Vol. XXVIII. PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No.2.

‘The Journal
ce OF THE
Ministry of Agriculture
a MAY, 1921.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
(For Complete List of Contents see page xxi.)

- Accounts of a Hampshire Down Flock. Sir A. D. Hall, K.C.B.,
FR.

- Research in Animal Breeding II. 2. C. Punnett, F.R.S. 2

Report of the ‘Barberry and the Black Rust of Wheat

Seat Re in South West Wales. W. H, Broadbent, A.R.C.Sc.,
IC.

as of Fruits. Cecil H. Hooper, M.R.A.C. « Somat .

& Dry Spraying for pes Destruction of Charlock. ie A, igh

“Rural Bias’ in Suindass Schools: The Work at Sexey's 8

Foundation School in Somerset. S. Z. Bensusan. :
Hop “Mould” andits Control. 2. S8.Salmon - =

Poultry Research, 0. Chan nock Bradley, M.D., D.Se., M.R.C.V.S,

- Poultry Notes - - . ” - . =
: Hosoatislatire of ricultural Plants. W. H. Parker, M.A.,

H. Chambers, M.B.E. wi ae _ a

‘Notes on Feeding Stuffs ti Moy. E. T. Halnan, M.A,

Dip. ri se (Cantab.) - ° .

LONDON:
FRINTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY Of HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES.

R ( To be obtained from the Ministry's Offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London, 8.W.1,)

- MONTHLY, = —s_ AGENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS;
[PRICE SIXPENCE.] © VERNON & SONS, 142.
ost 56/62, Scuth Castle Street, Liverpool.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

: Vata’ AhY EAA
IN_ SPRING AND SUMMER

SPRAY YOUR FRUIT TREES

WITH ~

McDOUGALL’S
KATAKILLA

Non-Poisonous Powder Insecticide Wash,

FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF —
APHIDES, PSYLLA (Apple Sucker), RED SPIDER,
CAPSID BUG, CATERPILLARS, &c.
SAFE—EFFECTIVE—READY FOR USE.

Not only is KATAKILLA the best all round FRUIT TREE
WASH but it is also unrivalled asa WASH FOR

VEGETABLE CROPS.

TO DESTROY

CATERPILLARS, GREEN FLY, DOLPHIN, &c.
NON-POISONOUS—SAFE—EFFECTIVE. cae

SPECIAL NOTE.—In view of the large demand for KATAKILLA, and uncertainty with
regard to materials, Growers are strongly advised to secure their supplies early.

4 SOLE MANUFACT URERS—

McDOUGALL BROS., Lid.,

66/68, PORT STREET, MANCHESTER,

_ McDOUGALL’S

rE UR-MANGE

THE CERTAIN REMEDY FOR
Parasitic Mange in Horse, Cattle and Dogs.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. i

‘‘Science With Practice.’”’
Highly

GARTONS *’ ROOTS

All our

MANGELS, SWEDES, AND TURNIPS

are bred on Scientific lines.
THE RESULTS ARE

(—F~ An Increased weight of Roots per acre.
{je An Increased feeding value not otherwise obtainable.

Particulars may be had free on application to

GARTONS, LUD, ‘s="F=" WARRINGTON,

Breeders,

3 Kil Se - eS. 3 i - -
= CP ea eo Pea. we 2 has

Tractroil

I.L.O. Lubricants ensure efficiency
in running and economy in cost.
They are guaranteed to lubricate
more and carbonise:less than any

other similar lubricants.

| q ia 26, Grosvenor Gardens, Wal.

A Telephone— VICTORIA 7588 (4 lines).
Telegrams— -DICOTTO, V/C, LONDON.

ATA EE

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il THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

COUNTRY HOUSE AND ESTATE LIGHTING.

“ACETYLENE”

WHICH COMBINES EFFICIENCY AND SIMPLICITY WITH ECONOMY.

We have successfully installed, several thousand
plants during the last 25 years, and will be pleased
to advise and estimate for any contemplated work.

The best light for the farmhouse, Write for particulars of The Atoz Lighting Sets:
FOR MAY.
10 Lights .. £2515 0 | 20 Lights .. £5410 0

The above prices include Plant, Brackets and Pendants.

PORTABLE LAMPS SUITABLE FOR FARM WORK.

| ATOZ CARBIDE |

SUPPLIES NOW AVAILABLE. WRITE FOR QUOTATION.

al e ACETYLENE CORPORATION, Limited,

49, VICTORIA STREET, WES TMINSTER.
LONDON, S.W. 1.

FOR GEARS.

HAT Ambroleum, the .well-known Gear Box Lubricant, and
Sterntrac O1ls, save wear and tear on tractors—and in consequence

1

| save moncy for tractor users—is proved beyond doubt by the fact

| that the manufacturers of the well-known tractors listed herewith,
and many others as well, strongly recommend them to purchasers of

their vehicles as being the ideal lubricants. Let us send you a copy of

“ The Farmers’ Handbook.”
RECOMMENDED BY THE MAKERS OF THE

FOLLOWING _ WELL - ‘KNOWN, TRACTORS—

Austin Eros. Moselay
All-Work | Illinois | Overtime
British Wallis International | Peterboro’
Case Lauson | Parrett
Emerson Mogul | Titan
| STERNS, LTD., 101, ROYAL LONDON HOUSE, FINSBURY SQ., E.C.2.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. iii

Quality.”’

4p

pps

yg;
“YJ A

uf
————— SS “yyy

CATALOGUE of Seed,

Corn, Grass Seeds, Root 4

Seeds, Manures, ete.,

Post Free.

CATALOGUE of Vege-

table and Flower Seeds,

Potatoes. Lawn Seeds,
etc., Post Free,

Success of Webbs’ Swedes
at the 3 Great Cattle and Root Shows in 1920.

LONDON DAIRY SHOW *. Ist PRIZE me WEBBS’ IMPERIAL SWEDE.

BIRMINGHAM SHOW ... bs Ist PRIZE # WEBBS’ BUFFALO SWEDE,

EDINBURGH SHOW _.... ae lst PRIZE a WEBBS’ EMPIRE SWEDE.
108 Entries—Open to the United Kingdom.

Webbs’ Prize Root Seeds.

The World’s Best Breeds for Weight, Keeping and Feeding Quality.
MANGEL from 1/- per lb. SWEDE from 2/- per |b. TURNIP from 1/3 per lb.

95 Morrison St. Glasgow

Established 1868. Annual Turnover—294} MILLIONS,

SEED AND WARE
Potato Merchants and Growers.

Potato Departments:
95, Morrison Street, GLASGOW,

Links Place, LEITH, and
Woodstock Street, KILMARNOCK.

Extensive Buyers of all classes of Potatoes.
Principal Markets Attended. Enquiries Solicited, |

iv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

DAIRY FARMERS.

Offers of COOL, CLEAN MILK, for their

Town and Country Depots delivered at

Liverpool Street, King’s Cross, St. Pancras,

Euston, Southend and Gravesend Stations,
are invited by

ABBOTT BROS. DAIRIES.

ESTABLISHED 1786.
Head Office: GRENADE ST., LONDON, E.14.

’"Phone: East _4628.°° Tel.: ‘*‘Creameries, phone, London.’?

Payments. made fortnightly or as required.

TNE DESTRUCTION OF RATS & Mice

by
The Well-known Preparations

DANYSZ VIRUS,
MALLERS EXTRACT of SQUILL,
DaNnzo RaT KILLER.

Write for particulars to the Proprietors,
MALLER LABORATORIES’ LIMITED
(formerly Danysz Virus Limited ),

325, Borough High Street, London, S.E.I.

SPECIALISTS in Preparations for the Destruction of Rats, Mice and
other Vermin.

ESET PA RTGS WE a

THK JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. v

PARSONS, GLARK & BODIN,

LAND AGENTS AND AUCTIONEERS,
24, Hanover Square, London, W.1.

Telephone ~ MAYFAIR 3284.

AGENTS FOR THE SALE AND PURCHASE

OF

AGRICULTURAL, RESIDENTIAL AND SPORTING
ESTATES, FARMS AND SMALL HOLDINGS IN
ALL PARTS OF THE COUNTRY.

DERBY S HIRE.
44 miles from Chesterfield. 5 from Matlock, close to Ashover, and about 1 from Claycross and
Stretton Stations (M.R.).
Fifty-four highly attractive SMALL FREEHOLD AGRICULTURAL PROPERTIES.
situate on the STUBBEN EDGE
Estate, having a total area of about 725 ACRES and comprising

15 SMALL DAIRY FARMS
varying from about 20 to 68 acres, viz.:—Broomy, Alton, Lower Nuttingfields, Littlemoor, Sycamore
Nuttingfields, Edges, Eastwood, Woolley, Dalebank, Woodhead, Ridgewell, Tinkley Lane, Riverdale
and Dale Cottage Farms, including a large area of rich potato land and first rate meadow and pasture.

The Delightfully Situated Moderate Sized GENTLEMAN’S COUNTRY RESIDENCE,
“STUBBEN EDGE HALL,” with 53 acres,
occupying an elevated position commanding most beautiful views over characteristic Derbyshire
scenery and surrounded by charming gardens and well timbered Park of very valuable grazing land,
with Paddock, Kitchen Garden, Stabling, Garage, 2 Cottages, Shrubberies and Woodlands.
WITH IMMEDIATE POSSESSION
In capital Repair, Ready for Occupation, Company’s Water and Gas laid on.

Also 22 convenient Lots of VALUABLE ACCOMMODATION LAND near Ashover. Fall Hill.

Dicklant and Woolley Bridge.

8 EXCELLENT COTTAGES and DWELLING HOUSES.
The Fully Licensed Premises
known as THE GREYHOUND INN, with 10 acres.
30 ACRES of USEFUL WOODLANDS, Gannister, Fluor Spar and other Surface Minerals.

PARSONS CLARKE & BODIN.

Will sell the above by Auction in 54 LOTS at CHESTERFIELD
(unless previousty sold by private treaty),
during JUNE, 1921.
Illustrated Particulars, Plan and Conditions of Sale may be obtained of Messrs Norru & Sons,
Solicitors, 4, East Parade, Leeds, and of the Auctioneers at their
Offices :—24, Hanover Square, London, W.1,
Telephone : Mayfair 3284.

TO ESTATE OWNERS, SOLICITORS, &c.

Messrs. Parsons, Clark & Bodin have been instructed by a Client to find him an Agricultural

Estate of from 1,000 to’ 3,000 acres, consisting of several farms and small holdings, let on a yearly
penancy to a good and thriving tenantry. Not more than 3 hours by rail from London. Midlands
preferred but not essential. An estate with or without a Mansion would be entertained. Details,

Clan (which will be returned), &c., should be sent to

purchaser’s , Land Agents, Parsons,
lark & Bodin, as above.

SPECIAL NOTE.—No commission required from Owner.

vi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Don’t Take Chances

with your Incubators and Brooders. Use WHITE ROSE
OlL—the fuel with perfectly uniform qualities, which does
not smoke or emit fumes fatal to your chicks.

Successful hatching depends mainly upon uniform heating. Clean and uniform
heating depends upon pure reliable fuel. For Brooders especially, where
the chicks are exposed to the effects of a naked flame, steady smokeless heat
is all important.

WHITE ROSE OIL is a specially refined fuel of highest quality, particularly
suited to every heating requirement for incubating.

Don’t risk using any but the best—the best is always the most dependable
always cheapest. Insist that you get

ee

THE IDEAL FUEL FOR INCUBATORS

AND SAVE YOUR CHICKS FROM DANGER.

ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL CO. LTD.,
36, Queen Anne’s Gate, London, S.W.1.

For Domestic Lighting, Cooking & Heating use ROYAL DAYLIGHT OIL

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. vii

If the

Light-Weight
FARM TRACTOR

never won another Trial—

it would still hold first place in the
opinion of men who farm for profit.
The prime test of any tractor is its
cash return.

The powerful construction of the Austin,
its wonderful efficiency and economy of
operation make it

The Farmer’s Mechanical
Right Hand,
The Austin Tractor now being delivered

is 30 per cent. stronger at the draw-bar
than last year’s model.

THE AUSTIN MOTOR CO. LTD.
Head Office:
NorTHFIELD, BIRMINGHAM.
LON DON—479-483, Oxford-st., W.1
MANCHESTE R— 130, Deansgate.
And at Brussels and Liancourt.

Write for booklet,
“TRACTOR FARMING”
(sent free on request ).

vii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

The Fertiliser “par excellence.” |

NITRATE OF

Importers and Merchants,

W. MONTGOMERY & CO., LTD.,

63, Mark Lane, London, E.C. 3,

AND
ST. STEPHEN’S CHAMBERS, BRISTOL.

STOCKS IN VARIOUS ENGLISH PORTS.

TELEPHONE NO. TELEGRAMS:
254 eae “MARTABAN FEN, LONDON,”

SACKS AND BAGS
AND JUTE GOODS

OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS.

For all purposes, For Home and Foreign Markets.

J. DE PAIVA & CO.,

(Principal—P. PARNHAM.)
llk, Drury Lane, LIVERPOOL, Engiand.
Telegrams: ‘‘ Depaiva, Liverpool.” Telephone: Bank 1848 (2 lines).

London Office:
165, Mansion House Chambers, 11, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C.4.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

jx

PROSPERITY
depends upon
EFFICIENCY
The Greatest Efficiency can only be obtained by adopting

UP-TO-DATE METHODS

The most up-to-date method in Agricultural Construction is the use of

CONCRETE

which is

Durable, Vermin Proof, Fire Resisting and Economical.

ILLUSTRATED PAMPHLETS
containing full information on this subject may
be obtained, post free, on application to the

Concrete Utilities Bureau,

Dept. 1B,
35, Great St. Helens, London, E.C.S8.

|e
U, To Protect Your WS
“Lp Farm Implements NS
— and Property -—

USE
CARSON'S
PURE PAINTS

FOR PATTERNS & PARTICULARS WRITE

Walter Carson & Sons,

GROVE WORKS . . BATTERSEA, S.W.11. ly
\\S also at 4,
yw Ur,

BACHELOR'S WALK, DUBLIN.

x THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Tc.

TRACTOR
OIL

Is an honest job—believed in—not a

make up of rubbish—has ample

body—durable—efficient.

It remains liquid at or under Zero (Fav.)
and is therefore free from liability to freeze in
Oil Cups or bearings at any temperature to
which it is likely to be exposed in this country.

This is most essential when the Oil has
to be used at a low temperature or when the
Oil is required to pass through the pipes of
small bore from the Lubricator to the Engine.

| mined RR er Telephones :
nlanc eee ¢ hone, London. BROADWAY 2088.
Foreign ‘‘ Racerine”’ London. ; sees
“ Nonplus,’ Birmingham HAM CENTRAL 5481.

The Russell Oil & Chemieal Co., Ltd.,
Russell’s Wharf, Stratford, E.15,

And National Oil Works, Adams St., Birmingham.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xl

F

DRY NEUTRAL WwW ge |

SULPHATE OF AMMONIA 7

y This material possesses special characteristics—
4,

It is dry, resembling silver sand; it neither cakes

together nor does it require ‘grinding. iy ae

It will not absorb atmospheric moisture. \/

\ It may therefore be strewn on the soil as grass seed, ! aN Ly
or may be readily drilled into the soil. Dk. Yy

It is neutral and does not destroy the bags in which % Z
it is transported or stored. 1G

It is guaranteed to contain 25}% of ge irae j
usually it tests from 25°6 to 25°7 7 ah
A typical analysis of the material is :— WM |Z
Ammonia rn 25° 65% %, LK
Moisture - - - ~ 0°03 % o\'Y
Free Acid . = Nil. V3
Equivalent Nitrogen - 21°10 % \

For prices apply to the

SOUTH METROPOLITAN GAS COMPANY, ;

Telegraphic Address: ; ah ote: : ¢
Inland: ‘‘ METROGAS, PECK, LONDON.” Foreign: ‘‘ METROGAS, LONDON.” Va Zz

x RAL
7 WSS aon 7 ssl Me

xi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Rears Calves Without Milk.

The only
cooked ja

CALF MEAL
Sold at
this price.

Cash Price
32/- per ewt.
Carriage Paid.

2/= extra Scotland
and Ireland.

Nas" 9 wegen
All Milk is wanted for Human Food, so why use it for Calf Rearing when Brantom’s Milk Meal
will rear Splendid Calves >—The Saving is now Really Wonderful.

112 gais. MILK are worth to-day . £15 10 O
112 gais. MILK MEAL Gruel cost ~ lk? 0
NET SAVING oe ue
Sold by all Chief Corn Merchants,
BR ANTOM S This Feeder is our new patented

improvement on the Common
Sense Feeder, the essential part
being a new flanged teat securely
held in its proper position by a
Screw Top which makes it impos-
sible for the calf to pull off and lose
the teat in the litter—a trouble
which is constantly recurring with
the old pattern. ‘Che slight extra
cost is quickly saved in teats alone,
and moreover both the metal and
rubber parts are of superior quality

HOLD FAST FEEDER:

Yy
WA
HY Ns

iif
‘ya
E y
MGUY / Za
“RUG,

“iM ‘
Ue IMPOSSIBLE \\

WMMMAE PREIENTS SCOUR ea ee, J H B & (
MAKES FINER CALves pacer UH, DIANtOM & O0.,
i Hf Cattle Food Mills,

High St., Lambeth, London.

New Price 20/- each, carriage paid.

BIGG’S TRIPLE CROW
BLOOD SALTS

For HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, and all STOCK.
Invaluable. in the Hunting or Racime seep:

— >_> All Blood Disorders, Surfeits, Itching, Anemia, Un-
Be (et thriftiness, Humours, &c., Heat Lumps and all Skin
Affections, Indigestion, Off-Appetite and Sluggishness,
Weakly Horses and Bad Doers, Coaxing the Appetite of
Delicate Feeders, Promoting Growth of Bone and
Muscle, Sterility or Barrenness.
It mixes easily with the food and quickly prepares animals
for Show or Sale.

Sold in Tins with Measure, Price 10/6 and 20/-,
Quarter ewt. 45/-*, Half cwt. £4.

* This tin contains more than 6 Half Guinea Tins—£3 3s.

\.
AS “ a

Ah

WANA

RANA
\
NNN

SS

NX
SSS

oy
ie

x
‘N

es NS

AAS
th.
~

To be had from all Chemists and Agricultural Agents, or direct from

THOMAS BIGG, LIMITED,

‘Church St., Deptford, London, S.E.8.

Be ee ‘Carriage paid on orders of £3 and upwards.

ie
SSH
SS

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xiii
me Ses ee ees ee 0 ee ee 2 EE

THE SCIENTIFIC WAY.

q A Clean Cowshed means a Clean Cow.
q A Sanitary Stable means a Healthy Horse.
q A Clean Kennel means a Clean Dog.

The VERMOREL “ECLAIR” Series.

No. 3. The ‘*‘ SALVA’? combined
SPRAYER and LIMEWASHER.

An ideal machine for general work in districts where there
is an objection to the Knapsack type of machine. The
“ Salva” is made of a special brass alloy, which may be used
with Bordeaux Mixture and general spraying preparations,
and, further, it will withstand the action of Lime Sulphur
and similar products. The machine is supplied complete
in case with AGITATOR, STRAINER LANCE
(22 inches long) and VERMOREL SELF-CLEARING
NOZZLE:

WATCH THIS SPACE EVERY MONTH for a DIFFERENT TYPE of SPRAYER.

BUCKET SPRAYER

and peepee ER, Full particulars and catalogues froam—
+ gallons.
ALL TYPES MADE AND STOCKED COOPER PEGLER & Ce., Ltd.,
3} pints to 66 gallons. 24B, Christopher Street, London, E.C.2,
8 Ss ee ees 0 ee 2 ee ee ee
> vA “Né WA
an sho
POTATOES WHEAT TURNIPS OATS & BARLEY
At Harper Adams College | Te. wae Use potash in conjunction Potash is neces-
and at Monmouth Agr. In- t pays to use | with a suitable phosphatic | sary to produce

potash as well as |
nitrogenous ma-
nures on wheat.

stitute last season Alsatian
Potash produced the high-
est yields of Potatoes.

and nitrogenous dressing. | the finest samples
This will produce a heavy | of oats and malt-

crop free from fingerand toe. | ing barley.

MANGOLDS HAY GRASS LAND
For weight and quality | ,,
of mangolds Potash is the To get both weight FRENCH KAINIT 14°/ is giving astonishing
fertiliser needed. The salt | 224 quality of hay results. It promotes an extraordinary growth
| in FRENCH KAINIT is of | “S¢ ALSATIAN of wild white clover.

ata hl a ‘ ma
great value to this crop. POTASH SALTS.

French Kainit 14°/, Muriate of Potash 50 & 60°.
French Potash Salts 20 & 30°/,

(Sylvinite)
For supplies, apply te your local Manure Merchant.

Particulars obtainable from

The ALSACE-LORRAINE DEVELOPMENT & TRADING Co. Ltd.,
Pinners Hall, Old Broad Street, London, E.C.2,

xiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
i Ses re SRR a a aR RR a NE SET

OFFICIALLY APPROVED BY CHARLES Y. KNIGHT
FOR SLIDE-VALVE ENGINES.

“The only Off
for Tractors.”

| THE BRITISH MONOGRAM OIL CO. (1919) LTD., |
ee bes sb Vale, - 3. :

"Phone No.: 1012 Chiswick. ‘Grams: ** Oilogramic. London”

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xv

“=~ AWARDED |FIRST PRIZE
CLASS 1, GOLD MEDAL
AND £20 BY THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY OF ENGLAND
AT THE INTERNATIONAL
TRACTOR TRIALS AT
:; LINCOLN, 1920, ::

—

eos

=

es

Two Sizes 10-48 H.P. & 15-27 HP,

Write for prices and full particulars—

J. I. CASE THRESHING MACHINE CO.

134, KING STREET, HAMMERSMITH,
LONDON, W.6.

j
:
‘

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements.

WHEN BLUYI

Dairy Equipment.
oO es

The following PLANTS
and machines supplied
and erected at shortest
notice in any part of the
Country.

EXHAUST STEAM PAS-
TEURIZING PLANTS-
CHEESEMAKING AND
WHEY BUTTER PLANTS-
REFRIGERATING COLD
STORAGE AND ICE MAK-
ING PLANTS-COOLERS-
CLARIFIERS-SEPARA-
TORS-RETARDERS-
PASTEURIZERS - BOILERS-
STEAM ENGINES-GAS AND
OIL ENGINES-MOTORS-
PUMPS-CHURN WASHERS-
and MISCELLANEOUS
DAIRY FURNISHINGS.

Plans and Estimates FREE.
information and state your requirements to:—

NC

The Best Policy—

Is to buy through the DAIRY ENGINEERING
DEPT. of the Agricultural Wholesale Society
Ltd. (the wholesale trading Federation of the
Agricultural Co-operative Societies of England
and Wales).

Because—

Experts study the most economical and efficient
means of construction and installation. Special
time and thought is devoted to the choosing of
reliable machinery, and every purchaser through
the A.W.S. can rest assured that HIS interests
receive first consideration.

Because—

Every Plant, or individual machine, supplied
and erected is dependable. | The Farmer is pro-
tected against inferior and worthless choice and
there is no profiteering.

Because—

The A.W.S. advisory experts know their business
and judiciously advise where arrangements can
be centralised and economies effected for the
benefit of the Farmer.

Write for full

ents. xvVil

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.

SEMI-ROTARY WING LIFT
and FORCE PUMPS for Water
Carts, Farm and Estate Work,
and general purposes. All
sizes 3 in, to 3 in, connection.

Specialities
for

or

= = y |e isa
= Lb ooet | peta FI \
uh {igs ‘ | |
LUBRICATING OILS Ag ricultural a
AND GREASES a
For all Types of :

enginesanaachines. — KNOINCCPS, eat enatiss

Tanned
LEATHER

M hi 2 { & a
QCMIMISES, OC. eotcn Ha Ses
‘Balatite’ (regis-
tered trade mark)

Balata Belting, &c.

“ PENBERTHY ” INJECTORS (as i‘ &
illustrated), Automatic and Autoposi- Ve titiit i
4

tive. For high pressures on Traction
Engines, &c.; “‘ MANZEL” AUTO-
MATIC OIL PUMP LUBRICATORS;
“JOINTITE” High Pressure Sheeting;
Asbestos and India Rubber Goods;
Joints; Rings; and Packings offevery

PATENT
WIRE-BOLND

(non-ru’ ber)

WATER LIFTER

description.

As ¢ 4 vik #
a LEY US QUOTE FOR YOUR
REQUIREMENTS.

W. H. WILLCOX OX & ( GO. Ltd.,

32-38, SOUTHWARK STREET, LONDON, S.E.

perish or
collapse.

ts.

tsemen

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Adverti

eee

¥vul

Tea
"HH HEF

v
7

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES.

ORDNANCE SURVEY MAPS.

The plans on the scale of 1/2500 or 25°344 inches
to one mile are of special use to farmers and agricul-
turists generally. They are published for the whole of
the cultivated areas of the United Kingdom, and show
every ENCLOSURE, ROAD, STREAM, FOOTPATH
BUILDING, and PLANTATION. ALL PUBLIC
BOUNDARIES are also shown.

Each plan covers an area 14 miles by 1 mile, and
contains 960 acres. All FIELDS and ENCLOSURES
are given a reference number, and the acreage of each is
printed on the plan. The acreage is computed,
generally, to the centre of the fence or other boundary
of the enclosure. LEVELS are shown on the plans,
facilitating their use for field drainage purposes.

The numbers of the Fields will be required in con-
nection with the claims in connection with the Minimum
Prices of Wheat and Oats for 1921. See page 103 of
this Journal.

On this scale a square inch on the plan equals, for
practical purposes, an acre on the ground; thus large
fields can be sub-divided for different crops, and a
record of cropping kept on the plan.

The price of each plan is 5/-. The maps can be
obtained from agents in all large towns, or direct
from :—

The Director General,
Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.

Key maps and further particulars will be sent
gratis.

xx THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

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Foreign: ‘‘ Paganini, London.’’ (3 lines).

XXxi

CONTENTS.

NoTEs FOR THE MONTH PAGE
Home Grown Wheat Prices—Home Grown Wheat Prices for April and
May—Export of Worn Out Horses—Swine Fever Order Building for
Land Settli ment—Rations for Live Stock—Minimum Price s for Wheat

and Oats harvested in 1921 ae Sa F oe ee a 97

ACCOUNTS OF A HAMPSHIRE Down Fuock. Sir A. D. Hall. K.C.B.. F.R.S. 104

>

RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING II. R&R. C. Punnett, F.R.S. de 110

REPORT OF THE BARBERRY AND THE BLACK Rust OF WHEAT SURVEY
IN SoutH WeEsT WALES. W. H. Broadbent, A.R.C.Sc., DIC. i Ey

POLLINATION OF FruITs. Cecil H. Hooper, M.R.A.C. af iF .. 124
Dry SPRAYING FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF CHARLOCK. W, A. Millard, B.Sc. 133
**RurRAL Bras” IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS; THE WorK AT SEXEY’s Fovun-
DATION SCHOOL IN SOMERSET, SS. L. Bensusan... ws 7S iF 142
Hor *‘Movip” AND Its Controu. Z£. 8S. Salmon ... he — 148
PounTRY RESEARCH. 0. Charnock Bradley, M.D., D.Se., M.R.C.V.S. ... 156
PouLtrRY NOTES ... * os a. ial of Ly ate =a 162

NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. W. H. Parker, M.A., and

H. Chambers. M.B.E. ae A ve LS Pe: ei ie 164
Nores ON FEEDING Stvurrs FoR May. 4. TZ. Halnan, M.A., Dip.

Agric. (Cantab. ) ii 18]
Entertainment Tax and Agricultural, Horticultural, Poultry and Rabbit

Shows ... o: oe A ~ ye oe . m che 183
Sugar Beet in England a! ei = 7. es .. a = 184
Co-operative Dairy Movement —... a ee 4 : a: ee 185
Phosphatic Manures ae a ie " ay ' in a ena
Potato Synonyms ... . * mf = * = re bo.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease m a - wh Ss i < 190
Rabies a a + Ps ois 7 Sele bys ani 190
Sale of Gooseberries A ye pa - cd ae net 4": 19]
Importation of Gooseberries +P 3 = — ay m 19]
Livestock Improvement... - ea sk is. ee . Ci WO
Tractor Trials, 1921 rie ‘st $2 on = aA a 19]
Export of Live Stock to Uruguay a Pe is Da a isn: E192
Warning to Poultry Keepers aa “et at 7 i S 9 i o> ee
Additions to Library my wae ty eal i ae iss <> LutaRO?

Any of the Articles Zi this Journal MA) be reproduced in aiuy regist red
newspaper or public periodical without special permission, provided that the source
is acknowledged in each case.

The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and the
statements made by contributors, nor for any statements made in the advertisement

columns of this Journal.

xxii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements

By Royan 73 WARRANT.
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(IPSWICH)

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DEPT. J. IPSWICH.
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1921
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TIMBER IMPORTERS AND CREOSOTERS.
Head Office NORWICH.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Vol. XXVIII. No. 2.

MAY, 1921.

NOTES FOR THE MONTH.

An account was given in the March issue of this JouRNAL
(p. 1097) of the arrangements proposed to give efiect to the
Government’s decision in regard to the
price to be paid for home-grown wheat ot
the 1920 crop. The scheme has since been
extended so as to enable sales made by growers to merchants
between 8th November, 1920, and 5th March, 1921, to be dealt
with more effectively. Farmers who sold wheat during this
period to merchants can now claim the repayment of the differ-
ence between the price which they received and the prescribed
price for wheat of sound milling quality. Claim forms containing
instructions to growers in England and Wales can be obtained
from the local branches of the National Farmers’ Union and the
National Association of Corn and Agricultural Merchants.

Home-Grown
Wheat Prices.

In connection with the arrangement as regards the price of
home-grown wheat of the 1920 crop, it was stated that the price
of 95s. per 504 lb. for home-grown wheat
of sound milling quality will continue so
long as the average c.i.f. cost of imported
Wheat remains above the parity of that
figure. This average will be the average of the c.i.f. cost of
all milling wheat imported during the two preceding months,
together with the actual and anticipated arrivals in the United
Kingdom during the current month, subject to adjustment in
respect of the lower percentage of flour of equal water content
obtainable from home-grown wheat as compared with imported
wheat. In the event of this average falling below the equivalent
of 95s. the price of home-grown wheat will be adjusted accord-
ingly, and the revised price to be paid by millers will be
announced monthly.

Home-Grown
Wheat Prices for
April and May.

(36771) P6/198. 11,250, 4/21, M.&§, A

98 Export or Worn Out Horszs. [ May,

The Ministry announced on the 28rd of March that it had been
informed by the Ministry of Food that the average c.i.f. cost of
imported wheat calculated as stated above for the month of
March was 102s. 7d. per 480 lb. After making the necessary
adjustment for moisture content, the equivalent price for home-
grown wheat is approximately 96s. 8d. per 504 lb. The price of
95s. per 504 lb. payable by millers therefore remained unaffected
during the month of April.

As regards the price payable during the month of May, the
Ministry is informed that the Royal Commission on Wheat Sup-
plies calculate that the cost of wheat imported during February,
March and April is equivalent to 92s. per qr. of 504 lb. for home-
grown wheat of sound milling quality. For the month of May,
1921, therefore, the average price properly receivable by growers
will be 92s. per 504 lb.

Special arrangements have been made which should enable
millers to use home-grown wheat freely and to pay for it on the
average a price not less than the price properly receivable by
srowers for wheat of average quality. Choice samples should
realise prices above the average, but lower prices can only be
expected for samples of inferior quality or condition.

No definite guarantee can of course be given that millers will
be able to purchase all the home-grown wheat that may be offered
to them at any given time, especially if farmers press their wheat
on the market in excess of normal requirements, but the Ministry
does not doubt that the whole of the wheat crop is required and
that it will have been absorbed by the mills by 18th August next,
the date at which the present arrangement will come to an end.

* e * * * *

Many complaints have lately reached the Ministry from those
who have seen or heard that British horses landed in Belgium
are too often in a condition that should have
precluded their export. For some time past
the Ministry has been conducting a very
careful investigation into conditions in Belgium and at our home
ports. and as a result it was ascertained that while the standard
at the Port of London is uniformly high. certain cargoes which
have been allowed to leave provincial ports have contained horses
which in the Ministry’s opinion did not conform to the standard
set up by the Act of 1914. In order to secure the greater super-
vision which is necessary in order to maintain hamane condi-
tions, it has been decided to employ an additional Staff of Veteri-
nary Surgeons who will give their whole time to this work.

Export of
Worn Out Horses.

1921. | PROSECUTION UNDER THE SWINE FEVER ORDER. 99

It is very generally admitted that the Act of 1914 has to a
large extent removed from export the class of horse that made
up a very considerable part of the consignments before the War,
and it is hoped that the fresh action taken will still further secure
the observance of the Act. Every effort is being made to stimu-
late the slaughter by humane methods on this side of horses that
are intended for meat. It 1s proposed to extend this system to
the fullest possible extent so that no horse intended for con-
sumption may be sent across the seas alive. The extent to which
horse-slaughtering depéts in this country have developed near
the ports»during the past six months is most encouraging and
favours the belief that home-killing will soon become the rule
and the export of live horses for meat a rare exception. At the
same time it is well to remember that a horse in all respects fit
for work may be bought in Belgium for meat, because horses
are sold in the open market and the butcher may be prepared to
outbid other buyers.

Ix Glasgow last month a pig feeder was charged and found
guilty of having had in his possession a number of pigs affected
with or suspected of having Swine Fever
and failing to give notice of the outbreak to
the authorities. He was turther charged
and found guilty with having exposed
twenty pigs for sale in one market and fifteen pigs for sale in
another market, all these pigs being diseased or suspected of
being diseased. Nearly all the pigs disposed of in the markets
had died of Swine Fever within a short time of the sale. The
Court imposed a fine of £100 with two months’ imprisonment as
an alternative. The Ministry of Agriculture through its
inspectors has traced the pigs that this dealer sold, and of the
fifteen sold on the 8th December ail were suffering from Swine
Fever ten days later. The twenty sold on 6th December were
disposed of to different farmers and introduced Swine Fever on
eight sets of premises. The very serious injury which is done
to the pig breeding industry by cases of this sort will be realised,
and it is the duty of every pig keeper to see that he does not sell
any animals which afford any suspicion of the existence of Swine
Fever. In this trade as in all others there is a certain amount
of wilful carelessness, even of fraud, but if the Petty Sessional
Courts before which cases like the one referred to above are
brought, will only deal with them on the same salutary lines it
aA 2

A Successiul Prose-
cution under the
Swine Fever Order.

100 Burupinc FoR LAND SETTLEMENT. [ May,

is safe to say that the business of trading suspect animals will
become unpopular.

* * * * * *

Faruy in April Sir Lawrence Weaver, Director-General of the
Juand Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, read to the
Building for Royal Tnstitute of British Architects a
Land Settlement: P@Per 12 which he set out a brief record
A Survey of the of the Ministry’s work in providing land
Ministry’s Work. settlement for ex-soldiers. He pointed out
that this work is the outcome of a pledge
given during the war to men in H.M. Service and to women
who worked on the land for at least six months. This pledge
received statutory force from the Land Settlement (Facilities)
Act: Of L919;

The total applications from ex-Service men for land
amounted to 48,340 when the list was closed on December Ist.
last. It 1s°expected that about 80,000 of these applications
will stand and of these upwards of 11,000 have been satisfied.
Tf agricultural conditions continue satisfactory enough to main-
tain the pressure of applicants’ demand for land it may be
found necessary to acquire as much as 160,000 acres more, so
that when the work comes to an end 640 square miles will
have been acquired and 30,000 men will have been settled.

The term ‘‘ Small Holding ’’is an elastic one and covers
anything between a plot of an acre or two suitable for a
market garden up to a fifty acre dairy holding with seven
roomed cottage, dairy and farm buildings. The capital cost
has ranged from £100 to £5,000, but is now limited to £2,500.
The average size of a holding in England and Wales is about
134 acres. Practical difficulties in the way of work done have
been immense. Demobilisation brought no reduction in the
cost of building; contrary to general expectation prices
increased. Although the Land Settlement (Facilities) Act
placed twenty million pounds to the credit of capital costs and
although the Government undertook to meet all annual losses,
the most rigid economy has been called for all the time.
Approximate scales of capital cost and annual loss per holding
were placed before the County Councils in the summer of last
year, and the Ministry’s superintending architects review all
small holding building schemes and cut out every item of
unnecessary expenditure.

The Tuand Settlement Division maintains the _ closest

1921. | BuILDING FoR LAND SETTLEMENT. 101

relationship with County Councils, and the Ministry’s District
Commissioners act with the superintending architects “‘ as
ambassadors to the County Councils.’’ [Experience has shown
that cheap architects make poor buildings, and the Ministry
urges upon County Councils the engagement of men with
proper qualifications. In view of the bitter need for reduction
in cost, it has been found that the architect in charge of cottage
and farm building schemes must needs be more of an organiser
and economist than an artist. The complete task of the
Ministry which is, working through the County Councils, to
provide three thousand new cottages and nearly two thousand
sets of new farm buildings, in addition to hundreds of adapta-
tions of existing premises, is complicated by the fact that the
work is spread over sixty-two administrative counties ‘‘ in
remote Yorkshire vales, on the slopes of Welsh mountains,
in the folds of inaccessible downs.’’ ‘The whole of the
architectural work has been carried on as far as the Depart-
ment is concerned by less than fifty people and the best
possible use has been made of the very limited range of avail-
able material. In building operations it has been found that
brick has held its own, though most exhaustive experiments
have been made with cob, pisé and concrete.

The Ministry looks forward to the time when it will no
jonger need to control directly the building operations on its
own Farm Settlements, which amount to 25,000 acres. It takes
the view that building is a commercial business associated
with a speculative side and carrying with it risks that a
Ministry ought not to undertake. A Government Department
is concerned with administration and not with trade, nor can
it hope to carry on business successfully because the Treasury
supervision, which is absolutely essential in the best interests
of the State, enforces delays and difficulties which the ordinary
building contractor does not encounter. This view is explained
in greater detail in the Report of Proceedings under the Small
Holdings Colonies Act for the period ended 31st March, 1920,
in which it is explained that a decision has been arrived at:—

(a) To divide into small holdings the area now devoted
to central farms on small holdings settlements, and_ to
dispense with the services of the Director so soon as the
equipment of the whole estate for small holdings purposes
has been completed and the settlers are fairly established.

(b) To transfer the management of such estates to the
Councils of the counties in which they are situate.

102 Rations ror Live Stock. [ May,

(c) To deal with the profit-sharing farm settlements in
one of the following ways: (1) Where the land is suitable, -
by cutting up part of the estate into small holdings, and by
selling the remainder as ordinary farms; (2) By selling the
complete estate; (8) By retaining one, or at most two, |
specially favourable estates (in whole or in part) in order
to draft thereto men displaced on other estates.

* * * + * SS

No. 82 of the Miscellaneous Publications of the Ministry is by |
Professor T. B. Wood, of Cambridge University, and is called
‘“ Rations for Live Stock.’’ It shows the
composition and nutritive value of many
feeding stuffs. the relation between live-
weight and food requirement. and offers the farmer a method
of working out suitable rations for his animals. Professor
Wood compares an animal with a steam engine at work
and points out that it must be supplied with the materials
necessary for fuel and repairs, the fuel of the animal being
carbohydrates and fats or oils, while the repairing material
is given in the form of albuminoids or flesh formers. He empha-
sises the important fact that the value of the feeding stuff
depends on the proportion that can be digested, and the pamphlet
contains figures giving the nutritive value of a large number of
foods and the nutritive ratio of the repair to the fuel content.
Then comes the question of productive feeding—the food that
will enable animals to increase their weight, yield more miik or
do more work. Advice is offered on the question of buying
feeding stuffs, and figures are supplied giving the best measure
of the relative productive value of various concentrated foods.

Rations for
Live Stock.

An important section of the pamphlet is that dealing with
the general properties of feeding stuffs. It is followed by notes
on the rations for fattening bullocks, for cows, calves, sheep,
horses and pigs. Professor Wood has used the simplest possible
language and has been so careful to explain the principles under-
lying the tables accompanying the pamphlet that a very small
effort is required to master them. The value of these contents
to the practical agriculturist is undoubtedly very great. Even
some of our successful stock owners may find in the hght of this
work that they have been feeding wastefully and that a better
balanced ration may add to the worth and condition of the
stock fed.

1928.) Miximum Prices ror WHEAT AND OATS. 108

THE procedure in regard to the minimum prices guaranteed
by the Agriculture Act, 1920, in respect of wheat and oats
produced in 1921 was explained in the
April issue of the Journaut (p. 8). The
Oats ‘Harvested attention of farmers is drawn to the fact

that no payment will be made "nless a
in 1921. hes :
claim is made in respect of the area on which
the wheat or oats have been produced. Forms of claim for 1921
will be issued along with the forms on which the Agricultural
teturns have to be made on 4th June, 1921. The claims must be
forwarded direct to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries not
later than the 80th June, unless the claimant can show that he,
became the occupier of the land after that date, in which
case the Minister may accept a claim made not later than the
Ist September, 1921.

The claimant will be required to enter on the form of claim
particulars of each separate field of wheat or oats. The
number of each field as shown on the 25-inch Ordnance Survey
Map, and the ploughed area of wheat or oats in each field,
will have to be stated. These detailed particulars are necessary
to enable the Ministry and the County Agricultural Committee
to verify the accuracy of the claim.

Copies of the Ordnance Survey Map on the 25-inch scale
can be purchased through anv bookseller, price 5s. per sheet.
In most districts copies of the map of the district can be
inspected at the office of the County Agricultural Committee.
Information as to the number of fields can also be obtained
at the local office of the District Valuer of the Board of Inland
Revenue. The Assistant Overseer may also possess a copy of
the map of his parish. In case of difficulty, inquiry should be
made of the Cultivation Officer of the County Agricultural
Committee. Farmers are advised to take steps forthwith to
ascertain the numbers of the fields sown or intended to be
sown with wheat or oats as shown on the 25-inch Ordnance

Survey Map.

Minimum Prices
for Wheat and

| May,

ACCOUNTS OF A HAMPSHIRE Down FLOCK.

104

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Michaelmas, 1920.

1921. ] Accounts or A HamMpsHIRE Down FLocx. 105

It may be explained again that the accounts are kept on a
costs basis. The initial valuation is arrived at by taking the
number of flock ewes on 1st May (approximately the date of
weaning) at the average figure of {4 each. Old rams are simi-
larly valued at £7 each. From 1st May the cost of keeping (a)
the ewes, (b) the selected ram lambs, (c) the ewe lambs and
wethers is kept separately, and the valuations at Michaelmas
are made up of the flock ewes at their fixed £4 price and the
cost of keep between 1st May and 11th October, any ram lambs
remaining unsold at cost, also ewe lambs and tegs at cost. The
valuation figure has also to include the cost of any rams hired for
the coming season, and one-half cost of rams purchased. For
book-keeping purposes a pedigree suspense account is kept which
is debited with the cost of ewes and rams purchased for the flock.
one-half of the ram costs are charged to the flock in each of the
two years after purchase, and the cost of the ewes is similarly
spread over three years. The labour and horse labour items
represent actual costs; the crops that are folded off are charged
at two-thirds of the cost of cultivation, plus the cost of seed (the
manures and one-third of the cultivation, as representing clean-
ing costs, are passed on to the succeeding corn crops); hay, oats
and other foods grown on the farm are charged at market prices.

An examination of the figures for the two years shows that
the costs of keeping the flock, high as they were in 1918-19, have
been greatly increased in 1919-20. The cost of the labour
directly employed upon the flock (one head and one assistant
shepherd and one labourer) has increased from £406 to £587.
Similarly the cost of the crops consumed, again largely labour,
has increased from £6738 to £978. The chief increase in the
expenditure comes, however, in the purchased foods, the cost of
which has risen from £662 to £1,462. To some extent this has
been due to a large number of lambs raised and to increased
prices, but the extra cost has been chiefly due to the fact that
during the year in question feeding stuffs were again obtainable
in quantity and were consumed on the principle of ‘‘ no stint ”’
ond “‘ the best is good enough for me ’’ which prevails in the
rearing of pedigree stock. Less home grown oats and beans were
used. the grazing (92 acres of lattermath) on the other hand
cost rather more, but this cost is accidentally swelled by a very
heavy bill for fertilisers charged to the pastures, on which a
course of improvement is being carried out. Less hay was con-
sumed, but at the price then ruling, £18, the cost amounted to
£566 as compared with £402 in the previous year.

106 Accounts oF A HampsHirE Down FLock. T May,

The general result is a very heavy expenditure; taking the
ewe as a unit the total cost of the flock per ewe amounted to
£16 3s. in 1919-20 as compared with £9 5s. in the preceding
year. Of this £10 12s. went for food, £2 8s. for labour, £1 8s.
for rams, &c., £1 15s. for management and sundries, as com-
pared with £5 15s. for food, 26s. for labour, 17s. for rams and
27s. management and sundries in 1918-19. These figures are
very large in themselves, apart from the enormous increase they
show on those of the preceding year. To some extent the
increase is due to a bigger number of lambs reared, 304 against
278, and particularly. a bigger number of ram lambs, which cost
the most, 89 against 58 in the preceding year. Labour and food
were dearer. The extra Ss. per ewe for sundries represented only
the increased cost of showing in 1920 as compared with 1919.
Big as the food bill appears it is not a wasteful one, such as
might be incurred by a shepherd who dips at will into granary
and cake store; the foods are rationed out after discussion
between the manager and the shepherd, and while there has been
no stint there has been no waste. I am satisfied that the costs are
legitimate enough for the year and do not exceed those pre-
vailing in other pedigree flocks of the same quality.

Of course there are probably no other sheep so expensively
produced; Hampshire ram lambs have to be forced from birth,
indeed as much as possible before birth, because neither
breeding nor quality will be of much avail if the lambs
have not size at the August sales. The essence of a Hamp-
shire is early maturity and the ram buyers make their choice
on what they see before them, which is, other things lke
conformation and wool being équal, the weight attained in the
time, whether that is due to skilful feeding and to natural
capacity to put on flesh such as may be transmitted to the off-
spring. J am aware of few pedigree flocks that have a strict
account kept against them, especially as they so often are kept
as hobbies; indeed, the main purpose of setting out this account
is to induce owners of pedigree flocks to realise what expenditure
they are up against.

On the credit side the flock makes a better showing in 1919-20
than in the preceding year. In the first place more lambs were
reared, 310 from 268 ewes, as against 278 from 279 ewes in the
preceding year, and the quality was better, so that 89 could be
drafted for the ram sales as compared with 58 before. Sales
were better; as is well known, there was an exceptional recovery’
in the demand for rams and sheep of all kinds in 1920. This

19214] Accounts or A Hampsuire Down Fiocx. 107

flock in 1920 let two iambs at 225 and 150 guineas respectively.
and sold three others at 82, 54, and 48 guineas, the average for
73 lambs being over £24, while the 20 shearlings averaged nearly
£19 each. The draft ewes and the butcher’s lambs made over
£6 each as compared with 73s. in the previous year. ‘The wool,
of which the ewes clipped over 8 lb. and the lambs under 3 lb.,
produced £452, as against £327. The valuation of the flock
shows a considerable rise, nearly £700, but this was not due to
any writing up of the value of the ewes, which would have been
done in an ordinary valuation according to market prices, but to
the fact that 47 tegs had not been sold by the 11th October
(afterwards realising £306). that there were 11 more flock lambs
kept over, and that the pedigree costs for rams hired and pur-
chased had been increased by £140, and that the cost of keep
from 1st May had been greater.

The final result shows a loss of £190, a sufficiently discon-
certing result for what had seemed to be a good year, when the
fall of lambs had been good, the early spring favourable, and the
sales both in amount and quality far better than the flock had
hitherto realised. Of course the loss could be converted into a
profit if the hay, charged at market price—£13, were charged at
cost, 7.e., at something under £4. Then the debit of £566 would
become £176. In the oats and beans bought from the farm is
also concealed a little profit. If all the home grown foods were
charged at cost the account would show a nominal profit of
£250 instead of a loss of £190. Argument will of course
be perennial whether it is more correct to charge the live
stock at cost or market price for home grown foods; it does
not matter much except in times like the present when market
prices are fluctuating widely. The important thing is that the
farmer, using his book-keeping for his own information, should
not deceive himself. The final upshot of the accounts of this
flock, whether home grown food is taken in at cost or market
price, comes to the same thing, viz., the flock preduced from
171 acres of arable land cropped with roots, vetches, &c., 40
acres of seeds as hay, 8 acres of oats and beans, and 92 acres of
lattermath, a cash return of about £250 after all expenses had
been paid. The flock is only valued at about £38,000 at Michael-
mas, but taking the average of the net expenditure also standing
against it throughout the year it ought to be paying interest on
a sum of about £5,000 floating capital. The result then could
be summed up as showing that the flock returns a bare 5 per
cent. on its capital while the land which the flock used, some 220
acres, earned no profit at all.

108 ACCOUNTS OF A HaMpsHIRE Down Ftocx. [ May,

Now the land under corn on the same farm that year made
an average profit of £4 12s. an acre, and it is in the light of this
figure that the really unprofitable nature of the flock is seen.
Land which will produce a profit of £4 12s. an acre under corn
will produce no profit at all but only a low rate of interest on the
extra capital at stake when its produce is marketed in the form
of a pedigree flock.

It may be urged that the corn could not be grown but for the
sheeping the land had received. The proposition is debatable,
but at any rate the flock gets ample credit for what is
done in this direction, because the subsequent crops have
to pay off some £3 an acre of manurial residues in
addition to £2 an acre or so of cleaning costs. While there
can be no doubt about the enrichment of the soil effected
by the heavy cake and corn feeding accompanying its folding
over by a pedigree flock it is often difficult to get a paying return
for this manuring. If the fold is late in March or even February,
it is often difficult to get spring corn sown on a satisfactory tilth
in time to secure a good crop, one that is in any way proportional
to the manure residues supposed to be in the land. On these
chalk soils the spring drought may set in early, and the two
dominant factors in securing a good crop are early sowing and a
good tilth. Actually on this farm wheat is the profitable crop
rather than spring oats and barley, because it does not suffer
from the late tilth and has not to pay so much of the costs carried
over from the folding. In fact the corn is most profitable on the
land that is never sheeped.

Another objection may be taken to the general conclusion as to
the unprofitable nature of the flock—that it is not quite big
enough nor skilfully enough managed to attain the results that
alone will pay for the expense involved. The prices realised for
pedigree rams by a flock which is recognised as among the two
or three leading flocks in the country, the sort of flock which
wins first prizes at the Royal Show, are very different
from the prices obtained by a flock which just misses the
highest position. Such a position has not been attained
by this flock, whose show record for 1920 was one third
prize at the Royal Counties Show, two second and two third
prizes at the Bath and West Show, and one second prize at
the Hampshire Down Society’s Breed Show. The truth of both
objections may be admitted. A flock of 400 or 500 has a much
greater chance of winning prizes than one of 260, merely because
there are more to select from. The expenses increase with

1921. | Accounts OF A HAMPSHIRE Down FLOCK. 109

numbers but the whole average of the sales may be increased by
the superior prize winning capacity. Again prize-winning to
a considerable extent depends upon the art with which the stock
are finally prepared and presented for show, and in connection
with every breed there are two or three shepherds known for
their personal skill in putting their animals before the judge to
the best advantage. However, let it be admitted that the flock
in question may fail in this respect, the general conclusion would
still emerge that ram breeding is an unprofitable business unless
the flock can be brought to the very top of the tree.

In fact one cannot standardise a ram breeder’s business and
prepare an account which compares the average cost of produc-
tion with the return for the output that may be expected in a
normal market. On the receipt side of the account the personal
factor counts for much ; how well can the particular shepherd show
his sheep, how clever a salesman is the owner in the special and
limited market in which he had to make his profit. But these
accounts do show what costs of production have to be faced and
how unprofitable a business ram breeding is likely to be for
the majority of men who engage in it. The balance sheet may
serve the purpose of inducing ram breeders to consider their
business in the light of results; can they so bring their flock to
the front as to pay for the expenditure or is the loss worth
while as a luxury?

110 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. | May,

RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING.
LL:

R. C., Punnere, FR.S;,

Professor of Genetics, University of Cumbridge.

In the first article of this series, published in the April
issue of the JourNAL, Prof. Punnett dealt with coat colours
in cattle as an illustration of sumple Mendelian inheritance.

Ix the case selected for illustrating simple Mendelian inheri-
tance, viz., black and red coat colours in cattle, one of the
members of the alternative pairs of characters is completely
dominant to the other. The black animal that carries red germ
cells is quite as black in appearance as the true breeding black
that carries black germ cells only. This feature of complete
dominance is found frequently in animals, but there are other
cases in which it is possible to distinguish by appearance, the
form that carries both kinds of germ cells. Roan Shorthorns
provide an illustration.

No breeder has succeeded in establishing a strain breeding
true to roan, for such animals, when bred together, always
throw reds and whites in addition to roans. Statistical examina-
tion of the herd books by several writers suggests that two kinds
of germ cells are concerned. viz., “‘ red’’ and ‘* white.’’ When
two “red ’’ germ cells meet. a red* animal results, and such
animals breed true to red; also, when two “ white ’’ germ cells
meet, the result is a white, and such animals breed true to white.
When, however, a red is crossed with a white, as shown in Fig. 3,
a union is effected between a “‘ red ’’ and a ‘‘ white ’’ germ cell.
The resultant animal is a roan, more or less intermediate in
appearance between full red and white. This animal, formed by
two unlike germ cells, carries both “* réd ’’ and ** white ’’ germ
cells in equal numbers; consequently, when roans are mated
together equal numbers of ‘‘red’’ and ‘‘ white ’’ ova are
fertilized by equal numbers of ‘‘ red’? and ** white ’’ sperms.
Each red ovum has an equal chance of being fertilized by a
‘red ’’ or by a ‘‘ white ’’ sperm; in the former case it will give
a pure red animal, and in the latter a roan. Also, each ‘‘ white ’’
ovum has an equal chance of being fertilized by a ‘* red ’’ or
‘‘ white ’’ sperm; in the former case a roan animal will result,
and in the latter a white. Roans mated together, as shown in

* Both reds and roans may have white markings, especially on the belly,
but these appear to be independent of the roan character.

RED ROAN ROAN WHITE

Fig, 3.—Ilustrating the relations of Red, White and Roan.

=») | ae
Se Tsien

eigiuPasily re ae ve. |

~

1921. ] RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 111

Fig. 8, give reds, roans, and whites in the ratio 1:2:1. From
the view of the practical breeder a roan animal is a hybrid
between red and white; the colour cannot be fixed. for there are
no ‘‘roan’’ germ cells (only ‘‘ red ’’ and ‘‘ white ’’ cells).
The breeder who desires roan animals will be well advised to
obtain them by crossing red with white; in this way 100 per
cent. of roans will result, as against 50 per cent. from mating
roan by roan, roan by red, or roan by white.

The ‘‘ breaking up of the type ’’ that often occurs after a cross
is a familiar feature to breeders. The first cross animals may
show considerable uniformity, though differing from both
parental strains. In one character they may take after one
parent, in another they may resemble the other parent, while in
a third they may be more or less‘intermediate between the two.
When such animals are bred together a great diversity of forms
makes its appearance in the next generation, and in extreme
cases scarcely any two beasts may be alike. The skilled breeder,

Black Red
polled x Rona nPwinv he inne =i

|
Black Black
Balled Xx mailed io eee F,

Black Blach Red Red _____p
petled horned polled horned i

9 3 3g

Fig, 4.—Ilustrating the relations of Polled and Horned cattle.

however, will often name with certainty the original parental
breeds of such a mixed progeny, as he will understand that
there is something orderly underlying apparent chaos. ‘The
breeder who sees as far as this will doubtless welcome the simple
explanation that Mendelism affords, but for those who may
doubt the possibility of such an explanation, a simple example
is given to illustrate the nature of the principle involved.
Suppose a cross is made between a black polled and a red
horned breed. The progeny will be black polled animals (see

119 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. [ May,

Fig. 4). The F1 generation is uniform, but when a further
generation is raised from these, fresh types appear. In addition
to black polled and red horned beasts there will be horned blacks
and polled reds, types distinct both from parents and grand-
parents, but evidently a recombination of characters found in the
grandparents. These four types appear in widely different pro-
portions, as indicated by the numbers in Fig. 4. It has been
pointed out already that polled and horned cattle form a pair of
alternative characters, of which polled is dominant; and that
black and red form a similar pair, the black being dominant.
Knowing this, we should expect all the F1 beasts to be both black
and polled; the F2 generation to consist of blacks and reds in the
ratio 8:1, and polled and horned in the same ratio. If we
suppose that the factors for the black-red and the polled-horned
pairs are transmitted in the same manner, but independently of
one another, we must obtain a F2 generation consisting of the
four classes black-polled, black-horned, red-polled and red-horned
in the ratio 9:3: 8:1. This is the only ratio in which the
polled and horned appear inthe proportion 8 : 1, and the blacks and
reds simultaneously in the same proportion, provided that each
pair is inherited independently. Though the ratio 9:3: 3:1
has not been verified on a comprehensive scale for the cattle
cross, it has been worked out in all details in many cases for
smaller animals, where the expenses of breeding are far less.
There is reason for supposing that if a F2 generation of several
hundreds of cattle were bred from this cross, the four classes
mentioned would be obtained in the proportions given above.

There has been a ‘‘ break-up ’’ of the parental types in that
the two new classes, horned-blacks and polled-reds appear in the
F2 generation ; and it is clear that these new classes arise through
recombination of the two pairs of factors in which the original
parents differed. The ‘‘ break-up,’’ however, is not marked,
because the parents differed in two pairs of factors only. Had
they differed in ten pairs, the F2 generation would have been
very much more complex, and the feature of recombination, so
obvious in the simpler case. would have been obscured by the
creat number of recombinations that would have appeared.
Nevertheless. on the evidence obtained from smaller animals,
there is good reason for supposing that the more complicated
case could be resolved on the same lines as the simpler one,
and that the same principle underlies both.

A cross may be undertaken deliberately with the idea of com-
bining particular characters found in one breed with other cha-

1921. | RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 113

<a — — — — — = SS eee

racters found in another breed, and with this in view it is clear
that Mendelian principles can be of great assistance to the
breeder. Let us suppose that the breeder wishes to obtain a
strain of red polled cattle out of Aberdeen Angus and Red Short- '
horn; and further, that he is not aware of the fact that polled
and horned, and black and red behave as simple Mendelian pairs.
From this crossing only polled blacks result. So far he can
say only that the Angus is prepotent ; but as soon as he raises a
F'2 generation and views it in the light of Mendelian knowledge,
he begins to understand what is happening. The fact that he gets
no intermediates, but only blacks and reds in the 2 generation,
and that the latter form about one quarter of the total, tells him
that these colours depend upon a single pair of factors. From
the point of view of horns in the F2 generation, it will be noted
that polled and horned appear in the ratio 3: 1; and this tells
the breeder that he is dealing with another pair df factors. More-
over, the 9: 3: 3: 1 ratio tells him that the two pairs are trans-
mitted independently ; for this is the meaning of the 9: 3: 3:1
ratio in analysing the phenomena of heredity.

Having obtained the polled reds the breeder wants to fix them
in the shortest time. To a problem of this sort Mendelian theory
may be a valuable guide. When once the factors concerned in a
cross have been determined, it is possible to calculate the propor-
tion of fixed animals in each class of the F2 generation, and to
suggest also how they are to be found. In explanation we may
examine the cattle cross from a slightly different point of view.
The nature of the F2 generation tells us that we are concerned
with a difference of two pairs of factors, viz., the pair for polled
and horned denoted by P and p, and the pair for black and red.
Band b.* It is clear that both dominants went in with the Angus
and both recessives with the Shorthorn: therefore, we denote th
polled black as PPBB and the Shorthorn as ppbb. Since the F1
gets P and B from its Angus parent, and p and b from its Short-
horn parent, its constitution must be PpBb (Fie. 5). When FI
forms germ cells each cell contains a representative of the P-p
pair, and also a representative of the B-b pair. Hence 50 per
cent. contain P and 50 per cent. contain p; also 50 per cent.
contain B and 50 per cent. contain b. Since the F2 generation
shows that the P-p pair and the B-b pair are transmitted inde-
pendently, we must suppose that any germ cell containing P
has an equal chance of containing either B or b, and similarly,
any p germ cell has an equal chance of containing B or b. Hence

* It is customary to denote the factor that gives rise to the dominant of a
pair of alternative characters, by a capital letter, and that upon which the
recessive depends, by the corresponding small letter.

B

114 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. [ May,

Black polled Red horned.
PPBB PPbb

forms Sounes
germcells germeells

Pa Ps b b
re

, = polled . Black polled F,
orm )
germee|ls ae

RB PB

giving vise lo an Fy generation :—

PB |) PB 2.1 PB 21PB ok.
EB, hb. LPB 2) Ge ie ae
IBinckpolled [Black polled [Black palled [Black polled,
(Pb)! SEP pare: Pbk arn
(FB i Ph PB Vike

Blgek polled [Red polled [Black polled! Rea polled
pS 9. pB 10. pB tI. P: fo)
bees ||) mea eee ae
‘Black polted [Black polled [Black horned |Black horned]
{pk (3. | po [4p pb 15. pb iG. |
(PB 1 Pb pB |pb |
Black polled| Red polled Black heynadl Red horned

Hie. 5.—Illustrating the relations of Aberdeen Angus and Red Shorthorn.

1921. | RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 115

the F1 animals will produce the 4 kinds of germ cells Pb, Pb, pP
and pb, and produce them in equal numbers. When F1 beasts
are mated together it means that we are bringing together a
series of ova of this nature with a similar series of sperms. ‘The
simplest way to arrive at the result is to make a figure of 16
squares, as shown in Fig. 5, and to write the above series of
germ cells first across the four horizontal rows of the figure, and
then down the four vertical rows of the same figure. ‘This will
give all the different possible combinations in the proportions in
which they may be expected to occur, 1.e., the constitution of
the F2 generation. Examination of the squares shows that 9 out
of the 16 contain both P and B and are, therefore, polled blacks,
3 contain B and p, which are horned blacks; 3, in which P is
associated with b, are polled reds; while 1, having only b and p,
must be red horned. The three red polled are not all alike. One
is PPbb and two are Ppbb (Fig. 5, squares numbered 6, 8, and
14). The former is pure for the polled factor, having received it
from both parents; the others, however, have received it from
one parent only, and are consequently impure. ‘The polled
character is already fixed in one-third of the red polled F2 beasts,
but how are the fixed to be distinguished from the unfixed beasts?
As pointed out in the previous article, this can be done by crossing
with the recessive, which in this case is the horned beast. The
fixed polled red PPbb gives only polled beasts when mated with
horned animals, the impure polled red Ppbb gives on the average
equal numbers of polled and horned. The above example was
selected as a very simple illustration of the manner in which the
‘* break-up ’’ of the type, and the recombination of characters is
interpreted on Mendelian lines, but the general principle applies
to far more complicated cases. It has provided us with a simple
explanation of the curious phenomenon of reversion on crossing,
a phenomenon which has puzzled the practical breeder and the
man of science. As, however, no fresh principle is involved in such
cases there is no need to consider them here in further detail.

Many of the characters of animals with which the breeder
deals, owe their manifestation to the presence of one or other
definite factor. which is transmitted according to a definite
scheme. If these factors are not divisible under normal condi-
tions, they must be handed on through the germ cells as definite
entities producing their full effect in exch successive generation.
Continual crossing of black with red does not diminish the
potency of the black factor. So long as it is passed on through a
germ cell it produces its full effect. This relative permanence
of the factors, assuming it to be well founded, is doubly important

BQ

116 RESEARCH IN ANIMAL BREEDING. [ May,.

for the animal breeder. It assures him that a character put into
a cross can be recovered from it by suitable procedure, even
though it may for a time appear to be submerged and lost. It
also offers the prospect of understanding, and so of controlling
fully the material with which he works; but in order that he may
be in a position to do this he must first be provided with an
analysis of that material in terms of factors. The factor is for
the breeder much what the atom is for the chemist. Though
they may have a real existence, in practice both the atom and
the factor are used as symbols. The chemist analyses his
material in terms of atoms that he has never seen, but the con-
ception of their existence is justified by the control he obtains
when using the atomic theory as his guide. The theory guides
the analysis that enables him to build up a conception of the
chemical constitution of the substance he examines, and this
conception enables him to predict the behaviour of the substance
in its various reactions. Understanding the atomic nature of the
substance, he ean thenceforth control it; so also, the biologist
is attempting to analyse his material in terms of factors which
he has never seen. For if factors are something definite and
permanent, following a definite scheme of distribution in here-
dity, it is clear that the characters of living things can be brought
under accurate control by the breeder. They can be dissociated
and recombined, just as the chemist dissociates and recombines
atoms to make new substances.

This work of analysing the living beast is only beginning. It is
only within recent years that the factorial theory of heredity was
énunciated, and the scientific man is stil] busy, testing how far
it is sound. In simple cases such as those deseribed above, it has
certainly borne the test. The skipping of characters for a genera-
tion—the persistence of the unwanted recessive even in most
highly pedigreed flocks and herds—the unfixable nature of
certain types—the explanation of the curious phenomenon of
reversion on crossing—the meaning of the break up of the type
in the second generation from a cross—the principles governing
the recombination of characters—all these things are now
straightforward, and will be found treated of in a text book
dealing with heredity. But can we interpret in terms of the fac-
torial theory those cases, where at first sight there appears no
suggestion of clear cut alternative pairs of characters—where a
cross seems to. result in a muddled blend—or must we confess
that no solution has been found? It is such problems as these
that have been engaging our attention at Cambridge for some
years past, and a brief account of them will be given in the two
following articles.

1921. BARBERRY AND THE Brack Rust or WHEAT. |e ays

REPORT OF THE BARBERRY AND
THE BLACK RUST OF WHEAT SUR-
VEY IN SOUTH WEST WALES.

W. H. Broapspent, A.R.C.Se., D.I.C.

Durine the past two years several cases of the disease known
as ‘* black rust ’’ of wheat, caused by the fungus Puccinia
graminis, have been reported from South West Wales, and in
view of the serious nature of this disease the Ministry of Agricul-
ture and Fisheries, in conjunction with the Department of Agri-
culture of the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth,
instituted investigations, the results of which are embodied in
this report.

It is well authenticated that the common barberry (Berberis
vulgaris) serves as spring host for the fungus which causes the
black rust disease, and with the object of ascertaining the distri-
bution of the common barberry and the extent of the occurrence
of black rust a survey of the counties of Carmarthen, Cardigan
and Pembroke was undertaken in the summer of 1920. Owing,
however, to the many difficulties involved it has not yet been
possible to complete the work.

Methods employed in the Survey:—

Visits to Farms.—As many farms as possible within a selected
area were visited. The growing wheat and any straw lying about
were carefully examined, and where evidence of disease was
found search was made for barberry bushes. This method gave
good results but took considerable time.

Interviews.—Few young or middle-aged persons appeared to
know anything about the barberry bush, but it seemed to be
familiar to the older people, especially women. Good and reliable
information was readily furnished by elderly people in remote
country districts. The help of schoolmasters in the rural districts
was solicited, and in each case valuable assistance and information
were obtained.

Exhibitions of Specimens.—Specimens of the common bar-
berry and the black rust of wheat have been exhibited, particu-
larly at the United Counties Agricultural Show, Carmarthen, in
July, 1920. By this means interest was aroused amongst farmers
which resulted in the location of a number of barberry bushes.

Personal Search.—Personal search, independent of outside
help, was also made. The growth, colour and form of the bar-
berry are characteristic, so that while travelling along country

118 BARBERRY AND THE Buack Rust or Wurat. | May,.

roads it was possible, after a little experience, by glancing round
the hedgerows to “* spot ’’ bushes growing in the vicinity. This
method also yielded good results.

The survey extended over a period of three and a half months
(May-August, 1920), but, when the hilly nature of the country
and the difficulty of travel are considered, it will be readily under-
stood that in this short period it was not possible to investigate
more than one-third of the entire area.

Description of the Bush.—The common barberry (Berberis
vulgaris), known in Welsh as pren melyn, or pren clefyd melyn,
is said to be a native of Asia. It was introduced into Europe
during the fifteenth century and cultivated as a ‘‘ fruit ’’ bush
for several hundred years, until it was found to spread the rust
‘‘ seeds.’’ The berries were used in the preparation of preserves
and jellies, and their juice for making wine and vinegar. When
allowed ‘to grow wild it is a tall erect shrub, often as many as
10 or 12 ft. high, and it is a persistent grower. . The
branches “‘ are arched and hanging at the ends.’’ The bark is
greyish in colour and the wood is yellow. The branches bear
three-parted spines at the base of the tufts of leaves (Fig. A).
The leaves on the young shoots are alternate and green or purple
in colour, but on the old shoots they occur in clusters. They are
egg-shaped, rather stiff, and have saw-tooth edges (Fig. C). The
berries are small, red, oval, and contain one or two seeds (Fig. B).
The bark has been largely used for making a concoction which, the
old people say, is an infallible cure for yellow jaundice (clefyd
melyn) and for various diseases of cattle. It is not now, however.
included in the British Pharmacopoeia and is not used by dis-
pensing chemists as it is not proved of value in these diseases.
and its place as a bitter tonic has been taken by a number of
drugs, such as gentian, quassia, dandelion or quinine.

_ Occurrence of Barberry.— Although the survey is incomplete,
enough has been done to show that the bush is widely distributed
in the three counties. In Carmarthenshire, 100 farms were
visited and barberry was found to exist on 60 of them. It
occurred chiefly round the homesteads and in the hedges about
the farms. In all there were discovered 55 single bushes and
144 yd. of barberry hedge, the latter occurring in strips from
6 to 40 yd. in length. Each strip of barberry hedge, ‘or even
a single bush, may be the centre of a local outbreak of the disease,
and 64 of these possible centres extending over 24 parishes.
were located in this county. In South Cardiganshire, 40 farms
were visited and barberry was seen on 30 of them. In all there

4921’, | BARBERRY AND THE BuAcK Rust or WHEAT. 119

were found 25 bushes, and 68 yd. of barberry hedge—30_ pos-
sible centres of infection, extending over 12 parishes. Pembroke-
shire has not been systematically worked, but barberry is known
to exist in 14 parishes. At one place there is a stretch of barberry
hedge over 100 yd. long, and at another about 70 yd. long.
These were the largest stretches met with, and it is a long time
since wheat was grown near them. It is clear that if the survey
were continued a very great deal more barberry would be
discovered.

Extent of Black Rust on Wheat.—Time would not allow of
justice being done to this part of the work, and in many places
where barberry was found it was impossible to examine the
wheat growing in the neighbourhood. However, 45 cases wert
observed in Carmarthenshire, 15 in South Cardiganshire and 14
in Pembrokeshire. In each of these cases, moreover, barberry
was found in the immediate vicinity. From conversations with
farmers there can be no doubt that the disease has long been
prevalent over the greater part of the three counties.

Results of Personal Interviews.—It has been said that the
farmers of a generation ago were aware that the common bar-
berry caused the black rust of wheat. This, however, cannot
be said of the present-day farmer in the surveyed district. To
him the life-cycle of the fungus is a mystery and the disease is
known to most of the farmers under the name of “‘ blast ’’* and
is regarded, as are most other diseases, as entirely due to wet
weather. This idea is very deep rooted, and the fact that the
life-history of Puccinia graminis seemed to many like a fairy tale,
made it very difficult to convince them as to the true nature
of the disease. Consequently, the way in which the information
and advice given was received by the farmers depended chiefly
upon the educational attainments of each individual, the quantity
and position of the barberry and the condition of the wheat.
Very few farmers, who had the black rust affecting their wheat,
acted upon the advice given and removed the barberry at once,
but every farmer who had barberry on his land admitted that
-he could never obtain a good crop of wheat when it was grown
near the bush. The popular variety of wheat is “‘ Hen Gymro ”’
(Old Welshman) which is particularly susceptible to the black
rust.

* Local terminology in respect to plant diseases is very indefinite and
confused. ‘“ Blast” is applied to all rust diseases of cereals ; “ blight” and
“blast” to the Phytophthora disease of potatoes and “blight” to Woolly
Aphis on apple trees. The term “duon” (blacks) is also used in South Wales
to designate black diseases of cereals such as rust, but more especially smut,
while in North Wales bunt and smut are both known as penddu (blacklead).

120 BaRBERRY AND THE Buack Rust or WHEAT. [| May,

Field Observations on the Disease.
Spring Stage.—The disease appears on the under surface of
the leaves of the common barberry in the form of yellow or
orange-coloured swollen patches (Fig. A). These patches vary in
size and may be as much as half an inch in diameter, and when
examined by the aid of a hand lens are seen to consist of
numerous cups known as “ cluster cups.’’ During the year
1920 the cluster cups were first observed on the barberry in Pem-
brokeshire on the 8th May, and from that date they were
seen continuously until the end of August. On reaching maturity
a few weeks after the appearance of the spot the cluster cups
open and the contents (a very fine yellow powder) are easily
distributed by the wind. This powder consists of the spores* or
‘“ seeds ’’ of the fungus, which when blown on to wheat produce,
if conditions are favourable, the summer or “‘ red ’’ rust stage.
Summer Stage.—The summer stage generally appears on
the wheat leaves and stems in the form of reddish-brown, elon-
gated spots, which give the wheat a rusty appearance. From its
abundance on the stems the disease is termed in America the black
stem-rust. These spots consist of masses of ‘‘ summer spores ’’+
which help to spread the disease during summer. The first out-
break of the disease for the year 1920 was noted on the 27th
July on autumn sown wheat in Pembrokeshire. ‘The second case
was found in Cardiganshire on the 28th July; it was a bad
attack, and apparently the disease had commenced much earlier
than the date of the visit. This view was confirmed by the
farmer, who stated that he had noticed the disease about the
first or second week in July. The summer-spore stage was also
seen on spring wheat ‘‘ April Bearded ’’ as late as the 18th
September. The time of appearance of the disease in all proba-
bility depends on (1) climatic conditions, (2) proximity of
barberry, and (3) state of maturity of the wheat. |
The Winter or Black Stage.—A winter stage gradually dis-
places the red summer stage. It appears on the surface of the
stem in the form of conspicuous black streaks, which consist of
the resting sporest of the fungus (Fig. D). During the year 1920

this stage was observed as early as the 27th July, the same date ~

as the red stage, and it was here noted that the transition from
the red summer stage to the black stage had taken place com-
paratively quickly, probably within a fortnight’s time. In other

* The spores from the cluster cups or aecidia on barberry are called
aecidiospores.

+ The Summer spores on the wheat ‘are termed uredospores.

¢ The resting spores produced from the black stage on the wheat are
termed teleutosp res,

THE COMMON BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris).

A.—F lowering Shoot in May or June, showing the Cluster Cup stage of the Rust
Fungus forming yellow or orange coloured spots on the leaves. The spines
on the stems, usually in threes, distinguish this from most common, garden
Barberries.

B.—A Shoot in Autumn, with long red Berries which hang in clusters.

C.—Leaves, enlarged, showing tooth margins and the yellow spots with the Cluster
Cup stage of the Fungus. The spores from these cups infect the Wheat,

D.—A small piece of Wheat attacked by Black Rust showing as black lines on the
stem.

itt

'
tii

nie
Potsk

usTise p:

<8
tens
oe
w

oh
ry

‘
52

RS

ith

was

;

1921. ] BARBERRY AND THE BLAcK Rust or WHEAT. 121

cases (see below) the change took place more gradually. ‘The
black resting spores remain dormant on the straw and stubble
through the winter, germinate in the spring and give rise to other
minute spores, which infect the barberry leaves, thus completing
the life-cycle of the fungus.

Asmall point, though possibly of great practical importance, was
observed in connection with the summer spores. It was noted
that in some varieties of wheat these spores (the uredospores)
did not break through the epidermis of the stem. The red stage
was visible within the stem but it never burst through, merely
slowly changing to the black or teleutospore stage. Late in the
season, when the transition from one stage to the other was
complete, the epidermis was ruptured and the black winter-spores
were exposed for dispersal. This might have been an unusual!
occurrence due to the low temperature prevailing through the
summer. However, the matter calls for further investigation,
because, if varieties of wheat can be found in which the uredo-
spores are not exposed for dispersal, such varieties will not spread
the summer stage. Further, the rupturing of the epidermis
injures the wheat owing to the loss of water by evaporation, and
if this does not take place in some varieties until late in the season
these should give better yields than those in which the epidermis
is broken early. In short, varieties of wheat in which the uredo-
spore stage does not break through, the epidermis may be
regarded as partial “‘resisters.’’

Spread of Disease from Barberry to Wheat.—The spread of
the disease from barberry to wheat was observed fairly closely
at two places. In one case, there were two barberry bushes in
the middle of a hedge alongside the wheat, and in the other
there was a strip of barberry hedge, eight yards long, near
one corner of the wheat field. In both cases it was obvious
that the disease had commenced, and that the intensity was
greater, near the barberry. To one of these places two farmers
were taken to witness this for themselves, and after going
carefully over the field they were fully satisfied that the bar-
berry was a contributing factor in disseminating the disease.

Effect’ of Black Rust on Wheat Growing in South West
Wales.—Although this part of Wales is mountainous and not
considered generally suitable for wheat growing, there are
districts where wheat might be more successfully grown if it
Were not for the presence of the barberry and the black rust
disease. Most of the farmers endeavour to grow enough for
home consumption, and many would sow more wheat if they

p22 BARBERRY AND THE Bniack Rust or WHEAT. [ May,

—

could grow a profitable crop. The conditions are clearly least
favourable within ‘‘ Barberry Areas.’’ Some of the farmers
have tried wheat-growing so often, with such disappointing
results, that they have given up the practice altogether. In
face of this evidence, one is forced to the conclusion that the
barberry is directly responsible not only for a considerable reduc-
tion in yield per acre but also in the amount of wheat grown, and
that if this factor were eliminated the yield and acreage would
appreciably increase.

It may further be noted that in 1920 the Ministry of Agricul-
ture made a special effort to ascertain all cases of black rust
in the country. England as a whole was found to be remark-
ably free from the disease, and the common barberry is scarce.
A few quite small outbreaks were located, the worst case, in
Gloucestershire, being in immediate proximity to badly rusted
barberry in a hedge. Many farms in parts of Devonshire and
Cornwall (which counties have a similar climate to South West
Wales) were examined and no case of black rust was observed,
and during the inspection hardly a single bush of the common
barberry was met with.

Losses caused by Black Rust.—In order to give some idea
of the damage caused by this disease, the losses suffered by a
farmer in Cardiganshire during the last two years might be
quoted. On this particular farm there was, until recently, a
strip of barberry hedge ten yards long. In 1919 wheat was
grown alongside this hedge and the intensity of the disease
was so great that the crop only yielded eight bushels per
acre, and the straw was of little value. During 1920 wheat
was again grown near the barberry, but on advice the latter.
was cut down on the 20th May. This date was, unfortunately,
rather too late, as cluster cups were present on the barberry
and some of the spring spores had already been dispersed. The
disease made its appearance in July. Before the crop was
cut it was noticed that the intensity of the disease was much
less than in 1919, and on being threshed the crop yielded
sixteen bushels per acre, and the straw was much better. This
decrease in the severity of the attack might have been partly
due to the cold, wet summer, but there is reason to believe
that the cutting down of the barberry also helped. In any
case, the farmer was quite pleased with the result, and will
dig up the entire plants with roots before next spring. From
this example it will be seen that the losses caused by the
disease may be very high, and in years of epidemics the crop

1921. ] BARBERRY AND THE Buack Rust or WHEAT. 123.

may be practically a total loss. The statistics for the year
i919 give the area under wheat in the counties of Carmarthen,
Cardigan and Pembroke as 22,000 acres, and much of this wheat
land must fall within the range of influence of the barberry, so
that the loss directly attributable to the latter is in the aggregate
very considerable, even assuming that the existence of the
barberry is not, as many now believe, an absolutely essential
condition for the existence of the disease on wheat.

Summary.

1. It is ascertained by means of the survey that the common
barberry is widely and plentifully distributed in Carmarthen-
shire, Pembrokeshire and South Cardiganshire. The cluster-
cup stage of the black rust fungus is abundant on the barberry
in spring and early summer:

2. On the wheat black rust may be said to be generally
distributed over the same area, and causes serious losses every
vear. In certain seasons the attacks are very severe.

3. Wheat is regarded as a risky crop in these counties, and
is certainly not a paying one in barberry areas. As a result
there is a reduced acreage under wheat, and this is diminishing.

4. The common barberry is the alternate host of black rust,
giving the fungus a good start each spring. Im several con-
crete cases field-observations showed that the disease was
most intense near the bushes and had started from them. As
long as barberry is aliowed to remain it will be a constant source
of infection, not only to the adjacent wheat fields, but to other
fields on which the summer spores from the wheat will be
blown.

5. In more than one case, the removal of barberry bushes
resulted in slighter attacks on adjoining fields than in the
previous season, but until barberries are eradicated on a whole-
sale scale no complete elimination of the disease can be expected,
owing to spores blowing from other fields. Every bush destroyed
means so many less initial infections and the fewer the infections
the better will be the wheat crop.

6. Black rust is very scarce in all other parts of the British
Isles and there appears no reason to doubt that if the barberry
were exterminated in Wales the annual attack of black rust on
wheat would subside. This method was adopted in Denmark
eighteen years ago, and black rust in that country has now
practically ceased to exist.

124 POLLINATION OF FRutts. [ May,

POLLINATION OF FRUITS.

Cecir H. Hooper, M.B.A.C.,
Librarian, South Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

In choosing land for fruit planting, there are several factors
to be considered, such as distance from market, climate, aspect.
and protection from frost by careful selection of site. The next
point is the kind of fruit to be planted, after which comes the
choice of varieties suitable for the district. The prospective
planter is advised to limit the number of varieties he plants to,
say, SIX varieties of each kind of fruit tree grown, in order
to be able to send considerable quantities of each variety to
market.

Growers have sometimes planted a single variety alone by
the acre (for example, Lane’s Prince Albert Apple, Pitmaston
Duchess Pear, River’s arly Prolific Plum, or Early River’s
Cherry), with the result that, although it has grown strongly
and flowered profusely, it does not fruit satisfactorily. The
reason for this is that, in Nature, each apple, pear, plum or
cherry tree springs from a separate seed; each tree is a distinct
individual. The nurseryman or fruit grower compares the fruit
of the different trees and selects those which produce the
best fruit. Experience has taught him that the majority of
trees grown from seed are not quite like their parents: in most
cases their fruits are inferior to those of the parent. He
therefore takes shoots of the selected tree and propagates the
variety by grafting or budding on suitable stocks. Now each of
these trees is part of the original tree: each bears similar fruit
and has similar habits. |

Nature in general favours cross-pollination for the production
of good-sized fruit and seed of vigorous growth, but in the case
under consideration each tree is similar, being of the same
origin and not grown fresh from seed according to Nature’s
plan. Pollination by the same variety is, therefore, a form of
self-pollination, and does not give the best result in the
majority of cases.

Practical botanists in England, America and Australia, who
have made experiments on the fruiting of the apple, pear, plum
and cherry, find that relatively few varieties are strongly self-
fruitful. Of apples, less than one-half of the varieties appear
to be self-fruitful; of pears, about one-half; of plums, about

1921. | POLLINATION OF FRUITS. 12

Or

two-thirds; and of cherries, not more than one-third, when
grown in the open air; but under the more favourable con-
ditions of glass-house culture a larger proportion of varieties
mature fruit with their own pollen.

The best system of planting, as indicated by observation, is
to intermix varieties to a certain extent. Thus, for an orchard
two or three varieties having somewhat the same blossoming
period should be chosen. In other words, the’ grower should
avoid planting varieties that flower very early with those that
flower very late. It is also preferable to plant lines of
trees with a different variety—e.g., Cox’s Orange Pippin and
Worcester Pearmain—in alternate rows. In cases where a whole
orchard or a large block has been planted with one variety,
such as Amber Bigarreau cherry, every fifth tree or so may be
regrafted or replanted with another variety, choosing, perhaps,
Frogmore Bigarreau, the two varieties being found to cross-
pollinate well. In the case of cherries, it is found that not
all varieties are inter-fertile, and it may be advisable, therefore,
to plant three different varieties in an orchard.

Pollenizing Agents.—Nature’s pollenizing agents are chiefly
the wind and insects. In the case of walnuts and cob nuts,
the wind carries the hight pollen from the catkins to the nut
blossoms. In the case of gooseberries and black and red
currants, the pollen of which is glutinous, it is necessary for
insects to transfer the pollen from flower to flower, for the wind
is unable to carry it. In the case of apples, pears, plums and
cherries, very little pollination appears to be due to the wind.
Hive bees, bumble bees and other wild bees appear to be the
insects best adapted for carrying the pollen.

Experiments on the Pollination of Fruits.——from trials
in America, Australia, at the Royal Horticultural Society’s
Gardens at Wisley, and at the John Innes Horticultural
Institution at Merton, observations have been made as to the
movement of pollen by the wind. The effect of placing muslin
around fruit trees in order to exclude insects was also
investigated, and it was found that trees so enclosed produced
either no fruits or very few fruits, whereas similar trees in the
open produced hundreds of fruits; which showed that wind did
not help much and that insects were necessary.

In the writer’s own trials, strawberries under muslin which
allowed a certain amount of air movement but excluded insects
matured good fruit, the weather being sunny. With straw-
berries in pots under glass, more perfect and larger fruits

126 POLLINATION OF FRUvITS. [ May,

matured on plants that were hand-pollinated, than on the plants,
the pollen of which was only transferred by the draft due to the
ventilation of the house.

Raspberries and loganberries, enclosed in bags during
blossoming but not hand-pollinated, did not mature as well as
bushes in the open.

Gooseberries, black, red, and white currants matured hardly
any fruit, but- where they were hand-pollinated all matured fruit
plentifully. :

The following table gives a summary of the general results
of the writer’s trials with fruit tree blossoms made between 1911
and 1920: (1) Excluding insects; (2) Hand pollinating with
pollen of its own variety by means of brush or forceps; (3)
Hand pollinating with pollen of other varieties.

= ol 1 2 3
oH o 7 =
ae é pate
Bes 2 3 | Insects excluded. Self-Pollinated. Cross-Pollinated.
2O 85 = -
5 28? | No.of | No. of | No. of | No.of No, of | No. of | No. of | No. of | No. of
Zines) bags fruits | fruits | bags fruits | fruits bags fruits | fruits
4 | used. set. jmaturedj used. set. jmaturedf used. | set. |matured
lieaaee | Reo = an hie
Apple | 108 | 540 | 330 | ah $3235 |) 600,.41931
Pear | 38 | 115 | 163 | 18 97 165 | 63
Plum | Zi ant © ea 170 es Bie 98 269 | 147
Cherry 18 62 53 | 62 93 323 , 199
Peach ah Oa 1 | 92 5 1) oS 6
peste ES Ee ie pede
| =O - a
| 789 (Oy, 246 616 1.405 | 646

On an average five flower buds were enclosed in each bag,
out a slightly larger number in the case of cherries. The
camel hair brush used for pollinating was sterilised after use
by dipping in methylated spirit. There were several ee
to the experiments, some of which were :— (1) Risk of destruc-
tion by insect attack (aphis, psylla, caterpillars hatching out
in bag); (2) Risk of destruction by fungus attack (Brown rot
disease); and (8) Risk of missing the most favourable time for
pollination. Although a larger number of trials in each kind of
fruit would have given more accurate information, the results
obtained give some data regarding fruit pollination. For
instance, in the case of apples. twice as many fruits matured
when a variety was pollinated with its own pollen as when left
with insects excluded, while three times as many matured with
eross-pollination as when flowers were pollinated with their own
pollen.

Judging from the opinion of investigators in America, and
from the writer’s own observations extending over several years

1921. | POLLINATION OF FRUITS. 127
in this country, it would seem that hive bees, bumble bees and
the smaller wild bees take the greatest part in cross-pollination.
By reason of their habits they are better able to act as carriers
of pollen than other insect visitors are, and the operation is
further assisted by their hair-covered bodies and legs. Bumble
bees work earlier and later as well as in less favourable weather
than do hive bees. Again, where there are extensive fruit
plantations the number of wild bees is small compared with
the number of flowers that should be visited. It is, there-
fore, of great advantage to keep hive bees near fruit plantations.
This is especially the case with cherry orchards, especially
in seasons when the weather is unfavourable for the fertilization
of the blossoms: the bees are then at hand to cross-pollinate
the blossoms during the short intervals suitable for that
work. In 1920 the weather was cold, rainy and windy during
most of the blossoming time of cherries, yet it 1s believed that
where bees were kept the crop of cherries was much better than
where bees were not kept. One orchard was seen which usually
produced several tons of cherries, but which in 1920 only
produced a peck. No bees were kept in the neighbourhood.
Another orchard where bees were kept, produced a good crop.

Hives of bees are probably best placed within a few hundred
yards of the fruit plantation. If, as is likely, the fruit grower
is too busy to look after the bees himself, it would repay him
well to offer a bee keeper free standing room for his hives, or
even to pay him a few shillings for each hive placed near the
orchard, the bee keeper looking after them and keeping the honey.

In cherries, apparently the only thoroughly self-fruitful
variety is the Morello. All other varieties benefit by pollination
with pollen of another variety.

Among plums, Pershore Yellow Egg and Pershore Purple Egg
and some damsons and bullaces are very self-fertile and can
be planted alone. Next, perhaps, come Victoria, Monarch,
Czar, Denniston’s Superb, but all these crop better when inter-
planted with other varieties.

In the case of apples and pears, no variety can be recom-
mended to be planted alone in quantity.

Object and Procedure of the Trials.—The object of these
experiments was to elicit information on three points :—~(1) ‘The
effect of excluding insects; (2) Whether the variety matured
fruit with its own pollen; and (8) Whether the variety set fruit
better with pollen of a different variety.

128 PouirnaTion or Frurrs. [ May,

eg ST SS EE

With regard to the method, paper bags (as used by confec-
tioners for sweets) and muslin bags were employed. The bags were
tied over the unopened flower buds shortly before their opening.

About five flower buds each of apple, pear or plum, and
ten of cherry were enclosed, and were left untouched until the
petals had fallen, when the fruits set were counted and noted.

The bags were removed when the flowers opened, and pollen
taken from the same flower (the same tree or another tree of
the same variety), was applied with a camel hair brush to the
stigmas ; in some cases stamens containing pollen were used with
forceps for applying the pollen, and after the petals had fallen.
the bags were taken off and the number of young fruits counted.

When the flowers had opened, the bags were removed,
and pollen taken frora a different variety was apphed to the
stigmas, after which the bags were tied up again.

Emasculation is advisable in the case of self-fertile varieties;
when buds are emasculated, the stamens of the flowers are
removed by scissors, forceps or a fine comb before the pollen
has shed; foreign pollen was usually applied at the same
time. The bags were afterwards replaced and left on
till the petals had fallen, when the young fruits were counted.
During the trials, observations were made and notes were taken
in each case about once a fortnight until the fruit was mature and
nearly ready to pick.

Pear Trials (1911-20).

The results from the following varieties of pears were :—

OWN FOREIGN |

DEEL. POLLEN. POLLEN.

es | 2 iS

VARIETIES. Shales eta fee 2 ae F , 2 =

4 |\wel|azele |4e|4ete |aa|a3

ce 2 i

Conference ... oe Rae NE al eA ees as see; 6 413 | 48 7
Durondeau ... pen Be sen | he} Bae! 10 4 2 4 4 eeiteal 1
Williams’ Bon Chrétien ... oe ee A) On) 5 8 OO sao ey ALS
Dr. Jules Guyot. ... BAe Ns 9 Ae OS Sia a Ly pare 9
Beurré Hardy ; ee Sali |) | a PAA at ee en| 3
Doyenné du comice ... Bil Se a OW Sty) PROG S| 1
Other varieties that showed themselves more or less self-

fruitful were :—Triompe de Vienne, Petite Marguerite, Colmar
V’Eté, Doyenné d’Eté, Marguerite Marillat, Duchesse d’ Angou-
iéme, and Pitmaston Duchess:

1921, | POLLINATION OF FRUITS. 129

Pears that failed to mature fruit with their own pollen
include:—Beurré Rance, Catillac, Clapp’s Favourite, Emile
d’Heyst, Fertility, General Todleben, Josephine de Malines, Le
Lectier, Marie Louise, Nouvelle Fulvie, Passe Cresanne, and
Uvedale’s St. Germain. ‘T'welve varieties of pear matured fruit
with their own pollen out of 38 varieties tried,

Cherries.
Varieties that proved self-fruitful in these triais:—

OWN FOREIGN
POLLEN. POLLEN,

CHERRIES
more or less
SELF-FRUITFUL.

Number of
Fruits Set.
Number of
Fruits Matured.
Number of
Number of
Number of
Fruits Matured.

Number of
Bags
Number of

Number of
Fruits Set.
Number of

|

Wye Morello : (Perfectly self-fertile)
Morello: (Very self-fertile) ,
Roundels ae Hb!

Hg oe

Circassian

Elton Heart ...

Napoleon Bigarreau

—
Dw bo ores oF bo

_
~

In addition to these, it was found at Merton that. Flemish
Red and Late Duke were self-fertile, and Mayduke and Arch-
duke partly self-fertile. The following varieties of cherries
failed to mature fruit with their own pollen :—

OWN ~ FOREIGN
POLLEN. POLLEN.

“i

CHERRIES
SELF-STERILE

(in these trials).

Bags.
Number of
Fruits Set.

Bags.
Number of

n

op

3
=

i)
we
o
2
=
=
Zi

Number of
Fruits Matured.

Number of
Fruits Matured.
Fruits Set.

Number of
Fruits Set.
Number of
Fruits Matured.
Number of
Number of

Early Rivers : (9 pollens tried, good
fruit matured with pollens of Old
Kentish Black, Elton, Waterloo,
Amber Bigarreau, Black Eagle,
Florence and Turk) e en ee 2} OTS) 6 | LO OT or ee

Amber Bigarreau: (8 pollens tried ; |
fruit matured with Turk, Frog-
more, Napoleon and Old Black |
Heart pollens) as vy!

Frogmore Bigatreau: (5 pollens
tried ; best results from Amber |
Bigarreau and Turk) sats a ei ) 3} 16 0 5 | 25 | 18

Black Eagle: (Fruit matured with | | |
pollen of Knight’s Early Black)... | SiO) en =) OO; Gi er vii ¢

130 PoLLINATION oF FRurts. | May,

The following also failed to mature fruit in these trials with
their own pollen:—Kentish Preserving, Knight’s Early Black,
Old Kentish Black, Waterioo; and at Merton:—Black Tar-
tarlan, Bigarreau de Schreken, Bigarreau Noir de Guben,
Bigarreau Jaboulay, Governor Wood, Guigne d’Annonay, and
White Heart.

Trials in the pollination of cherries seem to be of special
importance, as so many are self-sterile, and some varieties are
inter-sterile, or nearly so. Cherries need patient and numerous
trials extending over several seasons, for results of one year
do not absolutely tally with those of another year. Season,
position of trials on tree, health or constitution of the tree,
disease, insects, accidents, frosts—all these influence results
and make trials advisable on different trees, in different
orchards and in different localities. Although the result of
individual trials may vary somewhat with the order of blossom-
ing, yet the general results are the same year by year, showing
the advisability of inter-planting varieties for cross-pollination
and demonstrating the value of hive and wild bees in carrying
pollen from flower to flower.

Apple Trials (1911-1920) : Self-fruitful Varieties.

| oN REIG
APPLES | | be be nie 3
more or less |S Se | ORES cs SEIS eoal=
alam | Re Pe eS HO) RET Ry | HOD) RD
SELP-FRUITFUL, $/22| 25/86/22 | 22/34/24) 3s
ea =*) mea} a SQ Bs | Suni 2A a°5 Sm
4 lemieeie lae(ea|e lee lee
| ce i |
The following are given as examples :— | | |
Lord Derby: (With own pollen it | | |
matured as large fruit as average, | |
some being among largest on tree ; |
matured fruit with pollen of | |
Grenadier, Charles Ross and |
Bismarck) ... ae oe OT A ae A: TIS Sa LL ee
Irish Peach: (Fruit from ‘‘ Left” |
and ‘‘Self-pollinated ” as good as |
average)... ak B se 4 19 49 Oy 587) VG ees a lal oS
Newton Wonder: (Good fruit |
matured with own pollen; from | |
9 cross-pollinations fruit only
matured with pollen of Lord | | A
Derby) pak x s weet 2 | A Aa Cre oes | 3
Worcester Pearmain: (7 foreign |
pollens tried; best results with | |
Cox’s Orange, Allington, Beauty
of Bath and King of the Pippins) | 14 | 4] O] 9] 7] 2 | 26 | 46] 28

Space will not permit of further details, but the following
additional varieties proved more or less self-fruitful in these

1921. | POLLINATION oF FRuITS. 131

trials:—Potts’ Seedling, Summer Golden Pippin, Christmas
Pearmain, Baumann’s Red Winter Reinette, Crawley Beauty,
Miller’s Seedling, Brownlee’s Russett, John Downie Crab, James
Grieve, Ecklinville Seedling, Ellison’s Orange, Charles Ross,
Golden Spire, Harly Red Victoria, Baldwin, Ben’s Red,
White Transparent, Peasgood’s Nonsuch, Adam’s Pearmain,
Rival, Striped Beaufin, Washington, King of the Pippins,
Bismarck, Ribston Pippin, Rambleur Pepelin, Egremont
Russet, Warner’s King, American Mother. Other varieties
found self-fertile elsewhere include Stirling Castle, Keswick
Codlin, Devonshire Quarrenden, Cellini, Coronation, and
Duchess of Oldenburgh.

The following apples failed to mature fruit in these trials
when ‘‘ left’? or when pollinated with their own pollen :—

WN FOREIGN
sneaks Hen LEN. poe
APPLES _« ze e
that appear to be ls Ieelesls l[eslstise [wsloe
SELF-STERILE Bol BOL HSPs S21 BED | HO] ge
i, Piece’ | eel ee ee
(or very nearly so). Fo | Ss) 2nf SA 2S) Sn] 8A) 2S) Ew
4 |selesla |ee|esla jae|2e
Typical examples :— |
Lane’s Prince Albert: (Noattemptto |
set fruit with own pollen; matured
fruit with pollen of the Queen and
Bramley) ... Aaa = cae LO OO 7 0 Che ince 4
Grenadier... au a weet SE le Oe Ss el te ek BL le, &
Beauty of Bath ; (4 pollens tried ; |
good fruits matured with pollens
of Cox’s Orange and Summer |
Golden Pippin) ... ¥e ae 8 ) OR a eo Pome, Bob. SLT. 2
Bramley’s Seedling ... £2 eormay et: 0 ae Onig) OFF art.) 15\|° 7
Cox’s Orange Pippin: (22 pollens
tried; best results from Worcester
Pearmain, John Downie Crab,
Allington, Bramley, Grenadier, |
High Canons, Beauty of Bath,
Cleopatra, Ribston,and Bismarck;
9 varieties failed, including
Lane’s Prince Albert) ... 45; 0} OF 2| 2); OF 56 | 108} 36
Allington Pippin: (7 pollens tried ;
Ribston and Worcester Pearmain
produced good fruits and Summer
Golden Pippin the finest fruit on
the tree) 22 3 0 3 0 Of} 11 LOuHT

Other varieties that failed to mature fruit with their own
pollen included:—Alfriston, Annie Elizabeth, Barnack Beauty,
Beauty of Kent, Belle de Pontoise, Benoni, Blenheim Orange,
Brabant Bellefleur, British Columbia, Byford Wonder, Claygate,
Pearmain, Cleopatra, Cockle Pippin, Court Pendu-plat, Crimson

o 2

132 POLLINATION OF FRUITS. [ May,

Bramley, Cox’s Pomona, Duchess Favourite, Duke of York,
Foster’s Seedling, Gladstone, Hamling’s Seedling, Hector
Macdonald, High Canons, Hoary Morning, Hormead’s Pear-
main, Hunt’s Karly, King’s Acre Pippin, Lady Henniker, Mére
de Ménage, May Queen, Norfolk Beauty, Rome Beauty,.
Sandringham, Sanspariel, Seaton House, Striped Beaufin,
Sturmer Pippin, The Queen (Saltmarsh’s), Wagener, Waltham
Abbey, Wealthy, Wellington.

In the trials at Wisley and Merton the following varieties
were found somewhat self-fruitful:—Bramley’s Seedling,
Crimson Bramley, Allington, Sturmer, and Annie Elizabeth ;
in the case of Cox’s Orange Pippin only four fruits matured in
61 trials, which shows that this variety is very rarely self-fertile.

Plum Trials (1911-20).

The following showed themselves self-fruitful :—

FORETGN
POLLEN.

Number of
Fruits Set.

SELF-FRUITFUL
PLUMS.

Number of
Bags.
Number of
Bags
Number of
Fruits Set.
Number of
Fruits Matured.
Number of
Bags
Number of
Fruits Set.
Number of
Fruits Matured.

5
Ce TE
ale
ae
Em
5 48
As
~
ic

Pershore Yellow Egg: (Perfectly |
self-fertile) Ae? Bais veer |
Pershore Purple Egg: (Perfectly |
self-fertile) A ve nse

Victoria
Czar... Ae “56
Denniston’s Superb ...
Monarch

Other varieties that showed themselves more or less
self-fruitful were:—Damson (? Farleigh), Bradley’s King of
Damsons, Bullace (yellow with orange streaks), Bittern,
Rivers’ Early Prolific. At Merton the following additional
plums were found self-fertile-—Early Transparent, Early
Mirabelle, Golden ‘Transparent, Gisborne (each very self-
fertile), Reine Claude Violette, Reine Claude de Bavay,
Oullins Golden Gage, Belle de Louvain, Prince Englebert,
Giant Prune, Yellow Magnum Bonum, Myrobalan, Red and
Belgian Purple; the following were classified as partly self-
fertile :—arly Orleans, Early Favourite, and Cox’s Emperor.
Rivers’ Early Prolific, which, with its own pollen, matured only
one fruit to about 100 flowers.

‘

1921. | POLLINATION oF FRUITS. 133

The following plums failed to mature fruit with their own
pollen :—Admiral, Black Diamond, Coe’s Golden Drop, Golden
Gage, Jefferson, July Greengage, Old Greengage, Pond’s
Seedling, and President. At Merton, the additional varieties
that showed themselves self-sterile were :—Coe’s Violet, Crimson
Drop, McLaughlin’s Gage. Early Greengage, Reine Claude
d’Althann, Wyedale, Frogmore Orleans, Late Orleans, Prune
d’Agen, Primate, and Frogmore Damson.

In certain varieties of plum. cherry, and, perhaps apple and
pear, it is advisable, in order to obtain the largest quantity of the
hest fruit, to ascertain whether they cross-pollinate each other
well, in addition to planting together varieties that flower at
the same time.

In trials with four varieties of outdoor peaches, each appeared
to be self-fertile, but fruiting was increased by hand pollinating
with a camel-hair brush.

134 Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. [ May,

DRY. SPRAYING: POR Gieire
DESTRUCTION OF CHARLOCK.

W. A. Mituarp, B.S&c.,
Lecturer in Agricultural Botany, University of Leeds,
and §. Burr,
Research Assistant in Agncultural Botany, University of Leeds.

One of the most successful operations now commonly carried
out in farming practice is admittedly that of the destruction of
Charlock in corn crops by means of a spray, consisting generally
in this country of a 4 to 5 per cent. solution of sulphate of
copper (Bluestone), that is to say 4 to 5 lb. of sulphate of copper
to 10 gal. of water, applied at the rate of 40 to 60 gal. per acre.

In certain parts of the country, however, where the shortage
of water is at all times a serious problem for the farmer, wet
spraying, if not a matter of impossibility, 1s at least one which
makes too great a demand on the limited water supply, or entails
more labour in carting water to outlying parts of the farm than
can be conveniently or economically spared. In such districts,
a considerable advantage would be gained if it were possible to
substitute a dry powder for the wet spray, provided the former
was equally efficacious, and not unreasonably expensive.

It was with this object in view that the present experiments
with dry sprays of some powdered chemical substances were
arranged, and carried out during the last two years. °

From published reports it was found that a certain amount
of experimental work had already been done on the subject, and
a short summary of this is given below.

SUMMARY OF FORMER TRIALS OF DRY POWDER
SPRAYS.
The substances tested, of which records have been found,
were Calcium Cyanamide (Nitrolim), Sulphate of Iron,
Nitrate of Lime, and Kainit.

I. Calcium Cyanamide.*—The experiments recorded in
references 1-5 are of German origin, except No. 3 which is
Swiss; the quantity of calcium cyanamide applied varied from

*(1) Jour. Board of Agric., Dec., 1907, p. 568.

(2) Jour. Board of Agric., Dec., 1909, p. 761.

(3) Jour. Board of Agric., Jan., 1909, p. 776.

(4) Jour. Board of Agric., Oct., 1913, p. 618.

(5) Jour. Board of Agric., April, 1914, p. 64.

(6) ‘‘Charlock Destruction,” Bull. I, Agric. Dept., Univ. Coll. of N. Wales,
Bangor.

(7) Die Verbreitung u. Bekimpfung der Ackerunkreuter in Deutschland,
Bd. 1, May. 1918: Arbeiten der D.L.G., Heft. 294.

1921.] Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. 135

60 to 240 lb. per acre, and its destructive effect on the Charlock
was said to be generally satisfactory. In Ref. 7, however, a
comparatively recent German book which summarises a large
number of experiments on weed destruction, the author is much
less sanguine as to the value of calcium cyanamide in this
direction. In Ref. 6, calcium cyanamide is not recommended.

«

II. Sulphate of Iron (Ferrous sulphate).*—Ref. 8 refers
to work of French origin; the quantity of sulphate of iron
used varied from 8 to 4 ewt. per acre, and was stated to give
satisfactory results, if applied before the flowering stage of the
Charlock. In Ref. 7 given above, the common crystalline
form of sulphate of iron is not strongly recommended, but a
specially prepared anhydrous form of the salt is said to be
_efficacious. The latter substance, however, would be difficult to
obtain, and would certainly be much dearer than the ordinary
crystalline salt.

III. Nitrate of Lime.t—The only reference is to an
experiment of German origin, and the results are not very
satisfactory.

IV. Kainit.{—The reference is to an experiment of German
origin. The quantity recommended is not less than 1050 to
1250 lb. per acre.

The results appeared to be very satisfactory when moist con-
ditions prevailed at the time of application. Ref. 7, ttowever,
states that success is only possible with a powdered kainit,
which is a speciality of the German Potash Syndicate.

Note.—No records have been found of any trials made with
‘powdered sulphate of copper.

PRESENT EXPERIMENTS.

Dry Spray Trials, 1919.—These were carried out on
Mr. Wilson’s farm at Garforth, near Leeds. The substances
selected for the test were Nitrolim, ‘Sulphate of Iron,’ and
Sulphate of Copper (Bluestone). Each was obtained in as fine a
powder as was possible, and, in the case of the first two sub-
stances, the state of fineness was very satisfactory. ‘The copper
sulphate was, however, a little coarse, having been partly sifted
out and partly ground from the stock supply kept in the labora-
tory. Unfortunately fresh nitrolim could not be obtained at the

*(8) Jour. Board of Agric., Dec., 1909, p. 761.
(9) Jour. Board of Agric., June, 1911, p. 244.
(10) Jour. Board of Agric., April, 1911.

t(11) Jour. Board of Agric., Aug., 1914, p. 451.

136 Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. [ May,

time, and that used was several years old. The sulphate of iron,
as is inevitable, was oxidised to some extent, but analysis showed
it to contain 87 per cent. of the ferrous salt.

The field in which the experiment was conducted carried a crop
of barley in which Charlock grew abundantly. The spraying
was carried out on June 16th,1919,and at this time the Charlock
was 1n full flower, and a considerable amount of seed was set.
The corn was, on an average, 9 in. high.

Six plots, each having an area of 1/40th acre, were marked

out and treated as follows:— 1b. applied

per acre,
1, Nitrolim ... vue ae ans 140
2. Untreated sich ae Lds —
3. Sulphate of Copper ae 33: 45
4, $ ee oe 100
5. Sulphate of Iron ... tae oe 200
6. 5 samt hah eines ar ne 400

Dry, hot weather prevailed, and, in order to ensure that the
powders should adhere to the plants, the spraying operations
Were carried out at 3a.m., immediately before sunrise when
the dew was on the leaves. The knapsack spraying machine
used was Strawson’s ‘‘ Coronette.’’ The day succeeding the
spraying was fine, but rain fell 36 hours after the operation, and
the weather then remained unsettled for two or three weeks.

Results.—The plots were first examined on June 20th, four
days after spraying, and the following notes made :—
Plot 1. No obvious effect.
, 2. Untreated:

,, 3. Leaves and flowers of the Charlock badly withered; seed pods
still green, but unhealthy in appearance.

» 4. Similar to Plot 3, but effect more marked. .

» 9. Leaves of Charlock withered, but flowers and seed pods not
greatly affected.

4 6. Similar to Plot 5.

Later examinations showed a quickly developing effect on Plots
38 and 4. On Plots 5 and 6 there was also further deterioration
of the Charlock leaves, and the flowers were also affected, but
the seed pods were only injured on the plot with the heavier
dressing of sulphate of iron.

A final examination was made_on July 9th, three weeks after
spraying, and the following report made :—

Plot 1. No visible effect.
» 2. Untreated:

1921. | Dry SPRAYING oF CHARLOCK. 137
Plot 3. On 75 per cent. of the Charlock plants, not only were the leaves
and flowers dead, but the seed pods were so shrivelled, that

the seed within them had scarcely developed at all.

On the remaining plants only the larger seed pods were living,
and these appeared able to set seed. Thistles on the plot
were badly damaged, and Coltsfoot slightly damaged.

» 4. Practically all the Charlock had been destroyed, including even
those plants bearing full grown seed pods. Thistles badly
damaged; many being killed. Coltsfoot badly damaged,
but not killed.

» 0. The leaves and flowers of the plants were badly withered, but
the seed pods were very little injured, and would appareutly
set seed. Thistles were uninjured, and Coltsfoot very slightly
injured.

, 6. ‘he leaves and flowers of the plants were killed, and in about
30 per cent. of the plants the seed pods were also dead.
Thistles and Coltsfoot slightly injured.

No lasting deleterious effect on the barley was observed on any
of the plots.

It is evident from the foregoing that the best results were
obtained with sulphate of copper, and, in the unbiassed opinion
of the farmer on whose field the experiments were conducted,
these plots were entirely successful. The sulphate of iron,
especially in the heavier dressing, also destroyed the leaves and
flowers of the Charlock plants, although its action was obviously
slower than that of the sulphate of copper, and would thus be
more liable to be checked in the case of rain falling soon after
the application of the spray. The total failure of the nitrolim
was thought to be due, possibly, to its having been kept for so
long beforehand, exposed to the air.

The experiment was regarded as having fully demonstrated
the possibility of using dry sprays for the eradication of
Charlock, and it seemed probable that, by spraying earlier in the
season, equally good results might be obtained with smaller
quantities. In the case of sulphate of copper a still greater
advantage would certainly be gained if the substance could be
obtained in a finer state of division, since obviously the finer
the powder the more uniform and economical would its distribu-
tion become. It was decided, therefore. to carry out further
experiments in the following year, when the defects of the
experiments would be remedied as far as possible, and smaller
applications of the chemicals would be tested.

Dry Spray Trials, 1920.—These were carried out at two
centres, viz. :—

(1) Mr. TH. Beachell’s farm. near Market Weighton.

(2) Mr. Wilson’s farm, Garforth, Leeds.

138 Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. [ May,

The same substances were used as in the previous year, with
the difference that a new supply of ground nitrclim was obtained,
and the sulphate of copper was supplied by a local firm of manu-
facturing chemists in a much more finely ground state than
that used in the 1919 trials. It was decided to test the respective
substances in the following quantities :—

Sulphate of Copper re an) 30° Ib: per acre.
sf se - tg ae ZO ud, ,
. . a ae ae LO is 3s .

Nitrolim ce Tey se 1O.nKRS, 59
¥ ehh it 328 ee OUR te :;

Sulphate of Tron rl) eee sey LODE sans re

i eeOe a HOUR IE, e
At the Kipling Cotes centre 10 plots each 1/20th acre were
marked out in a field carrying Barley, and an abundant growth
of Charlock. When, however, the actual amounts of the spray
powders to be used per plot were calculated, they were found
to range from 8 oz. to 5 lb., and it was feared that any quantity
less than 5 lb. could not be easily distributed over the plots
with the knapsack spraying machines at our disposal. It was
therefore, decided to make up the bulk in each case to 5 |b.
with some inert substance, and Silica was chosen for this pur-
pose. In order to ascertain whether this diluent might in any
way, either by absorption or mechanical obstruction of the spray
powder. tend to weaken its chemical action, it was decided to
put in a control plot to the plot of sulphate of copper at 80 ‘b.
to the acre, in which only 1 lb. instead of 33 lb. of Silica was
added.

The final treatment of the plots was as follows :—

>)

Total wt.
Lb. of Silica (7b.)
lb. per lb. per added per Spraying
acre. plot. plot. Powder.
Plot 1. Sulphate of Copper 30 14 34 5
2. a A a 20 1 4 )
Da 3 5 is 10 4 43 »
+ £ iy . 30 13 ih 23
(Control for Silica).
5. Untreated — — — =
6. Nitrolim 100 5 0 5
ce - 50 23 23 5)
, 98. Untreated — — — =
9. Sulphate of Iron 100 5 0 5
10. 50 2s 23 5

Arrangements had been made for spraying the crop much
earlier in 1920, when the Charlock was about 3 in. high, but

1921. | Dry SpRAYING OF CHARLOCK. 139

unfortunately a very unsettled spell of wet weather set in at the
time, and the operation was perforce postponed until June 4th.
By that time all the plants were practically in flower, but very
little seed had been set. The Barley was 6 to 8 in. high.

As in the previous year, the spraying was carried out at dawn
in the hope of finding a good dew on the plants; but the
weather was very unpropitious—there was no dew, and, to make
matters worse, a moderately strong wind was blowing. The
leaves, however, were slightly damp from rain, which had
fallen during the night, and the experiment could no longer be
delayed.

The plots were examined on June 21st, 17 days after treat-
ment. The Charlock was still in full flower, and from a distance
two green patches, afterwards discovered to be Plots 1 and 4,
stood out clearly in the surrounding blaze of yellow. The follow-’
ing notes were made :—

Plot 1. About 75 per cent. of the Charlock had been destroyed, and the

remaining plants were weakly, and much dwarfed.

2. The leaves of the plants were badly damaged, and about.50 per
cent. of the flower heads destroyed.

3. Plants slightly damaged.

4. About 85 per cent. of the plants were dead. This was decidedly

the best plot of the series.
Untreated.

| These plots showed no improvement on the untreated plots.

Untreated.

9. Here the spray had evidently been badly distributed. On that
half of the plot at which the spraying was started, the effect
was as great as on Plot 4, but, on the other half, not more
than 30 to 40 per cent. of the Charlock had been killed. One
may assume, therefore, that the first half of the plot had
received at least twice as large a dressing of the spray as the
second half—say at the rate of 150 lb. to the acre.

10. Practically no effect.

As regards the crop, the Barley on the sulphate of copper and
the sulphate of iron plots showed marked yellowing four days
after the spraying, but, on the final examination on June 21st,
it had quite recovered, and showed no signs of damage.

On the whole the results of these trials were better than had
been anticipated, but it was felt that their value had been seriously
depreciated by the unsuitable weather conditions, which pre-
vailed at the time of spraying. The season was very backward,
especially in the West Riding, and as the Charlock there was
still in full flower, it was decided to reyou! the experiment in a

140 Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. [ May,

modified form on the farm at Garforth on which it was carried
out in 1919. |

A comparison of Plots 1 and 4 in the Kipling Cotes experiment
led us to believe that the presence of a large proportion of
Silica in the spraying mixture had exerted some inhibitive effect
on the action of copper sulphate. In making up the required
quantities of chemicals for the Garforth trials, therefore, a much
smaller proportion of Silica was added to make up the bulk,
and greater care was taken in the spraying to ensure an’
even distribution on the plots. It was decided to omit nitrolim
from the test, and to include only one plot of sulphate of iron.
The latter substance is approximately 2} times cheaper than
sulphate of copper, but this advantage is more than outweighed
by the larger quantity which appears to be necessary to give
results comparable to those of sulphate of copper.

Five plots, each 1/60th acre, were marked out in a field
carrying Rye and Vetches—a thin crop which was spring sown.
There was an abundance of Charlock, which, on account of the
wet season and the open nature of the crop, had made luxuriant
plants bearing a quantity of flowers and seed pods. The follow-
ing table gives the treatment of the plots together with the actual
amounts of the chemicals and Silica applied to each :—

Total oz.
Spraving
lb. per oz per oz. Silica = Poearder
acre. plot. per plot. per plot.
Plot 1. Sulphate of Copper 40 102 21 13
ae 5 savy as 30 8 5 15}
3. 5 - 5 20 D+ 72 13
jy sa * 55 4 10 22 103 13
5. Sulphate of Tron 50 134 0 133

The field selected for spraying was adiacent to the
University farm at Garforth, and it was thus possible to
await favourable weather conditions for the operation. This
was carried out-on June 19th at 3.45 a.m. ‘The weather
was very hot, and a thunderstorm occurred at 9 o’clock on the
previous evening, after which a heavy mist hung over the ground
from midnight onwards. In the morning the air was very calm,
and every leaf was drenched with moisture. No rain fell for
48 hours after the spraying. and the weather conditions may be
considered to have been ideal.

Results.—After two or three days the plots presented a
remarkable appearance, and it was evident that the experiment
was a complete success. The previous experiments had shown,
however, that the full effect of dry spraying could not be judged

0 lb. per acre.

i)

“Sulphate of L[ron,

Sulphate of Copper,
20 lb. per acre

Sulphate of Copper,
40 Ib, per acre.

Untreated.

1921. ] Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. 14]

for ten days or a fortnight after the application, and for that
reason only the notes made on the second examination on
June 30th are given here. These were as follows:—

Plot 1. Sulphate of Copper—40 lb. per acre
pitt aD Tee, aD
plants had been destroyed. Even the large seed pods were
dead and shrivelled, and the plants looked like dead sticks.

» 93 Sulphate of Copper—20 lb. per acre. All the leaves and flowers
were dead, and the great majority of the seed pods were too
badly shrivelled to ripen seed.

, 4. Sulphate of Copper—10 lb. per acre. 75 per cent. of Jeaves and
flowers were dead, and much damage had been done to the
seed pods.

5. Sulphate of Iron—50 lb. per acre. 50 per cent. of leaves and
flowers were dead, but the seed pods were very little injured.

t The whole of the Charlock

A week later, bunches of the Charlock plants pulled at random
from the respective plots were photographed, and those from
Plots 1, 3 and 5 together with a bunch from the untreated
part of the field are shown in the illustration. The flowers at
this time had disappeared, but seed pods on the specimens
gathered from the untreated part of the field and from Plot 5
may be easily seen. As regards the crop, the Rye, although
slightly yellowed at first, showed no permanent injury on any
of the plots, but the Vetches were rather badly damaged,
particularly on Plots 1, 2, and 3.

It should be mentioned that in dry spraying with a Knapsack
machine it was found necessary for the operators to wear
respirators, since the fine dust of the sulphate of copper spray
tended to produce nausea. A simple respirator made of two or
three thicknesses of gauze was found to give complete protection.
{t is very possible, however, that this precaution would be un-
necessary in the case of a horse-drawn machine, where the
operator is seated at some distance from the spraying nozzles.

Conclusions.—(1) The success in dry spraying for Charlock
lies in the choice of a suitable day for the operation. ‘he weather
should be fairly settled, and there should be a heavy dew and
no wind at the time of application. Provided these conditions
prevail, we may say confidently that dry spraying is quite as
effective as wet spraying.

(2) Of the substances tested, nitrolim was found to be of no
value, sulphate of iron was effective only in quantities, which,
on the ground of cost, make it impracticable, but sulphate of
copper gave excellent results.

142 Dry SPRAYING OF CHARLOCK. [ May,

(3) The Garforth experiment of 1920 shows that when the
sulphate of copper is finely ground, an application of 20 lb. to
the acre is sufficient to destroy the Charlock plants, provided
seed has not set. In the majority of reports of experiments on
Charlock spraying, emphasis is laid on the necessity of spraying
the plants when in the third or fourth leaf, but, from our experi-
ence, we are inclined to think that the best results are likely
to be obtained if the spraying is carried out just as the plants
are bursting into fower. The flower-heads are very easily killed,
and the leaf surface exposed to the action of the spray is at this
time greater than in the case of younger plants. The effective-
ness of the spray is thus increased, and the plants are less likely
to recover.

(4) There appear to be a number of Dry Spray machines
on the market. We have not tested any of these person-
ally, but some of them should be easily adaptable to the
spraying of Charlock. Two of those which have been brought
to our notice are said to distribute quantities as small as or
smaller than 20 lb. to the acre, and this being the case, the
necessity of adding any diluent to the sulphate of copper, as
was done in the Knapsack machine, would no longer arise.

(5) A comparison of the relative cost of Wet and Dry Spraying
shows that, in this respect also, the latter process compares very
favourably with the former. In wet spraying, the formula
recommended by recent trials is 16 to 20 lb. of copper sulphate
in 40 gall. of water, this making a solution sufficient to spray
an acre. In dry spraying, we have suggested 20 lb. of copper
sulphate to the acre; in this case, however, there will be a
slight additional charge for grinding the material, but this is
not likely to exceed 5s. a ewt. On the other hand, the labour
entailed and the time expended in the newer process is very
considerably less than that required in the older. —

We consider, therefore, that provided an efficient machine is
used for the purpose, the destruction of the Charlock pest by
dry spraying should recommend itself to many farmers, and in
particular to those who live in the more waterless districts of
the country, where the older method has always been so heavily
handicapped.

We wish to express our thanks to Mr. H. Beachell and Mr.
Wilson for their kind co-operation in carrying out the trials on
their farms, and also to Mr. J. Manby, of the University of
Leeds, for the photographs.

1921. | ‘* Rurau Bras ’’ in SeconDARY SCHOOLS. 143

‘Reed DIAS, IN: « SEGONDARY
SCHOO LS*

THE WORK AT SEXEY’S FOUNDATION SCHOOL
IN SOMERSET.

S. L. Bensusan.

At first sight there is little remarkable about Sexey’s Founda-
tion School. The buildings that compose it are perhaps more
than ordinarily attractive and certainly the situation is quite
out of the common. Sexey’s stands rather high on land
overlooked from a distance by the Quantocks, the Mendips and
the famous Dunkery Beacon. From the upper rooms of the
School House one can glimpse the Islands of the Severn Sea.
The school itself is remote from all great centres of life and
action, though within touch of places boasting the most interest-
ing associations. Cheddar is some five miles away, Glastonbury
ten, Wells about as far, and the first thought that strikes the
casual visitor is that those who teach and those who are taught
must admit that their lines are cast in pleasant places. But
Sexey’s could hardly claim the attention of agriculturists if it
were merely an attractive and well-placed secondary school;
the special interest lies in the fact that it is one of the few
centres in England in which secondary education is associated
with what is known as a “ rurai bias.

There are many agriculturists in this country who feel very
strongly that the development of husbandry would be furthered
considerably if secondary education took more note of our
greatest national industry. ‘They would like to see children
who have a natural aptitude for land-work encouraged to
develop rather than forced to suppress it, and they believe
that there is no more important problem before statesmen
to-day than the repopulation of rural areas, with the great
resultant stimulus to the production of home-grown food. They
feel that, while in the old days the training that the boy or
girl of farmer or farm labourer received was adequate to the
demands that the future would make, the conditions have been
altered entirely by the development of scientific investigation,
by the advent of machinery, by the acquisition of precise
knowledge and above all by the pressure of the economic
situation. The State has recognised that pressure; it is
spending considerable sums of money in the quickening of
sound production, and consequently it is of first importance

+ Ai

144 ‘’ Rurat Bras ’’ in SEconpary ScuHoo.s. [ May,

that there should be an ever-lengthening procession through
our secondary schools of boys and girls bent upon acquiring
the special knowledge that will enable them to take advantage
of modern conditions. The Board of Education is not
unmindful of the new needs that the past few years have
brought into being, and while expert opinion there is convinced
that, if it is to be effective, secondary education must be an all
round education and not limited in scope or purpose, yet
certain concessions have been found possible. Provided that
the curriculum of a secondary school embraces a modern
language, some science and English, the ‘‘ rural bias ’’ is
recognised and even encouraged. The new development is at
present only in ‘its first stage, and Sexey’s is one of four
secondary schools in which the ‘‘ rural bias ’’ may be seen in
the working. Welshpool County School for Boys is another,
Knaresborough Rural Secondary School in the West Riding
is a third, and the Dauntsey Agricultural School ut West
Lavington in Wilts the fourth. In three years at Knares-
borough thirty per cent. of the boys went on to farms, while
others took to surveying or garden work or emigrated to the
Dominions. At Welshpool out of 250 boys more than thirty per
cent. went on to farm work or took up estate office work and
surveying. At Sexey’s where the majority of the pupils are
associated directly or indirectly with agriculture the proportion
that seeks a living from it is larger still.

Sexey’s differs from Knaresborough and Welshpool in so
far as it is a co-educational school, the boys and girls working
in the same classrooms to a like end. While it is a secondary
school by virtue of its four-vear course for children who may
come in at the age of twelve, there is a preparatory side for
boys and girls, so that it is possible for a child whose training
and associations suggest the possible development of an
agricultural bias to start at Sexey’s and receive complete
education there.

The support received for this farm, which is of course a
branch of the school and was a subsequent addition to it, comes
from many sources. The original foundation was the Manor
of Blackford, left by Hugh Sexey, Auditor to Queen Elizabeth
and James I, for educational and other purposes in the year
1617. Out of funds provided by this foundation a school was
built, and when the Rev. Kdward Smith, who had been
Instructor in Agriculture under the Wiltshire County Council,
was asked to take charge of it, his keen interest in farming

-

Fig. 1.—The old building as it was.

Note the windows boarded up.
(See Fig. 2).

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2.—The same building as a Farm School.

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1921..] ‘* RuraL Bras ”’ in SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 145

led him to consider the question of establishing a training farm
within easy reach. A stone’s throw of the school there was
a small holding of some twenty acres or so, derelict for many
vears, the rich land gone to waste, the little farmhouse boarded
up (Fig. 1). It should be remembered that this was more
than twenty years ago when agriculture was at a very low
ebb and even those who farmed the rich Somersetshire land
were hard pressed to make a living. Mr. Smith was of
opinion that the possibilities of improvisation, if grasped by
boys and girls who have a natural instinct for land work, would
provide them with a key that would open many a door
through which, in normal times, only those could hope to
pass who are plentifully supplied with the world’s goods. He
acquired the derelict holding, and being a skilled practical man
with quick eye and trained hand, he managed to convert
the farmhouse into a farm school (Fig. 2) at the trifling expense
of £150. Those who have any working acquaintance with
the present cost of adaptation will be astonished to realise
how much could be done with a very little so recently as twenty
years ago. The ground floor of the farm has been divided up
into a dairy, a cheese-making room, a cheese-store for ripening
and an incubator house. Beyond these there is a workshop,
a milking byre, a pigs’ kitchen and a cider house. On the
upper floor there is a delightful little classroom with well-
equipped agricultural library, and there are other rooms for
the study of methods of fruit storage and for demonstrations in
seed ripening and apiary work. Beyond the farm there is one
outhouse that has been supplied with power for the economic
handling of every farm product and its adequate prepara-
tion as food for stock. The mixing floor is concreted and the
motor is driven by electricity supplied from Wedmore a mile
or so away. ‘J‘here is a cow house and an up-to-date poultry
station, and there are piggeries.

A special and notable feature of this small farm is that the
actual work is not done by the pupils. Mr. Smith holds very
strong views on this matter, and is of opinion that it 1s not
right to ask any of his boys or girls to do work that should
command payment. Yet although the total grant in aid of
the farm school is limited to about €200 a year—a Grant from
the Board of Education, the regular Grant to Secondary
Schools, and school fees—the farm maintains three men at
the standard wage and supplies the school, with its 150 pupils
and resident staff of nearly a dozen people, with all the fruit,
vegetables, eggs, milk, butter and bacon consumed. D

146 ‘* Ruraut Bras ’’ 1x SEconpaRy ScHOOLs. [ May,

The great difficulty that the school has had to face on its
farm side is the postponement of the operation of those
provisions of the Act of 1918 by which parents were compelled
to- keep their children at school until the age of 16. The
training at Sexey’s being thoroughiy practical and modern,
attempts have been made by parents who are working farmers
to withdraw their boys and girls before they have completed
their course, because they find that after a couple of years or
less in the farm school they can replace a skilled man.

Mr. Smith finds as a result of his long experience that in
addition to giving the main school “ rural bias ’’ the foundation
of the farm school serves to provide fitting occupation for those
boys and girls on whom a purely academic training would be
wasted, while affording opportunities to those who show a
special aptitude and wish to travel beyond the boundaries of
ordinary farm work to prepare for an agricultural college.
Pupils come from all parts—-from local elementary and
private schools, from secondary schools, and in some cases
from the Continent. Perhaps because Mr. Smith is a very
keen botanist, botany is the foundation of much of the out-
door practical work of the farm school. In fact every pupil
has two years of botanical work, theoretical and practical,
before the farm school can be reached.

Naturally all demonstrations are carried out on a small scale,
but it is abundantly clear that effectiveness is not a matter of
acreage. There is a quarter of an acre of garden land kept under
every variety of seasonal crop, so that the sequence of the
market-gardener’s work can be followed. There are green-
houses : there are cool and heated frames.. In addition to delight-
ful orchards there is half an acre of fruit garden in which fruit
culture is taught in all its branches—grafting, budding, trans-
planting and the rest—while owing to the rich soil and the mild
climate, transplanting work is carried on under conditions that
must excite envy among those who have learned their orcharding
on colder and less grateful lands.

The farm work itself embraces nearly all the problems that
acriculturists must consider. For example, to take mangold
cultivation, there is a plot some 110 vd. long and 11 yd. wide
divided into three strips. One is manured with superphosphate
at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre, sulphate of potash } cwt., nitrate
of soda 1 ewt.,. salt 3 cwt. On the next plot the rates are super-
phosphate 6 cwt., sulphate of potash 4 cwt., nitrate of soda
11 ewt. On the third the rates are : superphosphate 8 ewt., sul-- .

1921. ] ‘* RuraL Bras ’’ in SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 147

———— ee —— = a —

phate of potash 1} cwt., nitrate of soda 2 cwt., salt 3 ewt., and
beyond these three plots there is a little triangular piece on
which mangolds are being grown without manure. A quarter-
acre plot of grass land has been divided up, all having been
dressed with potassic superphosphate at the rate of 6 cwt. per
acre, while half has received in addition nitrate of soda at the
rate of 1 ewt. per acre. The manurial value of each is carefully
explained and the pupils can compare for themselves the actual
results obtained. Elsewhere swedes are being grown on plots
with farmyard manure applied at the rate of 25 tons per acre
over the whole, while one half has an addition of superphosphate,
potash and sulphate of ammonia, and the other has superphos-
phate, potash and nitrate of soda instead. Potatoes are grown
under a variety of conditions. One plot has farmyard manure
at the rate of 15 tons to the acre and is then divided up, one
half receiving an addition of superphosphate, potash and sulphate
of ammonia, the other superphosphate, potash and nitrate of
soda, this additional manuring being the same as is given to the
swedes. In addition to this there is another potato plot divided
into five parts. The first has no manure at all; the second has
superphosphate ; the third superphosphate and potash; the fourth
superphosphate, potash and nitrate of soda; the fifth superphos-
phate and nitrate of soda but no potash. Here too the pupils
will be able to see for themselves the effect upon the yield of
crop. The use of machinery and its value on the farm have not
been forgotten and the necessary attention is given to farm book-
keeping, farm correspondence and costs.

The ordinary course in agricultural science is open to boys and
girls of the school between the ages of 15 and 17 who have
reached the fifth form or can give evidence of having received
public secondary school education up to the fifth form of the
school from which they have come. In addition to farm book-
keeping based on the year’s accounts of the school farm, the
course of study includes land measurement and surveying, the
theory and practice of dairying—including laboratory practice,
the use of the Gerber tester. the clean production of milk,
the making of butter and cheese, the feeding and care of live
stock, including the preparation of rations on a scientific basis,
and the principles of land cultivation and manuring on grass
land, arable and moor.

The Somersetshire orchards are unfortunately more remark-
able for their beauty than for the state of their preservation, and
a spirited effort is being made at Sexey’s to teach students the

- DB

148, ‘* RuraL Bras ’’ In SECONDARY SCHOOLS. [ May,

value of pruning, spraying and a general clean up of dirty trees.
In order to make the lesson memorable, some trees are cared
for and others are left alone, so that the comparison is clear and
obvious. Cider making is also undertaken by pupils, and in the
laboratory they carry out qualitative analyses of feeding stuffs,
manures and milk. The principles of drainage and elementary
physiology are included in the curriculum, and practical demon-
strations in bee-keeping are part of the summer term’s work.
The course for girls includes all branches of dairy work, book-
keeping, correspondence, poultry-keeping, and a study of foods
and feeding, together with practical gardening, fruit culture,
fruit storage and preservation. Pupils have taken County Agri-
cultural Scholarships, both senior and junior, and some have
found high places in Agricultural Colleges and elsewhere. The
practical work is associated with frequent lectures so that those
who learn may understand the principles underlying their
teaching.

By reason of the Government grant for secondary schools and
with the aid of the County Authorities, the Board of Education
and Sexey’s Foundation, it is found possible even in these days
of high prices to charge the parents of boarders no more than
£42 a year for board, lodging and books. Moreover—and this
perhaps is one of the most important aspects of the whole under-
taking—the terms under which the school is conducted provide
that 25 per cent. of the admissions in any year must be free of
charge. and this has a particular significance in view of the

‘rural bias’? because it means that for every hundred pupils
who can pay there must be the fixed proportion of those who are
unable to do so. Here is the chance for the child of the agricul-
tural labourer. It is not sufficient to give the agricultural
labourer the minimum wage, because it leaves him without
prospects and he sees no better future for his children than that
of the so-called “‘ unskilled worker.’’ He wants something
better, and here in the remote Somersetshire Country he finds
what he needs. At the present time 40 per cent. of the children
at Sexey’s are not paying pupils.

It is interesting to note that Sexey’s School started in a barn
and was not housed in its present attractive quarters until the
success of the undertaking had been proved beyond all question.
The Farm School was added to the premises as a going concern
about the year 1918, when Mr. Smith handed over the buildings
to the School Authorities. To-day the full limit of the accommo-
dation has been reached, and so great is the school’s popularity

29 d ' (
1921. | ‘* RuraL Bras ’’ In SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 149

that vehicles ply daily between Cheddar and Blackford to take
pupils to and from the railway station.

It does not require any special gift of vision to see in the
secondary schools with a ‘‘ rural bias,’’ of which Sexey’s is so
pleasing an example, a prospect that may go far to change the
outlook of those who work on the land. It is admitted on all
sides that no class of our population has done better work for the
country or has received less return for it in years past than the
agricultural labourer. The War brought these truths home to
the community at large, and the worst of the farm labourer’s
disabilities have been removed by the Agricultural Wages Board
and the Agriculture Act, while Village Clubs and Women’s Insti-
tutes have developed the social side of rural life with the very
happiest results. But this is not enough. The agricultural
labourer’s children have a right to be prepared to help the com-
munity at large by the development of their natural aptitudes
along the most familiar lines. Welshpool, Dauntsey’s, Knares-
borough and Sexey’s may constitute a small beginning, but as the
knowledge of these undertakings grows and the value is recognised
by the community it is not too much to hope that we shall see
the “‘ rural bias ’’ a feature of secondary schools in all suitable
districts, and that year by year they will send out a steadily
increasing number of skilled workers on to the land. The
expense is trifling: the reward is great; and in giving every
encouragement to such a movement as this, the State will be
recognising in very practical fashion its debt to those who have
raised a considerable part of the nation’s food in most dis-
heartening conditions for many years. The rising generation
should prove capable, in the new circumstances that will follow,
of increasing the output to a point at which we shall stand far
nearer self-support. and the security that attends it, than we
are to-day.

150 Hop-*'-MovuLp ”’ anp ITs ConTROL. [ May,

HOP-" MOULD” ANDATS COMER OL;:. 1.
E. S. Sanmon,

Mycologist to the South Eastern Agricultural College,
Wye, Kent.

ce

Introductory.—'The disease known variously as ‘‘ mould,’’
‘“ red mould ’’ or mildew is the cause in many seasons (e.g., in
1920) of serious financial loss to the hop-grower. The other
serious disease of the cultivated hop is the ‘‘ fly ’’ or hop-Aphis.
The modern hop-grower has fully acquainted himself with the
life-history of the Aphis and when it arrives he ‘‘ washes ”’ the
hop garden with such energy and technical skill that even the
most persistent attacks are kept under.

The cause of hop-** mould ’’ has only comparatively recently
been understood by the hop-grower. The farmer who still
believes that ‘‘ mould ’’ is due to certain atmospheric causes or
to the unhealthy condition of the sap of the hop-plant caused
by errors of cultivation or manuring is now rarely met. Most
farmers now not only recognise that ‘‘ mould ’’ is of fungous
origin, but know the main points in the life-history of the par-
ticular fungus concerned. Prof. J. Percival and Mr. A. Howard,
working at Wye College, largely helped in the spread of this
knowledge. The late Mr. W. H. Hammond, a hop-grower as
well as scientist, was the first to point out* that ‘“ red mould ”’
and ‘‘ mould ’’ were two forms of the one disease.

The fact that at the present day “‘ mould ’’ takes far too heavy
a toll of the crop in many quarters is due chiefly to the following
causes :—(1) Although the use of sulphur (an efficient remedy
against ‘‘ mould ’’) is general, the farmer does not, as a rule,
use it early enough in the season. (2) The thorough control of
‘“mould ’? is dependent upon the taking of many indirect
measures, some of them cultural. (8) Too often the hop-grower
depends upon some utterly fallacious measure for controlling the
disease.

It is the object of this article to treat the subject of ‘* mould ”’
fully from these three standpoints.

Life-history of the Hop-‘‘ mould ’? or Mildew.—A_photo-
graph of a hop-leaf with several spots of ‘‘ mould ’’ is given in
Fig. 1. The general appearance, under a strong magnifying
glass or microscope, of a spot of hop-‘‘ mould ’’ is shown in
Fig. 2. The “* spawn ”’ (myceliwm) of the fungus (Spherotheca

* Journ. S.E. Agric. Coll., 1X, p. 19 (1900).

1921. | Hop-‘* Movuup ’’ AND ITs CONTROL. 151

Humuli (D.C.) Burr.)—composed of a mass of interlaced fine
white branched threads (hyphe)—creeps over the surface and
at short intervals sends minute branches—the ‘“* suckers ”’
(haustoria)—from the under surface of the threads into the cells
of the hop-leaf or ** hop.’’ ‘These suckers extract from the sap
of the hop-plant the food the fungus requires—much as the
needle-like proboscis of the hop-Aphis does when this insect is
feeding. From the spawn upright branches (conidiophores) arise,
each bearing a necklace-like chain of summer-spores (conidia)*
(Fig. 2).

As each summer-spore (conidiwm) at the top of the chain
becomes ripe, it separates and becomes free (Fig. 3), fresh spores
being formed below as the top ones become ripe and fall off. In
this way myriads of spores are produced in favourable weather
conditions and accumulate in white, ‘* powdery ’’ masses over
the surface of each spot of ** mould ’’—a condition indicating
infallibly that ‘‘ mould ’”’ is “‘ on the run.’’ These summer-
spores serve for the rapid propagation of the fungus, and being
exceedingly minute and light they are easily carried by the
wind for distances of a mile or more. This manner of distribu-
tion accounts for the fact sometimes to be noticed that an epi-
demic of ‘* mould ’’ appears suddenly in a hop-garden hitherto
entirely free. Ifour eyes were able to observe such small objects—
or if the summer-spores were much larger—we should frequently
see in the air during summer in hop-growing districts a white
dust-like cloud composed of myriads of these spores—much as we
often see masses of ‘‘ thistle-down’’ blowing about. Prof. F.M.
Blodgett has computed that on a square inch of leaf-surface
covered with hop-mildew 2.800,000 summer-spores are produced,
and remarkst ‘‘ from this it will be seen that, while the large
majority of these spores may perish, there may still be enough
left on a single leaf to infect a whole hop-garden.’’

Each summer-spore behaves like a seed in giving rise to a
new individual. On reaching a healthy leaf or “‘ hop,”’ it at
once proceeds to infect it; it puts out a root-like germ-tube, with
a terminal knob (appressorium) which attaches itself firmly to
the surface of the hop-plant (Fig. 4). Within 24 hours a sucker
is produced from the under surface of the knob. The sporeling,
or young fungus, is now both firmly anchored and supplied with
food; it rapidly develops the threads of the spawn and, under
favourable conditions, a “‘ powdery ”’ patch of ** mould ”’ with
chains of summer-spores is produced within a week or ten days.

* These can easily be seen with a pocket magnifying glass.
t Cornell University, Agric. Exper. Stat., Bull. 328 (1913).

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Hop-** Mounp ”’ anp 1rs ContTRoL.. [ May,

As each of the two million odd spores produced in a large patch
of *‘ mould *’ is able to propagate in this way, it is no wonder
that the hop-grower, unless the earliest patches are dealt with,
is often faced with sudden outbreaks of ‘‘ mould ’’ on an epi-_
demic scale. The explanation of the efficacy of early sulphuring
les in the fact that the first powdery patches of mould formed in
the season are killed before they have time to start hundreds of
fresh infections in the neighbourhood.

So long as the hop-plant continues to produce fresh sappy
growth, such as young leaves, lateral shoots, ‘* runners,’’ and
the “‘ burr ’’ stage or young hop-cones, the mildew continues to
produce its summer-spores. These spores, however, are quite
unable to survive the winter months, when the hop-plant dies to
the ground. It is important for the farmer to understand in
what form and also where the ‘‘mould ’’ survives from year to
year. since ignorance on these points leads in many eases to the
adoption of useless and expensive measures.

The stage in which the fungus passes the winter is far less
noticeable than the white “*‘ mould.’’ It can readily be seen
with a pocket-lens, however. If during late summer the
‘“ mould ’’ on the lower leaves is examined, minute round
blackish-brown bodies (conceptacles) will be observed, usually
densely clustered on the ‘‘ spawn ”’ (Fig. 5}. Each conceptacle
(perithecium) contains within it a transparent sac (ascus) holding
8 winter-spores (ascospores). These conceptacles are also found
plentifully on “‘ mouldy ’’ hops. If a hop with ‘‘ mould ”’ or
‘red mould ’’ is picked to pieces, hundreds of these dark, round
bodies can be seen (with a pocket-lens) on the surface of the
‘* petals ’’ (bracts and bracteoles) (Fig. 6).

ee

When the leaves decay, or when “‘ mouldy ’’ hops are left
unpicked and allowed to blow away, the conceptacles with their
winter-spores reach the soil of the hop-garden and remain there
in security through the winter-months. The following spring—
usually in May—these winter-spores are liberated in the follow-
ing manner. Each conceptacle—when the weather conditions
are right—absorbs water, swells and cracks open, exposing to
view the inner sac (Fig. 8). The sac then likewise absorbs water
and swells up, expanding like the envelope of a balloon (Fig. 8),
until the tension on the expanding wall is so great that the sae
bursts and the winter-spores are expelled forcibly through a
slit into the air (Fig. 8). When thus liberated the winter-spores
are wafted about by air-currents and some get carried to a hop-
leaf—usually the lower leaves on the bine. The winter-spore

* Mould.”

g several spots of

Hop-leaf, showin

1

FIG.

producing

Spawn ”
Much enlarged,

showing the creeping *

Mould,”

upright branches with chains of

2.—Young patch of *

Fa.

- summer-spores.”

‘praoyy ,, JO ,, uMudg ,, olf} UO GUTULLOY

(,, sodods-10UIM ,, SULULBJUOD) SoTOLydadU0d Jo ‘payrusevin AUST ‘sotods-rouruins ,, poyoryop
soyoyed UMOAG-MaVp WBA Jeo[-doy—"g “914 ‘adii jo odoosororur oa Ysnoryy ydersoyoug—s ‘Dlq
n

‘posteluo YON], °G “oly Ul
UMOYS ‘PINOT ., OFM JO Yoyed
|[wurs v Jo oouvatvodde oyy quosoad
[{[M gt SAvp O[-Z UL t poulLoy oq
oO} Stiuurseq yqsuf st ,, uareds,,
ou, ‘“Jeoy-doy vw Jo oovjims oy4
lO SUIVVUNG.S ,, 0.10ds-1OUWUUINS ,,
oysuls Vv jo SUIMVIG— Ff “DIG

FIG, 6.—Two * Petals,” (a, a bract : b, a bracteole) of a hop affected with “ Red mould.” The
black specks X are the conceptacles containing the * winter-spores,

Kia. 7, -Conceptacles of hop-mildew bursting in the spring :—6, the wall of the conceptacle

has just burst, and the inner sac has begun to swell up; 1, the sac has swollen up to its full

extent, it then suddenly explodes, forcibly expelling the “ winter-spores” througha slit (3, 4, 5)
into the air ; the empty sac then shrinks back (2),

‘poytusvut ATYSTAA “poqooyeun

pourewiat ‘Keae your °°* Ayuo Apoywurrxoardde ‘youraq yuoovlpe oyy oly “peop
puv dn poeTpoartys sotods uodos [vututtoy ayy ‘sXep ooayy oye ‘pomoys porddy svar
lnydzus Jo oporavd oy. Orga OF oo oyA ! Sotods Jo sureyo SuLtwoq soyouRiq OM “g
‘sAup ooryy aoqye ¢ ., satods-toutuins ,, JO suleyo oatyy sutsorjsop ,,mydqns yo

SLOMOP,, JO oporyed e@ fy : .. prnoy,, [Ly anydyns Surmoys sourmvurqy—'6 “Ply

‘*prnoyy ., Aq poyouqye

, ding ,, ul doy y—'s “N1q

1921. ] Hop-‘‘ Movutv ”’ anp rts ConTrROL. 153

then germinates at once, infecting the leaf in exactly the same
manner as the summer-spore does (Fig. 4), and in a few days a
‘“ powdery ’’ patch of white “‘ mould ’’ is produced, bearing
hundreds of summer-spores. Thus is brought about the first or
primary outbreak of ** mould ’’ for the season.

As the result of infection by.a single winter-spore there may
arise, within three weeks, many hundreds of little patches of
‘“ mould ”’ scattered through the hop-garden, unless by the use
of sulphur during May and June the primary outbreak is
smothered and killed before its summer-spores have time to
spread. ‘The hop-grower must realise that when in May and
June he sees the “ fly ’’ arriving on his hops, at the same
period the winter-spores of the mildew (unfortunately invisible)
are being shot out of the soil and the first infections are
occurring.

“From the point of view of the practical farmer, the most
important facts in the life-history of the hop mildew are (1)
the fungus is confined to the surface of the above-ground parts
of the hop-plant, never entering the “‘ hill ’’ or occurring on
the roots; (2) during the winter months it exists only in the
form of winter-spores within closed conceptacles which become
dispersed over the surface of the soil of the hop-garden. The
following year, about May, the winter-spores are liberated
and produce at once the highly infectious white “* mould.’’
There is no living spawn existing through the winter.

Damage caused by ‘‘ Mould ’’:—

(a) To the Leuf.—Although serious injury to the hop-leaf is seldom
caused by “mould,” it is essential that it is destroyed on the leaves, as
otherwise the summer-spores produced there in immense numbers spread
the disease to the “burr” and hop-cones where irreparable damage may
be done. Further, it is comparatively easy to kill the mildew on the
leaves, since the mildew is fully exposed and hop-leaves are easily
sulphured, whereas ‘‘ mould ” on the hop-cones is difficult to deal with.

(b) To the “ Burr.” —The greatest damage is caused when “ mould”
attacks the ‘‘ burr,” 7.e., the female inflorescence which develops later
into the hop. Each inflorescence when ready for fertilisation by pollen
from a male hop shows a bunch of spreading branches (stigmas)—a stage
called the “ brush” by farmers. If summer-spores are carried by the
air to the “brush,” they readily infect it, it becomes white with ‘
and is soon converted into a hard white knob, with the result that no hop
is formed. (Fig. 8.) The infection of the “burr” is usually brought
about by summer-spores set free from powdery patches of “ mould” on
the hop-leaves in the same garden ; more rarely the spores are carried on

‘mould,”

the air from a neighbouring hop-garden infested with * mould.” If the
“burr’’ becomes attacked by “mould” it is impossible to save it.

154 Hop-** Moutp ”’ anp 1rs ConTROL. [ May,

Everything possible should be done, therefore, to help the hop plant to
pass through as quickly as possible the critical stage when it is in “burr.”
If no pollen-dust from a male hop reaches the ‘‘ brush,” the hop remains
in burr some 10 days longer than when pollen has been supplied, and
then sets into a seedless hop, whereas if pollen reaches the brush, the
‘burr’ stage passes quickly, and a large seeded hop is produced. It is
consequently a wise precaution—as Mr. A. Howard first pointed out*—to
plant a certain number of male hills in the hop-garden, more especially as
it has now been conclusively proved that fertilisation of the ‘ burr’’ is
essential for the production of well-grown-out hops. +

(c) To the Hop.—Serious injury is very commonly inflicted by
“mould” on the hop-cone in all stages of its development. All kinds
of malformations of the cone may be met with; a very young hop
may be entirely converted into a white “ mouldy” knob, or the young
cone may be “eaten into” on one side, or at the base or at the tip ;
or hops may occur which are normal in shape and size and yet diseased
to the extent that many of its ‘“‘petals” bear the conceptacles of the
mildew. It is among the ripening hops that the condition so well known
as “red mould” is met with. ‘Red mould” was long thought to be
due either to the effect of certain atmospheric conditions (hot sun, mist,
&c.), or to the attacks of some special parasite on the hop-cones, but it is
now definitely established that ‘red mould” is nothing more nor less
than white “ mould,” and the one can change into the other according to
the part of the hop plant that is attacked. The name ‘‘red mould” is
given to it on the ripening hop-cones, because under the attacks of
the mildew the ‘“ petals” turn a foxy- or reddish-brown colour ; very little
“spawn” and few summer-spores are formed, hence the mildew does not
become white nor resemble the ‘‘ mould” elsewhere, but conceptacles with
winter-spores are produced abundantly. It is one of the most insidious
forms of the disease, and can only be dealt with by the rigorous sup-
pression earlier in the season of all outbreaks of white “ mould.” ¢

Preventive Measures.—Direct.—‘‘ Flowers of sulphur’’ (pure,
sublimed sulphur) is the great specific against ‘‘ mould,’ as
all hop growers know. It should be apphed much earlier in
*the season than is generally done. Owing to the fact that
Winter-spores arise from the soil during May, the first out-
breaks of white ‘‘ mould ’’ for the season usually take place
(unknown to the farmer) during that month. <A good knap-
sack sulphurator should be employed to apply the sulphur to
the leaves of the bines; the under surfaces of the leaves (which
are usually infected first) should be well dusted over and a
* Journ. SE. Agric. Coll., XIV, p, 211 (1905).
+ Journ. Board of Agric., XX, 953 (1914). ;
t Last season (1920) reports were received of the prevalence of “red mould” in
the hops of only those hills in the proximity of male hops (“seeders”). It seems
probable, however, that in these cases there was no mould at all, but that the
‘‘soing off” in colour (that was mistaken for “red mould’) was due to the
presence of partially over-ripe cones. Hops will not uncommonly show some of

the “petals” which carry no “seed” at the base still of a bright colour, while
those that are ‘‘seeded ” have turned dark reddish-brown.

‘aniponad pog hyybhnowoyy v
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‘ydvis0joyg—‘o] ‘OIT

1921.]

Hop-‘‘ Movuup ’’ AnD 1Ts ConrTROL. 155

special dose given to the lowermost leaves. One good early
sulphuring frequently prevents a bad outbreak of ‘‘ mould ”’
later in the season, and should never be omitted.* If
“mould ’’ has been noticed in the garden in the previous
season, the knapsack sulphuring should be given once a fort-
night until the lower leaves have been ** stripped ’’ off. Where
a bad outbreak of ‘* mould ’’ has occurred during the previous
season in the garden, or where the thoroughly bad practice has
been followed of leaving ‘‘ mouldy ’’ hops unpicked, applica-
tions of sulphur with the knapsack pump, starting at the
beginning of May, should be given regularly at intervals of
a fortnight until the bines are high enough for the horse-
sulphurator to be used. The number of applications necessary
later in the season must of course depend on the extent and
character of the outbreaks of ‘‘ mould,’’ on the weather con-
ditions, and on the amount of ‘‘ bine’’ in the garden. It
is dangerous to tolerate patches of white “‘ mould ’”’ at anv
time in a garden, as under certain weather conditions favour-
able for its propagation the mildew spreads with great
rapidity and if this coincides with the period when the hop-
plant is in ‘‘ burr ’’ or just in hop, irreparable damage may
be done. Up to the time the “ burr’’ appears any white
‘“mould ’’ in the garden should be promptly dealt with by
sulphuring. It is the practice of many of the most successful
hop-growers to sulphur the hops when in burr, not only as
a preventive of ‘‘ mould ’’ but in the belief that the sulphur
acts in some beneficial way, causing the ‘‘ burr ’’ to set into
hops quickly. Generally speaking, no further sulphuring is
necessary; should, however, ‘*‘ red mould ’’ appear, applications
of sulphur must be given until the hops are approaching
ripeness.

In sulphuring with the horse-machine it is considered a
good practice—since the sulphur is so light that it drifts in

* A striking instance of the efficacy of early sulphuring may be mentioned
here. At the East Malling Research Station, in Kent, a new variety of hop, “ The
Foundling ” (see this Journal, Vol. X X11, p. 136 (1915) ) has been grown, amongst
others. in the Hop Variety Trials. ‘The Foundling” has proved to be so specially
susceptible to “mould” that nearly all the growers who have been testing it have
abandoned its cultivation. The treatment of the hops at East Malling for the
years 1918-20 has been as follows : 1918, 5 applications of sulphur, viz., knapsack,
end of May, early June, July 24; horse-sulphurator, Aug. 10, Aug. 17; 1919,
3 applications, viz., knapsack, early. June ; horse-sulphurator, July 24, Aug. 16 ;
1920, 2 applications, viz., horse-sulphurator, July 16, second week in August. In
1918 and 1919 there was no trouble with “mould.” Mr. J. Amos, Manager
Recorder, writes : “In 1920 the early sulphuring was omitted, which I must admit
was a mistake, for I noticed that the hops were more ‘ mouldy’ than in the two
previous years, as was.also the case in 1917 when no early sulphuring was done.
I shall make a point of having the early sulphuring done annually in future.”

156 Hop-*' Movunp ”’ AnD 1rs ContrRoL. [ May,

the air over several alleys—to take the machine down every
second or third alley through the garden in the first operation,
and then on subsequent occasions to go down the alleys
previously missed. The sulphur will always readily adhere to
any spots of ** mould,’’ but if a slight dew is present, it will stick
better to the hop-leaf; absence of wind at the time of the opera-
tion is highly desirable, and such a condition is most frequently
obtained in the early hours of the morning.

The purest “‘ flowers of sulphur ’’ should be used in all
the operations, and such adulterated forms as “* green
sulphur,’ *‘ black sulphur, sulphur vivum’’ should be
strenuously avoided.* Recent evidence gives ground for
believing that sulphur does not act in a gaseous form, and that
direct contact of the mildew with a particle of the sulphur is
necessary for its destruction. Contrary to general belief, the
heat of direct sunlight is not required in order to make sulphur
efficacious in killing ‘‘ mould.’’ The writer has observed
repeatedly in experiments that when a particle of sulphur
adheres to the mildew, a slow shrivelling up of the fungus takes
place, even when it is kept continuously in the shade (Fig. 9).
In order to get the best results in sulphuring against ‘* mould,’’
the observance of two points is essential: (1) the ‘‘ flowers
of sulphur ’’ must be of a brand guaranteed to be pure sublimed
sulphur and free from admixtures, and (2) it must be in a
condition of very fine, dry, dust-lke particles free from lumps
or ‘‘ caked ’’ masses. If the sulphur has become “‘ caked ’’ it
must be passed through as fine a sieve as possible. The finer
the particles the greater will be the number of points of con-
tact, and a quicker and more thorough destruction of the
mildew will be the result.

There seems little doubt that in wet weather ‘‘ mould ’’ is
not kept under satisfactorily by ‘‘ flowers of sulphur,’’ probably
because of the removal of the latter by the rain. Some growers
use in dull or wet weather a solution of ‘‘ liver of sulphur ”’
(polysulphides of potassium or sodium). The strength usually
advocated is from 1 to 2 lb. of ‘‘ liver of sulphur ’’ to 100 gal.
of water or of ‘‘ hop-wash.’’ Experiments have shownt that a
‘liver of sulphur ’’ solution of this strength does not lall hop-
‘“ mould,’’ even when used with 10 lb. of soft soap to the 100 gal.
of water, and that from 8 to 4 lb. of “‘ liver of sulphur ”’ is

99 66

‘6

’

* A sample of a much-advertised brand of “green sulphur’ contained only
25 per cent. of sulphur, while the other constituents (including sulphate of lime
(gypsum) 40 per cent.) were of no known fungicidal value.

+ J. V. Eyre and EB. 8S, Salmon, in Journ, Agric. Science, VII, 473 (1916).

1921. ] Hop-*‘ Mouup ’’ AND ITs CONTROL. 157

required—a strength which would cause too serious a ‘* scorch-
ing ’’ of the hop-plant in summer. In common practice, the
‘liver of sulphur ’’ solution is applied with the wash (usually
soft soap and quassia) that is being used against the “‘ greenfly ”’
(Aphis). If this wash contains a higher percentage of soft soap
than 10 lb. to the 100 gal., it is possible that good results are
obtained in checking, if not killing, the ‘‘ mould,’’ since it has
been found that ‘‘ liver of sulphur ’’ solutions become more
potent when used with greater amounts of soft soap. It is ques-
tionable, however, whether sufficiently strong solutions of ** liver
of sulphur ”’ (with soft soap) to kill ‘‘ mould ’’ could be used on
hops either when in ‘‘ burr ’’ or just before (when the “‘ pin ”’
is showing) without causing serious “‘ scorching ’’ injury.*
Strong solutions of “‘ liver of sulphur ’’ and soft soap, or the
lime-sulphur wash (1 lb. of the concentrated wash to 29 gal. of
water) can safely be used on the hop-leaves early in the season,
but except in special circumstances their use would not prove
economical. It is quite certain that at present ‘‘ flowers of
sulphur ’’ must be regarded as the one safe and certain remedy
against “‘ mould.’’

(To be concluded.)

* The same danger would attend the use of the lime-sulphur or the ammonitum
polysulphide wash.

158 PouutTry RESEARCH. | May

POULTRY RESEARCH.
AN URGENT NEED.

O. Cuarnock Brapuey, M.D., D.Se., M.R.C.V.S.,
Principal, Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

OnE need not be particularly perspicacious to recognise the
current vigour in and expansion of the poultry industry. The
forthcoming World’s Poultry Congress is in itself a clear indica-
tion of the rapid development that has taken place during the
last few years; while the part Great Britain is to play at the
Congress demonstrates the enthusiasm of the poultry specialist
in this country.

When development is so obvious, and when poultry-keeping
is becoming so popular, the question naturally arises: Is science
taking an adequate share in the development? So far as the
United States of America is concerned, the answer is that science
is undoubtedly affording a very considerable and present help.
The paper read by Mr. Edward Brown at the 1920 Harper-
Adams Conference alone shows this. But the answer as applied
to Great Britain.is not so satisfactory. Work in poultry research
has certainly been done, and is being done, but it may
be reasonably affirmed, not to the extent nor in the organised
manner that is so desirable. Credit must be given to the few
who are applying time, thought and energy to the elucidation of
problems relative to heredity, diseases, and the like, but workers
in the enormous field of research are all too few. Thisis the more
to be regretted because the machinery by which knowledge can
be brought to those who are willing to apply it is in existence.
Poultry lecturers there are in plenty, but they are only able
to instruct the poultry-keeper up to the point at which present
knowledge ends. Poultry investigators, on the other hand, are
far too few, while their research is too sporadic. This is likely
to remain so until adequate opportunities are given to those
who would fain specialise in poultry research, but who must,
for the present, make such research subsidiary to their main
line of work. So many problems are clamouring for attention
that the chance investigator is discouraged from embarking
upon research while he sees little, if any, probability of being
able to pursue it in a manner likely to lead to satisfactory
results. However small the corner of the field upon which he
casts his eye, he soon perceives that either he or someone
else must attack areas outside that little plot.

1921. ] Povt.ttry RESEARCH. 159

Factors controlling Artificial Incubation.—There would be
little difficulty in imdicating problems the solution of which
would greatly benefit the poultry industry. All those questions
that centre around artificial incubation immediately suggest
themselves, and it is, indeed, fortunate that a start has been
made in this direction. So far as present indications go,
Professor Chattock is in a fair way of revealing some of the
factors controlling successful artificial incubation. Being
artificial, it is reasonable to surmise that the factors are many,
and it may be safely predicted that, the deeper the problems are
probed the more widely will their ramifications be found to ex-
tend. New questions are bound to present themselves, but while
these are waiting for answers, those solutions that have already
been arrived at are available for practical application.

Avian Reproduction.—The phases of reproduction prior to
incubation also offer wide scope for the investigater. While
there are principles of the physiology of reproduction common
to all the higher animals, there are many features of repro-
duction peculiar to birds. Obviously, phenomena long recog-
nised and subjected to investigation in mammals must of
necessity be absent in oviparous animals; and phases of the
reproductive act that are of first importance in birds are incon-
spicuous in mammals. Seeing that the ovum of birds, as first
formed in the ovary, is so small, it is evident that the forma-
tion of the other components of the egg—-the yolk and the
white—and the laws governing their formation, must alwavs
stand first in economic importance. The periodic production
of relatively enormous quantities of albumen by the fowl
has no exact parallel in the mammal. Clearly, then, the
general and mammalian physiologist can scarcely be expected
to give special attention to such processes, though they lie’
at the very root of success in the poultry industry. Not that
the physiology of avian reproduction has been entirely
neglected: much attention has been paid to it by American
investigators. Yet no one with a knowledge of research workers’
publications can escape the conviction that what has been dis-
covered in this direction is but a tithe of what remains to
be discovered before any practical application of the know-
ledge is possible.

Problems of Reproduction.—With the problems of reproduc-
tion as affecting egg-production, those of heredity are inseparably
connected. The utility poultry keeper is probably not very
interested in fine distinctions of plumage or in the size and shape

160 Pouutry RESEARCH. [ May,

of the comb, but he is anxious to learn anything concerning the
inheritance of factors that affect the number and size of the eggs,
as well as the fattening qualities of the bird. Egg-laying trials
serve an exceedingly useful purpose, but they do not necessarily
throw a searching light on the subtler aspects of heredity. It is
not difficult to understand that the trials can hardly be conducted
with that regard for scientific precision demanded by the student
of heredity, and that, therefore, more rigid control, and the
recognition of precise rules of experimentation, may be regarded
as necessary for the discovery of facts upon which laws may be
formulated.

Pathology of Reproduction.—Reproduction, moreover, has its
pathology. Not by any means of trifling economic importance
are those obscure disturbances of the reproductive organs which,
though not generally recognised as actual diseases, are yet suffi-
cient to lead to faulty egg-production. These, too, require
investigation.

Research in Poultry Diseases.—In the province of pathology
and bacteriology, it is impossible accurately to estimate the
benefits that would accrue to the poultry industry from dis-
coverles arising out of research. There can be no question that
the benefits would be many, and we may obtain some idea of
them by a review of any one of the recognised diseases, as well as
by a summary of the confessed gaps in current knowledge
respecting its etiology and control. For such a review and sum-
mary almost any disease would serve, but an instructive example
might be found in a disease of which few poultry-keepers have
the good fortune to be ignorant. I refer to that disease or group
of diseases known by a multiplicity of names—roup, diphtheria.
bird pox, &c. In the forefront of many questions stands that
of Cause. Is there one main factor? Or are there many? If it
should be determined that there is only one causal agent, then
how is it that such a gamut of manifestations can be induced?
When these and many other doubts of a like nature have been
cleared, there will arise an inquiry into the best and surest
method by which the disease or diseases may be combated and
controlled.

Carriers of Disease.—There is also the matter of “* carriers.”’
It is recognised that apparently healthy mammals may be
‘“ carriers ’’ of diseases, and in avian pathology it is also recog-
nised that an apparently healthy pullet may be a “‘ carrier ”’
of the virus of bacillary white diarrhcea. It is probable that fowls

1921. ] Pouttry RESEARCH. 161

may be “‘ carriers ’’ of other diseases, but investigation on scien-
tific lines can alone prove this.

Poultry Research.—That pathological and_ bacteriological
research will always be fruitful, in varying measure, is beyond
question, and it cannot be doubted that any discovery in avian,
no less than in mammalian, pathology will inevitably show that
there is something further to seek. ‘There is no finality in
pathological research any more than there is in any kind of
biological research. Those who are following modern thought in
Medicine know that recently a change has crept into the con-
ception of the causation of diseases due to bacteria. Time was
when it was considered sufficient to recognise two factors in
disease—the tissues of the animal attacked, and the attacking
micro-organism. Now, however, experiments have hinted at
the possibility of a third factor—or ‘‘ third partner in disease, ’’
as it has been called—acting on the animal tissues and breaking
down their defence, thus permitting the micro-organism to exert
its pathogenic power. When the precise nature of the ‘‘ third
partner ’’ has been disclosed, and the means of nullifying its
effects have been devised—thus putting a further restraint
upon the activity of the pathogenic organisms—research will
proceed to an inquiry into the still more efficient control of the
causes of disease. Whatever advance is made in pathological
knowledge in general, will be possible of application to the con-
trol of avian diseases. Clearly, then, facilities and opportunities
for the application of general knowledge to the special problems —
of poultry diseases cannot fail to lead to beneficial results.

While poultry research has a wide field in the investigation of
diseases concerning which something, at least, is already known,
it has an even wider field in the discovery of the true cause of
many diseased conditions not yet clearly identified. Is it not
true that even the poultry-keeper of wide experience occasionally
encounters a condition that, in spite of his long acquaintance
with the frailties of domestic birds, he has not previously seen.
and to which he cannot give a name? The pathologist who has
made a special study of avian diseases is often in the same
position.

Among the numerous investigations that are awaiting the
attention of research is that dealing with the action of drugs.
From the very limited observations made, it is evident that the
effects cf drugs on birds cannot be predicted with certainty.
This is not surprising, for it is well known that different species
of mammals exhibit variation in their tolerance to toxic drugs,

E

162 Pouuttry RESEARCH. [ May,

from, which it might be surmised that drugs would also affect
birds in varying degree. Gallagher’s experiments, though few
in number, are sufficient to show that poultry have a distinct
tolerance towards some drugs, while they are sensitive to others.
Though it would be unwise to draw definite conclusions from
experiments that are admittedly only preliminary, it is at least
permissible to say that they demonstrate the need of investiga-
tions on the safety-point of solutions used as drinking-water.

It is unnecessary to detail all the directions in which
profitable research might be undertaken, but passing reference
may be made to the necessity for systematic inquiry into food
values. In mammalian physiology, an enormous amount of work
has been done, and is being done, to discover the most econo-
mical and most productive foods, and certain laws of nutrition
have been formulated. But in avian physiology the subject has
not received nearly the amount of attention it deserves. Dis-
coveries in mammalian dietetics cannot always be applied to
birds, because of differences in metabolism and _ outstanding
differences in the physiology of reproduction. That the kind of
food—apart from its quantity and admixture—has a marked
influence upon the egg may be taken for granted, for it is well
known that the colour of the yolk can be altered by the adminis-
tration of certain foodstuffs. If, then, the colour can be affected,
why not other properties? And why should not the white of the
egg be affected as well as the yolk? Doubtless something of
value could also be discovered from more extensive research on
the question of insect proteins as a component of the diet of
poultry. It has even been suggested that insect protein may
have an influence on susceptibility to disease. But the whole ©
subject of dietetics is very closely associated with liability to, and
even production of, disease.

If, then, it is held incontrovertible that poultry research is
necessary and would lead to results of economic importance, it
may be asked: Under what conditions should it be prosecuted?
It is possible that some would suggest a large central institution
wherein all forms of research might be conducted by a specially
trained staff, who would disseminate reliable information to those
engaged in the poultry industry. There is much to be said for
what may be called a clearing-house of knowledge, from which
the poultry-keeper could obtain the information he desires, if
available. But it is not so certain that centralisation of research
would be altogether a good thing. There is a strong possibility
that the workers, being isolated and not in contact with wider

1921. ] Povtrry ResEarcu. 163

and more general biological problems, would have their outlook
narrowed. It seems probable that better work would be done
in places where problems relative to mammals were also being
investigated. Breeding experiments would be more fruitful of
useful data if they were conducted alongside investigations
bearing on the same questions as applicable to animals other
than poultry. Investigations relative to dietetics could scarcely
be profitably separated from the work of existing nutrition labora-
tories; nor would it be altogether wise to separate the study of
avian diseases from that of mammalian pathology. On careful
consideration, it appears probable that in practice the most
satisfactory way of fostering poultry research will be found to
be: by encouraging existing institutions to extend knowledge that
ean be disseminated by a central organisation, to which the
poultry-keeper may look for information, guidance, and advice.

164 Nores on Pouutry-KEeEpina. -[ May,

NOTES ON POULTRY-KEEPING.

Tse development of egg production has to some extent
operated against the revival of the table poultry industry, and
at the present moment this is very apparent. With the
exception of small supplies of “‘ petits poussins ’’ practically
the only English poultry now reaching the markets are old
birds. Fortunately for the consumer, American supplies of
frozen chickens of very good quality are available. By the time
these notes appear spring chickens should be ready for the
markets in appreciable quantities, and poultry keepers are
warned against holding back their supplies too long. The
demand is for a chicken weighing 2 to 23 lb., and although
young birds of larger size may be even more favourably
received it is seldom advisable to hold them over several
weeks in order to attain this weight, since by so doing the
' best trade and the higher prices per lb. are frequently lost.
Although the cost of feeding stuffs has fallen, the prices realised
for table poultry are good. |

In many instances, particularly when there is a lack of
accommodation for the growing chickens, the poultry keeper
is well advised to market his young cockerels as “‘ petits
poussins.’’ These small birds sent to the market alive weigh
from 10-12 oz. when, at the rate of 2s. 8d. to 3s. per lb.,
there is a fair margin of profit.

An indication of the comparative position of poultry foods at
present, compared with this time last year is given by a com-
parison of the average wholesale prices of the staple poultry foods.
in London in corresponding weeks of 1920 and 21 :—

Week ending
April 7th, 1920. April 6th, 1921.
x os. Ss
Oats per 336 lb. — 30) Per 2 4
Maize ,, 480 lb. ay. Se) she 2 16
Middlings ,, ton eon ud) Be 10 0
Bran es ste oO ae 8 0
Barley meal ,, __,, 25°10 Kea to 16

Apart from the considerable reductions shown in these
figures the quality of the offals in particular has vastly
improved. Although figures for ground oats and proprietary
foods largely used in chicken rearing during the early stages
cannot be given, these will generally be found to have fallen
at least proportionately, whilst there is an even greater
improvement in quality.

1921. | Norres on Pouutry-K&epina. 165

Chicken Rearing.—By May a large proportion of the chickens
have reached a stage when the pullets and cockerels will
thrive much better if separated. Some difference in the
feeding should be observed; young cockerels if kept in a soft
and well-fed condition will require little if any fattening
provided they are separated from the pullets, and they will then
be ready for table at from 10-14 weeks old. They may be kept
upon a restricted range, in a grass pen for preference, whereas
the pullets will grow and thrive better with free run and a less
generous diet.

Sussex ground oats or barley and maize meals with a due
proportion of middlings should be given to cockerels in a wet
mash twice daily, with a feed of wheat at night time. One
feed of wet mash with a small feed of wheat at mid-day and a
liberal feed of wheat at night will suffice for the pullets on a
free range, but an additional wet mash is necessary if the
range is limited. As an alternative under these conditions
dry mash may be used in place of the wet mash.

Young Turkeys.— Unless the young turkeys have the range
ot meadows and hedgerows with access to nettles and other
wild green stuffs of which they are very fond, troubles are
likely to arise. ‘The too free use of starchy foods in the
dietary of turkeys is a frequent cause of loss, and an abundance
of green food is essential. Insect life is also needed, and the
provision of a substitute when the birds have a limited run
is more difficult than in the case of chickens and ducklings.
Young turkeys do not readily eat fish meal, but granulated meat
of good quality and free from bone can be given, though the
use of freshly cooked meat, bullock’s liver and lights, finely
chopped, is much to be preferred. Middlings, Sussex ground
oats, and maize meal can be used—the two latter in modera-
tion—and boiled rice if mixed with the meat. Practically
50 per cent. of the bulk of the food consumed by young
turkeys should consist of fresh green stuff.

Ducklings.—The rapid growth of ducklings renders them
particularly attractive to the rearer of table poultry. ‘They are
ready for market from 3 to 4 weeks earlier than a chicken
and can be raised upon smaller spaces. Boiled rice constitutes
one of the most valuable foods, but this cannot be considered
economical at the present price. Middlings with maize and
barley meal or wheat meal with 10 per cent. of fish meal
should be used up to 5 weeks of age, after which the quality

166 Notes on Pountry-KeEeEpine. [ May,

of the flesh will be better if maize and fish meals are omitted.
Fresh meat offals thoroughly cooked and including the fat
should replace the fish meal. Boiled nettles, using the tea
for mixing the meals, should be given at least once weekly
from the time the ducklings are a month old. At this age boiled
wheat forms a useful variety to the meals used, but uncooked
erain is not economical for fattening ducks.

Adult Stock.—The use of nettles for adult poultry stock at
this season is greatly to be recommended. With the advent of
warmer weather many of the laying hens suffer from the
generous feeding given during preceding months to maintain
production. Several mashes of young nettles boiled to a pulp
and mixed with the wet mash will have a very beneficial effect.

1921.] THe NomMENCLATURE or AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 167

THE NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICUL-
TURAL PLANTS.

W. H. Parker, M.C., M.A.,
Director, National Institute of Agricultural Botany,
and H. Cuampers, M.B.E.,
of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

To anyone who has the future prosperity of British Agricul-
ture at heart, one of the most hopeful signs of the times must
be the fact that the farming community, hitherto noted for its
extreme conservatism, is beginning, under the stress of
modern conditions, to discard the idea that the ways of its
fathers are invariably the best, and to demand that new
methods of cultivation, new fertilisers and new varieties of
plants shall be provided for its use.

Valuable as will be the ultimate effect of this new spirit,
it has also its dangers, for what is “‘ new ’’ is not always an
improvement on the old, nor is what is termed an “‘ improve-
ment ’’ always what it purports to be. As in all matters,
so here, demand has stimulated supply, and never has there
been such a number of “‘ new ’’ and ‘* improved ”’ varieties of
our different agricultural plants put on to the market as has
been the case during the last few years, and every year that
number increases.

This, in itself, is all to the good, for, as time goes on, it
becomes more and more evident that there is no one variety
of any agricultural plant which is ideal for all conditions of
soil and climate found even in a small country like the United
Kingdom. In fact there is room for any number of varieties
of any species; and any variety which can be shown to be
particularly adapted to any one district has, in fact, justified
its existence. It is certain, however, that among all the named
varieties now on the market, there are a large number which
could, and should, be eliminated as being either identical with
one another, or as being distinctly inferior, under any con-
ditions, to their brethren.

Present Situation in the United Kingdom.—Though everyone
with any knowledge of the subject is convinced of this
superfluity, it is obviously difficult to produce any large amount
of evidence concerning the extent of the trouble, for no trials
in any country (except in the case of potatoes, fully dealt with
later) have ever been made on a sufficient scale to afford

168 Tae NoMENCLATURE oF AGRICULTURAL Puants. [May,

concrete proof, and where no conclusive evidence is forth-
coming, it is impossible, on account of the proprietary interests
involved, to give instances, however strong the presumptive
evidence may be.

Wheat.—The above should be borne in mind when studying
such a brochure as ‘“‘ Dunns on Seed Wheats ’’—the most
complete modern catalogue of wheats which has fallen into our
hands—for it is obvious that a publication of this nature
cannot but be absolutely tied down to accepted fact. Even so,
concerning the list which it contains of over 425 names, it
says: “‘ It is not suggested that they are all distinct varieties.
Essex Rough Chaff, Kentish Red Chaff, Square Head’s
Masters have at least a dozen names, each in different
localities.’’ Seventy-five names are mentioned as being used
for varieties still grown in the United Kingdom, but from the
notes given it is obvious that they cannot represent over (but
probably far less than) 60 varieties.

An additional complication arises out of the use in many cases
of one name for several varieties; for example, there are white
chaffed and red chaffed wheats both known as Browick, and
it is the common practice to call all bearded autumn-sown
wheats either Rivetts or Cones, and they include both red and
white grained varieties.

Oats.—There is the same confusion in the case of oats; it is
dificult to say how many different ‘‘ varieties’’ are in
existence, none of which show any visible difference from
‘“ Abundance.’’ Mr. C. W. S. Marquand, of the University
College of North Wales, Aberystwyth, states that, as a result
of a study of a very large number of samples, he has come to
the conclusion that many so-called ‘‘ varieties ’’ are morpho-
logically indistinguishable, but that he is not yet in a position
to express an opinion as regards their physiological identity.

Grasses and Clovers.—Here the position is somewhat
different; the number of varietal names is small, but there
is a profusion of strains with purely local, and probably
mythical, reputations. Only a very small number are the
result of conscious effort towards improvement, nor have their
claims ever been submitted to crucial test. Mr. 8. P. Mercer has
already pointed out the confusion which exists where Red Clover
is concerned, enumerating the following names which are in
use without any strict adherence to any system by which it
would be possible to tell whether the strains were of ordinary
Broad Red, or of the true late-flowering type. ‘* The names,

1921.] Tur NomEencLaTURE or AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 169

Red Clover, Cowgrass, Giant Cowgrass, Perennial Red Clover,
Cow Clover, Single-Cut Cowgrass, Double-Cut Cow Clover, Late-
flowering Red Clover (and probably others) appear to be used
very much according to the taste and fancy of the user.’’* There
is also much confusion arising out of the promiscuous use of
the term ‘‘ Wild white clover.”’

Vegetables.—In the case of vegetables it is probable that the
“orgy of synonyms ’’ is more marked than in any other group
of plants. Of the thousands of names of peas at present on
the market there are probably less than 100 varieties, and
these in turn include probably less than 20 types. Cabbages,
turnips and beans also suffer from a multitude of unnecessary
names.

Potatoes.—For more concrete evidence, it will now only be
necessary to describe the state of affairs where potatoes are
concerned. Here one is on safe ground, for, as stated above,
this is the only crop which has been systematicailv and
authoritatively dealt with in relation to synonymity.

As a result of the widespread importance att&ched by all
those interested in the potato crop to the Ministry of Agricul-
ture’s annual trials for _ Immunity from Wart Disease held at
Ormskirk, perhaps nowhere in the world are such a great
number of varieties grown in such a limited area or under
such uniform conditions. In 1915 the late Mr. John Snell,
M.B.E., B.Sc., started to make records of synonymous
varieties sent for test, and, since 1919, annual reports have
been published on this subject.tt In the 1919 reportt
Mr. Snell suggested the several ways in which synonyms
could arise, viz.:—

(1) The re-naming of varieties for trade purposes.

(2) The giving of a new name to a selection from an old
variety, even though the selection may be indistinguish-
able from the variety.

(3) The propagation and naming of promising “‘ rogues ’
found in fields of another variety, on the assumption

99

ce

9) ce

that they are ‘‘ sports ’’ or ‘‘ mutations.
(4) The stock of a new variety passing into the hands of
two different introducers, each of whom names it.

* Report on A Survey of the Principal Seed-Growing Counties of England,
Wales and Scotland (to be issued shortly by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries).

+Supplement No. 18 to the Journal of the Board of Agriculture, March,

919,

tMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Miscellaneous Publications,
No. 28

170 THE NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLants. [ May,

(5) True seedlings arising, which are identical with older

varieties, or with other seedlings.

Though interesting, it is not necessary to dwell on this
branch of the question.

In 1919, the work was transferred to a Committee, and in
1920 the National Institute of Agricultural Botany took over the
responsibility of the appointment of this Committee, and the report
for this year was written by its Chairman, Dr. Salaman, and
published by the Institute.* For fuller details concerning the
important work carried out since 1915 the reader is referred to
the three reports mentioned. It will suffice, here, to confine
our attention to synonymity among the named “ varieties ”’
submitted each year, ignoring unnamed seedlings which have,
or (usually) have not, proved themselves to be novelties. The
total given for each year consists of named stocks of potatoes

which purport never to have been previously tested at
Ormskirk.

Total. Synonyms. Percentage.
1915 90 24 27°77
1916 81 2A. 25°92
POG 43 9 20°93
1918 93 39 41°93
LOT 105 64 60°95
1920 Lao OZ 68°15

547 249 45°52

This would seem to show that the trouble is on the increase.

It may be objected that the mere fact of entering potatoes
for trial cannot be taken to mean that it is intended to put
them on the market. This argument would certainly hold
good for unnamed seedlings, but these are excluded from the
above figures, and it seems fair to argue that breeders or
producers do not, as a general rule, name their productions
unless they have some definite idea of submitting them to the
public.

As a result of the publication of these findings, very few, if
any of the above synonymous stocks have actually been sold
commercially; this only emphasises more strongly the
immense value of such a check, and how desirable it is that
something of a similar nature should be undertaken in the case
of other crops. )

Evidence of the conservatism of the findings is supplied by

*National Institute of Agricultural Botany, “ Report of the Potato
Synonym Committee, 1920.” }
+ Excluding stocks too weak in growth, or too mixed to be judged. »

1921. J Tne NoMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 171

a a ——E

Mr. Findiay.* who enumerates 148, among the potatoes which
he has himself tested, as being synonymous with either Duke
of York, British Queen, Abundance or Up-to-date. Of these,
48 have also been grown at Ormskirk, and in 88 cases there
is agreement both as to synonymity and type. A larger
discrepancy might have been anticipated, for at Ormskirk the
Synonym Committee does not pronounce a stock to be w&
synonym save with the concurrence of every member (six in
1920); thus, at Ormskirk there is a greater likelihood of a
stock being given the benefit of the doubt than where, as in
Findlay’s case, the decision rests with a single judge.

Harmful Consequences.—Such chaos as has been shown is
obviously bad. It prevents the raiser of a good new variety
from reaping the full value of his discovery, as the name he
selects will be lost amongst the many new names that are
continually appearing. It makes it necessary for the seedsman
to list and stock many so-called different varieties of the same
kind of seed whereas probably half the number would be
sufficient so far as any real difference in the varieties is con-
cerned. It also entices the grower to purchase seed because
it has an attractive new name, whereas seed which will
produce exactly similar crops could in many cases be purchased
at probably a lower price under the name of its parent.

It is not implied that wilful misrepresentation is habitual,
or even common, among British Seed Producers or Dealers, but
a very small minority can do a great amount of harm. In
general, our present position must be attributed to the complete
lack of any means by which a variety can be submitted to
adequate comparative test before it is put on to the market.
No single firm could possibly undertake the highly technical
tests which would be necessary to ensure complete knowledge
concerning its productions, and even if the attempt were made,
such a firm would only penalise itself to the advantage of its
less careful competitors.

Nevertheless immediate action is called for. The present
situation is undesirable, as worthless or inferior varieties are.
being kept alive when they deserve to die, and they are
continuing to occupy land which should be growing more
valuable productions.

Remedial Measures Abroad.—It is recognised that the
evidence given concerning our British crops is not conclusive, but

* Wm. M. Findlay, “ Potato ‘Sy nonyms,” The Scottish Journal of Agricul.
ture, April, 1920, pp. 202-207.

172 THE NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PuLants. [| May,

it only requires a short investigation into the action being taken
in foreign countries to convince us of the seriousness with which
they view the present situation. In every case where any atten-
tion has been paid to the matter, it has been decided that the
facts have justified the adoption of some scheme by which the
trouble may be diminished.

Germany.—For the general system of seed improvement, the
reader is referred to the Journal of the Board of Agriculture for
June, 1909. Crop nomenclature is controlled by a Committee
of the German Agricultural Society, whose main activities consist
of the Registration of Pure Bred Seeds, the ‘‘ Recognition ’’ of
stocks of superior varieties, variety trials, &c.

Registration of all plants of agricultural importance in the
Official Register is permitted on submission of satisfactory evi-
dence, derived from independent trials, that an improved variety
has been produced, but proof must also be given that this
improvement is the result of conscious efforts carried out through
a series of years on the stock in question. A sub-committee of
experts decides the eligibility of stocks, and admission gives the
producer the exclusive right to describe his seed as ‘‘ entered
in the Pure-Bred Seed Register of the German Agricultural
Society ’’ and to use a legally protected trade-mark. Mr. E. 8.
Beaven* has already pointed out of what great value such a
system would be in England, but so far no steps have been taken
in this direction.

‘* Recognition ’’ is granted to the seed-crops of Members of
the German Agricultural Society after the growing crop has been
inspected by experts of the Society, who must satisfy themselves
that it is a pure sample of a variety of proved worth, that it is
being grown under favourable conditions, and that harvesting
arrangements are satisfactory. Recognition only applies to the
actual crop inspected.

All registered seed has also to be ‘* recognised,’’ but recogni-
tion is also open to growers (who are not the actual! breeders) of
seed of first-class varieties, and to breeders whose varieties have
not gained admission to the register.

It is obvious that fictitious novelties are excluded, by the above
conditions, from both registration and ‘* recognition.’’

Variety Trials are carried out on an extensive scale all over
Germany, not only by the Society itself, but also in conjunction
with other Agricultural bodies. The trials are conducted on a

b

6

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. 70, pp. 119-
139.

1921.] Tue NomENncLATURE or AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 173

uniform plan, and the results are published by the German
Agricultural Society.

It may be remarked that trials are an essential part of any
scheme, and the whole subject is dealt with below.

Denmurk.—When reviewing Mr. Faber’s book, “‘ The Forage
Crops of Denmark,’’ in a previous number of this JournaL, one
of the present writers drew particular attention to that portion
which explains how, in Denmark, there is practically no sale for
Root-seed unless it has shown its superior value in independent
field trials. The “‘ Guarantee of Genuineness ’’ now furnished
by Danish Seedsmen also was the subject of special comment.
So great has been the success of these two movements that, as
far as Roots are concerned, all confusion in nomenclature has
been completely eradicated; it is now intended that all other
agricultural crops shall receive similar attention.

Whether “‘ Guarantees of Genuineness ’’ can ever be intro-
duced into this country is a question which only the Seed-trade
itself can decide. but it is worth pointing out that in Denmark
the system originated on the initiative of the trade, and has
become more and more popular with them ever since.

Holland.—The ‘‘ Society of Agriculture of the State of
Holland ’’ undertakes the inspection of crops at all stages, from
sowing to marketing, and issues a guarantee of seed which
comes up to the requisite standard.

The farmer who desires to sell seed under this guarantee
must obtain his original stock from a source recognised by
the Society—either from a _ pedigree-seed producer of
unimpeachable reputation, or from stocks previously approved
by an Agricultural Society providing satisfactory guarantees of
their value. The seed should reach the farmer in sacks sealed
by the producers, when he must notify the Chief Inspector of
the Dutch Society of the date and place of the proposed
sowing. The Inspector verifies the origin of the seed and notes
the land on which it is sown. The crop is subsequently
examined just before harvest by an inspector and by two
experts nominated by the Society, and is valued on a scale of
points, as follows:—

Trueness to strain and variety ... ... max. 30 points.
Uniformity of height of plants ... we he SR, Bee
Absence of weeds ... *: inl rr xt tered
Absence of disease... A an Me Ti i:

General impression

174 THe NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL Pants. [May,

For guarantee, the points gained must exceed 80, and the
crop must earn 3/5 of the maximum under each heading.
The finding of the Committee must be unanimous. Before
the guarantee is actually given, the Society must be informed;
of date of harvest, of thrashing and of cleaning, each of
which must be done in such a manner that admixture is
precluded. The harvested seed is examined critically by the
inspector, and if the result is favourable, the bulk is placed
in bags and sealed with the initials of the Dutch Society, and
with a number corresponding to that in the Society’s register.
A sample is taken and retained for reference after a small quan-
tity has been sent for test at the Official Seed-Testing Station,
the report of which is published in the journal of the Society.
After this the seed can be sold as “‘ Guaranteed.’’

Other European Countries.—As far as can be ascertained, the
remainder of the European countries have devoted but little
attention to the problem, and have so far confined their
activities to an attempt to crowd out inferior varieties by
propaganda in favour of those of proved worth, and by
organising seed-growing societies among farmers through the
agency of which seed of good varieties is disseminated through-
out the country. These activities, though valuable, do not
touch the root of the evil, and can only be regarded as auxiliary
measures.

Australia.—A Seed Improvement Committee of the Common-
wealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry was set up
in 1917. Its chief terms of reference are:—

‘To deal with (1) the nomenclature of cultivated varieties
of farm crops, (2) the elimination of undesirable varieties of
-crops.”’ |

Wheat is the first crop to receive attention, and it was decided
that the first thing to be done was “‘ to publish a detailed
description of every variety (of wheat grown in Australia)
which can be taken as a standard, and to which any grower
or breeder can refer in case of doubt.’’ As a result of this,
a bulletin containing a provisional classification and key has
now appeared,.and it is proposed to add to this from time
to time. Other measures will follow in due course, but their
nature and scope have not been published. Classifications or
descriptions of wheat varieties have also been produced in
South Africa and India.

United States of America.—In America, though it is widely
recognised that the nomenclature both of agricultural and garden

1921.] THe NomencLaTuRE or AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 175

plants leaves very much to be desired, little has been done by
Federal legislation to bring about improvement. It appears that
the truth is occasionally published concerning some of the most
flagrant cases in which varieties are being sold under incorrect
varietal names. but, in general, unless there is fraudulent exploi-
tation, even this action is seldom taken. Even where such facts
are published, little benefit can result, for in no cases are the
names of the offending traders given save in the unique instance
where such action is enjoined by Federal legislation. This last is
in connection with the adulteration of certain grass-seeds where
the law definitely directs that the names of the offenders shall be
published.

Under,the auspices of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, systematic botanists started, in 1903, to compile a
classification of the wheats of the country, but so great was
the confusion which they found to exist that the project had,
temporarily, to be abandoned. This work has now been
resumed by Messrs. Ball & Clark, who, as a preliminary step,
presented a paper before a meeting of the American Society of
Agronomy. They commence the paper by giving numerous
examples of the chaos prevalent in the nomenclature of this
crop, and then set forth a proposed code of nomenclature for
consideration and adoption by this body as representing the
interests concerned. A complete set of rules is set out, which
even go so far as to control the type of name to be adopted by
the originator, discoverer, or introducer.

Pure-line selections, hybrids, &c., which have superior
merit, even though not distinguishable by external characters,
are eligible, but unfortunately, the basis on which admission
would be granted or refused in such cases is not explained.

Were it proposed, in England, to exercise an absolute control
over nomenclature, these regulations would demand detailed
study, but the present time is not auspicious for such a plan,
nor does it appear desirable to go to this extreme until other
means have been tried.

Apart from any action by the Federal Government, each
State can take its own line in matters of Seed Control, and
all except 15 have done so. Their general object is to make
compulsory the labelling of all seed sold within the State,
such labels usually have to state the kind of seed, the name
and address of the seller, the purity, the germination, the
place of origin and the percentage of specified noxious weed-
seeds. A heavy fine is imposed should any information on the
label be proved to be false.

176 Tue NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. [ May,

To turn from agricultural to garden plants, much valuable
work has been done lately. At the Annual Convention of the
Vegetable Growers’ Association of America in 1919 a com-
mittee was appointed to study the problem of vegetable nomen-
clature. A further committee with a similar purpose was
appointed by the American Seed Trade Association at their
1920 Annual Meeting. These two committees held a joint
meeting in October last at which certain lines of action were
decided on which give promise of real progress in the solution
of this difficult problem.

Previous to this joint meeting a questionnaire had been
issued to members of the Association asking (1) whether they
were in sympathy with an attempt to standardise the: names of
vegetable varieties, (2) whether they had any points to suggest
in connection with form of name, spelling, provision for the
identification of private strains of standard varieties, &c., (3)
whether they would supply the Committee with a list of the
varieties definitely understood to be renamed standard varieties,
and also a list of the new varieties introduced by each firm
which had been generally accepted as new varieties, (4)
whether a transition period of one, two or five years should be
adopted as the period during which renamed varieties should be
followed in brackets by the Standard name, and (5) whether
they would be prepared to forward trial samples of all new
varieties to be tested and registered at an official trial ground
at least one year in advance of their public introduction.

The replies to this questionnaire were very satisfactory and
encouraging.

The joint committee decided that one of the first problems
which presented itself was the necessity for collecting com-
plete information with regard to the trade names and
comparative market quality of the different vegetables and
their varieties. It was clear that to obtain these particulars
the assistance of a wide circle of competent persons would have
to be enlisted. The Committee therefore grouped vegetables
according to their natural relationship and twenty-one sub-
committees of the leading authorities in the seed-trade of
America were suggested as group committees. A plan of work
was mapped out for these committees.

The joint committee also drafted a suggested code of
vegetable nomenclature modelled on the code adopted by the
American Pomological Society.

In addition to the controlling of the type of name to be
adopted, the code lays down that there shall be a Board of |

1921.] Tue NoMENcLATURE oF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 177

Registration (it is suggested that the Bureau of Plant Industry
should undertake this work) whose duty it shall be to make
and preserve records and descriptions of all existing valid
varieties of vegetables, and to register such new varieties as
may be submitted to them, provided they find them to be truly
new and distinct. ‘This Board is to have authority to issue a
certificate to the originator of a new variety, and such variety
is not to be catalogued or offered until such certificate has been
issued.

The work of the 21 sub-committees appointed to give
detailed study to certain groups of vegetables 1s said to be
progressing in a very satisfactory manner.

Efforts are also being made to develop a system of field
tests throughout the different parts of the United States, to
be checked by some central committee, whereby the compara-
tive value of strains as well.as varieties can be determined.

This concludes our survey of the work being done in other
countries, and not only does it confirm our contention that
the situation in those countries is deemed to be so unsatisfactory
as to justify drastic measures, but it furnishes us with most
valuable suggestions concerning the methods which might with
advantage be adopted in England towards the amelioration of
our own situation.

Proposed Remedies :—

Immediate Measures.—We will first deal with the measures
being taken by the American Vegetable Growers’ Association
just described.

There is much in this scheme which could be adopted in
this country both for agricultural plants and for vegetables.
Though it is essential that for the ultimate solution of the
problem of nomenclature a complete system of yield and
quality trials is the only possible basis, the organisation of such
trials will take time, and there is a vast amount of preliminary
work which can be begun forthwith, particularly in the
direction of establishing an authentic list of existing standard
varieties, which is a necessary preparation for the registration
of new varieties. As to whether this preliminary work should
be undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture, the National Insti-
tute of Agricultural Botany or some other directing authority
need not now be discussed.

In order to secure the requisite co-operation of the seed
trade, any scheme for the limitation of the names of varieties
should be of a purely voluntary nature.

178 THE NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. [ May,

The Directing Authority might in the first place invite all the
leading wholesale seed houses to submit individual lists of the
standard varieties of agricultural plants which they consider :—

(a) To have died out altogether, although the names are
still ** listed.”’

(b) To have been entirely superseded by better, new
varieties.

(c) To be in no way different from, or to have degenerated
to, the parent stock.

These lists should be amalgamated and submitted for the
consideration of an expert committee, it being fully understood
that the names of the firms submitting lists should in no way
be disclosed in connection with their individual suggestions.
From the amalgamated list a shorter (agreed) list might be
selected and published as an “ Official List of Synonyms.”’
This would no doubt lead to quite an appreciable number of
obsolete and unnecessary names of varieties being cleared off
the market.

Future Measures.—Committees similar to the Potato Synonym
Committee, but with wider functions, might be appointed to
. deal with each species of plant which is of agricultural (or
market garden) importance. These committees must, how-
ever, be assisted by a most complete system of trials of vield
and quality; for these physiological characters are after all of
far greater importance to the grower than is any morphological
feature such as beards on wheat or panicle shape of oats. It is
essential that a broad view should be taken, and it should frankly
be recognised that it is not of the least ultimate importance
whether a production be a novelty-or not unless, in some way,
it is an improvement on its predecessors. From this point of
view, these committees should discourage the naming of any
variety or strain merely because it presents new characteristics.
Merit should be the criterion, and on this proved merit such
variety or strain should be granted admission to its appropriate
Register, which should be kept by the organisation to whom
power shall have been deiegated to nominate these committees.
The original entries into the respective Registers would be
those existing standard varieties which had gained admission
into the authentic list (mentioned above) compiled by the
Directing Authority referred to above. As is the case in Germany,
subsequent stocks would only be eligible on proof of conscious
effort, culminating in improvement, continued over a series
of vears on the part of the producer.

1921.] Tue NoMENCLATURE oF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 179

This standard of merit obviously brings with’ it many
difficulties. One is dealing with qualities which are not
necessarily, or usually, correlated with any morphological
character. No one, for example, on looking at an individual
wheat plant of a variety unknown to him, can say whether
its progeny will give a high or a low yield. As a result of
long experience the expert can often recognise a variety and
say: ‘‘ This is Squareheads Master, it will give a bigger crop
than that, which is Vife,’’ but this prediction is only the result
of constant trials of the two varieties, and not because any
external character betrays the yielding capacity of the
individual. Now it is certain that within any commercial
variety there are individual stocks which possess capacity for
vield, or for producing high quality grain, or for other valuable
physiological qualities in a greater or lesser degree than the
average, without betraving the fact except after prolonged
test. The better stocks, when isolated, deserve encourage-
ment; but if each small advance in useful physiological
characters were considered to be a justification for a new name,
instead of decreasing the number of names, it would be
uncontrollably augmented.

There is obviously a distinction between these productions
and those which combine improved qualities with morpho-
logical differences; and to mark that distinction it is suggested
that the following definitions shall be adopted:—

Variety.—Any group of plants morphologically indistinguish-
able from one another, but morphologically distinct from
any other plant or group of plants of the same species,
shall constitute a variety.

Strain.—Any group of plants physiologically distinct from any
other plant or group of plants of the same variety (as
above defined) shall constitute a strain of that variety.
The oldest known strain of a variety shall be termed the
type.

It is proposed that only “‘ varieties ’’ as above defined should
‘be entered into the Registers with distinct names, and that
‘‘ strains ’’ should be entered under the type name with the
name of the originator or producer as a prefix, e.g., ‘‘ Brown's
Essex Rough Chaff.’’

Should an originator claim to have produced a new, superior
variety, it should be tested before admission to the Register,
in competition with the best representative strains of at least
two of the older varieties, and should only be entered as a
‘new variety if both the above claims are proved correct.

F 2

180 THE NOMENCLATURE OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. [ May,

In the case of a new strain, 2.e., where it is only claimed that
an improvement has been made in yield, quality, or other non-
botanical feature, the trial need only be made in regard to
this quality against the best representative of the type to
which the strain belongs, though any notable deficiency in any
other good character would prevent admission to the Register.

Such trials must be carried out by experts, and would have
to be repeated simultaneously on several different stations in
different parts of England: the respective committees would
weigh the evidence, and make their reports. These reports
would be submitted annually to meetings of the interests
concerned for confirmation, and would then be published.
The reports might give, in addition to the mere findings, descrip-
tions and illustrations of the varieties and strains which have
qualified for the register; and a list of the original growers of the
new registered varieties and strains, or of those to whom the
whole of the original stock had been transferred.

The admission of strains to the Register, though essential,
immediately creates a difficulty, for the fact that they are
unrecognisable by eye from the other strains of the same
tvpe must tend to encourage fraud, as it would be impossible
to detect the substitution of seed of inferior strains for that
of the genuine article. That this form of fraud would not
only be at the expense of the public, but also to the detriment
of all honest traders, would suggest that the latter would have:
to co-operate to protect themselves. This brings us back to the
Danish ‘‘ Guarantee of Genuineness ’’ which was evolved by
the seed-traders themselves to meet this very difficulty in the
case of roots. It would be a notable advance if this principle:
were adopted by traders in Britain, whose business it is to
guard themselves, and to whose advantage it is to protect the
public.

By the combination of trials and Registers everyone con-
cerned, save those who deliberately make money by fraud,
would be benefited: nomenclature would become rational and
simple, and at the same time only the valuable productions
would be encouraged at the expense of those which have no
right to..survive. The seed dealers would find their work
simplified, the producers would, for the first time, receive an ade-
quate return for their skill and labour, and the country would at:
last learn something about the crops which it grows.

1921. ] Notes oN Frepinc Srurrs ror May. 181

NOTES ON FEEDING STUFFS
FOR MAY.

EK. T. Haunan, M.A.,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Rationing of Stock.—Several correspondents have asked at
various times, that analyses of feeding stuffs and their digesti-
bihties might be included in these Notes. Owing to lack of
space, and to the fact that such a table would necessarily be
very incomplete, it has been impossible to accede to their
requests. Their needs have, however, been carefully considered
and it is hoped have been met by the publication by the Ministry
of Miscellaneous Publication No. 32, entitled Rations for Live
Stock, by Professor T. B. Wood. This publication, among
other things, includes a table giving the chemical analysis and
feeding value of all feeding stuffs likely to be used in farming
practice, and will be found most valuable if used in conjunction
with these notes. Copies may be obtained from the Ministry,
price 6d. per copy.

Rice and its By-products.—The preparation of rice for human
food gives rise to a number of by-products that find their way
into the feeding stuffs market, either in the form of straight
products or in the form of compound meals. In preparing
rough rice for food, the outside tough hulls are removed and
the rice kernels ‘‘ polished ’’ to give them an attractive appear-
ance. ‘These mechanical processes give rise to rice hulls, rice
bran, and rice polish.

Rice hulls are tasteless, tough, and woody, and have practi-
cally no feeding value. Very often they contain a considerable
proportion of sand or silica, and for this reason alone are
dangerous to feed to stock. Owing to their unpalatability and
poor feeding value they rarely find their way on to the market,
except, in certain cases, in the form of compound meals. It
should be unnecessary to state here, that reputable firms rarely
employ this stuff as an ingredient to their meals.

Rice bran consists of the outer layer of the rice kernel and
includes the germ, and should contain only a small percentage
of the hulls. Such bran contains about 11 per cent. of oil and
not more than 12 per cent. of fibre, and is a highly nutritious
feed. It is useful for fattening steers, but should not be fed
in very large quantities to dairy stock pr pigs, since it tends
to spoil the quality of the butter and produces soft pork.

182 Notes on FrEepinc Strurrs ror May. [ May,

. Manurial | Price Price
Price Price Food Starch| per
NAME. per Qr. Fon ie? vee ue aoe ceed
" | Ton. 100 Ib.|Equiv.| Pauty.
8 lb as £ OS £ Ss | d
Barley, English Feeding| £0J3)'400, 7 1a ebs. 1) 6:1) .9-19 | 71 “210 | 1°52
» Canadian ,, - 40/-| 400} 11 4) 1° 6] 918) 71 |2/10| 1-52
Oats, English » -| 44/-1 336 | 14 13 1 9} 13 4 | 59°5| 4/5 | 2°37
., Foreign » | 39/6} 3909/1316] 1 9/12 7 | 595/4/2 | 9:93
Maize, Argentine - “|. 6/4] 4800 132 105) 1 5S | Ga6 (Si Sea a aa teas
Beans, English spring -| — | — — | — — |—}]— | os
‘ Winter =| 57/1530 8c12 “0 | 3° 7 1° S19 | 66 (278 1 dees
3» Rangoon «- <) -| -8/i9q VBS 0" 3. 711949194 bal) aye | 0-80
Peas, English blue =| 582/504.) 12.18 | 2243.) 10. 55) 690) 7- 2-61
> oo) dan -| 70/-| 504 | 15 11 |- 2.13] 12 18 | 69 13/9 | 2:01
” ” map!e > 72/-| 504: Or Oa| <2 13 ae 69 3/10 | 2°05
» Japanese - *-| 125/-| 504 | 2716] 2913 |25 3) 69 | 7/8 | 3°88
Buckwheat - - -| 64/-/ 392/18 6] 1 9|16171| 53 |6/4 | 3:39
Rye, English - -| .5D/3) 480}: 12. 18 com 28.4 cdd AOR: sae ais ac70
Millers’ offals—Bran -| — | — 8. 0 | -9. 19 5 10 | 45 | 2/5 | 1:29
~ 7 Coarse | |
middlings)s — | — | 10 0 2 10 #10] 64 | 2/4 1°25
Barley meal - - =f al pe a ee 8 1. 61.144 | v4 4/- 2°14
Maize j, < | -)'> slo-- 9} Goan ovos) dates aon coats eee neapes
Bean 95,002 te ef 110 ee a a ea ee
Fish ig = - =| —— | — | 21. 0) a 1a 1S 8 eee. a a
Linseed - - hee —- a6 — — — —
: Cake, English -| — | — | 19 7 3:12.15 15.) 72 475 25 e228
Cotton seed ., ! Sp = 12 0. eb 8 1b 2 4 ee
‘5 decorti- |
*cated|- — | — | 18.10] 5.6) Peg4 7711 3)9.<) 208
F Meal decorti- |
eated| —— | =") 13° 0.1 96. Gar 14 eR a2 eG
Coconut cake - jose |= D0 0) SAO 7S Old 2 0 os
Groundnuteake - Sy eae PUNK 3-99 18>. Taco elon debe
» »,decorticated) — } == 16 5, 5 54 Aaa isc ee ear
Palm kernel cake - -. <<) l. |=) | (16°05 |! 2 S93) 4 94") Wo 1a I O-6y
7; » Meal - 2 es ee an —_- |=— —- —
Brewers’ grains,dried,ale| — | — 12 | 2) A) AD amet 272 116
” ” wet ,.-| — = Pek TS 0 12 eS 1elb 1/6 | 0°80
Distillers’. -,,. ‘dry « «| = | S— | av (O50 2 6 es ee hee doe
‘: » wet -} —/}/— |} — | — — |}—]— a=
Malt culms - - ++ — | — | 6 154 93 6.) 3° CGM) F300 yy 4) Oe
Poubests =" = A aa SR ae a eee re | 18 2/11} 1°56
Swedest- - - -| — | — A 64 0S J bia ie ar = sieoe
Mangoldsy, = = .. + = |e 1h 68-208 6, 0 Wiel Gt aide alse
Vetch and oat silagef -| — | — | 2 16 | O45 | 264.114) 21) olea6
* Prices at Liverpool. ¢ Farm value.

NotTEe.—The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which actual
wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise stated, and
refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were current at the end of
March and are, as a rule, considerably lower than the prices at local
country markets, the difference being due to carriage and dealers’ commission.
Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative prices of the feeding stuffs
on offer at their local market by the method of calculation used in these
notes. Thus, suppose palm kernel cake is offered locally at £10 perton. Its
manurial value is £2 1s. per ton. The food value per ton is therefore £7 19s.
per ton. Dividing this figure by 75, the starch equivalent of palm kernel cake as
given in the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 1d. Dividing this
again by 22-4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in 1 unit, the cost per Ib.
of starch equivalent is 1‘lld. A similar calculation will show the relative cust
per lb. of starch equivalent.of other feeding stuffs on the same local market.
From the results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff
gives him the best value at the prices quoted on his own market.

| Ee Se er ea

1921.] ENTERTAINMENTS T'ax, AGRICULTURAL, &C., SHOWS. 183

Rice polish has a feeding value approximately equal to maize,
but is rarely found on the feeding stuffs market as it has a
commercial value apart from its feeding value.

Errata.—In the issue of this Journar, for April, p. 87, the
following were stated in error:—
Line 14, ‘‘ whole of the maize’’ should read ‘‘ hulls of maize.’
Line 19, ‘‘ whole bran ”’ should read ‘‘ hull bran.’’
Line 29, ‘‘ whole grain ’’ should read ‘* hull, germ.”’

,

THERE appears to be some misunderstanding as to the condi-
tions under which exemption from Entertainments Duty is
3 or: Agri ‘al, Horti-
ibetainwont Task anted in respect of eae orti

: cultural, Poultry and Rabbit Shows.
and Agricultural, ee zs
The Ministry has been in correspondence
Horticultural, 2 eid
with the Commissioners of Customs and
Poultry and pe 44 ile PLA
. Excise in this matter, and is informed by

Rabbit Shows. eae ‘

the Commissioners as follows :-—

‘“ All such Shows are ‘ entertainments’ within the mean-
ing of the Finance (New Duties) Act, 1916, and therefore
Entertainments Duty must be paid unless the Commissioners of
Customs and Excise have granted a Certificate of Exemption.

““ Where it is desired to claim exemption, an application must
be made to the Commissioners of Customs and Excise, Custom
House, London, E.C.8, not less than seven days before the Show,
accompanied by copies of the Rules and last Balance Sheet of
the Society and Programme of the Show.

‘* Tf a Certificate of Exemption is not received before the Show,
Entertainments Duty must be paid, as stated above.

‘“Tt may be added. that, irrespective of any other objection,
exemption cannot be granted if the proceedings are to include
any extraneous attraction, such as a band. sports. fireworks. &c.”’

184 SuGAR BEET IN ENGLAND. [ May,

Home Grown Sugar Limited, the Company in which the
Ministry holds half the share capital, has now closed its list
Sugar Beet in of contracts with farmers who have agreed
Engiand: to grow sugar beet during the present year.
Prospects for 1921. The capacity of the factory is 60,000 tons
of beet or 600 tons per day for 100 days.
but acting on the advice of their French specialists, the
management have limited the tonnage for the first year to
20,000 so as not to overload the factory at a time when the
machinery is new, and the English staff to be employed are
being trained under the French specialists appointed to
supervise each process.

The farmers in Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, to whom
beet is a new crop, have shown the necessary enterprise, and
therefore, it would have been possible to have doubled the acre-
age actually contracted for; indeed, many such contractors
are growing a smaller acreage than thev had wished. There
are 425 farmers with an average of 53 acres under cultivation.
The 20,000 tons expected from the 2,365 acres contracted for
will be despatched from 156 railway and barge stations, and
a large tonnage wili also be transported by road. For the
reasons stated above, only 200 acres are being grown on the
Kelham Estate, instead of the 400 originally contemplated.
The price is £4 per ton delivered at the factory, which ‘ts
equivalent to £3 7s. 6d. delivered on rail, and this price was
fixed after careful calculation of costs, so as to give an
incentive to the grower during the first vear to make a speciality
of his beet crop, devote his best attention to it, and not limit
his expenditure on fertilisers, cultivations and supervision—
all of which have a material effect upon sugar content as well
as yield.

According to the figures of the test crops on the Kelham
Fistate last year, the cost per acre of 12 tons delivered on rail
was £29 3s. 4d., and the sugar content averaged over 20 per
cent. on the crops with a complete manurial dressing.

A silver cup has been offered by the British Sugar Beet
Growers’ Society, which promoted the present Company and,
has been assisting in the propaganda among farmers. It is
to be competed for each year by growers of 10 acres and
upwards, and the competition will be confined this year to
srowers for the Kelham factory. In this competition sugar
content secures the largest number of points.

It now appears certain that in spite of the shortage of

— es aT”

1921. | THe Co-oprraTIvE Datry MovEMENT. 185

bricklayers and the difficulties of the present abnormal times
the factory will be ready by the autumn. The roof is now
being put on the main portion of the factory and a large part
of the plant has arrived from the machinery contractors, the
Compagnie de Fives-Lille, the well-known French sugar
engineers. French specialist erectors will supervise the erection
by English workmen.

The public should realise that the real commercial test of
a new industry is when you have arrived at the point where
the raw material is of the best quality, and is being secured
from experienced farmers, so that the factory is working with a
complete economic supply under the best factory conditions,
viz., full time with trained labour. ‘This point cannot be
arrived at in the first or second vear, but the main essentials
have already been secured, namely, a new factory planned on
the most modern lines, and a list of growers whose experience
in farming under British conditions is of a high order.

SuacEstions have been made from time to time to the effect
that the Co-operative Cheese Schools started by the Ministry
The Co-operative have een eco ate sound, cae
Dairy Movement in that the result o t elr e orts 1as nee Ke
Working Order. those concerned in loss. This, of course,
is very far from being the truth. Of the
letters which have been received at the Ministry by those
responsible for the working of Co-operative Cheese Factories, one
dealing with a considerable undertaking in Denbighshire is
typical and may be selected for quotation.

The work of this particular Co-operative Cheese Factory
started in 1917 as a Co-operative Cheese School with a loan
from the Ministry of utensils and the services of a competent
cheese-maker instructor. The local farmers interested in the
scheme provided a suitable building and undertook to send in
the necessary amount of milk. The school worked for 106 days
during the season of milk surplus, and handled upwards of
20,000 gallons of milk, the turnover being rather more than
£1,350. The experiment was so successful from every point of
view—farmers receiving more money for their milk and a
profit on their cheese—that those who had taken part in the
first year’s endeavour formed themselves into a registered
co-operative society with a modest capital of £400. The returns
for the years 1918, 1919 and 1920 are now recorded, and the

186 PuHospHATIC MANURES. [ May,

figures are as follows :—In 1918, 34,000 gallons of milk were
dealt with, 16 tons of cheese made and the total turnover
£3,100. In 1919, 46,000 gallons of milk received, 21 tons of
cheese made, turnover £4,600. In 1920 approximately 60,000
gallons of milk were received and 30 tons of cheese made, with
a turnover of £6,000. The cost of production of cheese has
worked out at less than 13d. per gallon of milk dealt with. The
Secretary of this thriving factory states that the co-operators
are not only perfectly solvent, but that they have put by a good
reserve, and find a ready market for their products.

The Society referred to works in a Welsh village 10 miles
from the nearest railway station, 500 feet above sea-level,
and in the years of its working has produced 80 tons of
cheese in a district where none was produced before. The
Secretary who supplied figures, which are open to the strictest
investigation, has made enquiries at some 30 other centres
and finds that his society’s effort is not more than an average
one. There are others in his district which have done even
better, and in the few cases where success has not been
achieved, it has been admitted that the management and not
the system is at fault. This cheese-making industry is
apparently a benefit to the wives and daughters of farmers who
live in the wilds. It has saved all the single churnings that
were a feature of the life of every farm. and the trouble of
marketing the produce, while the consumer is supplied with
produce of a uniform standard quality.

* * * * * *

Since the beginning of the year the Agricultural Press has
been emphasising two aspects of the supply of phosphatic
manures. They are (1) that although
Phosphatic ae ;

official figures show a considerable increase

Manures: The. : ; Bog ee i
Present Position, =” the production of basic slag it is likely
: ‘ that there will not be sufficient this
season to meet the total demands of the farming community ;
(2) the fact of the production of superphosphate being 1n excess
of the present demand for it may result in large quantities
being exported, on account of the congestion at the works.
It is natural for the farmer to enquire how these conditions are

likely to affect him, and what he should do to meet them.

Three courses present themselves. The first is to discriminate
in the use of basic slag. Requirements per acre are greater
now than they have been, because the grades of slag quoted

1921. | PHospHAtTic MANURES. | 187

range roughly from 16 to 32 per cent. total phosphates; few
range above that figure, and several are below it. When it is
remembered that a few vears ago high grade slags approximated
to 40 per cent. total phosphates, it is obvious that dressings of
a 20 per cent. slag must be doubled in quantity to effect the
same improvement. Industrial conditions resulting in short
time being worked in the steel works mav prove a further
factor in limiting output. It would seem important, therefore,
to confine the use of slag mainly to grassland, and make up
the phosphates required elsewhere by dressings of other
manures. There are cases where slag appears to confer no
benefit on poor pasture, and it seems questionable whether,
where that is so, any other form of phosphatic manure would
do better. It is worth mentioning, however, that an absolute
lack of potash in some soils may prevent any visible result
from dressings of phosphates, while on other soils a rough,
matted and fibrous covering greatly handicaps the slag in
reaching the soil. A very thorough harrowing is imperative to
set this condition right. )

The second consideration is the possibility of substituting
superphosphates for basic slag in order to take advantage of
the state of supplies. Local experience or experiment may
prompt the use of superphosphates on grassland in place of
slag. Approximately 53 ewt. of 35 per cent. superphosphate
equals a dressing of 5 cwt. high-grade basic slag. Generally,
superphosphate may be substituted where it has _ been
customary to use slag in cropping: the former is more rapid in
action and thus, as a rule, better suited to arable farming. In
consequence of this rapidity, its maximum effect is more
quickly reached. but where seeds are only down for one year,
the influence of this manure applied to the nurse crop will be
all that is required. Where there is hesitation to substitute
superphosphate for slag altogether, the two may be mixed.
Superphosphate will act rapidly on soil with a good lime
content.

Thirdly, there is the use of phosphatic manures other than
those already discussed. A review of experiments conducted
in this country shows that finely ground mineral phosphate is
valuable in the north of England and also in Scotland and in
Wales. Good results have also attended its use in Essex, and
has been applied also with benefit in other districts, notably
in those with a high rainfall, and on soils rich in organic
matter.

188 Potato SYNONYMS. [ May,

The following is a brief résumé of some of the more

important experiments of which records are available:—
Aberdeen 1905-1907, Turnips, Barley, Hay.

In a series of experiments extending over 3 years, the effect
of different forms of phosphate, viz., superphosphate, basic
slag, bone meal and ground Florida phosphate applied alone
and with dung was tested on turnips followed by barley and
hay. In the “‘ no dung ’’ plots, both super and slag gave some-
what better returns than mineral phosphate, but when dung
was used the mineral phosphate gave the greatest total value
of crops and considerably the highest profit.

Experiments in North Wales also indicate that rock phosphate
is distinctly effective. At six centres the yields of swedes
were, on the average of three years 1913-1915, per acre:—

Tons. - Cw.
No phosphate ... aa Sa Asi tisk 13 it
* Basic Slag (482 lb.) pt: Ke a 22 4
* Gafsa phosphate (333 lb.) ... a7 oe 21 8
= Supemphe: phate (Gee) os, a 22 9

* All contained 200 Ib. of oliouptiate:

These manures are being quoted at a low unit value at
present. A mixture of finely-ground soft mineral phosphates
and superphosphates may be emploved for arable crops. The
following quotation from an article by Dr. Russell* summarises
the position with regard to mineral phosphates: ‘* Where
basic slag cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, it 18
worth while trying mineral phosphates, provided that they
are sufficiently finely ground.’ Their cheapness suggests
use on rough pasture, especially the poorer, high-lying types
rented at a figure which makes dressing with slag out of the
question. Bone meal, and especially steamed bone flour, have
been showing a cheap unit value of late; both contain a little
nitrogen, and may with advantage be mixed with super-
phosphate.

Tum whole of the potato industry in this country is affected
adversely by the unfortunate habit acquired by certain growers
of describing as distinct varieties potatoes
that present under careful examination
similar conditions of flowering, foliage,
erowth habit, stem colour, size, shape and
colour of tuber, together with identical physiological charac-
teristics. A Committee of the National Institute of Agricultural

* This Journal, Tan, , £921, p.oGo:

Potato Synonyms:
Report of the
1926 Committee.

ee a ae

a ee a a

1921. ] Porato SYNONYMS. 189

Botany has made investigations on the trial grounds of the Potato
Testing Station at Ormskirk in Lancashire, limiting its work to
the examination of potatoes not previously tested on the Ormskirk
ground for immunity. Four visits were paid—in July, August
and October of last year—and 242 varieties of potato alleged to be
distinct were tested. Of these, 150 varieties were found to be
indistinguishable from one or other of 35 well-known trade
varieties; the whole of the 242 were classified in 42 groups.
The Committee came to the conclusion that the great majority
of synonymous varieties are indistinguishable from popular
varieties, and that as soon as a new immune variety appears
and achieves popularity, *‘ new ’’ sorts which are new only in
name and are indistinguishable from the variety that has
achieved popularity spring up at once. As a rule these
synonymous varieties of potatoes fall readily into two classes,
and the method of classification adopted by the late Mr. Snell,
whose great work for the potato industry will never be forgotten,
cannot be improved upon. One class comprises those few very
familiar types, such as Up-to-Date, Abundance, Great Scot,
King Edward and others that are at present in commerce,
while the rest are related to half-forgotten varieties, such as
Cardinal, Early Rose and Nonsuch class. ‘The best that can
be said of the latter is that two established varieties, Edzell
Blue and Early Market, may be said to have sprung from
it. The Committee does not feel called upon to decide whether
these synonymous varieties are actually new growths or whether
they are the product of ignorance, carelessness or fraud, but it
feels very strongly that the practice of putting synonymous
varieties on the market is at once harmful to the good name of the
trade and detrimental to the efforts of the National Institute of
Agricultural Botany. The carelessness of certain members of
the trade is shown in other ways. For example, it is stated that
two potatoes quite distinct from each other were introduced by
the same firm and under the same name at an interval of rather
more than ten years. One was susceptible to Wart Disease; the
other immune, and both were indistinguishable from known ind
established varieties.

It is to be hoped in the interests of the potato industry,
which after all is a large and important one, that this report
of the Potato Synonym Committee will be widely read and
carefully considered. Published at the National Institute of
Agricultural Botany at Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, it costs
1s.. but applications for copies should be made to the Secretary

190 Foor-anp-Mouru DIsnase. [ May,

at the temporary offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London,
S.W.1. The report was submitted in February last to the
Potato Industry Conference recently instituted by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany. This Conference represents the
Ministry of Agriculture, the Institute of Agricultural Botany,
agricultural and trade associations and the leading growers and
merchants. All approved the Report and recommended its
publication.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease.— Yorkshire (E. Riding ).—No outbreak has
occurred in this district since that confirmed on the 1st March last, referred to
in the March issue of the Journal, and all restrictions have been withdrawn.

Derbyshire.-—The existence of Foot-and-Mouth Disease on premises at
Draycott, Derbyshire, was confirmed on Sunday, the 27th March, in four out of
nine Irish heifers consigned from County Limerick, which had been landed at
Holyhead via Dublin on the 23rd March. Apparently no symptoms of the
disease appeared until the 25th March, when the Veterinary Inspector of the
Local Authority examined these animals on arrival at Draycott, in accordance
with the provisions of the Order of the Ministry under which the animals were
landed from Ireland.

In view of the fact that the origin of the disease was definitely established,
it was not considered necessary to impose restrictions over an area with the
usual 15 miles radius, but to limit the district to one with a radius of about
5 miles around Draycott.

Birkenhead and Holyhead Irish Animals Landing Places.—The existence
of Foot-and-Mouth Disease was also confirmed in Irish animals detained at
Birkenhead Landing Place on the 29th March, and at Holyhead Landing Place
on the 2nd April. These animals were under detention as a result of the
existence of disease being confirmed in the Irish animals at Draycott.

The landing of animals in Great Britain from Ireland was entirely prohibited
on the 28th March, and special steps were taken to trace all animals which
might have been exposed to infection by reason of contact with the animals
concerned in these three outbreaks, and at the time of going to press no further
outbreak had been confirmed in any part of Great Britain.

Norfolk.—The existence of Foot-and-Mouth Disease was confirmed on the
9th April on premises at North Runcton, Kings Lynn.

Chester. —On the 16th April, the presence of the disease was also confirmed
on premises at Bebbington, near Birkenhead.

In the former case, restrictions were imposed over the usual radius of 15°
miles from the infected premises, but in the latter, which occurred in the
Wirral Peninsula, the estuaries of the Rivers Dee and Mersey afforded effective
natural boundaries, and it was not considered necessary to include all the
country within the radius of 15 miles which lies beyond these rivers.

Rabies.— Wiltshire, Dorset and Hampshire—Two further outbreaks of
Rabies have occurred in this district since the April issue of the Journal, viz.,
on the 23rd March at Southampton and 4th April at Farley-Chamberlayne, near
Romsey. No alteration has been necessary in the limits of the existing
muzzling area on account of these cases.

1921. | IMPORTATION OF GOOSEBERRIES. 191

Glamorgan and London.—No further cases have occurred in these areas.

Berkshire District—A further outbreak of Rabies was confirmed (after
inoculation experiments) at Stokenchurch, near High Wycombe, Bucks, on the
15th March, in a dog which was destroyed on the 28th January.

Sale of Gooseberries.—The Ministry desires to inform growers of
gooseberries, salesmen and others interested in the trade in gooseberries, that
all restrictions on the sale of home-grown gooseberries affected with American
Gooseberry Mildew have now been removed. The restrictions previously
imposed, to the effect that gooseberries affected with this disease might only
be sent to Jam Factories, are now revoked, and in future any gooseberries fit
for human consumption may be sold freely in any market or shop.

Importation of Gooseberries: Issue of a General Licence.—
Under the American Gooseberry Mildew (Importation of Fruit) Order of 1919,
gooseberries may only be landed in England and Wales under licence issued
by the Ministry. It has been decided that, during 1921 and until further notice,
gooseberries may be so landed provided that they are accompanied by a certificate
of freedom from American Gooseberry Mildew issued by a duly authorised
official of the country of exportation. A General Licence authorising the
landing of gooseberries subject to this condition has been issued accordingly.

Importers of gooseberries should, therefore, note that they will no longer
be required to obtain individual licences from the Ministry, but that they must
make certain when purchasing gooseberries from abroad that the required
certificate of freedom from disease has been issued in respect of the fruit
purchased. If such certificate does not accompany any consignment, its
landing in this country will not be permitted by the Customs Authorities,

Livestock Improvement: The Ministry’s Grants in Aid.—It is
vital to the welfare of agriculture that the livestock of this country be
improved, and steps are being taken by the Ministry to secure this end. The
necessity for livestock improvement rests upon three main considerations:—
(1) that if the farmer is to pull his weight he must have the best material ;
(2) the difference on sale value between first class stock and the rest is
enormous; and (3) no unthrifty animal can pay its own expenses, to say
nothing of those of its master. These arguments are obvious, but there can
be no harm in reiterating them in order to bring the question urgently home to
all concerned. Deep interest is taken by the Ministry in the whole problem,
and it is desired tomake improvement practical. Consequently, as part of the
Improvement of the Live Stock Scheme which has been in operation for some
years, grants are made by the Ministry under certain conditions to :—

(a) Societies maintaining approved Bulls.

(b) Heavy Horse Societies travelling approved Stallions.
(c) Societies or individuals maintaining approved Boars.
(d) Milk Recording Societies.

Full particulars as to the grants made for Bulls, Heavy Horses, Boars,
and to Milk Recording Societies can be obtained from the Ministry’s Leaflet
No. 282.

Tractor Trials, 1921.—The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders
have arranged to hold their trials this year at Shrawardine, near Shrewsbury,
during the week commencing the 19th September. The entries will be
classified as follows :— (1) Farm tractors for direct traction ploughing and

192 Export oF Live Stock to Uruguay. [ May, 1921.

belt work (internal combustion); (2) Farm tractors for direct traction, plough-
ing and belt work (steam); (3) Self-contained motor ploughs and cultivating
implements ; (4) Cable ploughing sets (internal combustion engines); (5) Selt-
propelled garden ploughs and cultivators; (6) Tractor ploughs ; (7) Tractor
Cultivators ; and (8) Disc Harrows. It is to be observed that for the first time
in this country separate classes have been allotted to tractors adapted for
horticulture work and to tractor implements. It is proposed to have a six hours’
continuous ploughing test during the trials, which, unlike those held last year
by the Royal Agricultural Society and the Society in conjunction, will be
non-competitive.

Export of Live Stock to Uruguay.—aAs a result of representations
made by the Ministry through the Foreign Office, regarding the restrictions
on the export of Live Stock from this country to Uruguay, the Government of
Uruguay have reduced from 6 to 3 months the period that a county must have
been free from Foot-and-Mouth Disease before a certificate for the export of
stock from that county to Uruguay-can be issued by the Ministry.

Warning to Poultry Keepers.—Recent reports to the Ministry show
that deaths have occurred among poultry kept in houses or runs, in the
construction of which discarded aeroplane wings or fabric have been used.
Owners of the poultry are of opinion that their birds have been poisoned
either by picking off the “dope” or dressing from the aeroplane wings or
fabric, or by the effect of vapour that is given off at times from the “ dope”
itself. After careful investigation of certain cases and subsequent enquiry, the
Ministry desires to draw the attention of poultry keepers to the undoubted risk
of loss that attends the keeping of poultry in houses or runs constructed wholly
orin part of aeroplane wings or fabric. It is believed, however, that there is
little, if any, risk if these materials are well tarred. Lime must not be used
on any account as it would prove destructive to the fabric.

ADDITIONS: TO THE» LIBRARY.

Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey.—Special Reports on the Mineral
Resources of Great Britain. Vol. vu. :—Mineral Oil, Kimmeridge Oil-
Shale, Lignites, Jets, Cannel Coals, Natural Gas. England and
Wales. (2nd Edition), (125 pp.). London: H.M. Stationery Office.
1920, 5s. net. [55: 912.]

Memoirs of the Geological Survey.—Special Reports on the Mineral
Resources of Great Britain. Vol. xiii. :—Iron Ores (contd.), Pre-
Carboniferous and Carboniferous Bedded Ores of England and Wales.
(123 pp.) London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920, 7s. 6d. net.
[55 : 942.]

Kent Education Committee; Agricultural Education Sub-Committee.—
Notes on Demonstration Allotments and Potato Trials, 1920. (24 pp.)
Maidstone, 1920, 6d. [63.512(04); 37(072).]

Collier, D.—Basket-Making. (152 pp.) London: Cassell & Co., 1920,
1s. 6d. net. [63.1938.]

Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.—Bull. 223 :—Effects of Lime and
Carbonate of Lime on Acid Phosphate. (16 pp.) College Station, 1917.
[63.1672. ] :

Printed under the authority of His MAJESTY’s STATIONERY OFFICE,
By Metchim & Son, Princes Street, Westminster, S.W.1.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxiii

The FARMERS’ WARDEN —

FoR INSURANCE oF
HORSES and CATTLE.

STALLIONS, BROOD MARES, G@iyp
FOALS.
EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY.
FIRE. DRIVERS’ ACCIDENTS.
MOTOR CARS, FARM TRACTORS,
and GENERAL INDEMNITIES.

For Best Rates and Terms apply—

WARDEN

INSURANCE COMPANY, LTD.

ESTABLISHED 1875.
Honoured with the Patronage of H.M. THE KING.
Chief Office—21, IRONMONGER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 2.
MANAGER AND SECRETARY: R. R. WILSON.

Pure Bone Meal.

(High Test.)
Finest quality on the Market.

GUARANTEED ANALYSIS.

Complete Fertilizers for all Crops.
SPECIAL PRICES FOR TRUCK LOADS.

Further particulars of

EDWARD COOK & CO., LD., Bow, London, E.3.

et ee Se ee oe eee

axiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

BREEDERS’ ANNOUNCEMENTS.

CATTLE,

ABERDEEN-—ANGUS.

MACAINSH, JOHN, Congash, Grantown-on-Spey, N.B. —Pure-bred Aberdeen-Angus Cattle.—Particulars on application.

DEVONS.

STANTON, HARWICH.—REGISTERED HERD RED DEVON DAIRY CATTLE. Devons are the best English Dairy
Cattle under all conditions and in any climate.

FRIESIANS.

GILSTON PARK HERD OF PEDIGREE BRITISH FRIESIANS, property of A. S. Bowlby, Esq. Bulls and Bull Calves
generally for sale by Imported and other leading sires. Apply H. SCHOFIELD, Gilston Park Estate Office, Harlow, Essex.

JERSEYS.

JEROME, MRS., BILYON HALL, TOCKWITH, YORKs. Pedigree Jerseys. Heifers and young Bulls for Sale.

SHORTHORNS.

WELBECK HERD OF PEDIGREE SHORTHORNS, the property of the Duke of PORTLAND, K.G. Young Bulls and Heifers
for sale, from the best strains.—Apply, ALEX. GALBRAITH, Norton, Cuckney, Mansfield.

DAIRY SHORTHORNS.

HOBBS R. W., & SONS, Kelmscott, Lechlade.—500 Dairy Shorthorns ; milk records kept; many firsts Royal and London Dairy
Shows. Pedigree Bulls and Bull Calves. 4-cross Bull Calves at moderate prices, suitable for non-pedigree dairy herds.

PLAYFORD HERD OF PEDIGREE DAIRY SHORTHORNS. Deep-Milking Strains of robust constitution. Bulls in
service: Thornby Don (133918), Hermit IL. (120697). Milk records kept, inspected by Dairy Shorthorn Association and
Ministry of Agriculture Recorder. Young Bulls and Bull Calves for sale. Also Breeder of Pedigree Suffolk Sheep and Large
Black Pigs —S. R. SHERWOOD, Playford, Ipswich.

CHIVERS & SONS, LTD., HISTON, CAMBS,—Pedigree Dairy Shorthorn Herd, numbers over 100 head, mainly composed of Bates
and other old English Families. Winners at the Royal and leading Shows. Daily milk records checked by D.S.A. and
Ministry of Agriculture Recorders. Young Bulls from recorded cows always for sale.

LINCOLN RED SHORTHORNS.

THE STAPLEFORD PARK HERD. A few young Bulls from Royal Prize Winners always for sale from carefully tested
milking strains only. Apply C. & Harvey, Wymondham, Oakham.

Strength in the Knot

explains why ‘‘ Empire’ Fence so easily stands tremend-
ous strains. ‘* Empire” Knot holds wires securely at each
intersection—wires NEVER sag or draw through.

EMPIRE tru
wrre FENCE

Every strand manufactured throughout of best hard steel wire. Galvanized to resist rust.
Livestock cannot injure themselves: it has no sharp points. Easy to erect ; requires no
attention and practically everlasting. ‘Two men can Put UP Sand postcard to-day for
a mile per day on hilly or level ground when posis are

set. We will undertake erection anywhere if required. Catalogue E.F. No. 25, )e- —
PARKER, WINDER & ACHURCH,LTD., Fencing Contractors,BIRMINGHAM =<

)
a
h

e 4-
ES

i
ae
. ae

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxv

A REAL
FARMER'S BOOT

Made in the Finest Tan Witl-
low Calf or Black Box Calf.
Full Ghrome, Stitched round
Welt and Seat of Heel, Stout
English Bend Sole, Oak Bark
Tanned, Calf Lined through-
out.

Just the Boot that will
appeal to those Gentlemen
who require a stout
dependable Boot for

No. 1 Sf Outdoor Occupation

"ama =! a or Hobbies, Farms,
ae et. Country Walks, ad

ee at Touring, Golf, etc.

Our Now Famous

‘99’ Boot

Known as the “ Pussyfoot”
Boot on account of its wet
resisting qualities.

s& .
A A Smart Box Calf Balmoral Boot,

ae Calf fined throughout, } inch Oak
“ee Bark tanned, English
Bend Sole. For those who
require a lighter Boot 38/9

than No. 1 shown above.

=~
25"
<<

= os
SS Fone cnn
itt

Send for single Boot on approbation, Post free, and judge our value and styles. We
invite enquiries for DEPENDABLE FOOTWEAR in any style.

OUR POSTAL DEPT. deals successfully with all orders
from those unable to visit one of our numerous branches
in town.

The “PHIT-EESI” Stamp ensures value and character.

W. Abbott & Sons, Ltd.

60, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.

xxvi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

CATTLE—continued.

KERRY AND DEXTERS.

BRAISHFIELD MANOR HERD of Dexter Castle. Prizes won in 1915 include Championship R.A.S.E., Nottingham, first
London Dairy Show.—Apply, Mr. W. A. OWEN, Elm Grove, Braishfield, Romsey.

PALMER, R. E. Pure Pedigree Kerry Cattle, Oaklands Park, Newdigate, Surrey.

HEREFORDS.
WHITE, W. J. S., ZEALS, WILTS.—Old-established Herd of Milking Herefords, Bulls and Calves, for Sale.

SOUTH DEVON.

GREENSLADE, W.R. J.,3, HAMMET STREET, TAUNTON, AND WELLINGTON, SOMERSET.—Sales of Devon Cattle, Dorset
Horn Sheep, &c. :

SHEEP.

OXFORD DOWN.
AKERS & CO., BLACK BOURTON, OXON.—Registered Oxford Downs, Rams and Ewe Lambs on Sale; inspection invited.

LINCOLN LONGWOOL.

HOYLES, GEO., SKIDBY MANOR, near HULL.—Pure Lincoln Longwool Sheep; true type, sound conditions, lustrous long
. wool, give satisfaction at home und abroad.

EiGs:

BERKSHIRE.

BRAISHFIELD MANOR HERD OF BERKSHIRE PIGS. Boars in use: Little John, Champion R.A.S.E., 1915, etc.; also
Hugo, whose stock sold so well at Mr. Hiscock’s Sale. Young stock of the best blood always for Sale. — Apply Mr. W. A.
OWEN, Elm Grove, Braishfield. Romsey.

MANUDEN HERD OF BERKSHIRES. Gilts 11 months by Steadfast (brother to Carry On, Royal Champion, 1919), in pig to
- Hammond Haymaker, Ist., Oxford, 192. 20 gns., carriage paid—GE, Manuden House, Essex.

LARGE WHITE.?

C}IIVERS & SONS, LTD., HISTON, CAMBS.—Over 1,000 pigs bred annually. Breeding Stock live out in Large Grass Orchards.
Stock Boars include Histon Thor, Champion Peterborough and Suffolk 1920, Histon Lion Heart, Champion Royal Norfolk
1919, Dalmeny Macbeth, Ist Highland and Edinburgh 1920, and own brother to 720-guinea Sow. Young Stock always for Sale.

COLSTON & BORROWFIELD HERDS OF LARGE WHITE PIGS, the property of R. Millington Knowles, Esq.. The Hall,
Colston Bassett, Notts —Numbers and quality equal to pre-war standard.—Particulars from AGENT, Estate Office, Colston
Bassett, Notts.

DENNY, E. H. M., STAPLEFIELD PLACE, STAPLEFIELD, SUSSEX.—Large White Yorkshire Pedigree Pigs, Station: Haywards
Heath. Telegrams: Handcross.

GREENALL, SIR GILBERT, BART..C.V.0., WALTON HALL, WARRINGTON. The Walton and Worsley Herd of Pedigree
Large White Pigs. Selections of all ages for sale at moderate prices. Apply to RICHMOND DAYBELL, Manager, Rowswood
Farm, Higher-Walton, near Warrington. Station: Warrington. Telegrams: Daybell, Higher-Walton, Warrington.

THE WARREN HERD OF PEDIGREE LARGE WHITE PIGS, the proyerty of H. T. Williams. Esq¢.— Young Stock of the best
strains for Sale, including a fine selection of in-pig Gilts.— Apply to RAYMOND KEER, Warren Home Farm, Broughton, Chester.

MIDDLE WHITE.

CHIVERS, JOHN, HISTON, aes —Pedigree Middle White Pigs, Breeding stock live out in Grass Orchards. Wins 1920 included
Ohampion Boar. Champion Sow, and Cup for Best Middle White Pig, won outright (second year in succession) R.A.S.E.
Show, Darlington. Young Stock for Sale.

EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING,. SUSSEX.—Albany Herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Bred on open air ate
Wonderful doers and breeders. Will thrive anywhere.

JEROME, MRS., BILTON HALL, YORK.—Pedigree Middle White Pigs, prize-winners. Boars and Gilts for Sale.

The Rennet on which
cheese-makers depend.

Chr. Hansen’s Laboratory, Ltd,

77, ST. THOMAS’S STREET,
LONDON, S.E.1.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxvii

>»
a@ )

~ NEW SKINS FOR YOUR ROOFS

2D
2d
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A
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7
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2d
rary
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2 THE ORIGINAL PLASTIC COMPOUND =.

+> for Repairing

4 All Leaky Roofs

Sticks 7
uy | a, ee p= ac > a] ae
ZL Easily applied with a TROWEL. anywhere.
»Y ‘

HS = Also made in SEMI-PLASTIC FORM for applying with Descriptive Booklet sent on
BS a BRUSH. application.

2 “BEANCOLITE” | AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

ix a of all kinds.

2 WOOD PRESERVATIVE

Absolutely prevents decay, dry rot and
ae fungoid growths in all kinds of timber.

TURNERS, SIDE DELIVERY
RAKES, Etc.

INDISPENSABLE FOR INTERNATIONAL JUNIOR AND
BEAMS, FENCES, SHEDS AND AUSTIN TRACTORS.

F _ HAY ELEVATORS,
WOODEN ERECTIONS ENGINES, FARM CARTS ORS
HAY LOADERS.

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sevesrerrs
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anal

Tan,

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of every kind.

— DAIRY UTENSILS —

Send us your enquiries.

BAXE N DALE MILLER STREET,

MANCHESTER.
And at LIVERPOOL, EDINBURGH and DUBLIN.

sues
wygesy

Descriptive List and Tint Card on application.

Sesseeeseee
Pig PER ser dg tgrgr tyr yr

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xxviii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

PIG S—continued.

MIDDLE WHIT E—continued.

STAPLEFORD HERD OF MIDDLE WHITE PIGS. A few choice gilts and boars always for sale at reasonable prices.
C. S. HARVEY, Wymondham, Oakham.

WEELEY HERD or MIDDLE WHITES, bred on the open-air system, exclusively from Champion strains. Two 1919 Royal
Show winners, and the sire and dam of a 1919 Cattle Show winner were bred in this herd. Apply to OSCAR GRAY,
Tendring Farms, Limited, Weeley, S.O., Essex.

SKIPWITH, Captain O., LOVERSAL HALL, DONCASTER.—Loversal herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Bred on open air system.
Moderate Prices.

LARGE BLACK.

PICKWELL HERD, Pedigree Large Blacks. Young stock from best strains at reasonable prices. —CAPTAIN CLAUDE W. HEMP,
Stainbridge Farm, Bolney, Sussex.

NEWHOUSE HERD of Pedigree Large Black Pigs. Boars and Gilts from best strains—ROBERT FORTUNE, Newhouse,
Cranleigh, Surrey.

DUNSTALL HERD of Pedigree Large Blacks, bred from prize strains under natural conditions. Prolific, hardy, grand doers
and of choice type. Young Bears and Gilts. Prices Moderate.—LIONEL E. HORNE. Moreton-in-Marsh, Glos.

EDGH, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Pedigree Large Blacks, marvellous open air strain.

LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED.

OHARNWOOD HERD.—A grand lot of young Boars ready for service, all descended from Royal winners. Inspection invited.—
G. SIMPSON, Charnwood, Lowdham, Notts.

GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT.

THE FAIRFIELD HERD OF GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT PIGS for Sale. 100 to choose from, including winners at Hereford
and Worcester Show. Gilts, Boars and Sows with litters ; also, owing to change of blood, several Boars by Berkeley Foreman.—
J. B. DOWDING, Fairfield, Leominster.

POULTRY:

MAJOR, ARTHUR C.—Breeder and Exhibitor thirty years. Champion Duck and Silver Grey Dorkings, “England’s best
fowl.” Prizes at all Shows, and exported allover the world. Prices moderate. Eggs, 1s. each.—ARTHUR O. MAJOR, Ditton,
Langley, Bucks.

OONTINENTAL POULTRY EXPORTERS, STRATFORD, ESSEX.—Pullets, 30 Breeds, from 10/6 each. List free.

White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, Light Sussex. Stock bred from Laying Competition Winners. Eggs, Day-old Chicks and
Stock birds for sale. Illustrated List free—.JOHN CHIVERS, Estate Office, Histon, Cambridge

AUCTIONEERS, LIVE STOCK, ETC., AGENTS.
WATERS & RAWLENCH, SALISBURY.

MISCELLANEOUS ADVERTISEMENTS—(Cheap Prepaid).

For Cleft Chestnut Unclimable Fencing, apply to THE StaNLuY UNDERWOOD Company, LIMITED, Shottermill,
Haslemere, Surrey.

64 Page Book about Herbs and How tc Use Them, 2d.—TRIMNELL, THE HERBALIST, RICHMOND ROAD, CARDIFF.

Rippins Easy to Keep Account Books for Farmers. Herd Books for Cows and Pigs. Stud Books for
Mares. Gripall Cash Book dissects income and costs of the farm from all sources. Furro Crop Account Book. Service
Certificate Books for Stallions, Boars, Bulls. Milk Record Books and Pads. Poultry Account Books. Egg Laying Record
Cards. Specimen rulings free—RIPPIN & BAKER, The Newarkes, Leicester.

All applications for Advertisements in “The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture” should be addressed to C. VERNON &
Sons, LTD., 38, Holborn Viaduct, London, H.C. 1. :

400 C.P. VAPOR LAMPS

THAT CAN BE TURNED DOWN TO
ANY DESIRED SMALLER C. P.

Safety and satisfaction guaranteed. They burn 95°/. Air and
5°/, Petrol Vapor. They are clean and economical. They
cost 4d. per hour to run, and a* one filling will run a week.
The principle in both lamps shown is that applied to a lamp
supplied to the U.S.A. Government. Large stocks of both
types are on our premises, and we can supply by return.
The cost is 6s. each packed and delivered. The Mantles
are durable, and the Lantern is storm proof. Everybody
who introduces six buyers gets his money back. The Lamps
are made of the very best and strongest materials, and are
finished in highly-polished nickel. :

The Light given is twenty times that of the largest oil lamps.
Both Lamps are fitted with Automatic Tip Cleaner, and they
are the Lamps that never fail. Hvery Lamp is tested before
it reaches user’s hands. -

Suppliers :
STANLEYS (STRATFORD), LTD.,Wharton Rd., London, E.15.

“No 210 Table Lamp.- — -Please mention ‘‘ Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture.” Storm Proof Lantern,
(ROS TS eS SE ET NE ST a a RS SNE

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxix

Agricultural 1, BALLOON STREET, |
Department MANCHESTER.
Of the

| C.W.S.

This Department supplies everything
for the Farm, Estate, Small Holding,
Allotment and Garden

THROUGH
Agricultural and other Distributive

4
4

Co-operative Societies in all parts
of the country.

Insurance 109, CORPORATION STREET,
Department MANCHESTER.
Of the
C.W.S.

The Co-operative Insurance Society

undertakes all classes of

Farm and Live Stock Insurance

as well as
Life, Fire, and Burglary.
LOWEST PREMIUMS. HIGHEST POLICIES.
Write for Prospectus.

rxx THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

MARS OIL ‘=:

For Preserving,
Softening &
Waterproofing

BOOTS,
LEGGINGS,
HARNESS,
SADDLERY,
LEATHER
APRONS &
COVERS,

and all kinds of
Leather Articles

NOT A COMPOUND CAKE. As supplied to the Ministry of Muni-
a 6 foe 7 tions, H.M. Dockyards, the Military;
MOTHER NATURE’S OWN ano ParMmersyc <-

Food for increasing Milk Supply. NO ‘‘RUBBING IN” REQUIRED.
EASY OF DIGESTION.

and PERFECT CONDITION. TE

In Tins with Brush complete, at 1/6 & 3/- each, or
Suitable for all kinds nds of Young Stock. 2/3 and 3/9 post free.

A Postcard will iy ou sips and Booklets from 1 gallon Cans 18/= carriage forward.
1
Sole Manufacturers :— o ~ 39 », 10/6 ,, »

LODERS & NUCOLINE, Limited, THE MARS OIL (B.A.) Co.

Cake and Meal Dept., (Proprietor: F. GREINER,)
1, Cratched Friars, LONDON, E.C.3. 10 & 12, MILTON STREET, LONDON, E.C,

HALL & CO.,

’Phone: Purley 10. LTD.

Lime Burners,
COULSDON, L.B. & S.C. Rly.

= A BRITISH MADE GAKE

TheNetting
you will have
eventually —

FAULTLESS}

BECAUSLit lies dead flat
without curves or bulges
and gives no trouble.
Itismade to stand heavy
strains too, being of
fine grade wire, galva- _4f
nized after manufacture, =

High quality and low price is
another combination that makes
“Faultless” the Netting ycu
should test NOW.

qj Send us partioulars of your requirc-
ments and we will gladly quote carriage

GROUND

CARBONATE OF LIME

| (For Agricultural Purposes)
20/- per Ton loaded in Bulk F.O.R. Coulsdon.
Orders should be booked at once to
secure prompt delivery.

WHITE LUMP & GROUND LIME

For Agricultural Purposes.

All kinds of CHALK supplied from Lump
Chalk for road making down to extremely
Fine Powdered Chalk for
Pharmaceutical panperes:

a

erg prices for large or small quantities,
irect from works.

DavideCo

TAFF VALE JIRONWORAS |
Cc AR D TEP Victoria Wharf, E. Croydon.

ww www To ** CEMENT, CROYDON.” “Croypon, 1104.”
sea «ee

Head Office :

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

—

=

— se ele
; Running Water (}, SL. Hs)
=" F €

sn i “t Aide Ay |

in Your Home #&="“

A Dayton Electric-driven W ater zB Thi qt a8
System will automatically pro- vail i og

vide water under pressure at aa.) & =a
all fixtures—the same as city

water supply.

Costs but a few cents a day
to operate.

Can be run from any current—

- Sik

central station or private plant.

Write for literature.
Or better still, come
in and see this splen-

did system.

GC b

! T.B.S. Electrical Seieaetion. a Ltd.
68, Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S.W.1

- 14
SS
— ae
5

Oo. =
P TT

oe,

Telephone: VICTORIA 1972.
Tel. Address: ‘‘AGTROWNAW, SOWEST, LONDON.”
Telegraphic Code: A.B.C. 5th E dition.
Marconi Address: ‘f EFFICACY, LONDON.”

SOLE CONCESSIONAIRES FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Specialists in Country House, Estate Lighting,
Heating and Power Installations.

Send for particulars of the

DUAL PURPOSE MARCO PLANT FOR FARMERS.

xxxii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
SRT near a I A

Sheep Dip
Farm and Veterinary Disinfectant
ly Spray for Cattle

MURPHY & SON, Ltd., Sheen Lane, London, S.W.14.

ALL WEATHERS. ALL CLIMATES.
“* ALLWEATHER ”
BRAND.

WATERPROOF COVERS

OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS.

| Samples and Prices on application to the Sele Makers:

JOHN SMITH & Co. (London, E.), LTD.,
44, UPPER EAST SMITHFIELD, E.1.

Telegrams: Civilation, Ald. Tel. No.: Avenue 7650 (4 lines).

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxxiii

rO\eon- 3: oS
FERTILISERS |

More necessary than ever to
increase production.

22 ION SURE TOs
GETS PHOBDMBTES |g,

RTO GCE iy MAME ES
: 2

ALL TYPES AND GRADES

AGAIN AVAILABLE FOR
Different Crops,
Different Soils, and
Different Compounds

TO: GIVE: RHE: VERY Best RESULTS.

All supplied by the Potash Syndicate in the same excellent condition for sowing

and mixing as before the war.
DELIVERY AT SHORTEST NOTICE. IN BAGS OR BULK.

Order Now in Anticipation of Greatly increased Demand.

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Kainit. guaranteed minimum ... 12.4 potash a ; ae
i ae I | Muriate of Potash—80-85 purity 51.5 potash

Actual tests of Cargoes arrived showed considerable | eee Ea

excess, as high as 15°68, | 90-95 4 56.8

€ "A ‘ 2) ~ : A) a

Potash Manure Salt ... x as ” | Sulphate of Potash— 90 a 48.6

” %) Ph eee eee eee e 33 | ~ rs
Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia... 26 ,, 96 3 51-8 9

POTASH AS SULPHATE IS THE MOST DESIRABLE FORM FOR
POTATOES, TOMATOES, MALTING BARLEY, all inside and
intensive cultivation,

SOILS POOR IN LIME AND HEAVY SOILS AND MIXING
PURPOSES.

The Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia has been definitely found to possess*an extra
fertilising value by reason of its magnesia content. Kainit also contains some magnesia,

For Supplies of Potash and full particulars, apply to :—

F. W. Berk & Co., Lid.,

1, Fenchurch Avenue, London, E.C.3.

xxxiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Renforead Concrete Sies. || oovomerR SILOS

Se

No Stackening FARM BUILDINGS,

Tightening of

nc funaer”” || COTTAGES,
Regal FENCE POSTS, &c.,
ever Pyare - SUPPLIED. -

No Upkeep.
Constructed on
Modern i.
Sanitary Lines.
We have built Plans and Estimates given
these SILOS in for any class of work.
all parts of the gees eee
Se United Kingdom. ae,
Estimates and References on Application. Abdon Clee Stone Quarry 00.,
LTD.,
James Scott & Son,

Ditton Priors, Bridgnorth, Salop.

(ABERDEEN), LIMITED,
George Street & John Street, Aberdeen.

WHY BUY BRICKS?

Make Concrete Blocks yourself instead.

The CYCLOPS CONCRETE BLOCK-MAKING

MACHINES have been approved by the Ministry

of Health. They are easily used and eall for no
skilled labour.

With Cyclops blocks one can build a house from cellar to roof with raw materials
frequently found on the site. Whether made with semi or complete cavity blocks, it
will be cool in summer and dry in winter. The rich face down mixture of concrete
renders the blocks impervious to moisture, and obviates the use of waterproofing
compounds or rough cast work. With Cyclops blocks shuttering is not required, as
they can be reinforced in the building, and the cavities filled up with concrete for
heavy work. In addition to making blocks the machine is capable of producing
700 2-in. slabs per day.

Our new 32-page Catalogue tells you all about the machines and what they do.
Send for your copy to-day.

EX-SERVICE MEN TAUGHT FREE OF CHARGE.

THE CYCLOPS CONCRETE C0., 9-{3a, Hilbre St, LIVERPOOL.

Telegrams: ESSESSOR. Telephone: ROYAL 1195.
Established 1882.
Ro | 2

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxxv

Too Slow!

Science has evolved a scheme
for destroying Rats, Mice and
Voles which completely super-
sedes the slow one-at-a-time
methods employing traps, dogs
and poison.

By this modern method a fatal disease, peculiar only to rats, mice and
voles, is introduced to the pests, and whole districts are cleared in a short time.

Bait treated with a culture of microbes known as “ LIVERPOOL” VIRUS is placed in
the haunts and runs of the vermin, and within from seven to ten days the results are noticed. The
infected rodents spread the disease amongst their fellows and come into the open to die, and so by
dealing with the rats en masse ‘‘ LIVERPOOL” VIRUS is the only successful rat destroyer. , ,

HARMLESS “LIVERPOOL” VIRUS.

Regd. Trade Mark.
To) Obtainable BAITED with full directions in Tins (for Rats 2/6
and 6/-; for Mice 1/6). :
HUMANS _ UNBAITED in Tubes (for Rats 26 and 8-; for Mice 16).
From all Chemists or direct from EVANS SONS LESCHER & | VEBB, Ltd.,
POULTRY 56, Hanover St., Liverpool, and 60, Bartholomew Close, London, E.C.1.
& DOMESTIC WARNING.—In order to prevent substitutes see that it is marked
ANIMALS “LIVERPOOL” VIRUS. =
> 4 t

THos. BOAG & Co., LTD.,

Sack Manufacturers and Merchants,
GREENOCK, SCOTLAND.

SACKS AND BAGS.

New: Bags, Second-hand Bags, and New
Calcutta Bags of all kinds, suitable for Seeds,
Produce, Fertilisers, and Feeding Stuffs.

SEWING AND: TYING TWINES.

Stocks always available for prompt delivery.

BUYERS OF EMPTY BAGS OF ALL CLASSES.
Prices c.i.f. any port in the World quoted on application.

feiophones: 825, 826 and 827, Greenock. Telegrams: Jute Greenock,
302 (Central), Glasgow. Bags Glasgow,
813, Aberdeen. Twills Aberdeen,

Aberdeen Branch: 12, Virginia Street. Glasgow Branch: 38, Elliot Street.

Codes Used: A, B. C, 4th & 5th Editions, Western Union, Marconi International and Private.

xxxvi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

SCOTCH SEED POTATOES. (Hand Picked).

Duke of York, Midlothian Early, Sharpes Express, Eclipse,
Epicure, Sir d. Llewellyn, Arran Comrade, King George V., Majestic,
M’Pherson Early, Dargil Early, Arran Rose, Edzell Blue, May
Queen, Kerrs Pink, Tinwald Perfection, Ally, Myatt’s Ashleaf
Kidney, K. of K. (Immune King Edward VII.), Bloomfield (New
Immune), The Dean (New Immune), &c. Prices on application.

FARM SEEDS.

Grasses, Clovers, Turnips, Seed Corn. Samples and prices on
application.

TILLIE,WHYTE & CQ.,

‘Seed Growers,

12, MELBOURNE PLACE,

(George IV. Bridge),

Established EDINBURGH

VICTORIA FENCING COMPANY, LTD.

(T. W. PALMER & CO.),
5, VICTORIA STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.1.

Sole Manufacturers of

“VICTORIA” CLEFT CHESTNUT PALING.
AAA i Littiiag

i

NAAR

0438

HA

a

0437

L-
_- A— ee
is ——————— |
\ eae
¢
= |
=
Serato

—_—

Wy Bm AETLAOEATLLAT

sailiaiih in i a heights from 2 c to 6 ft., and with either 2. 3 or 4 lines of wire.
The cheapest efficient fence on the market, Prices from 1/1 per yard run.
Made from best home-grown timber, carefully selected and cleft with the grain.
As durable as it is economical.
The V.¥.Co. LTD. also make OAK AND FIR FENCES AND GATES, WROUGHT IRON
FENCES AND GATES of all kinds.

Send post card for latest Catalogue, A 21.

Works; CHURCH ROAD, MERTON ABBEY, and MILL ST., MAIDSTONE.

|
PATTERN «iB
14
|
i:
|

Avoid the cost of keep-
ing superfluous cockerels
by preserving them in
Vacuum Bottles.

Fowler's Complete
Bottling Qutfits consist of
everything necessary to
successfully preserve
Fruits, Poultry, Game, etc.

vegetables.

Use Fowler's Bottling
Appliances and have Fruit,
Pheasants, _ Partridges,
Grouse, Rabbits and other
Foods preserved, ready for
the Table

Glass and Metal Covers,
Rubber Rings, Clips, etc.,

supplied for all kijds of
reserving Bottles.

Mrs.— of Kenmare, wrote 1918—
‘*T find your Bottles most useful for preserving

Game, Salmon and Chickens.”

Send for Price List and Particulars—
GEO. FOWLER, LEE & CO., Ltd,
Dept. 5, 72, QUEENS ROAD, READING.

Peas and other choice

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xxxvil

MONEY SAVED

IS MONEY EARNED!

‘ NAPTHALIM ©

for destroying
Wireworm and
All Soil Pests,

eradicating

“Club.” “Finger and Toe,”

White Fly on Tomatoes.

SPECIAL -

Reduced Prices

for Delivery in slack time amply compen-
sate you for cost of storing until required.

Write for full REDUCED PRICE LISTS.

RENED RAY & CO.,
3, Old Mills, Hounslow.

‘British BuqUgIn
POTASH SALTS ~/oneac

Minimum 207 Pure Potash

99 14 99 $9

” 12 / ” ”

Muriate

of
Potash

Flue Dust

CONTAINING 18/257, SULPHATE.

Immediate Delivery from Stock.

For Prices and Particulars of all Fertilisers

Apply THE BRITISH GYANIDES CO., LTD.,
Sales Office—

Oldbury near Birmingham.

London Office
49, Queen Victoria Street.
E.C.4.

xxxvill THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

AGRICULTURAL LIME

To All Cultivators of Land:

USE OUR GENUINE GROUND LIME

GROUND LIME is a FERTILISER, and _ secures
HEAVIER CROPS with a MINIMUM of EXPENSE

GROUND LIME, if applied to the land in quantities of about 10 cwt. or more
per acre per annum, will produce greatly augmented CROPS, whether of Cereals,
Clovers, or Leguminous Plants.

THIS LIME is a SOIL FOOD, an INSECTICIDE, a FUNGICIDE,
and the BEST REMEDY for ‘‘ FINGER-AND-TOE”’ DISEASE in
TURNIPS, &c.

For Prices of

AGRICULTURAL LIME
GROUND
CARBONATE OF LIME

Write to—

THE CEMENT MARKETING COMPANY, LIMITED,

LIME DEPARTMENT,

8, LLOYDS AVENUE, LONDON, E.CG.3.

Telegraphic Address:—** PORTLAND, FEN, LONDON.’’
Telephone No:—5690 AVENUE (Private Exchange).

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

THE ‘‘CLAYTON ~

RAT-GASSING MACHINE

producing a sulphurous gas of a high
strength without danger to operator
or domestic Animals.

Unlike Poisons, Virus and Trapping, it
Destroys not only the Adult Rat, but
also the Young in the Nests.

Are you using your
Fertilisers economically ?

Crops must not only be fed, but the
manures must be applhed :—

IN THE RIGHT FORM

IN THE CORRECT QUANTITIES

AT THE PROPER TIME
Only by observing these points
will they pay for Application.
Unless you apply _ the
Nitrogen in the form of

NITRATE oF SODA

as a topdressing for your crops you are
wasting money, time and labour.
Write for special pamphlets, entitled :—

“ Practical Handbook on the Use of Nitrate
of Soda,”

XXXx1x

Used by COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL
AUTHORITIES, FARMERS, &c.

“The Improvement of Pastures and Meadows,”
‘*Catch Crops—The Farmer’s Standby,”
Supplied gratis and post free by

The Chilean Nitrate Committee,

Friars House,

New Broad Street, London, E.C.2.

NEW ZEALAND

A healthy, wealthy, progressive country, with unrivalled natural resources and unlimited possibilities.
THE POPULATION IS MOSTLY OF BRITISH DESCENT.

NEW AY AL AND enjoys a splendid climate, without extremes of temperature—although
the Dominion extends over twelve degrees of latitude. The rainfal!

is plentiful and well distributed, and the country well watered, rich
and fertile. These natural advantages make

NEW ZEALAND—The Ideal Home for the Farmer and Pastoralist.

In the production of Wool, choice Mutton and Lamb, and high-grade
Butter and Cheese, New Zealand excels. The Dominion’s average
yields of Wheat and Oats, Pulses, Clovers and Grasses, and the more
familiar ‘‘ British” crops, are admittedly very high.

NEW ZEALAND Apples and Pears, and New Zealand Table Honey have a deservedly

high reputation, and other products of the run, the field and the
forest—Hides and Tallow, Hemp and Tow, Timber and Kauri Gum
—are of an immense annual value.

NEW ZEALAND exported last year Wool valued at 419,559,537; Mutton, Lamb and

Beef to the value of 49,219,295, and Butter and Cheese valued at
A#A 10,871,118. The total exports amounted to £52,634,670 in
value, and her imports to 430,671,439. This Total Trade of over
483,000,000 rested on the industry of a population of 1,108,373
persons,

NEW ZEALAND IS A COUNTRY WITH A FUTURE,

Lf you are interested, write for particulars to—

THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR NEW ZE ALAND, » AP STRAND, LONDON, W.C.1.

Full Particulars from—
CLAYTON FIRE EXTINGUISHING & DISINFECTING CO. tTE.,
22, Craven Street, Strand, London, W.C
RESsIcH & CAMPBELL, 118 Queen St., ee.

Agents) WO. Day, Church House, Lord Street, Liverpoo

xl THE JOURNAL OF THE MIN ISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements.

Zz EK Wi +E;

BUY) ONLY THE “BEST.

The BUXTON LIME FIRMS

COMPANY, Ltd.,

Royal Exchange, Buxton.

Telegrams—Buxton Lime, Buxton. ’Phone—312 Buxton.

THE PUREST LIME KNOWN
IN COMMERCE & THE
LARGEST OUTPUT OF LIME &
LIMESTONE IN THE WORLD.

Lime Burnt in | Agriculturists, Florists
Special Kilns for | and Fruit Growers
Special Trades. | catered for specially.

AGENTS THROUGHOUT GREAT BRITAIN,

Lime in any Form, in any Quantity to suit Users.

VETERINARY
INSTRUMENTS

HORSE HOBBLES, Sheather’s.

(in

Ht
ull}

h AK ae )
tlt fi i i IGA
= y)

474
Complete with Leather Collars,
Chain Pulleys and cross Hobble.

PRICE - &8 17s. 6d.
SURGICAL MANUFACTURING CO., Ltd.,

Veterinary Instrument Makers,

83, 85, Mortimer Street, LONDON, W.

ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE ‘FREE.

=) 7
-. wy IT Sa Wy, - Wt» —
Vu Lo —_ wy DLe"
—_ 7 od

Get the “Ideal”

Fence for Sheep
GET the sheep fencing which

many large Flockmasters and
Farmers describe as the most
satisfactory, durable and eco-
nomical fencing they have

ever used.

“‘Tdeal’’ Sheep Fence No.
634 is 34ins. high, has 6 med-
ium heavy wires with weather
resisting galvanising, and is
of high quality and low
price. Read this recent testi-
monial from an experienced
breeder :—-

“Send another five rolls
of your fencing. ‘Ideal’
is the most handy for
temporary use in folding
sheep, is easily fixed and
very portable. Does not
sag and isvery durable.—

(Signed) J. Hetherton.”

The
“ Tdeal”’ Lock.

Designed to
give utmost
strength and
to run off
moisture.

Our own workmen undertake erec-
tion tn any part of the British Isles.

IDEAL ah
ENCE

Write for prices NOW!
Illustrated and descriptive
catalogue (U) free.

H. L. GOODMAN & SON,
24, Lime Street, LONDON, E.C.3.
19, Clare Street, BRISTOL.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xh

LARGE BLACK PIGS.

FOURTEEN HUNDRED BREEDERS

with more joining daily

TESTIFY TO POPULARITY

of Large Blacks.

Try them for their following quatities:
Length and Size — Prolificacy

INCOM PARABLE
‘‘ DOERS ”

GREAT
GRAZERS

Splendid Constitutions

India, Peru, Spain, Switzerland and other countries are buying Large Blacks.
Record price for single pig, 700 guineas.
QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 5s.‘ Per Annum. No. 1 just published, 1s. 2d. post free.
Descriptive Pamphlet and all Information from

L. B. PIG SOCIETY, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.1.

LIM

FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES.

CALLOW ROCK LIME

The purest Lime on the market.

CALIME

is pure Hydrate of Lime, supplied in bags, in the form of a fine white
powder which may be stored for long periods.

It sweetens a sour soil, mellows a clay soil, makes potash and
nitrogen available to the plant, and improves crop yields.

WE ALSO SUPPLY

LUMP AND GROUND LIME, each of the Highest Purity.
THE CALLOW ROCK LIME CO., LTD.

810/811, Salisbury House, London Wall, E.C.2.
Telephone - London Wall 140. Telegraphic Address - Engicont, London.

li THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

BREECHES TRADE

TO ORDER BY Post, |

Read this result
from Customer’s own
self - measurement.

¢ Dear Sirs, Melton.

I received Breeches and they
give every satisfaction. The fit could
not have been more perfect had I
been measured by professed breeches’
makers.

They are the best pair of Breeches I
have seen for some time.

Yours faithfully, T. J.

FARMERS ! send for our
Patterns and Measure
Form.

WE: CAN SAVE YOU 507%

oeeSee ES ) \ |
Cut to Measure in = to =
Bedford Cords,

Whipcords, etc.
SATISFACTION--OR CASH RETURNED.

BREEGHES C0 (Dept. 60)

29, Great Titchfield Street,
OXFORD STREET, LONDON, WA.

MARK.

T is important that every
large cultivator of land
should investigate the STONE-
HOUSE Type B Super Power
Spraying Plant of 100-gallon
capacity, 1? h.p. paraffin engine,
spraying up to 6 nozzles. It

is invaluable to all who

Operate on a large scale. All

details from—

STONEHOUSE WORKS C0.
{2, Spon Lane Mills, West Bromwich.

LONDON: B. W. Peters, 36-38, Hatton Garden, E.C.1.
MANCHESTER: 6, Exchange Arcade, Deansgate.

THE

YORKSHIRE| [FARMING

INSURANCE COMPANY Limited. LEARN BY POST

FARMERS’ INTERESTS SPECIALLY STUDIED. TO make farming pay really well. We have trained

Have you increased your FIRE INSURANCE hundreds to succeed. Why not you?

on New Crops to meet present day values? WE have courses of instruction in every branch of
If ies consult ans be ne y : Mixed, Stock, Arable and Dairy Farming, Veterinary
J .

; Science, Farm Accounts, &c.
Chief Offices: ALSO a special course in Land Agency for those going

i t of landed estates.

York: ST. HELEN’S SQUARE, in for the management 0 an ed estates
THE College has been established 18 years. Send
London: BANK BUILDINGS, PRINCES ols FG:2) postcard for a free prospectus to The Agricultural

Correspondence College (Sec. N), Ripon.
mmm FA RIMMING

Branches and Agencies throughout the Kingdom.

ANDREW WEIR & CO..

Sack and Bag Manufacturers
and Merchants,

21, PARLIAMENT ST., LIVERPOOL.

Tents, Marquees, Sheets, Rick
Cloths, Cart Covers, Horse Cloths,
Nose Bags, &c.

Samples of Material sent willingiy.

Telegrams : “ Weirsac.” *Phone: 895 Royal.

J. D. GAMPBELL,

Manufacturer of NICOTINE in Bond from duty-
free Tobacco.
Nicotine makes the very finest Insecticide for fumi-
gating, vapourising, or spraying to destroy insects
infesting vegetation. Your inquiries solicited.

LUND STREET, CORNBROOK MANCHESTER.

Jonathan Hilton

9,Naylor St, Liverpool.
Send your enguirres

TELEPHONE: CENTRAL 8928.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements.:

‘The Cheapest and Best
Nitrogenous’- Fertiliser
on the Market

Send for new illustrated
booklet ‘‘The Key to
Successful Farming.’’—

The British Sulphate of Ammonia

Federation, Limited
Dept. , Agricultural Offices
G.P.O. Box No. 50 Fishergate, Preston

xliv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

GUNS 4,0 SERVICE

ECHNICAL experts, shooting experts—indeed all who have
handled or used the new B.S.A. 12 Bore Hammerless Shot
Gun, express delight with the balance of the gun, its crisp trigger
pulls, its best gun-like handling, and are genuinely astonished at its
remarkable _ value. BSrAy ,
Design, quality and workman-
ship were never so wonderfully
represented. The B.S.A. Shot
equal to the best hand made

Gun is able to give service Soldkeeeueee
weapon. and rifle dealers,

The B.S.A. Air Rifle provides sport for everyone. It is the greatest
small game and target shooting rifle on the market. Shoots rooks,
rabbits, rats and other destructive pests with remarkable accuracy.
Ammunition is inexpensive. Booklets, post fice

B.S.A. GUNS LTD., BIRMINGHAM,

Proprietors: THE BIRMINGHAM SMALL ARMS C0. LTD.

Telephones : Bankers :
Day (OLY _- - - - 8082 oe LLOYDS BANK LIMITED,
Y | WALTHAMSTOW 920 ARIE Ludgate Hill Branch, 5.C.4.
Telegrams : ~~ FAY St. Johns St., B.C,1.
“THACKMEN, PHONE, LONDON” CAONES TPs MIDDLESEX BANKING CO.
| x \) Kes LIMITED.

Codes : ZY |
Fane” \ |
A.B.C. 5th EDITION. a Head Office: Leadenhall St.,
E.C.8,

J. BIRD, Proprietor. REGISTERED

R.WATSON &Co.,

British and Colontal
FUR, SKIN AND FEATHER MERCHANTS.

Largest Cash Buyers of Moleskins in the World.
é

71 & 73 ST. JOHNS ST., CLERKENWELL, E.C.1.
LONDON.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

EPHOS BASIC
PHOSPHATE

: A radw-active phosphatic feriihser,
: containing 60-65% Phosphates.
: HIGHLY SOLUBLE.

: i

| For grain and roots “EPHOS” will give results
_ | comparable to superphosphate and basic slag, while
| it excels both in the promotion of leaf and stem.

3 “EPHOS” counteracts soil acidity.
ai & EPHOS" is particularly well adapted for mixing
ae | in compound manures.

PCOROOKSTON BROS.,

38, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W.1. gene ti

In Nice Granular Sowable Condition,

contains :—
13°/, Nitrogen = 15'8°/, Ammonia,
and supplies :—

26°/, of its weight of ime. ina
soluble form.

A Rapid and Highly - Efficient
Top-Dressing for all Crops.

Invaluable for Soils Poor in Lime,

For Literature and information on its use please apply to:—

a THE NITRATE TRADING Co L™: |

“1, ‘Gadighaus LONDON, E.C.3.