Vol. XXVIII. PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No.1. UPRSEH Ley Mile nt ee The touckal ‘Ministry of Agriculture | ee : APRIL, 1921. PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. | (For Complete List of Contents see page xxiii.) PAGE Minimum Price of Wheat and Oats of the 1921 Crop - . 8 Research in Animal Breeding. 2. C. Punnett, P.RS. - gD 4 _ Notes on Fordge Crops. Jas. C. Brown - - - - 18 The Human Machine on the Land. W. J. Malden - ae! 2B. | The Improvement of Peaty Soils. Part II. 2Z. J. Russell, D.Sc., | Nye ok mr a we a bin BBR Potato Growing in Essex. #. H. Currie = - - = 2, OO Influence of Size and Character of Seed on the Yield of | oat He Potatoes. Redcliffe N. Salaman, M.A., M.D . : 43 || Common Scab of Potatoes, W. A. Mitlard, B.Se. - - 49 || Ducks as Egg Producers. Oscar C. Brown, B.Sc. (Agric.) oS Size of Egg in Relation to Average Production. Edward 41a Brown, F.LS. - - : = 168 - Government Assistance to Horticulture: Its Limits and its Possibilities. Wm. J. Lobjoit, O.B.E. - - 71 | Isle of Wight Disease of Bees - : : at FE a | : Notes on Manures for April. 2. J. Russell, D.Sc., PRS. ahs” Bae 4 || Notes on Feeding Stuffs for Biss _E. T. Halnan, M.A,, | he Dip. Agric. (Cantab.) E 3 : ; arr || Agriculture Abroad - - - - -. - - 89. . LONDON: PRINTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE, AND PUBLISHED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. PS, (To be obtained from the Ministry’s Offices, 10, Whitehall! Place, London, 8.W.1.) _ EDITORIAL AND | MONTHLY. ACENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS : Nowa mam, (PMGE SUPENGE,] ©: VERNON SONS, 2d | LONDON, 8.W.1, Post free. 66/62, Scuth Castle Street, Liverpool, THE J OURNAL OF THE MIN ISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, — Advertisements = p VRE LA TAK Li IN SPRING AND SUMMER SPRAY YOUR FRUIT TREES. “McDOUGALL’S Ss KATAKILLA Non-Poisonous Powder Insecticide Wash, FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF APHIDES, PSYLLA (Apple Sucker), RED SPIDER, : CAPSID BUG, CATERPILLARS, &c ; _ SAFE—EFFECTIVE—READY FOR USE. ss Not only is KATAKILLA the best all round FRU IT TREE WASH but it is also unrivalled asa WASH FOR VEGETABLE CROPS © TO DESTROY CATERPILLARS, GREEN FLY, DOLPHIN, &e. NON-POISONOUS—SAFE—EFFECTIVE. SPECIAL NOTE.—In view of the large demand for ide be ‘dnd uncertainty. with — t regard to materials, Growers are strongly advised to secure their supplies early. SOLE MANUFACTURERS— McDOUGALL BROS., Lta.,, 66/68, PORT STREET, MANCHESTER. McDOUGALL’S KUR-MANGE THE CERTAIN REMEDY FOR - Parasitic Mange. in Horse, Cattle and Dogs. | Highly Bred All our are bred on Scientific lines. THE RESULTS ARE i—@” An Increased weight of Roots per acre. The Scientific Farm Plant Breeders, Particulars may be had free on application to GARTONS, LTD, THE JOURNAL.OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Adverlisements. GARTONS *- ROOTS MANGELS, SWEDES, AND TURNIPS i” §6An Increased feeding value not otherwise obtainable. WARRINGTON, Dick’s I.L.O. Tractroil is acknowledged to be the best Lubricant for Tractors and other Agricultural Machinery yet produced, as evidenced by the fact that it is used by many of the leading manu- facturers of Tractors. I,.L.O. Lubricants ensure efficiency in running and economy in cost. They are guaranteed to lubricate more and carbonise less than any other similar lubricant. Tractroil Reduces Friction and Gives more Power WBDICKG-COLTD 26, GROSVENOR ~ GARDENS, VICTORIA, LONDON,. S.W.1. Telephone VicTORIA 7523 (4 lines). Telegrams “ DicotTto,Vic, Lonpon.” Cvées 22 CFL ICSI ttt st HEH SESE HHH HHHHHHHHHHSTSHHHHSE SHH HHH YL HLH Hd HH £") PEPE TEFEN OCH EAE HEHEHE 9 SHES li THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Adverlisements. COUNTRY HOUSE AND ESTATE LIGHTING. “ACETYLENE” WHICH COMBINES EFFICIENCY AND SIMPLICITY WITH ECONOMY. We have successfully installed several thousand plants during the last 25 years, and will be pleased to advise and estimate for any contemplated work. The best light for the farmhouse, Write for particulars of The Atoz Lighting Sets: FOR APRIL. 10 Lights .. £2515 0 | 20 Lights .. £5410 0 The above prices include Plant, Brackets and Pendants. PORTABLE LAMPS SUITABLE FOR FARM WORK. | ATOZ CARBIDE | SUPPLIES NOW AVAILABLE. WRITE FOR QUOTATION. The ACETYLENE CORPORATION, Limited, 49, VICTORIA STREET, WESTMINSTER. LONDON, S.W. 1. Cia ne Bue a A VE ore’ OF VRE ie 4% ; iS ae | water” A BOOK OF wg yy MANY : PARTS & & \ Sd Ne INVALUABLE {fh NA FARMERS Wf NG < IZ: SSS AND ALL SSS Ma WHO OWN BS SD) TRACTORS. = Send for your — IF SSS free copy now. ZEEREANG STERNS LTD. NY aut cd. — 101 — v4 stem es Og eS Royal London House, Nv ell Finsbury Square, \\ VER WS Tah; SX THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. iil ‘Celebrated for Quality.” q Wi ad YY 9 Yd For Farm ° 4 tall thal le ag & Garden CATALOGUE of Seed, “7 Yy, SEEDS” | a4 oe Corn, Grass Seeds, Root yy table and Flower Seeds, 7 o, y A, ‘“ % Seeds, Manures, etc., Yj Y Y Z Potatoes. Lawn Seeds, 4/3 Yj, sia etc., Post Free. ZT IF ZT ec” Post Free. Cie O har Le Webbs’ Grass and Clover Seeds. ’ USED SUCCESSFULLY EVERYWHERE. PURITY AND GERMINATION GUARANTEED, Prescriptions containing the finest and most suitable Seeds in proper proportions prepared to suit all soils and for all purposes. ONE YEAR'S LAY, from 25/- per acre. | 3 or 4 YEARS’ LAY, from 47/6 per acre. TWO YEAR’S LAY, from 376 ,, | PERMANENT PASTURE, from 60/ per acre. Any Special Mixture supplied. Estimates on request. Webbs’ Prize Root Seeds. The World’s Best Breeds. Champion Prizes—London and Birmingham, 1920. MANGEL from 1/- per lb. SWEDE from 2/- per 1b. TURNIP from 1/3 per lb. WEBB & SONS, LTD., The King’s Seedsmen, Stourbridge. 2 A PPS = : a ~~ . = ae Established 1868. Annual Turnover—293 MILLIONS. SEED AND WARE Potato Merchants and Growers. Potato Departments: 95, Morrison Street, GLASGOW, Links Place, LEITH, and Woodstoek Street, KILMARNOCK. Extensive Buyers of all classes of Potatoes. Principal Markets Attended. Enquiries Solicited. iv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements. Os St i | DAIRY FARMERS. Offers of COOL, CLEAN MILK, for their Town and Country Depots delivered at Liverpool Street,. King’s Cress; St; Pancras, Euston, Southend and Gravesend Stations, are invited by ABBOTT BROS. DAIRIES. ESTABLISHED: 41756. Head Office: GRENADE ST., LONDON, E.14. ’Phone: East 4628. Tel.: ‘‘ Creameries, phone, London.’’ Payments made fortnightly op as required. TMN& DESTRUCTION OF RATS & MICE by The Well-known Preparations DANYSZ VIRUS, MALLERS EXTRACT of SQUILL, DANZO RFRaT KILLER. 6 Write for particulars to the Proprietors, MALLER LABORATORIES’ LIMITED (formerly Danysz Virus Limited ), 325, Borough High Street, London, S.E.1. SPECIALISTS in Preparations for the Destruction of Rats, Mice and | _ other Vermin. Te aan cer ST A LE THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. PARSONS, GLARK & BODIN, LAND AGENTS AND AUCTIONEERS, 24, Hanover Square, London, W.1. Yelephone - MAYFAIR 3284. AGENTS FOR THE SALE AND PURCHASE OF AGRICULTURAL, RESIDENTIAL AND SPORTING ESTATES, FARMS AND SMALL HOLDINGS IN ALL PARTS OF THE COUNTRY. FARMS FOR SALE WITH EARLY POSSESSION. To Arable Farmers. An opportunity occurs of purchasing a freehold farm in the best part of Essex,-well served by roads, easy access to important towns, excellent railway facilities. -Owing to exceptional circum- stances, vacant possession can be obtained at Michaelmas or earlier if desired. Sound corn growing land in excellent condition, liberally farmed by a wealthy owner for many years. “Comfortable house and ample buildings. Live and Dead Stock optional to purchaser.” Property free of tithe. Price reasonable. Prompt application should be made in order to secure this bargain to Messrs. Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as above. (1585.) HEREFORD (5 miles) close to station. For sale. a bargain, to close Estate. Farm of 227 acres, two-thirds pasture, with good stone built house (8 bedrooms), first-rate buildings and cottages. Immediate possession. Price £5,000. Agents—Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as aboye. (1769.) SALOP, near first-rate market town and station. For sale, an exceptionally good Farm of 300 acres with gentleman farmer’s house, buildings and cottages. Possession at once. Details of Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as above. (1677.) NORTH DEVON. Farm of 295 acre- for sale, price just reduced from £6,500 to 45,000 to effect immediate sale. Close to station and 12 miles from Barnstaple. Agents—Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as above. (1660.) BETWEEN HEREFORD, LEDBURY AND BROMYARD. To be sold, a first-rate Stock Raising Farm of about 175 acres, mostly sound grass, with a suitable proportion of productive arable, and some useful orchards. (Commodious and comfortable farmhouse and buildings. Agents— Parsons, Clark & Bodin. as above. WARWICKSHIRE. Pasture farm of 300 acres (250 good feeding old turf). Very good farmhouse, buildings and cottage: Full details of Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as above. TO ESTATE OWNERS, SOLICITORS, &c. Messrs. Parsons, Clark & Bodin have been instructed by a Client to find him an Agricultural Estate of from 1,000 to 3,000 acres, consisting of several farms and small holdings, let on a yearly tenancy to a good and thriving tenantry. Not more than 3 hours by rail from London. Midlands vreferred but not essential. An estate with or without a Mansion would be entertained. Details, plan (which will be returned); &c., should be sent to purchaser’s’ Land Agents; Parsons, Clark & Bodin, as above. SPECIAL NOTE.—No commission required from Owner. vi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. ti om UIT gg = Fi ZY LL, is QA Z LAELIA LULL LLL y Z s =x | Farm, Field & Home = a iy use “ Anglo’s” Vaporising EX Oil, which gives maximum - ~ ——_— power and uniform depend- ——4 ability at lowest cost. The.ideal, fuel tor every purpose where power is r BS; used for churning, sawing, Nor grinding—for dairy work— ee ol ploughing and harvesting— Ce Nr 777) for generating electric light- WMA E CAR ing for the Home. Best results always assured when you use ANGLO’S VAPORISING | OIL. OBTAINABLE EVERYWHERE. PLOUGHING Je ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL CO., LT D:, 36, Queen Anne’s Gate, London, S.W.1. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. vil ee RLS eae Se pee Light-Weight FARM TRACTOR The AUSTIN competed with the chief makes of Tractors in the following ploughing matches :— January 11th, 1921. Broughton, Nr. Preston. January 19th,1921. Waverton, Nr. Chester, under Royal Patronage. January 27th,1921. Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ist Prize and Silver Medal. February 2nd, 1921. Neston, Cheshire. The Austin was The only Tractor to pull a 3-Furrow Plough on all four occasions except one, when a much bigger and heavier machine succeeded in doing so. This furnishes complete proof that the Austin (new model) Tractor is the most powerful machine of its weight on the market. The light weight of the Austin Tractor makes it as suitable for drilling as for ploughing or threshing. For every Farm and every Job. £8. \ { rt. yh ~ Ne pak j ' ay =——s- “ : — uo ( That > tte ee Pa i a ha Barmy ee re ly | jer : ca po MEL, Sl}. Een —_— M Y ers ete a 4 f a CZ < r cy ‘ ee 2) THE AUSTIN MOTOR CoO., LTD., Head Office : NORTHFIELD, BIRMINGHAM. London : 479-483, Oxford St., W.1. And at BRUSSELS and Manchester : 130, Deansgate. LIANCOURT. vui THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. The Fertiliser “par excellence.” NITRATE OF Importers and Merchants, W. MONTGOMERY & CO., LTD. | 63, Mark Lane, London, E.C. 3, AND ST. STEPHEN’S CHAMBERS, BRISTOL. STOCKS IN VARIOUS ssi ae i PORTS. IN A be Re 54 AV ENUE. ‘*MARTABAN FEN, LONDON.” SACKS AND BAGS AND JUTE GOODS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS. For ail purposes. For Home and Foreign Markets. J. DE PAIVA & COQ., (Principal—P. PARNHAM.) llk, Drury Lane, LIVERPOOL, England. Telegrams: ‘ Depaiva, Liverpool.” Telephone : Bank 1348 (2 lines). London Office: 165, Mansion House Chambers, 11, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C.4. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. 1X TOO LATE! Dogs, traps, ferrets and poison are all much too slow to keep pace with the growth of the rat menace. Rats are too. cunning to be caught in large numbers by any of these methods. ie Liverpool Migs method | vite, Consumed by rats, mee of voles, the of destruction is the only one Virus causes a disease peculiar only to these : ; ‘ rodents, which results in death in from seven to which deals with the rats in large ten days. Thepests take the disease home with numbers. them, they infect their fellows, and even after death are a source of danger to the survivors. “LIVERPOOL” VIRUS ae Reed. Trade Mark. Obtainable BAITED with full directions in Tins HARMLESS (for Rats 2s. 6d. and 6s.; for Mice 1s. 6d.) TO) UNBAITED in Tubes (for Rats 2s. 6d. and 8s.; HUMANS for Mice !s. 6d.). POULTRY Fronrall chemists or direct from*"E VANS SONS, LESCHER & DOMESTIC & WEBB Ltd., 56, Hanover Street, Liverpool, and ANIMALS 60, Bartholomew Close, London, E.C. 1. WARNING :—In order to prevent substitution, see that uis marked ** Liverpool” Vorus. Place your Orders for ~ Sulphate of Ammonia immediately with Your usual Corn or Manure Merchant — otherwise deliverY cannot be guaranteed. Pamphlets and Information supplied free by— British Sulphate of Ammonia Federation, Ltd, AGRICULTURAL OFFICES, FISHERGATE, PRESTON. x THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. TRACTOR OIL Is an honest job—believed in—not a make up of rubbish—has ample body—durable—efficient. It remains liquid’at or under Zero ( Fah.) and is therefore free from liability to freeze in Oil Cups (or bearings at "any temperature to which it is likely to be exposed in this country. This is most essential when the Oil has to be used at a low temperature or when the Oil is required to pass through the pipes of small bore from the Lubricator to the Engine. eee es pee ae Telephones : nland ‘‘ Racerine none, London. - Foreign ‘*‘ Racerine”” London. : Broapway 2088. “ Nonplus,’” Birmingham HAM CENTRAL 5481. The Russell Oil & Chemical Co., Ltd., Russell's Wharf, Stratford, E.15, And National Oil Works, Adams St., Birmingham. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xi Y DRY NEUTRAL & SULPHATE OF AMMONIA This material possesses special characteristics— It is dry, resembling silver sand; it neither cakes together nor does it require grinding. K It will not absorb atmospheric moisture. It may therefore be strewn on the soil as grass seed, or may be readily drilled into the soil. It is neutral and does not destroy the bags in which it is transported or stored. It is guaranteed to contain 253% of Ammonia; usually it tests from 25°6 to 25°7 %. A typical analysis of the material is :— Ammonia - - - 25°65 7% Moisture - - - Free Acid ate c= Equivalent Nitrogen For prices apply to the SOUTH METROPOLITAN GAS COMPANY, 709, OLD KENT ROAD, LONDON, S.E. 15. Telegraphic Address: a \ \ wx Inland : ‘‘ METROGAS, PECK, LONDON.” Foreign : ““ METROGAS, LONDON.” mer Zug Gia 2S ere. BY Ai Pot er ee ae ——__- y so. ~.40 © “We ~ Aye tee ie OTE Oxy | Ca a ik iss ~ a) ws Vufif he wee oe WwW x 1) licks HAW’ tpt ie x { it iw tyt f Ire apis ’ «q ‘ \ “yy A ut y xii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. * POTASH +* POTATOES WHEAT TURNIPS OATS & BARLEY At Harper Adams College | 1 Use potash in conjunction | Potash is neces- and at Monmouth Agr. In- | qt pays to use | with a suitable phosphatic | sary. to produce stitute last season Alsatian | Potash as well as | ang nitrogenous dressing. | the finest samples Potash produced the high- | M!trogsemous ma- | phis will produce a heavy | of oats and malt- | est yields of Potatoes. Bee wheat. crop free from fingerand toe. ing bar!cy. ==-== ——SSSSS = ~ | MANGOLDS HAY GRASS LAND | For weight and quality | ,_ : : of mangolds Potash is the Po get both weight FRENCH KAINIT 14°/ is giving astonishing fertiliser needed. The salt | #04 quality of hay | yocuits, It promotes an extraordinary growth in FRENCH KAINIT is of oe , ALSATIAN | of wild white clover. great value to this crop. UU So iT aot Sk French Kainit 14°/, Muriate of Potash 50 & 60°/, French Potash Salts 20 & 30°/, (Sylvinite) For supplies, apply te your local Manure Merchant. Particulars obtainable from The ALSACE-LORRAINE DEVELOPMENT & TRADING Co. Lid., Pinners Hall, Old Broad Street, London, E.C.2. BLOOD SALIS For HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, and all STOCK. Invaluable in the Hunting or Racing Stable. All Blood Disorders, Surfeits, Itching, Anemia, Un- thriftiness, Humours. &c., Heat Lumps and all Skin Affections, Indigestion, Off-Appetite and Sluggishness, ' Weakly Horses and Bad Doers, Coaxing the Appetite of Delicate Feeders, Promoting Growth of Bone and Muscle, Sterility or Barrenness. It “mixes easily with the food and quickly prepares animals for Show or Sale. Sold in Tins with Measure, Price 10/6 and 20/-, Quarter cwt. 45/-*, Half cwt. £4. * This tin contains more than 6 Half Guinea Tins—£3 3s. “~ ANAS WAY. ss Sy SAA SIKH SSS AX ’ “ANY SS Pe SNS. SSss To be had from all Chemists and Agricultaral Agents,-or direct from THOMAS BIGG, LIMITED, Church St., Deptford, London, S.E.8. . Carriage paid on orders of £3 and upwards. ; THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. = xil WHY PAY HIGH PRICES FOR MILLING OFFALS®? C.W.S. Palm Kernel Cake and Meal 6 75. OIL, 18°/, ALBUMINOIDS. IS THE Best and Cheapest Food FOR CATTLE, PIGS & POULTRY. SOLD BY ALL CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. C.W.S. Agricultural Department, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER. xiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. OFFICIALLY APPROVED BY CHARLES Y. KNIGHT FOR SLIDE-VALVE ENGINES. “The only Oil for Tractors.” THE BRITISH MONOGRAM OIL CO. (1919) LTD., Monogram Works, Acton Vale, W.3. "Phone No.: 1012 Chiswick. ‘Grams: ‘‘ Oilogramic, London ”’ THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. MB Soe —= F=g¢4 TRACTORS ee THE WORLD'S BEST Pek See ae < oS => Zz Coes =" AWARDED FIRST PRIZE | CLASS 1, GOLD MEDAL | ‘ | AND £20 BY THE | ® ROYAL AGRICULTURAL | 6 SOCIETY OF ENGLAND : | AT THE INTERNATIONAL 6 | TRACTOR TRIALS AT 6 |: LINCOLN, 1920. :: @) Two Sizes 10-18 B.P. & 45-27 H.P. Write for prices and full particulars— J. I. CASE THRESHING MACHINE C0. | 134, KING STREET, HAMMERSMITH, LONDON, W.6. W.H. 14 xvi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.. SS SS SSS SS ee REECE Rears Calves Without Milk. The only Cash Price cooked 32/- per cwt CALF MEAL Caane $e a priage Paid. 5 A 2/= extra Scotland this price. and Ireland. All Milk is wanted for Human Food. so w hy use it for Caif kkearing when Brantom’s Milk Meal will rear Splendid Calves ?—The Saving is now Really Wonderful. 112 gals. MILK are worth to-day £15 10 O 112 gais. MILK MEAL Gruel cost ww. 1250 NET SAVING > Sl O Sold by all Chief Corn Merchants, BRANTOMS Sn eee PATENT is Feeder is our new patented improvement on the Common Sense Feeder, the essential part being a new flanged teat securely held in its proper position by a Screw Top which makes it impos- ~_ sible for the calf to pull off and lose the teat in the litter—a trouble which is constantly recurring with the old pattern. ‘The slight extra cost is quickly saved in teats alone, and moreover both the metal and rubber parts are of superior quality J. H. Brantom & Co., Cattle Food MKiills, High St., Lambeth, London, HOLD FAST FEEDER wy FOR CALF TO PULL a OFF & LOSE TEAT. ay PREVENTS SCOUR 4 MAKES FINER CALVES Telephones : . | ‘Bankers : Day {ClTe: =. =) 7 18082 | LLOYDS BANK LIMITED, Y | WALTHAMSTOW 920 Ludgate Hill Branch, 5.C.4. STABLES, CITY <= = = 63817" | | | BARCLAYS BANK, Night - pao Nes 2037 | St. Johns St., E.G,1. elegrams : “THACKMEN, PHONE, LONDON” — eta ed Codes : ; : A.B.C. 5th EDITION. | Head Office: Leadenhall &t., J. BIRD, Proprietor. | *sisTere> Sse R.WATSON & Co., British and Colonial FUR, SKIN AND FEATHER -MERCHANTS. Largest Cash Buyers of. Moleskins in the World. 71 & 73 ST. JOHNS ST., CLERKENWELL, E.C.1.| AGS DEE THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xvii ae 2 eee ee ee ee ee ee ess Spraying — Limewashing The VERMOREL “ECLAIR” Series. No.2. The Pneumatic Hand Sprayer A small Spraying Machine with a liquid capacity of 34 pints. Pneumatic and very powerful mist spray. No pumping whilst spraying. Weight 54 lbs. Special au : strong lever tap, which gives easy control Hand Sprayer, 34 pints. and economises liquid. IN THIS SPACE WILL APPEAR EVERY All Types MONTH A DIFFERENT TYPE OF SPRAYER. Stocked up to 66 gallons capacity. Full particulars and catalogues from— COOPER PEGLER & Co., Ltd., 24B, Christopher Street, London, E.C.2. Se eee eee © eee eee ee 2 ees 2 ee PILCHERS STOPROT The Finest Wood Preservative for all Purposes aT er Treating Sections of Army Huts with PILGCHERS STOPROT. (Contractors, W. PATTINSON & SONS, Ltd., Ruskington, near Slcaford). PILCHERS, Ltd.. MORGAN’S LANE, LONDON, S.E. ¥VIL) The following PLANTS and machines supplied and erected at shortest notice in any part of the Country.j EXHAUST STEAM PAS- TEURIZING PLANTS- CHEESEMAKING AND WHEY BUTTER PLANTS- REFRIGERATING COLD STORAGE AND ICE MAK- ING PLANTS-COOLERS- CLARIFIERS-SEPARA- TORS-RETARDERS- PASTEURIZERS - BOILERS- STEA i ENGINES-GAS AND OIL ENGINES -MOTORS- PUMPS-CHURN WASHERS- and MISCELLANEOUS DAIRY FURNISHINGS. THE JOURNAL OF THE MI \WHEN BUYING Dairy Equipment. Dairy Engineering Dept., NISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. The Best Policy— Is to buy through the DAIRY ENGINEERING DEPT. of the Agricultural Wholesale Society Ltd. (the wholesale trading Federation of the Agricultural Co-operative Societies of England and Wales). Because— Experts study the. most economical and efficient means of construction and installation. Special time and thought is devoted to the choosing of rehable machinery, and every purchaser through the A.W.S. can rest assured that HIS interests receive first consideration. Because— Every Plant, or individual machine, supplied and erected is dependable. The Farmer is pro- tected against inferior and worthless choice and there is no profiteering. Because— The A.W.S. advisory experts know their business and judiciously advise where arrangements can be centralised and econom es eff cted for the benefit of the Farmer. Plains Write for full infornvetion and state your requirements to:— and [estimates FREE. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xix DO YOU KNOW that there are A HUNDRED WAYS in which CONCRETE can be advantageously used on the Farm? The following are only a few :— Farm buildings, Fence posts, Floors, Gate posts, Mangers, Manure pits, Pigstyes, Poultry houses, Silos, Tanks and Cisterns, Troughs, Walls and Wells. Write at once for ILLUSTRATED PAMPHLETS which will be sent, post free, on application to the CONCRETE UTILITIES BUREAU, Dept. 1B, 35, Great St. Helens, London, E.C.3. Farm Implements \S — and Property — USE CARSON'S PURE PAINTS FOR PATTERNS & PARTICULARS WRITE Walter Carson & Sons, GROVE WORKS . . BATTERSEA, S.W.11. Z WS also at Ng yy Uy, Up Ly MW, To Protect Your \S “Le S BACHELOR’S WALK, DUBLIN. xx THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. A UNIVERSAL - SKIMMER BURIES the Weeds at the bottom of the Furrow Fit a UNIVERSAL SKIMMER to your walking _~ Plow and weeds will go to the bottom of the furrow. Far ~~ better ploughing is therefore assured, and heavier crops are the natural outcome. Every farmer who wants to get the utmost from his fields should have the Universal Skimmer on every walking plow. The Universal Skimmer has numerous good features. Note these in particular :— Four cutting sides of different Skimmer adjustable to ANY angle lengths. on coulter. Will turn in all kinds of Rubbish Skims at regular depth. Will fit and Manure. any plow. ORDER WHILE IT IS POSSIBLE TO GET IMMEDIATE DELIVERY. PRIcE 27/= CarriaGE Forwarb. THE OLIVER 33 TRACTOR PLOW Can be changed from a two to a three-bottom Plow very easily and quickly. When ploughing conditions are hard and the tractor power limited this Plow can be used with two bottoms. Under more favourable conditions the third bottom can be added and maximum results obtained from the available horse power. The Oliver No. 78 Tractor Plow is the latest in design, power lift, and has other improved and exclusive features. Here are a few of them :— An exceptionally quick automatic lift. Has good clearance for transporting. Does even depth plowing at the ends of the field. Has wide range of hitch adjustment. Can be quickly changed from a three to a two Makes a perfect one-man outfit with any tractor. furrow plow. Fitted with combined rolling coulters and jointers. WALLACE (Glasgow) LTD. y DENNISTOUN ... . GLASGOW. /| We can give immediate attention to orders. _———= Xxl MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. No. 30—-Manuring of Pastures for Meat and Milk BY WILLIAM SomeErRvVILLE, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Rural Economy at the University of Oxford. THE experiments in the Manuring of Poor Pasture Land, which were designed in the first instance by Professor Somerville, and carried out by him for a number of years at Cockle Park, Morpeth, the experimental farm of the Northumberland County Council, are well known to farmers. They have since been repeated under somewhat varying conditions at other centres in Great Britain. The Ministry last year invited Professor Somerville to prepare a new and up-to-date Report covering the whole ground relating to the manuring of pastures for meat and milk. In publishing this Report the Ministry desires to direct the attention of farmers to the important and practical character of the information here summarised for their use. The Ministry and Agriculturists are alike indebted to Professor Somerville. Price 6d. net. Post free. JUST PUBLISHED. No. 32—-Rations for Live Stock ee #5, Woon; C.B.E., M.A., MIM, F.BS., Professor of Agriculture at the Unwersity of Cambridge. THis pamphlet describes a simple general method of working out rations for horses, cattle, sheep and pigs. The method is based on the tables giving the composition and nutritive value of a large number of feeding stuffs, and on the curves showing the relation between live weight and food requirements, which are given at the end of the pamphlet. The meaning of the figures given in the tables. and the method of using them. is explained in the text. Typical rations for all kinds of animals are worked out from the figures and curves. Price 6d. net. Post free. JUST PUBLISHED. Copies of the above publications may be obtained from the Publications Branch of the Ministry, 10, Whitehall Place. London, 8.W.1. xxu THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. You can easily double your Pasture Profits without Additional Outlay ? | : l | How and why you will understand if you write to-day for the following absolutely FREE information and literature: (1) A SPECIALLY LOW QUOTATION for the best Pasture and Meadow Mixtures for your land, climate and needs, (2) Toogood’s indispensable 80-page FREE FARM-SEED BOOK, and (3) FREE SAMPLES of our “ Better Crops” Grass and Clover Seeds, which have been again CHOSEN BY THE GOVERNMENT EXPERTS in 1921 to sow in the Royal Parks. Just send a postcard to-day. There is no obligation of any sort: but address us personally : EOOGoOoOD & Sons, L:TD., Seedsmen to H.M. THE KING, and Growers of “ Better Crops” Seeds only, SOUTHAMPTON. [N Hz PACE pp. o. OG. OG? borin 47-51,King Willam St, | K, © LONDON, E.C.4. TELEGRAMS : TELEPHONE : Inland: ‘* Paganini, Cannon, Avenue 1729 London.’’ (3 lines). Foreign: ‘‘ Paganini, London.’’ XXili CONTENTS. NoTes FoR THE MontTH Second Meeting of the Cowneil of Agriculture for England—The Supply of Store Cattlh—Employment in Agriculture: an Inquiry—The Inter- national Institute of Agriculture at Rome—Ministry’s Exhibition Work during 1920: Plans for 1921 MINIMUM PRICE OF WHEAT AND OATS OF THE 1921 Crop RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. R. C. Punnett, FLR.S. Notes ON ForaGE Crops. Jas. C. Brown THE HuMAN MACHINE ON THE LAND. W. J. Malden THE IMPROVEMENT OF PEATY Solis. Part II. Z. J. Russell, D.Se., PRS. Potato GROWING IN Essex. R. H. Currie INFLUENCE OF SIZE AND CHARACTER OF SEED ON THE YIELD OF PotaroEs. Redcliffe N. Salaman,- M.A., M.D. Common Scas or Potatoes. W..A. Millard, B.Se. Ducks As EaG Propucers. Oscar C. Brown, B.Sc. (Agric.) $1zE oF Ecce in RELATION TO AVERAGE PropucTION. Edward Brown, Ae. Se GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO HorTICULTURE: ITS LIMITS AND _ ITS PossiBinities. Win. J. Lobjoit, O.B.E. ... IsLE OF WiGuT DISEASE OF BEES 1 re ae Notes oN MANuRES FoR AprRIL. EF. J. Russell, D.Sc., FLR.S. Nores oN FEEDING StuFFs For Apri. EF. 7. Halnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab. ) AGRICULTURE ABROAD: Pickering Sprays— Wheat Improvement in Canada The Warble Fly Pest oe The First World Congress on Poultry Fishmeal for Pigs Foot-and-Mouth Disease Rabies fe + Index for Volume XXVII. PAGE Any of the Articles in this Journal may be reproduced in any registered newspaper or public periodical without special permission, provided that the source is acknowledged in each case. The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and the statements made by contributors nor for any statements made in the advertisement columns of this Journal, xxiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE .—Advertisements BY, AP POINTE BE: FISONS IPSWICH ye FPRARTILIZHRS eA le hae rT 2 ” The Best in the World. FOR YOUR HAY The following among other awards you will require Rickeloths that will have been obtained by their use :— thoroughly protect—that will stand gily } Championship of the World for Barley hard wear and give long service. Six Times—Brewers’ Exhibition, London. USE First Prize for Barley, Birmingham bf CERES 9 RICKCLOTHS Fat Stock Show, 1920. the Rickcloths that have been noted : S } 2 é oe STIS ea ONE Cup, — for quality and durability for more Twenty-Guinea Cup for General Crop than 90 years. of Roots. == Samples and Prices on application to: Write for Illustrated Pamphlet and Prices, a RAN DS &e JECKELE JOSEPH FISON & CO., LD.,| | veer v. IPSWICH. Manufacturers to H.M. The King. IPSWICH. SILAGE is the Best and Cheapest Winter ic for Cattie. , If You wish to increase your Head of Stock grow Silage Crops instead ||) me Bi) of Roots, and | a ORDER YOUR SILO NOW. : ey Mee | — Wir heal aa —— —= =z =——— = ~ = —_——— NS lu mt | ==; Particulars and Prices of— JEWSON & SONS, L™ TIMBER IMPORTERS AND ie ae Head Office— NORWICH. | THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE Nike os VY LLL. Ros FT. APRIL, 1921. NOTES FOR THE MONTH. THE second meeting of the Council of Agriculture for England was held at Essex Hall, London, on March 4th, when the Earl of Selborne, K.G., G.C.M.G., was elected chairman for the year. During the course of the proceedings the Minister of Agri- culture, Lieut.-Col. Sir Arthur Griffith- Boscawen, addressed the Council. Among the resolutions moved was one in favour of main- taining the existing restrictions upon the importation of live animals from abroad, in order ‘‘ to ensure the due protection of British livestock against the ravages of serious contagious disease.’’ An amendment to add. as an additional reason for the continuance of the embargo, the words “‘ and to encourage the maintenance of the milk supply of the country ’’ was carried; while an amendment to make an exception in the case of Canada was defeated. Another amendment proposed to refer the whole question of the embargo to a Committee of the Council for enquiry and report. This was defeated, as also was one for a joint inquiry by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Health. The original resolution, with the addition agreed to, was then carried by 71 votes against 15. It read as follows :— ‘“ That to ensure the due protection of British Livestock against the ravages of serious contagious disease, and to encourage the maintenance of the milk supply of the country, this Council of Agriculture for England most earnestly requests His Majesty’s Government to maintain the existing restrictions upon the importation of live animals from abroad, without attempting to discriminate between one importing country and another.”’ (36447) P6/198. 11,250, 3/21. M&S, a Second Meeting of the Council of Agriculture for England. eo SzcoND MEETING oF CouNcIL oF AGRICULTURE. [ApR., The Council accepted an invitation to send representatives to the National Conference, summoned by the Lord Mayor of London, at the Guildhall on March 9th, to consider the question of the embargo on Canadian store cattle, and Mr. Langford, Mr. Strutt and Mr. Rea were chosen to attend. A resolution was moved in favour of the compulsory registration, by County Agricultural Committees, of all bulls kept for service—except pedigree bulls used solely in the owners’ herds—if and when certified suitable for breeding purposes. At the request of the chairman, a brief state- ment on this subject was made by Sir Daniel Hall, Chief Scientific Adviser to the Ministry. After explaining the diffi- culties of implementing the resolution, he suggested that the matter be referred to the Livestock Committee of the Ministry. This was agreed to, and the resolution was withdrawn. The Summer Time Act was the subject of a resolution which recommended that ‘‘ in the interest of the agricultural industry the proposed Summer Time Act for 1921 should operate from May Ist till September 8rd.’> An amendment in favour of abolishing “‘ Summer Time ”’ was carried, and by 39 votes to 18 the following resolution was adopted :— ‘This Council recommends that, in the interests of the agricultural industry, summer time be abclished.’’ The provision of telephone call offices in rural areas was then discussed, and after Mr. F. lL. C. Floud, C.B., Permanent Secretary to the Ministry, had read a statement on the subject which had been received from the General Post Office, a resolu- tion in the following terms was carried nem con :— ‘‘ That in view of the proposed heavy increase in charges for telephones, and the failure of the ‘ Party Line’ system, the Government be requested to make all telegraph offices in rural areas public telephone call offices as well.’’ A resolution in favour of amending the Agriculture Act in relation to the method of fixing payments arising out of the suaranteed prices for wheat and oats was moved in the following terms:— ‘“ That. in the opinion of this Council. the statutory pro- vision whereby payments arising out of the guaranteed prices for wheat and oats under the Agriculture Act are based on an average vield for the whole conntry, is unfair to the more productive and highly rented areas; and that a separate average vield for each county should. be adopted, such average vields to be determined by the Minister on the / % 1921.]. THe SuppLY oF SToRE CAtTrue. z recommendations of the Agricultural Committee jor each administrative county, and that the Act be amended accordingly.’’ On being put to the meeting it was defeated. The follow- ing resolution in favour of re-introducing the payment of rewards for the destruction of rats was also defeated :— ‘That the Munistry of Agriculture and Fisheries be asked to press for the amendment of the Rats and Mice (Destruction) Act, 1919, in such a manner as _ to allow of rewards for the destruction of rats being paid from the County Fund.”’ Bo ~ ~ * * “ In the recent controversy on the question of store cattle in the United Kingdom, certain important facts have been over- looked. For example, few people appear to realise that the decline revealed by the Agricultural Returns collected on the 4th June, 1920, was confined almost entirely to the herds of England and Wales. ‘The decrease in Scotland, if compared with that of England and Wales, is seen to be very small, while in Ireland, whence Great Britain derives a large part of the total number of stores required for feeding, there was practically no change; indeed, the total number of cattle in Ireland last year was very little short of the highest number recorded. It follows that there was in Ireland a heavy surplus of store cattle, from which the decline in Great Britain could be made up, and the number of fattening stores shipped from Ireland in the seven months June to December, 1920, was, in fact, 281,000, as against an average of 168,000 in the corresponding period e* 1917, 1918 and 1919. ; It will be remembered that in January last there was an outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Ireland, and it became necessary to place an embargo on importation into Great Britain, with the result that the number of Irish stores received in the first two months of this year in Great Britain § has declined sensibly. It has now been possible to relax the restric- tions, and there is no reason to doubt that Imsh stores will appear again in large number in the English and Welsh markets. The considerable increase in the importation of Irish stores last year was reflected in the total number of store cattle re- turned as having been offered at those markets in England and Wales which are included in the Ministrv’s ‘* Return. of Market Prices.’’ The figure for the period June 2rd to Decem- A 2 The Supply of Store Cattle. 4 EmpLoyMent in Acricutrure: AN Inquiry. [APR., ber 29th, 1920, was 372,000, which conipares very favourably with the average of 281,000 in the corresponding period of the vear's 1917-1919. Since the beginning of the present year there has been a slight diminution, consequent upon the outbreak of disease already mentioned. The decline in the total stock of cattle in England and Wales last year occurred under each of the three main heads, which are ‘‘ dairy cattle,’’ “* other cattle’’ and ‘‘ calves,’’ but was most marked in the case of the last named. Since animals classed as calves in June last would now be described for the most part as yearlings, there may possibly be a moderate shortage of that class of store cattle this year. ‘There is, how- ever, ample evidence that calves are being kept or purchased for rearing in considerably larger numbers than in the same period in 1919 and 1920. The total of 4,868,000 head of dairy cattle in the United Kingdom recorded in 1920 was the lowest since 1918. In that year the number was 4,300,000, but during the next three years the total number of cattle in the United Kingdom increased by no less than half a million. With a larger dairy herd as breeding stock in 1920 and a keen demand for good class store cattle and calves there is no reason why the total stock of the country should not increase again as it did after 1918. * * * * * * For some time past it has been suggested that employment on the farms in this country is decreasing. In order to ascertain the facts, members of the District Wages Committees in Hngland and Wales have been invited by the Agricultural : Wages Board to give information trom per- sonal knowledge of conditions in their respective districts, and to this end schedules of inquiry were sent out. ‘The greater number of these schedules have been completed and returned and the contents may be summarised as follows :— (a2) That among men employed in connection with the care of animals, referred to as “‘Special classes,’’ there is little unemployment. (b) That among ordinary farm labourers unemployment is not much in excess of that which existed in January, 1920, and that it affects mostly the unskilled and inefficient work- men. (c) That among boys unemployment to an unusual extent is not genera! although it is anticipated that the increase in Employment in Agriculture : An Inquiry. 1921.] THe INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE. D their minimum rates of wages coming into operation in March will cause more unemployment. (d) That few women are regularly employed in agriculture, and only in some districts are any appreciable number unable to obtain work on the land. Briefly put, unusual unemployment is to re found in the north of England (Cumberland, Westmorland, parts of Lanca- shire and Yorkshire) ; in the Midlands, Herefordshire and War- wickshire are affected; in the South, Hampshire and Wiltshire ; in the Home Counties, Berkshire; in Wales, Anglesey, Car- narvon and Merioneth. It is agreed generally that farmers show a tendency to keep the minimum of workers necessary, and to suspend all work that may possibly prove unproductive. The grounds for their action are stated to be (a) the high wages for unskilled workmen; (b) difficulty in getting permits of exemption for inexperienced or inefficient workmen; (c) the shorter hours of labour; (d) the low yield of the 1920 harvest ; (e) the general decline in prices of farm produce; and (f) high rates and taxes. The representatives of the workers contend that land is not being cultivated properly, and that if ‘* good ”’ cultivation were enforced there would be no unemployment. They find in the increasing use of modern machinery another contributory factor to present conditions. It is satisfactory to learn that with few exceptions all ex- Service men formerly employed in agriculture have found re- employment on the land if they have so desired. At the same time. cases are given of men who have passed to other indus- tries owing to the higher wages prevailing. From time to time the Press of this country publishes statements of the condition of cereal and other crops through- Phe Thtertiationsl ale Ac lee ae ay) cus ed eae coe. very few oh ne of the per - cusure ab OMe. constitution of this Institute, or of the important work that it carries through in the interests of inter- national agriculture. ‘The origin of the Institute dates back to 1905 when it was founded in accordance with the terms of the Convention signed by the representatives of some forty different states. Since the year of its foundation other Governments have signed the Convention, and to-day it may be said that the whole civilised world contributes to the only agricultural organisation of an official character established by a formal treaty between different states, managed and controlled by 6 Tae [INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE or AGRICULTURE. [APR., representatives of those states and supported by their joint contributions. | As an international organisation cf an official character the International Institute of Agriculture may indeed be said to have been the first of its kind in the world; it existed prior to the formation of the League of Nations, and indeed it has the universal support that the League has not yet obtained. The origin of the Institute is interesting. The late Mr. David Lubin of the United States realised that the farmers of the world could not combine to adjust their cultivation to world needs so long as they remained isolated and did not know what those needs were. He therefore proposed to the King of Italy the establishment of an International Institute to study the conditions of universal agriculture, publish returns, collect and disseminate information on economic and technical agricultural questions, and so facilitate production and aid agriculture throughout the world. The King not only took up the idea with great enthusiasm but helped to erect the magnificent building that houses the Institute in Rome, and transferred to it revenues worth £12,000 a year. The chief object of the Institute is to prepare reliable reports of the estimated production of crops and available supplies throughout the world, and it was hoped that this information would prevent the cornering of crops on the one hand and violent fluctuation in price on the other. Bearing in mind the extent of international trade in foods and the essential unity of agricultural science the importance of the information that the Institute circulates will be understood. It is managed by a permanent Committee composed of representatives of the various signatory Governments resident in Rome. From time te time a General Assembly of delegates appointed by their Governments reviews the main principles of policy. Before the War this General Assembly met every two years, while the Permanent Committee meets at least once a month and several of its members devote themselves entirely to the Institute’s work. At present the International Institute of Agriculture is organised under three sections: (a) Statistics, (b) Agricultural ‘Intelligence and Plant Diseases, and (c) Economic and Social Intelligence. Each issues a bulletin in several parts, as well as occasional leaflets and notices to the Press. The Institute also publishes an annual statistical review of the world’s agri- culture and an annual summary of agricultural legislation. ‘Other publications also are issued from time to time. A meet- 1921.] Ministry or Acricuurure’s Exutprrs, 1920. T ing of the General Assembly was held in November last and this was the first for seven years, the operations of the Insti- tute having been curtailed by the War. * * * ~ - oe Durinc the War it was impossible for the Ministry of Agricuiture to be represented at Agricultural Shows, but The Ministry last year the long si ag effort was ; resumed and an agricultural exhibit was eee: sing yhirteeri’ of the leading’ Agricul: ee ae eer Be ee ee for 1921. erever the Ministry was able to secure adequate representation, the public response was very definite. Not only were farmers present in large numbers in search of information, but they took full advantage of the leaflets and other publications that were on offer. In addition to a purely agricultural exhibit, the Ministry extended its interest to the horticultural side of food produc- tion, and was represented on forty-five occasions by an exhibit either at Horticultural Shows or in leading country markets. This new departure was designed in the first instance for the benefit of the smallholder, whose methods do not keep pace with his enthusiasms and whose opportunities for acquiring wider knowledge of sound method are few. This exhibit has now been enlarged and its scope broadened, and it is sufficiently comprehensive to provide a good deal of help and guidance, even for the advanced fruit grower. Among the subjects on which information is given through this medium are reliable fruit stocks, pollination and “reversion ’’ of black currants, the preservation, grading, packing and storage of fruit, the history of insect pests and fungoid diseases, and the valne and methods of apicul- ture. In addition to the ordinary exhibit, a special one has been provided to show the results of investigations of Wart Disease as carried out at the Potato Testing Station at Ormskirk. Not only have specimens of diseased potatoes been on view, but there have been specimens of those immune varieties that may, when fully accepted by the industry, enable this country to show a clean bill of health. It is proposed during the season now about to open to provide an exhibit at thirty Agricultural, Fat Stock and Horticultural Shows. 8 Mintmum Prices or WHEAT AND Oats, 1921 Crop. [ApR., MINIMUM PRICES OF WHEAT AND OATS OF*THE 2921" CROP THE Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries thinks it desir- able to explain the procedure in regard to the minimum prices guaranteed by the Agriculture Act, 1920, in respect of wheat and oats produced in 1921. These minimum prices wil not affect the marketing of wheat and oats. Every grower will be free to dispose of He Wheat or oats in any manner he may desire, and at the best prices he can obtain. Calculation of Minimum Prices.—The Act provides that the minimum prices for any year are to be such prices for a statutory quarter as correspond to the following minimum prices for 1919, which is to be taken as the standard year:— Wheat ... 68s. per customary quarter of 504 lb. Oats. oc r46B es Me 336 lb. The minimum prices for 1921 will be ascertained and certified by three Commissioners appointed in accordance with the provisions of the Agriculture Act. As soon as possible after the completion of the harvest, the Commissioners will ascertain the percentage by which the costs of production of the wheat and oats respectively of 1921 are greater or less than the costs of production of the wheat and oats of 1919. The minimum prices for 1919 set out above will then be increased or decreased by the same percentage as the cost of production in 1921 has increased or decreased, and the equivalents for a statutory quarter of the prices calculated in this way will be the minimum prices per statutory quarter of wheat (480 lb.) and oats (312 1b.) respectively for the year 1921. As soon as the minimum prices are certified by the Commissioners, they will be published bv the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Payment to Growers of Wheat and Oats.—No payments will be due to producers of wheat or oats unless the minimum price for wheat or oats as fixed by the Commissioners for 1921 is greater than the average price for wheat or oats for the seven months from Ist September, 1921, to 31st March, 1922, as calculated from the weekly returns made under the Corn Returns Act, 1882. These average prices will be published in the London Gazette as soon as possible after 51st March, 1922. If the average price for wheat as so ascertained is less than the minimum price as fixed by the Commissioners, each 1921.] Mryximum Prices or Wuxart and Oats, 1921 Crop. 9 grower will be entitled to four times the difference for each acre on which wheat was produced, and if the average price for oats is less than the minimum price each grower will be entitled to five times the difference for each acre on which oats were produced. It is to be observed that if the average prices for wheat or oats are greater than the minimum prices no payments will be due, even though an individual grower may have sold his wheat or oats at less than the minimum price. It is the average price over the whole country which decides whether any payment has to be made to the grower and not the actual price realised by him. The amount payable to any individual grower will thus depend on the area on which he produced wheat or oats. The yield per acre which he obtained, or the price at which he sold his crop, will not affect the amount payable. It will be seen that it will not be known until after the end of March,- 1922, whether any payment and, if so, how much is due in respect of wheat or oats produced in 1921. Any payments then due will be made by the Ministry of Agricul- ture and Fisheries as soon as possible. Claims.—No payment will be made unless a claim is made in respect of the area on which the wheat or oats have been produced. Forms of claim for 1921 will be issued along with the forms on which the Agricultural Returns have to be made on 4th June, 1921. The claims must be forwarded direct to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries not later than the 30th June, unless the claimant can show that he became the occupier of the land after that date, in which case the Minister may accept a claim made not later than the Ist September, 1921. The claimant will be required to enter on the form of claim particulars of each separate field of wheat or oats. “The number of each field as shown on the 25-inch Ordnance Survey Map, and the ploughed area of wheat or oats in each field. will have to be stated. These detailed particulars are necessary to enable the Ministry and the County Agricultural Committee to verify the accuracy of the claim. Copies of the Ordnance Survey Map on the 25-inch scale can be purchased through any bookseller, price 5s. per sheet. In most districts copies of the map of the district can be inspected at the office of the County Agricultural Committee. Information as to the number of fields can also be obtained 10 Minimum Prices or WHEAT AND Oats, 1921 Crop. [ Apr., at the local office of the District Valuer of the Board of Inland Revenue. The Assistant Overseer may also possess a copy of the map of his parish. In case of difficulty, inquiry should be made of the Cultivation Officer of the County Agricultural Committee. Farmers are advised to take steps forthwith to ascertain the numbers of the fields sown or intended to be sown with wheat or oats as shown on the 25-inch Ordnance Survey Map. Mixed Corn.—Where wheat or oats have been produced intermixed with another crop, the amount payable in respect of the area of wheat or oats will be adjusted in such manner as may appear proper, but the claimant will be required to state in his claim the quantity of each kind of seed sown per acre in the mixed crop. Persons entitled to Claim.—The person to make a claim is the person who on the 1st September, 1921, is the occupier of the land on which the wheat or oats have been produced. Where, however, there has been a change in the occupation of the land and the outgoing tenant is under custom or other- wise entitled to harvest the wheat or oats, he will be the person entitled to claim. Land Negligently Cultivated.—In any case where it appears that land in respect of which a claim is made has been negli- gently cultivated, the payment to which the claimant would otherwise be entitled may either be altogether withheld or may be reduced to such extent as may be thought proper to meet the circumstances of the case. Penalties under the Act for False Statements.—The attention of farmers is drawn to the importance of filing up their claim forms accurately and carefully. Section 3 (3) of the Corn Production Act, 1917, provides that:— If for the purpose of obtaining a payment under this part of the Act, either for himself or for any other person, any per- son makes any false statement or false representation, he shall be liable on summary conviction to imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, uniess he proves that he did not know and could not with reasonable diligence have ascertained that the statement or representation was false. Amounts improperly obtained are recoverable by the Ministry. 7 1921. | VESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 11 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. Ig R. C. Punnett, F.B.S., Professor of Genetics, University of Cambridge. Wuen Mendel’s discovery in heredity, made over 50 years ago, Was unearthed in 1900, it was at once clear to a few scientific men that a new era in the breeding of animals and plants had commenced. What the breeder requires is “‘ certainty ’’ in so far as it is possible to attain it. When a given mating is made he wishes to know what is likely to result, and further, as he is generally of an intelligent and inquiring mind, why the result is obtained. : Through Mendel’s work and its recent development the breeder is at lastebeing placed in a sound position to answer these questions. Plant breeders have not been slow to take advantage of the new knowledge. Realizing early the immensely greater powers of control over the living thing conferred upon them by Mendel, they set to work to build up new strains of cereals and other valuabie plants. It is unnecessary to detail here the remarkable success which has already attended their efforts, nor to forecast the enormous economic gain that must come to the world when the methods are applied to the produce of vast tropical areas. The rapidity with which plant breeding stations are springing up in both hemispheres is evidence of the service which Mendel rendered to mankind. While, however, the plant breeder is now fairly embarked upon his career of conquest, the breeder of animals tends to lag behind. Nor is this difficult to understand. The majority of plants are self-fertilized. It is an easy matter to obtain the pure strains essential for purposes of Mendelian analysis, to keep them pure, and to purify any desirable new strain that may be built up. Animals with their bi-sexual mode of repro- duction are far more complicated things to deal with, and as we shall see later, the separation of the sexes may in itself intro- duce complications peculiar to this mode of reproduction. Then again, plants are cheap owing to their great powers of multipli- cation. ‘Thousands of wheat plants may be grown for the cost of a pig. This rapid multiplication of plants renders more easy the process of Mendelian analysis, and in consequence, man’s power of control over them is enhanced. 12 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. | APR , It was proved years ago that Mendel’s principles of heredity apply equally to animals and plants, and the importance of the subject led the Board of Agriculture some years ago to set aside a small grant from the Development Fund for research in animal breeding. The sum allotted, less than £200 per annum, only allowed of work being undertaken with small animals such as poultry and rabbits, but this in itself was no disadvan- tage, for the object of the work was not to improve the breeds of rabbits and poultry, but to acquire knowledge of the laws which underlie inheritance in animals generally. In this series of brief articles an attempt will be made to indicate the drift of these experiments, and their possible bearing upon economic problems. Before doing so, however, some account must be given of the nature of Mendel’s discovery itself; this is the corner stone of our present knowledge, and unless it is clearly understood, later developments must prove unintelligible. The essence of Mendel’s discovery may best be made clear by a simple example, from cattle. The breeder knows, perhaps only too well, that red calves are apt to appear occasionally even in the most highly pedigreed breeds of Aberdeen Angus or Holstein. They are rarely welcomed, and in most cases the breeder would go to a great deal of trouble to ensure that they never appeared in his herd. He tries to get rid of the taint by vealing the red calves, but still they come from time to time. He may try to explain their appearance as a throw-back to some remote ancestor, and though this may ease his conscience it does not help to purify the herd. |Mendelism enables the breeder to understand why these red calves appear, and provides the knowledge which can be used to prevent their ever appearing again. Let us suppose a Mendelian analysis of this case to be made in the usual way. The first step is to cross the red with the black, and it will be found that the pure black bull crossed with red cows will produce black calves only (see Fig. 1). For this reason. black igs said to be dominant to red, which is recessive. The next step is to mate together these first crosses, or F1* animals as they are termed. It will be found that their progeny, the F2 generation, consists of both blacks and reds, but not mixtures of the two colours, and if a sufficient number * For the sake of clearness in experimental work the cross is taken as the point of departure. The first cross animals belong to the first filial = F1 generation. When F1 animals are mated together they produce the 2nd filial or F2 generation, F2 animals mated together give a 3rd filial or F3 generation, and so on. Similarly in the other direction the parents are Jabelled as:the P1 generation, the grandparents as the P2 generation, and so on. 1921. ] RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 13 have been reared, it will be found that the blacks are about 3 times as numerous as the reds. To cover such facts Mendel devised a simple explanation in terms of germ cells. Red and black are alternative in heredity because they are alternative in the germ cells. A germ cell contains either that which causes the development of black pigment or something which causes the development of red pigment; but it is in the order of nature that it cannot contain both. It is not known at present what these contents are, but as their existence is recognised a name must be given to them, and they are usually spoken of as factors. A germ cell, in our cattle then, contains either the factor for black or the factor for red. When an animal breeds true to a given character it means that all its germ cells carry the factor for producing that character. All the germ cells of a true breeding black contain the factor for black, and all the germ cells of a true breeding red contain the factor for red. Let us refer again to the diagram (Fig. 1). Ifa red cow is crossed with a black bull a ‘‘ red ’’ germ cell from the cow is being united with a ‘‘ black’’ germ cell from the bull. The resultant animal will be black because black is com- pletely dominant over red, but although it is black it is not a true breeding black. When such an animal reaches maturity it produces germ cells corresponding to the germ cells by which it was produced itself. In thei formation the red and the black factors separate cleanly from one another, and in consequence half of its germ cells contain the black factor and the other half contain the red factor. The F1 animals, therefore, whether bulls or cows, produce “‘ red ’”’ and ‘‘ black ’’ germ cells in equal numbers, but owing to the complete dominance of black, they are indistinguishable from true-breeding blacks in appearance. Their genetical con- stitution, as indicated by the output of germ cells, is very different. The nature of the germ cells produced is diagram- matically represented in Fig. 1 by the contents of the white circles on each animal. When two F1 animals are mated, two similar series of germ cells, each consisting of equal numbers of “red *’ and “* black,’’ are brought together. Normally only a single ovum of the series produced by any individnal cow will be fertilised, but the probabilities are equal of this being a “‘ red ’’ ora “‘ black ’’ ovum. If it isa ‘* black ”’ ovum it is eanally likely to be fertilised by a ‘“‘ black’ or a ‘“‘red’’ sperm. In the former case it will give a true-breeding black: in the latter it will give a black of similar nature to the 14 RESEARCH ‘IN ANIMAL BREEDING.. | APR.., Fl animals. If it is a ‘‘ red’ ovum it is also equally likely to, be. fertzhsed by a. black ’’ or a red.’’ sperm. Ingphe former case it will give a black of similar nature to the F1 animal; in the latter case it will produce a red. In considering the calf thrown by an F1 cow mated to an F1 bull, the possibility of its being red is 1 in 4, of its being a true-breeding black 1 in 4, and of its being an impure black (i.e., a black that produces both ‘“* black ’’ and ‘‘ red ’’ germ cells) is 2in 4. If a large F2 gene- ration from a number of F1 cows mated to #1 bulls were raised, we should expect the F2 generation to consist of blacks and reds in the proportion 3:1; further, of the blacks, only 1 out of 3 would breed true to black in the sense of producing only black germ cells. The others would act like the F1 parents and throw about 25 per cent. of reds if mated together. The truth of Mendel’s interpretation can be further tested by mating what are called ‘* back-crosses,’’ t.e., by mating the F1 animals back to the parents. Suppose, as is shown on the left of Fig. 1 that the F1 cow is mated to the pure black bull. As the cow’s germ cells are of 2 kinds, ‘‘ red’’ and ‘‘ black,’’ and those of the bull are all black, we can obtain only two sorts of animals, viz., those formed by the union of a ‘* black ’’ ovum with a ‘* black ’’ sperm, and those formed by the union of a ‘“ved ’’ ovum with a ‘* black ’’ sperm. The progeny will be all black in appearance, but while half of them are true-breeding blacks the other half will be capable of throwing reds when suitably mated. Again, if the F1 animal is mated with the reces- sive red as shown on the right side of Fig. 1, the germ cells of the F1 being “* black ’’ and “‘ red ’’ in equal numbers, and the germ cells of the recessive being “‘ red,’’ red and black among the calves would be obtained in equal proportion. Moreover, all the blacks so produced would be of the same constitution, 7.c., they would have the same output of germ cells as the F parent. No true-breeding black would come from such mating. For the information of the breeder, the substance of the matter is that when a definite pair of alternative characters 1s being dealt with, of which one is dominant and the other reces- sive, only three classes of animals are possible: (J) the animal produced by the two like germ cells, both carrying the factor for the dominant character; (2) the animal produced by two like germ cells, both carrying the factor for the recessive character ; and (3) the animal produced by two wnhkke germ cells, one of which carries the factor for the duminant, and the other for the recessive character. (1) is the true-breeding dominant, (2) the true-breeding recessive, and (3) the impure dominant, 1921. ] RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING: 15 which, though like the pure dominant in appearance, differs constitutionally from it in producing both ** dominant ’’ and ‘ recessive ’’ germ cells in equal numbers. The true test of the pure bred animal is that it breeds true, and this we cannot tell from its appearance, but only from the nature of the germ cells that it produces. Mendel’s advice to the breeder is: ** Think in terms of germ cells.”’ It the breeder wishes to prevent the appearance of reds in his herd he must eliminate the red germ cells, as these may be carried by blacks as well as by reds. The impure dominant blacks must be weeded out in order to be sure that red calves will not appear. ‘Through Mendelism there is now a definite test that can be applied to determine whether the black is pure or not, and that test is to mate with the recessive; so mated, the true-breeding black will produce only blacks, while the impure dominant will produce an equal number of blacks and reds. This of course is a policy of perfection, and unlikely to be put into practice. Cows in a pedigree herd are too valuable to devote an appreciable proportion of their progeny to testing operations. But since red calves are never born of blacks, unless both parents are impure dominants, it is clear that the use of a bull which had been tested by mating to red cows, and shown to produce only black progeny, would be sufficient to prevent the appear- ance of red calves in a herd, whatever the proportion of impure dominants among the cows. In practice, therefore, the breeder would be well advised to make sure of the bulls by testing them, even though he did not trouble about the cows. But although nothing but blacks will be produced, the red germ cells will still be scattered about in some of the cows. He cannot be sure, without testing, that an animal sold out of the herd will be a pure black. Nevertheless if he makes use only of tested bulls the proportion of impure dominants among the cows will gradually decrease, and the possibilities of any beast sold being a true black will increase correspondingly. If, however, he uses a new bull without testing it, and it happens to be an impure dominant, a considerable increase must be expected in the number of red calves in later generations, for such a bull introduces as many “red ’’ germ cells as “‘ black,’’ and must necessarily increase the proportion of impure dominants in the herd. Th» breeder may reason that, provided the animal brought into th» herd had a good pedigree, why should further trouble be taken? If its ancestry shows an unbroken line of blacks for, say. the last 10 generations. is it not practically certain that none but b'ack calves will be thrown? The answer is that pedi- Bt 16 ReseARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. | APR., gree is certainly some guide to breeding capacity. An animal with a line of black ancestry is more likely to be a true-breeding black than one that has a strain of red in its pedigree, but it is not a sure guide. The ‘‘ red’’ germ plasm may be carried on by blacks for many generations, without coming into the open in the form of a red calf. This is illustrated by the imagi- nary pedigree shown in Fig. 2. The impure dominant cow in Gen. I carried “‘ red ’’ germ cells, and the ‘‘ red’? germ plasm passes down to her daughter. grandson and great-granddaughters. Fic. 2. Illustrating an imaginary Pedigree of Black Cattle. Bulls represented by Squares: Cows by Circles. True-breeding Blacks represented by fuli black: impure Dominants, carrying Red, represented half Black and half White. No red calf appears because all of these animals, except the last, have been mated with pure dominants. But at Gen. IV a new bull is introduced which turns out to be an impure dominant, though it may have had only black in its pedigree for generations. If one of the sreat-granddaughters of the original cow is mated to this bull, it will produce a red calf in Gen. V. Had the breeder tested the bulls used in Gen. ITT and Gen. IV by mating them with red cows a proportion of red calves would have been 1921. | RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. iy thrown. Had he then substituted for these animals bulls which threw only black calves to red cows he would have broken the sequence of the “‘red’’ germ plasm and established a true- breeding strain of blacks. Pedigree is a rough guide in esti- mating the possibilities as to whether the black belongs to the class of true-breeding blacks, or to that of the impure dominant blacks, but certainty as to the nature of the animal can only be arrived at by the direct test of mating to the recessive red. By using only tested bulls the breeder can be sure that none but blacks will appear in his herd. ‘The true test of the purity of a given animal for a given character is not in its pedigree, but the nature of the germ cells that it produces. We now have a reasonable explanation as to why the ‘* pure bred ’’ beast may be nevertheless in reality an impure dominant. The relation between the animal and the germ cells that it produces is the essence of Mendel’s discovery, and must in future form the basis. of the breeder’s operations where purity of breed and character is desired. Where the character depends upon a single pair of factors, as in the black-red cattle case, the procedure for ensuring purity is simple; and there are a number of such simple cases in connection with farm live stock. Many of these concern coat colours because they are evident and easily worked out. ‘The polled and horned characters in cattle form such an alternative pair, the latter condition being reces- sive.* Horned animals appear in polled breeds in precisely the same way that reds appear in black breeds, and the procedure for ensuring a herd true to the polled condition is the same as that for obtaining a herd of blacks which throws no reds. Further. Suffolk sheep are lable to throw inferior lambs with brownish markings in place of black. Records suggest that this character behaves as a simple recessive, and could be eliminated by the usual procedure. The characters that breeders are concerned with are rarely so simple and distinct as the black-red case in cattle, for the possi- bilities rarely form a simple alternative pair as already deseribed. Usually they are far more complicated, and all kinds of grada- tions are possible. | Hence arises the question whether such complicated cases can be resolved in terms of a few definite factors showing a similar scheme of transmission. Will the general principle of heredity outlined above serve to cover the more complicated cases? Is Mendelism heredity, or is there any other kind of inheritance? These questions will be dealt, with in the next article. * Polled animals carrying the horned character sometimes show small * scurs.” B 18 _ Nores on Forace Crops. [ APR, NOTES ON FORAGE CROPS. JAS. C. Brown, Vice- Principat of the Harper Adams Agricultural College, - Newport, Salop. A CONSIDERABLE range of forage crops is available to the farmers of this country, and several of these are well tried and have been grown for many years. There also exists a much more extensive array of forage crops, which, while obviously having great future possibilities, are at present debarred from being grown generally, through suffering from one or more weaknesses -which make them uncertain in productiveness, or unsuitable in use. An extensive field awaits the improver of crops, but the importance of the opportunity has not yet been fully realised. Gucerne.—Lucerne may be taken as an example of the need for improvement in fodder crops, as it seems certain that this plant could be made suitable to the varying conditions of sou and climate existing in this country. This crop has a habitat almost as wide as the wheat crop, and where it succeeds is. unrivadled in productiveness. All attempts to render soil suitable by manurial treatment seem to have failed, and inoculation by bacterial cultures has not given very hopefu! results, however effective in America. Throughout the world varieties of this plant are being developed suitable to particular regions, but in England no variety of this crop has as yet been raised which is aapted to the general conditions of agriculture of the country. In the United States Grimm’s Alfalfa, has proved its superiority over the common varieties, while a most interesting series of hybrids of Medicago sativa and Medicago lupulina have been obtained in Canada. It may be hoped that some of the types obtained by the above crossing may be suitable for cultiva- tion in Britain, and that they may possess the hardiness and suitability to the climatic and soil conditions of this country. Bush Vetch.—Other examples of plants which admit of improvement are Prickly Comfrey, the Flat Pea and the Bush Vetch (Vicia sepium) particularly the last. This plant is, without doubt, one of the most valuable fodder plants indigenous to this. country : herbage containing it is sought by cattle in preference to almost all other kinds. and greedily consumed. Tt possesses: 1921. | Notes on ForaGe Crors. 19 a combination of qualities not found in any other pasture plant. It is extremely hardy, has a penetrating root, spreads rapidly, and produces heavy crops of high quality. If it could be developed as an agricultural crop it would solve the problem of clover-sick land, and further add to our pastures a crop equal in quality to wild white clover, and in productiveness to the ephemeral red clover. Sir John Sinclair speaks of a field in Scotland growing a crop of this vetch, and giving yields equal to Lucerne. In its wild state it is a far superior plant to the wild ancestor of the cultivated vetch, and but for a single weakness, would have been to-day one of our most prized farm plants. The writer’s attention was drawn to the plant many years ago by-the preference cows showed for its herbage. Seeds were collected with a view to sowing a trial plot for grazing or mowing, but none of the seeds. sown germinated. This failure was experienced by others, some of whom suggest insect attack as the cause, but it is more probable that the seeds resemble hard clover seeds. It is only necessary to picture a field of the ordinary vetch with a permanent character to estimate the possibilities of this plant if it could be brought into cultivation.. The writer tried for several years to obtain hybrids of- this vetch with the culti- vated vetch but failed. Siberian Vetch.—Siberian Vetch (Vicia villosa) is another neglected species of vetch. It is largely grown in America, especially on very poor light soils, where it is known as the Hairy Vetch, and to a considerable extent in Russia and other conti- nental countries. During the 18th century it was grown to some extent in England, and its chief characteristics were noted accurately. Be rel c | ‘Mills’ Practical Husbandry published in 1762. says :— ‘* Another species of Vetch, viz., The Siberian, hardly known I believe to the generality of farmers in this country, bids fair to become perhaps the most useful of all fodder: for its stalks grow to a great length, and are well furnished with leaves which do not decay in the autumn like those of the other sorts, but con- . tinue green all winter in defiance of the hardest frost.”’ The Siberian Vetch is semi-biennial in character, and should be sown after midsummer and before September; if sown in the spring it produces seed in August and afterwards makes a second ‘heavy growth which continues until cut down by frost. At the BQ 20 NOTES ON Foracr Crops. [ APR., Harper Adams College it has often been growing luxuriantly, -and flowering profusely in November. It is more hardy than the Common Vetch, makes an earlier growth in spring, .and is more productive of foliage and flower, but the stems are harder and covered with hairs: also the plant appears to have a less watery composition. It yields seed abundantly in England. and owing to the small size of the seed a large number of plants are produced per bushel. Further, the plants branch profusely and fill up open spaces in the crop. Like the Bush Vetch. it will not hybridise with the Common Vetch. Vetches.—From the earliest times the Common Vetch has been a favourite forage crop, and at the present time is one of the best of British fodder crops. It is especially valuable for providing keep for sheep. and it makes an excellent food for horses after the watery period of growth is past. For cattle and pigs, however, it 1s inferior to pea forage, and it has no significance as a seed crop. Vetches need more support than peas and are more difficult to harvest in good condition. A very heavy crop of vetch and cereal forage is liable, especially in wet weather, to rot near the ground, some- times. to the extent of a third of the crop, and to ke laid flat. Makers of silage should consider the Harper Adams Soiling Crop No. VI, which does not lodge, and can be cut and carried without difficulty. The writer has not the experience to offer an opinion as to whether peas and beans are as suitable for this purpose as vetches, but in America oats and peas are commonly used. Another member of the Vicia family which is worthy of the attention of the plant improver is the Narbonne vetch which has erect stems and does not require the support of other plants. In appearance it resembles the bean plant more closely than the other members of the vetch family: it is fairly productive, but somewhat delicate. Vetches are not well suited for making into hay owing to their rapid deterioration under adverse weather conditions, the slow rate at which drying takes place, and their tendency to be over-run with mould in the stack. Well made vetch hay is good fodder, but pea hay is much superior. Vetches pulverise the soil but to a less extent than peas. Two British varieties are marketed, winter and spring, but the writer cannot distinguish between them. In 1916 the winter vetches sown in September were killed by frost, those’ sown in 1921. | NoTes on [forAGE Crops. 21 November survived. ‘I'wo new varieties have been placed on the market by the Svalof Plant Breeding Station, and for spring sowing they appear to be more productive than the common kind. ‘They produce more leaf, and there is a difference in the character of the flower. The Pea.—The pea has considerable claims to be regarded as the most important forage crop for feeding to cows and pigs. For sheep, in the green state, it is less suitable than vetches, and if fed in too large quantities will cause stomach trouble, but the dried haulm is prized by flockmasters for feeding to sheep folded on roots. At all stages of growth the pea plant is a suitable food for pigs, a fact which was well understood in byegone times, as the following statement from Mills’ Practical Husbandry shows :— ‘“ The farmers of Staffordshire frequently sow on poor light shallow land, a small white pea, which they never reap but turn in as many hogs as they think the crop will fatten, and let them lie upon it day and night.’’ Peas succeed on a wide range of soils, and can be grown suc- cessfully in all parts of the United Kingdom. They give the highest yields of forage on land containing a considerable per- centage of clay, and they prefer a lumpy tilth to a finely pre- pared soil. Field peas may be sown for forage at any time from the beginning of November until the middle of June, and a succession of pea forage can be obtained by sowing at intervals. The pea is a useful crop for reclaiming very light soils if sown early in the spring, while it can be cultivated successfully in many districts on the New Red Sandstone, where satisfactory crops of oats cannot be obtained. This land is poor in lime and rich in magnesia and overrun with the weeds fumitory and mayweed. Experiments with Field Peas.—In the soiling experiments, the garden pea was first used, but failed entirely owing to an insufficient root system for field conditions. Experiments were carried out later to test the relative value of field peas, with the following varieties:—Svalof Grinding pea, Svaléf Concordia, Svalof Capitol, Svalof Solo, Golden Vine, Bangalia, Kaiser, Wisconsin Green, English Gray, Dun, and the Maple pea. Of these the English Gray, Dun and the Maple proved the most luxuriant growers, but the Golden Vine also gave good results. All field peas have succulent stems until the flowering period, but after that time the stems harden rapidly, whereas those of the garden pea do not become so woody. Infinite pains 22 Notes on ForaGE Crops. [ APR.., have been taken to improve the garden pea, because of its value as a human vegetable food, but comparatively little has been attempted in the way of improving the field pea in England, although new varieties have been introduced by the Svalof Plant Breeding Station, and by the experiment stations of the Department of Agriculture of the Dominion of Canada. If, however, the wild pea which Mr. Sutton brought from Palestine is the ancestor of the field pea, unrecorded but very successful efforts must have been made in the past to improve it. As in the case of the common vetch, the cultivated varieties of peas are immeasurably more productive than the wild ancestor. Mendelian Experiments.—In the tests made at the Harper Adams College it was shown that the varieties in general cultiva- tion in England are the best at present obtainable, and as these leave much to be desired as fodder crops, a series of hybrids was made with the most luxuriant growers among the garden peas. A Mendelian scheme was planned but the F2 generation was too complex for the original scheme to be followed up with any hope of immediate success. ‘The results are interesting. To give an example, a cross of the Gladstone garden pea with the maple field pea yielded green, blue and yellow seeded peas, both round and wrinkled in each case, all of which have been fixed. As regards vegetative characters, both the parents being tall, the appearance of a considerable percentage of dwarf plants was a surprise. The object of the experiment, was, however, to breed an improved Soiling Pea in the shortest possible time, and for this purpose fourteen of the most luxuriant plants were selected, and tested, those possessing unstable shed acters or showing weaknesses were eliminated. The type finally selected has much more foliage and stem, is 4 more rapid grower, and is less woody than the field pea. Attempts. made to improve the pea as a soiling crop ‘revealed the possibility of improving the plant as a seed crop. Owing to long and persistent efforts the pods of the garden pea have been increased in size, while those of the field pea have remained comparatively small. By crossing with the garden pea, and making selections, it has been found quite easy to increase the size of the pod without reducing the number of pods per plant, and types have been established especially suited to growing in mixture with oats to be harvested for seed. Mixed Pea and Gat Crovs.—It has for long been a practice in the neighbourhood of Market Dravton to mix peas with the 1921. ] Nores on Forace Crors. 23 oat crop to be harvested for thrashing, but the difficulty has always been to prevent the crop becoming laid. |The only precaution possible. is to keep the proportion of peas small. If the mixture is to be harvested in sheaves, it is necessary that the pea should ripen in advance of the oats. A mixed crop of peas and oats is one of the means by which the grain vield of weak soils can be raised. It is posstble to grow the mixture successfully on soils which will not give a piofitable crop of oats. The presence of peas in a crop of oats seems to increase the growth of the oats, and particularly in respect of the size and vield of the ear. The chief drawback to the crop. is the risk of its lodging as a result of the heavy load of grain it carries. Tt is hoped that the new peas, with light foliage, compara- tively short.stem, and early ripening, will help to make this mixture popular, especially on soils where the oat yield is below 40 bush. per acre. On really first-class oat soils the mixture would not be satisfactory. In combination with Duns oats a mixture of peas and oats gives the heaviest hay crop obtainable. Cereals.—All the cereals, when cut green, are good fodder for all kinds of live stock, and there appears to ‘ie little to choose betw een them; the oat, however, is considered the most suitable. Rye is important because of its earliness, and its tnilids to erow during the winter months, but unfortunately its period of usefulness is short, as the stems become hard much more rapidly than in the case of the other cereals. It is rejected by live stock after seed formation has commenced. ‘Three varieties are known in England, Common Rye, Giant Rye, and St. John’s Day Rye. Giant rye gives the earliest and heaviest crops. Many other varieties exist throughout the rve growing districts of the world, but these have not yet. been tested in this country. Barley, in its-early stages of growth, is preferred to all other cereals by sheep which will pick out this plant first in grazing. For feeding to cattle, however, the awns are a drawback and are dishked. Barley can be sown later than oats with the certainty of securing a satisfactory crop. ‘The winter barleys are most suited for the purpose of fodder cropping. A recent introduction is Manchurian barley, which owing to its leafy and rapid growth, appears to have superior possibilities as a forage crop. 24 Notes on Forace Crops. | APR., Wheat, cut green, is excellent fodder, and a mixture of wheat and vetches stands much better than mixtures of barley and vetches, or oats and vetches. In districts which lie at too high an altitude to ripen wheat, and where it grows luxuriantly, i6 is worth while considering the growing of wheat for dry fodder to be cut in the milk stage, tied into sheaves, and dried in the stook. Cattle thrive remarkably well on wheat straw harvested in the green stage. Browick Grey Chaff wheat, owing to its hardiness, is recommended, but it is hoped shortly to put into cultivation varieties specially raised for the purpose of giving large yields of stem and leaf. The oat has always been recognised as one of the _ best of the cereals for fodder, particularly the old varieties such as Clemrotheray, the seed of which can be obtained in quantity. The modern seed oats are unsuited to the purpose, because of their habit of growing thinly on the eround, and their want of hardiness. By far the _ best of all oats for forage is the variety known as Duns, which unfortunately is not in general cultivation. It is the ideal forage oat, it grows densely on the ground, is leafy, succulent, tall, and stands well, and it is difficult to imagine how it could be improved. At the Harper Adams College, during a year of badly laid corn, a field of Duns oats, although six feet high, remained erect at harvest time. The ears are light but large, and the grains long and lean, in consequence of which it does not give yields of grain on good land equal to those of the grain oats. A great point in its favour as a fodder crop is its lateness, and its slow ripening; it remains green and succulent for a long period. It consists of many types, and could be made more uniform by selection. Buckwheat.— Buckwheat has long been known as a useful forage crop. Mills among other writers speaks well of it. He SVS :— ‘“ Milch cows fed on buckwheat will yield an extraordinary quantity of milk, remarkably good for making into butter and cheese, and another advantage attending this pasture is that it will continue green in the driest time of summer when other grass is burnt up.’’ Buckwheat has been grown and fed successfully at the Harper Adams College in conjunction with peas and rape, and the writer urges a trial of this mixture by those who have poor light soil. Buckwheat will grow on the poorest soils, and if the crop were eaten off by sheep the land would be in a con- bho oh 1921. ] Notes on ForaGe Crops. dition to carry a crop of winter barley, even on soils too poor to give a profitable crop under ordinary methods of cultivation. Beans.—The bean plant is quite good forage, and is readily eaten by cattle, even the thick hard stems. Sheep do not eat the bean plant if other fresh green food is available. The bean has a special value in forage cropping, as it is the only forage plant which can be trusted to remain erect under all conditions, and which can be sown at any season of the vear. For cutting green, the common winter horse bean is the most suitable. For spring sowing for seed production, the Mazagan is the most satisfactory. As in the case of the pea the roots of the bean pulverise the soil and leave it enriched for the following crops. In making mixtures con- taining beans it is necessary to sow at least one bushel per acre to obtain the strength necessary to support a heavy crop of trailing plants. 26 Tue Human Macuine on THE Lanp. | APR. THE HUMAN. MACHINE ON THE > LAND. | W. J. Mavpen. _ Iv is not necessarily the strongest labourer who does the most work or who is the least tired at the end of the day. Much labour at the present time emploved in arable farming is inefficient, and consequently energy is misdirected. Assuming that. 100 per cent. represents the efficiency of a labourer. of all-round skill,.the average for the whole country to-day is not more than 60 per cent. Something lke £100,000,000 is paid. yearly in wages. Forty per cent. wasted through inefficiency is a big charge on the land and the country. When several millions of acres went from the plough in the ’eighties and ‘nineties of the last century, and the rural population largely drifted into the towns and industries, the farmers lost _a big portion of the highly skilled men, and many of their more promising sons. Roughly £1,000,000,000 was estimated to have gone out of farms and land capital in those years, and a proper wage reward could not be paid to the labourers. The War made a heavy call on the men of the land, and many skilled labourers have, as a result, been lost to the industry. Without skilled labour full farming cannot be carried on, but what signs are there that anything is being done to train men to a higher efficiency? Yet the time must come when much of the land will go out of cultivation, unless workmen be endowed with more skill. We are in a fairly mechanical stage on the land, and doubtless invention will come further to our aid, but though a percentage of trained mechanics will be required, it seems perfectly safe to state that in a few vears a highly skilled farm worker will command very high wages. The skilled man on the land, able to turn to any kind of live ‘stock, good in the hay time and harvest, a:skilled hedger, in fact not lost anywhere, has become a very rare man. If he can do a few of these things really well, he can pretty well make his own terms, and he will be in . greater demand as years go on. In many districts labour has so fallen in skill that farmers have accepted a very low standard, being in fact glad of any- thing that will see them through at all. The farm worker has descended very much from a farm artisan to a farm labourer; he is often possessed of little skill, and having little joy in his ) | 1921. ] THe Human MacuIne on THE LAND. 27 work cannot take the pleasure in it that his fathers did. Work done in that way becomes drudgery. In saying this one makes many exceptions. In all ways something is needed to bring about better conditions, to give the farm workers a greater interest in their occupation, and to make their lives more valuable to themselves and to others. Interest must be aroused in their work. They should be made skilled so that they may feel an honest pride in their work just as they should in their play. Farm Labour as Farm Athletics.—I have always regarded physical work on the land as farm athletics. ‘This is probably due to the fact that I was reared in a district where work was exceptionally skilled, and where competitions in the arts of husbandry excited as much interest as a local football match does to-day. As a native of Bedfordshire, I was brought up under the direct influence and outcome of those remarkable historic Woburn Sheep Shearings which began towards the end of the 18th and continued into the 19th century. It was in them that the great effort of the Dukes of Bedford, Coke of Holkham, Ellman of Glynde, and other giants of those days set themselves to wake up farming from the sleep in which it had slumbered for some centuries. These gathermgs were notable in that they instituted in a broad manner competitions by workmen in acts of husbandry. These farm workmen’s competitions acquired world wide repute, and before the 19th century opened a few county agricultural societies were founded, mainly to further skill in farm labour. Naturally from immediate association Bedfordshire imaugurated a Society; and until quite late in the century when hard times in farming stopped them for a few years the competitions aroused the greatest enthusiasm, and exercised. a big influence. Farmers and workmen shared equally in the spirit of emula- tion aroused, and the county ploughing matches even sixty vears ago were the hunting ground where the large agricul- tural machinery firms sought men of skill and resource to be taken to demonstrate the value of their implements and machines throughout the world. Further, the market gardens and the seed growing areas in the Biggleswade and Potton district developed men of skill in the handling of tillage tools. Thus, in that and the surrounding counties, arose an all round skill hard to excel. Skill made work easy to the men, com- petitions aroused enthusiasm, and enthusiasm led men to work with a will. It was not a question of one man being set apart 28 THe Human MacuinE on THE Lanp. [ Apr., to do a particular job; everv man expected to be an all-round hand. Suggested Inter-County Competitions.—There are many men farming successfully to-day who owe their success mainly to taking up farms where their predecessors had trained the men to-skilled work. Had they not found them they could not have trained them. It is of little use to find fault with bad work if one cannot show the man the right way. In rather a widely varied life on the land I have found nothing so valuable to me as those few years when I took part in and learned farm work from the skilled artisans amongst whom fate threw me, and every youth going on to the land should make as much study of it as of any other section. I should like to see teams of young farmers of one county challenging those of other counties in a wide range of acts of husbandry; inter- county contests between the farm workmen, with a challenge shield for the best county; and inter-schoo! contests between schools in different districts. It would be far more exhilarating than seeing two parishes playing indifferent football! Few have thought what a lot may be learned in farm work in a village school playground; and how a simple training may teach much that is useful. All sports and physical work should be learnt when one is young. Training in Farm Labour is Easy.—However, training in farm labour is a very simple thing; and is capable of being taught easily and systematically. That amongst older men, there would be opposition to this there is no doubt, and many who have tried to inculcate fresh methods have met a resistance which has caused them to discontinue their efforts, as they have found that sometimes it is better to carry out a bad method well than a good method badly. In systematising work I have followed closely the practices in the more strenuous sports. No matter what the physical work or sport, no one commences to do it in the right way, whether it is handling a golf club or a scythe, and unless the proper wav is shown little skill is obtained. It has to be remembered that a man is a machine—the most wonderful: machine in the world—capable of doing any work performed by the most intricate machinery. He is superior to farm animals because they are horizontal machines capable of doing work only in a straight line forward or backward. Man is a hinged vertical machine not onlv doing this, but able to stoop and lift heavy weights vertically, which a horse cannot do. 1921. ] Tue Human MACHINE ON THE JLAND. 29 Also he has lateral action; by a heave from his hips and a shoulder jerk, he can pitch a sack of wheat sideways some feet clear of himself. He also has linked action through the arms by which he gets arm swing in association with body swing, and so can use a scythe or an axe, and throw heavy bodies from side to side by hand grip. Again, when using a tool he can get an up and down action from arms and body, as in pumping or threshing with a flail. He can also pull with the arms, using body weight. He can utilise the back swing over the hips, together with the leg drive, as in rowing, hoeing, or tug-of-war. He can lft upwards as in digging, or pitch sheaves, or swing a long hedging bill. Im fact there is practically no action or combined action he cannot perform. His hinges at the ankle, knee, hips, shoulders, wrists and fingers are under the influence of muscles and tendons, which flex and give rise to powerful actions, which are often assisted by dead weight, and their proper use takes advantage of leverages; more- over, with tools in hand a man finds leverage from these as well as from outside conditions. We do not think of ourselves as machines until we go in for sports; vet a skilled athlete is but an expert artisan in an unproductive calling. A man with skilled training takes little out of himself as compared with one untrained. It is the same in all farm work; brute strength is helpful, but a weaker man who has got the knack can beat the unskilled any and every time, just as an old man who is skilled is worth more on a farm than a voung one unskilled. ‘* Putting one’s back into work ’? means much more than mere exertion, it Means using one’s force and dead weight to the best advantage. The greater part of al! heavy work should be done by the back and legs through leverage and momentum - obtained through the joints or hinges, and to a large extent these are obtained merely by skill in actuating them, viz., learning how to apply them to the best advantage. The arms and hands are convenient means through which the power is transmitted to tools, they give ‘‘ finish’ of work, and add to celerity. Knack is merely a proper co-ordination of mind and muscle brought to the position where effort is not needed to work them together; but one may have a bad knack so it is necessary to learn the correct method of working. When the best method of working is decided upon, it will be found that it comprises a certain number of actions to com- plete an operation; and these actions will be repeated in the same sequence in each operation. I have analysed the various 30 Tue Human MacuIne on THE Lanp. [ APR., operations into individual actions, eliminated the wasteful ones, and taught the others separately. Next they are run together and operation is linked to operation. As these are repeated there must be an easy connection between them making a series of smooth movements each similar, but necessary for continuous work. We see it in mowing, hoeing (when done in the proper manner), digging, axe work, planting cabbages, &c. Finally, the human machine tunes itself up to a speed compatible with endurance through an average working day. Need for Intelligent Observation.—However, the human machine should be made to bring its intelligence to bear, to realise its powers, and the mechanical forces within it. The simplest laws of mechanics must. be followed. These can be taught very simply and quickly by simple illustration. It may be mentioned that little effective work can be done with the legs straight and rigid. The body and legs must relax, other- wise the rocking and rolling actions obtainable about the hinges or joints at the hips, knee and ankle, so necessary to give effect to body swing, either fore and aft or laterally, cannot be obtained. 'hey give an opportunity to take advantage of good footwork and stance—two of the first essentials, as they afford the opportunity to make use of momentum, and to regain equilibrium, without which rythmical actions will not be maintained. Then again relaxation is needed to allow the body to go down to the squat or crouch to do any work where stooping is required, and to do it without a backache—as in cabbage planting. The body must always have an easy balance or poise, or it will be overbalanced, so that power is lost and a proper sequence of actions cannot be taken. It is not necessary to go near to a man to see if he is working properly; it is shown as soon as he can be clearly seen. Sufficient proof is afforded by the fact that a man keeps time with himself throughout his work. It may be clearly seen whether a man works inside his work, or uses a tight grip where he should use the running hand, or uses the ham knuckle jerk in lifting a sheaf on to a wagon or rick, or is using his body leverage and not merely an arm lift or swing. Whether he understands the simple laws of levers as applied to the mechanism of his own body, has some knowledge of a suitable line of draught, realises the advantage of using his reach, has a notion of timing an action or values the effect of wrist work and other points, is discernible to anyone who has a proper knowledge of skilled workmanship. 1921. ] THe Human Macuring on THE Lanp. 31 Simple Instruction.—By simple demonstration all these are easy to teach to the old or young. It is so simple that it can be taught to children of almost any age, and could be taught in any village school playground; moreover, a boy leaving school at fourteen could be trained thus in many necessary forms of work, and be skilled in work, whereas other- wise he would go on to a farm without skill, and often by working where poor skill prevails, even after a lifetime on it would remain inefficient. | That strength is not the ruling influence in effective working I recently demonstrated through a cinematograph film showing cirls after three months’ training doing very varied work, including most of the heaviest done on the farm. By the proper application of their powers they were able to work with- out undue fatigue, they got the knack of doing the work in the most effective manner, and they worked with perfect rhythm. It may be taken as a pretty safe axiom that if dung is loaded and spread by long handled forks, if hoeing is done by dub- headed hoes instead of swan necks, and if hedges are trimmed back with short (one handed) swaps or fagging hooks, then the standard of work generally is a low one, whilst the absence of cabbages in a stock raising district is pretty good evidence that the men have not learned to stoop without making their backs ache. Yet nothing is easier than transplanting done skilfully. With a proper stoop there is no need for back ache. In many districts there is not a man who can plant 2,000 cabbages a day, vet after short training they are able to do it, and find it easy to plant 5,000. Where this is done the crop is cheaper and more reliable than any other form of root growing. In view of the large number of persons who have come on to the land wholly unskilled, with lhttle likelihood of training whereby they will become skilled, whether they come as work- men, small holders, men from the services. allotment holders, who are spending energy with small results, one cannot fail to see the low efficiency on the land. Bovs come to the land as stop gaps with no knowledge, skill; or incentive to work. They think that a fixed wage now will see them through hfe, but without skill it will not. Any training or incentive to skill is sorely needed to restore and maintain craftsmanship in agri- cultural labour. It is necessary if the land is to: be kept under cultivation. The significance of this is obvious. 32 THE IMPROVEMENT OF PxEATy SoIzs. [ Apr., THE IMPROVEMENT OF PEATY SOTLS: PART 11.—THE eran. AND SANDY . PEATS. H.. J.. Russeni;- D.8c., F-R-S.; te Director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station. In Part I of this article. published in the March issue of the JournaL, p. 1104, Dr. Russell gave an account of the “True Peats ’’ in low-lying and high-lying districts, and the method of reclamation. THESE soils form a transition between the true peats and true soils ; they arise in conditions where bacterial action goes on more slowly than in ordinary soils, but more quickly than in true peats; organic matter, therefore, accumulates but without forming a separate vegetable layer. They may also arise when a true peat, after drainage, shrinks and finally disappears, again exposing the old surface on which it had rested. In general these soils present greater possibilities of reclama- tion than the peats. They usually have the same defects as the peats, viz., wetness, acidity and lack of phosphates, but in a less intense form; it was through these defects that the soil bacteria were unable to complete their work, and until they are remedied crops cannot make proper growth. Silty Peats.—An interesting example of the silty peats is found in Bodmin moor, Cornwall. The elevation is 800 to 1.000 ft. and the rainfall probably about 40 to 50 in.; both are high enough to interfere with ordinary agricultural processes and with the decomposition of plant residues in the soil, but the conditions are more favourable than on the higher lying Dart- moor, and in consequence there is considerably less deposit of layers of peat. The composition of much of the moor soil is different from normal agricultural soil in its higher content of organic matter. but it is by no means as far removed from normal soil as is peat. It is possible also that peat may have occurred on some of these areas, but if so it has been denuded subsequently faster than it could be reformed. Some of these soils have the composition shown in the table on the next page. In all cases except Laneast the surface soil was black, under- lain by a band of broken stone; lower down was a reddish yellow subsoil. Where drainage is possible there is no insuperable 1921. | THe IMPROVEMENT OF PEATY SOILS. 88 Surface Soils Subsoils cnanct | David-| Cardin- fw.) | tor .nct | David- Wilsey Down < iecore stow ham boa or stow esis Moor Down ‘omg Moor Cut | Wild) | «Wild | wild | wild | wild | Wild | Wild Fine gravel 3°2 2°5 3°9 16 10-4 ae 6:1 2°7 Coarse sand 9°5 63 18 1-5 17°8 63 | 39 17 Fine sand 26°3 31°5 20-2 15°4 16°4 32°4 | 19°2 14:1 Silt 18°1 20°5 21:3 | 33°99 | 13°6 170 | 18:2 | 341 Fine silt 25°8 19°1 25°2 | 17:0 | 11:0 24:0 | 28-4 18°8 Clay 2-4 18 4°5 a1 3°5 60 11°2 Stones ... asc} 12°5 12-4 Organic matter) 91 11:9 151 1195 | 170 | 62 | 86 | 12°71 Nitrogen seats “oe 035 | O46 | 0°63 0°48 0°15 | 0:23 | 029 Carbonates ...|_ nil nil | nil j| trace} nil nil | trace | trace Acidity sd present | present | Lime requirement 0°48 0-67 | Total potash (K,0O) 5 | « Oi) 20°53 | Phosphoric acid | | | (P,0;) 0-04 | 0-10 difficulty about reclamation; some has been carried out already on Wilsey Down. The first ploughing is heavy because of the broken stones, sometimes the work proves even dangerous when done with a horse plough; there is less difficulty with a tractor. More important perhaps than anything else in these high districts is the selection of suitable varieties of crops. The Cornish oat— ‘" American ’’—is still grown on the old moorland farms as it has been for 40 years past. Preliminary trials indicate, how- ever, that some of the newer sorts such as ‘‘ Yielder’’ and “Golden Rain’’ may prove distinctly better. Phosphates (superphosphate or perhaps basic slag) should be liberally used to hasten ripening of the cereals and to improve the feeding value of the rape and seeds grown for sheep feeding. Nitrogenous fertilisers and lime are also likely to be effective. There is much room for carefully considered experiments on the improve- ment of these soils. Another group lies at lower altitudes and under a smaller rainfall; it offers even better prospects of reclamation; examples are found in the Staddon grits of the Lower Devonian series at Newlyn Downs and St. Brioch’s, Cornwall. Analysis of the soils gave the results shown in the next table (there are no important differences between the waste and the cultivated soils). An example of reclamation of this type of land is seen on Tre- mollet Down where a tract of 280 acres was taken into 0 34 THE IMPROVEMENT OF PEATY SOILS. [| ApR., | , St. Brioel’ | j Je Jb) CIUNS. F S i i 5 | Newlyn Dewns. t. Brioch’s. Sai boatles aa tents . | Culti- ~ Culti- | Culti- Tae ‘Tee Wich 7s | Waste. | Jateg, | Waste. San Waste. | vated. | Paes a = i { | Laboratory number ... | 10 | 11 10 ~ bi Fine gravel 87 74 2°4 4°7 3°9 | 3°5 Coarse sand 9°2 55) Gul 8°5 774 7°2 Fine sand 20°3 18°3 28:9 | 22°8 294 | 21°3 Silt 24-2 27°8 17°8 30°3 16-2 | 33-9 Fine silt 3. 17-5 15°3 20°8 12°9 21°0 | 1-0 Clay*o fie 2 | | “OPS 10-0 9°3 6°6 9725 4 WAS Stones a0 ee Seer | | 20 15 17 | 24 Organic maiter Ay 76 92 | 96 9°0 61 | 69 | Nitrogen ae 1 0-21 0°27 § 0°23 0°30 0:10 | O-15 Carbonates ... ope 4 nil f- nil 0-02 nil nil |] Acidity ... tae ... | present | present | present | present } present | present j Lime requirement... | 0:06 0:23 O37 | FO.2 Total potash (K,O) ... 0°35 0°55 048 | 0°32 Total phosphates(P,0;) | 0:03 0-07 0-01 » cultivation by the Duchy of Cornwall in 1909-10 at a cost of approximately £11 per acre. Since the land readily lets at £1 per acre the project has been profitable. ‘The gorse and heather were burnt, and the land was ploughed; no further treatment was needed. The chief expense was incurred in making the road through the land and in setting out and enclosing the fields. These are of 8 acres each and fenced in with the usual Cornish earth wall faced with stone, on the top of which hazel and other bushes will grow; substantial fences are needed to shelter the live stock. The main feature of the farming is stock raising, and the farmers usuaily adopt the following rotation—oats, roots, barley, seeds mixture—which is then left as long as possible; some of it has been down too long and is beginning to be weedy. The land obviously needs lime which was not applied as part of the reclamation; spurry, sorrel and polygonium are all common on the stubbles, but the reclamation has been a complete success. Sandy Peats.—Numerous instances of these soils occur in Cornwall, and they are commonly in bad repute. Few people who know them speak well of the black granite, or as they are locally called ‘‘ growan,’’ soils of Cornwall, yet there seems no reason why they should not be cultivated. Some of them are very acid—one indeed is the most acid soil the writer has found in England—but this could be overcome by a sufficient dressing of lime. 1921. | THe ImpROVEMENT OF PEATY SOILS. 35 The following analyses of soils are taken from the St. Buryan’s district, between Penzance and Land’s End; for .- purposes of comparison the values for a highly fertile potato soil near Penzance are also given:— Trevidder Near Boscawen. Ludevan, Penzance. Moor. Waste. Waste, Cultivated ig: sen sand soil, iva Surface. | Subsoil, Fine gravel ... 21°0 9°3 8-0 2°8 4°6 Coarse sand 40°9 18°1 16-4 he ae 11°6 Fine sand 6°6 20°5 30°8 57°6 16°9 Silt 81 21:1 172 29 | 9-4 Fine silt 4°7 8:8 9-2 7°4 9:2 Clay 1-1 2-2 15 roth to Stones 15 10 23 | Organic matter (loss | on ignition) ... 13-2 10°0 8's o°4 Nitrogen ... 0°39 0°37 O19 | O-19 Carbonate (as calcium carbonate) nil nil nil 3°2 2°6 Acidity present high present | absent | absent Px value * os 4°8 4:6 | 5:2 Lime requirement for neutralisation + 0°40 Oger! | Or44 none | none Phosphoric Acid (P,0,) Total bey 0°10 0-08 0°25 Potash (KO) Total ... 0°52 0:28 0°54 O44 “This measures the intensity of the acidity but not the quantity ; 7°2 is the neutral point and the lower the Pg figure the greater the intensity. TThis measures the quantity of acidity and also the amount of lime absorbed in other ways. The Hutchinson-McLennan method is used. The soils were all deep, and the subsoils, both at Boscawen and ‘l'revidder, closely resemble the surface soils; the figures are omitted for the sake of brevity. Other waste areas in the district were similar in character to the Boscawen area; the analytical details need not, therefore, be given. All that these waste soils need is clearing to remove gorse and bracken, then deep ploughing, finally a good dressing of lime and phosphates. The smallness of the difference between Boscawen waste and cultivated land shows that there is nothing in the soil to prevent cultivation. There are, of course, marked differences from the fertile potato soils of Penzance, ‘both in the soil and even more in the position, but these could be used for several types of farming and for either small or large holders. Notre.—References to the literature on this subject may be Obtained on application to the Ministry. c2 36 Potato GRrowinc tn Essex. [ Arr., POTATO GROWING IN” ESSEX. R. H. Currm, Moulsham Lodge, Chelmsford. THE potato is one of our most important farm crops, and can be cultivated successfully and profitably on all soils in this country with the exception of the heaviest clays. In order, however, that the best results may be obtained, it requires ‘‘ good farming ’’ both as regards cultivation and manuring. In an ordinary farming rotation, potatoes are taken between two corn crops, and are a very good cleaning crop. Cultivations.—he great mistake made by so many potato growers 1s to give too little cultivation. They manure their land well with farmyard manure in the autumn, and also apply a liberal dressing of artificial manures in the spring. They then ‘keep their land reasonably clean, and of course are disappointed if they do not get the maximum yield; but the first, last, and all-important thing in potato growing is deep cultivation and plenty of it, up to the time when the tubers are forming, when of course all cultivations should cease. Useful Hints on Cultivation.—Ploughing should take place as soon after harvest as possible, to a depth of at least six or seven inches. A subsoiling plough should come directly behind the ordinary plough, subsoiling an additional eight or nine inches. The subsoiling plough should not bring any soil to the top, but only break the subsoil, getting it into a good mulch below. The land should then lie open until the spring, and then, if the soil and weather will permit, it should be cultivated deeply, preferably by steam tackle, but if steam tackle is not available, a strong tractor will do the work. This cultivating should be at least seven or eight inches deep. ‘The land should then be well harrowed until a level top is obtained. Tio economise in labour it should then be ridged with a ridging machine which makes two ridges (baulks or drills) at each operation, at the same time sowing the artificial manure. This is a good way to apply artificial manure, as a little of the mould rolls on top of the manure, and the seed tuber does not come into direct touch with it. The baulks should be about 27 inches wide. - Methods of Planting and subsequent Cultivations.—The seed potatoes should be planted directly behind the ridging machine, the tubers being covered in with a double-breasted or moulding plough. One horse should always walk on the top of the ridge so as not to displace any of the tubers in the furrow. 1621, Potato GROWING IN ESSEX. $7 About a week after the planting the ridges should be harrowed down with light harrows, care being taken not to harrow the baulks too flat, otherwise the tubers may be disturbed. After the harrowing they should be horse-hoed (with two horses) to a depth of six or seven inches between the rows, and then moulded up with a moulding plough. About ten days or a fortnight later a shim should be run under the potatoes, taking one baulk at a time, and shimming to a depth of four inches below the seed tuber. An implement, commonly known as a potato shim, is used for this operation. This will put the whole of the land into a proper mould or mulch. In some cases the results are very beneficial, but in others when the weather is very dry, and the ground very rough, shimming would result in a loss of moisture, and the farmer must therefore use his own discretion. In a case such as is mentioned above the ridges ought to be harrowed down again with saddle-back harrows, and horse-hoed again. The land should then be left until the potatoes are three or four inches through the ground, when they should be hand-hoed, all the top soil being moved, whether there are weeds or not. This should be followed by another horse- hoeing, and when the potatoes are high enough they should be well moulded up. This should finish all cultivations. Manuring.—This is a matter on which there is considerable difference of opinion, but after many years of practical experience the writer has no hesitation in recommending the following methods. As soon as possible after harvest, 15 tons of good, well- rotted farmyard manure should be applied to the stubbles and ploughed in. In the spring, just before planting, there should be applied a mixture of :— 13 cwt. Sulphate of Ammonia 5 cwt. 30 per cent. Sapephiaghate per acre. 1 cwt. Sulphate of Potash. If farmyard manure is not available for the potato crop, a liberal dressing of organic manure should be given, which will to a certain extent take the place of farmyard manure. This organic manure should be either bone and meat meal, hoof and horn manure, or fish guano, and should be applied at the rate of about 8 cwt. per acre, while a mixture of 14 cwt. sulphate of ammonia and 13 cwt. sulphate of potash per acre should also be applied. The application of sulphate of potash to light land will be specially beneficial. Planting.—Planting is an operation which requires more 88 Porato GROWING 1N F'sseEx. [ ApR., attention than is usually devoted to it. Early varieties for the early market should be planted about ten inches apart, and main crop varieties should be planted from fifteen to sixteen inches apart. Care should be taken to see that the seed tubers are planted with equal spaces between them, as if they are planted too closely together the plants will be crowded and the result will be a.large proportion of small potatoes. If too much space is left between the tubers ground wili be wasted and weeds will have a better chance. Some farmers use a marker, consisting of a wheel with movable spikes which are set to the required distance and the wheel is then pushed along the furrows making small holes at even distances for the seed tubers. Where such a marker is not available it is a good practice for the man in charge of the planting to have a stick cut to the length of the required distance between each potato, and he can then measure the distance at which the workers are dropping the potatoes, and give them a clear idea as to exactly how much space is to be left between each tuber. Some farmers plant potatoes at a distance of twelve inches apart, believing that they will get a larger crop, but while they may vet a larger number of tubers, the total yield of good market- able ware potatoes will be less; and a good crop of ware potatoes is what we should aim at. Boxing.—The boxing of early varieties should be done in September or October, and the boxes stored in a house or barn suitable for the purpose. A suitable house must have plenty of light, with a window or large loop, which can be wpened every day when the weather is open, on each side of the house, in order to get a proper current of air through. Under these conditions the potatoes will give hardy, stubby, purple shoots. Care should always be taken to pack the boxes correctly; if they are packed too closely, long, white spindly shoots will be found on the potatoes in the centre of each box, and this should be avoided (see sketch). The boxes should be moved at least twice during the period, the top boxes being put below and the bottom boxes on top. The boxing of late varieties is a very debatable point. If the date of planting is to be very late—say the end of April or the beginning of May—the potatoes ought to be boxed; but if planting, particularly with late-sprouting fresh Scotch seed, is to take place between the end of March and the middle of April, so that the first sprouts are formed in the soil, little advantage is to be gained by boxing. 1921. ] Porato GROWING IN ESSEX. 39 Seed.—It pays the farmer to sow good seed for all crops, but the seed is of special importance in growing potatoes. The benefits derived from change of ‘‘ seed’’ are now generally admitted, but some growers are not sufficiently particular as to the source of their new ‘‘ seed ’’ potatoes. Boxes for Sprouting Potatoes. It is generally admitted that Scotch seed potatoes yield the best crops, but still a large number of farmers cling to the belief that “‘ once-grown ”’ seeds (1.e., potatoes grown in England from Scotch seed) will yield crops equally as good as those grown from seed direct from Scotland. Satisfactory results are undoubtedly obtained from “‘ once-grown ’’ seed potatoes in those parts of- the country which have a fairly heavy rainfall, but in the drier parts (the south-eastern and home counties) far heavier crops are obtained from Scotch seed than from ‘‘ once-grown ’’ seed potatoes, although in a year with a heavy rainfall during the growing season occasionally the latter will yield crops almost equal to those obtained from the Scotch seed. These, however, are the exceptions which prove the rule, that in the dry eastern counties fresh Scotch seed should be planted every season. Not only in the weight of the crop is the advantage of the new seed 40 Porato GRowING In Essex. [ APR., to be reckoned, but the crop grown from new seed is generally more sound and marketable than a crop grown from ‘‘ once- grown ’’ seed. Some farmers, while admitting that larger total crops are obtained from new seed, incline to the opinion that a larger percentage of ware (large size tubers) is obtained. from ‘‘ once-grown ’’ seed, but experiments conducted by the East Anglian Institute of Agriculture (see Report on Field Experi- ments for 1914) do not confirm this. Considerable differences of opinion exist as to the best seed size, but generally speaking it is found that seed dressed through a 2-inch and over a 14-inch riddle, although taking a fair weight per acre, give more satisfactory results than those obtained from smaller seed, with the exception of the first-early variety, Epicure, which seems to grow equally vigorously from very small tubers. Varieties.—Local conditions largely influence the varieties which should be planted, but, speaking-generally, one may say that for the production of potatoes for the very early market Epicure is a prime favourite, followed by Eclipse, which, although of better quality and shape, and a heavier cropper, is a little later than Epicure. It is interesting to note that some growers have reported very favourably on King George as a first early, and claim that, if boxed and sprouted and planted at the same time as Epicure, it gives a large crop of potatoes of good quality equally as early. Usually, however, King George is grown as a second early, and should be lifted, as a general rule, not later than the end of August. Main crop varieties are always changing, but of late years King Edward has been a great favourite at most markets in England, though unfortunately this variety does not seem to possess enough vigour to grow a really heavy crop, except under favourable soil conditions and with a fairly heavy rainfall. Arran Chief is a very good potato, giving a good yield on nearly all ‘ soils, even in a dry season. Unfortunately neither of these varieties is immune from wart disease, which has become so prevalent during the last year or two, and growers are turning their attention to several of the new immune varieties. These are too numerous to mention in detail, but Great Scot and The Ally have proved very vigorous potatoes, giving big yields of good quality tubers. Kerr’s Pink is also being grown to some extent, and has given some very heavy yields. Majestic, although a heavy cropper, is inclined to be coarse. 1921. ] Porato GrowiNnG IN ESSEX. 41 Spraying.—Although the practice of spraying potatoes is getting more popular, very few farmers realise that, apart from preventing potato disease, spraying increases the crop very con- siderably by extending the growing period. Spraying should be carried out at least twice in the season. The best times for spraying vary in different parts of the country, but, speaking generally, the first spraying should take place during the first fortnight in July, and the second about three weeks later. In a wet season it may be necessary to give a third spraying. 7 Two types of horse-drawn spraying machines are in use—one for dry spraying and another for wet spraying. {It is claimed that the application of liquid spray (either Bordeaux or Burgundy mixture) is more effective than a dry spraying, but the writer has always used dry spray and found it very effective. Dry spraying should be done late at night or early morning, when the dew is on the leaf. Harvesting.—If the ground is very hard and dry, the best way to lift potatoes is by means of a potato plough. By this method the tubers are not bruised, but care must be taken to have the share of the plough well below the potatoes. If the ground is reasonably soft, the method of using a potato digger is preferable. The digger must not be driven too fast, otherwise the potatoes will be thrown too far, thereby making extra work for the pickers, and to use a screen damages the potatoes. In this case also, care should be taken to have the broadshare of the digger an inch or so below the lowest tubers. If this is not done, the result will be a lot of split and damaged potatoes. All damaged tubers should be taken out when dressing for market, as the market prices naturally depend largely upon well dressed samples. Probably the cheapest method of picking potatoes is as follows. If the crop is good, nine pickers will be required on each side, but if very heavy, ten wil] be recessary—in other words, eighteen or twenty pickers respectively. The length of ridges should be measured and divided into ninths or tenths as the case may be, and stakes should be inserted in the middle of the work, so that each picker will have his or her equal share. Then each picker should be supplied with five bushel or potato baskets, and three carts should follow round at regular intervals, the potatoes being emptied into the carts and taken loose to the clamp. 42 Potato GRowING IN Essex. [ APR., Clamping.—This is work that requires careful attention. The bottom of the clamp should be about four feet wide and not more than from three to four inches deep. The side of a potato clamp should be made as steep as possible, and the clamp brought to a sharp point at the top. As the clamp is formed it should be covered with dry wheat straw, well straightened out, and packed tightly about six inches deep. The clamp should be earthed up at once if possible—while the straw is dry. If this is done, with about seven inches of earth, there will be little risk from frost, always taking care that the trench outside the clamp is about six inches deeper than the bottom of the potato clamp in order that the potatoes will he quite drv. It is essential when earthing up the clamp to place a straw ventilation on the top, at least every six feet. This will let any heat out of the clamp and the potatoes will keep very much better. 1921.] INFLUENCE oF Size or SEED on YIELD oF POTATOES. 48 Peis INP LUENCE ~ OF SIZE AND CHARAGTER. OF SEED ON THE Miih.) OF POLATOES. Repcurrre N. Sauaman, M.A., M.D. In 1920 a preliminary investigation of the above problem was begun. For this purpose a stock of a new variety* was employed, which had been grown in Barley, Herts, the previous year; the tubers had been clamped during the winter and sprouted in the spring. This main crop variety is well adapted to this type of experiment for two reasons: it is an exceptionally heavy cropper and it is extremely resistant to leaf-roll and mosaic. The tubers are white kidneys, and are immune to wart disease, This stock was raised in 1911 by the writer in Barley. Selections of the seed tubers were made by the writer accord- ing to various grades, and the number of tubers in every pound weight of seed was carefully checked. The tubers were selected both for size and weight so that each class was as uniform as possible. The classes selected were :— Weight of tuber sets. ce 0-4 oz. 1.e., 36 tubers to 1 Ib. ya NES opr Syn ga as = “ 3. 20 55 a an 4. 26: 45 aii 5. 4: AC ss 4 6. Ga ee mee ; ms rie BG Pt ., 44 Ib = 0 sa 12 a » 44 ,, 9. Mixed seed of all sizes. Class No. 8 was not chosen with the idea of differentiating the crop obtained from seed so very similar, both in size and weight, to those used in Classes 6 and 7, but to discover whether seed tubers which carried much secondary growth influenced the resulting yield. In fact Class 8 differs merely as to the presence of secondary growth on all the seed tubers used, from Classes 6 and 7. The tubers were planted in rows in the midst of a farm crop of potatoes of the same variety. The part of the field selected, the soil of which is a medium clayey loam, is as nearly uniform in quality as it is possible to find in this part of the country, and was chosen for that reason. Manuring was the same for the entire potato crop, viz., 15 tons per acre laid in the furrows on which the potatoes were planted. The * This potato is not, as yet, on the market. 44 INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF SEED ON YIELD or Poratons. [APR., distance between the sets was 15 in. and between rows 80 in. Tubers were not cut. It is realised that in order to obtain reliable and accurate results in respect to cropping, it is rightly accepted that each plot should be repeated several times and the probable error caleu- lated; this has not been done. Notwithstanding, there is evi- dence that a very considerable degree of accuracy may be ascribed to the resuits obtained. Thus when the ware sized tubers were used as seed, Classes 5-7, the resulting crops are 12.0, 11.2, 11.8 tons per acre respectively, which is not only a closely similar result, but one which previous experience would suggest. The very striking similarity between the average of the analysed results of the eight crops with that derived from mixed unselected seed of the same variety (Table IT), would further suggest that the crops as shown in each of the eight classes cannot vary much from their true modes. Without therefore, wishing to stress unduly the results arrived at, the writer feels considerable confidence that the outstanding features which will be shortly detailed may be accepted as a general guide to the solution of the problem in hand. In Table I the actual weight and number of seed of each of the eight classes employed are shown. In addition the weight of the crop returned; the ratio of yield to seed weight; the vield per acre; the weight of seed used per acre; the weight of ware tubers of 4 0z. weight and over, and the net crop after deducting the weight of seed used are shown., TABLE I. | Yield. Weight of Seed Used. Number of Sets. Weight of Yield per Yield per Acre per Acre. less Seed. Weight of Seed Weight of Set Ratio Seed to Yield Ware per Acre 4 0z. and over. Yield per Acre iar ° — 5 Gar (o) =) wm a “\ Y —_ On : 1 Tb. 2 LD tae Labs lo eee 2 Salle end SA IDs. shee : 44-1b...;| - 42 Ib, ) | Secondary ? | growths ( | or — _ om oye ~I] MD OU. ST are ee are ar ae eg LS) CORE ONONWONT — bd Ne 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. ti 8. — ee (or) to ese oo co | From this table two facts are evident :—(1) That it is tubers of 2 oz. weight which give the best return of crop, excepting the large tuber sets with secondary growths. When, however, the 1921.] INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF SmED ON YIELD OF POTATOES. 45 weight of seed is taken into consideration with the yield, then the crop from the 2 oz. set is the heaviest of all. (2) That the crop from the sets with secondary growth is very much greater than any of the others, which is a fact of considerable interest. It is hoped that experiments will be continued to ascertain whether such tuber sets, cut into pieces of 2 oz. weight, would yield equally good crops. If such is the case, as is very probable, then there would be great advantage in using such, especially in view of the fact, as we shall see later, that the tendency to secondary growth is in no way conveyed by the tuber. That the sets with secondary growths should have proved such successful seed is, however, not surprising; a secondary outgrowth indicates a high vegetative activity on the part of the parent tuber, and the outgrowth itself is in the nature of an immature tuber, which experience has long shown to be the best type of tuber seed. Samples taken at random from the crops derived from the eight classes were analysed into the following groups of tubers :— Class a.—Tubers under 1 oz. in weight. oO 8 OK 1-1} oz. ee *e 14-2°6 oz. ere) . | 37:0 13°7 93 8. 6 oz. with | outgrowths 36°5 263 23°5 18:3 | 34:3 13°7 9°6 | Average of | | 8 Classes 31 190. | 203 | be | 363° | 16:5 9) ey ee Mixed Seed | 27°6 | 154 195) 116 |, 3075 23°5 15:0 figures, except that small sets do not tend to, produce any undue proportion of their like, nor large sets of theirs. There is far less conformity between the numbers of tubers in the same groups of the yields from each of the 8 crops than there was in the case of the corresponding weights of the tubers. This 1921. | INFLUENCE OF S1IzE OF SEED ON YIELD oF POTATOES. 47 result is in harmony with a long series of unpublished experi- ments, which, amongst other things, show that the crop of a potato plant must be expressed in the quantity cf tuber material produced, its subdivision into tubers depends on other factors and is probably influenced by environment. The general approximation of the numbers of tubers in the classes of the crop from mixed seed, with that of the average of the eight seed classes, is a fact of considerable interest. It will be remembered that seed class No. 8 consisted of large tubers with secondary growths. A close scrutiny was made throughout the crops of the 8 classes for tubers exhibiting any tendency to similar outgrowths. In lable IV the percen- tage of tubers thus affected in each class is shown. It will be noted that so far from the crop of seed class No. 8 showing any excess, it actually has by far the least of such tubers. It is, moreover, the bigger tubers in each case which tend to exhibit secondary growth at all. That the tendency to secondary growth formation should not be conveyed is in full accord with a number of more critical experiments the results of which will shortly be published by the writer and Mr. J. W. Lesley. TABLE IV. Percentages of Secondary Growth in each class of Tuber. Seed Class. ae = Bae ae SS SES |Underloz.| 1-1} oz. 14-2°6 oz. 3-45 oz. | oz and over ee | By 1. | 0°44 oz. af 0 | 66 0 10°2 15:4 2.) 1-33.07; “,| 2 5 4°75 16°35 33:3 8. 172°) oz. vit a 0 8°7 | 28°5 37°0 4. | 2°66 oz. 2°5 0 4°35 | 6°25 23°5 5. | 4:0 . oz. 0 2°85 1-4 8°3 39°2 6. | 5°33 oz. ema! 3°55 5°1 0 33°53 J2,1, 15'66 oz. | 0 i) | 3°95 14°3 21°0 8. | 6 oz. with outgrow ths... ane ae 0 0 0 2°75 | 80 Average ... mie Yibetn eee) 3°53 10°83 25°8 9, Mixed Seed ter 0 I 160 13°9 ; 43 5 It will be seen also, that there is no relation between the amount of tubers with outgrowths in the same weight groups in the crops from the different seed classes, excepting that in the small weight classes the proportion is uniformly low, whilst in the higher ones it is very variable, but generally high. There is here no such close relation between the values for the average of the crops from the eight seed classes, and those of the groups in the crop from the mixed seed as was found in respect of both 48 INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF SEED ON YIELD oF Poratous. [ APR., weights and numbers of tubers—see Tables II and III. It appears that neither size, weight, nor external character of a tuber set, influences the phenomenon of secondary outgrowths in the potato crop. Although the tendency to produce secondary growth is obviously not carried on by the tuber seed, nor influenced in any way by the size of the set, it is, however, clearly a property of larger, rather than smaller tubers of the crop. The results of the experiment so far as this first year allows of conclusions are :— 1. That although small chats give a great return in proportion to their weight as seed, and produce as much, in this experiment more, big ware as any class of seed, yet they are decidedly uneconomical. 2. The best seed class are tubers of 2 oz. in weight. 3. Seed tubers over 2 oz. in weight give smaller crops whilst the amount of seed used is progressively greater. The amount of heavy ware is progressively less both actually and relatively. 4. The tendency to secondary growth formation is not con- veyed to the crop from the seed tuber. It is a peculiarity of big tubers and is not directly influenced by the size of the seed tuber. 5. Seed tubers with secondary growth make exceedingly good seed, and, apart from the fact that they are large and wasteful without cutting, the evidence would tend to show that their use as seed is strongly indicated. In conclusion it may be noted that the experimental results as regards the best weight of tuber sets being 2 oz. merely con- firms general experience. As to the value of tubers exhibiting secondary growth as seed, it is the custom amongst the allotment holders and others in this district to use, when cut as seed, those tubers they exhibited in the local Flower Show for “ largest size ’’ class, and which almost invariably are deformed by promi- nent outgrowths, in the firm belief that they yield the biggest crops and earliest crops of the particular variety. 1921.] Common Scas or Poraross. 49 COMMON SCAB OF POTATOES. W. A. Miuuarp, B.Sc., Adviser in Mycology, University of Leeds. Every farmer and gardener knows the uncertainty with which, despite every precaution, he looks forward to the harvesting of a sound potato crop. So many are the fungoid diseases which attack the potato that it often seems barely possible for the plants to escape infection from one or more of them. It is true, that, in the case of some of the worst diseases, certain protective measures may be taken which give a fair guarantee of immunity, but in the case of many others, which, though perhaps less generally destructive, are often very serious, escape from attack is very much a matter of luck with the majority of growers. Two of the most harmful diseases which come into this cate- gory are Corky and Common Scab. Both are widely distributed, to a large degree seasonal in their outbreaks, and each is frequently responsible for great loss in many potato crops, which, before lifting, appeared free from disease. A certain amount of experimental work has already been carried out on Corky Scab, and the results of this together with the treatment recommended are embodied in Leaflet No. 282. A detailed description of the two diseases, which bear a certain superficial resemblance to each other is given in the same leaflet. In the case of Common Scab, little information has been avail- able, and no treatment could be recommended with any certainty of success. An investigation of the disease, extending over a number of years has, therefore, been carried out at the University of Leeds, and it is hoped that the results obtained may be of service to those growers, who up to the present have been prac- tically at its mercy. A report! of the experiments has been recently published by the University of Leeds and the Yorkshire Council for Agri- cultural Education, and the present article is therefore intended to give a short account only of the disease with especial reference to the remedial measures found effective for it. Common Seab is found in its most virulent form on light sandy or sharp gravelly soils, and a photograph of the disease as it occurs on such soils is given herewith (Fig. 1); it appears to a lesser extent on heavier soils and is practically unknown on peat soil. It is frequently associated with the presence of ashes in the soil. D 50 Common Scas oF Poratogs. [ APR., ———— On these grounds, the idea arose that Scabbing was due to the wounds inflicted on the swelling tubers by sharp soil particles with which they came into contact during their growth, and the disease was thus long known as ‘‘ Mechanical Scab.”’ In America, however, so long ago as 1890, the work of Thaxter2 had shown that Common Scab—or Deep Scab, as he then called it—was due to the attack of a fungoid organism now known as Actinomyces scabies (Thaxter) Gtssow. Aithough during recent years it had been assumed that Finglish and American Scab were identical, Thaxter’s work had never been confirmed in this country, and certain text books, still in common use even averred that ‘“‘ American. Scab,’’ 1.e., that produced by Thaxter’s organism, was almost unknown here. Pethybridge, however, carried out experiments in Ireland in 1914 and came to the conclusion that there could be practically no doubt that Scab was due to an organism.? It thus appeared very necessary to repeat the American work for Common Scab as we know it in England, and this has formed one section of the Leeds investigation. The details of the work are not included in the Report above mentioned, but it is hoped they will be published shortly. The results showed Actinomyces scabies to be the cause of Common Scab, and thus proved the American and English diseases to be one and the same. From other experiments, it was ‘also shown that Scab was not produced by mechanical injury from sharp soil particles and, with the combination of these results, the problem of controlling the disease reduced itself to the simpler one of fighting a fungoid pest, whose charac- teristics could be studied at will in the laboratory. Remedial Measures.—The discovery of a remedy for the disease formed the second section of the investigation. Experi- ments in America on the prevention of Scab appear to have consisted mainly of attempts to sterilise the soil by means of fungicides such as copper sulphate, corrosive sublimate, &c. but, these have not given any results of practical value. Sulphur has also been tried by various investigators but with indifferent SUCCESS. | The only previous English work on the subject is that of Seton and Stewart,4 who carried out a series of experiments at the University of Leeds in the years 1904-7 and came to the con- clusion that ‘‘ whatever the cause of Scab may be, it would seem that there is some relationship between the virulence of the disease and the moisture holding capacity of the soil.’’ ‘SOOPVIOG JO GROG UOMO Q—'T ‘OT ‘6161 UL JueWodxY “qeog UO SULMUUI-Udalr) JO Joyo eY][—'% “Oly *pezeorq}Uy) ‘podnURll- oa.l4) 1921. ] Common Scap or Porarors. oI Later, Professor Seton conceived the idea of increasing the moisture holding capacity of the soil by green-manuring, and the present series of experiments is the natural outcome of this sug- gestion. Subsequent experiments have shown that the hypo- thesis put forward could not be maintained, but the treatment to which it gave rise, has, for some other reason which will be discussed later, given excellent results. The first experiment in which it was put to the test was carried out in 1914 as follows :— Two plots, No. 1 and 2, were selected on soil known to produce Scab. On Plot 1 a quantity of fresh grass lawn mowings was spread at the rate of 30 tons to the acre, and when this had withered somewhat, it was forked in. No dung was used but a mixture of artificials was applied to each plot. - ‘Two-thirds of each plot was then planted with clean “* sets and the remaining third with badly scabbed ‘‘ sets *’ of °° Dal- housie ’’ potatoes. ‘The plots were then cultivated in the usual way. | When harvesting, a great contrast was shown between the respective crops. That from Plot 1, both from the clean and scabbed ‘‘ sets ’’ was almost entirely free from Scab and the skin of the tubers showed the smooth glossy appearance rarely seen except on Potatoes raised on peaty soil. That from Plot 2 was badly scabbed as usual, the tubers from the scabbed ** sets ’’ being slightly worse in this respect than those from the clean. The respective yields from the two plots and from the difterent parts of the same plot were as follows :— From Clean * sets.” From Scabbed * s Per acre. Per acre. tons cwt. tons cwt. Plot 1, Green Manured ... 18 5 10 15 Plot 2, untreated ... nee 12 10 8 O In addition therefore to the main object of the experiment, it is clear that grass provides an excellent manure for the potato crop and materially increases the yield. It should also be noted that the yield given by the scabbed seed fell considerably ‘ower than that from the clean seed on both plots and on these grounds, the use of clean seed is to be advocated.* Scab on the seed does not, however, appear to have e muc h effect on the amount oi Scab * The scabbed seed was ee hes same Sew as that shown in Figure 1 but was not obtained from the same source as the clean seed. It is apparently only where the scab has attacked the eyes of the tubers, that the yield is affected so adversely by it. DQ 52 Common Scas or Porators. [ APR., ' produced in the crop. This experiment with slight variations in the amount of grass applied, and in the manner in which it was introduceu into the soil, was repeated on the same plots in 1915, 1917 and 1919 and on some other plots in addition in 1915 and 1919. In every case similar results were obtained. The dry year of 1919 was the worst season for Common Scab known in Yorkshire for some time past and the photograph of that year’s results is thus selected for reproduction here (Fig. 2). In the Report mentioned, however, photographs of the four years’ results are given. Conclusion.—There appears to be no doubt that the intro- duction of green organic matter into the soil may be regarded as a means of securing a clean crop. The amount necessary to secure the best result will naturally depend on the scab producing propensity of the soil. Very good results have been obtained with 10 tons to the acre of fresh material on soil where the control plot gave a badly scabbed crop. In estimating the quantity to apply, it should be remembered that green plants contain approximately 75 per cent. water and thus the amount of half dry or withered grass required will be ‘onsiderably less than that of fresh material. No trials have been made with hay but there seems no reason to suppose that this would not act in the same beneficia! manner. The secret of success appears to le in securing such an intimate admixture of the vegetable matter with the soil that the young potatoes form in a compost consisting largely of the decaying organic matter. On a small scale, where the land is cultivated by hand, this is not a difficult condition to secure. The grass may be applied in different ways. It may be spread on the surface and forked in before planting or, a part may be strewn in the trenches at planting time, a further portion added with the soil in filling in the trenches and the remainder strewn lightiv over the surface and worked into the soil on earthing up. On a larger scale, where green manuring can only be carried out by ploughing in a green crop growing on the soil, it is diffi- cult as vet to suggest by what method it would be possible to secure an intimate incorporation of the green crop with the top spit of soil, and at the same time to allow of subsequent cultiva- tions. It is not too much to hope, however, that the ingenuity ‘of the practical agriculturist will find some way in which this. difficulty may be overcome and the treatment applied. fn the experiments recorded in the Report, grass was the ‘only vegetable substance tested. In another experiment, good: a 1921. ] Common Scas or Porators. 58 results were obtained by digging in a crop of Rye and planting the potatoes soon after the operation. ‘There appears to be no reason, however, why other sources of organic matter of vege- table origin should not be used with equally good effect. Leaf mould is used by some gardeners with good results, and since carrying out this work the writer has been informed that spent hops are employed in some localities for.the same purpose. How Grass Inhibits Scab.— Various theories were formulated during the course of the investigation to account for the preven- tion of Scab by grass and plant residues, and this part of the work proved far the most difficult. /.xperiments on it were carried out concurrently with the repetition trials of the treatment, but, for a full account, the reader must be referred to the Depart- mental Report. The conclusion there drawn is that the fungoid organisms responsible for the Common Seab are primarily sapro- phytic, that is to say, they feed on dead organic matter in the soil, where they thrive mainly on plant residues and aid in the early stages of its decomposition. Only when these natural supplies of food are exhausted do they become parasitic on the potato tubers. It is not difficult to see that this deduction will account for many of the observations made in regard to Common Scab. Two of those made earlier in this article may be recalled. Scab is most prevalent on light sandy or gravelly soils and is practically unknown on peat soils. In soils of the first type, especially where these have been liberally supplied with hme, organic remains tend to disappear rapidly and the scab organisms being left with a deficiency of food, attack the potato. The introduction of fresh supplies of plant residues remedies this defect, and may be con- sidered to act as a decoy for the fungus. The potato crop in this way escapes attack. In a peat soil, however, large reserves of organic matter are present naturally, and there is consequently no fear of the crop being attacked. Other phenomena relating to Scab, in particular the influence of lime and ashes on the disease, may be accounted for in a similar way. More work is being carried ont on the subject, and it is hoped to publish a further report of the experiments in due course. (1) “Common Scab of Potatoes,’ University of Leeds and Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education, Report 118. (2) Connecticut Agric. Expt. Station, Report for 1890. (3) Investigations on Potato Diseases, 6th Report, Journ. Dept. of Agric, and Tech. Instruction for Ireland, Vol. XV., pp. 491-526. _ (4) University of Leeds and Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education, Reports 55, 63, 70. 54. Ducks as Eaac-Propucers. | [ APR., DUCKS AS EGG-PRODUCERS. Oscar C. Brown, B.Se. (Agric.). Wiru the high cost of labour and the general depreciation in the saleabie value of their principal products, farmers are finding if increasingly necessary to look around for every possible source of income, and to concentrate on those branches of the farm which require the minimum of labour. In these circumstances if is thought that farmers and all occupiers of grass or orchard land might profitably consider the possibilities of ducks as egg producers. With proper management the labour expenses are small and the returns are regular. There is likely to be an increased demand for well bred stock birds of the best laying strains, and duck egg production can be easily made the source of a regular weekly income. Considerable advance has been made lately in the science and ractice of ege production. Many farmers, realising the increased economic value of poultry, now recognise them as a distinct branch of the farm, and give proper attention to their management. This advance, however, has been made with one section only, for whilst hens have received greatly increased attention, ducks have been neglected. It is not suggested that ducks should in any way replace hens, but that both can be kept so long as separate sleeping accommodation is provided. Swimming water is not necessary; in some circumstances it may be a disadvantage; the best laying breeds lay quite as well without it, and their eges are as fertile. The general dislike of the strong, green duck egg is sometimes quoted as an objection to ducks as egg producers; this is immaterial, as well bred ducks of suitable breeds lay pearly white eggs which have a ready sale. There is also a doubt whether the market can absorb a large number of duck eggs; this remains to be proved, but at present there appears to be no reason for anticipating a greater difficulty in disposing of the fresh, clean, white duck egg than of the hen ego. There will of course be seasonal gluts just as with hen eggs. Advantages of Ducks as Egg-producers. Management.—Ducks require less attention than hens : feeding is less frequent and more simple. This is especially the case where grass range is available. Housing.—There is no need for an expensive house or scratching shed. If a house is provided it can be of the simplest 1921. | Ducks as Hac-PRopucers. 55 kind and very cheaply made. Glass windows, perches and nest boxes are not required, and although bedding is necessary if a duck-house is used, there are no expenses in purchasing sevatch- ing litter. The writer prefers leaving the ducks absolutely in the open as soon as they are large enough to be safe from rats. Feeding.—Feeding is less frequent than with hens. A wet mash given late in the day is the essential meal, and only simple ingredients like ground oats, bran and fishmeal are necessary. Hard corn is only required if the ducks have not free range or if their eggs are to be used for incubation.. Variety, which a duck does not appear to relish, hinders rather than helps egg pro- duction. Fenceing.—The fencing, which is very expensive for poultry runs, costs much less in the case of ducks, as wire netting 3 ft. or 4 ft. high will keep most kinds within bounds. Depreciation.—Whilst hens are rarely worth keeping aftex their second season except for breeding purposes, and are less productive in their second season than in their first, well bred ducks often lay as well in their second as in their first season, and are usually profitable in their third and sometimes in their fourth. Being also less subject to infectious diseases, and generally more healthy, they are less likely to die young than hens, so that replacement charges are less. Laying Capacity.—The writer does not wish to support the extravagant claims of egg laying which are sometimes made on behalf of ducks, as there have been very few real tests of com- parison between hens and ducks. He is of opinion that pullets and ducklets of the best laying breeds average about the same number of eggs per bird per year, but that the best ducklets will probably produce more than the best pullets. Second, third and fourth season ducks undoubtedly average more than hens of the same age. Size of Eggs.—Practically all duck eggs are large, being well over the 2 oz. standard. Consistent Laying.—Well bred ducks often lay continuously for very long periods. Good Autumn Production.—Ducks lay a large proportion of their eges when prices are high; if properly managed, their production after the moult in the autumn may be quite as good as in the spring. The writer’s best records with Khaki Camp- bells were made in the autumn by second season ducks after their moult. 56 Ducxs as Eoc-Propucers. , |) SEABES Foraging Capabilities.—Given a good range, ducks will travel far and wide and pick up a large proportion of their food. Small Liability to Disease.—Ducks are more healthy and at the present time less subject to disease than hens. They seem to be more or less immune from most of the commoner fowl ailments. Hardiness.—Ducks are less affected by rain, snow and frost than hens, so that they can profitably sleep out of doors. Damage to Crops.—Ducks do much less damage to farm and orchard crops than hens, as they are unable to scratch with their webbed feet and their -bills are too blunt to do much damage by pecking. They are of great value in orchards for destroying insect pests. General Remarks.—On partly arable farms ducks are a source of income which is helped by the wet unsettled weather which so often damages arable crops in this country in summer time. Nearly all duck eggs are laid early in the morning before about 9.30 a.m. This simplifies gathering and makes individual recording much easier. The colour of the egg shell of the best strains of ducks is a pearly white. These eges find a ready market and usually make about the same price as hen eggs: sometimes in the spring they command a little more. The green duck egg, however, is less easily marketed, especially in summer time, and should be eliminated. The flavour of duck eggs from the best laying breeds is not strong unless unsuitable feeding is allowed. They are like large white hen eggs except that the shell is rather more pearly white and the membrane lining is slightly thicker and stronger. Disadvantages of Ducks as Egg-producers. (1) Ducks are more nervous then hens, and easily harassed. Handling or any change of feeding or treatment are liable to disturb them, with consequent loss of eggs. Moulting out of season is also more hable to occur in ducks. (2) Duck houses are more difficult to keep clean than hen houses. (3) When ducks are so disturbed that they cease laying, it is sometimes very difficult to get them to commence to lay again. (4) Ducks are not so suitable for the back garden as hens. They lay well in confined runs, but the ground is difficult to keep clean and the amount of food required is much greater than when the birds have free range. They are also more likely to disturb neighbouring households by their quacking. 1921. | Ducks as Eac-Propucers. The Best Laying Breeds of Ducks.—There are very few first class laying breeds, but it is probable that the increased interest taken in ducks will soon lead to the production of several new ones. Fawn and White and White Indian Runners, Khaki Campbells and Buff Orpingtons are the best and the most popular at present. ‘The entries in the Stapleford Duck Test, and in the Test which the National Utility Poultry Society and the Utility Duck Club are carrying out in conjunction with toe Great Kastern Railway Company at Bentley, seem to show that White and Fawn and White Indian Runners have been considered the best layers and are, therefore, much the most widely distributed. The final results at Stapleford, however, and the early reports of the Tes: at Bentley, show that Khaki Campbells are making a strong bid for the premier position. It is probable, therefore, that this breed in particular will meet with an increased demand in the near future. Indian Runners, Fawn and White or White, have a very upright carriage, and clean, well marked flocks are very attrac- tive. They are good layers of white eggs, but being very small birds are not of high value for table purposes, though if killed when 9 or 10 weeks old they make excellent eating. Birds of the best strains are very good layers; some strains have been rather spoilt because a few breeders have given too much atten- tion to their show points, and have practised too close breeding. Indian Runners, especially the white variety, are liable to look very dirty and disreputable in muddy situations unless they have clean swimming water. Khaki Campbells are larger and less upright in carriage than Indian Runners. Owing to recent crossing with the wild duck they are considered hardier birds, and more suitable for an open air life. ‘The colour more or less resembles mud, and in wet weather it has not the dirty appearance of the white duck; they are, therefore, a more suitable breed for muddy situations and where there is no swimming water or only limited accommoda- tion. They average about a pound heavier than Runner ducks, are better table birds, and are equally as good and possibly better layers of white eggs. They have been exhibited very seldom and are bred principally for egg production. The best strains of Indian Runners and Khaki Campbells are about equally good as ege producers, but there appears to be a smaller proportion of poor layers among the Khaki Campbells. Buff Orpingtons are also good layers, but on the average it is probable they are not quite so good as Indian Runners and 58 Ducks as Hoc-Propucrrs. [ ApR.., Khaki Campbells. They cannot be considered first-class egg producers until the green egg, now all too frequent, has been eliminated entirely. This breed of duck is larger and heavier than either of the above-mentioned birds and serves the dual purpose of egg production and table use. Pedigree Breeding of Ducks.—Chiefly owing to the supposed difficulties of keeping individual records of production, very little pedigree breeding of ducks has been undertaken, except by a small number of specialist breeders. More attention is now being given to this branch of the subject and various methods of obtaining individual duck egg laying records have been evoked. Type of Duck Required.—Primarily it is essential to obtain birds of a strain which has been developed for egg production by a skilful specialist breeder. The anatomical pceints of a good layer seem to be the same with ducks as with hens. The bird should be so built that plenty of room is available for the digestive and reproductive organs; breadth and depth of body, width across the back and between the legs are therefore desirable. Small boned active birds with sharp, snaky, fine looking heads and necks, seem to give the best results, especially those with bright prominent eyes set high up in the skull. The thick clumsy head and short thick neck are undesirable features. Large, coarse boned, heavy birds should be avoided. Housing: Open-air Methods.—There is a great difference of opinion as to the best methods of housing ducks. The primary object is to keep them healthy, contented and productive as economically as possible. Few duck houses comply with these conditions. It is almost impossible to keep them clean without a large expenditure in labour and bedding material; the ducks rarely approve of being shut in at might, and if left alone will usually remain outside. Most authorities insist that a dry bed at night is essential for ducks; the writer, however, con- siders that the natural clothing of feathers in waterfowl is so arranged that their bodies remain dry and warm in wet sur- roundings. He prefers, therefore, to keep ducks without a house as soon as they are large enough to escape from rats. An open- air sleeping pen surrounded by wire netting, is provided instead of a house, and ducks kept in this manner appear to be more contented and less disturbed at night. In consequence, the air they breathe is fresher, they are hardier, healthier and better breeders. These open-air methods have proved extremely suc- cessful in the case of Khaki Campbells at Appleby, in North- Lincolnshire. When severe wintry weather comes on, the egg 1921. | Ducks As Kac-PRropucers. 59 production of ducks which are housed at night, falls quite as much as those which are in the open all the tinie. Feeding Ducks for Egg Production.—Ducks should be induced to obtain as much of their food as possible by foraging. Foraging is good for their health, increases ege production, and in consequence a smaller proportion of artificial food is required. It is most economical to feed, as far as it is possible, on honae-grown and home-prepared foods. Fancy and proprie- tary laying meals are not recommended. The bulk of the food should be given in the form of a wet mash consisting principally of ground oats, wheat bran, and a reliable fish meal of low salt and oil content. If free range is available the only other neces- sities are some shell forming material such as cockle or oyster shell and drinking water. If the birds are confined in pens a small feed of heavy white oats or small wheat should be given in the morning and some vegetable food supphed. Flint grit is very seldom needed. Barley and barley meal are not recom- mended for egg production and maize is unnecessary. Time of Feeding.—When free range is available, one feed of wet mash each day just before dusk seems to give the best results. It is a mistake to feed laying ducks in the morning or at mid-day except when foraging is for any reason either impos- sible or insufficiently productive. A morning feed removes the natural hunger, and the ducks no longer have any incentive to forage for themselves. Amount of Food.—The weight required per bird per day, depends on so many factors, and is so extremely variable that it is unwise to give any figures. It will be found that the rate of laying, nature and extent of foraging range, warmth and moisture of atmosphere, and numerous other factors exercise a great influence on a duck’s appetite and requirements. It is a sound rule to give laying ducks on open range as much as they will eat when they return in the evening, but nothing at any other time of the day. Training of Ducks.—Much depends on the way in which the voung ducklets are trained. To give the best results it is essential that they should feel thoroughly at home and settled by the time they are old enough to commence production. They should, therefore, be taught when still young what to do and what treatment they must expect later on. The ducklets should be placed in their permanent laying quarters as soon as possible after they can be distinguished from the drakerels. They should then remain there, having the same sleeping accom- 60 Ducks as Eac-Propucers. [ APR., modation and the same range for the rest of their lives, if the best egg returns are desired. Changes made at a later date are almost certain to result in a serious loss of eggs. Immediately the ducklets have been put in their perma- nent laying quarters, they must be taught when and where to expect their food. They must be made to realise that they wil not be given anything until just before dark. They must learn from experience that they can only obtain food by running about and looking for it, and that quacking has no effect on their attendant, who must be firm. It is wise to spend some time teaching ducklets where to forage. They should first be attracted from their permanent quarters by scattering a little corn on to their range in the direction in which it is desired they should go. They must not be allowed to remain in or around their sleeping quarters. If there are two or more flocks it is worth while trying to teach one to go in a particular direction and the other in the opposition direction. In this way a larger area of ground is covered and a bigger harvest of worms and insects is obtained. Farm Duck Management.—-Farmers and occupiers of grass land will find the following plan worthy of trial. It has proved very successful in the case of Khaki Campbells on a farm at Appleby in North Lincolnshire. Two flocks of about twenty layers each may be kept at each farmyard or feeding centre. One flock should consist oi ducklets and the other of second season ducks. ‘The two flocks must be fed separately and must sleep separately. Two open-air sleeping pens should be arranged some distance apart, about 12 to 15 yd. square. They should be situated if possible in a quiet unused part of the farmyard where they will be sate from horses and cattle, and if possible they should be on thick- srowing grass. Each pen should be surrounded with strong wire netting, hung on strong posts, the ends of which have been dipped in tar. In a fox country the wire should be 8 ft. high and let into the ground at the bottom; 6 ft. wire will be sufficient if there are no foxes. Fix a simple gate in the middle of the wire on whichever side of the sleeping pen is approached most con- veniently from the food store. Place in the pen a sufficiently long feeding trough of simple make to enable all the birds to feed at the same time. Drinking water should be placed outside only, not inside the sleeping pen, and a liberal supply of cockle shell or other shell forming material should always be available. Arrangements should be made for a supply of about 1921. | Ducks as Kaa-Propucers. 61 twenty well bred April or May hatched ducklets. Preferably these should have been bred and reared on the same farm. If it is desired to stock a larger number of layers, each flock may consist of 25 to 80 layers, and 4, 6, 8, or more flocks may be undertaken. If it is decided to keep the ducks a third laying season, three sleeping pens should be provided instead of two, for each group of three flocks. Anyone beginning in 1921 with the idea of keeping two small flocks would then proceed as follows :— September 1, 1921. 20 ducklets (Flock A) put in Pen 1. September 1, 1922. 20 ducklets (Flock B) put in Pen 2. September 1, 1923. 20 ducklets (Flock C) put in Pen 1. November, 1928. Flock A sold out of Pen 1 when their autumn producticn of eges ceases. September 1, 1924. 20 ducklets (Flock 1} put in Pen 2 and Flock B sold in November. Thus each season a new flock is introduced early in September to replace an old flock which is sold in November. Each flock is kept for two whole laying seasons and an extra autumn period. Two flocks inhabit one pen for two or three months each autumn until the older one is sold. If desired an extra sleeping pen may be provided, in which case the new flock goes into a clean empty pen, and the old flock is not disturbed by the appearance of the new one. The following is the daily routine of work in connection with each flock :— 9.30 a.m. Open gate, count ducks out, collect eggs, shut gate. T'owards dusk, open gate, put mash in trough, count ducks in, shut gate. See that cockle shell in abundance, and drinking water are available. At regular intervals clean the sleeping pens as thoroughly as it is possible and give them a good dressing of lime. It is convenient to mix two or three weeks’ supply of mash at one time so that it is only necessary at the time of feeding to wet sufficient for that meal. 12 to 15 per cent. by weight of the standard mash mixture should consist of good fish- meal, the bulk of the remainder can be ground oats with about 10 per cent. of bran. Other foods can be used but these are satis- factory, simple and are obtained easily. The attendant should also have a supply of fishmeal which may be used to encourage ege production if suitable care is taken. If the ducks are not laying sufficiently well, or if there is less natural food available than usual, a little more fishmeal should be added to the mash. 62 Ducks as EKec-Propucers. [ APR., If the weather is warm and moist and there is an abundance of worms, or if the eggs are required for incubation, the amount of fishmeal should be reduced. If eggs are being freely produced in April and May in moist weather, it is a good plan to reduce the amount of fishmeal considerably, so that it is possible to increase it when the weather gets hotter and drier and less natural food is available. When the moult commences in July and August, fishmea! should not be given but introduced again as a strong incentive to egg production after the moult. It is advisable to breed and rear at home the young ducklets which are to become a new laying flock in September. Four drakerels should be run with each flock of 20 ducks. Whole oats should be largely fed and less mash and fishmeal given as stock birds should not be forced. Tt is easier to hatch duck eges under hens than incubators, and April and May are the best months for hatching laying ducks. £9217] Size OF Eaa In RELATION TO AVERAGE PRODUCTION. 63 Sizer OF: EGG IN- RELATION TO AVERAGE PRODUCTION. Epwarp Browy, F.1.5. CoMpLaInts have been made during recent years of the increasing number of home eggs below the recognised standard in size and weight which are placed upon the market. The advent of the commercial poultry farmer, whose main object 1s table egg production, and the increased practice of pedigree breeding for high fecundity may largely account for this decrease in the size of eggs, although farm eggs have also undergone a decrease, but in lesser degree. It is the general practice to use medium-sized or large eggs for table purposes, and to reserve the smaller ones for cooking or manufacturing purposes. Before the War large quantities of eggs were imported into this country, but these were mainly full sized, the “‘ smalls ’’ being retained for home consumption. ‘The import, trade has not yet regained its former dimensions, and home producers are not, therefore, faced with foreign com- petition to the same extent as formerly. It may be anticipated, however, that former conditions will gradually reassert them- selves, and with the increased number of full-sized eggs which will find their way on the market, poultry keepers will be obliged to give closer attention to the question of the production of eggs of reasonable size. Pullets of all breeds usually produce smaller eggs than do older birds, especially at the beginning of the laying period. This tendency is increased the earlier they commence to lay. Among the distinctive breeds there are great differences in the size of egg produced. The Minorca hen and Wyandotte hen are relatively about the same weight, yet the egg of the former is consistently larger than that of the latter. A similar difference is observed in the case of the smaller bodied types such as the Campine and Hamburgh; although both breeds are of the same ancestry, Campine eggs are larger than those of the Hamburgh. Many other instances could be given. TURNERS, SIDE DELIVERY RAKES, Etc. TATA TATA TATE ts PAP Te Tea Ts i oe A ee BEE FOR INTERNATIONAL JUNIOR AND jF BEAMS, FENCES, SHEDS AND AUSTIN TRACTORS. a N N F | WOODEN ERECTIONS ENGINES, CHAFF CUTTERS, ROOT CUTTERS, GRINDING AND CRUSHING MILLS. of every kind. eyes jesyys NaN PgPUrNy ~ NOS v4 — DAIRY UTENSILS — Send us your enquiries. Descriptive List and Tint Card on application. ve en Lt tbhbatobetbchlchetadubtdbdudaeddhdachcacacadaed Sern a Puy Ale 4 re 3 MILLER STREET “ BAXENDALE ' ee MANCHESTER. is And at LIVERPOOL, EDINBURGH and DUBLIN. EEA 5 haa »afnalnaftnainaRnaRnainainainainaRnainainaRnatnain sina RnaRnapnalnaRnabnahnatnaknaRnaRaainaina RESTS Thc ahs Dhvcas thse th caer I ee xxx THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. PIG S—continued. MIDDLE WHIT E—continued. STAPLEFORD HERD OF MIDDLE WHITE PIGS. A few choice gilts and boars always for sale at reasonable prices. C. S. HARVEY. Wymondham, Oakham. WEELEY HERD oF MIDDLE WHITES, bred on the open-air system, exclusively from Champion strains. Two 1919 Royal Show winners, and the sire and dam of a 1919 Cattle Show winner were bred in this herd. Apply to OSCAR GRAY, Tendring Farms, Limited, Weeley, S.O., Essex. LARGE BLACK. PICKWELL HERD, Pedigree Large Blacks. Young stock from best strains at reasonable prices.x—CAPTAIN OLAUDE W. HEMP, Stainbridge Farm, Bolney, Sussex. NEWHOUSE HERD of Pedigree Large Black Pigs. Boars and Gilts from best strains—ROBERT FORTUNE, Newhouse, Cranleigh, Surrey. DUNSTALL HERD of Pedigree Large Blacks, bred from prize strains under natural conditions. Prolific, hardy, grand doers and of choice type. Young Boars and Gilts. Prices Moderate.—LIONEL E. HORNE. Moreton-in-Marsh, Glos. EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Pedigree Large Blacks, marvellous open air strain. LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED. CHARNWOOD HERD.—A grand lot of young Boars ready for service, all descended from Royal winners. Inspection invited.— G. SIMPSON, Charnwood, Lowdham, Notts. GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT. THE FAIRFIELD HERD OF GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT PIGS for Sale. 100 to choose from, including winners at Hereford and Worcester Show. Gilts, Boars and Sows with litters ; also, owing to change of blood, several Boars by Berkeley Foreman.— J. B. DOWDING, Fairfield, Leominster. POULERY,. MAJOR, ARTHUR C.—Breeder and Exhibitor thirty years. Champion Duck and Silver Grey Dorkings, ‘“‘England’s best fowl.” Prizes at all Shows, and exported allover the world. Prices moderate. Eggs, 1s. each.—ARTHUR C. MAJOR, Ditton, Langley, Bucks. OONTINENTAL POULTRY EXPORTERS, STRATFORD, ESSEX.—Pullets, 30 Breeds, from 10/6 each. List free. White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, Light Sussex. Stock bred from Laying Competition Winners. Eggs, Day-old Chicks and Stock birds for sale. Illustrated List free—.JOHN CHIVERS, Estate Office, Histon, Cambridge AUCTIONEERS, IiViE; STOCK Hie. AGENas: WATERS & RAWLENCH, SALISBURY. MISCELLANEOUS ADVERTISEMENTS—(Cheap Prepaid). ' For Cleft Chestnut Unclimable Fencing, apply to THE STANLEY UNDERWOOD COMPANY, LIMITED, Shottermill, Haslemere, Surrey. 64 Page Book about Herbs and How tc Use Them, 2d.—TRIMNELL, THE HERBALIST, RICHMOND ROAD, CARDIFF. Rippins Easy to Keep Account Books for Farmers. Herd Books for Cows and Pigs. Stud Books for Mares. Gripal! Cash Book dissects income and costs Of the farm from all sources. Furro Crop Account Book. Service Certificate Books for Stallions, Boars, Bulls. Milk Record Books and Pads. Poultry Account Books. Egg Laying Record Cards. Specimen ruling§ free.—RIPPIN & BAKER, The Newarkes, Leicester. All applications for Advertisements in “The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture” should be addressed to C. VERNON & Sons, LTD., 38, Holborn Viaduct, London, H.C. 1. 400 €.P. VAPOR LAMPS THAT CAN BE TURNED DOWN TO ANY DESIRED SMALLER C. P. Safety and satisfaction guaranteed. They burn 95°/, Air and 5°/, Petrol Vapor. They are clean and economical. They cost 4d. per hour to run, and a’ one filling will run a week. The principle in both lamps shown is that applied to a lamp supplied to the U.S.A. Government. Large stocks of both types are on our premises, and we can supply by return. The cost is 6's. each packed and delivered. The Mantles are durable, and the Lantern is storm proof. Everybody who introduces six buyers gets his money back. The Lamps are made of the very best ani strongest materials, and are finished in highly-polished nickel, The Light given is twenty times that of the largest oil lamps. Both Lamps are fitted with Automatic Tip Cleaner, and they are the Lamps that never fail. Every Lamp is tested before it reaches user’s hands, Suppliers : STANLEYS (STRATFORD), LTD.,Wharton Rd., London, E.15. No 210 Table Lamp: — Please mention “ Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture.” Storm Proof Lantern. | I SRR SS A SS THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. RECTISO Kills Wireworm and Increases Value of Fertilizers. L For Corn, Root and Potato Crops. TESTS WITH OATS. Soin: Peaty Loam.—Yield per Acve. Without Dressed with RECTISOIL. RECTISOIL. 60 Bushels. '72, Bushels. 12 Bushels per acre more with RECTISOIL. Sorin: Light Loam. with Limestone under. The part treated with RECTISOIL received *a dressing of 5 ewt. per acre, broadcasted on the furrows and harrowed in before drilling. The whole crop was light, but the comparative yields are none the less interesting. Yields per Acre at 401b, per bushel. Dressed with RECTISOIL. Grain 88 bushels. Straw 2 tons 1 cwt. 48 lbs. Length of Straw 5 ft. 6 in. Without RECTISOIL. Grain 25 bushels. Straw 1] ton ] ecwt. Length of Straw 4 ft. 8 in. Note Length and Weight of Straw which shows much Stronger Growth and Finer Development. OPINIONS. HAMPSHIRE, * August 2nd, 1920. I thank you for your letter. I am very pleased to be able to tell you that I am delighted with the results achieved by using your RECTISOLL. I sowed it on a 12-acre field which was infested with wireworm, and I now have an excellent crop of oats. There is no doubt that but for your RECTISOIL I should not now have any oats worth reaping. I have recommended it to a large number of farmers in my neighbourhood. Ido hope your RECTISOIL will turn out to be the success it deserves. Capt. H.” *Note.—This was not Concentrated RECTISO(LL as now made. Concentrated RECTISOIL goes farther and is cheaper to use. TEST WITH POTATOES. Soir: Limestone on Light Limestone under. Variety : King Edward VII. The whole field was dressed with farmyard manure and received dressings 5 ewt. of Salt, and 15 ewt. of Potato Compound Manure per acre. Yield per Acre. Loam with Without Dressed with RECTISOIL. RECTISOIL. Tons Cwt. ‘Tons C Ware... 6 O ‘40 2 Seed 3 1 10 — 1 6 Ones 162, 1 O bea 7 O 8 Rd | | Ged Oi) 12 It 7s most important to Note that, used in con- junction with this Heavy Dressing of Special Compound Manure the RECTISOILL portion shows pro rata, tnereased Crop, thus illus- trating how the value of fertilizers is enhanced by the use of RECTISOILL. OPINIONS. YORKSHIRE. * October 19th, 1920. You may be interested to know the re Granular Sowable Condition, contains :— are 13°/, Nitrogen = 165" 8°/, Ammonia, and supplies: — 26°/, of its weight of fine in a | — soluble form. A Rapid and Highly: -Eficient ou: a2 a. for ae Grops. ~ “Invaluable for sol ee a For Literature and Information on Its use please apply to oe a | ay NITRATE TRADING C® L™. . At, Eastcheap. LONDON, E.C.3.