cell divides into many portions by repeated bi-partition, following
a similar process affecting the nucleus. These fill up the entire
space inside the mother-cell, leaving room only for the cell-walls to
form, so that in this case all the maternal protoplasm goes to
make the daughter-cells. Sometimes the formation of cell-walls
goes on pari passu with division of the protoplasm, as in filamen-
tous AlgcB and the pollen-grains of many dicotyledons. In others
it is sudden, as in the pollen-grains of most monocotyledons.

In tissue-formation this division is repeated again and again,
the resulting cells increasing to the size of the parent ones, and
again dividing. Meantime, there also ensues an increase in thick-
ness, although, for the most part, this does not go on until the cell
has attained its full size, when the secondary layers, already des-
cribed, come about.

Not only is the number of cells thus increased by cell-division,
but seeing that they retain connection one with the other, we get
the various cellular structures, finding their completest develop-
ment in the adult plant.

We cannot now say more about the cell and its growth. The
question, "How do plants grow?'' is easily replied to in cases of
one*celled plants, even though these may be of considerable size,

224 HOW PLANTS GROW.

as in some Algce, or branched in a complicated manner, as in
Mucor. In the simplest, many-celled plants — such as Fenicillium
— we find only a row of cells, one above the other ; next come
those consisting of a plate of cells, with many rows side by side,
as in some AlgcE. In them, renewal, conjugation, or multiplica-
tion, may be the method used. In the higher flowerless plants,
and in all the flowering plants, the last only is used.

It now remains for us to see in what way and by what means
the mother-cell of the embryo comes about, and to trace its pro-
gress into the adult-plant. This brings us to the second part of
our subject : —

II.— From Cell to Plant.

Here, in broad terms, I shall describe the processes carried on
by the reproductive organs of the plant, in order to show the
origin of the primary cell.

{a) Fertilization.

The organs of a plant are set in two groups — ist, Those of
nutrition, including root, stem, and leaf; 2nd, Those of reproduc-
tion, found in the flower.

A Floiuer consists normally of four sets or circles of organs: — i.
The Calyx, usually green, made up of sepals ; 2. The Corolla,
inside the calyx, and made up of petals, usually coloured (these
two circles are the auxilliary organs of reproduction, subserving
only the purposes of protection and attraction) ; 3. The Androe-
ciiim, or set of stamens, varying in number and position ; 4. The
Gynceciwn, or Pistil, made up of one or more carpels, separate or
united (these two circles are the essential reproductive organs, at
which we must look for a time^ and ascertain their functions.

A Stamen consists of a stalk — the filavient, and a club-shaped

end — the anther. The latter contains in its two lobes certain

cells, which in turn contain minute grains of powder, often yellow

in colour, and called pollen-grains. This pollen is the essential

fertilizing agent, without whose aid no embryo can possibly exist.

A Carpel consists of a lower part, or body, called the ovary,
which is hollow. It ends above in a viscid, cellular tip, devoid of
epidermis, called the stig?na, whose cells secrete a sticky fluid ;
the stigma may be immediately above the ovary, or raised some
distance above it, on a stalk termed the style; this may be absent,

HOW PLANTS GROW. 225

the stigma never. Sometimes there may be more than one carpel.
This may be quite apparent, as in Buttercup, or they may be so
united that the ovaries form only one cavity — appareiitly^ therefore,
only one carpel, as in Primrose, whereas there are really five.
With this we have nothing to do now. The fact to remember is
this : that the ovary contains one (or there may be very many)
minute body attached to its inner wall, termed an ovule. This,
when " ripe," becomes the seed. This ovule is the essential element
that is to be fertilized.

We must look yet more closely at both pollen-grain and ovule
to understand what work is assigned to each.

A pollen-grain consists of a cell with tivo coats, and possessing
protoplasmic contents. The inner coat is entire ; the outer is
perforated by minute apertures, and often very exquisitely orna-
mented by spines and the like, as all my readers probably know.
Through these apertures in the outer coat, the inner one is able,
under certain conditions, to penetrate and send out a process
called a pollen-tube, which grows in length according to need.
To enable the inner coat to penetrate the outer, moisture is
needed. This is found in the moist cellular stigma, to which
the pollen-grains are carried from the anther-cells by the action of
gravity, by the wind, or by insect agency. This transferefice of
the pollen to the stigma is absolutely essential. Wlien once there,
the pollen-tube (or tubes) increases in length, nourished by the
stigmatic fluid, and penetrating the conducting-tissue of the style,
finds its way down this style into the ovary, and finally into the
ovule.

An Ovule is at first, roughly speaking, a minute nodule of cellu-
lar tissue, growing on the wall of the ovary, at a spot called the
placenta. (This term is used to express the point of attachment
of an ovule, or of a set or row of ovules, to the ovary-wall; on
opening a pea-pod, each seed, or ripened ovule, is seen attached
to its own placenta.) A Funiculus, or "little cord," attaches
the ovule to its placenta. Presently, a double coat grows up
around the developing ovule, covering it entirely except at its
apex, where a tiny hole is left, called the Micropyle (meaning in
Greek a little gate or door). The original cellular mass inside
the coats is the Nucleus.

226 HOW PLANTS GKOW.

While the above changes are going on in the pollen-grain, a
change is also seen in the ovule. One of the many cells in the
nucleus enlarges at the expense of all the rest, and is called the
Ejnbryo-saCy inside which, at its apex, appear two nuclei, round
which its protoplasm aggregates. These are "naked" cells — i.e.,
destitute of cell-wall — and are called the Germinal Vesicles. In
these, wx shall see, is the siarting-poi?it of the embryo^ and therefore
of the whole plant.

All is now ready for the fertilization to begin. The time
occupied by all these changes in pollen-grain and nucleus varies,
from a few hours in Crocus to four or five days in Arum, and
some months in Orchids. In Crocus, the length of the " tube " is
9,000 times the diameter of the pollen-grain, and yet the former
performs its journey in about twelve hours ! The pollen-tube,
having reached the ovule, enters it by the micropyle^ or hole left by
the double coat just mentioned ; it then applies itself to the apex
of the embryo-sac, close to where the germinal vesicles are situate.
The tube contains a fluid protoplasm, holding sulphur and fat-
globules in suspension ; directly the tube is applied to the embryo-
sac, it is supposed that the Fovillce, or contents of the tube, pass
through its coat by osmosis into the germinal vesicles. Be this as
it may, as soon as the tube touches the vesicles, they are in some
way " fertilized," and as the primary result each of them developes
a cell-w^all, of course, of cellulose. It matters nothing apparently
whether one or both vesicles be fertilized ; one almost always
perishes, possibly from deficient nourishment ; still, the tube has,
so to speak, " two strings to its bow." The remaining vesicle is
our primary cell of the embryo, whose position and construction we
have now ascertained.

ip) Embryonic Growth.

We have now to trace the primary cell up to the fully-formed
embryo, and see the relation of the parts of the embryo to the
parts of the adult plant. "We have seen that the vesicles were
formed inside the embryo-sac by the process described as free cell-
formation. We now see the second kind of multiplication coming
into play — i.e., Cell-division.

The fertilized vesicle divides into two — an upper and lower
cell. The upper one is developed by ordinary " division " into a

HOW PLANTS GROW. 227

chain of cells gradually elongating, and forming the Suspe?isor, or
Fro-embryo ; the lower one developes by similar division and
growth into the Embryo itself. This increases by repeated divi-
sion, and soon begins to assume a more definite shape, to be seen
presently. One fact in passing. While the embryo is growing,
there are developed at the lower end of the embryo-sac by free
cell-formation a number of cells, filled with nourishing matter,
called Endosperm, or Albumen. On this the growing embryo feeds
by absorption. In some cases, similar cells are seen outside the
sac — i.e., in the nucleus of the ovule ; the nourishing matter is
then called Perisperm, from its situation.

We must here glance at the " regions " of the growing embryo,
and see their relation to the parts of the plant as we know them
in its adult state.

The Embryo now consists of three primary layers of cells, as
follows: — I. An outer layer, called Dermaiogen, or Epidermal
tissue, which is formed first. 2. A layer below this, called Feri-
blem, or Primary Cortical tissue. 3. Enclosed by these two is a
third, called Flerome, or Intermediate tissue ; this breaks up into
two layers almost directly : an outer one, called the Frocambium,
and a central part, the Fundamental tissue. Thus we get three
primary tissues, the innermost of which divides into two more,
making four in all.

From these four are developed all the tissues of the adult
plant, which lie very much in a similar relation to one another
from circumference to centre, as do the embryonic tissues.

From the Dermatogen comes the Epidermis, with its append-
ages— hairs, stings, scales, prickles, bristles, glands, and the like ;
from the Feriblem comes the Frimary Cortex, known as the bark,
with its bast-fibres, milk-vessels, and glandular cells ; from the Fro-
cambium come the Fibro-vascular bundles, as they are called,
which can be traced into the branches and leaves, and which
form the wood of our trees, and the harder, firmer parts of
the stem and leaves, including the wood-fibres, vascular cells,
true vessels, sieve-tubes, and bast-fibres; finally, from the
Fundamental tissue are formed the Fith and the Medullary
Rays, which radiate from the pith outwards between the fibro-
vascular bundles, and form the " silver grain " of wood. All these

228 HOW PLANTS GKOW.

changes are carried on by cell-division, again and again repeated,
the vessels being formed from the cells in the manner already-
described.

During this differentiation of the embryo into "regions," it

begins to assume a definite shape — i.e.^ it takes on the appearance

of a miniature plant, with root, stem, and leaves. The lower end

— />., the end next the micropyle — is first developed on the sus-

pensor, and is called the Radicle, which is invariably, in the mature

embryo, close to the micropyle ; this is the future Root. At the

other end of this central axis is the Plumule, a tiny bud, destined

to form the growing Stem ; on the centre of the axis are seen two

small protuberances, gradually assuming a bud-like and then a

leaf-like form. These are the Cotyledo?ts, or nursing-leaves, or

seed-leaves — the first leaves of the plant. If there be two (as in

Bean or Buttercup) the future plant comes under the class of

Dicotyledons ; if only one (as in Lily or Wheat), it will belong to

the Monocotyledons.

We spoke just now of the Endosperm or Albumen that fed
the growing Embryo. This brings us to our final step in the
passage of the cell up to the plant : —
(r) Germination.

If all the endosperm be absorbed by the embryo as it grows,
then the ripe embryo — i.e., the embryo inside the seed — is exalbu7?ii-
nous — without albumen, and the embryo entirely fills the seed, as
in Bean ; if part only be consumed, the ripe embryo will still
possess some, and is albuminous, as in Buttercup and Wheat.
These two terms are usually applied to the seed rather than to the
embryo.

This Albumen is the mealy part in the wheat-grain, the oily
part in castor-oil seed, the hard white part in cocoa-nut, and the
hard brown part in coffee-seed, which we grind down to the well-
known and much-approved domestic powder.

The difi'erence between the albuminous seed of Buttercup and
the exalbuminous seed of Bean is mainly this: — In the former, the
embryo/^^^i" on the albwjieti, which enables it during germination to
develop its root and stem, and after germination, its plumule ; in the
latter, the Qmbryo feeds on part of itself , the Cotyledons (which are
masses of nutritive cells) enabling it to develop both radicle and

HOW PLANTS GROW. 229

plumule during germination. Except this difference, germination
is similar in both seeds. Both are Dicotyledons ; indeed, the
presence of one or two seed-leaves affects only the morphological,
not the physiological aspect of seed-life.

We see, therefore, that the function of the Cotyledons is one of
nourishment. They may perform this in either of two ways. They
may simply nourish, and then shrivel up and decay underground,
as in Pea, Oak, Chestnut, Orange, and in most Monocotyledons,
when they are termed HypogcEous ; or they may be carried up
above the ground, acquire chlorophyll under the action of light,
becoming green ; then, they feed the plumule, or growing stem,
by assimilation, like ordinary leaves. This is seen in Maple, Syca-
more, Birch, Beech, Lime, Mustard, and many others ; the host of
little two-leaved plantlets, seen covering the ground under a beech-
tree in early spring, are these two cotyledons doing their work ; in
this case, they are called Epigceous — />., above ground.

The conditions absolutely essential for germination are only
three : heat (above zero), air^ and moisture. Given these three, a
seed will germinate. Of course, as a usual thing, it is, in addi-
tion, placed in the soil, where its roots can absorb due nutritive
materials. Having germinated, how is it to get on until the
embryo, now freed from its covering, or Testa^ can set up for itself
as an independent organism, and make its way in the world ?

I St. — The nutrient matter in the albumen, or cotyledons, must
be dissolved, that it may nourish at all. It is mostly insoluble, in
the form of starch. To remedy this, oxygen is absorbed, car-
bonic dioxide being evolved (causing the loss of weight so well
known in growing-seeds) ; the starch is changed into dextrine,
thence into sugar, some of it being converted into carbonic di-
oxide. During this stage, heat is being freely given off.

2nd. — The nutrient matter must be conveyed to the embryo
plant. This is accomplished by the water taken in by the plant
dissolving out the dextrine and sugar from their cell-stores, and
carrying them to the embryo, which they enter usually at the
point where the cotyledons join the axis, travelling therefrom, at
first, mostly down to the radicle ; afterwards, both thither and up
towards the plumule.

3rd. — These materials must be changed into the substance out

230 HOW PLANTS GKOW.

of which the plant is to be built up. This is a process the very
reverse of the first, because it is one rendering soluble matters
insoluble — /*.«?., making cellulose, or the plant-fabric. How this is
done we do not fully know; probably, by the conversion of
dextrine at once into cellulose, and by the return of the soluble
albuminoids to the insoluble state in which we found them in the
mature seed.

These three processes safely accomplished — solution, convey-
ance, and assimilation — the young plantlet, having, with marvel-
lous dexterity, made use of its own laboratory, begins an inde-
pendent existence. Its radicle elongates downwards at the root,
and by " nutation," as it is called, penetrates the soil, fixes itself
there, to absorb the nourishment it finds in *' Mother Earth " for
one year, or a thousand, as the case may be, as the tender garden-
annual, or the giant of the Australian forest.

The plumule is quietly and unerringly drawn up under the
gentle influence of the light which it needs must follow, to send
out, first of all, branches ; then leaves^ which by their thousand
" mouths " shall take in the food they find waiting for them in the
air supplied by the animal creation ; finally, as the highest result
of its growth, the flower^ in which shall reside the germ potential
of the successors of the race. The plantlet has now solved the
problem with which it started its existence — " How am I to
grow ? " and solved it in a wonderful manner, guided by the same
Divine power that creates and governs both star and flower.

In following the plantlet through its devious course, we have
been able to see how from a speck of protoplasm, microscopically
minute, there can be evolved the seaweeds that fringe our shores,
the ferns that grace our woodlands, the flowers that gladden us all
our days, and the majestic forest-trees under whose shadows we
can rest, and think of all the beauty and grandeur that can come
from so simple an origin.

London ; July, 1885.

[ 231 J

ITbe flDicroacope anb Ibow to W< it

By V. A. Latham, F.M.S.
Part IV. — Practical Histology.

THE study of Histology is attended with more difficulty than
that of Botany or Geology, and owing to the study being
also an extensive one we can only give the simplest
details. Nearly all the methods recommended have been tried
with success, and are mostly gathered from British and foreign
text-books, special prominence being given to the later methods
of staining.

Tissues. — It is of the utmost importance that the tissues
should be fresh, and the animals most suitable are cat, dog, rat,
guinea-pig, and frog. As some fluids alter the normal appearance
of the tissues, they should, in the first instance, be examined in
their 07C'n fluid. It should be carefully borne in mind that the
specific gravity of whatever fluid is employed must be the same
as that of the tissue under examination ; also that the solubility
or non-solubility of the tissue in the particular fluid-medium
employed must be carefully taken into consideration, as the fol-
lowing facts will shovv' : — Earthy salts are soluble in chromic and
nitric acids, oils in ether, albuminous matters in acetic acid, the
object of adding a fluid being to regulate the degree of trans-
parency of the tissue, according as its examination is facilitated
by the augmentation or diminution of the same. The chemical
relation between the tissue and the fluid-medium employed must
necessarily be considered. The normal fluids most commonly
used are lymph, serum, amniotic and pericardial fluid, iodised
serum or dilute albumen. The methods of preparation will be
given in a future part.

Single Staining.— The best and most useful stains are log-
wood, picro-carmine, Bismarck brown, carmine, and aniline blue,
but numerous others will be given, so that students may try them
and choose their own stains. Staining may be either single,
double, or treble in its application.

\X>L. IV. ' R

232 ' THE MICROSCOPE

Orchella, or French Archil : Staining with the extract. — Wedl
uses this substance, which, after the loss of the ammonia, is dis-
solved in 20 cc. of absolute alcohol, 5 cc. of acetic acid, and
40 cc. of distilled water, so as to make a saturated solution. Pro-
toplasm and matrix are coloured red. Sections hardened in
Muller's fluid, chromic acid, or methylated spirit, must be washed
in distilled water ; touch the section on the back of the hand or
blotting-paper to get rid of the water ; apply a few drops of the
staining fluid to the section, and mount. Fresh pathological
formations stain well.

Gentian Blue. — Where Bacteria form the subject of observa-
tion, this stain must be genuine. That sold by Messrs. Hopkin
and Williams is recommended by Dr. Gibbes. A half per cent,
solution is the best strength to use.

Iodine G-reen is especially useful for observing the nuclei of
osseous tissue. In growing bone it colours the unossified carti-
lage, giving a very striking result. It stains mucous glands green.
A saturated watery solution should be made with distilled water ;
when required, make a i per cent, solution, and filter. This is
really a multiple stain, as it gives different tints of the same
colour. It stains rapidly, and cannot be removed by washing.
The staining process should be carefully watched, and the sec-
tions removed when the required tint is gained. Mount in
dammar, etc. Do not leave the stained sections long in spirit,
which partially removes the dye. For botanical work use an
alcoholic solution of iodine green — 3 grains to the ounce of
alcohol.

Methyl-blue, for examining bacillus in the breath of phthisical
subjects. It is used as a contrast or ground-stain for Tubercle
Bacillus. A strong, nearly saturated, solution is required ; a good
proportion (r drachm to the ounce) of rectified spirit must be
added to make it keep. In using, stain the tissue deeply, and
wash away the superfluous pigment in water acidulated with acetic
acid. The acetic acid dissolves out much of the pigment, and
the washing must be continued till the proper tint is obtained.
The sections must then be thoroughly washed in water, and
mounted in glycerine or Farrant's solution. Dammar is unsuit-

AND HOW TO TTSE IT. 233

able, as clove-oil discharges the colour. This is a most valuable
dye, for in contact with certain tissues it gives a double stain. It
decomposes into two colours : one a r^^-violet, the other a blue-
violet, each of which acts on different tissues. It is useful for
hyaline cartilage ; the red-violet attaches itself to the matrix, and
the blue-violet to the corpuscles. For fresh tissues it also forms a
useful dye, and in the form of a one per cent, watery solution
it may be used instead of magenta. It stains certain parts a
beautiful violet, and is very useful for showing the corpuscles in
connective tissue, or the nuclei in fresh cells, or for mucous tissue.
It is best to mount in a saturated watery solution of potassic
acetate.

Methyl-green.— This is a lighter green than the iodine, and is
used in the same manner. A 2 per cent, solution is usually
strong enough. This stain has a peculiar affinity for the heads of
spermatozoa.

Spiller's Purple.— This is a very useful colour for double-
staining, and also for Bacteria. For double-staining, a 2 per cent,
solution in water is required, and the section must be very deeply
stained, as a great deal of the colour is washed out by the spirit.
For Bacteria a i per cent, solution, made with distilled water, is
best. At first, this colour is difficult to fix, but after numerous
trials we found it was less easily washed out if strong absolute
alcohol (795 sp.gr.) was used, than when methylated spirit was
employed.

Green Colouration of the Nuclei. — To obtain this, Tafani
employs a fluid containing three or four parts of a saturated
watery solution of aniline-blue to some six or seven parts of a
saturated watery solution of picric acid.

Rose-aniline Hydro-chloride. — This is useful for double and
treble staining ; and for this purpose a strong solution must be
made in rectified spirit. Place some of the crystals in a glass
mortar, and rub up with a little spirit; add spirit until all the
crystals are dissolved. This will do for ordinary staining pro-
cesses. It is also used in a special manner for the Tubercle
Bacillus, and the method of makin^r the stain is as foUovVS :— Take

234 THE MICROSCOPE

of rose-aniline hydro-chloride 2 grains ; methyl-blue, i grain ; rub
up in a mortar. Then dissolve aniline oil, 3 cc, in rectified spirit.
Add the spirit slowly to the stains until all is dissolved, then
slowly add distilled water, 15 cc. ; keep in a stoppered bottle.
(For method of using, see Tubercle Bacillus.)

Ferrier's Magenta Fluid.— Magenta crystals^ i decigr. ; dis-
tilled water, 15 cc. Dissolve and add rectified spirit, 5 cc. ;
glycerine, 20 cc. Useful for blood-corpuscles. Being of a speci-
fic gravity, similar to that of the Liquor Sanguinis, the coloured
corpuscles of non-mammalian vertebrates alter but little in shape
while they become stained.

Magenta. — Gibbes' Formula is a reliable stain ; it does not
fade like the others. Prepare as follows : — Magenta crystals, 2
parts; pure aniline, 3 parts; alcohol (sp. gr., '830), 20 parts;
aqua dist, 20 parts. Dissolve the anifine inspirit; triturate the
magenta in a glass mortar to a fine powder, mix the spirit gra-
dually while stirring, until all the colour is dissolved, then mix the
water slowly, still stirring, and put in a stoppered bottle.

Ditto. — Ransome's Formula : — Rose aniline^ 3 parts ; alcohol
anhyd., 42 parts ; magenta or fuchsin, i part ; distilled water,
45 parts. Mix and preserve as above.

Gibbes' s Rose-aniline Acetate.— Must be rubbed up in a
mortar with rectified spirit, and when thoroughly dissolved an
equal quantity of distilled water added ; 5 grams of crystals to
100 cc. of spirit, and thoroughly dissolved ; then 100 cc. of dis-
tilled water added. This makes a good strength for general use,
and is a useful stain for blood.

Aniline Blue (insoluble in water). — By treating it with sulphu-
ric acid, the soluble blue may be obtained. This may be simply
dissolved in water until it assumes a deep cobalt colour, or the
following solution may be prepared : — Soluble aniline blue, 2
centgr. ; distilled water, 25 cc. ; alcohol, 20 to 25 drops. This
fluid stains tissues preserved in alcohol a brilliant blue in a few
minutes, but those preserved in chromic acid are coloured less
rapidly. Tissues stained with this colour may be preserved in
water, alcohol, and glycerine, and are not altered by the addition

AND HOW TO USE IT. 235

of acids. The lymphatic glands^ spleen, walls of the intestines,
and more particularly sections of brain and spinal cord, assume a
fine appearance (Frey).

Heidenhain uses the neutral, reacting, aqueous solution in still
higher dilution, so that, when poured on a watch-glass, it shows
on a light ground a forget-me-not blue colour. The sections
(from alcoholic preparations) should remain for a day in 4 ccm. of
this fluid in a moist place, and are then to be immediately mounted
in glycerine, and cemented. The colour and colouring power of the
solution is considerably increased by the addition of a little acetic
acid, or even its vapour ; the vapour of ammonia deprives it of
its colour entirely.

Soluble Aniline Blue is useful for some tissues, such as
stomach and spinal cord. It is very easily made, but requires to
be strong, nearly saturated. Some of the granules should be
rubbed up in a mortar until quite dissolved, and some rectified
spirit added — about 10 cc. of spirit to 100 cc. of water, as it is
very apt to grow mouldy on the surface. Some authors recom-
mend a I per cent, solution. Sections must be deeply stained, as
a good deal of the colour comes out in the spirit. They should
be only lightly washed in methylated spirit, and then transferred
to absolute alcohol, which only slightly affects the colour. There
are several soluble blues sold, but that of Messrs. Hopkins and
Williams is thoroughly reliable (Gibbes).

Blue Black (i per cent, solution in water). — If the section is
overstained, the excess may be removed by steeping it in a 2 per
cent, solution of chloral-hydrate. For the nervous system an
alcoholic solution is most useful. Dissolve i decigrm. in 4 cc. of
water; add to this 100 cc. of rectified spirit and filter. Preserve
in a stoppered bottle. This solution stains rapidly, and gives a
pleasant slate-grey colour. It is especially useful for nerve-
centres. Sections may be mounted in dammar without any fear
of removing the dye (StirHng).

Sankey's method.— Dissolve 5 centigrms. of the dye in 2 cc.
of water ; pour it into 99 cc. of methylated spirit and filter. The
sections of brain are stained in a few minutes ; clear with clove-

236 THE MICROSCOPE

oil, and mount in dammar in the usual way.* Dr. Lewis f recom-
mends deep staining with an aqueous solution of the dye (^ to i
per cent.), and the subsequent removal of superfluous pigment, by
immersion for twenty minutes or so in an aqueous solution of
chloral hydrate (i to lo per cent.). The chloral is then removed
by washing in water, and the sections mounted in dammar or
balsam.

Aniline Blue Black, i part ; water, 40 parts. Dissolve and
add rectified spirit, 100 parts. Keep in a stoppered bottle, filter a
few drops into a watch-glass, and add eight or ten times as much
alcohol to it. Stain the section from half to three minutes, and
mount in Canada balsam and benzole.

Soluble Parme Fluid. — Obtained by treating diphenylate of
rose-aniline with sulphuric acid ; when dissolved in water in about
the proportion of i to 1,000, it gives a gorgeous blue, running into
violet, and colours the various tissues in a few minutes. They are
then to be washed in water, and either examined in glycerine, or,
after being deprived of their water by absolute alcohol, are to be
mounted in Canada balsam and benzole (Frey).

Iron. — Dr. Frances E. Hoggan's method : —

I. — Steep sections, fresh or hardened, in alcohol for about
five minutes.

2. — Transfer to a watch-glass full of tincture of steel for
two minutes.

3 — Remove into a 2 per cent, solution of pyrogallic acid
in alcohol ; and in one or two minutes, or when the desired
depth of colour has been attained, wash the sections in dis-
tilled water, and mount them in glycerine or glycerine jelly.
This is a very good method for staining cartilage, whether
normal or morbid.

Blue Colours for Staining.— It is desirable in many cases to
make use of a blue fluid, especially for staining specimens injected
with carmine. Several methods are practical, as with sulph-
indigate of potash (so-called indigo carmine), with aniline blue,
and soluble parme.

* Quart. Journal of Microscopical Science, Vol. XVL, p. 95. f Ibid, p. 73.

AND HOW TO USE IT. 237

Indigo-Carmine:— Oxalic acid, i part ; distilled water, 22 to 30
parts ; indigo-carmine as much as the solution will take up. If
the blue colour is in excess, it may be removed with a solution of
oxalic acid in alcohol. It tinges rapidly and uniformly, and is
recommended for colouring axis cylinders and nerve-cells of brain
and spinal cord previously hardened in chromic acid (Thiersch).

Carmine. — This is a useful stain, but it tires the eye. There
are several ways of making this stain, of which the following are
a few : —

{a) Take 2 grms., and rub thoroughly in a mortar with a few
drops of water ; then add 4 cc. liq. ammonia and 48 cc. distilled
water ; filter into a bottle, which should be left unstoppered for a
day or two for the excess of ammonia to evaporate. This is a
strong solution, which must be diluted before using (Klein).

{b) Beale's Carmine Solution. — Dissolve carmine, i grm., in
liq. ammoniae fort. 3 cc, warm, add distilled water, 120 cc,
and filter. Then add glycerine, 30 cc, and rectified spirit of
wine, 120 cc, and keep in a well-stoppered bottle.

(c) Borax Carmine. — Thoroughly mix carmine, 2 grms., and
borax, 8 grms., in a mortar, dissolving in warm water for twenty-
four hours. The supernatant fluid, which must be decanted, is
then ready for use. All carmine-stained preparations, after being
thoroughly washed in water, are improved by placing them for a
few minutes in a i per cent, solution of acetic acid. This bright-
ens the colour, and fixes the carmine in the nuclei, and also
differentiates the stained from the unstained parts. Thus the
stain becomes more selective.

{d) Borax-Carmine (Arnold's). — A saturated solution of borax
is prepared in a wide-mouthed bottle. The borax should be in
some excess. Carmine is now added to the solution under con-
stant agitation, until after a while it no longer dissolves, and an
excess remains at the bottom of the vial, mingled with the crystals
of borax. After twenty-four hours the supernatant fluid is de-
canted. To this clear portion 2 fluid ounces of alcohol and i
fluid drachm of caustic soda solution are added (U.S.P.) The
staining solution is now ready, or the alcohol may be omitted
(Arnold), and the liquid evaporated to dryness. The red amor-

238 THE MICROSCOPE

phous mass is then to be powdered. Of this, 15 grains are placed
in an ounce of water, to which i fluid drachm of alcohol is added.
Sections, after staining, should be washed in alcohol to remove
the superfluous colouring fluid, and then transferred to a saturated
solution of oxalic acid in alcohol to fix the colour. The oxalic
acid is then washed out in alcohol. Finally, the sections are
cleared in oil of cloves, and mounted in dammar or Canada
balsam in benzole.

Thiersch's Carmine Fluids. — {a) Red fluid : — Carmine, i
part ; caustic ammonia, i part ; distilled water, 3 parts ; this
solution is to be filtered.

A second solution is made as follows : — Oxalic acid, i
part; distilled water, 22 parts. One part of the carmine
solution is to be mixed with 8 parts of the oxalic acid solu-
tion, and 12 parts of absolute alcohol are to be added and
filtered. If the filtrate is orange-coloured instead of dark-red,
more ammonia is to be added, and the orange becomes red.
If crystals of oxalate of ammonia are formed, it must be fil-
tered a second time. After staining from one to three minutes,
wash in alcohol of about 80 per cent. When the colour has
become too dark or difl'usC;, the preparation is to be washed out
with an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid.

{b) Lilac Carmine Fluid. — Borax, 4 parts; distilled water, 56
parts ; dissolve and add carmine i part. The red solution is
to be mixed with twice its volume of absolute alcohol and filtered.
Carmine and borax remain on the filter ; the precipitate, when
dissolved in water, may be again used. This fluid is especially
useful for cartilage and bones which have been decalcified by
chromic acid.

Alum Carmine. — Take a i to 5 per cent, solution of ordinary
alum, or ammonia alum ; boil with J to i per cent, powdered
carmine for twenty minutes. Filter, and add a little carbolic acid
to preserve it. This is a useful solution, and is recommended by
Grenadier.

Acid Carmine. — An ordinary ammoniacal solution of carmine
is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and filtered. The red
solution thus obtained stains diffusely, but after the addition of

AND HOW TO USE IT. 239

glycerine, thus tempered with a little muriatic acid (i to 2 per
cent.) to the microscopic preparations, the cell-body is seen to
gradually lose its colour, and the carmine only is retained by
the nucleus. For mounting in glycerine, the preparation is to
be washed with water containing acetic acid (Schweigger Seidel).

Haematoxylin (Boehmer's). — This is much preferred to the
carmine, and there are a great many modifications. Dissolve
20 grains of hematoxylin in half an ounce of absolute alcohol ;
then dissolve 2 grains of alum in i ounce of distilled water.
Some drops of the first solution are added to the second, which,
after a short time, becomes a beautiful violet. It improves after
keeping for a few days, and should always be filtered before using.
(Thin.)

Kleinenberg's Solution (Foster and Balfour). —
(i) Make a saturated solution of crystallised calcium chloride
in 70 per cent, of alcohol, and add alum to saturation.

(2) Make also a saturated solution of alum in 70 per cent, of
alcohol. Add one part of No. i to eight parts of No. 2, and to
the mixture add a few drops of a saturated solution of haema-
toxylin in absolute alcohol. The stained sections are placed at
once in strong spirit.

Aqueous Logwood Stain. — Take 60 grms. of dried extract
of hsematoxyhn, 180 grms. of powdered alum, and rub them tho-
roughly together in a mortar, adding slowly 300 cc. of distilled
water ; mix carefully, and afterwards filter. To the filtrate add
20 cc. of absolute alcohol and preserve in a stoppered bottle.
This solution should be kept in a cool place for at least a fort-
night before using. The older it is, the more excellent it becomes.
(Harris and Power.)

Mitchell's Hematin Staining Fluid.*— This is one of the best
logwood stains, and we believe it will take the place of nearly all
the older stains. Make as follows : — Finely ground logwood,
2 oz. ; sulph. aluminium and potash alum, 9 drms. ; glycerine,
4 fluid ounces ; distilled water, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the
ground logwood with sufficient cold water to damp it, place in a

* Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia.

240 THE MICHOSCOPE

funnel, pack it loosely, and then percolate enough water through
it until the liquid is but slightly coloured. Allow the logwood to
drain thoroughly, remove from the percolator, and spread out on
a paper to dry. Dissolve the alum in 8 fluid ounces of water,
moisten the dry logwood with a sufficient quantity of fluid, and
pack again in the funnel rather tightly, pour on the remainder of
the alum solution. When the liquid percolates through and com-
mences to drop, close the aperture with a well-fitting cork, and
allow the logwood to macerate for forty-eight hours. Then remove
the cork, and allow the liquid to drain off; pour sufficient water
upon the drug, and percolate through 12 fluid ounces altogether.
Mix this with the glycerine, filter, and place in a stoppered bottle.
A few drachms of alcohol may be added to increase its preserva-
tive qualities. It yields good results when used undiluted, as a
quick stain ; but we prefer placing the tissues in a weak solution
(lo drops to 2 fluid drachms), with warm, distilled water, for
about twelve hours. Its advantages are : its permanency, beauti-
ful violet colour, clear and sharp definition, and can be used with
the very highest powers.

Gibbes' Logwood. — Extract of haematoxylin, 6 grms. ; albu-
men, 18 grms. Mix thoroughly; while mixing, add 28 cc. of
distilled water. Filter. Add to the filtrate i drachm of rectified
spirits of wine ; let it be kept in a stoppered bottle for a week
before using. What remains on the filter can be mixed with
14 cc. of distilled water, and left soaking in it for an hour or so;
then filter, and add to the filtrate J drachm of rectified spirit.
The second solution is as strong as the first. The alum used
must be potash without ammonia, and the extract of haematoxylin
must be English.

Klein's Logwood Stain.— Mix 5 grms. of the officinal extract
of haematoxylin with 75 grms. of alum in a mortar, and pulverise
carefully. To this add gradually 25 cc. of distilled water, and
filter. To the residue add 15 cc. of distilled water, and again
mix in a mortar and filter. To this filtrate add 2 cc. of alcohol.
Now mix the two filtrates, and keep in a glass-stoppered bottle.
If the liquid ever becomes mouldy, filter again. Care must be
taken to prevent any acid from intermingling with the fluid. Acids

AND HOW TO USE IT. 241

cause the haematoxylin to turn red ; for this reason, sections
which have been hardened in chromic acid should be placed in a
watch-glass, and covered with distilled water, to which add a drop
or two of a 40 per cent, solution of caustic potash. Allow it to
remain therein 10 or 15 minutes. To use the fluid, add a few
drops to an ounce of distilled water, so as to make a pale-violet
solution ; allow the sections to remain in this solution from twelve
to twenty-four hours. Or, a stronger solution may be employed,
which will stain specimens in from ten to thirty minutes, and still
give good results. Mount either in glycerine, acetate of potash,
balsam, and benzole, or, better, resinous turpentine.

Eosin Solution, for fresh tissues. — It is usual to have a strong
solution of from i to 10 or 20 per cent, on hand. A few drops
are then added to a watch-glassful of water or alcohol. It is apt
to diffuse, unless special care is taken, and long soaking — say, for
twenty-four hours — is practised. Renaut employs either a watery
solution alone, or with the admixture of one-third of its volume of
alcohol. The sections are then washed in distilled water, and
may be preserved in a neutral solution of glycerine, to which i per
cent, of chloride of sodium has been added to prevent the
glycerine dissolving the eosin. In examining the fixed corpuscles
of the subcutaneous tissue, Renaut injects beneath the skin a
solution of eosin and water (i to 500), and then removes a
portion of the infiltrated tissue with the scissors. Eosin is a
phenol dye, and stains epithelium a dark-red, axis cylinders of
nerves, colours areolar tissue, nuclei of ganglion cells, and their
processes. The amyloid substance in that form of degeneration
stains bright red. Fresh tissues are hardened and stained simul-
taneously. It is valuable for the recognition of blood corpuscles.
The solution is made as follows: — Eosin, i part; alum, i part;
alcohol, 200 parts; mix. Gibbes uses 5 grms. of the powder,
which should be rubbed up in a mortar, with 100 cc, of distilled
water, making a 5 per cent, solution.

Cochineal Dye. — Take 7 grms. cochineal and 7 grms. alum in
powder, rub thoroughly together in a mortar, and add 700 cc.
distilled water, evaporate to 400 cc., filter twice, and afterwards
add I or 2 drachms of absolute alcohol.

242 THE MICROSCOPE

Safranine. — This colour is useful' for the detection of amyloid
degeneration. A i per cent, solution is made with distilled
water and filtered. The sections must be left in the stain for
half-an-hour, and then washed well in water ; then placed in
methylated spirit, and washed until the colour comes away very
slowly. A little practice is required to do this properly, as if they
are left too long all the colour will come out, and if they are not
washed enough in the spirit, they have an opaque and blurred
appearance.

Vesuvin. — A lo per cent, aqueous solution may be made and
diluted ; it is a pleasant stain to the eye, and differentiates fairly
well.

Chrysoidin is used as a ground-stain with sputum containing
Tubercle Bacilli. It is of no use for tissues, as it fades very
quickly on exposure to light. Add a crystal of thymol, dissolved
in alcohol to an aqueous solution.

Rosein is soluble in spirit. It is useful for double-staining
when sections are to be mounted in dammar, and is also useful
for staining retina, etc.

Bismarck-Brown.— Make a watery solution of 2 grains to the
ounce ; heat and filter ; soak in the solution about three minutes ;
set the colour with 4 per cent, of glacial acetic acid for half a
minute. After dehydrating with alcohol, mount in dammar
varnish.

To Combine Bismarck-Brown with Eosin.— Put the sections
in a strong aqueous solution of Bismarck-brown ; remove after
about two minutes to 4 per cent, acetic acid ; then place in
a weak alcoholic solution of eosin, and then again in the
acetic acid solution (Satterthwaite). Bismarck-brown is invalu-
able for staining sections of bone and young granulation tissue.
For this purpose take of aniline brown, i part ; anhydrous
alcohol, 10 parts; distilled water, 100 parts. The sections
must stain slowly, and the water in which the staining fluid
is suspended must contain about 10 per cent, of methylated
spirit. Make a straw-coloured solution, and allow the sec-
tions to remain in this for several days. Mount in Canada

AND HOW TO USE IT. 243

balsam and benzole. Where used as a contrast-stain, pour a few
drops of the strong solution into a watch-glass, and allow the
section to remain in this for about ten minutes. This gives a very
transparent brown colour to the nuclei and the margins of the
cells, leaving the protoplasm almost unstained. Weigert makes a
concentrated aqueous solution by boiling in water, filtering from
time to time. He also uses a weak alcoholic solution, and com-
bines with other colours.

Naphthaline Yellow for Bone.— Immerse the sections for
three days in Miiller's fluid ; then wash in water, and immediately
dip in an alcoholic solution of naphthaline yellow (4 grains to the
ounce) ; after eight to ten minutes, remove the sections, and dip
in a watery solution of acetic acid (3 per cent.) ; then immerse
for about ten minutes in an ordinary solution of ammonia carmine,
rendered neutral by exposure to the air. Dip the sections again
in the acetic acid in order to set the colour, and then place in
alcohol of 80 per cent, and subsequently in absolute alcohol. It
is excellent for staining foetal bones, etc. ; specimens thus stained
show a matrix of deep transparent chrome-yellow. The young
bone-corpuscles and osteoblasts, on the other hand, together with
the fibrous tissue, will assume a brilliant rose-colour, thus affording
an excellent contrast between formed and non-formed bone.

duinoleine Blue is dissolved in rectified spirit, and an equal
part of water is afterwards added. It is a powerful dye, and is
greatly diluted when used. The staining has a distinctive shade
in different elements of the tissues. It has a special affinity for
fat, which it stains a deep blue (Ranvier).

Picro-Carmine. — There are so many modifications of this
stain that we will only give Miller's (for others, see various text-
books on Histology, and Vol. 11. of the Journal of Microscopy').
We would recommend students to purchase this dye ready made,
as it is difficult and tedious to make : — Add i part of a saturated
solution of picric acid to 2 parts of the 15-grain borax-carmine
solution (Arnold's, p. 237). Sections should remain in this about
twenty-four hours. Wash quickly in water, then in alcohol,
transfer to oil of cloves. Another method is to take Beale's
carmine without alcohol, and add picric acid in a similar manner,

244 THE MICROSCOPE AND HOW TO USE IT.

Metallic Staining Solutions.
Nitrate of Silver. — A solution of from i to 4 grains of the
nitrate to an ounce of distilled water, is much used for fresh
tissues. In staining the mesentery, it is merely necessary to
immerse it for two or three minutes, and then expose it to the
light in distilled water for two or three days. The water should
be changed several times. The whole mesentery may be
removed with the intestine and stained in silver, and then hard-
ened in spirit. Some portions will then be found to be stretched
out naturally, and these can be cut out and mounted in Canada
balsam and benzole.

Osmic Acid, i per cent., may be further diluted as required.
It blackens fat and the medullary sheath of nerves. It is useful
for hardening the internal ear.

Chloride of Gold, J per cent, solution. Place a small quan-
tity of the solution in a watch-glass, and immerse the tissue,
which must be perfectly fresh in it. Let it remain in the dark for
from half-an-hour to an hour or more ; place in distilled water,
which must be changed several times, and expose to diffused
daylight until it becomes a violet-brown, which will take about
twenty-four hours in, summer. The tissue, if it is small, can be
mounted in glycerine.

Chloride of Gold and Lemon-Juice.— Ranvier is in the habit
of demonstrating the corneal nerves by using lemon-juice, in
which the tissue is left for five minutes. Then it is soaked for
fifteen to twenty minutes in 3 cc. of i per cent, solution of gold
chloride, and finally for twenty-five to thirty minutes in distilled
water, to which one or two drops of acetic acid have been added.
It must then be exposed to the sun until the fibres become dis-
tinct. Formic acid is also used with gold.

Staining with Osmic and Oxalic Acids.— Little pieces of fresh
or freshly-dried preparations are left for an hour in a i per cent,
solution of osmic acid ; then carefully washed and soaked in a
cold, saturated solution of oxalic acid ; and finally examined in
water or glycerine. Elastic fibres are stained yellow and fat
black, while the walls of capillaries and many connective-tissue
substances are stained red.

POND LIFE. 245

Chloride of Palladium. — To dissolve in water, a slight quan-
tity of muriatic acid must be added, strength about o. i per cent.
Half an ounce or an ounce of this fluid hardens, ready for cutting,
a piece of tissue the size of a bean, and also colours it in two or
three days. It is especially adapted to striated and smooth mus-
cles, which become brownish and straw-coloured ; epidermoid and
gland-cells become yellow; medulla of nerves become black by
direct action ; it renders nuclear formations more apparent.
Unfortunately, with many tissues, as brain and epidermis, its
action is quite superficial. Wash carefully and mount in gly-
cerine.

ponif Xife.

Lectures delivered to the Albany Naturalists' Club, Edinburgh,

By William Evans Hoyle, M.A. (Oxon),
F.R.S.E., M.R.C.S.,

Naturalist to the " Challenger " Expedition Commission

Second Lecture.

IN the last lecture we were chiefly concerned with the lower
plants ; I shall ask your attention to-night to the vegetable
kingdom, and then go on to the animal. There are a very large
number of plants in our ponds, but I do not think it would be
worth while to enumerate their names. You will remember in the
last paper that I told you how the Algae reproduce themselves,
and I showed you that in almost every case the reproduction
was effected by means of two cells uniting with each other. One
of these is generally larger than the other, and is fixed ; it is
generally spoken of as the female cell, while the smaller and more
active cell, which moves or is moved towards it, is called the
male cell.

The former are found in the ovules of flowering plants and

246 POND LIFE.

the latter in the pollen ; they usually exist in the same flower, but
sometimes in different flowers, or even on different plants, as in a
case of which I shall speak presently : and in order that seed may
be formed it is essential that the contents of the pollen grains
shall reach the ovule. The contents of the two cells mix and
form an embryo, which, during the next season, grows into a new
plant. I have alluded to this again because it is an example of
the method of reproduction, which is most common among
living bodies.

I will now describe this process in a very interesting plant,
called Vallisiieria spiralis, which is much higher in the
scale of existence than those we have been considering. It
lives at the bottom of ponds, and consists of two kinds of plants
corresponding to the two cells which we saw in CEdogoniwn.
The one bears flowers which contain only ovules (the large
round cells) ; and the other, flowers producing only pollen (the
small, moving cells). Now, it is necessary that these pollen-grains
should reach the ovule, and this cannot take place under water,
partly because the flowers grow on different stalks, and partly
because water destroys the pollen. What happens is this : —
The ovule-bearing flower grows up in a very long, spiral stalk to
the top of the water, and then the flower opens out. The pollen-
bearing flower has no long stalk ; it adopts a simpler way of
reaching the surface of the water. The bud simply breaks off
and floats up to the surface, and is drifted about by the currents
or the winds, until by-and-by it comes into contact with the
fixed flower. Thus the contents of the two cells, similar to those
which I have described before, find the means of uniting with,
each other. The fixed flower now closes and is drawn down again
to the bottom by the contraction of its spiral stalk, and seeds are
formed in a vessel contained in it, and thus the plant is enabled to
reproduce itself. Vallisneria spiralis is one of the most curious
of our fresh-water plants, and as it succeeds very well in small
aquaria, any of you may have the opportunity of watching these
processes.

With this I shall take leave of the vegetable kingdom, and
proceed to the animals. Let me ask you for one moment to look
back at the Amoeba described in the last lecture to recall the

POND LIFE. 247

three characteristics of Hving beings : — (i) they move ; (2) they
feed ; (3) they reproduce themselves. Now this, as I say, we
may take as typical of the lowest form of life there is, and I
said that it is disputed among different authorities whether to call
it a plant or animal ; and perhaps the most satisfactory solution
of the difficulty is to make a division of things which are neither
plants nor animals to hold the Amoeba and many others which
resemble it.

There is a very large group of forms more or less closely allied
to the A?noeba, which' you will find in the ponds and in the
fresh-water ditches. One is like the creature I have just
noticed in its motions and in its mode of feeding, but it
makes a shell for itself. It is called Arcella, and is simply
a mass of living matter, and is not divided up into parts
or organs, but is simply what we call one " cell." One
portion, however, of their substance is different from the rest ; it
is more solid and is called a " nucleus." All animals (leaving
out of consideration low creatures, which may be regarded as
intermediate between plants and animals) have this nucleus, and
all animals which consist of only one cell, provided with a
nucleus, form the lowest main subdivision of the animal kingdom,
and we call them Protozoa. They are divided into several
groups or classes, one of which is illustrated by the forms just
alluded to. Another group, which is perhaps the most conspicuous,
goes by the name of Infusoria. These animals are so called
because they are commonly found in infusions of various substances
when kept for a length of time ; for instance, when vegetable
matters, such as hay, pieces of potato, etc., are kept in water for
a time and then examined, there would probably be found creatures
in the water, and of course the natural conclusion was that these
animals had been generated out of the vegetable matters. We
believe now that this was a mistaken idea, for if due precautions
be taken, vegetable infusions can be kept any length of time with-
out any animals developing in them. There are enormous num-
bers of these Infusoria ; if you examine water out of any of the
ponds about Edinburgh, you will almost certainly find half a dozen
different kinds of Infusoria in it, and altogether some thousands of
different species are known. The different forms, the colourings,

VOL. IV. s

248 POND LIFE.

and habits of life are almost unlimited. So that it is quite imposs-
ible for me to-night to do anything more than give you a short
account of one or two prominent forms, and I shall try to select
those which illustrate points of general interest.

There is one little creature^ of an ovoid form, called Eiiglena
virldis, which you may find swimming about by means of a long
hair-like process at one end of its body, and provided with a red
spot either at one end or the other, which for a long time was
described as an eye. Whether it be so or not is a matter which
can only be settled by the most accurate observations, and as the
creature is exceedingly minute, and very active, these are very
difficult. As it moves, it twists round and round on the long
axis of its body, with a curious wabbling motion, and by very
close observation you may see that it has a long, fine hair
projecting in front, and somehow or other it is by its means that
the creature progresses, although it is rather difficult to see exactly
how this takes place.

There are a good many different forms of these Eiiglejice. Some
are long and narrow, and others are short and broad. They illus-
trate one group of the Infusoria^ characterised by having one long
hair-like process, whence they are known as Flagellata.

There is another group, characterised by having a round body,
which is generally stalked, and by a number of tentacles projecting
in all directions, which when examined are seen to possess little
sucker-like knots at their extremities. By means of these they
catch their prey; suppose, for instance, that a small organism
happens to come in contact with one of these little tentacles, it is
instantly seized upon, and the small knobs flatten themselves out
and suck the juices out of the prey, which may be another
I?ifiisoria7t, or perhaps one of the small water-weeds {Algce).
Generally two or three tentacles come to the assistance of the
one which first captures the food, and bring their suckers also to
bear upon the captured organism.

We have now considered two groups of Ijifiisoria, one provided
with a long cilium and another having a number of suckers.
There is still another group, characterised by having a large num-
ber of these fine hairs or cilia. If you take a piece of weed from
one of our ponds, you are very likely indeed to find springing from

POND LIFE. 249

it a cluster of very fine threads, each of which bears a very beauti-
ful urn. These are Vorticellce. or Bell-animalcules. If you look
very closely you will find that each one contains a nucleus, and
also you will notice a commotion in the water, so that any little
floating bodies are caused to run round and round as if in a whirl-
pool. This is caused by a ring of hairs round the mouth of the
urn, which are continually bending down and up again in turn, pro-
ducing an appearance as though the rim of the urn were revolving.
What really happens is this : one hair bends towards the one next
it, which a moment later also bends towards the hair next beyond
it. But by this time the first hair has straightened itself again,
and by the time that a third has bent towards the fourth, the
second is upright again, and so on around the whole ring. In
this way the hairs round the rim of the urn convey the impression
that it is rotating, and they move so fast that you cannot see the
individual hairs, but only receive the general impression. If,
however, you place a drop of chloroform in the water under the
microscope you may observe the motion becoming gradually
slower, and may see exactly how it takes place.

There is another structure in this animal which you must
notice. In the centre of the bell is a kind of funnel leading
down into its middle ; it is in fact a funnel, and does duty as a
mouth. It passes straight from the outside into the middle of
the body, which consists of soft pulp. So that you observe in
this animal an advance upon the very primitive structure of the
Amoeba ; that is, that one portion of the body is set apart for the
reception of food; it is in fact an "organ."

These Bell-animalcules, as they are called, are very sensitive to
disturbance, and a very gentle tap on the microscope is sufficient
to make a whole colony draw in, by the rapid contraction of their
stalks. Although so fine, the stalk is very curiously constructed.
Down the middle of it you may see a very thin hair-like fibre,
much thinner than the rest of it, which shrinks when the animal
withdraws itself, the consequence being that the stalk coils up into
a series of spirals ; this fibre, therefore, is the first instance which
has come before us of a muscle.

Like the Amoeba, and many of those plants we have considered,
the Voriicella reproduces itself by dividing, and this it does longi-

250 POND LIFE.

tudinally. One bell divides down the middle, with the result that
there are now two on the same stalk. By-and-by, however, one of
them swims away by means of the cilia, which when the animal is
fixed make a whirlpool to catch its food. A stalk then grows like
that of the others. This, however, is not the only way in which
the Bell-animalcules reproduce their kind ; a bell will detach itself
from its stalk and swim about until it comes alongside another.
The two melt into one, and form a thick coat round themselves,
or in other words become " encysted." The protoplasm in the
cyst then breaks up into a number of little portions, each having
its own case, and then each of these becomes free and swims about.
And now a very curious thing which happens in many of these
forms, is that the creature which comes out of this germ where it
is free and swimming about, is not a Bell-animalcule, but one of
these sucker-bearing animalcules which I described to you just
now, and only after another longer or shorter period does the
sucker-bearing animalcule encyst itself, and give rise to other
germs, which become Bell-animalcules.

Now, I must pass on to another creature, which bears

the popular name of the " Slipper-animalcule " {Paramiecmm).

It has an irregular shape, and does not much resemble a slipper,

unless it be that of a Chinese lady. It is covered all over with

cilia, which are very fine and enable it to propel itself through

the water at a great speed, so that it is almost always roaming

about, and on that account is difficult to observe. At one end

there is a funnel which leads into the soft tissue in the centre of

its body. There is the usual nucleus which we find in all these

creatures, and within this again is another little body called a

" nucleolus." Some species have a number of little green specks

scattered about in the body, which seem to be similar to those

which impart the green colour to the leaves of plants ; further-

■ more, it has what looks like two empty spaces, and which are

called "vacuoles;" they are in reality filled with fluid. One is

situated at each side of the body, and it has been seen that these

vacuoles are continually shrinking and expanding again, one

after the other. In addition to this there has been observed

(though I do not think any of you are likely to see it), that a

sort of star-like arrangement projects from the vacuoles just

POND LIFE. 251

when they are in the act of contracting. This is really a series
of little radiating tubes, such that when the vacuoles contract,
the fluid which is inside them is forced out and carried
along the tubes all through the creature's body. And this appears
to be quite analogous to what is called a " circulation " in the
higher animals ; the little vacuole is, in fact, a heart, and the
minute radiating tubes are blood-vessels.

There is still another point to be noticed in the Faramcechcm,
and that is, that the chlorophyll granules and certain other dark-
grey granules are continually moving round inside the creature's
body. It seems as though the semi-fluid substance of the body
were always moving round and round, and always in one direction,
the two vacuoles of course remaining still. As I said, the animal
swims actively about in the water searching for food, and any little
things that come against it are carried by the cilia to the funnel
leading into the body substance. You can watch the fate of those
Diatoms, becoming dissolved in the protoplasm, after which their
indigestible shells are cast out through the same funnel by which
they entered.

It has been noticed that this animal propagates itself by
dividing down the middle, as do so many of these creatures, but
in the autumn large numbers of these slipper-animalcules congre-
gate in the bottoms of ponds or aquariums. Two unite, and their
contents fuse together, and the nucleus and nucleolus unite with
each other ; the nucleus of the one with the nucleolus of the
other, and vice versa. The one nucleus then becomes absorbed
in the other, which then undergoes division, and after five or six
days the whole protoplasm contained in the bodies of the two
animalcules will have broken up into a number of little bodies,
which make their escape, and singularly enough these germs are
sucker-bearing animals — Acinetce — such as we saw before sucking
their nourishment from other organisms ; and, perhaps, what is
more singular still, they remain sticking to their parents and
extracting their juice for nourishment, and this they do until they
are of an age to capture food for themselves, when they detach
themselves, and afterwards develop into complete slipper-animal-
cules, like their predecessors.

And with this very brief notice of the Infusoria our lecture
to-night must conclude.

[ 252 ]

1l3alf^an^*toour at tbe fiDicroecope

Mitb /llbv, Unttcn Mest, jf,X»S., jf»1R./in),S„ etc

Sphseria (PI. XVIII., Figs, i — 7). — The specimen before us is
a portion of leaf, having on it one of the SphcericE. The genus is
a member of the Ascomycetous fungi, and contains a vast number
of species. For complete identification, it would be needful to
dissect a portion, when the form and size of the asci (little trans-
parent sacs containing the spores), and of the spores themselves,
might enable the species to be named. In Greville's " Cryptoga-
mic Flora of Scotland " are many beautifully engraved and
coloured figures of Sphcei-ice^ by consulting which it is not unlikely
that much assistance towards identification might be obtained.
It is unfortunate that the specimen is mounted with an opaque
background, because we are unable to see both surfaces of the
leaf; that exposed to view appears to be the upper, but I am not
acquainted with any leaf the structure of which entirely agrees
with this. The leaf appears to be thick with a polished surface.
By a fortunate accident we discover that it is from a plant having
Sphaeraphides, and so another clue is obtained which may mate-
rially faciUtate identification. The diagrams on PL XVIII. illus-
trate the interesting structural relationship between the SphcErice
(Ascomycetous) and yEcidia (Coniomycetous) Fungi.

Hairs of Onosma tauricum (PL XVIIL, Figs. 8 — 10). — The
plant yielding this belongs to the natural order Boraginacece. It
comes from the Caucasus, and is occasionally cultivated in this
country. The long, sabre-like hairs, with six smaller arranged
star-wise around them on an expanded base, form a pleasing
object. The specimen should have been mounted so that the
other surface of the leaf could have been seen as well. I judge
that the under-surface is presented to the eye, but do not dis-
tinctly make out the stomata, which are relatively very small in
plants of this order. A point of special structural interest
attaches to hairs like these, rough with outward projections.
*' What are these projections ? " " How are they produced ? '^ In
the " Histological Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons,"
Vol. I, p. 3, we are informed that it is by a "deposit of new matter
on the external surface of the membrane." And that in the col-
lection at the College (Ppn., A. 13) is " a preparation of the por-
tion of a hair from the fornix of the corolla of Aiichusa italica,
exhibiting a deposit of tubercles of new matter on its external
surface. Each tubercle contains two or more cavities, and a

HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE. 253

defined margin exists between them and the hair, to which the
tubercles adhere as so many scales." The date of this publication
is 1850. This statement is repeated in the first volume of
" Quekett's Lectures on Histology" (p. 12), and figures given;
date of publication 1852. Multiplied observations made with the
greatest care show that this is not a correct statement of the facts.
In reality, the protuberances are part and parcel of the cell-wall
itself, which becomes bulged out here and there — a simple form of
" corrugation of surface,'" a principle applied with endless detail in
animal and vegetable structures, and often in a very beautiful,
interesting, and instructive manner. Sectional views may easily
be obtained to substantiate the statements here made. The
" fornix " is the throat of the flower ; in this part of the common
pansy are hairs showing the structure beautifully ; and in the same
part of the garden verbena it is shown still more conclusively
because of the larger size of all the parts. I do not think that
external deposit on vegetable cell-walls has ever been proved to
take place.

Spine of Amphidotus cordatus (PL XVIII. , Figs, n — 14). —
The genus Amphidotus is so closely allied to Spatangus that few
authors recognise its distinctness. The structure of the spines in
the two appears to be absolutely the same. Sections are required
in order to explain the structure.

Calcareous Plates from Skin of Holothuria (PI. XVI 1 1.,
I^ig- 15)- — The species from whence these were obtained
should have been ascertained and stated. In order to understand
what we have before us, a portion of the skin should be shown,
with plates, etc., i?i situ ; also, a transverse section. The double
columns are homologous with the "anchors" of Synapta ; the
plates, formed of a calcareous network, are imbedded in the skin,
and serve as '•''points d'appui^^ for the former. They have a strong
resemblance to those exhibited by another member, and called
" Spines of T/iyone papulosa ; " so strong, in fact, that I suspect
their identity.

Cheyletus eruditus (PL XIX., Figs, i — 5). — This creature
preys upon other acari, and, as would be guessed from the power-
ful antennal forceps and the lancets forming the oral apparatus, is
amongst them like a very tiger, in a flock of defenceless lambs.
An extremely interesting description of its structure and habits has
been given by Richard Beck, in the 14th Vol., new series, of
" Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London." He
first found one or two specimens only, which it was desired to
keep alive for continuous observation ; ascertaining the proper
food, he was enabled to do this without difficulty. The male he

254 HALF-AN-HOUR

never saw ; the females he ascertained to be capable of agamic
reproduction to (so far as his observations went) an unlimited
extent. He found, too — and gives a figure of the same — that the
female sat upon her eggs with the same continuous care that a hen
does when seeking to hatch out a brood of chickens. It is most
interesting to observe here and there traces of this strong maternal
feeling, where (as in this case) one would least expect it. Some
spiders have it to a marked degree. The female earwig watches
over and leads about her young very much as does a hen ; so also
does Feiitatouia grisea, a large plant-bug, not uncommon on furze-
bushes. Chcylchis is one of the Troinbidina.

Trombidium (PI. XIX., Figs. 6 — n). — The sf)ecies in this
genus are numerous and not well characterised. The best work
upon them I consider to be "Hermann's Me'moire Apterologique,"
a large folio, with numerous carefully-coloured illustrations, pub-
lished about the end of the last century. There has, however,
been other good work done at them since. But there is still a
vast deal of such yet wanted to elucidate them satisfactorily. In
Rymer Jones's " Outlines" (at page 365), we have, on the autho-
rity of Dujardin, the startling information that posterior to the
pharynx "no traces are perceptible of either oesophagus, stomach,
or intestine, so that apparently the juices of organised bodies,
which constitute the sole food of these creatures, must be lodged
in lacunary spaces, destitute of any proper walls, in the middle of
a brown, parenchymatous mass, which probably performs the
functions of the liver. The lacunae, into which nourishment is
thus received, must necessarily be prolonged among the tissues,
and in the interspaces between the muscular fasciculi throughout
the entire body, thus replacing altogether the circulatory tluid ;
and even when living specimens of such genera (Dermanyssus^
Gamasiis, BdcUd) as are sufficiently transparent are submitted to
examination under the microscope. Although it is easy to see that
the blood or other nutritive juices upon which the creatures live,
and with which their bodies are filled, occupies a lobed or sym-
metrically-multifid space, there is no appearance of any canal
possessing distinct walls, but the whole seems diffused through
lacunae that extend even into the bases of the legs." I do think
there must be error here arising from the extreme thinness of the
parieties of the abdominal walls. The great fault of Rymer
Jones's work consists in its being such a pure compilation — clever,
undoubtedly — but without original observation to guide in the
choice of materials for building his fabric.

I was interested in finding recently amongst some drawings,
made a great many years ago, a figure of the remarkable antennal
forceps of Cheyktus erudilus. I found the specimen amongst rice.

AT THE MICROSCOPE. 255

Tronibidium holosericeum (PI. XIX., Fig. 7). — I am glad to
be able to add a fragment on the life-history of T7'ombidiiiin holo-
sericeum. Walking one sunny morning at the end of March, along
a grassy lane, my eye lighted on a dead specimen of Carabiis
gramilatjts, crushed by the rude hoof of some ignorant clown.
On lifting it up, a remarkably fine specimen of this acarus was
found, absorbed with feasting on the juices of the dead Goliath.
A few yards further on was another crushed beetle of the same
kind, with a second and equally fine specimen of the same
acarus. These were eagerly secured, and the attempt made to
keep them alive, but without success, for my health and engage-
ments do not permit of the constant attention requisite for success
in such studies. Nor have I had better luck since with other
attempts of a similar kind. The above observation, however,
favours the idea that they do not (in the mature state, at least) feed
upon livhig prey. What are their eggs like ? What their young ?
Are they parasitic in their early stages, like Lcptiis ? These are
some of the many questions to be (and which may be) solved by
working naturaHsts like ourselves. Another point to note is the
presence of a pair of stalked compound (!) eyes of two single ocelli
each a These were noticed by Hermann, and furnish a good
example of rudimentary limbs for purposes of vision.

Sting of Wasp (PI. XX.) is so fully explained in the description
of the figures, that little need here be added. It would increase
the interest and value of this slide to supplement it by prepara-
tions of other stings — as of hornet, named bees, etc. — as intro-
ductory to a comprehensive view of ovipositors, of which these
are merely a modification. One of our English observers has
lately laid claim to the merit (? T. W.) of propounding that the
sting of Hymenoptera is only a transformed leg ! ! ! The merit
(? ? T. W.) of being the first to enunciate this view is disputed by
a talented American observer. Now, if it be as stated, there
must either be a serious error of interpretation, or there is nothing
more in it than is already well recognised. Limbs are lateral
appendages to body-segments ; and so the la^icets may be well
spoken of as " modified limbs," but the sheath is a modified body-
segme/it, or part of such, and cannot therefore be a " limb," or
lateral appendage. This bare allusion to the subject must sufiice
for the present ; other opportunities will probably present them-
selves for a fuller consideration of it.

Saws of Saw-Fly (PI. XIX., Figs. 12, 13). — This is another of
our friend, E. Tutte's masterly dissections of these parts. It is
really important that such good material should be correctly iden-
tified, and so render the work capable of reception into the

256

HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE.

general body of science. Surely, some of our members will take
this desiderata up. E. T. thinks it is from a gooseberry saw-fly
(Nematiis grossidaria). Well, then, get one of these, dissect it,
and see. If his supposition be correct, well and good ; if not,
still a sound knowledge of these parts in this insect will have been
attained, and inquiries must be continued till the insect has been
truly ascertained. I must be pardoned for pointing out that to
the eye of science none of these things have more than a very
trifling value until their habitus be known.

Gizzard of Curculio, and

Gizzard of a Beetle (PI. XXI., Figs, i — 8) (see notes by Dr.
Case and A. Nicholson (p. 257). — If our friend's reason for not
giving the name of his beetle be (as we may, perhaps, be justified
in suspecting) that he does not know it, the retort might be per-
missible, " Well, doctor, you ought to know ! " The contributor
of Curculis Gizzard says (if I read his remarks aright) that it
came from a beetle of the same species, and this would fix
its origin to a weevil. But amongst so numerous a tribe, and of
which the minute internal anatomy has been so little studied sys-
tematically, this does not carry us a very great step forward. And
as there appears some serious errors with description, it will be
necessary to say a few words introductory to a consideration of
the subject generally.

The alimentary canal in insects is
composed of i^gu.) oesophagus or gullet,
(^.) crop, (^.) gizzard, (.f.) true stomach,
{s.i.) small intestine, (/./.) large intestine,
and (;'.) rectum. The food taken in at
the mouth passes first through the gullet
to the crop, which is often very large,
and is then passed on for trituration to
the mill seated in the gizzard. The
teeth with which the latter is furnished
vary much according to the nature of
the work to be done. In the cockroach
they are few, of large size, dense and
horny. In the cricket the teeth are
numerous, arranged in bands of differing

Jn^ form. In the weevil, as we see in the

drawing, the form of lepidopterous scales

In the earwig, minute crowded spines in patches.

there appear to be two kinds : at the upper part,

long, sharply-pointed prisms ; at the lower, short teeth, with three,

four, or five curved cusps. In the bee they resemble simple hairs.

Whilst in some cases these projections from the inner walls of

.XJ.

is assumed.
In the flea

SELECTED NOTES FROM SOCIETY'S NOTE-BOOKS. 257

the gizzard become true teeth, in others they might be considered
rather as modifications of ciHated epitheUum. Where the gizzard
opens into the stomach, there is a series of valves, sometimes
mistakenly called ^^ pyloric'' Our anatomical readers will see at
once how it is that this name cannot be strictly applied to valves
seated at the cardiac orifice of the stomach. These valves, so
far as I know them, are inflated, ciliated processes ) in some
instances, as the house-cricket, they constitute a beautiful and
interesting object.

Abnormal formation of Shell of Hen's Egg (PI. XIX., Fig.
14). — I am much pleased to see this specimen, but do not know
exactly how to account for its formation, but believe that we have
the secret of calcification of egg-shell and other animal tissues
displayed in diagrammatic form before us, as so lucidly set forth
by G. Rainey. An attempt has been made on two or three occa-
sions to explain the subject in these notes. It is one of vast and
varied interest. How was it found ? Are fowls kept in chalk
districts more liable to such malformation of the shell than others?
I have some very rough eggs obtained at various times, the most
remarkable one being from a blackbird or thrush, but have not
had time to work over them. The subject will be found to repay,
and I hope will be taken up.

Sclcctcb 1Rotc6 from tbc Societ^'6

1Rotc^Booft0*

Gizzard of Beetle possesses much wonderful beauty in its
structure. It has been cut into and turned open in a lateral
direction, as is represented in Mr. Tuffen West's drawing (PI.
XXL, Fig. 4). At one end of this object may be observed an
abundance of muscular fibres of the ordinary character in such
organs. When I first observed these, I thought by some chance
the scales of a butterfly had got on the glass, and the resemblance
may be curiously farther traced by observing that these muscular
plates (so to call them) are composed of a large number of minute
muscular fibres, so fine as to require a high power and very care-
ful manipulation to be well seen. This system of plates makes up
the greater part of the organ, and their mutual arrangement will
be regarded with pleasure.

William Case.

258 SELECTED NOTES FROM

This object, I think, consists of a multitude of exceedingly
thin plates, attached at one end to a delicate network, some of
which are presented to the eye endwise, others lying flat, all of
them marked with extremely close strise, and terminating in a frill
at the upper end. This frill presents an objection to Dr. Case's
theory, that the longitudinal lines are muscular fibres of extreme
tenuity. I rather think they are bendings in the plate, to give
strength similarly to the iron plates used for building purposes.

A. Nicholson.

Sting, Maxillae, and Labium of Melecta punctata (PI. XXII. ,
Figs. 2 — 6). — This pretty and, when on the wing, weird-like bee
is parasitic on Atithop/iora. It has five joints to the maxillary
palpi and four to the labial. It is not very common in this
neighbourhood (Kirton-in-Lindsey), yet I have frequently taken it

feeding on the small dead nettle.

C. F. George.

Aclysia Dytisci (PI. XXI., Figs. 9 — 11) is thought to be rare.
Although I have caught lots of the beetle, I have only found the
parasites on one. But I was fairly beaten in my endeavour to
get them off whole ; they stick so fast, that almost invariably six
or seven out of the eight legs would be pulled off.

W. O. Nicholson.

Sting, etc., of Melecta punctata (PI. XXIL, Figs. 2 — 6). —
M. punctata is a jet-black bee, with tufts of quite white hair about
the abdomen, legs, face, etc., and is a very pretty insect. It is
parasitic on AnthopJiora ; but the curious part of it is that it is
nearly allied to A7ithophora^ being, I believe, another genus of the
same family. It is tolerably frequent at Oxford in the spring and
early summer. It frequents sandy banks, where Anthophorce.
make their burrows.

Its anatomy is rather interesting. The ridges on the maxillse
(of which there are a few on the maxillae of Apis mellijica, and a
very great many on those of Bonilnis muscorum) are quite absent.
This is a characteristic of bees that burrow in the ground. The
maxillary palpi are long; so are the paraglossia (PL XXII., /r.,
Fig. 5). Both of these organs are very short in Apis 7nellifica.
In some of the nomad bees the maxillary palpi are as long as they
are in wasps. The pharanx, which in the slide is forced out of
proper position, is shown in natural position in the plate. I

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 259

regard the " sideways " position a much better one for mounting
bees' mouths than the orthodox way. Of course, one should have
specimens in both positions, but they are far more natural
sideways.

Not the least curious part of a bee's mouth is the tip of the
labium. Examples from various bees may be seen at Fig. 6 : — a
is from Melecta^ which has no distinct " spoon " ; b is from a
cuckoo-bee, and is very simple. The hairs on the labium are
scale-like, while in a they are hair-like, c is exceedingly curious
and complicated. It comes from the carder or moss-bee, Bo7nbus
miiscoriim. The hairs are narrow. The labium ends on a plate,
underneath which is a brush of hairs, very like tenent hairs from
a beetle's foot ; and last of all is a veritable spoon, shaped just
like a teaspoon, d comes from an A7ithophora^ the bee on which
Melecta is parasitic. The hairs here are long, thin scales, and the
spoon is flat, like a spatula, e is from a worker honey-bee (a
Ligurian, I think). The hairs are narrow, and the " spoon " is
tolerably flat. Its peculiarity is its having a row of trifid hairs at
its edge. I believe that in ordinary bees a slightly different
arrangement prevails.

The shape of the labium is probably influenced by the habits
of the bee, but why should one have a brush and spoon at the
tip, and another a spatula, and so on ?

The Sting (PI. XXIL, Figs. 2, 3, 4). — This is rather curious.
It will be seen that the poison-duct leads from the gland to the
sheath, and not to the barbs. The barbs of a bee's sting are very
curious. They always have a little stop (/!, Fig. 2) to prevent
their being pushed out too far. This will work up and down in
the swollen part of the sheath, but is stopped at the shoulder at
the point sf. I cannot exactly make out whether or no the barbs
are serrated, but at any rate they have no more than one tooth.

A wasp's barbs are not furnished with the little stop,/, and
the sheath is not swollen at the base. At the point, sp.^ is some-
thing that looks like a spiracle, but I am not sure what it is.

H. M. J. Underhill.

Aclysia Dytisci. — These are not so rare as Mr. Nicholson
thinks. Although I have never found them on the Dytiscus^ I once
found them on a very long insect allied to a water-scorpion, and
frequently on the water-scorpion {Nepa cifierea), and rather com-
monly on the great water-boatman {Nototiecta glaucd). They are
bright-red in colour. I doubt if they are mites. They look to
me like Crustacea. If the legs (?) on the head of one of these
specimens be carefully examined, it will be seen that they are

260 SELECTED NOTES FKOM

strongly suggestive of Entomostraca. The mouth, too, is not
mite-Hke.

H. M. J. Underhill.

Trophi of Bee (Melecta). — There is a good article on the
mouths of insects, by Dr. Lowne, in "Science Gossip" for 1873,
p. 229, etc. He gives figure of trophi of carpenter-bee, and
makes some interesting remarks on the subject. He remarks that
the hairs on the labium (or ligula) can be erected or pressed flat
on the organ by special muscles. If, as is stated, the tongue has
300 joints, each with separate muscles, and each hair on the
surface has its own pair of muscles to elevate and depress it, what
a vast number of muscles must be situated in this minute organ !

H. E. Freeman.

Foraminifera, to fix to the slide.— Use gum Tragacanth in
acetic acid, diluted with a little water. A very little gum is suffi-
cient, as it swells enormously when wetted ; some add a little gum
Arabic, but it is not necessary. The gum Tragacanth dries a
dead surface, and does not show if a little by accident gets on the
object. This has been used by a great mounter of Foraminifera
for years.

H. E. Freeman.

Scale Insect from Rind of Orange.— It is said that this insect
may be found in all its stages on the rind of one orange ; but I
have not been so fortunate, but have generally found the scale
and mature female and scale filled with eggs. These form good
slides when mounted dry. The specimen I have mounted is a
female previous to the production of eggs. The long, curling
proboscis, by means of which it perforates the thick rind of the
orange, is well worthy of notice. I have never been fortunate
enough to meet with the mature male insect on the orange,
although I have seen it, or a very similar insect, on the pear-
tree, and this year several have been found on apples, but I have
not watched their development. This creature is an example of
the female being apterous, whilst the male is well furnished
with wings.

[For drawing, see " Trans. Micro. Soc." Vol. IX., N.S., PI. V.,
illustrating Mr. R. Beck's paper on the " Metamorphoses of a
Coccus found on Orange."]

C. F. George.

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 261

Nycteribia from Bat. — This parasite is very uncommon. I
had a large quantity of bats brought me from one hole in a tree,
and on looking over them I found any quantity of Pteroptus^ Der-
manysus^ and odd Piilex ; but on only one specimen were there
any NycteribicE^ and on that eight only were found.

J. Beaulah.

The Nyderihia shows its relation to the Diptera by the rudi-
ments of wings, which may be seen like a pair of curved combs
on the meso-thorax, near the base of the pro-legs. I believe the
Nyderibia is eyeless, and that its tiny head consists almost entirely
of mouth-organs.

F. J. Allen.

Aclysia Dytisci is of much interest to me, departing, as it
does, so much from the ordinary type of a mite. There can be
no doubt that it does really belong to the order Acarina. I
cannot see any Crustacean character about, as has been suggested
by Mr. Underhill. It must be a very difficult job to get the
mites off the beetle, and it is certainly no easy thing to mount
them when secured. I have now before me four specimens
mounted in different ways, and I notice that they possess only
three legs between them.

I have made an attempt to restore a specimen of Aclysia from
all the specimens. PI. XXL, Figs. 9 — 11, is the result. The
mouth seems to be a suctorial disc. All the specimens that I
have seen had only six legs ; this most probably proved them to
be immature. The legs are just like those of other aquatic mites,
and most probably they terminate with a couple of claws, but
they cannot be seen on any of the specimens. The eyes are four.
Palpi conspicuous and armed with spines.

T. Ball.

[In Mr. Ball's drawings, only six legs are shown. — Ed?\

Bird-Fly, Ornithomyia.— A fly very similar to this is very
common in India, and is there called the Bot-fly. Horses, and in
fact all animals, are much troubled by it ; the former most so.
The flies congregate below the anus, and are a source of great
annoyance to the horse, as the tail cannot touch them. They
have to be removed by hand, and as each is pulled off it leaves a
drop of blood. They fly with great rapidity, and it is very diffi-
cult to catch them. Some call them " Flying Ticks,'^ from their
similarity to that creature,

H. Basevl

262 SELECTED NOTES FROM

Bleaching Leaves. — One cannot do better than follow Dr.
Beattie's instructions, as given in " Science Gossip." Some mem-
bers appear to confound Chloride of Sodium with Chlorijiated
Soda. A solution of the latter should be used, or else a solution
of Sodic Hyperchlorite. Either of the two latter will bleach
sections very rapidly, and whole leaves in from a few hours to a
week.

W. H. Beebv.

Nycteribia from Bat. — Those from India have much larger
legs in proportion to the body, and are said to be very quick in
their movements.

H. E. Freeman.

Pteroptis from English Bat is a very curious mite, and bears
a strong resemblance to a young 'E.iGUT-rayed star-fish.

H. E. Freeman.

The Mule-Ticks, referred to by Col. Basevi^ are like the
Hippobosca Equina^ but somewhat larger, and both are without
ocelli, which are present in Ornithomyia. The term Bot-fly is
very inappropriate. The latter does not bite the skin, and indeed
the mouth is so rudimentary that it is doubtful if it takes any food
when in the imago state. The Bot-fly is more like a bee, and
makes a very shrill hum when on the wing, or confined in a box.

H. E. Freeman.

Combs of the Black Scorpion. — Cuvier says : — "The abdomen
is composed of twelve rings comprehending those of the tail.
The first is divided into two parts, the anterior of which supports
the sexual organs, and the other the two combs. These append-
ages are composed of one principal piece, narrow, elongated,
articulated, mobile at its base, and furnished along its lower side
with a series of small lacunae united with it by an articulation,
elongated, hollow internally, parallel, and resembhng the teeth of
a comb. Hieir number is more or less considerable, according to
the species ; sometimes it varies within a certain quantity, and
perhaps according to age, in the same species. The use of these
appendages has not yet been ascertained by any positive experi-
ments.

C. F. George.

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 2G3

Ferret-Tick. — Some years ago, six or seven ticks which had
been taken from a ferret were brought to me. I was much out of
health at the time, and do not know if ihey were preserved. Of
what species is the ferret-tick ? It agrees very nearly with the
dog-tick ; so nearly, that one feels compelled to ask, " Do the two
belong to the same species ? " Can it be that ferrets and dogs,
carnivorous animals, having much in common in their habits, both
become hosts to the same species of tick ? And what are the
sexual characteristics ? I am inclined to think the one under con-
sideration is a male. How is the union of the sexes effected ?
What are the eggs like ? They are described as being " laid in
large numbers, quite round, and of a reddish-brown colour,
smooth and very bright, having the appearance of small glass
beads ; mean diameter of egg, i-34th of an inch. They hatched
out in a very few days." — Science Gossip, June, 1874, p. 121.
Now, the little things, freed from their shells, and, as we may
suppose, very hungry, having fed on nothing to speak of as yet,
naturally run hither and thither seeking food. The further history
of these ticks will be found in Vol. III. of this Journal, p. 2>Z^
and on Plate VI. drawings of the rostrum, etc., are given. It will
be well to compare the figure of the rostrum of dog-tick, given in
Vol. III., PL VL, Fig. 4, with that from ferret-tick, accompanying
these notes (PI. XXIII., Fig. i). How closely they agree in
robustness and in the small number of their dentations !

A figure of the rostrum of mature hare-tick is appended (see
Fig. 2, same plate), for comparison with that of the immature
condition, as shown in PI. VI. , Vol. III.

TuFFEN West.

Tongue of Drone Fly (PL XXIII. , lower portion) is a very
common object of the Microscope; I will, however, take the
opportunity of its presence to say a few words on the mouth-
organs of this insect, as compared with that of the Blow-
Fly ; pointing out the differences between them, which in
the main characterise the families to which they respectively
belong, viz., the Syrphid.e and the Muscid^e. Of these differ-
ences the most important is that which relates to the maxillae,
their development in the former insect, and their suppression, or
at least their concealment, in the latter. In both the maxillary
palpi are very clearly distinguishable, but while in the former they
are connected with a pair of setiform maxillae, in the latter they
arise direct from the integument of the second joint of the pro-
boscis, without the intervention of anything which may be fairly
called a limb in any sense of the term (see lower half PL XXIII.,

264 SELECTED NOTES FROM

Figs. 9 and lo). Mr. Lowne thinks that the maxillae of the Blow-
Fly are represented partly by a scale-like portion of the integu-
ment bearing stiff set^, from which the palpi arise, and partly by
the lateral portions of the operculum, an organ which he defines
as consisting of a central portion of the labrum, and the two
lateral portions referred to, which he regards as the homologues of
the terminal portions of the maxillae of Bees. I would not like
to express a very decided opinion on this point, but I have never
been able to distinguish any such separation of parts in the
operculum as is here indicated. In Figure 7 of my plate the
lateral portions referred to are marked x x, as they are also in
annexed diagram — ^ ^ from which it will be seen that

the organ consists /^^^^^^^\ of ^ central tube a, surrounded
by an external ^^m'^V^^^ sheath I?. I?., the intervening space
being occupied by ^^ ^^ muscles. This being the case,
1 can neither find any marked separation into central and lateral
portions, nor do I see how it is possible to regard the organ as
other than one indivisible whole, viz., the labrum or upper lip.
Again, if, as Mr. Lowne says, these lateral portions of the
operculum are to be regarded as portions of the maxill?e, where
does this hypothesis land us in the Drone-Fly ? For here also
that which he calls the operculum, and what I have marked as the
labrum in Fig. 9, consists of an internal tube and an external
sheath, similar to those in the Blow-Fly, and consequently the
lateral portions of the organ here also must by a parity of reason-
ing be accounted as the homologue of the maxilla, ie., of organs
which are here seen to have a perfectly separate and independent
development, being the slender lancets marked w x in the same
figure ; quod est absurdiu/i, as Euclid would have said.

The only thing I can see which gives any colour to Mr.
Lowne's theory, is that these lateral portions of the operculum are
supported by the anterior extremity of the apodemes, and,
therefore may be thought to bear the same relation to them which
the maxillae do in the Drone-Fly, in which insect the terminal
setaceous portions of these organs are continuous, with a broad
internal basal process (shaded in Fig. 4). Now, these basal
portions are connected by muscles (;//., Fig. 9) with the anterior
portion of the pharynx in very much the same way as are the
apodemes of the Blow-Fly, and on this account it is difficult to
think that they are otherwise than homologous with those
apodomes ; and inasmuch as they are in the one case evidently
continuous with the maxillae, and in the other nearly continuous
with the lateral portions of the operculum, it may be thought that
these latter are really the homologues of the terminal portion of
the maxillae. But nearly is not quite, and the difference is well

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 265

expressed in Mr. Lowne's own words, where he says (at bottom of
p. 45*) that they "form joints with their apodemes," and this
joint will, I think, be found on examination to mark too great a
separation between the parts to allow much force to an argument
drawn from their supposed continuity. Although, therefore, I am
disposed to doubt whether the lateral portions of the operculum
represent any portion of the maxillae, yet it must be thought that
in the Blow-Fly these organs are to be sought for in that portion
of the integument from which the palpi arise, namely, in the
scales and septiferous bands.

It may be presumed that the differences of organisation in
the mouths of these two insects have reference principally to their
respective habits of feeding. The broad, expanded lobes of the
Blow-Fly, shown in Fig. 2, are doubtless well adapted for sucking
up the variety of fluid substances upon which the insect feeds.
The proboscis of the Syrphidas are much longer, and therefore
better suited to their flower-haunting habits ; the lobes too are
more compressed.

The basal joint of the proboscis, called by Mr. Lowne the

fulcrum, is similar in principle in both insects, but somewhat

different in shape, as may be seen by comparing the part marked

f. in Figs. 9 and 10. The position of the fulcrum within the head

is shown in Fig. 6.

Another important difference between the mouths of these
two insects is the absence in the Drone-Fly of the forked
character in the rings of the false trachea, as seen in Fig. 8, which
represents a portion of one of these channels in the Blow-Fly,
flattened out. This seems to point to a less perfect development
in the former insects, as compared with the latter, which is further
confirmed by the absence also in the former of the chitinous
teeth, and their intermediate pillars referred to by Mr. Lowne in
his work, and shown in my Figure 14. I believe that both the
teeth and the pillars are modifications of forked rings.

A. Hammond.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVIII., XIX., XX.,

XXL. XXIL, XXIII.

Plate XVIII.
Fig. 1. — Represents the specimen of Sphctria of the natural size, the
outline of the leaf being simply diagrammatic to indicate that
the piece shown formed only part of the leaf.

Anatomy and Physiology of the Blow-Fly."

* a

266 SELECTED NOTES FROM

Fig. 2. — One of the "Peridia" enlarged, viewed from above, x 25.

3. — Portion of the celluhir structure of "ectoderm" of leaf,
X 100.

4. — Another portion, showing supposed "spermatium" (male
organ of fructification), x 100.

5. — Sphseraphides exposed by accidental removal of part of the
outer skin (" ectoderm "), x 100.

6. — Diagrammatic section of SjyJueria.

7. — Diagrammatic section of ^cidhnn. The same letters indi-
cate corresponding parts of each.
8 p. , spermatium.

Stg., sterigmata, pollen in the higher plants.
Fer., peridiurn ; receptacle for sp., spores — seeds in the
higher plants — which are contained in little transparent
cases, called asci, as., in the figures.

>3

J)

jj

3J

,, 8. — Portion of leaf of Onosma tauriciim, probably the under-
surface, x 25.

0. — Part of one of the large hairs, more magnified to show the
roughness of the surface, x 100.

10. — Base of a hair, showing the cluster of cells forming the
support, and sectional view of the jjrominences, x 100.

>;

3J

JJ

5J

)J

11. — One of the smaller spines of Amphidotus cordatus; the
smaller connected figures at the side are to show outlines of
sections at their respective places.

12. — Base of a larger spine, showing the powerful ridge for
attachment of levator and depressor muscles, and the part of
its broken extremity, whence the enlarged view (Fig. 13) is
obtained.

14. — Diagrammatic section of part of a spine.

,, 15. — Calcareous plates from skin of Holofhuria.

a.a.a.a. — Plates in form of a calcified network, supposed
to be situated at and parallel with the surface.
h.b. — Arched pieces supposed to be articulated by their
extremities with processes arising from the centre of the
former. From the middle of the arch, on its convex border,
arise two short colinnns, united at their free extremities,
where they bear two or three dentations. These double
colunnis are supposed to represent the anchors of Synapta,
and to be for the same purpose — viz., to enable their posses-
sor to hold on more firmly to the sea-bottom.

Drawn by Tufien West.

Plate XIX.
Fig. 1. — Represents the male Cheijletus eruditus, x 50.
,, 2. — Represents the female ditto, x 50.

THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 267

Fig. 3. — Rostrum, showing lancets (maxillae ?), x 250.

J J 4. — End of left antennal forceps (mandible ?), x 250.

^^ 5. —End of fourth limb of the left side, showing the two claws
and " scopuloe."

J)

5>

)5

J>

n

6. — Tromhidium, slightly magnified. The relative proportions of
the limbs, and the joints composing them, the oral organs,
and the hairs, are the parts by wdiich specific identification
will be obtained.

7. — A crushed sj^ecimen of Carabus grannlatus, with a very large
female Tromhidium holosericum feeding at the anterior end of
the abdomen.

8. — The stalked and compound eye of two facets.

9.— Sickle-like mandible from Fig. G, x 100. a, teeth on the
cutting edge, more magnified.

10. — End of left limb of the second pair. The excision of the
last joint for reception of the claws when not in use is well
shown.

^'c, the "scopula," an organ for imparting the power of
moving over smooth surfaces (scojmla, a brush). It is homo-
logous with the " pulvillus " of flies, and is composed of
hairs with expanded, sucker-like ends, attached to two or
more back pieces.

11. — Plumose hair, x 200.

J J 12. — One of the saw-blades from "Gooseberry Saw-fly." The
upper outline shows the place of the saw-back (which is not
presented on slide) in a groove, in which the saw, when in
use, slides backwards and forwards.

J, 13. — Portion of the cutting edge, enlarged, to show the finer
dentations and canals in the substance.

J J 14. — Illustration of abnormal formation on shell of Hen's egg,
X 15. The pearly granules are seen to be of very diflerent
sizes, and more or less coalesced. In my own specimen the
very small ones are much more numerous than in this.
They are found to be firmly adherent to the general shell.

Drawn by Tuflen West.

Plate XX.

Fig. 1. — Sting of ^Yasp, as shown on slide: sh., sheath; st. st., the

two lancets or stings, x 25.
2, 2. — Barbed extremities of the latter, x 100.
3. — Diagrammatic representation of the mouth of a small

Hemipteron (Saw-fly), from a specimen in the possession

of a member.
4. — Diagrammatic sectional view of same: Ibr.^ labrum j mx,

mx. , maxillic (?) ; md., mandibles {'.).

}}

268 SELECTED NOTES FROM

Fig. 5. — Sheath of Wasp-Stiiig, evidently homologous at the posterior
end of the body with the mandibles (I) at the anterior, the
Btings representing the serrate pair of organs (maxilhe, ?).

,, 6. — Diagrammatic section of the latter : s., sheath ; st., stings.

,, 7. — A dissection, giving a natural view of the parts connected
with a Wasp's Sting : d. , duct for bringing the poison from
its secreting gland to pr. , a large, sub-pyriform organ,
covered with spirally-arranged and interlacing voluntary
muscles ; hence it is carried hj p.d., the excretory duct, to
the base of the sheath of sting ; sh. , sheath ; st. , lancets,
which are moved backwards and forwards in grooves in the
latter by mm. , powerful muscles, longitudinal and trans-
verse ; it. , end of intestine ; ap. ap. , anal palpi.

Drawn by Tuffen West.

Fig.

1.

jj

2.

>>

3.

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4.

Plate XXI.

-Weevil of Pine-trees {Hylobius ahietis), slightly enlarged.

-Dissection from same, showing head, namely : — Ihr., labrum ;
711(1., mandible ; s.cd., situation of antenna; or., eye ; os. ,
oesophagus ; pr. , proventriculus (gizzard) ; bk. bk. , portions
of back.

-Diagrammatic section of Gizzard of a Weevil, seen from above.

-Figure of Gizzard taken from slide, showing the eight double
lines of scale-like teeth, bent at a right angle at about half
their length, horny, deep-brown in their free portions ; of a
pale transparent yellow at the j^art attached to the walls of
the gizzard.

,, 5. — Some of the teeth from another specimen, showing the den-
tations at their " free extremities, and the strite on the
expanded portion. , -

,, 6. — Represents a Gizzard removed from its attachments, and
looked into from above, one of the six teeth is seen to be
much larger than the remaining five, and to represent an
anvil on which the others play.

,, 7. — Another Gizzard, cut open, showing the six teeth and ten-
dinous attachments for the powerful muscles which move the
organ, t.m.a. and m.m. The portion of intestine leading on
to the stomach proper is seen at the lower part of the figure ;
it is of a funnel shape, and guarded by six ciliated valves, v.v.

,, 8. — In which these valves are better shown, it having been taken
from a recent dissection, Figs. (3 and 7 being from dried spe-
cimens, in which the parts are somewhat shrivelled and
obscure.

DraAvn by Tufien W^est.

,, 9. — Adysia dytlsci, represented as seen unprepared, x 20.

,, 10. — The same, more enlarged, and prepared by pressure and
washing.

,, 11, — Palpi of same. Drawn by T. Ball,

Journal of Microscopy. Vol. 4, P1.18.

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THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 269

Plate XXII.
Fig. 1. — Feather of Ostrich, with Eggs of Parasite, in sitio.

Drawn by R. H. Moore.

[No notes appeared in connection with this drawing. — Ed.

))

J)

)>

2. — Sting and Poison-gland of Bee {Meleda j^unctata) : sh.,
sheath ; b., barbs ; /. , the " stops" which control the barbs
by preventing them from being pushed out too far ; s.f. , the
bend where the ''stops" are arrested ; pa., palpi ; sp., spi-
racle (?) ; iJ.g., poison-gland; 2).d.y termination of duct of
poison-gland, x 16 diam.

3. — Tip of one of the barbs.
4. — Spiracle (?), x 63 diam.
5. — Mouth of Meleda imnctata; the labrum and mandibles are

removed : mx., maxilhie ; m.p., maxillary palpi ; la., labium ;

I. p. , labial palpi ; pr. , paraglossie ; mt. , mentum ; cr. , cardo

or hinge ; p/i. , pharynx.
6. — Tips of the labia of various Bees, showing different forms of

spoons : —

a. Meleda pundata, as Fig. 5, viewed sideways.

h. Cuckoo-Bee, Nomada.

c. Carder-Bee, Bombus muscorum, viewed sideways.

d. Burrowing Bee, Anthoplwra retusa, on which Melecta is
parasitic.

e. Common Hive-Bee, neuter, Apis mellifica, probably a
Ligurian.

Drawn by H. M. J. Underhill.

Plate XXIII. Upper Portion.

Fig. 1.— Trophi of Ferret Tick, x 200 diam.
,, 2. — ,, Hare tick, x 200 diam.
,, 3. — Foot of Hare Tick ; first limb of the left side.
,,4. — ,, ,, third limb of the left side.

The much larger size of this portion of the first limb will be
noticed ; the feet of the second, third, and fourth limbs agree in size.

Drawn by Tuffen West.

Lower Portion.
Probosces of the Blow-Fly and of Drone-Fly compared.
Fig. 1. — Head of Blow-Fly, side view.
,, 2. — Lobes of Proboscis of ditto, front view.
,,3. — ,, ,, of Drone-Fly, front view.

,, 4. — Maxilla and palpus of ditto. The lowest shaded portion is
internal, and is homologous with the apodemes of the Blow-
Fly.

270 REVIEWS.

Fig. 5. — Head of Drone-Fly, side view.

6, — Longitudinal vertical section of ditto, showing the position
of the fulcrinii at a, and the oesophagus at h.

7. — The apodenies {cqy., ap.) and operculum {op.) of the Blow-
Fly ; front view.

8. — The forked rings of the false tracheae of the Blow-Fly.

9. —The Proboscis of the Drone-Fly : /, , the fulcrum ; mx. , the
maxilla ; mp., palpus ; ?r., labrum ; f. , tongue ; Ih., labium.

10. — The Proboscis of the Blow-Fly ; parts as above.

11. — One of the lobes of Drone-Fly.

12. — Extremity of labrum of Blow-Fly.

13. — ,, ,, of Drone-Fly.

14.— Teeth of Blow-Fly.

Drawn by A. Hammond.

J)

1Rc\)iew0.

Micro-Chejmistry of Poisons, including their Physiological,
Pathological, and Legal Relations ; with an Appendix on the Detection and
Microscopic Discrimination of Blood. By Theodore G. Wormley, M.D.,
Ph.D., LL.D. With 96 illustrations on steel. Second edition, pp. 741.
(Philadelphia, U.vS.A., and London : J. B. Lippincott and Co. 1885.) Price
$7.50=;^! IIS. 6d.

The second edition of this large and valuable work has just reached us.
The author commences with a definition of the term Micro-Chemistry of
Poisons; Classification of Poisons ; Sources of Evidence — e.g., symptoms,
post-mortem appearances, and chemical analysis. A large number of Inor-
ganic Poisons are then treated of, and their special chemical properties con-
sidered ; this is followed by a description of the Vegetable poisons and the
various methods of separating their complex organic mixtures. The appendix
is devoted to the Nature and Properties, Detection and Discrimination of
Blood ; here we have described its Physical Characters and Composition,
Chemical Tests, and Optical Properties. In the chapter on the Microscopical
Detection and Discrimination of Blood is considered Oviparous and Mamma-
lian Blood, Limit of determining the Differences, Measurement, and Methods of
Examining Dried Blood. The microscopist's library will not be complete
without a copy of this work.

Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. By Jeffrey Bell,

M.A. pp. ix. — 555. (London: Cassell and Co. 18S5.) Price 7s. 6d.

This is one of Cassell's Manuals for Students of Medicine. The author
has endeavoured to illustrate details of structure by a notice of such experi-
mental enquiries as he has either considered himself, or has reason to believe to
be correctly stated. The various chapters treat of the Amoeba ; General
Structure of Animals ; Organs of Digestion, Respiration, Excretion, Secre-

REVIEWS. 271

tion, Movement ; Vocal Organs ; Organs of Reproduction, etc. The author
maintains that there has been an evolution of organs as well as of animals, and
that he who desires to understand the most complicated organs must first know
the structure of such as are more simply constructed.

The Dissection of the Frog. By J. Cossar Ewart, M.D.
Directions for the Examination of the Amceba, Para-

moecium, Vorticella, Hydra, Lumbricus, Hirudo, Asterias, and Echinus. By
J. Cossar Ewart, M. D., and J. Duncan Matthews.

The Dissection of the Skate. By the same. (Edinburgh :

James Thin. 1884). Price is. 6d. each.

In the above works, which are published for the use of Students in the
University of Edinburgh Laborator}-, full instructions for dissection and exa-
mination of the object, with directions for making drawings of the various
parts, are given on the left-hand page, the right-hand page being left blank,
we suppose, for the drawings. These books appear to us to be most useful.

Johnstone's Student's Atlas of Bones and Ligaments.

By Charles W. Cathcart, M.A., MB., F.R.CS., etc., and F. M, Caird,
M.B., F.R.CS.E. (Edinburgh: W. and A. K. Johnstone. 18S5.) Size
of page, 14^ in. by II in. Price 15s.

This fine work contains 30 plates, each accompanied by descriptive letter-
press. On each plate we notice also that the origins of the muscles are
marked in red, and their insertions in blue, which has been supplemented by
printing the names of the muscles in corresponding ink, and in washing a
shade of blue over the articular surfaces. A similar shade has been used to
express the various ligaments, and in some cases a mottling of red has been put
in to draw attention to sections through the bone. Letterpress has been used
on each plate to indicate the various points which the student should remember.

Notes from the Physiological Laboratory of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. Edited by N. A. Randolph, M.D., and vSamuel G.
Dixon, pp. 88. (Philadelphia, U.S.A. : J. B. Lippincott. 1885.)

The papers forming this little volume are records of facts of interest brought
to light in the course of physiological study, and embrace Notes on the Faeces
of Starch-fed Infants ; a Study of the Distribution of Gluten in the Wheat-
grain ; on the Digestion of Raw and Boiled Milk ; on the Nutritive Values of
Branny Foods, etc

The Essentials of Histology, Descriptive and Practical,

for the Use of Students. By E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. pp. x. — 245. (London:
Longmans, CJreen, and Co. 1885.) Price 6s.

Those who are not already the happy possessors of Dr. Schafer's large and
more elaborate work will doubtless be much pleased with this elementary and
condensed one, which is sure to prove of much value in class teaching. For
the convenience of students, it is divided into forty-two lessons, each of which
may be supposed to occupy the class from one to three hours. Each lesson
takes a special list of tissues for microscopical examination, clear and detailed
directions being given for their preparation.

272 KE VIEWS.

Pathological Mycology : An Enquiry into the Etiology of

Infective Diseases. By G. Sims Woodhead, M.D., F.R.C.P. Ed., and Arthur
W. Hare, M.B., CM. Section I., Methods, with 60 illustrations, pp. x. —
174. (Edinburgh: Young J. Pentland. 1885.) Price 8s. 6d.

An important and valuable work for the medical student, inasmuch as the
authors have collected together and clearly explained the methods employed in
the examination and cultivation of those Micro- Organisms in sterilised media
which bear such important relations to diseases, whether infectious or other-
wise. A work which so much facilitates the study of these organisms must be
very welcome to those whose life-work it is to combat their effects. The illus-
trations are beautifully executed, and a number of them are coloured.

A Treatise on Practical Chemistry and Qualitative Inor-
ganic Analysis, adapted for use in the Laboratories of Colleges and Schools.
By Frank Clowes, D.Sc. Lond. Fourth edition, pp. xvi. — 376. (London:
J. and A. Churchill.) Price 7s. 6d.

A useful work for young students, containing detailed instructions and
tables to assist in the analysis of the more commonly recurring salts. It is
a very handy text-book. There are 55 illustrations.

An Introduction to the Study of Organic Chemistry.

By Adolph Pinner, Ph.D. Translated and revised from the fifth German edi-
tion. By Peter T. Austen, Ph.D., F. C.S. Second edition, pp. xxi. — 403.
(New York : John Wiley and Sons. 1884.) Price ^2.

This is decidedly a theoretical book. Dr. Austen tells us that his endea -
vour has been to explain the subject systematically, so that with but a slight
knowledge of chemical science the student is able to advance easily to the
most complicated compounds, and can at any place trace out the relationship
of the particular compound to the simple ones from which it is derived.

An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of

Carbon, or Organic Chemistry. By Ira Remsen. pp. x. — 364. (Boston,
U.S.A. : Ginn, Heath, and Co. 1885.) Price $2.

A work intended for pupils commencing the study of organic chemistry.
We cannot too highly commend the plan adopted by the author, who gives
instructions for the preparation of a series of organic compounds, together
with such theoretical explanations of the reactions which occur as are likely to
lead the student "through a careful study of the facts, to see for himself the
reasons for adopting the prevalent views in regard to the structure of the Com-
pounds of Carbon." The experiments appear well adapted to the end in view.

An Introduction to Practical Chemistry, including Ana-
lysis. By John E. Bowman, F.C.vS. Edited by Charles L. Bloxam, F.C.S.
■ Eighth edition, pp. xvi. — 248. (London: J. and A. Churchill. 1885.)
Price 6s. 6d.

This is an old and valued friend, containing many improvements and addi-
tions ; it contains about 90 illustrations. We believe the present improved
edition will be found as useful to students of the present time as earlier edi=
tions were to us in our student-days.

An Outline of Qualitative Analysis for Beginners. By

REVIEWS. 273

John T. .Stoddard, Ph.D. Second edition, pp. 60. (Boston: Harris and
Rogers. 1884.) Price 75c.

A small, nicely got-up work, giving the more common reactions of the prin-
cipal metals and more commonly occurring " Inorganic" acids, with which are
grouped Ferrocyanides, Ferricyanides, Oxalates, Tartrates, and Acetates. The
teacher using this work must be prepared to give a large amount of personal
attention to his pupils.

Outline of Lecture-Notes on General Chemistry : The

Non-Metals. By John T. Stoddard, Ph.D. pp. 84. (Northampton, Mass. :
Gazette Publishing Co. 1884.) Price 75c.

Another book of the same series, giving a short account of the chief non-
metals, together with Bismuth and Antimony, which are grouped with Nitrogen.

Outlines of Lecture Notes on General Chemistry :

The Metals. By John T. Stoddard, Ph.D. pp. 131. (Boston, Mass. :
Harris, Rogers, & Co. 1885.) Price $1.

This work, by the same author, contains a short account of the more
important metals and their compounds. Under each metal we have a short
account of its occurrence, but in some cases we are not told either the name of
the ore in which it is found, or the locality.

An Introduction to Practical Organic Chemistry :

Adapted to the requirements of the first M.B. Examination. By George E. R.
Ellis, pp.72. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 1885.) Price is. 6d.
The Medical and Chemical Student will find this a convenient little hand-
book. Rather than suggest to the student too great a number of tests, the
author has selected only those which will prove of use in general analysis.
The directions for general examination will be found of value.

Medical Rhymes : A Collection of Rhymes of ye Anciente
Time, and Rhymes of the Modern Day ; Rhymes Grave and Rhymes
Mirthful ; Rhymes Anatomical, Therapeutical, and Surgical ; all Sorts of
Rhymes to Interest, Amuse, and Edify all Sorts of Followers of Esculapius.
Selected and Compiled from a variety of Sources, by Hugo Erichsen, M.D.
With an Introduction by Prof. Willis P. King, M.D. Illustrated, pp. xx. —
220. (Chicago, 111., U.S.A.: J. H. Chambers and Co. 1884.) Price, §2.50.
We have here a series of all kinds of Doctors' Ditties, from the earliest
times up to the present.

The Medical Directory of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,

Delaware, and the vSouthern Half of New Jersey, 1885. pp. 397. (Phil-
adelphia : P. Blackiston, Son, and Co. 1885.) Price, -$2.50.

Contains in a compact form lists of Medical and other Associations, with
their Officers : Physicians, Chemists, Druggists, Dentists, Veterinarians, etc. :
in fact, everything likely to interest the Medical Professor.

A Manual of Health Science. By Andrew Wilson,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S., etc. pp. xiii. — 238. (London : Longmans, Green, and
Co. 1885.) Price 2s. 6d.

A valuable and interesting little book, treating the sul)ject of health under
various aspects, in a simple and practical way ; first taking the formation of
the body and the functions of the various organs ; then treating of food and

274 REVIEWS.

clothing ; water in its pure and impure condition ; air, and the impurities which
it may contract ; the sanitary arrangements of houses, cities, etc. We have
also a well-written and illustrated paper on ambulance work, etc.

A Text-Book of Hygiene. By George H. Rohe, M.D.
pp. ix. — 324. (Baltimore, U.S.A. : Thomas and Evans. 1885.) '

The author tells us his desire has been to place in the hands of the student,
practitioner, and sanitary officer, a trustworthy guide to the principles and
practice of preventive medicine. The work treats of the composition and
physical conditions of the air, tests for impurities in the air and water, sewage,
the germ theory of disease, etc.

Hygienic Physiology : With special reference to the Use

of Alcoholic Drinks and Narcotics. By Joel Dorman Steel, Ph.D.
pp. xii. — 276. (New York : A. S. Barnes and Co. 1884.)

For correctness and beauty of illustration, terseness of explanation, and the
admirable way in which the work is got up, we thoroughly commend it as one
of the best manuals we have met with. 5lany of the plates are coloured.

Elements of Hygiene : for Schools and Colleges. By-
John Campbell. pp. vi. — 120. (Dublin : W. M. Gill and Son. 1885.)
Price is.

The subject of Hygiene is treated in this little book in a popular manner.
It was originally written to serve as a text-book in the author's classes for the
training of National school teachers.

Hygiene for Young People : Adapted to the Intermediate
Classes and Common Schools. By A. B. Palmer, IM.D., LL.D. pp. 207.
(New York : A. S. Barnes and Co. 1885.)

This book was prepareel under the direction of the Department of Scientific
Instruction of the Women's National Christian Temperance Union. Enough
of the Science of Hygiene has been introduced to give a general knowledge of
the laws of health, whilst direct and special reference has been made to the
effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. There are about 30 very good
engravings.

Lessons in Hygiene : An Elementary Text-Book on the

Maintenance of Health, with Rudiments of Anatomy and Physiology, and
the Treatment of Emergent Cases, comprising also Lessons on the Action
of vStimulants and Sedatives. By John C. Cutter, B.S., M.D. pp. 180.
(Philadelphia, U.S.A.: J. B. Lippincott and Co. 1885.) Price 50c.

We have here, in a concise and orderly form, some of the essential facts
concerning bathing, clothing, air, water, food, cooking, mental work, physical
exercise, contagious diseases, disinfection, tobacco, alcoholics, etc., as bearing
upon health and the prevention of disease. The book is well illustrated, and
contains a useful glossary.

In Case of Accident. By Dr. D. A. Sargent, of Harvard
College Gymnasium. Illustrated, pp. 126. (Boston, U.S.A. : D. Lothrop
and Co.) Price 60c.

Dr. Sargent has noticed that many persons of superior intelligence are
rendered powerless in time of excitement and danger, by the want of a little

REVIEWS. 275

self-control. In the book before us he has made the structure and function of
different organs and parts of the body the basis for a brief consideration of some
of the injuries and accidents that may interfere with the function of these
various parts, and in so doing impair the heakh and endanger life.

Our Bodies and How we Live. By Albert F. Blaisdell,

M.D. pp. vi. — 285. (Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard. 1885.)

This is one of Lee and Shepard's excellent " Young Folks' Series " of little
books. Here we have presented in a clear and logical manner, some of the
most important facts about the build and health of our bodies. Prominence
has been given to such Anatomical and Physiological facts as are proper to the
necessary understanding of the laws of hygiene. Everything has been made
clear and practical by the use of a simple style of writing. The subject of
stimulants and narcotics has been fairly and plainly treated.

Practical Physiology, being a School Manual of Health

for the use of Classes and General Reading. By Edwin Lankester, ALD.,
LL.D., F.R.S. Second edition; pp. xxiv. — 152. (London: W. 11. Allen
and Co. 1880). Price 2s. 6d.

A useful book for the School and for general home use ; it is w^ritten in a
clear and interesting style, and illustrated by fairly good plates. It not only
gives an accurate course of physiology, but affords valuable hints as to food,
dress, exercise, and education in relation to health.

Diet for the Sick : a Treatise on the Value of Foods, their
application to special conditions of Health and Disease, and on the best
methods of their preparation. By Mary F. Henderson. Illustrated, pp. ix. —
234, (New York : Harper Bros. 18S5.)

A proper dietary is doubtless as necessary for the recovery of the sick as is
medicine : a perusal of this book will supply the nurse with much useful
information.

Text-Book of General Botany. By W. J. Behrens, trans-
lated from the second German edition ; Revised by Patrick Geddes, F.R.S.E.
\Yith 408 illustrations ; pp. viii. — 374. (Edinburgh : Young J. Pentland.
1885.) Price I OS. 6d.

A most useful addition to the list of Text-books on this subject, and one
that may be highly recommended to teachers of the science. The student is
at once and by easy stages introduced to the Morphology of the plant, the
more difficult study of the Anatomy and Physiology being left till later in the
book. The flowering plants are first treated, the system of classification em-
ployed being original and differing from that of most of the text-books in
general use. The subject of fertilisation and cross-fertilisation by Insects is
treated in a very interesting manner. The last portion of the book is devoted
to Cryptogams. The illustrations are original and exceedingly good, and we
find also a series of tables giving the characteristics of the various orders
according to the author's system of classification.

American Medicinal Plants: an Illustrated and Descriptive
Guide to the American Plants, known as Homreopathic Remedies. Their
History, Preparation, Chemistry, and Physiological Effects. By Charles F.
Millspaugh, M.D. (New York ; Boericke and Tafel. 1885.)

This is a splendidly illustrated work, containing a list of the x\merican
plants used as Homoeopathic remedies. We have before us two fascicles, each
containing 30 folio plates of flowers, beautifully drawn and coloured from

276 REVIEWS.

nature, with full descriptive text, as, e.g. , we have first the place occupied by
the plant, both according to the Natural and to the Linnsean systems; then the
botanical synonyms and the common names of the plant, followed by a des-
cription of the Plant History and Habitat ; the part used and method of pre-
paration, chemical constituents, and physiological action. The coloured plates
are all executed by the author, in remarkably good style, from the original
plants in situ. Each fascicle is published at §5, and the work will be com-
pleted in about two years.

Where to Find Ferns, with a special chapter on the Ferns
round London. By Francis George Heath, pp. vi. — 153. (London : Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1885.) Price is. 6d.

In the little volume before us, we have well executed illustrations of all the
species of British Ferns. These are reproduced with Photographic accuracy
from " The Fern Portfolio," a larger work by the same author. The object of
the author is briefly to indicate the habitat, distribution, and cultivation of
Ferns. This is a very cheap book and deserves a large sale.

Chapters on Plant-Life. By Sophie Bledsoe Herrick.

Illustrated, p. 206. (New York : Harper Bros. 1885.) Price Si.

This is a capital little book for young people ; the instruction is given in so
interesting a manner that all who read it are sure to retain a great deal in their
memory. There are 84 illustrations, all very good.

Dictionary of the Names of British Plants. By Henry

Purefoy Fitzgerald, pp. 90. (London: Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox. 1885.)
Price 2s. 6d.

This useful little book is intended for the use of amateurs and beginners as
a help to the knowledge of the meaning and pronunciation of the scientific
names of British Wild Plants. Such a work has long been wanted. We
should now like to see a similar one, embracing all the names in the animal
kingdom.

Text-Book of Structural and Physiological Botany. By

Otto W. Thome and Alfred W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S. Illustrated
with about 600 woodcuts and a coloured map. Fifth edition, pp. xii. — 480.
(London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 1885.) Price 6s.

We have much pleasure in directing the attention of our readers to the new
edition of this important work. Since the publication of the first edition,
great advances have been made in various branches of botanical science, and
in the present edition the life-history of many of the lower forms of plants
have been followed out, and much light thrown on their genetic relationships.
Several portions of the book have been entirely re-written.

Wild Flowers Worth Notice: A Selection of some of our

Native Plants which are most attractive from their beauty, uses, and associa-
tions. By Mrs. Lankester. With 108 coloured figures, from drawings by J.
E. Sowerhy. pp. xx. — 159. (London : W. H. Allen and Co.) Price 5s.

In the handsome little book before us, we have short and popular accounts
of a number of our well-known native plants. These are systematically
arranged, certain plants being selected from each of the natural orders. The
28 plates are nicely coloured, and the book will doubtless become a favourite.

REVIEWS. 277

Fruit Culture, and the Laying Out and Management of a

Country House. By \V, C. Strong, pp. xii. — 205. (Boston, U.S.A. :
Houghton, Mitiflin, and Co. 18S5.)

A book intended for the professed horticulturist and orchardist. The
author has endeavoured to explain the fundamental principles for the culture of
each species of fruit without going into an exhaustive discussion of differing
methods and theories. There are 34 woodcuts, illustrating methods of
grafting, insect pests, etc.

Home Studies in Nature. By Mary Treat. Illustrated,

pp.243. (New York : Harper Bros. 1885.)

Miss Treat's book is written in such a charming manner that it is really a
treat to read it. It is divided into four parts, viz. — Observations on Birds,
Habits of Insects, Plants that consume Animals, and Flowering Plants. The
plates and smaller engravings are all well executed.

Mushrooms of America : Edible and Poisonous. Edited by

Julius A. Palmer, Jr. (Boston, U.S.A. : L. Prang and Co. 1885.) Price, .S2.
This valuable work contains four pages of letterpress and twelve beautifully
coloured plates, which have been prepared more for public use than for
botanical students, all technical terms being, as far as practicable, omitted.
The plates, size 102 in. by 72 in., are coloured to nature ; the mushrooms also
being first accurately described, and in the case of the edible varieties,
instructions are given for cooking them. The last four plates describe poison-
ous varieties.

Useful Plants. Series i and 2. (London : A. N. Myers

and Co.) Price 7s. 6d. each.

We have before us two sets of large diagrams, each consisting of 12 plates,
size 19 in. by 15 in. The first set contains coloured representations of 31 plants
as food ; the other, of 33 plants employed in manufacturing, dying, carpentry,
building work, etc. Each series is accompanied by a book of descriptive
letterpress. These diagrams and notes are intended for Elementary Instruction
in schools, and will prove very useful in class work.

Physical Expression : Its Modes and Principles. By

Francis Warner, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P. With 51 illustrations, pp. xx. — 372.
(London : Kegan, Paul, Trench, and Co. 1885.) Price 5s.

One of the volumes of the " International vScience Series," addressed to
those who are interested in studying man as a living and thinking being. It
has been written as the outcome of observations made on children and adults ;
children being more often referred to.

The author states that all physical phenomena are due to physical causes.
The term expression is used to include all outward manifestations of hidden
things. Detailed observations are given of various modes of expression, as
shown in certain movements and postures of the head, face, eyes, and hands.

The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences. By the late

William Kingdon Clifford, with 100 figures. Second edition, pp. xiii. — 271.
(London : Kegan, Paul, Trench, and Co. 1885. Price, 5s.

This work, another of the " International Science Series," was commenced
by the late Mr. Clifford in 187 1 under the title of Mathematics for the Ncn-
mathematiral, but he afterwards expressed a wish that the book should appear

278 REVIEWS.

under its present title. It is divided into five divisions or chapters, which
embrace — Number, Space, Quantity, Position, and Motion. The work has
been well carried out by subsequent editors, and will prove valuable to the
mathematician and others.

Year-Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of

Great Britain and Ireland. Second annual issue, pp. v. — 231. (London :
Charles Griffin and Co. 1885.) Price 7s. 6d.

The first issue of this most useful work furnished an account of the history,
conditions of membership, and organisation of over 500 Societies engaged in
Scientific Research in Great Britain and Ireland. In the present issue, 1885,
we have a Chronicle of the work done by these Societies, together with
information as to official changes. All engaged in scientific pursuits will be
glad to refer to the year-book, and those who have not the first issue should
lose no time in securing it.

Practical Microscopy. By Geo. E. Davies, F.R.M.S., F.I.C.,

F.C.S., etc. Second edition, pp. viii. — 335. (London: W. H. Allen
and Co. 1882.) Price 7s. 6d.

We are pleased to have an opportunity of noticing this book, which enters
fully into every department of the microscopist's work : the Microscope and its
Accessories ; Micro-Dissections ; Section-Cutting ; Delineation of Objects ;
Polariscope ; Staining and Injecting ; Preparing and Mounting Objects, etc.
It is illustrated with 258 woodcuts and a coloured frontispiece representing five
double-stained sections of wood.

Grundzuge der Allgemeinen Mikroskopie. Von Dr.

Leopold Dippel. pp. xiv.— 524. (Braunschweig : P>iedrick Vieweg und
Sohn. 1885.) Price los.

The " Outlines of General Microscopy " are divided into three parts. The
first treats of the Theory and Regulation of the Compound Microscope ; the
second. Helps to Microscopical Observation ; the third treats of the Use of the
Microscope — its general principles, adjustment of objects, methods of observa-
tion ; and Drawing and Preservation of Microscopic Preparations. The work
is illustrated with 215 engravings in the text, a few of which are coloured.

Half-Hours with the Microscope : A Popular Guide to

the Use of the Microscope as a means of Amusement and Instruction. By
Edwin Lankester, M.D. Sixteenth edition, pp. xx. — 13. (London: W. H.
Allen and Co.) Price 2s. 6d.

This well-known work, now in its sixteenth edition, should be in the hands
of every microscopist.

Manipulation of the Microscope. By Edward Bausch.
Illustrated, pp. 96. (Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A. : Bausch and Lomb Optical
Co. 1885.) Price 50c.

The author tells us that he has started out in this little manual with the
supposition that the purchaser or owner is a beginner, and absolutely ignorant
of the Microscope and everything which pertains to it ; he has therefore
attemped to convey, step by step, and in simple language, information which
will lead to ease of manipulation and pleasure in its use- \Vc think he has
succeeded.

REVIEWS. 279

Das Sauerstoff Bedurfniss des Organismus. Eine farben-

analytische Studie von Professor Dr. P. Ehrlich. pp. 167. (Berlin : August.
Hirschwald. 1885.)

The author asserts "that it may be positively laid down that the living
tissue, through its cells, draws and stores up the oxygen of the blood with a
certain force, in order to use it up according to laws as yet unknown. This
need of oxygen may be in general explained by the fact that the living proto-
plasm is enabled to enter into a chemical union with the oxygen, which must
differ in kind according to the nature of the organs."

Lehrbuch der Geophysik und Physikalischen Geogra-

PHIE. Von Dr. Siegmund Giinther. In 2 vols. (Stuttgart : Ferdinand
Enke. 1884—5.)

Dr. Giinther, who is an able physicist, has given us two very fine volumes,
the first of which treats of terrestrial physics under such heads as the Relations
of the Earth to the other Planets, the Form of the Earth, the Effect of its
Motion, and the Condition of its Interior ; these are followed by a discussion
of volcanoes and earthquakes. The second, and by far the larger, volume
treats of Magnetism and Electricity, the Atmosphere, Oceanography and
Physics of the Ocean, Geology, etc. We should much like to see an English
edition of this work.

The Theistic Conception of the World : An Essay ia

Opposition to Certain Tendencies of Modern Thought. By B. F. Cocker,
D.D., LL. D. pp. vii. — 426. (New York : Harper Bros.)

A closely-argued and well-written book. The learned professor attacks the
tendency of the present day to remove the Divine Being from any care or
control over His works. Chapters viii., ix., and x. are specially interesting,
and, as we think, completely successful in their reasonings and true in their
conclusions.

The Origin of the World, according to Revelation and
Science. By J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. Third edition, pp. 438.
(London: Hodder and Stoughton. 18S4. ) Price 7s. 6d.

The intention of the author is, as he tells us, to throw as much light as
possible on the present condition of the much-agitated questions respecting the
origin of the world and its inhabitants. We scarcely think he has succeeded
in his Ijold attempt of reconciling the present state of cosmic knowledge with
revelation. There are several chapters of much interest, and particularly so
are the appendices to the work.

The Elements of Moral Science : Theoretical and Practi-
cal. By Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D., President of Vale College. Pp. xxv.—
574. (London: Sampson Low, Marston, and Co. 1885.) Price los. 6d.

We very heartily commend the book to our readers. It is most careful and
practical, and touches upon all the relations of man to the Almighty, to himself,
and to the world around. It is difficult to point out any one special subject as
most worthy of reading and attention amidst such a mass of matter, but we
were much struck with chapters iv. and v. in Part I. on the Will of Man, and
to certain chapters in Part II. on Man's Duties towards himself and society
and towards animals. It is most healthy reading, and will well repay study.

VOL. IV. U

280 REVIEWS.

Morality : An Essay on some Points thereof. [Addressed to

Young Men.] By Maurice Charles Hime, M.A., LL. D., Barrister-at-Law,
Head Master of Foyle College, Londonderry. Ninth edition, pp. 204.
(London: J. and A. Churchill. 1884.) Price is. 6d.

This book comes very opportunely just at this time. It carries testimionials
from a great number of newspapers and journals of all denominations, most of
which we think we can endorse.

Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. By Sir John

F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., etc. New edition, pp. xii. — 507. (London:
W. H. Allen and Co.) Price 6s.

A series of lectures on various subjects, some of which were delivered by
the author in his own parish. Lecture X. — on the Yard, the Pendulum, and
the Metre — was delivered at the Leeds Astronomical .Society, and is of much
interest.

The Elements of Physiography, for the use of Science

Classes, Elementary and Middle-Class Schools, and Pupil-Teachers. By John
J. Prince. Sixth edition, pp. 262. (Manchester and London : J. Heywood.
1885.) Price 2s. 6d.

This little book has been prepared with special reference to the Syllabus for
the Elementary stage of Physiography, recently issued by the Science and Art
Department, and will doubtless be found useful to all who wish to enquire into
the physical features of the earth, its atmosphere, etc. The first portion of the
work is devoted to Physics generally, or Nature's forces and their measure-
ments ; the second to Light, Planetary Motions, Form, Size, and Motions of
the Earth, the Heavenly Bodies, their distance, physical constitution, etc.

The Land and Fresh-AVater Shells of the British Isles,

with Illustrations of all the Species. By Richard Rimmer, F.L.S. Pp. xxxii.
— 208. (London: W\ H. Allen and Co.) Price los. 6d.

The author gives us, in the first place, a short account of the sub-kingdom
Mollusca, followed by Instructions for collecting and arranging shells. Then,
entering on the general purpose of the work, we have a full account of the
British Aquatic and Terrestrial Shells, followed by a Glossary extending over
14 pages. The work is illustrated with wood engravings and 10 plates, mostly
photographic.

British Butterflies. By W. S. Coleman. Pp. vii.— 179.
(London : George Routledge and Sons.) Price 3s. 6d.

This volume contains figures and descriptions of every species of

British Butterfly, with an account of their development, structure, habits,

localities, mode of capture, and preservation. It contains 16 plates, printed
in colours.

Birds I Have Kept in Years Gone By. With Original
Anecdotes and Full Directions for Keeping Them Successfully. By W. T.
Greene, M.A., M.D., F.Z.S., etc. pp. viii. — 198. (London : L. Upcott
Gill. 18S5.) Price 5s.

Dr. Greene gives descriptions of a long list of birds, many of which are
foreign, with instructions for their keep and management. The book is illus-
trated with 16 nicely-executed coloured plates.

REVIEWS. 281

Talks with My Boys. By William A. MowTy. Pp. 266.

(Boston, U.S.A. : New England Publishing Co. 1885.)

A little book which every schoolboy may read with profit. The author
tells us it has grown out of the practical necessities of the schoolroom. It
treats of Concentration of Mind and how to acquire it, a Purpose in Life,
Elements of Success, Exact in Thought and Work. We are much pleased
with it.

Windsor and Newton's Shilling Hand-Books on Art.

With Illustrations, etc.

I — Half-Hour Lectures on Drawing & Painting. By Henry Warren, K.L.

2 — The Art of Sketching from Nature.

By Thomas Rowbotham and Thomas L. Rowbotham.

3 — The Art of Landscape Painting in Water- Colours. By the same.

4 — A System of Water-Colour Painting. By Aaron Penley.

5 — The Art of Marine Painting in Water-Colours. By J. W. Carmichael.

6 — Hints for Sketching in Water-Colours from Nature. By Thomas Hatton.

7 — The Art of Portrait Painting in Water-Colours. By M. Merrifield.

8 — The Art of Miniature Painting. By Charles W. Day.

9 — The Art of Flower Painting. By Mrs. Duffield.

10 — The Art of Landscape Painting in Oil Colours. By W. Williams.

II — The Art of Portrait Painting in Oil Colours. By Henry Murray, F.S.A.

12 — The Art of ^Marine Painting in Oil Colours. By. J. W. Carmichael.

13 — The Elements of Perspective. By Aaron Penley.

14 — The Art of Botanical Drawing. By F. W. Burbidge.

15— A Manual of Illumination. By J. W. Bradley, B.A., and T. G.

Goodwin, B-A. (New edition by J. J. Laing.)

16 — A Companion to Manual of Illumination. By J. J. Laing.

17— The Art of Figure Drawing. By C. FI. Weigall.

18 — An Artistic Treatise on the Human Figure. By Henry Warren, K.L.

19 — Artistic Anatomy of the Human Figure. By the same.

20 — The Artistic Anatomy of the Dog and Deer.

By B. Waterhouse Hawkins, F.L.S., F.G-S.

21 — The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse. By the same.

22 — The Artistic Anatomy of Cattle and Sheep. By the same.

23 — The Art of Painting and Drawing in Coloured Crayons.

By Henry Murray, F.vS.A.
24 — The Art of Mural Decoration. By T- G- Goodwin, B.A.

25 — Transparency Painting on Linen. By W. Williams.

26 — The Art of Transparent Painting on Glass- By Edward Groom.

27 — The Principles of Colouring in Painting. By Charles Martel.

28 — The Principles of Form in Ornamental Art. By the same.

29— The Art of Wood Engraving. By Thomas Gilks.

30 — Instructions for Cleaning, Repairing, Lining, and Restoring Oil
Paintings. By Henry Mogford, F.S.A.

31 — Drawing Models and their Uses. By J. D. Harding.

282 REVIEWS.

32 — Comparative Anatomy : as applied to the purposes of Artists and
Amateurs. By B. Waterhouse Hawkins, F. L.S., F.G.S. , and Edited by

George Wallis, F.S.A.

33 — The Art of Etching Explained and Ilhistrated.

By H. R. Robertson, F.S.P.E.

34 — The Art of Painting on China ; with a chapter on Terra Cotta Painting
in Oil and Water-Colour. By the same.

35 — Plain and Simple Rules for the Study of Perspective. By Charles
Runciman. Edited, adapted to Practical Use, and Illustrated by M. M.
Runciman, with Letters of Approval from Professor John Ruskin, M.A.,
Hon, LL. D., etc. (Mr. Runciman's former pupil.)

36 — A Dictionary of Water-Colour Technique : adajDted to the Require-
ments of the Landscape Painter in Water-Colours. By Charles Wallis.

We have before us a perfect library, consisting of 36 small volumes, each
containing from about 60 to 90 pages of practical hints and instructions for the
Art Student ; each volume is carefully written and well illustrated. We notice
that several of these little books have already reached to between 50 and 60
editions, and that one has attained its 56th edition ; this, we think, proves the
estimation in \\hich they are held. Many of the authors are well known by
their works.

Wilson's Photographics : A series of Lessons, accompanied

by notes on all the processes which are needful in the Art of Photography.
By Edward L. Wilson (Editor of Philadelphia Photographer), pp. 352.
(Philadelphia: E. L. Wilson.) Price §4.

This is a grand compendium of the whole art of Photography. The
principal instructions are given in bold type and in simple language ; these are
followed by the more intricate working details, in small type. The work is
embellished with upwards of 100 engravings and phototypes, together with a
fine portrait of the author.

The Progress of Photography since the year 1879. By

Dr. H. \V. Vogel of Berlin. Translated by Ellerslie Wallace, Jun., ]\LD. pp.
347. (Philadelphia : E. L. Wilson. 1883.) Price $3.

This work, as further set forth in the title, is "A Review of the more
important discoveries in Photography and Photographic Chemistry, within the
last four years, with especial considerations of Emulsion Photographs, and a
chapter on Photography for Amateurs."

Wilson's Lantern Journeys. By E. L. "Wilson.

We have before us Vol. 3 of the series, which conducts the student through
Egypt, Palestine, Syria, the Sinai Peninsula, and Arabia Petra. In this
lecture no fewer than 204 slides are described.

Photographic Mosaics. An Annual Record of Photographic

Processes. (Philadelphia : E. L. Wilson. 18S5).

The work is siinilarin its subject matter, to the year books published in this
country, giving a resume, of the work of the past year.

Burton's Modern Photography. By W. K. Burton, C. E,

pp. viii. — 130. (London: Piper and Carter. 1885.) Price is.

Gives practical instructions in all departments of the wScience, including the
working of gelatine dry-plates, printing, etc

REVIEWS. 283

The Studio and What to Do in it. By H. P. Robinson,

pp. viii — 143. (London: Piper and Carter. 1885.) Price 2s. 6d.

The author briefly describes the leading types of studios, and devotes a
chapter to the form which his long experience leads him to consider to be the
best. The chapters on Posing and 5lanagement are more voluminous, and
embrace nearly every style in which a portrait may be taken. Much useful
information will be found here.

The Magic-Lantern Manual. Second edition. By W. J.

Chadwick. With 105 illustrations, pp. 154. (London : F. Warne and Co.)

Treats of the Magic- Lantern, Sciopticon, ^Magnesium Lantern, Lime
Light, Electric Light, Photographic Slides, etc, and all that appears necessary
for the exhibitor to know.

Work and Adventure in New Guinea, 1877 to 1885. By

James Chalmers, of Port Moresby, and W. Wyatt Gill, B.A. With 2 maps
and many illustrations, pp. 342. (London : The Religious Tract Society.
1885.) Price 6s.

A very interesting book, giving us much information about the Island of
New Guinea, its delightful scenery, the manners and customs of its inhabitants,
etc., and of the work now being done by our missionaries there. The illustra-
tions are from original sketches and photographs.

A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago.

A Narrative of Travel and Explorations, from 1878 to 1883. By Henry O.
Forbes, F.R.G.S. pp. xx. — 536. (London: Sampson Low, Marston, & Co.
1885.) Price 21S.

In this handsome and most interesting volume, the author, who is a natur-
alist of no mean order, relates his travels, dividing them into six parts : I. —
In the Cocos-Keeling Islands. II — In Java. III. — In Sumatra. IV. — In
the Moluccas and in Timor-Laut. V. — In the Island of Bura. VI. — In Timor ;
describing in a very graphic style, the manners and customs of their
inhabitants. He gives us also entertaining accounts of their natural history.
The volume is illustrated with several maps and plates, besides a great number
of wood-engravings, and is one of the most interesting books of travel we
have seen for some time.

Nature's Serial Story. By Edward P. Roe. Illustrated

by G. W. Hamilton Gibson and T. Dielman ; pp. xx. — 430. (New York :
Harper Brothers. 1885.)

We have here a large amount of valuable information relating to Natural
History, charmingly mixed up in a most interesting story. The book, like all
those published by this enterprising firm, is got up in a very handsome manner
The plates and other engravings, of which there are a great number, are
perfect works of art.

Paterson's Guide to Switzerland, with Maps and Plans,

pp. 162. (Edinburgh : W. Paterson ; London : E. Stanford. 1S85.) Price is.
A very convenient little hand-book : cheap, concise, and no doubt reliable.

Labrador : a Sketch of its People, its Industries and its
Natural History. By Winfrid Alden Stearns. pp. viii. — 295. (Boston,
U.S.A.: Lea and Shepard. 1884).

284 REVIEWS.

Until the publication of this book, it appears that only one work, in two
volumes, and now out of print and very scarce, contained all the knowledge
to be gained respecting this region. The author has made three trips to Labra-
dor : the first in 1875, ^gain in 1 880, and last in 1 882 ; of these visits he gives
us an interesting account.

Boots and Saddles ; or, Life in Dakota, with General Custer.
By Elizabeth B. Custer. With portrait and map, pp. 312. (New York:
Harper Bros. London: S. Low and Co. 1885.) $1.50.

Here we have a very charming biography of one of the heroes who fell
fighting in the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Mrs. Custer accompanied her
husband in all his dangers, and gives in the pages before us a most interesting
account of the difficulties and pleasures of cavalry and camp life-

Studies of Flowers from Nature. By Kate Sadler. With

instructions for copying.

Studies of Twelve British Birds from Nature. By Alice

A. West. (London : Windsor and Newton.)

We have before us two high-class reproductions in chromo-lithography,
each set containing 12 fine pictures, those of flowers being particularly pleas-
ing. The price of the set of flowers is i8s., or is. 6d. each ; that of the birds
I2s., or IS. each.

The W^inds : An Essay in Illustration of the New Principles
of Natural Philosophy. By William Leighton Jordan, F. R.G.S. Third
edition, pp. 47. (London : David Bogue. 1885.) Price 3s. 6d.

This little book forms with slight modifications the third and fourth chapters
of " The New Principles of Natural Philosophy." It treats of the action of
Solar Heat, Lunar Gravitation, the Earth's Rotation, the Trade-Winds, etc.

Spectrum Analysis, in its application to Terrestrial Substan-
ces and the Physical Constitution of the Heavenly Bodies. Familiarly
explained by the late Dr. H. Schellen. Translated by Jane and Caroline
Lassell. Edited, with notes, by Captain W. de W. Abney, R.E., F.R.S.
With numerous woodcuts, coloured plates, and Angstrom's and Corme's maps.
Second edition, pp. xxiv. — 626. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 1885.)
Price £1 IIS. 6d.

This noble work will render much valuable assistance to the physicist and
to the astronomer. It is divided into eight parts, and treats of: — i — The Arti-
ficial Sources of High Degrees of Light and Heat ; 2 — Spectrum Analysis in
its application to Terrestrial Substances ; 3 — Its application to the Sun ; 4 —
Stellar Spectroscopes and Investigation of the Moon and Planets by Spectrum
Analysis ; 5 — Application of Spectrum Analysis to the Fixed Stars ; 6 —
Results of the Spectroscopic Investigation of Nebulae and Clusters ; 7 — And of
Comets and Meteors ; 8 — And of the Zodiacal Light, Aurora Borealis, and
Lightning ; followed by an Appendix. There are fourteen plates, many being
coloured. The frontispiece to the work is the Nebula of Orion, enlarged from
a photo taken by Mr. Common, and 291 finely executed wood engravings.
The work is one of no common degree of excellence.

Outlines of Psychology : Dictations from Lectures by
Hermann Lottze. Translated, with a Chapter on the Anatomy of the Brain,

REVIEWS. 285

by C. L. Herrick. Illustrated, pp. ix. — 150. (Minneapolis, U.S.A. : S. M.
Williams.

The works of this German philosopher are rapidly gaining recognition.
The book before us professes to give outlines only, and embraces but the dic-
tated portions of an extended lecture course, and is suited to form the frame-
work of a course of valuable lectures. The portion of the work devoted to
the anatomy of the brain is illustrated with two anatomical plates.

Mind-Reading and Beyond. By William A. Hovey. pp.

200. (Boston, U.S.A. : Lee and Shepard. 1S85.) Price 81.25.

Our readers are aware that an association of gentlemen has been formed
under the designation of " The vSociety for Psychical Research," their object
being to examine the nature and extent of any influence which may be existing
by one mind over another. A vast number of experiments have been made,
many of which are described in the volume before us.

The Lenape and their Legends, with the Complete Text

and Symbols of the Walum Olum. A New Translation and an Enquiry into
its Authenticity. By Daniel G. Brinton, A.M., MD. pp. 262. (Philadel-
phia : D. G. Brinton. 1885). Pnce S3,

This volume is the fifth of Dr. Brinton's Library of Aboriginal Literature.
In it the learned Doctor, who is Professor of Ethnology and Archaeology at
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, etc., has grouped a series of
Ethnological Studies of the Indians of Eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and
Maryland, around what is asserted to be one of the most curious records of
Ancient American Histories. This record, the "Walum Olum," was for a
long time supposed to have been lost, but having recently obtained the original
text complete, the Doctor has spared no pains to publish a correct translation.

It may interest our readers to know that this remarkable record gives, in the
rudest possible characters, an account (mythical, certainly) of the creation of
the world, continued into a history of this people up to a comparatively recent
date.

The Lenape Stone, or the Indian and the Mammoth. By

H. C. Mercer. Pp. 95. (New York: G- P. Putman and Sons, 1885.)
Price 81.25.

In' 1872, a young farmer, living near Doylestown, Bucks County, Penn.,
picked up a "queer" stone, which he took home and placed in a box with
other Indian curiosities. It proved to be part of a broken " gorget stone," on
which was roughly engraved a party of Indians hunting the Hairy Mammoth.
There appears to be no doubt as to the genuineness of the stone itself, but of
the carvings upon it some doubt does exist. Should it be acknowledged to be
a genuine Indian relic, it will prove a veiy valuable acquisition to the American
archteologist. The author gives an interesting account of its discovery, and a
very fair report of the arguments for and against its genuineness.

The Phrase : A Monograph. By F. G. Morris, M.A.
pp. 72. (Easthampton, Mass., U.S.A. : The Author. 1885.) Price 50c.

This is a vScientific exposition of Shorthand Phrase-Writing, The author
does not profess that it is a new system, but that it is new in its methods,
occupying a place not filled by any other work on the subject. Pie endeavours
to show that Shorthand is of great practical utility and scientific value, and
that, other things being equal, the most intelligent practitioner will be the
most expert in its use. We believe "The Phrase" may be advantageously
used with any system of shorthand.

286 REVIEWS.

Where is it ? A Geographical Hand-book. Compiled by
Arthur Bishop, Principal of Winchester House School, Great Yarmouth,
pp. 184. (London: Simpkin and Marshall. 1885.) Price is.

This very little hand-book (size of page, 4I in. by 2| in.) contains a list of
the Principal Towns, Islands, Lakes, Rivers, and Mountains of the World,
with certain facts respecting them. It affords much useful information, but
would have been much more valuable had an alphabetical arrangement been
adopted.

The Telescope. The Principles Involved in the Construc-
tion of Refracting and Reflecting Telescopes. By Thos. Nolans, B-S.
PP- 75- '

The Aneroid Barometer : Its Construction and Use.
pp. 126.

Healthy Foundations for Houses. With 51 Illustrations.
By Glenn Brown, pp. 143.

Chemical Problems : With Brief Statements of the Principles
Involved. By James C. Foye, A.M., Ph. D. pp. 141.

Testing-Machines : Their History, Construction, and Use.
By Arthur V. Abbott, pp. 190.

Stadia Surveying. The Theory of Stadia Measurements.
By Arthur Winslow. pp. 148.

Potable Water, and the Relative Efficiency of Different
Methods of Detecting Impurities. By C. W. Folkard. pp. 138.

The Figure of the Earth. Sec. I., Historical ; Sec. II.,
The Oblate Spheroidal Hypothesis. By Frank C. Roberts, CE. pp. 95.

Modern Graphic Processes. By Jas, S. Pettit. pp. 127.

(New York : D. Van Nostrand.)

The above are a portion of " Van Nostrand's Science Series," a set of some
70 or 80 i8mo vols., each published at 50c. They are written in a clear
and concise manner ; many of them are well illustrated.

Numbers in Nature : An Evidence of Creative InteUigence.

By Edward White. Price 3d.

Scientific Star-Building. The Nebular Theory Examined.

Price 9d.

Geological Evolution : An Examination of its Pedigree,

Pretensions, and Predictions. Price 9d.

The Origin of Life : Was Man Evolved from Granite ?
Price 6d.

Darwinism : The Origin of Species. Price 9d. (London :
S. Bagster and Sons.)

These little books form a part of the Anti- Infidel Library. The last four
form together one book entitled the Errors of Evolution. By Robt. Patterson,
of San Francisco.

CORRESPONDENCE. 287

Why not Eat Insects? By Vincent M. Holt. pp. 99.

(London : Field and Tuer.) Price is.

Our author acknowledges that he has to battle against long-existing and
deeply-rooted prejudice. He writes as if confident of success, and, indeed, the
subject has already attracted attention in the public press.

Our Living World : An Artistic Edition of Rev. J. G.

Wood's Natural History of the Animal Creation. Revised and adapted to
American Zoology by Joseph B. Holder, INI.D. (New York : Selmer Hess.)
To be completed in 42 parts, at 50c. each.

The first eight parts of this fine work have been forwarded to us. In addition
to a number of illustrations in the text, each part contains two full-sized plain
and one coloured plate. The descriptions, commencing with the quadrumana,
are written in an exceedingly interesting and popular manner. The size of the
page is 13 in. by 10 in. The engravings and general get-up are good.

The Stars and Constellations : A New Method, by which

all the more Conspicuous Stars, Constellations, and other Objects of Interest
in the Heavens that are Visible to the Naked Eye can be Easily and Certainly
Identified. By Royal Hill. vSize, 12 in. by 10 in. ; pp. 32. (New York :
Funk and \Vagnalls, London : 44, Fleet Street.) Price $1.

A handsomely got-up volume on extra stout paper. The plan adopted^ by
the author consists of two accurately-drawn time-charts, giving the exact time
of rising and southing for every day in the year of 25 of the brightest stars,
which are more distinctly identified in the text ; from their position, other
objects are so described that an ordinary observer will scarcely be able to miss
finding them.

Corrceponbcncc^

The Editors do not hold themselves responsible for the opinions or
statements of their Correspondents.

Utica, New York, U.S. America;
July 24th, 1885.

To the Editor of the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.

Dear Sir, —

Your suggestion in re a Monthly Supplement to the Journal

of Microscopy and Natural Science, at p. 214 of the July number, and your call
for the opinion of subscribers thereon, might perhaps invite a word from a
reader as far off as America.

I am the possessor of all the numbers of the Journal, from Vol. I. inclu-
sive, subscribing through j\Ir. Collins, of Great Portland St., London. I like
the Journal very much, and I do not feel as if I could do without it. _We have
nothing to compare with it in this country. I have often felt that I wished the
Journal was a little larger, and I shall cheerfully support the proposed supple-
ment if issued.

Very truly yours,

A. L. Woodward.

288 CURRENT NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Exeter ; 4th August, 1885.

To the Editor of the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.

Dear Sir, —

Replying to your invitation on p. 214 of your invaluable
Journal for the current quarter to subscribers, to drop you a line in re the
" Lett-Worsley-Benison " question, I have much pleasure in saying that I
think your idea of a " Monthly Supplement " a capital compromise between
the suggestions of these two gentlemen, and likely, if acted on, to provide
many like myself with what I find to be a great desideratum — a somewhere to
go with my questions, technical and otherwise ; questions which I am sure
would be freely answered by many subscribers when the projected medium of
communication is established.

I feel certain also that a series of papers devoted to common objects, where
to find, how to view to best advantage, and how to permanently prepare them,
would be of inestimable value.

I am, etc., F. R. Brokenshire.

Current 1Rotc6 anb flDcmoranba.

Important Notice.— We beg to announce that in addition to

the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science, we shall, on January 1st, 1 886,
publish Part I. of The Scientific Enquirer. Its chief aim will be to
furnish information on all matters of scientific interest, and will embrace the
following : —

I. — Questions on all subjects relating to any branch of Natural Science.

2. — Answers to the same by subscribers.

3. — Contributions on points of interest in any locality — e.g., occurrences of
certain plants and insects, and notes on observed habits, etc.

4. — Extracts from recent Foreign Journals.
5. — Letters to the Editor.
6. — Answers to Correspondents.

7. — An Exchange Column, free ; and a Sale Column, for the use of which a
nominal charge will be made.

The Scientific Enquirer will be published monthly, price 4d. Messrs.
Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox will be our London agents.

We shall be glad to receive contributions for each of the
departments of The Scientific Enquirer as early as possible. They should
be written on sepai-ate pieces of paper (a half-sheet of note will be a con-
venient size), and numbered ; so that in case too many be received for
the first issue, the early numbers of each will be chosen. Every contribution
must bear the name and address of the writer (not necessarily for publication).

We have received promises of many valuable and most inter-
esting papers for our fifth volume.

Mr. A. C. Coles' Studies in Microscopical Science, accom-
panied by slides of the usual degree of excellence, arrive monthly with great
punctuality. We have not this time space to enumerate the various specimens;
suffice it to say that slides and notes are fully up to the standard.

TLiC't of platc0.

Abnormal Formation on Shell of Hen's

Egg ... ... ... ••• piate 19, page 254

Aclysia Dytisci
Animal Metamorphosis

Antennae of Diptera ...

Bramble and other Brands

Calcareous Plates of Holothuria

Cheyletus

Chironomus prasinus ...

Coleosporium tussilaginus

Cowrie Shell

Cystopus, or White Rust

Gizzard of Beetle
Gnat, Early Stages of
Hairs of Onosma tauricum
Hornwrack and its Inhabitants

Hydrodictyon

Maple, Transverse Section of

Mouth and Sting of Bee

Palate of Periwinkle, etc.

Pond-Life

Plagiogramma

Rostrums and Feet of Ticks

Saw of Saw-Fly

• • •

))

21,

55

256

• • •

33

II3

55

84

• • •

53

173

55

174

plates

53 6

3 75

55

38

• • a

plate

135

55

115

• • •

33

18,

55

252

• • *

33

193

55

254

• • ■

33

95

33

66

• • •

))

10,

55

166

• • •

>J

35

35

34

• • •

33

8,

55

39

• • •

33

155

53

136

• • •

33

16,

35

142

• • •

33

21,

35

256

• • •

35

45

55

3^

• • •

53

18,

55

252

• • •

33

I3

55

6

• • •

))

2,

35

10

• « •

33

35

})

34

• • •

35

35

53

34

« • •

35

22,

33

258

. • •

33

135

55

115

• • •

33

12,

53

105

• • •

53

33

35

34

• • •

55

235

33

263

t • •

5)

195

35

254

290

LIST OF PLATES.

Sphaeraphides in Mercurialis

Sphseria

Spine of Amphidotus

Stellate Hairs from Niphobolus

Sting of Wasp

Thrips

Tongues of Drone-Fly and Blow-Fly

Tortoise-Tick

Trombidium

, 252

.. „ i8, ,

} 252

>y 3, ,

, 34

» 20, ,

, 255

» 8, ,

y 39

„ 23, ,

5 263

„ 14, ,

, 118

„ 19. »

, 254

Jnbey to IDoL iv.

Page
Abnormal Formation on Shell of

Hen's Egg ... •••257

Accident, In Case of ... 274

Aclysia Dytisci ... 259, 261

Active Principles ... ... 129

Agriculture, U.S.A., Report ... 60
Air Bubbles ... ... 26

Aleurodes Chelidonii ... 38

Alum Carmine ... ... 238

Aluminium, Acetate of ••• I95

Amoeba, Paramecium, etc., Direc-
tions for Examination of ... 271
Amphidotus cordatus, Spines of 253
Amphiocus Lanceolatus, tr. sec. ... 121

Anatomy and Physiology, Com-
parative ... ... 270

Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene 126
Anatomy, Physiolog}', and Hygiene,
Comprehensive ... ... 127

Aneroid Barometer, The ... 286

Aniline Blue-black ... ... 236

Aniline Blue-black, Insoluble ... 234
Aniline Blue, Soluble ... 235

Animal Life and Habits, Sketches

of ... ... 129

Animal Metamorphosis 84, 174

Animals of the Bible ... 127

Annual Meeting, Report of ... 46
Antelope, Plair of ... ... 40

Antennae of Diptera 38, 40

Aquarium, Marine ... ... 122

Aqueous Logwood Stain ... 239

Aqueous Media ... ... 193

Aregma bulbosum ... ... 115

Arithmetic, Physical ... 210

Arnold's Borax-Carmine ... 237

Astronomy, A Descriptive ... 131

Author's Paper-Pad ... 212

Batrachospermum ... ... 119

Batrachospermum moniliforme ... 114

Bat, English, Pteroptis from ... 262

Bat, Nycteribia from 261, 262

Beale's Carmine Solution ... 237

Bed Bug ... ... 117

Beetle, Gizzard of ... 256, 257
Be ties, etc., to Mount vi'ithout

Pressure ... ... 151

Page
Biographies of Working Men ... 129
Bird Fly, Ornithomyia ... 261

Birds I have kept ... ... 280

Bismarck Brown ... ... 242

Bismarck Brown, To Combine with

Eosin ... ... 242

Bleaching Leaves ... ... 262

Bleaching Vegetable Sections ... 102
Blue Black ... ... 2

Blue Black Aniline ...

Blue Colours for Staining

Blue Stain

Boehmer's Haematoxylin

Book of Algoonah, The

Boots and Saddles

Borax Carmine

Botanic Terms, A Manual of

Botanical Atlas, The

Botany, Aids to

Botany, by Prof. Bentley

Botany, Easy Lessons in

Botany, Field

J3

... 236

... 236

... 191

••• 239

... 207

... 284

••• 237

... 206

... 205

••• 55

... 206

••■ 55

••• 55

■ •• 275

... 203

Botany, General Text-book of ...
Botany, Physiological
Botany, Structural and Physio-
logical, Text-book of ... 276
Botany, The Microscope in ... 203
Brain, The, and the Nerves ... 59
British Fungi, a Plain and Easy

Account of ... ... 206

Brownian Movement ... 26

Burton's Modern Photography ... 282
Butterflies, British ... ... 280

Butterflies, Moths, and Beetles,

British ... .. 210

Calcareous Plates from Skin of

Holothuria ... ... 253

Canada Balsam, Mounting in ... 29
Carbolic Acid Preservative ... 195

Carbolised Water ... •••33

Carbon, The Compounds of ... 272
Carboniferous Limestone, The

Fossil Fishes of ... 126

Carmine ... ... 237

Carmine Fluid, Beale's ... 194

Carnivora, Natural History Sketches
among the ... ... 56

56697

292

INDEX.

Page

25
63

12

214
286
192

273
123

123

272

272

272

273
123

253

Cellulose

Cement for Glass, etc. - ...

Charlesworth, Miss A. M., Ram-
bles near Amberley
Chemical Crystals for the Micro-
scope
Chemical Problems ...
Chemical Testing
Chemistry, General, Lecture Notes

on ...
Chemistry, Inorganic
Chemistry, Lessons in
Chemistry, Organic, An Introduc-
tion to
Chemistry, Practical, A Treatise on
Chemistry, Practical, An Introduc-
tion to
Chemistry, Practical Organic, An

Introduction to
Chemistry, The Elements of
Cheyletus eruditus

Chironomus Prasinus 65, 165

Chloride of Gold ... ... 244

Chloride of Gold and Lemon Juice 244
Chloride of Palladium ... 245

Chicory ... ... 188

Chrysoidin ... ... 242

Cimex Lectuarius ... ... 117

Cochineal Dye ... ... 241

Coffee Berry ... ... 188

Coleosporium ... ... 35

Combs of Black Scorpion ... 262

Common Sense of the Exact

Sciences, The ... ... 277

Correspondence ... 132, 213

Correspondences of the Bible ... 127
Cottage Next Door, The ... 129

Cotton Fibres ... ... 26

Country Cousins ... ... 209

Courroux, E. S., on Diatoms in
the Stomachs of Shell-Fish and
Crustacea ... ... 196

Cowrie Shell ... 37, 41

Creation, Dissertation on the Phi-
losophy of the ... ... 202

Crustacea of Minnesota
Culex Pipiens, Development of
Cultivated Plants, Origin of
Current Notes and Memoranda

61, 133, 213
Crystals of Oxalic Acid ... I14

Crystals of Strychnine ... 114

Crystals of Sulphate of Cadmium 114
Cystopus, or White Rust ... 135

131

38
127

Dammar Cement

193

Page
286

Darwinism

Destiny of Man, Viewed in the
Light of his Origin

Diatoms in the Stomachs of Shell-
fish and Crustacea

Diatoms, Mounting ...

Diatoms, The Structure of

Diet for the Sick

Diet Question, The

Diptera, Antennae of

Dissertations on the Philosophy of

the Creation ... ... 202

130

196

63

198

275
128

38, 40

Dog-fish, Spine of
Double Staining
Drone Fly, Tongue of
Dry Mounting

122

191

263

27

Earth, Handbook of the ... 209

Earth, The Figure of ... 286

Education a Science ... 211
Electricity, A Popular Exposition

of ... ... ... 211

Electricity and its Uses ... 60

Embedding Agents ... ... I02

Energy and Motion ... ... 202

Entomologica Americana ... 214

Eosin Solution ... ... 241

Evenings at the Microscope ... 125

Examination and Preservation of

Fungi ... ... 98

Excursions of an Evolutionist ... 130

False Crystals in Decolorised

Leaves
Fat-Globules
Ferns, Where to Find
Ferret Tick

Terrier's Magenta Fluid
Fichte's Science of Knowledge ..
Flax Fibres
Fluid for the Cultivation of Micro

Fungi
Flustra Foliacea
Food and Drugs, Aids to the

Analysis of
Foraminifera, to Fix on Slides ..
Formation of Poisons by Micro

Organisms
Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous

Limestone
Fowl Flea

Frog, The Dissection of
Fruit Culture
Fungi, A Plain and Easy Account

of British

42

27

275
263

234

124

26

193
6

203
260

125

126

41
271

277
206

INDEX.

293

Page
Fungi, Examination and Preserva-
tion of ... ... 98

Generative Gland of Oyster .. 120
Gentian Blue ... ... 232

Geogony ... ... 201

Geological Evolution ... 286

Geolog)' and the Deluge ... 210

Geology, First Book in •••59

Geology of Weymouth ... 126

George, C. F., Presidential Ad-
dress ... ... I

Gibbes's Logwood ... ... 240

Gibbes's Rose-Aniline Acetate ... 234
Gillo, Robert, on Mounting Beetles,

etc.. Without Pressure ... 151

Gizzard of Beetle ... ... 256

Gizzard of Curculio ... ... 256

Glass Slides and Covers, To Clean 193
Glycerine ... ... 30

Glycerine and Acetic Acid ... 195

Graphic Processes, Modern ... 2S6

Grasses of U.S.A. ... ... 131

Green Colouration of the Nuclei... 233
Green Stain ... ... 191

Guides for Science Teaching . . . 208
Gum for Labels, etc. ... 193

Hematoxylin, Boehmer's ... 239

Hair of Antelope ... ... 40

Hairs of Onosma tauricum ... 252

Half-an-Hour at the Microscope,

with Mr. Tuffen West 34, 114, 252
Hammond, Arthur, on Chironomus

Prasinus ... 65, 165

Hantsch's Fluid ... ... 41

Health Science, A Manual of ... 273
Flealth upon Wheels ... 212

Healthy Foundations for Houses 286
Hegel's .Flsthetics ... ... 207

Helix aspersa, Palate of ... 116

Helps to Health ... ... 128

Heroes of Science ... ... 127

Hints and Helps ... ... 208

Histological Notes ... ... 204

Histology ... ••• 133

Histology, The Essentials of ... 271
Histology, The Student's Manual of 124
Flolothuria, Calcareous Plates from

the Skin of ... ... 253

Home Studies in Nature ... 277

Honey-Bee, The ... •■•57

Hornwrack : Its Inhabitants and

Guests ... ... 6

How Plants Grow .., ... 215

Page
Hoyle, W. E., On Pond Life 105, 245
Hydrodictyon on Utriculatum ... 35
Hygiene, a Text-Book of ... 274

Hygiene, Anatomy, Physiology, and 126
Hygiene, Elements of ... 274

Hygiene for Young People ... 274

Hygiene, Lessons in ... 274

Hygiene, Nature's ... ... 126

Hygienic Physiology ... 274

Indigo Carmine

••• 237

Inorganic Chemistry

... 123

Insects, How to Catch, etc.

... 58

Intellectual Principles

... 129

Iodine Green

... 232

Iron

... 236

Jeffreson, J. B., Animal Metamor-
phosis ... 84, 174

Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish, and Sea-
Urchins ... ... 209

Johnstone's Student's Atlas of

Bones and Ligaments ... 271

Kleinenberg's Solution
Klein's Logwood Stain

239
240

La Photographic Appliquee a

I'Histoire Naturelle ... 204

LabelHng Slides ... ••• I95

Labrador ... ... 283

Land and Fresh-Water Shells,
British, The Collector's Man-
ual of ... ... 207

Land and Fresh-Water Shells of

British Isles ... ... 280

Lantern Journeys, Wilson's ... 282

Xatham, V. A., On the Micro-
scope and How to Use it

22, 96, 186, 231
Leaves to Bleaoh ... ... 262

Lehrbuch der Geophysik und
Physikalischen Geogi'aphie

212, 279
Lenape Stone, The ... 285

Lenape, The, and their Legends 285
Lichen Flora of Great Britain 54, 134
Lilac Carmine Fluid ... 238

Linnaean Society, The ... 62

Literary Beginners, John Old-
castle's Guide for ... 212
Littoria littorina. Palate of ... 116
Logwood, Gibbes's ... 240
Lucanus cervus. Pro-leg of Larva

of ... ... 120

294

INDEX.

Page
Magenta ... ... 234

Magic Lantern Manual ... 283

Magic Lantern, The ... 125

Man, the Destiny of ... 130

Man Wonderful in the House

Beautiful ... ••■ 130

Manuel du Touriste Photographe 125
Maple, Trans. Sec. ... 36

Marine Aquarium ... ... 122

ISIechanic's Own Book, Spon's ... 209
Medical Annual, The .. 201

Medical Rhymes ... ... 273

Medical Directory of Philadelphia 273
Medical Plants, American ... 275

Melecta punctata, Sting, etc. ... 258

Melecta, Trophi of .. 260

Mercurialis, Sphaeraphides in ... 36
Metallic Staining Solutions ... 244

Methyl- Blue ... ... 232

Methyl-Green ... ... 233

Microbes in Fermentation, etc. ... 56

Micro-Chemistry of Poisons ... 270
Microscope, Beginnings with ... 58
Microscope, Evenings at ... 125

Microscope, Half-Hours with ... 278
Microscope in Botany, The ... 203

Microscope, Manipulation of the 278
Microscope, The, and How to Use

it ... ...22, 96, 186, 231

Microscopic Objects, The Prepara-
tion and Mounting of , ... 203
Microscopic Objects, to Mount ... 96
Microscopy, Practical ... 278

Microtomist's Vade Mecum, The 204
Mikroscopie, Grundzuge der Allge-

meinen ... .. 278

Mind Reading and Beyond ... 2S5

Mineralogy and Chemistry, Orig-
inal Researches in ... 200
Mineralogy, Text-Book of ... 60
Mitchell's Hematin .Staining-Fluid 239
Molybdate of Ammonia ... 192
Moral vScience, Elements of ... 279
Morality ... ... 280

Mosses of N. America, Manual of 55
Mounting Beetles, etc., Without '
Pressure ... ... 151

Mounting in Canada Balsam ... 29
Mushrooms of America ... 277

Naphthaline Yellow for Bone ... 243
Natural History Reader, First ... 57
Natural History Sketches among

the Carnivora ... ... 56

Natural History, Sketches in ... 129

Page
Natural Law in the Spiritual World 125
Natural Philosophy, The Ele-
ments of ... ... 202

Natural Selection, Notes on ... 61
Naturalist, Rambles of a, near

Amberley ... ... 12

Naturalist's Wanderings in the

Eastern Archipelago ... 283

Nature's Hygiene ... ... 126

Nature's Serial Story ... 283

New England, Orchids of ... 128
New York Microscopical Society,

Journal of ... ... 133

Niphobolus lingua. Stellate Hairs

from ... ... 36

Nitrate of Silver ... ... 244

Nitrous Ether, Spirit of ••• I95

Norman, George, on Cystopus ... 135

Numbers in Nature ... 286

Nycteribia from Bat ... 261, 262

Opaque Objects, Mounting Dry,

Without Cover-Glass ... 42

Orange Peel ... ... 189

Orange, Scale Insect from ... 260

Orbs of Heaven, The ... 21 1

Orchella, or French Archill ... 232

Orchids ... ... 206

Orchids of New England ... 128

Origin of Cultivated Plants ... 127

Origin of Life, The ... 286

Origin of the World, The ... 279

Ornithomyia ... ... 261

Osmic Acid ... 191, 244

Osmic Acid, Solution of ... 194
Osmic and Oxalic Acids, to Stain

with ... ... 244

Our Bodies and How we Live ... 275
Our Insect Allies ... •••57

Our Living World ... ... 287

Oxalic Acid, Crystals of ... 114

Oyster, Generative Gland of ... 120

Palate of Helix aspersa ... 116

Palate of Periwinkle ... 116

Paradise Found ... ... 201

Parme Fluid, Soluble ... 236

Parrots, The Speaking ... 126

Paterson's Guide to Switzerland ... 283

Pathological Mycology ... 272

Pear, Sclerogen from ... 116
Pennington, A. S., On Hornwrack

and some of its Guests ... 6

Periwinkle, Palate of ... 1 16

Petland Revisited ... 5^

INDEX.

295

Page
Philosophy, Elements of Natural.. 202
Phonography, Universal ... 208

Photo- Micrography ... 124

Photographic Mosaics ... 282

Photographies, Wilson's ... 282

Photography, A Manual of ... 204

Photography for Amateurs ... 60

Photography, The Progress of ... 282
Phrase, The ... ... 285

Physical Arithmetic ... 210

Physical Expression ... 277

Physics, Elementary, Practical

Lessons on ... ... 211

Physics, Elementary Text-Book on 124
Physics, Practical ... ... 202

Physiography, Elements of .. 280

Physiological Botany ... 203

Physiological Laboratory of Penn-
sylvania, Notes from the ... 271
Physiology and Hygiene, a Treat-
ise on .. ... 127

Physiology and Psychology, Com-
parative ... ... 210

Physiology, Hygienic ... 274

Physiology, The Eclectic ... 207

Physiology, Practical ... 275

Physiology, Practical Aids to ... 59
Photographe, Manuel du Touriste 125
Photography, The Year-Book of... 125
Picro-Carmine ... ... 243

Plagiogramma ... ... 34

Plant Analysis ... ... 200

Plant Descriptions, Book of ■■■ '^ZZ
Plant Life, Chapters on ... 276

Plant Life on the Farm . . . 205

Plants, British, Dictionary of ... 276
Plants, How they Grow ... 215

Plants, Useful ... ... 277

Pollen Grains ... ... 100

Pond Life ... 105, 245

Potable Water ... ... 286

Potato ... ... 189

Popular Lectures on Scientific

Subjects ... ... 280

Practical Histology ... ... 231

Practical Naturalist's Society ... 133
Practical Physics ... ... 202

Preparation and Mounting [Micro.

Objects ... ... 203

Presidential Address ... i

Pro- Leg of Larva of Lucanus

cervus ... ... 120

Pronouncing Hand-book ... 209

P.sycholog}' , Outlines of ... 284

Pteroptis from English Bat .. 262

Page
Qualitative Analysis for Beginners 272
Quinoleine Blue ... ... 243

Railway, Wonders and Curiosities

of the ... ... 126

Ralph's Liquid ... •••195

Rambles of a Naturalist near Am-

berley ... ... 12

Reviews ... 54, 123, 200, 270

Rolleston's Scientific Papers ... 200
Rose Aniline, Hydro-Chloride ... 233
Rosein ... ... 242

Rush ... • ... ... 189

Safranine ... ... 242

Sankey's Method of Staining ... 235
Sauerstoff Bedlirfniss der Organ-

ismus ... ... 279

Saw-Fly, Saws of ... ... 255

Scale bisect from Orange ... 260

School Keeping . . ...211

Science, Heroes of ... ... 127

Science in Song ... ... 21 1

Science Teaching, Guides for . . . 208
Scientific and Learned Societies,

Year Book of ... ... 278

Scientific Star Building ... 286

Scientific Theology ... ... 202

Sclerogen from Pear ... ... 116

Scorpion, Comb of ... ... 262

Sea- Weeds ... ... 100

Selected Notes from Society's Note

Books ... 40, 119, 257

Shell-Fish, etc.. Diatoms found in

the Stomachs of .. . ... 196

Shells, Land and Fresh-Water

British ... ... 207

Siliceous Cement ... ... 195

Skate, The Dissections of the ... 271
Sketches in Animal Life and

Habits ... ... 129

Sketches in Natural History ... 129
Slides, Varnish for Ringing ... 122
Smithsonian Institution, Report... 131
Spheeraphides in Mercurialis ... 36
Sphieria ... ... 252

Sparks from a Geologist's Hammer 201
Spectrum Analysis ... ... 284

Spiller's Purple ... ... 233

Spine of Amphidotus cordatus ... 253
Spine of Dog-fish ... ... 122

Spirit of Nitrous Ether ... 195

Sponge ... ... ... 189

Stadia Surveying ... ... 286

Staining, Single . . ••■231

29()

IXDEX.

Stainins: Wood Sections

Page
. i86
• 25
287
209

Starch

Stars and Constellations, The
Stars and the Earth ... 61,

Stellate Hairs from Niphobolus

Lingua ... ••■ 3^

Sting, MaxiUre, and Labium of

Melecta punctata ... 258

Sting of Wasp ... •••255

Strychnine, Crystals of ... 114

Studies in Life ... ... 128

Studies in Microscopical Science... 214

Studies of Birds from Nature . . . 284

Studies of Flo\rers from Nature . . . 284

Studio, The, and what to do in it 283

Sulphate of Cadmimn

Surgical Diagnosis, Elements of . . .

Synonyms, Pland-book of

Talks with my Boys . ..

Taxidermy, Practical

Taxidermy Without a Teacher . . .

Technological Dictionary

Telephone, The

Telescope, The

Tenants of an Old Farm

Testing-Machines

Theistic Conception of the World

Thiersch's Carmine Fluid

Thrift and Independence

Thrips

Tissues

Tongue of Drone-Fly ■ ...

Tortoise Tick

Tree Gossip

Trombidium

Trombidium holosericeum

Trophi of Bee

Useful Plants

114

59
208

281

ss

58
208
208
286
130
2S6
279
238
129

39
231

263

117

206

254

255
260

• 277

Varnish for Ringing Slides ... 122

Vegetable Ivory ... ... 189

Vegetal)le Kingdom, Examination

of the H idler Orders of ... 99

Vegetable Sections, Bleaching
Vegetable Sections, Washing
Vegetable Sections, Preparation of
Vegetable Tissues, Unprepared ...
Vestiges of the Natural History of

Creation
Vesuvin
Vocal and Action Language

Pagt
102
104.

lOI
lOI

59
242

212

Wasp, Sting of ... •••255

Water Drinkers, Handbook for ... 209
West, Tuffen, Half-an-Hour at

the Microscope with 34, 1 14, 252
Weymouth, Geology of
What is a Plant ?
Whelk, Palate of
W'here is it ?

Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tor-
nadoes
V\^hy not eat Insects ?
Wild Flowers, and Wliere They

Grow
Wild Flowers W^orth Notice
Willow, tr. sec.
Windsor and Newton's Shilling

Hand-books
Winds, The
Wood ... - ...

Wood- Engraving, Hand-book of
Wood Sections, To Stain
Work and Adventures in New

Guinea

World Life, or Comparative Geology 201
Worsley-Benisc^i, H. W. S., on

How Plants Grow ... 215

Worsley-Benison, H. W. S., on

What is a Plant? 74. ^54

126

74, 154
... 117

... 286

6a
287

205,
276-
116

281-
284
190
208
186

283

Year's W^ork in the Garden
Younw Folks' Ideas ...
Your Plants

Zoological Notes

206
210
205

56

^"'■« JAHUA?Y,-i« ,p.„„

THE

Journal of MiCRoscopy

AND

Natural Science.-

THE JOURNAL OF

^t fo%M mitmtofml Mtt^

fuBLISHED qUAE^TEf^LY,

Knowledge is not ,i.en :p^::;x::z ...,..,.. ,,3 .„,,, ,, ,„,,

m concealment." • ^°^*

EDITED BY

ALFRED ALLEN,

ASSISTED BY '

SEVERAL MEMBEES OF THE COMMITIEE.

i'^'OK*

'^*^

LONDON

BATH ;
1, CAMBRIDGE PLACE.

C. SEERS, PRINTER, J^APOYLE STREET, BATH.

Price One SUmngand Sixpence.

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL.

CONTENTS.

Presidential Address ...

A Piece of Horn wrack : Its Inhabitants and Guests

Pambles of a Naturalist near Amberley

The Microscope and how to use it

Half-an-Hour at the Microscope with Mr. Tuflfen West

Plagiogramma ...

Hydrodictyon on Utriculatum ...

Coleosporium tussilaginis

Stellate Hairs from Niphobulus lingua

Maple, Transverse section of

Mercurialis, Sp^eraphides in

Cowrie Shell ...

Culex Pipiens, Development of ...

Antennae of Diptera

Aleurodes Chelidonii

JL IXX 1 L)i5 ••• ••• ••• •••

Hairs of Antelope
Selected Notes from the Society's Note-Books...

Antennae of Diptera

Fowl Flea

Cowrie Shell, Section of

Hantsch's Fluid

Mounting Opaque Objects without Pressure

False Crystals in Decolourised Leaves

Explanation of Plates HI. — VIII.
Our Annual Meeting ... ...

The Dinner ... ...

-LV't^ V X\^ \V Oaaa •■• ••• «■• •••

"Current Notes and Memoranda
The Linnaean Society ...
Mounting Diatoms
Cement for Glass, Porcelain, &c.

PAGE

]

.. 6

.. 12

.. 22

.. 34

.. 34

.. 35

.. 35

.. 36

.. 36

.. 36

.. 37

.. 38

.. 38

.. 38

.. 39

.. 40

.. 40

.. 40

.. 41

.. 41

.. 41

.. 42

... 42

... 43

... 46

.. 49

... 54

... 61

... 62

... 63

... 63

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25, ST, MARY'S ROAD, HAELESDEN, LONDON, N.W.

{All Slides mounted by C. COLLINS, Junr., are kept in Stock, and
can be seen at 157, Great Portland Street, W.J

Now ready the following, forming the First Three Series of Collins' " Special " Micro
Slides, issued at 10/6 per Set, each set being carefully selected, and enclosed in

a neat Cloth Racked Box : —

Series No. 1.— 12 Fish Scales (Opaque) for Monocular or Binocular.

,, la.— 9 ,, (Polariscope) ; 3 Fish Skins (Opaque).

„ 2.— 12 Slides of Heads of Insects, Moimted withoid Pressure, and specially
showing the structure of the Mouth in the Biting and Sucking Orders.

Full detailed Prospectus, and opinions of the Scientific Press, post free on application.

From Chas. Collins's intimate acquaintance with all branches of the Microscopical
Trade, he respectfully solicits Microscopists to furnish him with particulars of their re-
quirements in Microscopical Apparatus (New or Second Hand), Mounting Materials,
and all other accessories, having facilities for procuring and supjjlyiug them on most
advantageous terms.

CHAS. COLLINS, Junr.,

85, SI. MABY'S BOAS, HABLESSEK, I0I7D0N, If.W.

MICROSCOPIC SLIDES,

PHYSIOlOGICAl, PATHOIOGICAL

AND '

BOTANICAL^DUCATIONAL SLIDES

Tissue ; Lung, Liver, Kidney-stained and inieopH Z^ f"^. Unstnped Muscular
Stomach of Cat, Px-Ioric end • Ilium of r.i- }%^''^^^ ' Stomach of Bog, Cardiac end :
Cerebrum, stained ind ejected -Spleen. ' ^""'"^^ °^ ^^*' ^"j^^^^^ > ^pinal Cord !

S^l^^r^^^;^- ^a S/^f^e, .1 10s. To the United States,
White Fibro Cartilage ; White Fibrius Ind A v. , %^^'^^^''''°' '" ^^^^'^^^ Articular, and
Trachea, ^sophagus, i)uodenum SL CcB^xnf Thl'^^ ' 1^'.'^^, ''^{^^'^or Vera, Cava.
Sections ; Mamma, Scalp, Umbilical Cord rIT' l"^^^ §^'^^'^' Tooth-Hard and Soft
Tongue of Kitten-injecfed andS °^ "^^''^ ^-t, Tongue of Gal,

Set C— MORBID HISTOLOftV i9 gi.i t, •
7 dols. Carcinoma and Scfrr^.TTof Brelst Tumour" o'f' f T \ '^' United States,

SectiL, "^i^^lfdtubl^^^^^^ States 5 dols. 60 cents.

tyledon); Stem, J^terls a^uUUa ; Section of ifr-^fs^/^^^"^^

of liuOus priiticosus Ovarv nf P/ jj^J^^ "^ -^''"^'^ 5 ^iial btem of Field Horse T;iil Rnnf

toliths; E^iderm of Tea Laflhotltir 'f "';"""^ ""Jl ^^ ^^'^^^ elastt^alo^^^^yl
Shell ; Section of Potato^Scl^r.^l. SW. ' ^J^^'^",^ Parenchyma-Section of ^lln^ut
showing coloured spores, asct pLaphy^^^ In^'" '^^ Apothecium of Pkyscia stelt^^s.

Rose; Long Sec, Palm kem'; Long S^^^^ Stem of Dog

showmg annual rings; Thickened-Ditted P^^l,? i? ' I "" "^ Wheat; Tr. Sec. of Lime
pitted cells ; Sec. o^' Conceptade TPtlT^f^^lZ!''^ ^^^^' ' '^^- ^^ ^-^' ^^^^5

leitz. and Zeiss. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^J^^ ^^pt in StoC, and can .e
COVER-GLASSES CUT FOR THE TRADE

Surgical and Dissecting Instruments
Platinum Section Lifters (as used at Oxford), PHce Is*, and Is. 6d. each

GEJNTERAL SLIDES.
Foot of Human Foetus, complete Tr Sec ^fainori p.- n o^
Price 2s. 6d. ; Duodenum of Rabbit injected LnZfuflT^?^' ^^^ ' ^^^'^^^"^ ^^tto ditto,
Tongue of Kitten, injected or injecte?and stated £ ulT ^o^f^'f' ^"^^ 2s. Gd.
Lung, each Slide, Price Is. 3d. scainea, Puce Is. bd. ; Collier's Lung, Human

UNMOUNTED SECTIONS

ARTHUR J. DOHERTY,

The College MICROSCOPICAL DEPOT,
33, Burlington istreet, Manchester.

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THE NATURALIST:

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF

Natural History for the North of England,

EDITED BY

Wm. Denison Roebuck, F.L.S., and Wm. Eagle Clarke, F.L.S.

The object of the Journal is the elucidation of the Natural History, Geology, and
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All Communications should be addressed thus : —

'' The Editors of the Naturalist, Leeds."

In the Early Numbers have appea,red numerous Short Notes and
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The Spurn and its Natural History — John Cordeaux ;

Notes on Teesdale Botany — ^James Backhouse ;

The Seven Sleepers in Manx Tradition — ^J. M. Jeffcott ;

Deposit of Lacustrine Marl in ^Yest Yorks. — Prof. G. A. Lebour, ]SLA.,F.G.S. ;

The Marine Shells of Yorkshire — Rev. \Y. C. Hey, ^LA. ;

Micro-Palaeontology of Northern Carboniferous Shales — G. R. Yine ;

Coleoptera of Liverpool — Dr. J. \Y. Ellis ;

^Yild Cat in Lincolnshire — John Cordeaux ;

The Bull-trout— Rev. ^L G. ^Yatkins, M.A. ;

Variation in European Lepidoptera — W. F. de V. Kane, ^SI.A. ;

A new Maritime Form of Wood Vetch — O. C. Druce, F.L.S. ;

Capture of Rudolphi's Rorqual at Goole — T. Bunker ;

Winter Visit to the Fame Islands— Rev. H. H. Slater, M.A., F.Z.S.

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JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

And Annals of ASTRONOMY, BIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, MENTAL SCIENCE, and

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London ; 3, Horse Shoe Court, Ludgate Hill, E.C.

Studies in Microscopical Science,

Edited by ARTHUR C. COLE, F.R.M.S., &c.

"Of 'Studies in Microscopical Science,' I cannot say enough in praise or in expression
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K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D., ke.

" Great credit is due to the Editor, Mr. A. C. Cole, for the exertions which he has
made to meet a want that has been felt by Microscopists for the last half century.
Durintr that time the cry has constantly been that, though slides could be bought in pro-
fusion, no guide to their intelligent examination was forthcoming." — Journal of the
Jtoijal M icroscopical Society.

Volume III., commencing on Jan. 10, 1885, in 4 Sections,

AS FOLLOWS ; —

Section i. — Botanical Histology.

Section 2. — Animal ,,

Section 3. — Pathological ,,

Section 4. — Popular Microscopical Studies.

Prospectuses and every information may be obtained from T. G. Ha.mmond and
Co., 136 — 138, Edmund Street, Birmingham; or from the Editor, St. Domingo
House, Oxford Gardens, N(jtting Hill, London.

MontMy. Price Is. Post Free, Us. i^er Annum.

rjTpqr-pi

ILLUSTRATED SCIENCE MONTHLY,

A Magazine of Knowledge, Research, Travel,

and Invention.

EDITED BY J. A. WESTWOOD OLIVER.

THIS MAGAZINE contains Articles by the most eminent
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"The best and cheapest science periodical published." — Modem
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Volume I., handsomely hound in cloth, jyrice 6s.
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A Special Section is devoted to Practical Microscopy.

London :
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S. LOUIS'S

Prepared Unmounted Objects for the Microscope

9 Series of Diatoms (12 Tubes in each) os. each ;

33 other Series at 2s. each, the last are — 24 Whole and Parts of

Insects, 36 Mosses, 36 Anatomical Sections (18 kinds), not

stained, for Students.

DETAILED CATALOGUE 3d. POST FKEE.

SOLE AGENT:

WM. WEST, 15, HORTON LANE, BRADFOED,

FRICS 12s.

THEE '='=COJSrCE]SrTE,ia,"

(Registered.) A new self- centering Turn Table, aclinowledged to be tlie best yet introduced, designed

and manufactured by H. I*. AlTIiVTAIVDa

Dealer in Microscopes, Apparatus, and all kinds of Microscopical Material,

15, Gotham Street, Strangeways, IVCanchester.

Aylward's Working Microscope. (For Review see the Northern Microscopisf, August,
1881). The original form, which has been most highly praised, has recently been much
improved by Mr. Aylward.

AjZward's Mounting Case contains every requisite portably packed.

Microscopical Specimens by all the best preparers ; unmounted material of all kinds.

Special notice is directed to the NEW POND-LIFE COLLECTING APPARATUS, which
has been so favourably noticed in the leading Microscopical and Scientific Journals, and
highly recommended by all who have used them. They are generally admitted to be
the best introduced. Designed and manufacti;red by H. P. Aylward.

Mr. Aylward has devoted special attention to the production of thin cover glasses, and
supplies them in squares, circles, and ovals. Microscopical slips with ground
edges, etc. Special quotations to the Trade and Shippers.

Price 1/-; Post Free, 1/3.

E. W. desires to call attention to the fact that " Brown Cement " is his
original discovery, and was first referred to in a paper read before the
Manchester Science Association, on Jan. 20, 1880. Its success has been
so great that the name has been copied, and numerous imitations have
been advertised and sold ; but Microscopists, when purchasing at a
dealer's, should insist on having the original cement, which at present
is unsurpassed. Every Requisite for Micro. Work.

EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER.

NATIONAL HISTORY JOURNAL &. SCHOOL REPORTER,

Intended for Beginners; 3/- per Year.

Monthly, except January, July, and August.

Specimen Copy, Id. Stamp.
Address: J. E. CLARK, 20, Bootham, York. ^

FORAMINIFERA,

TYPE SLIDES, each containing FIFTY SPECIES, with the Name of

each Species showing with it in the field of view.

Selected by CHARLES ELCOCK.

Type Slides No. 1 & No. 2 are now ready,

PKICE TWENTY SHILLINGS EACH.

(Other slides are in preparation.)

Slides of Foraminifera from the Antrim Chalk, the Lias, London Clay, etc.,
Special Series for Students, Lecturers, etc., may also be obtained.

London : Beck and Beck, Cornhill*; Watson & Sons, 313, High Holborn, W.
Chas. Collins, 157, Great Portland Street, W.

Manchester : E. Ward, 249, Oxford Street.
Bath: Alfred Allen, 1, Cambridge Place.

E. MARLOW, CONSTITUTION HILL, BIRIVIINGHAM,

MANUFACTURER OF

Every description of Microscopical Glass.

Sole Maker of the Registered '^Microscopist's Compendium."

Prepaker of all kinds of Mounting Media.

Manufacturer of Turn-Tables, Slide-Boxes, Cabinets, etc.

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AGENT FOR THE SALE OF A. C. COLE'S MICROSCOPICAL SPECIALITIES.

A LARGE ASSORTMENT OF

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Plain & Ornamental Adhesive Labels. List of prices on application.
Dealers and Shippers supplied on favourable terms.

CHARLES COPPOCK,

Manufacturer of Scientific Instruments,

(Late Partner with B. & J. BECK, London & Philadelphia,)

100, New Bond St., London, W.

Microscopes, Telescopes, Field & Opera Glasses.
Materials for Preparing, Staining, & Mounting Microscopic Objects

STUDENTS' FREEZING MICROTOMES, &c.

SPECTACLES !

Illustrated Catalogues, price 2/-
N.B. — oculists' prescriptions receive personal attention.

INSECTS AND PARTS OF INSECTS

PREPARED WITHOUT PRESSURE,

Showing all Parts in their Natural Form and Colour,

Invaluable to Students of Entomology,

BY

FRED. ENOCK,
FERNDALE, WOKING STATION.

Vol. 4.] APRIL, 1885. [Part 14.

THE

Journal of Microscop]^^

O-'V

AND „i'-''^'**''

Natural Science :%^*«'''

THE JOURNAL OF

|f JPosfal Pirrosrojiral jSoriFtg*

Published OuAi^Er\LY.

"Kno -dge is not given us to keep, but to impart: its worth is lost

in concealment."

EDITED BY

ALFRED ALLEN,

Honorary Secretary of the Postal Microscopical Society ;

assisted by
SEVEBAL MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE.

LONDON :
BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & COX, KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND, W.O.

BATH :
1, CAMBRIDGE PLACE.

C. SEERS, PRINTER, I, ARQYLB STREET, BATH.

Price One Shilling and Sixpence.

ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Chironomus Prasinus

... 65

What is a Plant ? ...

... 74

Animal Metamorphosis ... ... ..^

... 84

The Microscope and How to Use it ...

... 96

Pond Life

... 105

Half-an-Hour at the Microscope with Mr. Tuflfen West

... 114

Crystals of Strichnine ...

... 1]4

,, Oxalic Acid

... 114

,, Sulphate of Cadmium

... 114

Batrachospermum moniliforme ...

... 114

Aregma bulbosum ... ... .., ...

... 115

Willow Branch, transverse section

... 116

Sclerogen from Pear

... 116

Palate of Helix aspersa

... 116

Palate of Periwinkle ...

... 116

Bed Bug

... 117

Tortoise Tick ...

... 117

Selected Notes from the Society's Note-Books...

... 119

Batrachospermum ... ... ... ...

... 119

Generative Gland of Oyster

... 120

Pro-Leg of Larva of Jiucanus cervus ... ...

... 120

Ampiocus lanceolatus ...

... 121

Spine of Dog-Fish

... 122

Marine Aquarium

... 122

Varnish for Ringing Slides

... 122

Reviews ... ... ... ... ... ...

... 123

Correspondence

... 132

Current Notes and Memoranda

... 133

THE POSTAL

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

PRESIDENT :
C. F. GEORGE, Esq., M.R.C.S. Lon., Kirton-in-Lindsey.

HON. SECRETARY:
A. ALLEN, 1, Cambridge Place, Bath.

THE SOCIETY was formed in 1873 to aid in the study,
discussion, and circulation of Microscopic objects, and
to advance the pursuit of Natural Science among
its members.

It is divided into thirteen Circuits of about twelve
members each, arranged geographically. A box of Slides,
accompanied by MS. book for the insertion of Notes and
Memoranda, is sent by the Hon. Secretary, at fortnightly
intervals to the first member on one of the Circuits ; who,
after keeping it for three days, must send it on by post
to the next on the list, and he to the followino- one.
When it has gone round the Circuit, the last member re-
turns it to the Hon. Secretary, who will then forward it
to the first member of the next Circuit, and so on, until
the slides have been seen by the whole of the Society.
Each member is expected to contribute six Slides ann-
ually, which are returned to him after they have been
round the Circuits. Ladies, as well as gentlemen, may be
elected members of the Society.

A special section has lately been formed for Mem-
bers of the Medical Profession.

Entrance fee. Five Shillings ; Annual Subscription,
Ten Shillings ; dating from 1 st October in each year.

A copy of the Journal is posted free to each member on
day of publication.

All communications on matters connected with the
Society, or with this Journal, should be addressed to
Mr. Alfred Allen, as above.

THE QUARTERLY PARTS OF THE

Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science

May now be obtained of all Booksellers.

STRONG CLOTH CASES FOR BINDING VOLS. 1, 2, & 3. Price 1/6 each.

Oiuing to the great demand for Vol. I., it has been reprinted,
and may he had handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, bevelled edges,
Post free, price 10/6, of all Booksellers.

BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & COX,

King William Street, Strand, London, W.C.

Se-PAGE CATALOGUE MAILED FREE ON APPLICATION.

KcisTOijOa-ic.A.iL. is/!a:icE,oscoFE^

With 1-inch and j-inch Objectives of splendid definition, complete, in

Mahogany Case, £5 10 S.

This Microscope is described and illustrated in Dr. Carpe:j^ter's last Edition of " The
Microscope and its Revelations," and the author states in the preface that '' His principle
has been to make mention only of such makers as have distinguished themselves by the in-
troduction of any new pattern which he regards as deserving of special recommendation."

From C. P. Hobkirk, Esq., F.L.S., Dewsbury, author of Synopsis of British Mosses :
— " I have known this instrument since its first introduction, and have frequently used
different examples of it, and all with equal pleasure. It is easy of manipulation, and the
fine adjustment is one of the best I have ever used. To anyone who desires to have a
really good useful instrument at a moderate price I always recommend your Histological
Microscope."

Harley Binocular Microscopes, Dissecting Microscopes, Cabinets, Objects, Lamps,
Object Glasses, Thin Glass, Ground Slips, Pocket Magnifiers, Mounting Media, &c.

GHAS. COLLINS, MICROSCOPE MAKER,

157, GREAT PORTLAND STREET, LONDON, W.

W. p. COLLINS,

Microscopical and Natural Science Bookseller.

New and Second-hand Works on Alg?e, Biology, Botany, Chemistry, Corals,
Conchology, Desmids, Diatoms, Entomology, Fossils, Geology, Histology,
Infusoria, Microscopy, Mineralogy, Natural History, &c.

New Catalogue, just ready, will be sent on application.

Back Parts of the various Microscopical Journals always in stock.

Microscopical Books Bought or Exchanged.

157, GREAT POETL^Sd^TREET, Oxford Street,

LONDON (corner of "Weymouth Street).

CHAS. COLLINS, Junr.,

MICRO-NATURALIST,

25, ST, MARY'S ROAD, HARLESDEN, LONDON, N.W.

{All Slides mounted by C. COLLINS, Junr., are kept in Stock, and
can be seen at 157, Great Portland Street, W.J

Now ready the following, forming the First Three Series of Collins' " Special " Micro
Slides, issued at 10/6 per Set, each set being carefully selected, and enclosed in

a neat Cloth Racked Box : —

Series No. 1.— 12 Fish Scales (Opaque) for Monocular or Binocular.

,, la.— 9 ,, (Polariscope) ; 3 Fish Skins (Opaque).

ff 2. — 12 Slides of Heads of Insects, Mounted ivitkoiU Pressure, and specially
showing the structure of the Mouth in the Biting and Sucking Orders.

Full detailed Prospectus, and opinions of the Scientific Press, post free on application.

From Chas. Collins's intimate acquaintance with all branches of the Microscopical
Trade, he respectfully solicits Microscopists to furnish him with particulars of their re-
quirements in Microscopical Apparatus (New or Second Hand), Mounting Materials,
and all other accessories, having facilities for procuring and supplying them on most
advantageous terms.

CHAS. COLLINS, Junr.,

25, ST. HABY'S EOAD, HABLESDEN, LOKSON, N.W.

American Scientific & other Books.

IIS" order to lessen as much as possible any difficulty that may be ex-
perienced by our readers in procuring American publications, the
Editor of the Journal of Microscopy ajstd Natural Science has
arranged with the leading Publishers in America to send all works
ordered through him, direct from the Publishers, by post, on receipt
of Postal Order or Stamps to the amount named in the margin. Books
so ordered will be received by post within a month or five weeks from
dispatch of order.

FREE BY POST. S. v.

Anatomy, Pnysiology, and Hygiene— Walker ... ... 6 9

Anatomy, Physiology, & Hygiene, Comprehensive— Cutter 5 6

Astronomy, a Descriptive— Steele

Beginnings "with, the Microscope— Manton ... ... 2 3

Chemistry, Elements of— Norton ... ... ... .., 6 Q

Chemistry, Lessons in— Greene ... ... ... ... 4 9

Correspondences of the Bible : Animals— Worcester ... 4 6

Destiny of Man— Fiske ... ... ... ... ... 4 6

Diet Question, The— Dodds ... ... ... ... ... 1 3

Excursions of an Evolutionist— Fiske ... ... ... 9 0

First Book in Geology— Shaler ... ... ... ... 5 6

Formation of Poisons by Micro-Organisms— Blacke ... 6 9

Handbook of Field Botany— Manton ... ... ... 2 3

Histology, Manual of— Stowell ... ... ... ... 15 6

Insects, How to Catch, etc. — Manton ... ... ... 2 3

Man Wonderful in the House Beautiful, The— Allen ... 6 9
Manual of the Mosses of N. America— Lesquereux & James

Manual du Touriste Photographe—Vidal ... ... ... 5 6

Orchids of !N"ew England— Baldwin ... ... ...10 6

Physics, Elementary Textbook of— Anthony & Brackett 6 9

Physiology and Hygiene— Hutchison ... ... ... 6 6

Science of Know^ledge — Fichte ... ... ... ... 5 9

Taxidermy Without a Teacher— Manton ... ... ... 2 3

Tenants of an Old Farm— McCook ... ... ... 11 0

Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes— Davis ... ... 2 3

Wonders and Curiosities of the Railway— Kennedy ... 5 6

JOURNALS AND MAGAZINES.

PER YEAR. _S: d.

American Chemical Journal
American Naturalist
Frank Leslie's Sunday Magazine
Humboldt Library, The
Kansas City Review ...
Popular Science Monthly
Popular Science News
Science ... ...

13 0

21 0

13 0

9 0

12 0

21 0

4 0

25 0

The following are supplied by Mr. W. P. COLLINS,
157, Great Portland Street, London, W.
American Monthly Microscopical Journal, The ... 5 0

Microscope, The ... •. .• ••• ... 6 0

Mr. Allen has lately purchased a large Parcel of PROFES-
SIONAL AND OTHER SLIDES, which he is offering at from
ed. to Is. each. They embrace every department of Microscopy,

A large quantity of good UNMOUNTED MATERIAL.
List will be sent on application.

The Christian Leader:

A Record of Religious Thought and Work.

Weekly — One Penny. Monthly Part — Sixpence.

PROMINENT FEATURES OF "THE CHRISTIAN LEADER."

I.— It is A HIGH-CLASS FAMILY NEWSPAPER and MISCELLANY, uniting the
vivacity and general interest of the best Secular Journals with a distinctly re-
ligioiis character.

II. — It gives the earliest intelligence of all the most significant PvELIGIOUS AND
PHILANTHROPIC MOVEMENTS AT HOME AND ABROAD.

III.— It gives REPORTS of EVANGELISTIC and TEMPERANCE WORK.

IV.— It gives SERMONS by Great Living Preachers.

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ILLUSTRATED ScE MONTHLY,

A Magazine of Knowledge, Research, Travel,

and Invention.

EDITED BY J. A. WESTWOOD OLIVER.

THIS MAGAZINE contains Articles by the most eminent
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A portrait of an eminent " Leader of Science " is given
each month, accompanied by an • authentic biography. A
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Prominence is given to Reviews of New Books, making
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"Full of scientific interest, and especially remarkable for the
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Society.

Volume /., handsomely hound in cloth, lyrice 6s.
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A Special Section is devoted to Practical Microscopy.

London :
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New Series, Permanently Enlarged. Price 4s. per annum, Post Free.

THE NATURALIST:

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF

Natural History for the North of England,

EDITED BY

Wm. Denison Roebuck, F.L.S., and Wm. Eagle Clarke, F.L.S.

The object of the Journal is the elucidation of the Natural History, Geology, and
Physical Features of the Ten Northern Counties of England.

All Communications should be addressed thus : —

" The Editors of the Naturalist, Leeds."

In the Early Numbers have appeared numerous Short Notes and
the following Articles : —

The Spurn and its Natural History — ^J ohn Cordeaux ;

Notes on Teesdale Botany — ^James Backhouse ;

The Seven Sleepers in Manx Tradition — J. M. Jeffcott ;

Deposit of Lacustrine Marl in West Yorks. — Prof. G. A. Lebour, M.A.,F.G.S.;

The Marine Shells of Yorkshire— Rev. W. C. Hey, M.A. ;

Micro-Palseontology of Northern Carboniferous Shales — G. R. Vine ;

Coleoptera of Liverpool — Dr. J. W. Ellis ;

Wild Cat in Lincolnshire — John Cordeaux ;

The Bull-trout— Rev. M. G. Watkins. M.A. ;

Variation in European Lepidoptera — W. F. de V. Kane, M.A. ;

A new Maritime Form of Wood Vetch — O. C. Druce, F.L.S. ;

Capture of Rudolphi's Rorqual at Goole — T. Bunker ;

Winter Visit to the Fame Islands— Rev. H. H. Slater, M.A., F.Z.S.

Twenty-Second Year of Publication.

THE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

And Annals of ASTRONOMY, BIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, MENTAL SCIENCE, and

TECHNOLOGY.

Is. 6d. Monthly. (Formerly Quarterly Journal of Science.)

Being independent of party, sectarian, or official influences, this Journal judges all
theories on their own merits. It expounds the highest developments of modern re-
search, records the progress of Discovery, and defends the interests of Free Science
against Examinationism, Bureaucracy, and Bestiarianism. Its Reviews of Books are
well-known for their thoroughness and impartiality.

London ; 3, Horse Shoe Court, Ludgate Hill, E.C.

Studies in Microscopical Science,

Edited by ARTHUR C. COLE, F.R.M.S., &c.

"Of 'Studies in Microscopical Science,' I cannot say enough in praise or in expression
of the information and pleasure I have derived from them." — Sir Richard Owen,
K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D., &c.

" Great credit is due to the Editor, Mr, A. C. Cole, for the exertions which he has
made to meet a want that has been felt by Microscopists for the last half century.
During that time the cry has constantly been that, though slides could be bought in pro-
fusion, no guide to their intelligent examination was forthcoming." — Journal of the
Hoyal Microscopical Society.

Volunne III., commencing on Jan. 10, 1885, in 4 Sections,

AS FOLLOWS : —

Section i. — Botanical Histology.

Section 2. — Animal ,,

Section 3. — Pathological ,,

Section 4. — Popular Microscopical Studies.

Prospectuses and every information may be obtained from T. G. Hammond and
Co., 136 — 138, Edmund Street, Birmingham; or from the EDITOR, St. Domingo
House, Oxford Gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.

2d. Monthly.] THE [Well Illustrated.

NATURALIST'S
WORLD.

A POPULAR MAGAZINE OF SCIENCE.

" Quite a storehouse of scientific notes and facts." — Leeds Mercury.
" A bright and attractive Monthly."— *Scie?ice Gossip.
" A very creditable production."— rbrXsAiVe Post.
" Up to the mark." — Reading Observer.

The contents include articles on almost every Natural History subject

of interest.

London ; W. SWAIST SOWNENSCHEIW & Co.

Of all Booksellers.

Crown 8vo., 5s. 6d. ; with coloured plates, 7s. 6d.

THE OOLLEOTOE'S MANUAL OF BRITISH LAND

AND FEESHWATEE SHELLS.

Containing Figures and Descriptions of every Species, an Account of their Habits
and Localities, Hints on Preserving and Arranging, &c., the Names and Descrip-
tions of all the Varieties, and Synoptical Tables showing the Differences of Species
hard to identify. By Lionel Ernest Adams, B. A. Illustrated by Gerald VV.
Adams and the Author.

London: G. BELL & SONS, 4, York Street, Covent Garden.

Nichols' Popular Science News,

Hn^ ^Boston Journal of Cbemisttp.

A Monthly Journal oj Popular Science. Estahlished in 1865.

Now in its Seventeenth year. Four Shillings per Annum, in advance.

Published by the Popular Science News Co., 19, PEARL STREET, BOSTON, U.S.A.

Editors— Jas. R. Nichols, M.D. Wm. J. Rolfe, A.M. Atutin P. Nichols, S.B.

THE name Popular Sciknce News has been associated with the Boston Journal oJ
Cheviistri/, a paper long and favourably known in every State of the Union. The de-
sign of this most successful and useful journal has been to furnish in compact form,
and at a low price, the new facts in science, mechanics, invention, art, agriculture, and
viedicine, which it is so important should be widely disseminated among all reading people.
Its success is due to the fact that it presents in plain language, which all can under-
stand, scientific discoveries and principles which are useful to everyone, no matter what
may be their vocation or pursuit in life. It is an indispensable Family Journal, which
should be introduced to every fireside in the country. Dr. Nichols has edited this jour-
nal for a period of more than a sixth of a century, and every number contains many
pages of his instructive and pleasant contributions.

Sample Copies sent Free.

Subscriptions received hy the Editor of the " Joimuil of Microscopy and
Natural Science,'^ i, Cambridge Flace^ Bath.

April Issue. New Series, Now Ready.

FORESTR Y:

A Journal of Forest and Estate Management,

Specially devoted to the Interests of Foresters and
others interested in the Growth of Timber.

MONTHLY; Price Is., by Post, Is. l|d.

FORESTRY contains Illustrated Articles on Trees,

Planting Operations, and other sub-
jects connected with Timber growth,
specially noting the introduction of
new plants and shrubs.

FORESTRY advocates the institution of Schools for

teaching Forest Science throughout
Scotland and England ; also the tho-
rough conservatism of national forests.

FORESTRY can be obtained through any Book-
seller or Newsagent, or may be had
direct and post free for the published
price— ONE SHILLING monthly, from
the publishers,

C. & R. ANDERSON,

377 High Street, Edinburgh ;
145 Queen Victoria St., London ;

OR FROM THE FOLLOWING AGENTS :

DUBLIN:

W. H. Smith & Son,

Middle Abbey Street

NEW YORK:

L. Van Nostrand,

23 Murray Street.

S. LOUIS'S

38 SERIES OF UNMOUNTED OBJECTS,

Among which are: — 9 Series of cleaned Diatoms (12 tubes in each); 12 Thin Sections
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36 Miscellaneous (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) ; 36 Mosses (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4) ; 24
Hepaticse ; 18 Vegetable Sections (Nos. 1 and 2) ; etc. S. Louis's Cements and
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being constantly prepared ; the}^ have been purchased and hailed with delight
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19 SERIES OF MOUNTED MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS,

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t ; Dealer in Microscopes, Apparatus, and all kinds of Microscopical Material,

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Aylward's "Working Microscope. (For Eeview see the Northern Microscopist, August,
1881). The original form, which has been most highly praised, has recently been much,
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Aylward's Mounting Case contains every requisite portably packed.

Microscopical Specimens by all the best preparers ; unmounted material of all kinds.

Special notice is directed to the NEW POND-LIFE COLLECTING APPARATUS, which
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Mr. Aylward has devoted special attention to the production of thin cover glasses, and
supplies them in squares, circles, and ovals. Microscopical slips with ground
edges, etc. Special quotations to the Trade and Shippers.

Price 1/-; Post Free, 1/3.

E. W. desires to call attention to the fact that " Brown Cement " is his
original discovery, and was first referred to in a paper read before the
Manchester Science Association, on Jan. 26, 1880. Its success has been
so great that the name has been copied, and numerous imitations have
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dealer's, should insist on having the original cement, which at present
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EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER.

NATURAL HISTORY JOURNAL L SCHOOL REPORTER

Intended for Beginners; 3/- per Year.

Monthly, except January, July, and Aug list.

Specimen Copy, Id. Stamp.
Address; J. E. CLARK, 20, Bootham, York

FORAMINIFERA.

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each. Species showing with it in the field of view.

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Type Slides No. 1 & No. 2 are now ready,

PRICE TWENTY SHILLINGS EACH. |

(Other slides are in pi'eparation.) r.

Slides of Foraminifera from the Antrim Chalk, the Lias, London Clay, etc^
Special Series for Students, Lecturers, etc., may .also be obtained. \

London : Becfe and Beck, Cornhill ; "Watson & Sons, 313, High Holborn, W.

Chas. Collins, 157, Great Portland Street, W. ',
Manchester : E. Ward, 249, Oxford Street. ;
Bath : Alfred Allen, 1, Cambridge Place.

E. MARLOW, CONSTITUTION HILL, BIRMINGHAM,

MANUFACTURER OF

Every description of Microscopical Glass.

Sole Maker of the Registered " Microseopist's Compendium."

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AGENT FOR THE SALE OF A. G. GOLF'S MIGROSCOPIGAL SPEGIAUTIES.

A LARGE ASSORTMENT OF

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Materials for Preparing, Staining, & Mounting Microscopic Objecti

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SPECTACLES I

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N.B. — oculists' prescriptions receive personal attention.

INSECTS AND PARTS OF INSECTS

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BY

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MBL WHOI LIBRARY

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