Vol XXIX. PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 2. - WWIICAR MUST | he Journal OF THE my of Agriculture MAY, 1922. | PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. | | (For Complete List of Contents see page ix.) PAGE | Green Manuring. #H. J. Page, MBE. BSc, ALC.- - = 104 | Farm Buildings for Small-Holdings : A West Riding | Improvement. Major P. G. Maule, DS.O., MC, | F.RI.B.A. - ‘ 4 . - ~ - - a ELS | Germination of Indigenous Grass and Clover Seeds. | Professor R. G. Stapledon, M.A. - - - ~ at 338 | B.Sc, N.D.A. ¥ Oe Bee os alee 198 Cropping of a Derelict Estate in Sussex. R. H. B. Jesse, beg oF Sowing Grass and Clover Seeds, R. D. Williams, a Staite of the ‘Hop Crop. v— Lpicidag: _ Diving and Packing of Hops. Part I. Arthur Amos, M.A. 138 Increasing the Commercial Value of Apples. F. WV. Beas 148 The Liver Rot Epidemic in North Wales, 1920-21. SAY ay Walton, M.Sc. - - - 154 The Ministry’s Trials of Varieties of ee 1921 wm LOS A Buceessful Co-operative | Ege and Poultry Society. | . G. Warren = 71 es Spot Disease or Streak Discus of Broad Beans. Sydney G. Paine and Margaret S. Lacey - < - 175 Marrow-stemmed Kale for Poultry. Lucy A. Hutchinson, B.A. 177 Feeding Stuffs for May. Y aie be rah oa M.A. Dip. AGic. Cantab.) - = - Bye tS = 179 LONDON: PRINTED UNDER THE AUTPORITY OF HIS MAJRSTY'S STATIONERY OFFIOR, AND PUBLISHED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURH AND FISHERIES. (To be obtained from the Ministry's Offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London, &.W.1.) EDITORIAL ee MONTHLY, AGENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS: PUBLISHING : C. VERNON & SONS, Ltd. 10, WHITEHALL PLACE, [PRICE SIXPENCE. ] 98, Holborn Viaduct, E.0.1; ; LONDON, 8.W. 1, Post free. 66/62, South Castle Street, Liverpool. | a , } THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements. PALES i j 4 YROI ae ONLY THE BEST, The BUXTON LIME FIRMS C0, Lid, ROYAL EXCHANGE, BUXTON. Telegrams—BUXTON LIME, BUXTON. ’Phone—312 BUXTON. THE PUREST LIME KNOWN IN COMMERCE AND THE LARGEST OUTPUT OF LIME AND LIMESTONE IN THE WORLD. LIME BURNT IN SPECIAL KILNS FOR SPECIAL TRADES. Agriculturists, Florists and Fruit Growers catered for specially. AGENTS THROUGHOUT GREAT BRITAIN. Lime in any Form, in any Quantity to suit Users. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. i PILCHERS STOPROT The Finest Wood Preservative for all Purposes Treating Sections of Army Huts with PILCHERS STOPROT. (Contractors, W. PATTINSON & SONS, Ltd., Ruskington, near Sicaford). PILCHERS, Ltd.. MORGAN’S LANE, LONDON, S.E. TAMLIN’S incubators and Poultry Houses FOSTER-MOTHER. » NONPAREIL.” The Nonpareil incubator. GVER 50 i Makdeeiwemee GOLD AND THE PROVED CHAMPION INCUBATOR SILVER : OF THE WORLD. MEDALS 30 Eggs .. £8 5 01 100 AWARDED 100 Eges £10 18 6 aw. te O's 64.200 21 5 6 If with our Patent Self-Supply Lamp, which requires no attention the whole time of hatching, price extra. ”) POULTRY H ALITY. 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Phosphates of Lime ENGLISH MAK Manute aetured by *L FEDS PHOSPHATE | whee te THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertlisements. iii .. = 60.00 OO OO’ OO OG@«@p" 00 * CO “6 NSRWaANTA NF WwW Any of the Articles in this Journal may be reproduced in any registered newspaper or public periodical without special permission, provided that the scurce is acknowledged in each case. The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and the statements made by contributors, nor for any statements made in the advertisciment columns of this Journal, x THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. 1 gertain | | Reinforced Concrete silos D = : pda deta SAVE MONEY. assured by the RATS The Scott Reinforced Silos are better and well-kn , cheaper than Timber. owny and bs n OU can feed preparations— . MICE your stock with Ensilage at half the cost of Roots and_ get double the results. This is proved by our friends whom in many cases have placed re- peat orders. No upkeep re- quired with our Silos, your initial outlay is the last and you can pay off the expense in two years. We are Silo spe- cialists with expe- ‘ rience behind us and we invite you F e to write to us for We've got no full particulars. wark fo do. Scott Silos are found all over the British Isles. JAMES SCOTT & SON, (ABERDEEN) LIMITED, 483-485, Union St., Aberdeen. Danysz Virus — Haller’s Extract of Squill |; Danzo Rat Killer Write for particulars to the proprietors— Haller Laboratories, Limited | (formerly Danysz Virus, Limited), 325, Borough High St., fLondon, $.E.1. een B eee fa ama ———— = | 4 H i tI i y} SPRAYING LIME WASHING will PREVENT disease in f Fruit Trees and Animals. VERMOREL “ECLAIR” SPRAYERS to carry out this work efficiently and economically ae ALWAYS READY TO BE DESPATCHED AT ONCE Various types have been illustrated and described in past numbers of the Journal. They include : 4 pint Hand Sprayer. 6, 11 & 22 gallon Wheeled Sprayers + gallon Knapsack. Dry Sprayers. 4 gallon Bucket. 66 gallon Horse Drawn Potato and Charlock Sprayer. Catalogue and full particulars from COOPER, PEGLER & CO., Ltd., 24b, Christopher St., E.C.2 THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE Vol SAITX.” No.2. MAY, 1922. NOTES. FOR..THE. MONTH. Ar a meeting held at the Ministry of Agriculture on Wed- nesday, 12th April, 1922, under the Chairmanship of the ' : Minister of Aericulture, Sir Arthur G. Milk Prices. iF Aste esain his Boscawen, the representatives of the pro- ducers and distributors announced that they had agreed to recommend to the organisations concerned that the price to be received by the producer for milk delivered into London from areas outside the Home Counties should be: April, 10d.; May and June, 9d.; July, 11d.; August and September, 1s. per gallon, which represents an average for the six months of 103d. per gallon. The price to be paid for milk delivered to creameries within 100 miles by rail of London should be as follows :—April, 9d.; May and June, 6d.; July, 7d.; August, 8d., and September, 9d. per gallon, which represents an average for the six months of 73d. per gallon. \ilk delivered to creameries at a greater distance than 100 miles by rail from London would be paid for at the same rate less the increased cost of railway transport to London. Tt was agreed that the revised prices should be retrospective to April Ist, and that those farmers who had already entered into contracts should receive the benefits accruing under the above arrangement. The Minister understands that in the case of certain dis- tributors, contracts have been entered into to supply milk based on prices ruling previous to this agreed alteration, and he hopes that in such cases the holders of such contracts will agree to a revision in accordance with the altered terms to the producer. The price to the consumer of 5d. a quart which had pre- viously been announced for the 3 months of April, May and June will not be raised during that period. * * * * * * (42802) P.14/35. 11,000, 5/22. M.&8 A 98 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND THE FARMER. [ May, THE Ministry will shortly issue a report on Agricultural Research which describes clearly, for the benefit of farmers and others, the scientific work now in progress Agricultural o 7k ee Reasearch ante the interests of agriculture. Hitherto, if s a farmer inquired what the reseasch Farmer. worker was doing for his industry, he could only be referred in the main to technical papers published in scientific journals, and these, even if intelligible to him, contained results which might be apparently remote from farming practice. ‘The practical man realises that while these highly scientific investi- gations may not immediately help him in securing increased returns, they are vital to the industry, for progress depends on the acquisition of knowledge. The farmer and gardener reap the benefit of research after it has passed through various expe- rimental channels, and when the results have been put to the crucial test of experience in the field. This may be some years after the patient toil of the scientist in the laboratory. Mlany farming operations which are commonly practised to-day can be traced back to discoveries made years ago by scientists who at the time had only a faint conception—if any at all—of the use to which their results would eventually be put. For some time past, however, the need has been felt for a comprehensive and readable account of the- important research which is being conducted in agriculture and horticulture: The Ministry consequently commissioned one of its officers, Mr. V. EK. Wilkins, to visit Institutions where research is being conducted, and prepare a report which would not only describe the work in a readable and non-technical style, but would link together as far as possible the various phases of investiga- tion, and show their relation to the practical problems of the farmer. ‘The report deals with all aspects of research, and con- tains ten chapters, devoted respectively to the soil, plant breed- ing, plant physiology, fruit growing and preserving, plant dis- eases, animal husbandry, animal. breeding, dairying, animal diseases, and farming as a business. A list of Research Institu- tions and Advisory Centres in England and Wales, and a Biblio- graphy giving the titles of papers published by research workers in 1920 and 1921, are included as Appendices. A prefatory note has been written by Sir. Arthur G. Boscawen, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, in which he refers to the * Agricultural Research and the Farmer : A Record of Recent Achievement. Published by H.M. Stationery Office, Imperial House, Kingsway, W.C.2. price 2/6 net ; obtainable through any Bookseller or direct from the Publisher, 1922. | COMMITTEE ON Foor-aNp-Moutrn DISKASE. 99 report as an attempt to remedy the existing fault in the line of communication between the research worker on the one hand, and the farmer and the general public on the other. Sir Arthur also expresses the hope that the farming community and the general public will show by the practical test of buying the volume that the attempt has been successful. * * * * * * In reply to a question in Parliament cn the 30th March, the Minister of Agriculture, Sir Arthur G. Boscawen, said :— ‘““ The Government have decided that, in view of the exceptional conditions of this new industry, and the condition of un- employment in this country, no excise duty should be charged on home-grown sugar, and the necessary provision for the removal of the existing duty will be made in the Finance Bill of this Session. It is of course impossible to bind any future Government, but in view of the fact that the remission of excise is intended to assist a new industry during the experimental period, it may be hoped that Parliament would not re-impose any excise duty until the industry has been firmly established.’’ Remission of Duty on Home-grown Sugar. * * * * * * THE Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries has appointed a Departmental Committee ‘‘ to inquire into the origin and circumstances of the recent outbreak of Departmental Foot-and-Mouth Disease and into the Baminitios oh policy and procedure which was pursued in Fock and skeckh dealing with the disease, and to report Whether any alteration of the methods of administrative control hitherto adopted, or any amendment of the existing law is necessary or desirable.’’ The Committee is constituted as follows :— Capt. the Rt. Hon. E. G. Pretyman, M.P. (Chairman). A. Batchelor, Esq. David Ferrie, Esq. F. W. Garnett, Esq., C.B.E., J.P. H. German, Esq. William Graham, Esq., J.P., D.L. Alfred Mansell, Esq. Sir G. Douglas Newton, K.B.E., M.P. Professor John Penberthy, J.P. W. R. Smith, Esq:, M.P. Appointment of Disease. 100 PropuceE or Crops 1n 1921. [ May, The Secretary of the Committee is Mr. 8S. A. Piggott, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, S.W.1, to whom all communications should be addressed. * * * %* * * THE Ministry’s Crop Reporters estimate the yields of the chief crops in the autumn of each year, and the estimates of total production in the country are issued immediately tabulation is completed. These data as regards corn and hay were issued on 2nd November last vear; potatoes and roots on 80th November; while those relating to hops were issued earlier on 20th October. The Report now issued gives details regarding the different counties of England and Wales as Well as totals for Scotland and Ireland. Attention is drawn in the Report, not only to the special features of 1921 as regards crop production, but also to the relative money value of the grain and potato crops as compared with previous years. The use of forecasts of the yields of crops made before harvest, as well as of returns of production made after harvest when the actual results are known, is also discussed as regards their bearing on world trade. This Report, which forms Part Il of the Agricultural Statistics for 1921, can be obtained through any bookseller or direct from His Majesty’s Stationery Office, Imperial House, Kingsway, W.C.2, and 28, Abingdon Street, 8.W.1. t * * * % * * Report on the Produce of Crops in 1921. THE Conciliation Committees continue to work satisfactorily, and the total number of agreements in operation on 20th April was 45. ‘The question of milk prices has Conciliation : .. no doubt been somewhat responsible for Committees in : tae 25 ; delaying negotiations in certain cases, but Agriculture. in most areas where no wages agreement exists, the Committees have arranged to hold further meetings at an early date. A full statement of the agreements in operation on 20th March was given in the April issue of the Journal. The : ereements reached during the succeeding month are as follow. : Current Agreements Area, Period, Wages. Hours per week. Derby Up to 30th June, 1922 73d. per hr. for all employment on weekdays. Sun day employment 10d. per hr. 1922. ] THE AGRICULTURAL INDEX NUMBER. 101 Current Agreements, Area, Period. Wages. Hours per week, Hampshire e 1p to Lith Oct., 1922 Tad. ‘per ‘hr. for all employment. Guaranteed week of 50 hr. Lancashire— Southern area - i BUP SOp.,.” 4 42/6 Customary hr, “astern area - Sate ow a 45]|- Northern area - yy oO Ba r. 42/6 Leicester— Melton Mow- PTTL nas +) Ole Weekday 53 bray and overtime 8d. per Belvoir hr. Sunday em- ployment — 10d. per hr. Leicester - - Until such time that 73d. per hr. up to one side gives notice 54hr. Guaranteed of alteration. week of 54 hr. Weekday over- time 8d. ver hr. Sunday employ- ment 10d. per hr. Loughborough - Until such time that 74d. per hr, up to one side gives notiee 54hr. Guaranteed of alteration. week of 54 hr. Weekday over- time 8d. per hr. Sunday employ- ment 10d. per hr. Denbigh and Up to 10th Sept., 1922 31/3d. Overtime, 50 Flint proportionate rate up to 61 hr. ; over 61 hr.9d.per hour, Stockmen and wag- 61 goners, 38/13d. Full details of the agreement for any particular area will be furnished on application to the Ministry. THERE was practically no change in the average of the market prices of all descriptions of agricultural produce during : March as compared with the previous month, the general level of these prices being 82 per cent. above the average of the three years 1911-13 as against 83 per cent. in February. The Agricultural Index Number. 102 ‘Tae AGRICULTURAL INDEX NUMBER. [ May, The percentage increase during each month from January, 1919, as compared with the pre-war years, is shown in the following table :— Month. ~ SLO KH 1920. 1921. 1922. : Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent- January ... she 148 aaa ois as 186 nine 77 February ... eS ha yy 50) - 205 — 172 ae 83 March at ae 150 Bee 199 - 158 a 82 April ac ace 153 ae 99 ae 141 oe — May ae see 132 ae 169 at 112 as — June aoe San 128 axe 164 b 102 ny _ July an mae 141 ne 174 ee 100 ee — AUSSIE Pca Bus 138 sae 177 ome 116 ser — September... ia 148 oe 181 Sine 105 Ae — October... aay 166 ane 19 ats 90 eh —_- November... sis 182 _ 197 bya 84 san — December ... is 207 oe 194 bs 82 ae — Considerable changes have taken place in the prices of certain commodities, the principal increase being in the case of fat sheep. ‘I'he average price of fat sheep in March was 120 per cent. above the average of 1911-18, as compared with 83 per cent. in February and 60 per cent. in January. Other descrip- tions of fat stock also advanced, although the rise was much less marked than in the case of sheep. Wheat has continued to advance in price, being in March 61 per cent. above the pre-war average as against 45 per cent. in February. The March price for milk delivered into large towns showed a considerable reduction on the prices for February, while the low prices offered for summer milk were reflected in the fall in the price of dairy cows, which averaged about 87 per cent. more than in the pre-war years as against 89 per cent. in January, this decrease representing a cash difference of about £11 per head. Eggs showed the usual large seasonal reduction and butter was also appreciablv cheaper than in February. Feeding stuffs as a whole showed little change in price since February. Millers’ offals declined 7 points but this fall was compensated by a rise in the price of maize, while oilcakes, brewers’ grains, maize meal and barley meal remained practically unchanged. Among fertilisers, superphosphate depreciated slightly in value, but nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia were dearer, while basic slag remained unchanged. The general average prices of feeding stuffs and fertilisers were estimated to be between 50 and 60 per cent. above the pre-war average. * * * * * * £922. | Foot-aAno-Mouru DISEASE. 108 Srxcg 19th March, the date referred to in the note contained in the Journal for April, 1922, 50 outbreaks of foot-and-moith disease were confirmed in Great Britain up Fonkaypemantn to 28rd April, making a total of 1,079 out- ee breaks, which included 978 in England 2 in Wales and 99 in Scotland. These additional outbreaks all occurred in counties which had been previously affected, but in one instance disease reappeared in a county (Warwickshire) from which restrictions had been withdrawn. The Ministry has now been able to authorise the freedom of a large proportion of the earlier infected premises, and the total number of premises in Great Britain so freed up to 28rd April was 707. Restrictions have also been withdrawn from a number of counties in England and Scotland. The total number of animals slaughtered up to 23rd April was 52,195, viz., 22,666 cattle, 20,276 sheep, 9,206 pigs and 47 goats. Modifications of Restrictions on Movement since 19th March. —Representations were received that (a) the resumption in some form of the trade in store stock was becoming essential in order to make use of the summer grazings; and (b) that the return of wintering sheep to their summer grazings could not be delayed after about Ist April. The Ministry therefore made an Order re-opening the store stock trade from Ireland from 29th March without allowing the aggregation of store stock in internal mar- kets, which was still considered to be attended with risk. The Order allowed the landing of store stock subject to licence of the receiving Local Authority and to the stock being railed direct to their farms of destination for 28 days’ detention. No obstacle was placed in the way of the holding of store stock sales in the landing places, and Local Authorities still had powers to prohibit the movement of the cattle into their districts if they thought fit. All trucks were required to be specially disinfected before the animals were placed therein. As regards the return of win- tering sheep an Order was made taking effect on 5th April enabl- ing sheep not in existing infected areas to be moved to any premises in Great Britain by licence of the receiving Local Authority after counter-signature by the sending Local Authority and after the sheep had been examined by a Veterinary Inspector of the sending Local Authority. A further examination of the sheep on arrival at their destination was required and railway trucks conveying them were required to be specially disinfected before being used for the sheep. Note.—The figure of £65,000 given in the April issue of the Journal, p. 91, as the cost of compensation for animals slaugh- tered should have read £655,000. 104 GREEN MANURING. [ May, GREEN MANURING. H. J. Pace, M.BsB., BGer A E.C., Rothamsted HKaperimental Station. The Scarcity of Animal Manure and its Causes.—One of the most serious practical problems with which the farmer is faced at the present time is the shortage of farmyard manure. This manure is almost everywhere more highly esteemed than any other, and it was largely in order to investigate the cause of this well-known superiority that Lawes started at Rothamsted in 18483 the famous field experiments which have now been going on there continuously for nearly eighty years. It is interesting to know that even at that time farmers could not usually get enough farmyard manure, and yet how much better off were they than the present-day farmer! Let us pause a moment before considering the reasons under- lying the value of farmyard manure, and look a little more closely at the extent of, and the factors causing, the present shortage. With regard to the extent of the shortage, the rise in the price illustrates this point sufficiently. At the present time a ton of stable manure on rail in London may cost as much as 7s. 6d., and even then it is often of poor quality ; in 1912 the cost was 4s. 6d., while in 1905 it was only 1s., and usually no difficulty was experienced in finding a supply. What are the causes of this enormous change? ‘The obvious one which immediately suggests itself, is the driving of horse transport from the roads by mechanical transport. Whatever the benefits that the tractor has conferred on the farmer in the fields, its elder brothers, the lorry and the motor ’bus have proved for him by no means an unmixed blessing. The returns of H.M. Commissioners of Customs and Excise show that from 1906 to 1920 the number of licensed motor vehicles (excluding motor-cycles) increased by nearly a quarter of a millon, whereas licensed horse vehicles decreased by 200,000. When it is borne in mind that the bulk of this fall in horse-drawn vehicles will have occurred in the big stables of commercial firms whence the greater part of the town stable manure is derived, it is not difficult to see why stable manure is now so scarce and dear. Nowadays, therefore, the farmer is very much more dependent on his beasts for a supply of dung than formerly, and even this supply is not being wholly maintained. The number of head of cattle in Great Britain in 1921 showed a 1922. | (GREEN MANURING. 105 decrease of 400,000 as compared with 1914, and of nearly 800,000 compared with 1919, while sheep decreased by nearly 4 million between 1914 and 1921. So much as regards a dwind|- ing supply. As to demand, this, so far from dwindling, has increased, for although the number of acres of land under the plough in Great Britain has been steadily falling since 1918. in 1921 it still showed an increase of 800,000 compared with 1914. and the more land there is under the plough, the greater is the need for organic matter. The Value of Farmyard Manure and the Need for Organic Matter in the Soil.—The shortage of farmyard manure and the causes of that shortage have thus been discussed in order to show that the situation is one which is not likely to improve in the future, but rather is likely to become more serious. Now although every practical man admits the value of farmyard manure, and knows that in order to maintain the fertility of his soil and to keep it in good heart, a plentiful supply of organic matter is indispensable, there is very little certainty as to the mode of action of that organic matter. We know that the main requirements of a crop for mineral substances and nitrogen can be completely satisfied by artificial fertilisers, so that it is unlikely that the unique properties of farmyard manure reside intrinsically in the mineral substances and nitrogen it contains. There is indeed the possibility that certain of the rarer elements, such as boron, present in farmyard manure and usually absent from artificials. may play a part in soil fertility and this question is under investigation at Rothamsted at the present time—but it is practically certain that the superiority of dung is mainly due to the organic, humus-form- ing material in it. As to the exact nature of ‘“‘ humus’ we still know little, and the term, although commonly used, is only one of the many convenient labels which scientists, no less than other mortals, use to hide their ignorance. Humus may be regarded as pre-eminently the characteristic constituent of a fertile soil, in which it exists as a gelatinous brown or black material. The influence of humus on the growth of crops is mainly indirect : it is intimately related to the life of the complex soil population of micro-organisms, and it has important effects on the tilth, moisture relations, and other phvsical properties of the soil. It affects plant growth by so modifying the pro- perties of the soil as to secure a well-regulated supply of the soluble mineral and nitrogenous substances absorbed by the plant roots, and of the water which serves as the vehicle by 106° * GREEN MANURING. [ May, which those soluble substances are conveyed to the plant, and without which this ‘‘ plant food,’’ however plentiful it may be in the soil, cannot be obtained by the plant. A light soil is given more ‘‘ body ’’ and rendered better capable of withstand- ing drought, while a heavy soil is made more open and work- able. ‘This is not the occasion to discuss the exact mode of action of humus in bringing about these effects, nor for that matter are we in a position to do so with any degree of certainty ;* but from the practical point of view the important thing is that these effects undoubtedly exist, and are of great significance. Alternative Sources of Organic Matter.—It is therefore as a source of humus that farmyard manure must be chiefly prized, and in the face of a growing scarcity the agriculturist is faced with the problem of finding an alternative source of organic matter, that is to say, of keeping part of his soil in good heart without the assistance of animals as manure-makers. What are the possibilities of such alternative supplies? Apart from purely local or undeveloped sources, such as seaweed, which is used in maritime districts like the Channel Islands and many coastal districts of Scotland,t or such as activated sewage sludge,t there are at least three possible sources of general applicability. These are (1) The ploughing of raw straw into the soil; (2) The use of artificial straw-manure made by the process of Hutchinson. and Richards as worked out at Rothamsted ;§ (8) The use of green manures. With regard to the first method, although the practice of ploughing in raw straw in the autumn is being adopted in some parts, notably on the heavy land in Essex, it is as yet of un- proved value. One great danger of such a practice is that the addition of a large bulk of non-nitrogenous, carbohydrate matter to the soil, may cause a temporary locking up of nitrogen by biological agencies in an insoluble form not available to the plant; such an effect, if sufficiently transitory, might be all to the good, as for example, in preventing loss of nitrates by leaching during the winter months, but in other circumstances much harm might result.|| The question needs careful in- * For a discussion of this aspect of the part played by humus in the soil, see a paper by the writer in the ‘“ Transactions of the Faraday Society,” 17, 272 (1922) (General Discussion on Physico-chemical Problems relating to the Soil, held on 21st May, 1921). + See Ministry of Agriculture Leaflet No. 254. £ See Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 39, 177, 41, 62 T. See this Journal, 28, p. 398, (1921). See Journ. Agr. Sev. 9, 92. Lo 1922. | GREEN MANURING. 107 vestigation before the practice can be recommended for general adoption. As to the use of artificial farmyard manure made from straw, there seems to be little doubt that this material will prove a valuable manure, and provided its production on a large scale can be made economically practicabie, it will doubt- less ultimately find a large application in agriculture. Both of these methods, however, apply pre-eminently to those farms where straw is available in sufficient quantity on the spot, and in a less degree in cases where the straw would need to be brought in. The object of this article is to call special attention to the third method mentioned above, namely, green-manuring. In doing so it must be clearly understood that it is as a means of supplementing a dwindling supply of animal manure, and not necessarily as a competitor with animal manure, that green manures are here treated. It is often urged that it is a far more practical proposition to feed a green crop to sheep folded on the land than to plough it in, and on hght lands this is no doubt usually the case, but on heavy lands on which sheep can- not be folded, and even on light lands, if sufficient sheep are not available, green manuring merits serious consideration by the arable farmer who does not feed enough stock off the land to supply his requirements of animal manure. Existing Green-Manuring Practice in this Country.—Few farmers neglect a favourable opportunity of taking a catch crop of a quick-growing nature, such as mustard, between harvest and seed-time. or on a freshly ploughed seeds ley, and turning it in if it is not convenient or practicable to fold sheep on the land or to feed cattle off the land; and to this extent green manuring may be said to be fairly general in this country, but in most districts it cannot be said to play more than a very minor part. The difficulty in ordinary farming is that in any of the usual rotations, after doing the necessary amount of cultivation to keep the land clean it is often too late to get in a green manure crop with any hope of its making sufficient growth before next seed-time. In a normal four-course system of seeds, wheat, roots, barley, the land is seldom available until August, and in a late season it may well be a month later before the harvest is in. Although nowadays the tractor has made it possible to finish the ploughing of stubbles and cultiva- tion for weed-killing in a much shorter time than formerly, in a late season the interval available is usually too short for taking a catch crop. Another factor which adds to the difficulty is the 108 -GREEN MANURING. [ May fact that the land may be so dry after harvest that germina- tion 1s very bad. The result is that green manuring forms a regular and essential part of the system of husbandry only in districts given over to special crops, such as the Fens, the Lothians, and Ayrshire, where it is extensively used after early potatoes; the market-gardening districts around Biggleswade; and the flax- growing areas of North Ireland; or in cases where the nature of the soil is such that special rotations are used, as for instance on the London Clay in Essex, where a bare fallow provides the necessary opportunity, or on the light blowy sands of East Angha, which can often only be profitably farmed by giving one year in four to a nitrogen-gathering crop such as lupins. Another system which is adopted in some parts is to sow the green manure crop in the spring corn, as for a seeds ley, and after harvest to let the green crop grow on till early in the following year before turning it in. Systems of green manur- ing can thus be classified under three main heads :—(1) Green manure crops grown as catch crops in the intervals in the rotation; (2) Green manure crops grown as part of a special rotation in which the whole or a large part of one growing season 1s given up to the green manure crop; (3) Green manure crops sown in the spring corn, for turning in the following year. To the first category belong the systems referred to above as employed by early potato growers. Thus in the famous potato districts of East Lothian and Ayrshire, rape or Italian rye grass, or a mixture of the two, is sown down immediately the tubers have been lifted, in any case not later than the third week in August. Some growers then feed the green crop to sheep, but many prefer to turn the crop in. Again, in the Holland division of Lincolnshire, and in the black lands of the Fens, mustard, rape and oats are similarly largely used by potato growers as early autumn-sown green manures, and some farmers have latterly been trying beans for the same purpose. In Essex and Suffolk, on the heavy lands of the London Clay, it is a common practice to sow mustard on the bare fallow in July, and plough it in before sowing winter corn: similarly many flax growers in County Down have got splendid results from mustard sown in August after the flax has been pulled, and turned in during January or early February. 1922. | GREEN MANURING. 109 The most outstanding example of a system in the second category is that used on the poor light glacial sands of Suffolk. This land is so poor that it scarcely repays cultivation on ordinary straightforward lines, yet by adopting a rotation such as rye, lupins, potatoes, silage crops, it is possible to make farming on this land pay well. The lupins are sown in the late spring or early summer and may be ploughed in either When in flower, or seed may be gathered, and the plant then turned in. The lupins do so well, even on the poorest of this land, that when turned in they give as much organic matter and nitrogen as a dressing of about 8-10 tons of farmyard manure. The use of lupins as green manure on poor sands is extending to other counties, notably Notts., where some striking results have been obtained in trials (see Part IT in next month's Journal), Of systems in the third category, an example is afforded by the practice common in the market gardening districts around Biggleswade in Bedfordshire, where red or white clover is commonly sown with the corn in spring and turned under in the autumn or the new year, before potatoes. In a moist season the green matter ploughed in is often found to be as effective as a dressing of 25 tons of stable manure. Similarly some of the growers in the Lothians sow rye grass and red clover in the spring corn and turn it under in the following spring. The same practice has been tried in the Aberdeen district, but 1t is not general there, for owing to the late harvest, creen stuff in the bottom of the sheaves adds to the difficulty of drying, and after harvest it is too late for the rye grass and clover to make much growth. Of course the ploughing up of a temporary seeds ley incorporates a large quantity of valuable organic matter in the soil, and to this extent most arable land 18 green-manured at intervals. ‘he potato growers of Lincoln- shire commonly turn in the aftermath of the clover as a green manure, with good results. Where the land is left down to grass for several years, as in the Aberdeen district and many districts in England, the sod of grass which is ploughed down is an excellent green manure, and gives so much nitrogen to the soil that no nitrogenous artificials are needed for a follow- ing oat crop, and indeed, their use is liable to cause lodging. Green Manuring Abroad.—We must, however, go overseas to find the practice of green manuring in its most highly developed state. An outstanding example on the Continent is that of Germany, where large tracts of barren sandy heath have been reclaimed 110 GREEN MANURING, [ May, and made profitable almost solely by the use of green manures, mainly leguminous; the pioneer work of Schultz at Lupitz, in Saxony, is a well-known instance in this connection. Again, in America green manures are widely used, both for farm crops, and, especially in California, for orchards. It is, however, in tropical countries, perhaps, that green manures find their widest application. Thus in India, in many districts where animal manure is practically unobtainable, the whole of the requre- ments of the soil for organic matter and nitrogen are obtained by the use of leguminous green manures. Results of Green Manuring Trials.—Although there are a certain number of results on record showing that distinct and valuable crop increases can be obtained by green manuring, there are very few critical experiments designed to test the relative values of different green crops and different methods of application. ‘The most extensive series of experiments in this country is that carried out by Voelcker at the Royal Agricultural Society’s Station at Woburn. In these experiments vetches, rape and mustard were grown side by side as spring-sown ereen manure crops which were turned in before winter wheat. The experiment has been in progress for over twenty years, and the results are summarised below :— Yield of Wheat after Green Manures, Woburn, Lansome Lield (Light sundy soil ). Average of results for eight seasons 1899, 1901, 03, 06, 08, 10, 12, 15. Dressed grain, bush. per acre. After vetches, grown with mineral manures dee set 16°3 » rape A * . ee ses 20:4 0) mustard) 4; - * Zon lor comparison :— Wheat on Stackyard Field, complete minerals only mae ot 3 5 » farmyard manure (equiv. to 200 Ib. ammonia per acre) ... ahs Fs ‘et 20°4 Unfortunately there are no control plots on Lansome Field, so the values for Stackyard Field (continuous wheat) which have been added for comparison, are not necessarily strictly com- parable, but they serve to indicate the sort of result that can be obtained with green manures compared with mineral or farmyard manure. An experiment.on similar lines was carried out at Rothamsted. Here the land was given up to spring- sown green crops for two seasons, the crop being turned in each autumn, and in the third season winter wheat was grown. The 1922. | GREEN MANURING. 111 experiment was then repeated on the same land. ‘The results were as follows :— Yield of Wheat after Green Manures, Rothamsted, Littl. Hoos Field (Stiff clayey loan). 1000. 1917. After vetches, grown with mineral manures... 39°7 O44 ,, crimson clover " * ae o2°5 30°8 > rape : + te 21°3 26°8 », mustard . a vot 19°6 For comparison :— Wheat on Broadbalk Field, complete minerals only ase ee 11°5 10-0 ‘4 “ = » farmyard manure (14 tons per acre) ... oad rd ia Again there were no control plants on Little Hoos Field, but the figures for Broadbalk Field afford a rough basis for comparison. Apart from the obviously beneficial effect of green manures on winter wheat, which is clearly brought out by the above Woburn and Rothamsted results, 1¢ will be noticed that the relative values of leguminous and non-leguminous crops, such as vetches and mustard respectively, come out very differently in the two sets of experiments. ‘This is a striking instance of the danger of applying the results obtained in one district on a certain type of soil, to another with an entirely different soil. This difference is further discussed later. Both of the sets of experiments quoted above referred to summer-grown green manures for winter wheat. Trials were started by the writer at the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens at Wisley in 1919 in which green crops were sown in August for digging in late in the autumn or early the next spring, as a preparation for white turnips. Some of the results for 1919-20 are shown below* :— Green Manuring Experiment at Wisley, 1919-20. (Light sandy soil). Yield of Turn ip Roots after green crop. (reen crop. Tons per acre, Tous per were, Per cent. of contio/ A. Green crop turned under in Spring. Plot. Crimson clover... 17-0 10°5 239 Vetches _... oe 8-6 9-7 220 Red clover ... ie 3°9 9:3 206 Rye .& ee er 8:4 8:6 » 195 Rape iG ine 9-3 Or4 145 Control a ie 2°2 (weeds) 4-4 100 Lb. Greenecrop turned vider in Autumn, UY eS san i re 2°9 O03 162 Watsie. wen oak 36 O33 162 Mustard ners 56 59 151 Vetch a avi 4°3 DD 141 Control isi ses 8 (weeds) oe 100 * These results will shortly be published in full in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 112 GREEN MANURING. [ May, As an illustration of the value of lupins on light blowy sands the results may be quoted of an experiment carried out in Notts., for particulars of which the author is indebted to the Agricultural Organiser of that county. Lupins were sown in May, 1920, and turned under in September, and winter oats sown. The land received no farmyard manure or artificials. The oats after lupins yielded 74 quarters per acre, while an adjacent control plot on which no lupins had been turned in, yielded only 15 quarters per acre. This experiment is being extended during the present season. Many more results of a similar character to those given above could be quoted, but these suffice to demonstrate broadly the very considerable increase in yield that can be obtained by green manuring. As already pointed out, however, a comparison of the Woburn and Rothamsted results serves to show that, as soon as more detailed and precise information is sought with regard to the best system of green manuring to adopt in any particular district, difficulties and uncertainties are encountered. In fact, if green manuring is to find a much more general adoption in this country than at present, it will be necessary for careful experiments to be carried out in different districts before the system best adapted to specified conditions of soil, climate, etc., can be definitely laid down. In order to bring out clearly the complexity of the problem, it is desirable to consider at this point, as far as space and the present state of our knowledge permits, the principles underlying the action of ereen manures, particularly in comparison with farmyard manure. (To be concluded.) 1922. | Farm BUILDINGS FoR SMALL-HOLDINGS, 118 FARM BUILDINGS FOR SMALL- HOLDINGS: A WEST RIDING IMPROVEMENT. mason MH. ©..G. waok., 0.5.0. M.C., F.R.1.B.A., Ministry of Agriculture. Tue planning of new farm buildings, whether on a large or small scale, presents many problems to the architect, and at no time more than the present, when the results of scientific research are becoming more generally recognised, and many of the old established methods and customs of farming practice are being weighed in the balance. Certain broad and elementary principles of planning may, however, be said to be firmly estab- lished and to be applicable to any type of English farming, and it may be well to record some of these before proceeding to dis- cuss the main subject of this paper. First, buildings must be suited to the nature of the land, the type of farming, and the prevalent climatic conditions. Secondly, the buildings must be planned with a view to the utmost economy of labour in the care of stock, i.e., in feeding, cleaning and general york, the guiding factor in this being the correct placing of the storage rooms and mixing floor for the collection, preparation, and distribution of fodder. Thirdly, the health and well-being of stock must not be sacri- ficed to either of the above considerations by inadequate planning or insufficient area. Fourthly, attention must be given, especially in the case of the small holder (who cannot be expected to purchase artificials to the same extent as the large farmer) to the adequate conser- vation and economic distribution of manurial produce. A careful analysis of many of the existing farmsteads in this country shows that these principles are more often honoured in the breach than in the observance, and even buildings erected in the ‘* golden age ’’ of farming in the last century, leave much to be desired when viewed in the light of modern conditions and practice. It is to be expected, therefore, that the immediate future will show several variations from existing types, and already there are signs of approaching changes in the construction and placing of cow houses, in the greater attention paid to the conservation R 114 FarM BUILDINGS FOR SMALL-HOLvINGS. [ May, of farmyard manure, in the provision of covered yards, hay and straw barns, and in the use of utility boxes which can be adapted to varying needs. Any variation from the normal, whether in buildings for large farms or small holdings, should therefore be of special imterest at the present time to practical agriculturists, and to those con- cerned in the equipment of farms or small holdings. The object of this article and illustrations is to draw attention to what in effect amounts to a departure from the normal in small holding equipment, and as the main feature, a single span roof covering the whole area of the buildings is much in accord with modern American practice on large farms, it is hoped that criticisms and suggestions will be forthcoming and that prac- tical farmers will express their views on the general principle involved. In small holding equipment for mixed farming of from 40 to 50 acres there may be said to be two principal types of plan in common use :— (1) A range of low roofed buildings grouped round three sides of an open space which, by the addition of a fence on the fourth side, becomes the central stock or fold yard. When funds are available this stock yard is covered in by a “* space boarded ’’ or corrugated iron roof, which is a separate struc- ture and quite distinct from the roofs gver the main buildings. (2) ‘Two low-roofed ranges of buildings meeting in a right angle, the open stock yard being formed by the addition of an open or closed fence on the two remaining sides. The actual arrangement of the various parts of the buildings differs slightly according to local custom and climatic conditions, but, broadly speaking, these two types are prevalent all over England and have been the basis of most of the larger holding plans submitted to the Ministry by the County Councils during the past three years under the Land Settlement Act. The most notable exception to this practice is to be found in some plans submitted by the West Riding County Council in the early part of 1920. The main feature of this design lay in the fact that while more or less following the normal type (1) referred to above, the whole area was intended to be covered in with a single pitched roof which converted the open space in the centre of the quadrangle into a covered stock yard. A model of this plan was submitted by the County Council, the scheme was approved, and seven of these single roof buildings have been erected on the Whixley estate. 1922. | Farm BUILDINGS FOR SMALL-HOLDINGS, 115 Some months ago the writer had an opportunity of inspecting several of the completed and occupied buildings, and was much struck with their obvious efficiency and convenience in general plan and arrangement, and was impressed with the idea that there were possibilities of further improvement and development, in planning and construction, which would minimise both labour in working and the initial cost of the building. It is not sug- gested that this type is entirely novel in this country. In the teport of the Departmental Committee on the Equipment of Small Holdings, published in 1918, several plans are given which provide for a covered vard which is under the same roof as the remainder of the buildings, but in each case the construction and general layout is markedly different from the plan now under consideration. Fig. 1 shows the West Riding plan as carried out. It should be stated that these holdings are utilised for mixed farming, that the country is of somewhat high and exposed elevation and cold in winter. ‘The land is of medium texture and a plentiful supply of farmyard manure is imperative. The plan is thoroughly sound in general layout. On the north, adjacent to a hard road, is placed the mixing and storage floor for “‘ roots ’’ with granary over. On the west, with immediate access to the mixing floor are placed the cow house and stalls for fatting beasts. These latter have direct egress into the open without passing through the stock yard. Dunging out can be either into the yard or directly to the open if desired. Thus so far as this part of the plan is concerned there is simple and direct access from the mixing floor to beasts, cows, and covered yard. On the east side is placed the cart shed, three-horse stable, and a large utility box which might be used for pigs. The stable has to be approached for feeding purposes either from the external door on the east side or through the covered stock yard; the cart and implement shed, being placed to the north adjacent to the hard road, cuts off any direct communica- tion from the mixing floor and granary over. This latter arrangement is, I think, open to improvement, and in the plan showing a suggested rearrangement (Fig. 3) the positions of stables and cart shed are reversed. In the centre is the covered stock yard only 19 feet wide and somewhat long in proportion to its width. The yard is com- pletely enclosed on the south side, but is provided with high and wide doors and ventilating shutter above (see. Fig. 2.). 116 Farm Burmpincs For SMALL-HoLpines. [ May, ‘The whole is built of timber very strongly constructed. Heavy oak posts are used to support the roof trusses, which are designed on the Belfast truss principle, perhaps without sufficient regard to the double line of intermediate supports forming the inner walls of the cow house and stable ranges. The building is hghted by windows in the outside walls and by an ample number of roof lights, and provision is made for continuous roof ventilation on either side of the ridge. Obviously the questions of choice of materials and method of construction are at present of secondary importance to the ques- tion of principle involved by the single span roof over the whole building, which makes the covered yard so essentially an integral part of the scheme. These particular buildings are constructed of timber mainly on account of the exceptional building difficulties of 1920 and 1921, but there is no practical reason why the outer walls should not be built of stone, brick or concrete, if such materials were available and showed a better economic result. On the other hand, a complete timber construction gives opportunities of standardisation, and the fact that seven such were ordered as one contract must have assisted in reducing the cost of all. The main point to determine is whether a building of this nature, under one roof forming a covered yard in the centre, gives satisfactory results with regard to the health of cows and stock generally, whether it proves economical in time and labour and results in carrying a larger head of stock per holding, together with the production of an adequate quantity of manure. These are farming questions, and if they can be answered in the affirmative there is no reason why further improvements should not be effected. It is obvious that the internal arrangements can be modified and amended to suit the exact nature of the land and _ the holder’s requirements without departing from the general prin- ciple and without loss of efficiency. To this end an illustration is given (Fig. 3) showing more direct internal access to the various parts, together with a lighter and more economic form of roof construction. The chief varia- tions from the West Riding scheme are the increased width of the covered yard, which is in Fig. 8 shown as 25 feet instead of 19 feet, the provision of a feeding passage between the mixing floor and covered yard whereby more direct and distributed access is given to the long trough in the yard, and direct internal access from the mixing floor to every part of the building, includ- "‘peosoMOFT plVpULIG SUIPIY JSAM OUL—'T OI |GRANARY OVER! " STEP LADDER vill S ID COVERED YARD STOCK STABLE ' STABLE SECTION DO ACRE HOLDING STANDARD HOMESTEAD WEST RIDING C.C. 60 50 40 30 20 1O re) IN (el Br "g “DIA a3zyIs30 | Lass 10> Sivos JdAL GYVONVIS ONIGIN LS4M 3HL WOU G3ldvav = DJNIGIOH GSsxAIW adovV -OS dos ddvA QsaddAOO HLIM LNSAWADNVdadV GALSADONS =f] — — SSeS as= Say ISO as ae cereal 1112 fe Oe [ep Vere od AT, PLVpULIG SUIPIY JsoA4 OY} Woy popdepv SuIp[Ing 943 JO MOLA TeRlouDH—'fF “OI —_—_— } pe ae ED 58 DDD NEO a SA Una) y ie 1922. | Farm BvurmLpincs ror SmMauu-Houprncs. 117 ing the stable, which, as before stated, has changed positions with the cart shed. It should be noted that there is also external access to all stalls and boxes, and direct internal access to the covered yard for dunging out. The construction is somewhat different from the West Riding Scheme, and is similar in principle to the construction designed for the Ministry’s Arable Dairy Farm Cowshed at Huck- nall, which it is intended to deal with in a_ future number of this Journal. It is more simple in design, and in place of roof skylights a continuous range of vertical lights is shown on each side of the roof. No special advantage is claimed for this method of lighting, and in practice it would probably resolve itself into a question of cost balanced against the relative merits of the two systems as regards annual upkeep. A Comparison of Costs.—The question of the relative cost of covering in a quadrangular building with a single span roof or of roofing the three ranges with small span roof and leaving the centre space cpen, is somewhat difficult to determine with- out actual estimates, but the following figures are instructive :— The cubical content of the West Riding building as carried out are approximately 45,800 cubic feet and the roof area is 8,160 square feet. If the yard is left open and the surrounding three ranges are covered with a 30 degrees pitch roof, excluding the yard, the cube is only 22,150 cubic feet, but the roof area is 2,520 square feet, a difference of nearly 50 per cent. in the cubic contents, but only 20 per cent. difference in the actual amount of roofing. In addition, with the single roof a considerable saving would be effected on rain-water spouting, down pipes and drains, and the three exterior walls enclosing the yard become interior walls under the span roof, and thus there should be less annual maintenance. | Probably the extra cost of the single span roof with its many advantages and the greater centre space would not exceed 10 per cent. to 15 per cent., and might under favourable circumstances be even less. Conclusion.—It is probably too early to form a decided opinion as to the ultimate results of this departure from accepted normal type, but if the building enables the small holder to carry more stock and obtain better results, then there is every reason to elaborate this type of building for larger sized holdings and its future development will largely depend upon the amount of prac- 118 GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. [| May, tical information which can be derived from a study of the actual holdings in working occupation. In any event the Small Hold- ings Committee of the West Riding and their architect, Mr. Foster, are to be congratulated upon their originality in produc- ing a building of such merit, and may feel assured that the progress of the experiment will be watched with the utmost keenness by all those who believe that finality in farm planning has by no means yet been reached in this country. GERMINATION: OF. INDIGENOUS GRASS AND CLOVER SEEDS. Proressor R. G. Strapiepon, M.A., Plant Ereeding Station, Aberystwyth. In a prevyous article in the Journal* the present writer drew attention to the probable usefulness of strains of indigenous herbage plants for use in the preparation of temporary and permanent grass. This matter was under consideration at the Food Production Department in 1917-18, when with the assistance of numerous interested persons a considerable amount of seed of various species was collected.t During the past three years much additional seed has been obtained in connection with the work now in progress at Aberystwyth. It is not proposed to deal here with the evidence that has now been accumulated as to the undoubted merit of indigenous strains of many of the erasses,¢ but it is only the purpose of this article to compare the germinating capacity and other characteristics of seed collected from plants growing in their natural habitats, on one hand with seed grown and harvested at Aberystwyth, and on the other hand with ordinary commercial samples. In certain cases it is also possible to give some idea of the amount of seed that may be collected per person per unit of time. The yields obta ined from plots producing “‘ once grown ”’ seed are not here discussed. The necessary tests on seed collected during * See ‘The Temporary Ley”: This Journal, February, 1919. p. L280. + See ‘‘ Plant Breeding Work at Aberystwyth,” cbid October, 1920; for. acknowledgment to those who then rendered assistance. + See © Preliminary Investigations with Herbage Plants,’ Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Aberystwyth, ‘Bull. H.1. for particulars of quantitative trials so far conducted, 1922. | GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. 119 1917-18 were conducted at the Official Seed Testing Station (then at the Food Production Department) while those on samples collected subsequently have been made by similar methods at Aberystwyth. It will be convenient to deal with the species that have been collected under separate headings: ‘* Legumes,’’ “‘ Grasses ”’ and ‘*‘ Miscellaneous Plants.’’ Legumes.—The figures in Table I give particulars relative to indigenous legumes and where possible figures for ordinary commercial samples have been included in the table for the purpose of comparison. TABLE I.—Percentage Germination, Hard Seed, and Weight per 1,000 Seed* in the case of Indigenous Legumes collected from various native habitats. When possible, comparisons are made with Commercial samples. | __INDIGENOUS COMMERCIAL Sposianh «| NOja Avene eetent| Aran lghesh| Wetest| Aver | Aver- | Weight -.- l'estgerm-| Hard Hard | 1,000 | Germ-| Hard | 1,000 r | : hak a ination | Seed | Seed in gr. Jination| Seed | in gr. | Wild White Clover] 9 | 28 | 74.12] 47 | 82 | -49177-3 |12°7 |*6& 7+ Wild Red Clover| 7 | 52 | 100-11] 32 | 87 | 1-49] 81-7t| 4:7t | t1-9 3ird’s Foot Trefoil| 3 | 26 | 37-15/ 48 | 58 | — |7o liz | — Trefoll 4, 1.1 3 | 39. |> — | 50 | 68 | 1-e8479-8 | a7 | 1:8 Tuffed Vetch ...| 3 | 3 7-0 65 99 — — a | — Meadow Vetchling| 2 | 12 25-0 79 100 | — — — | — * Commercial Wild White. + Commercial White Dutch. t English Grown Ordinary Commercial Red Clover. The result of the tests bring out very prominently the high percentages of hard seed that are to be met with amongst legumes and which show themselves in the germination test when the seed has not been subjected to any rasping process.* It is interesting to observe that hard seed is by no means con- fined to red and white clover but is equally in evidence in the case of the wild vetches and bird’s-foot trefoil—whilst trefoil, one of the ** softest ’’ seeds after being subjected to the hulling and cleaning processes, is exceedingly hard when collected by hand and tested without any pre-treatment. It has been noted, moreover, that hardness appears to be at its maximum in the case of samples harvested late and when the seed has fully matured. The poor average germination b on a smooth surface with a bath brick or by shaking violently in a box lined with sand paper, 120 GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. [ May, given by the indigenous legumes is therefore seen to be chiefly due to excess of hard seed and not so much to poor viability. The evidence suggests that on the average the grain weight (wt. in gr. per 1,000 seeds) of the indigenous seed tends to be less than that of their commercial counterparts. It has to be remembered, however, that the collected seed had not been cleaned or dressed and that the grain weight has been the ‘natural ’’ weight. It is, however, a well-known fact that even commercial samples of wild white clover have decidedly lower grain weights than samples of commercial white or Dutch Clover. Comparison between samples of wild red, clover and of ordinary English grown red clover show more- over that the wild red seldom contains many seeds as large as the larger of those met with in the cultivated clovers. The collection of indigenous legumes is a very slow and tedious process. This is particularly so in the case of the wild vetches, which do not as a rule grow in large masses and the individual plants of which appear to be rather poor seed bearers, ripening their seed moreover irregularly over a some- what long period. The collection of wild white clover by hand is certainly not lightly to be undertaken, and the heads collected often yield most disappointing crops of seed.* The hand collection of wild red clover is even more tedious than of wild white— for it is not so frequently met with in large masses. Both are species that in the writer’s opinion could only be remuneratively harvested from old swards on which they are abundant, and then only by resort to the reaper or to the scythe or possibly the daisy rake.t Grasses.— Particulars with reference to the grasses are given in Table IT. All the germination figures have been arrived at on the basis of including “ light ’’ seed with the pure seed for the germination test.{ In order to make the comparisons more thorough the percentage of “* heavy ’’ seed is given in the case of those species in samples of which “ light ’’ seed is frequently * Mr. H. H. Dunn, of Dunn’s Farm Seeds Ltd., informs me that 4 bush. of heads have in one case yielded no more than +]b. seed—while it is said that under favourable circumstances 201b. of heads will yield 1 Ib. of seed. + The writer is not enamoured of the daisy rake as a very helpful imple- ment, although he is prepared to admit he may be prejudiced against it by his own lack of skill in its use, but even in the hands of a practical gardener the results did not appear par ticularly encouraging. + That is to say,the plan of testing that was ‘adopted at the Food Production Department, and is still adopted at the Seed Testing Station of the Department of ‘Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, has been followed. 1922. | (JERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. 121 abundant. The grain weight (wt. per 1,000 seed) has in all cases been taken on “‘ heavy ’’ seed and not on the sample as a whole. This plan has been adopted in view of the fact that the indigenous seed both collected and ‘* once grown ”’ has not been well cleaned or in any way dressed, thus a ‘‘ heavy ’’ seed grain weight gives a more accurate comparison between indigenous (collected and ‘‘ once grown ’’) and com- mercial than a grain weight based on the weight of 1,000 seeds taken from a sample before removing the “‘ light ’’ seed. The erain weight figures given for commercial samples are of necessity based on special tests made at Aberystwyth and have been obtained for the most part on high-grade seed which has been used in connection with the nationality trials con- ducted at the Plant Breeding Station.* It will be seen that the germination of the indigenous grasses collected from various habitats is in the main very low— the average of all the samples together being only about 50 per cent. Individual samples, however, gave high figures; this was particularly so in the case of Timothy and crested dogs- tail. The low germination is very largely due to the consider- able amount of light seed present, which in all cases averages more than that found in commercial samples. The germina- tion of heavy seed was, however, also found to be lower than that of heavy commercial seed. One reason, and perhaps the chief reason of the relatively poorer germination of collected than of commercial seed, is undoubtedly the result of greater injury by the grubs of various insects. This was particularly marked in the case of cocksfoot—the seed of which suffered in a marked degree from attacks by the larve of Glyphipteryx fischeriella. The attack was greatest on plants growing in thickets and relatively shaded places. Meadow foxtail showed * The average figures given in the first, second and third Annual Reports of the Official Seed Testing Station are not generally applicable to the comparisons here made, for the reason that grain weight, percentage of heavy seed and germination figures for the different nationalities of the grasses are not recorded, Average figures from the reports in respect of germination have however in some cases been drawn upon ; the reports in question should be referred to: See First Annual Report in this Journal, Vol. XX V (6), September, 1918, Second Annual Report, zbid. Vol. XX VI (9), December, 1919, and Third Annual Report, zbid., Supplement No. 20. The majority of the Aberystwyth tests have been made specially in connection with the work under review; results previously recorded have, however, also been drawn upon, see, é.g., Stapledon, ‘ Seed Studies, ” Journal Agricultural Science, Vol. X (1), June, 1920, and report on the “Condition of the Seed Trade in the Aberystwyth College area ’—Univ. Coll. of Wales, Aberystwyth, Bulletin, —February, 1914. Results of tests made by Jenkin (see ‘ ‘Seed Testing and Report on "Seeds Tested 1913”; Univ. Coll. of N. Wales, Bangor, Bulletin) have also been drawn upon in arriving at some of the average figures. 12 GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. [ May, considerable injury due to Thrips (Thrips cerealiwm),* while tall fescue was also attacked by a grub not yet identified. These attacks were responsible for a failure of much of the heavy seed to germinate and also gave rise to much light seed and impurity. + Another factor influencing the poor quality of collected seed is probably connected with the variable nature of any particular habitat from which seed is collected. Seed collected in bulk from hedges will be taken from numerous sub-habitats—from the top, bottom and different sides of a hedge, while from thickets there will be every degree of exposure to light and shade. Thus it is impossible to collect any considerable quantity of seed all under reasonably identical conditions of erowth and harvest, and still less under the best conditions. This may be achieved with fair success in the case of plants growing in large masses together. Thus perennial rye grass growing in relatively large practically pure association near the Harbour at Aberystwyth and harvested when nicely ripe gave a germination of 88 per cent., while a lot of 54 lb. of cocksfoot collected from the top of a long hedge germinated 54 per cent.., compared with a lot of 7 Ib. collected from a thicket germinating 44 per cent. and with a 8 lb. lot from another thicket germinat- ing only 12 per cent. Individual panicles and small bunches of panicles were, however, selected from numerous habitats, the seed of which germinated over 80 per cent. Crested dogstail collected off old permanent pastures with a southern aspect has given attractive bright samples germinating over 90 per cent. | The ‘‘ once grown ’’ seed at Aberystwyth under uniform garden and field conditions has on the average germinated better, and in practically all cases has given considerably more heavy seed than the collected, and this despite the very un- favourable harvest conditions of 1920. It is of interest to note in this connection that ‘* once srown ’’ cocksfoot was less severely attacked by the larve of Glyphipteryx fischeriella than the collected. A comparison of the grain weight of heavy indigenous seed with that of heavy commercial seed, as with the legumes, shows the advantage as to weight to be considerably in favour of the commercial. The only exception is meadow foxtail, in the case of which, however, only very inferior commercial samples * See ‘‘ Preliminary Investigations with Herbage Plants,” loc. sit. + Single husks and chaff. 1922. | ({ERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. 125 came under test. It will be seen that in the main there is fair agreement between the grain weights of collected and ‘‘ once grown ’’ indigenous seed having regard to the fact that only comparatively few of the collected samples were ** once grown.’ Thus in the case of cocksfoot where a comparatively large number of lots were tested it seems quite evident that the indigenous types give rise to decidedly lighter ‘* heavy ’’ seed than the Danish and U.S.A., but that the New Zealand approaches more nearly to the indigenous.* Even under the most favourable conditions, for instance, species growing in relatively large pure closed associations, the collection of indigenous grass seed for the purpose of sowing direct in mixtures would probably be too tedious and costly to be adopted, while the collection of seed from scattered plants (e.g,, tall fescue) would be quite out of the question. Fair quantities of seed can none the less be harvested by persons with sickles from cocksfoot growing, for instance, on hedge tops or in thickets. Thus the writer and three other adults collected heads which thrashed and winnowed down to 1 Ib. 4 oz. of seed per person per hour from a thicket where cocksfoot was grow- ing particularly abundantly, and 7 oz. of seed per person per hour from hedges where the same grass was exceptionally abundant. In the former case it was possible to cut the seed almost continuously, while in the latter considerable blank dis- tances had to be covered. It should be remarked that reduced to weight of viable seed per person per hour the thickest harvest represented but little over } lb. and the hedge only 33 oz. Children with pocket knives even from a thicket where cocks- foot was very plentiful did not collect more than 1 lb. of dressed seed (not adjusted for viability) per child per hour. The collection of meadow foxtail which ripens very irregularly represents considerably more labour per lb. of viable seed, while the hand’ collection of crested dogstail bv children, even on pastures where exceptionally plentiful, is a very slow process. Miscellaneous Plants.—Yarrow is frequently plentiful on railway embankments and other waste places where fair quan- tities of seed may be collected. Four samples thus collected gave an average germination of 72 per cent. with a range of 96 per cent. to 26 per cent. * This is interesting in view of the differences in growth habit that have been noted as between Danish and U.S.A., on the one hand, and indigenous and New Zealand on the other—see “ Preliminary Investigations with Herbage Plants,” loc. cit. 124 GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. | May, Summary and Conclusions.—It has been shown that the seed of indigenous species collected from various habitats tends on the average to be of poor germinating capacity, and that this is in part at all events due to the ravages of various insects, and in part to the difficulty of harvesting large quantities of seed under suitable and similar conditions. “‘ Once grown ’’ seed appears to be less attacked by insects and to» germinate more satisfactorily. It has been shown also that the collection of indigenous seed is a slow and laborious process. The amount of labour involved is, however, not excessive if it were only desired to collect indigenous seed for the purpose of obtaining a supply for inclusion in mixtures by the process of “‘ once growing.’’ The precise value of ‘‘ once grown ’’ bulk collected seed* of such important grasses as perennial ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy, meadow foxtail and the like can only be definitely settled by further investigation. With the lesson of wild white clover before the agriculturist it would seem that he may reasonably expect good results from the inclusion of such “‘ once grown ’’ seed in mixtures designed for the preparation of long duration and permanent grass. The trials so far conducted at Aberystwyth tend to show that indigenous cocksfoot, ryegrass and timothy, for instance, have important qualities for long- duration pastures and are undoubtedly more persistent than their commercial counterparts. t The growing of grasses for seed production would not entail much labour—it would be necessary to keep the land scrupulously clean; this may be achieved by growing in drills and by scuffing and hand hoeing. Provided weeds were absent, a highly dressed sample for the purpose of sowing would of course be quite unnecessary. It is suggested, therefore, that apart altogether from results that may finally be achieved by processes of breeding and selec- tion, the question of the growing of bulk collected seed of indigenous grasses 1s one demanding considerable experimenta- tion and one that should be considered as possibly an economic practice by those farmers who contemplate seeding consider- able areas to long duration and permanent grass. * Z.e., seed collected without any selection from grasses growing in fairly large masses together. -“ . . . . . 39 . + See “ Preliminary Investigations with Herbage Plants,” loc. cit. 125 GERMINATION OF INDIGENOUS SEEDS. 1922. ] ‘LZ6L JO qsoaavyy t ‘OGG JO JSOAIV]T ‘YQAMJSLu0q y WV opLUt s]80} MOAy puaU {sl “d 070U-q00J do ‘S]1OdoL SNOLVA WIOL} SOINDY ODVIOAY + a Gh. — | 9% | 9 gg. aga rhe — | g ‘| [VlOLOULULOL) so[B\\ pus puvpoug Ul Ch. sant Zhe | 9 pp —= | <= | 9-98 | 69 LT | Sotunog usados MOI, SnOUdSIpuy “TIVLSDO(] GaLsauy | OL-G 66 | 264 | 1 G3 i le ar ed ae eee [BloLIUAMLOL) 00-2 66 161 z ZEL 98-96! 06 | 39-92) &2 | > O1YSUVSIpPIBy WOIJ SHOUasIpuy | . ‘SSVUY) TAY TVINNAYAg GE: — rot | 1 OF-0 a ee 7h: NS BI | Sa Sc [BloLoULOD solv puv puvpsug Ig: fe G8, | Z 9Z-0) — tek Te 1.2 UL SOTJUNOD SAY WoL, SNOMASIpUyT ‘AHLOWLL - —- -- 0-« ~- — —— 69 shite ite x = [elorouMO”D solv, pus puvpsug | — — — — Sc — — | 18-99] #9 | 9 Ul SOIJUNOH OMY WOAT SNOASIpuT | | ‘ssvuy LVO TIVI _ ve at =. BS mo ~~ — 09 | 4 see eee see [vIotaWMULOD *poqq08.10 Sov puv purlsuy ul Ajpeq sotdutes poxoo][00 oqy Jo [BloANg — — — — iy aca Q-FL | GF 78 | of |. 2 soljunoy, ANoOJ WoIy Shousstpuy Wea ‘anOSsay TIVE, pag: nr * -— eb. +h 6L a OF 1 7s See “G2 = [BlorourUrO() ‘sqnais Lq paxyoryye A[qvasopts soy’ pus puvpougy -u0d sopdumes pozo[[0o oY} JO [BOADS C6. PL | O9« | O€ L&T G2-9L | 09 8-99 | 86 | FL | ULSoUN0D XIs WOLJ SNOUDSTpUT | “TIVLXOY MOGCVA]L ‘sqnas £q poyoryye A[quiooidde , wos 90u0,, SNnOWsSIpuy pu puB[vVoZ MON GG. C6 bes I 69. — 98 — OL ge rs ee wee purpeoz MON ica {6 G6 y | voll wh 2%. ste a bee RAS rr FIT | 98 | Sle) BE) 20-1 a6 ss | 8 V'S'D pur ysranq *pa}joS10 Auvw pur sqnas Aq poxovqye tS: €6 qLt Tl a be Ss oo La “SorB A, puB puBloUy ur f{peq sajdues poqyootjoo jo Aytaoleyy Q)- Q) 29x qf a8. 9°86 a9 9°98 | 08 &9 SOIJUNOH WAdTo WOT] SNOWSSTpuy | ice oe | “\LOOASMOOD -_ B~ Pe - eF , Cad uy | poog |uogeur; | Casur | | paag | POOTUNUR Oa tet ge poos Q0o'T | AAVOH | -UIOH | S40T pees Q0O'T osunyy | Savazy | osuvyy | -urtay |sordureg ‘qM =) ‘queo | ‘qa00 | Jo‘oON | ‘Qu=) | “400 *‘quo00 | Jo"*ON *SYIBULOY qm uray | Jog vq | yn urery | or cc ae *sojoody "gg Aagshtoqd yy 9B ,, UMOTY) 9OUL ,, ‘[BIOIOIMUIOD posvyoaNg 10 SHOUdSIpUT peya[op see ‘poos [erocourmos Areurpio pure yAmgsfioqy 7v ,, UMOIS OUO,, JO OSOY} TIA S}PLIIGQVY [VINngea SNOWVA WOLJ poJOOT[OO Wa SossVAS SHOUBSIPU! JO poos OY} JO SOSMojovlByO JoyYJO Puv UOLJVULMIOS oY Jo UosLIvdMOgO—']] ATAV 126 Croppine or A DereLict Esrate in Sussex. [| May, CROPPING “OF - A’ DERBEICE ESTATE IN SUSSEX R, H.-B, Jesse, B.Scs NepeA| Kast Sussex Agricultural Hxecutive Committee. THE name Peacehaven has been given to a tract of land originally forming part of Hoddern Farm, Piddinghoe, lying between Newhaven and Brighton in the very heart of the South Downs. The greater part of this estate was taken possession of and farmed by the East Sussex Agricultural Hxecutive Committee in May, 1917, and other parts at later dates. The soil is extremely variable as, although resting on the South Downs, a considerable portion of it, probably some 300 acres, consists of an extremely light, poor sand, an almost equal area consists of the thin chalky loam so common on the South Downs, and at one place there is a ‘‘ clay pocket ”’ where the soil is extremely heavy and ‘* unkind.”’ Previous Method of Farming.—Before 1915 the land was farmed according to the usual South Down practice, but as it had been for some years in the market, and was eventually sold for building purposes, it cannot be said that it had been cultivated in such a way as to leave any appreciable amount of residual fertility. For about 20 years a flock of South Down sheep had been kept, and the system of farming seems to have depended entirely on the flock, but towards the latter part of this period, as dairying spread in Hast Sussex, cows were also kept. For a considerable period no fertilisers of any description were used on this farm, and, as it had probably been ‘“ sheeped ’’ for centuries, there is no doubt that the soil, like so much other poor hill land, had been ‘‘ sheeped out ’’ or depleted of all available phosphates. | Season 1916.—During the season 1916, practically no farm- ing was carried out on the land, and: the Committee were in- formed that the produce from the greater part of the land was actually sold for £100, so that the quantity of food produced from it in 1916 was practically negligible. Season 1917.—In January, 1917, two of the best known surveyors in Sussex described the land as derelict. The Committee made every effort to arrange for the cultiva- tion of this land but it soon became apparent to them that, if 1922.] Croppinc or a DERELICT ESTATE IN SUSSEX. 127 it was to produce anything like the amount of food that 1f was capable of doing, the management and work would have to be carried out under their direction. Consequently, in May, 1917, they commenced operations, but under exceptional difficulties. Buildings, Implements, ete.—The farm-house and buildings which had previously gone with the land had been sold separately, and it was, therefore, necessary for the Committee, whilst erecting temporary galvanised buildings, to hire stabling. The Committee had neither horses, implements nor men, but one of the earliest tractors to be supplied under the Food Pro- duction Department’s scheme was sent to Peacehaven. ‘This was of the caterpillar type, unwieldy and powerful, but very effective in tearing through the weed and other growth which had accumulated since the autumn of 1915. Subsequently a set of steam tackle was hired by the Committee and proved very helpful in cultivating the’land after it had been ploughed once, but it was found that, owing to the rubbish which had accumu- lated, this tackle was not very effective for ploughing. Labour, Horses, etc.—In the early summer of 1917 a number of Metropolitan Police (many of whom had previously been Sussex ploughmen) were drafted into the county, and four of them were selected and sent by the Committee to Peacehaven, whilst in June, 1917, the Food Production Department in- augurated their scheme for supplying horses, and eight were sent in charge of the Metropolitan Police to Peacehaven. Fallowing Operations.—During the summer of 1917, 164 acres of land were thoroughly fallowed, and prepared for wheat, although the summer was not one of the best for fallowing operations owing to the somewhat exceptional rainfall for the district. | Fertilisers Used.—It was known from the previous history of the farm and the farming, together with the nature of the soil and the surrounding land, that, if satisfactory crops were to be grown, the soil must be supplied with suitable fertilisers. All the land sown with wheat (164 acres) was therefore dressed with 5 cwt. per acre of a good grade basic slag. As the work was not carried out for an experimental purpose no part was intentionally left without its dressing, but, in one place, where the manure distributor broke and consequently the slag was not applied, the omission could be plainly seen for several months. Season 1918.—In the spring of 1918 all the wheat was dressed with 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia per acre. The 128 CROPPING OF A DERELICT ESTATE IN SUSSEX. bay = Pp 4 combination of the basic slag applied in the previous autumn with the sulphate of ammonia in the spring was most effective, as may be gathered from the fact that the 164 acres of ** hill ”’ land averaged 44 bus. of wheat to the acre. Varieties of Wheat.—The varieties of wheat grown were ‘* Garton’s Victor ’’ and ‘‘ Little Joss,’’ both of which were supplied by the Food Production Department and gave excellent results on this land. It is probable that the ‘‘ Garton’s Victor ’’ yielded slightly better than the ‘* Little Joss,’’ but on the other hand, with a large acreage of wheat, 1t was considered that ‘‘ Little Joss ’’ could be sown more safely at a later period in the year than could ‘‘ Garton’s Victor.”’ In addition to the wheat, 225 acres were sown with oats. The oats produced an average crop but not comparable with the results obtained from the wheat. Harvesting.—The Committee had @xceptional difficulties in dealing with the harvest in 1918, as labour was scarcely obtain- able. Further, there was not even a barn suitable for even temporarily accommodating labour or storing corn. Newhaven, the nearest town, was closed for military reasons, so that for the harvesting operations the Committee had to rely very largely on German prisoners supplied from Lewes—a distance of 6 miles. These had to be sent by lorry in the morning and fetched at might. Season 1919.—Although the yield of wheat during the first season was so heavy it was generally thought by farmers in the district that it would not be possible, on this poor land, to grow a remunerative crop during the following season. As, however, this was an attempt to produce the greatest amount of wheat possible, during the following season the greater part of the acreage previously under wheat was again sown with wheat, together with an additional acreage, making in all 262 acres. The same varieties of wheat were again grown, ViZ., ‘* Garton’s Victor,’’ and ‘* Little Joss,’’ whilst, in addition, 19 acres were sown with ‘‘ Yeoman ’’ wheat. Fertilisers Used in 1919.—It was not possible to obtain a high-grade basic slag, but only one of a very low quality, viz., 20 per cent. total phosphates, so that on the average approxi- mately 7 cwt. of this slag were applied per acre to all the wheat land. In the spring of the year the land which had previously been cropped with wheat, was dressed with a mixture A me — oe BiG. +2. —Crop of Little Joss, 1920. b Fia, 3.—Field of Potatoes in 1919, ory 1 O r t 7 : ran 7 a ¥ 7 bd n i bt 7 “ 7 F # . 4 4 7 : iy - ‘ Fon . : 7 ine : f ‘ ay Wa ee is aa a : POR? he ern, ' 6 t 1 7 ; a , : } i a i i : A non ’ ' “Ws ie - ‘ , i fae io \ on eM ties shat shor qe oe! omen ye waes i i } »> , F ’) ‘ \ hi! 4 ; nly 1. - ‘ J y i las caer r uy ' oe ee ae cs Sad eA add — ; | i . : ie, | | s i 4 y ; : é - 7 Fi } i ; 'y be a? + | i t y' ‘ i) ! ~ A ? ‘ uo (ie r 1, t ' rs 16 * tt u ; yee ae we Psi gk iy y A ‘ n : t 4 ia ‘ a Wy '« ite Fi oe 4 | | . | | ) | | han 7 7 ry oa . i | | ; ' 4 - , D | 3 | . 7 7 % ‘ ye . ‘ ' : | | | | | ; | | ‘ ‘ 7 y } 4 \ re | bf a 1 ‘ i ' ny r “i are NY Oa i ‘ x | | | : ; , i ' . Vt @ T ' 1! i) i | | | | ' ' ) J, 8 » : 4 ) ’ 1 = "Ns 4 | sed . 7 } ; ' . ‘ Av; f ‘ . Mt 3 ) : : , Het Bah at on Le, x ‘ ; a | ¥ - | | | . / ' - | | : ' : \ da a soy - 3” * : ren) in ; wo . ere i ‘ { - ; | : . | - a. i : 7 > : 7 . f \ ' | | ; : | : t ; ‘ r oe , | | r ‘ : t : ? p | | | | ; | | | ai ¥ t ‘ ‘ : i i : . . | | | b. ay Vas Tt 7 \ 7 i / 7 i : ih ve ; i ‘ i i ; é 4 et Rag ass ; i , > ,i 5 : Des, * : | | | | | | . i 7 ; Le | . . ; ; ao : 4 - , ‘ ; , 4 ‘} : } A : h ; : ; ; | ; : 7 r ' - i b : c i \ ; ; ea i) ” , . | | | | | f fi ) 1A J ‘ ij t : ; vin 2 | | t , ‘ . | 7 | | | | ry i ’ \ | Pri L | : . | . . uv a is J A | - | \ ; i | 1 , “ is | ; | | | : , ‘ a | | i was al f | | | ~ | : n ’ ' t P nl i 4 : ' ‘ ~~ . . | | . | ~~ 7 | | © 7 5 , | ia te | | | | - . . r 5 P 4 i ‘ r a | ; oe | ‘ 7 7 ! | i ; “ i i ee - . ° . ; | sk a 9 o) : | ; | . , 4 A 4 ld , . é | a ( : \ : 2 i ; 1 : . | ; ! ; : . | s ' i tT | i / : 1 . ; | : : ¥ a ‘ rc | : q 13 ; ap , he? : 7 ( ft / > ; . ; | ; | } f \ | | | a | re i | | | y | | : | Pr r : { - 7 _ , . qy (i u : | . . : “ i q v4 | | | - . : : i) . 1 ' | . ; ; i ‘ 1 : ‘ | | | | | “ ‘ . 7 2 : yy ; e 1 ‘ ' mt ; ; | | } vc - ; | den om | ’ 7 y | | : 5 i : Y , fs ‘ 7 5 i x F a) aor i ' ; H j \ 7 “4 i ie J ? oe | ; 1 af 2 - 7 ‘ ‘ -y : ’ | | . : ‘ a Ld “ ‘ ' i i a mR o¥ ; i 7 . | al : . | \ eg : ye | | 7 ‘ , i SPOR tol F : " wa / 7 ; | d | | i - : - ; x : t ie i . y 1922.] CROPPING OF A DeERELICT ESTATE IN SUSSEX. 129 of 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia and 2 cwt. of superphosphate per acre. Harvesting rn 1919.—In the harvesting operations of this crop tractors were very largely used. All the binders were drawn by tractors. It was found that the most satis- factory plan was for a ‘‘ Titan ’’ to precede a *‘ Fordson,”’ as this tended to keep the driver of the latter tractor steadier than if left to his own devices. The total amount of wheat grown in 1919 amounted to 2,409 sacks—an average of over 86 bushels per acre on the total acreage. Fig. 1 shows the crop. Wheat after Wheat.—One reason for growing this large acreage of wheat after wheat was that, in common with most of the land on the Sussex Downs, spring crops are much impeded by the prolific growth of charlock. It is, of course, recognised that this weed can be combated by spraying, but spring crops on the Downs are very susceptible to checks of any kind. In 1919, again, the oats grown were an average crop for the district but not more. This was due to the very light rainfall in 1919, the competition of the charlock, and to the fact that, owing to the scanty rainfall the spring corn could not avail itself of the fertilisers as did the longer growing and deeper rooted wheat crop. Potatoes. —In 1919 potatoes were introduced into the cropping. In all about 20 acres were grown. Local opinion was again discouraging to such an experiment, as it was stated that the soil was so light that it would be blown away. The results, however, were most gratifying (Fig. 3). Scotch seed potatoes were obtained. These were manured with approximately 5 ewt. of flue dust, 6 ewt. of superphosphate and 25 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia per acre. A quantity of the earliest dug potatoes were sold in Brighton at £18 per ton, but the remainder were sold at a lower rate when the price was controlled. Further, as the seed had been obtained direct from Scotland no difficulty was experienced in obtaining a ready sale for the smaller potatoes as seed potatoes—‘‘ once grown ’’ from Scotland. Season 1920.—Having regard to the excellent crops of wheat which had been grown in 1918 and 1919, and to the fact that the autumn sown wheat was so much more successful than the C 130 Croppinc oF A DERELICT Estate In Sussex. | May spring sown oats, approximately the same acreage was again sown with wheat in the autumn of 1919. Much the same type of manuring was again carried out as in 1919, viz., approximately. 7 cwt. of low-grade basic slag per acre, and, owing to the better facilities for obtaining nitrate of soda, the spring dressing of wheat generally consisted of 1 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia and 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda. About 70 acres of *‘ Yeoman ’’ wheat were grown in this season, the remainder again being ‘‘ Garton’s Victor ’’ and “ Little Joss.”’ There was again promise of a successful harvest, and this was borne out by an average yield of 33 bushels per acre (Fig. 2). Hiztension of Potato Acreage in 1920.—A larger acreage of potatoes was grown in 1920, in all nearly 100 acres. The varieties grown were chiefly ‘‘ Arran Chief’’ and ‘“ Lochar ’’ as these were considered to be the two varieties which had given the best results in the previous year. The creater part of this acreage was manured with 6 cwt. of super- phosphate, 1 cwt. of sulphate of potash, and 3 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia per acre. Some part, however, received kainit and steamed bone flour, instead of sulphate of potash and super- phosphate. The best area of Lochar averaged over 13 tons per acre, and the best of the Arran Chief slightly under 12 tons, although this high average was, of course, not maintained over the whole acreage. Nearly all the potatoes found a ready sale in Brighton and were of excellent cooking quality—a quality in no small way due to the very sandy soil. Despite the prevalence of potato disease in this district, the potatoes kept remarkablv healthy and free from disease. Spray- ing probably did not pay in 1919, but in 1929 it undoubtedly doubled the crop. Spraying was commenced early in June, and continued until the potatoes began to ripen off. Spring Corn in 1920.—The spring-sown crops in 1920 were much better than in the two previous years. This was due to the exceptionally heavy rainfall in April which so materially benefited the spring crops on the Sussex Downs. The question has frequently been asked as to how long this svstem of farming could be maintained on such poor and im- poverished land, without stock. The writer thinks that, with suitable modifications, it could have been continued almost indefinitely. a eal 1922.] Cropprnc or A Dereticr Estare in SusseEX. 131 Continuous cropping with wheat must of course be regarded purely as war-time farming and as an endeavour to produce the greatest quantity of wheat possible. The success of the crops was undoubtedly due to the recogni- tion of the fact that this land, like so much other land on the hills in Sussex is, or was, almost deficient in available phos- phates, and that the fertility could only be restored by the liberal application of phosphates in conjunction with a nitrogenous fertiliser. Although the value of basic slag on grassland has been widely appreciated locally, very few realise its importance on cereal crops on this hill land which is so markedly deficient in phosphates. During the three years that this land was farmed by the Kast Sussex Agricultural Executive Committee, the receipts from sales of crops grown exceeded £22,000. The crops con- sisted chiefly of wheat and potatoes, so essential during that critical time as producing the greatest amount of human food per acre. 182 DeptH OF SOWING GRASS AND CLOVER SEEDS. [ May, DEPTH OF SOWING GRASS AND CLOVER’ SEEDS: ey ed R. D. Wriiutams, B.Sc., Plant Breeding Station, Aberysiwyt White Clover.—In spite of the high percentage of surface seedlings given by the surface sowings—67 per cent. for the pots and 75 per cent. for boxes—these sowings must be regarded as failures on account of the stunted nature of many of the seedlings. The best results were obtained when the seeds were lightly covered. In the box experiment the best results were given by 3 in., + in. and 4 in. depths; in the pot experiment } in., closely fol- lowed by 1 in. and 2 in. gave the greatest number of surface seedlings. The 3 in. depth was only slightly inferior to the shallower coverings, while the 1 in. depth in the pot experiment gave about the same number as the shallower depths; but in the box experiment which approximated more closely to field con- ditions the number of seedlings that reached the surface from 1 in. dropped to 66 per cent. as compared with 92 per cent. from 2 of an inch. When covered to depths of 2 and 3 in. hardly any of the seedlings were able to break through to the surface. Not only did the shallower depths (3 in. to 2 in.) give higher percentages of surface seedlings but the seedlings also reached the surface sooner and more regularly; consequently the growth was more even than at the # in. to 8 in. depths. When covered to 2 or 3 in. depths the seedlings were very slender when they. reached the surface, and remained etiolated for quite a con- siderable period. White clover seedlings closely resemble red clover seedlings in form and general habit, but as the radicles are not so stout and the tips not so blunt they are able to penetrate the sur- face with greater ease than red clover seedlings. But as in the case of surface sown red clover seeds, a considerable portion of the radicle remains exposed on the surface even after the seedlings have become fixed. When covered, white clover seedlings (with their smaller cotyledon leaves) are able to force their way through fairly leht coverings with greater ease than the seedlings of red clover, thus when sown at half an inch 95 per cent. of the white clover 1922.] Depru or Sowine GRAss anp CLover SEEDS. 133 seedlings as compared with only 74 per cent. of the red clover seedlings reached the surface in 10 days after sowing; but when sown at depths of 2 and 38 in. this advantage was more than counterbalanced by the smaller amount of reserve food material contained in the cotyledons of white clovers. This is the prob- able explanation for white clover seedlings failing to reach the surface when sown at these depths. Sowing in Wet Weather.—That a fairly satisfactory ‘‘ take ”’ can be obtained by merely sowing the seeds broadcast on the surface during a prolonged period of wet weather is shown by the following experiment in which the surface soil of one series of pots was maintained in a thoroughly saturated condition while the other series were given normal watering :— Saturated. Normal watering. Surface sown. Surface. 1 in. depth. Percentage germination _.... 98 oe 88 eae 97 Percentage rooted... fue 7h ae 67 - 97 Conclusions.—(1) White clover seeds should never be left un- covered except during a long spell of wet weather. (2) The best results appear to be obtained by covering the seeds to depths of 4 in. to } in. (3) If covered to depths of over an inch only a very small percentage of seedlings may be expected to reach the surface. Perennial Rye Grass.— or ‘* measurer ’’ who files the ‘‘ tally ’’ or books the number of bushels to each picker. Two methods of measuring are employed in different districts: in Kast Kent the measuring is done in 5 or 6 bushel baskets, in which the top of each bushel is marked by a dark line; in the Weald of Kent, Worcester and Hereford the hops are picked into bins consisting of a framework 8 or 10 ft. long over which sackcloth is stretched so that the centre bags down and forms a receptacle for the hops; the hops are emptied from these bins by a one-bushel measure, by which the quantity picked is ascertained. The advantages and disadvantages of each system probably counterbalance each other, but it is im- 140 CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. [ May, portant to realise that the quantities contained in the bushel n.easure are very different in each case, that measured from the bin being much less than that measured in the basket, and hence prices paid for picking as well as other data based upon these units of measure, are not comparable. Drying.—Until nearly the end of the twentieth century hop drying was practised much: more as an art than a science; the hop dryer was all-powerful and carried out his work by rule of thumb; he was guided only by the experience of his former chief dryer, under whom he had worked as assistant, and generally paid scant attention to the suggestions of his employer, who probably knew little about the principles underlying the practice of hop-drying. In the last decade of the twentieth century Sir A. D. Hall, then Principal of Wye College, began to investigate the sub- ject; he showed how best to make use of the thermometer by placing it just below the hops so that the temperature of the air as if entered the hops could be gauged. He also published a leaflet* showing how the temperature of the air should be regulated during the period of drying so that the hops could be economically dried without being spoilt in the process. As a result of this work every grower can now exercise direct control over his hop-drying by installing a thermometer bulb just below the drying hops, connected with a scale outside the oast upon which the temperature of the drying air can be read. With such thermometers the grower can direct his dryer to follow the table of temperatures suggested by Hall, and progressive hop- srowers have adopted or are adopting this or some similar method of control. There is still, however, much to be learnt about the principles of hop-drying, and the hop-growing industry is looking forward in the course of the next 10 years or so to the accumulation of much valuable knowledge by those in con- trol of the experimental hop-drying plant recently installed under the Brewers’ Institute Research Scheme on a farm belong- ing to Messrs. Whitbread & Co., near Paddock Wood. The Principles of Hop-drying.—Ripe hops when picked for drying normally contain 60 to 75 per cent. of moisture, unripe hops in moist weather may contain 80 per cent. of moisture, and very ripe hops in dry weather may contain as little as 50 per cent. During the drying process the moisture content is reduced to about 5 to 8 per cent., but is allowed to rise again * Leaflet No. 5. South Eastern Agricultural College, Wye. ‘The Temper- atures of Hop Drying.” 1922. | Cunrivation or tHe Hop Crop. 141 to 8 to 10 per cent. before the hops are packed. It is thus clear that the amount of water to be evaporated from the hops at the beginning of picking when hops are barely ripe may be very much greater than at the end of the season, and this, of course, coincides with experience that much greater quantities of ripe hops can be dried on the kilns than of green ones. ‘This surplus water is evaporated by causing a current of warm air to pass through the hops whilst they le upon a horsehair cloth supported upon the drying floor of the kiln. The next point to be considered is the means whereby the current of air or draught is produced. Draught.—In some eases kilns are now fitted with fans to produce the necessary current of air through the hops, but im the vast majority of cases draught is produced through the operation of the well-known fact that ‘‘ hot air rises.’’ When the air within a kiln is warmed it rises and passes out of the top through the cowl, whilst cold air enters below to take its place. The draught created is thus proportional to the difference in temperature between the air within and without the kiln, but it is also proportional to another factor, namely, the height of the kiln. Factory chimneys are built high to give better draught, so the higher the kiln the better the draught. The height both below and above the hops is important, and of the two probably that between the fires and the hair cloth below the hops is the more important, because the temperature of the air below the hops is always greater than that above and hence this air is relatively lighter and creates the greater draught. Especially in the early part of drying, the air above the hops is cooled by passing through them and therefore has no great lifting power unless it is warmed again by absorbing heat from the walls and roof above the hops. This re-absorption of heat from the walls of a warm oast is by no means unim- portant and the absence of it may play a serious part with the first load of the season unless the kiln has previously been well warmed. For this reason the good dryer makes a point of lighting the kiln fires early in the morning of the first day of picking and on each Monday, for the purpose of warming his kiln, though no hops will be ready for drying till perhaps 11 a.m. Another factor of great importance in the maintenance of a good draught is the sealing of the walls and roof so that no air can enter the kiln at any point above the position of the fire- places. Every such inlet of air weakens the effective draught. 142 CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. [ May, The positions most likely to be faulty in this respect are the doors of the kiln and the roof. One further point in this connection is worthy of notice; in some few kilns one finds the position of the fireplaces excavated, so that the firebars themselves are situated at or close to the ground-floor level and the topmost inlet of air above the fires is correspondingly lowered; this arrangement provides for addi- tional effective height and so better draught is obtained economically, provided that facilities are made for easy carriage of coal to and cinders away from the fires. In some kilns draught is much curtailed by the narrow apertures through which the air has either to enter or escape from the kilns, especially in still weather when there are no air currents. This restriction of openings is also hable to pre- judice draught when fans are substituted for natural draught in a transformed oast. Lastly, it is much easier to establish a good draught when the wind is blowing past the cowl, a contrivance specially fashioned to facilitate suction of air out of the kiln; in order to increase this aid to draught the kiln should be built in an open situation and trees should not be planted closely around which would tend to shelter the cowl from wind. Evaporation.—The drying of the hop is somewhat but not completely analogous to the evaporation of water from a wet cloth, for in the case of the hop the water is contained within the tissues of the cones, partly in the bracts and bracteoles (or petals ’’ as the hop-grower calls them) and partly in the strig of the hop; from the former evaporation is rapid, but from the strig, protected as it is by the bracts, evaporation is much slower. Water evaporated from the hops passes into the atr, which is capable of absorbing varying quantities of water vapour accord- ing to its temperature. For each temperature of the air there is &@ Maximum water vapour content, and if more water vapour is put into such saturated air, then either a mist is formed or water vapour is deposited as dew. Such a deposit of. water vapour may occur in hop drying upon the top surface of the hops during the early part of the drying. At 50° F., a frequent temperature of the outside air during drying, air can only contain ? oz. of water vapour in 10 cub. yd.; at 100° F'., the temperature at which hop-drying generally starts, air can contain 38} oz. of moisture in 10 cub. yd.; whilst at 150° F., the temperature at ee 1922. | CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. 143 or slightly above which drying finishes, the maximum content of water vapour is as much as 15 oz. of water vapour in 10 cub. yd. That is to say the rate of drying of hops in a current of dry air at 150° F. may be nearly 5 times as fast as in dry air at 100° F. and nearly 20 times as fast as in dry air at 50° F. If, therefore, hop drying merely consisted of evaporating water it is clear that the use of air at a high temperature would be both more expeditious and more economical, but another factor is involved; the passage of the air through a depth of 10 in. or so of hops spread over a wide floor is necessarily slow ; contact at the beginning of drying between the cold hops and the air, as well as the evaporation of the water into it, cools the air so that as the warm air passes up through the hops its moisture content becomes greater and greater and its tempera- ture lower and lower. If these two processes reach the point at which the air becomes saturated with water vapour, then if cool- ing proceeds further moisture is deposited upon the hops which are consequently ‘‘ reeked ’’ and spoilt. The initial temperature of drying must therefore be adjusted so that with the draught available the air can pass through the layer of cold hops without the deposition of any “‘ reek.’’ It is obvious that this initial temperature is not necessarily a constant: it may be varied somewhat with the draught available, the initial temperature of the green hops, the depth of the hops and other factors. Temperaiure.—In the previous paragraphs upon evaporation emphasis has been laid upon the necessity of so controlling temperature that no condensation of reek occurs upon the upper layers of hops. Two golden rules will serve to prevent this misfortune: a warm oast before drying commences, i.e.. warm walls and roof, and a sufficiently low initial air tempera- ture. The table of temperatures recommended by Hall already referred to still remains the best guide. From this extracts are quoted below :— | ‘General rules if draught is moderately good.” “The temperature at starting should not be higher than 100° Fahrenheit.” ‘For the first three hours the temperature must rise steadily to about 140°.” ‘If the temperature falls at all during this period the colour of the hops will suffer.” _ “For the next five hours the temperature should be kept pretty steady; it may be allowed to rise a little more but never above 160° Fahrenheit.” “Tf the draught is poor the temperature must rise more slowly after starting, and four or even five hours should be taken to get to 140°.” These rules provide an admirable guide fer a young dryer, who can scarcely make a mistake if he follows them intelligently. 144 CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. ; May, When the hops have ‘‘ feathered,’’ a name given to describe the condition of the cones when the bracts have dried and opened out like the feathers of a bird on a frosty morning, and whilst the strigs are still sappy, the temperature is allowed to rise to 150°—155° F., to quicken the rate of drying. It is probable that such high temperature tends to evaporate some of the more volatile oils in the hops and so depreciate their flavour, but may be justified by the economy of time and fuel. In any case the temperature must not go above 160° or the hops will be burnt. The Practice of Hop Drying.—foading.—A kiln of hops can usually be dried in about 10 hours, so that each kiln can be loaded and unloaded twice in 24 hours. Hops that are picked in the morning are loaded as soon as they arrive at the oast, but the afternoon’s pickings are stored until the morning’s hops are dry and are loaded at night. Care must be exercised in stor- ing the afternoon’s pickings that these do not heat in the bags before they are loaded lest they be discoloured. In some cases the hops are stored in a “ green-loft ’’ above the cooling floor in the oast, so that they can be easily carried on to the kilns at night, but if so, considerable precautions must be taken in sultry weather and with unripe hops. The green loft must be _ well ventilated and each bag of hops should be untied and stood up. so that air can freely circulate around. A better plan, though one entailing more labour, is to erect a staging outside and near the oast upon which the bags of green hops can be laid and freely exposed to air; a temporary roof of galvanised iron is advisable to protect such hops from rain. The quantity of hops to be loaded is a matter requiring careful judgment, and beginners may be warned that no practice pre- judices profits more in hop growing than over-loading at the beginning of picking when hops are green and contain much moisture. Such practice not only results in spoilt hops from reeking but it disconcerts the drier who cannot be expected sub- sequently to do himself justice. When hops are fully ripe they may be loaded 10-11 in. thick on well-constructed kilns; this is equivalent to about ? bushel per sq. foot, Hast Kent measure, where hops are measured in 5 bushel baskets. In districts where ‘‘ bins ’’ are used the measured bushel of green hops is frequently much less than the basket measure. If hops are unripe, the cones small, the oast badly constructed, or the drier inexperienced, the load should be considerably less. In loading great care must be taken to spread the hops uniformly over the drying floor and to leave them as light as 1922. | CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. 145 possible; light, so that the draught may be free; uniformly, so that the hops may dry evenly—or otherwise, as soon as the thin places are dry the draught of hot air passes almost com- pletely through these spots and the denser spots dry very slowly. Turning.—This operation is carried out after the hops have ‘* feathered ’’ well on top. It is done for the purpose of mixing the comparatively moist hops above with the dry hops next to the floor and also to redistribute any thick or thin places on the drying-floor. It should not be done tco soon, and care must be taken not to break the hops unnecessarily, since the lower hops will have now become brittle. The operation tends to expedite drying and to produce a sample, all the hops in which are uniformly dry. Cooling.—It is not an easy matter to test exactly at what stage drying should stop and cooling commence. On the one hand it is most important to ‘*‘ home-dry’”’ the hops, since if unloaded from the kilns still moist they are either spoilt in the pockets or have to be again put on the kilns and re-dried, resulting in loss of time and much breaking of the cones. On the other hand. over-dried hops become very brittle and are broken to pieces badly in unloading and packing. ‘The test most generally adopted is to take a hand- ful (or several handfuls) representative of the bulk and rub them to pieces between the hands; the majority of the cones should rub down to powder, leaving only two or three cones in the handful which are still sappy, though these should be ‘‘ killed ”’ in the sense that they have already begun to shrivel. Drying should then cease, and cooling commence by damping down the fires with ashes and opening wide all blowers or shutters below the drying floor. Cooling should occupy from one half to one hour during which time the home-dried hops absorb moisture from the air and from the few partly dry hops amongst them, thus becoming less brittle so that they can be unloaded with little damage. Per contra, the few hops still undried at the beginning of cooling complete the process. Two commonly occurring misconceptions in regard to cooling may here be mentioned : just as in the drying process the bottom hops feel the heat first and the top hops last, so in cooling the bottom hops feel the effect of the cold air first and so does the thermometer placed below the hops: for this reason the recorded temperature rapidly falls and the hop drier is inclined to think that his hops are cool, when in fact only the lowermost hops may be so; to test whether hops are sufficiently cool the drier Dp 146 CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop, [ May, must handle the hops, or alternatively leave them a length of time which experience may indicate to be correct. Another common mistake is to open not only the shutters and doors below the hops but those above the drying floor as well; by such practice the air above the hops only is cooled, but since the cool air entering above the hops does not pass through them, the hops themselves are not cooled. This sounds very obvious, but the mistake is very frequent in the oast. Control of Fires.—The work of the hop drier is made con- siderably less anxious if his kilns are fitted with large enough fireplaces ; if these are greater than required he is not obliged to utilise the whole of the fire bars, but if too small they may have to burn too fiercely and constantly need attention. This fault is particularly likely to arise when hops are dried over open fires with fan draught. Wherever fires are Hable to burn fiercely, or the fireplaces are nearer than usual to the drying floor a baffle plate should be suspended above them to prevent heat being directly radiated from the fires to the cloth, in which case the hops are liable to be burnt. It may be noted in passing that this radiated heat is very different in its properties from heat carried by warm air; the former “‘ strikes ’’ one’s face when sitting before a blazing fire, the latter is produced when hot water pipes are used to warm a room. In hop drying radiated heat is dangerous and must be prevented from acting; it is the eurrent of warm air passing through the fire by means of which the hops are dried. At the beginning of drying and as soon as the hops have been loaded the fires are made up with large lumps of coal so that they will burn slowly and steadily for 4 or 5 hours, gradually gaining in heat as the hops begin to dry and the draught con- sequently improves. Should the temperature tend to rise too rapidly the fires are checked not by damping them with ashes but by raising the blowers to admit more cold air to the kiln and by this admission of air check the draught through the fire. So, too, if the fires want lifting after restoking or because they tend to deaden, this should be done by increasing the draught through the fires by partially closing blowers. Some driers use large quantities of charcoal for the purpose of raising their fires; this is costly and unnecessary except when the fire is very dead when made up. The stoking of the fires during the latter part of drying calls for much less skill than at the outset; the only precautions necessary are to avoid great fluctnations in temperature and to ee 1922. | CULTIVATION OF THE Hop Crop. 147 be careful that the heat produced does not exceed the given maximum. Control of Draught.—This is closely wrapped up with the control of the fires and is fundamental to successful drying. It is especially important during still, foggy mights. Hvery effort must be made to get a good draught from the beginning. Assuming that the oast is sufficiently high and well ceiled, the other points of importance are to see that the cowl points directly away from whatever wind there may be; failure to do this leads to certain spoiling of the hops. Well balanced cowls, kept well oiled, should automatically swing round with the wind, but a wise precaution consists in tying a piece of string to the tongue of the cowl. The other end is attached fo a stone on the ground so that, if by mischance the cowl! sticks, it can easily be swung round. Next, the kiln must be warm before the hops are loaded, and the hops must be spread as lightly as possible over the drying floor. Sulphuring.—During the drying of hops brimstone is burnt for the purpose of bleaching or mellowing the green colour of the hops, especially when unripe, so that the whole sample may present an attractive, and uniformly yellow colour. It is sometimes wrongly thought by buyers that this is the sole function of the brimstone. ‘This is not the case for, if experi- mentally or accidentally hops are dred without sulphur they assume a harsh, partly green and partly bronze colour, which resembles the original colour of the green uncured hops less than does the sulphured sample. Again, such unsulphured hops have a peculiar smell resembling that of withered foliage. There is also some slight evidence that the use of the brimstcne helps to hasten drying. and to preserve the hops if long storage is necessary. The peculiar colour associated with unsulvhured hops may frequently be observed by picking up a handful of hops from off the hair when the lighting of the brimstone has been delayed a few minutes after drying has commenced. This serves to indicate the importance of lighting the brimstone immediately the hops have been levelled, because the sulphur can only pro- duce its effect on the hops before they have begun to get dry. The quantity of brimstone required is about 1 lb. per 40 sq. ft. of drying floor, perhaps rather more when hops are green and rather less when ripe. Brimstone is sometimes burnt directly upon the fires, but a better method consists in burning it in separate iron pans within the kilns. (To be concluded.) Dp 2 148 INCREASING THE CoMMERCIAL VALUE of AprLEs. [ May, INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE. OF -22= PL Es: EK. M. Baar. Now that efforts are being made to bring about improvements in our methods of packing and marketing apples, the need for better culture with a view to enhancing the commercial value of the fruit is bound to make itself felt. A grower who sets out to market his apples in accordance with standards regulating grade and quality, such as those adopted by the Federation of British Growers, quickly realises the importance of having a good samp'e of fruit to deal with. If the general quality of the crop as gathered from the trees is low, the proportion fit to include in the higher and more valuable grades will obviously be small, and the bulk will have to be disposed of at a much lower rate. It is, in fact, almost hopeless to attempt improved methods of packing unless an effort has been made to produce a crop of good quality. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the movement in favour of a better system of marketing will lead to a general improvement in cultural methods. The importance of this matter is fully realised by growers in other countries who compete with us in cur markets. In many cases they succeed in growing crops of apples, 75 per cent. of which are of high enough quality to pack in boxes for export under very stringent regulations as to grade and quality. On the other hand, it has been said, and probably without exageeration, that the average crop of apples grown in commercial orchards in this country does not include more than 15 per cent. of fruit of boxable quality. There is thus plenty of room for improvement, and growers who accomplish it are not likely to go short of their reward. The attributes of chief commercial value in apples are size, colour, and freedom from skin blemishes. size.— Whilst abnormal apples are not desired, it is of grea importance that as large a proportion of the crop as possible should be typical specimens of their variety in this respect, since apples are graded primarily by size. It is particularly desirable in the case of cooking apples, which for most markets can hardly be too big. In a time of glut there is little demand for any but large cooking apples; and the public prefer them to small ones at any time, because they are less wasteful and less troublesome to prepare for the table. In dessert apples extra large size is not favoured, but any specimens under 2+ in. in 1922. | INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF APPLES. 149 diameter cannot be considered as being of the highest grade. Some of the smaller varieties commonly yield a large propor- tion below this size unless means are taken to improve them in this respect. On the other hand, there are a few big varieties, such as Charles Ross and Blenheim Orange, which often grow too large for dessert purposes if given generous treatment. It is desirable, therefore, that the grower should understand the conditions which influence size. In the case of most varieties, however, both cooking and dessert, his object will be to increase the average size, so as to avoid having to deal with large quan- tities of small fruit which must be sold at a low price. Size in apples is influenced largely by the character of the soil. Medium loam soils or clay, which are naturally retentive of moisture and plant food, produce apples of great size and substance, and are therefore particularly suitable for cooking varieties. On soils of lighter, drier nature big, heavy apples are not so easily grown, but dessert varieties often attain better colour and more delicate and attractive appearance than on the stiffer land which gives size. But, since growers cannot materially alter the character of their soil, they need to know how size may be influenced by cultural methods. Conditions which encourage strong growth of the trees also increase the size of the fruit. The finest apples are generally gathered from young trees that are growing vigorously. As the age of the trees increases and the wood growth decreases the apples tend to become smaller. The vigour of the trees, and consequently the size of the fruit, may be increased in several ways, the chief of which are soil cultivation, manuring, pruning and thinning the crop. Cultivation and Manuring.—Apples grown in cultivated plan- tations are commonly larger than those yielded by orchards under grass. Thorough surface cultivation during the spring and summer, with the object of maintaining a dust mulch, and so hindering the rising and evaporation of moisture from the soil below, has a beneficial influence on the size of the fruit. On land inclined to be light and dry surface cultivation can hardly be overdone, particularly during the spring and early summer. Manuring also has an important influence on size, the most useful manures for this purpose being those of a bulky organic nitrogenous character, such as farmyard or stable manure and wool shoddy. In the writer’s experience a dressing of shoddy at the rate of 2 to 8 tons per acre has always given a noticeable increase in the size of apples. Whilst it is easy to overdo the manuring of young trees which are growing vigorously, and have 150 INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF APPLES. [| May, not come into full bearing, there is little doubt that older plan- tations are commonly given insufficient manure. ‘Trees that have steadied down in growth and are in regular bearing pro- bably require annual assistance in the way of feeding. In some countries the requirements of fruit plantations in the way of nitrogen and organic matter are supplied by sowing a leguminous crop in autumn and ploughing it under green in the following spring. If such a crop is grown with the help of mineral fertilisers supplying phosphates and potash, the manurial needs of the trees are very cheaply and effectively provided, and increased size in the fruit is one of the benefits. secured. It is very desirable that such a system should be tried in this country, and experiments made to find the best green crops for the purpose... . | Grass orchards are generally manured with sheep grazing the erass closely, and at the same time receiving cake and other concentrated foods. Pruning.—Pruning is well known to stimulate wood growth, and it increases the size of the fruit as well. There is no doubt that the finest apples are produced in orchards which receive annual attention in the way of pruning. In experiments in progress at the East Malling Research Station in Kent, trees which have the leaders tipped annually consistently yield larger fruit than trees which are allowed to grow naturally or merely thinned eut where overcrowded. In the case of old trees, which have become overburdened with fruit spurs, it is very desirable to reduce the spur clusters to reasonable dimensions, and eenerally to thin out spurs where too numerous. Undoubtedly the most direct influence on the size of the fruit is the thinning of the crop; and no other means will attain the object when too heavy a crop has set. It is a laborious and expensive process, but profitable for all that. In the case of some of the earliest cooking varieties, which are sale- able when quite immature, it is perhaps allowable to leave the thinning until some of the fruit reaches a marketable size; but the thinning of most varieties should be done in May or June. The amount of thinning required depends on the quantity of fruit set. In many cases it suffices if the apples are singled, or the clusters reduced to one apple in every instance; but in some cases this leaves the fruit still too thick, and further thinning is required. As a rough rule, where large apples are wanted, they should be allowed to hang about 8 in. apart, this distance being gauged nearly enough by spanning with the hand, fingers Thinning. 1922. | INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF APPLES. 151 extended. Much thinning is avoided if the trees are regularly pruned, and the number of spurs reduced where necessary, as already described. Colour.—Colour in apples is of great commercial value, parti- cularly in dessert varicties. Unfortunately it is much less under the control of the grower than is size. Certain districts are noted for the high colour of the apples they produce, this being the result of natural conditions of soil and climate. ‘The soils which yield cocking apples of great size and substance are not remarkable, as a rule, for the colour they impart to the fruit. Apples of the brightest colouring usually come from trees grow- ing on lighter and drier land, which is therefore particularly suitable for the culture of dessert apples. On such land neither the trees nor the apples grow so big. It may be said, in fact, that conditions that make for size and growth are antagonistic to high colour. We see this when comparing apples grown in a cultivated plantation with those from a grass orchard on the same farm. The latter are always smaller but of decidedly higher colour. The same rule applies in manuring. The organic nitrogenous manures used to give size tend to reduce colouring. What it amounts to is this: colour comes with maturity, and anything that hastens maturity or ripening gives colour. Nitrogenous manures promote growth and prolong the season of development, thus delaying maturity and working against colour. «lf any fertilisers achieve this object they would be those supplying phosphates, which are well known to bring about early maturity. As a matter of fact, there is no reliable evidence that colour can be fed into apples, whilst there is no doubt that over-stimulation with nitrogenous manures has the opposite effect. Colour is, of course, greatly influenced by light, especially sunshine. This is clearly seen from the extra colour of apples on the exposed parts of the tree as compared with those hidden by fohage in the centre or on the lower branches. It is really only by taking advantage of this knowledge that growers can work to secure bright colour. There should be ample space be- tween the trees. »nd pruning should be done with a view to admitting light to all parts of the tree, the branches being well spaced and the cer tre of the head open. In the case of coloured varieties, particularly those that ripen early in the season, further help towards getting a sample of uniform colour is afforded by picking over the crop several times, taking the fruit as it colours; for apples in the shaded parts do colour eventually. 152 INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE oF APPLES. [ May, Whilst sunshine greatly assists colouring, rain also helps matters. Apples colour best when showers alternate with periods of bright sunshine. Very dry, hot seasons, with continuous sunshine, are not the most favourable to colour, although the contrary is often assumed. In the writer’s district, where the drought of 1921 was very severe, and the amount of sunshine was abnormal, apples did not colour so well as they have done in normal summers. Skin Blemishes.—A very serious amount of waste and loss in the packing of apples for market is caused by skin blemishes. Fruit that is actually damaged, either mechanically or by pests and diseases, so badly that its keeping quality is affected, is quite unfit to market at all. But even minor skin blemishes, which atfect merely the appearance of the fruit, lower its value enormously. Apples packed under the label of the Federation of British Growers must not include more than 10 per cent. showing such blemishes. Growers will find that a large propor- tion of their crop falls short of this standard unless they give the matter very serious attention. Blemishes arise in several ways. A few are caused by the weather, and cannot be prevented. Many mechanical injuries occur as a result of careless or improper handling during pick- ing and can be guarded against only by training of the pickers and constant supervision of the work, together with the provision of proper appliances for carrying it out. But the majority of skin blemishes arise through the attacks of various insect pests and fungus diseases. Capsid bugs puncture and deform the fruit, aphides stunt and disfigure it, codlin moth causes ‘““ maggot-eaten ’’ apples, and various caterpillars injure the fruit as well as the foliage. Amongst fungus diseases brown rot and apple scab are the most serious. Apples affected by the former soon decay and are entirely wasted, whilst scab, even in a mild attack, disfigures the fruit and greatly lowers the value of the crop. The chief means of controlling these and other pests and dis- eases is intelligent spraying; and the grower who does not spray might as well give up all idea of improved packing and enhanced returns. It is not sufficient to wait until a particular trouble appears, and then seek a remedy. Pests and diseases are much more effectively controlled if the season’s spraying campaign is carefully planned in advance, and put into operation at the right times. This is also the most economical plan, as it enables 1922. | INCREASING THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF APPLES. 158 the grower to buy his materials beforehand, when they are generally cheaper than if purchased at the last minute. Apple Scab.—By far the most serious of the skin blemishes are those caused by the fungus disease apple scab, or black spot. This trouble is much more virulent in some seasons than in others, but it is always present to some extent, and annually causes an enormous loss to the growers of this country. Far too often the crop of varieties that are lable to scab, which in- clude some of our best dessert kinds, contains many more than 10 per cent. of apples blemished by the disease, and in bad cases it is difficult to find an apple that is quite clean. It is therefore of the utmost importance to growers who wish to make the most of their crop by improved packing that they should be able to control seab. Unfortunately our present knowledge does not enable us to prevent it altogether, but we can control it to an extent that is quite worth while. Mycologists seem rather to have lost faith in the value of win- ter spraying to prevent scab, but many growers find it distinctly valuable. In the writer’s opinion spraying in early March, when the buds have just begun to move, with a simple solution of copper sulphate, 10 lb. to 100 gallons of water, is an excellent start in the year’s campaign against scab, brown rot, and other fungus diseases. The chemical must be 98 per cent. pure, and should be in powder form to facilitate dissolving. Lime-sulphur at winter strength is also useful, provided that it is not applied until the outside leaves surrounding the bloom clusters are on the point of opening out. Further delay is dangerous, but slight scorching of the outside leaves apparently does no ultimate harm. If used too early lime-sulphur is of little value against scab, and in any case copper sulphate is to be preferred for the purpose. The latter scorches foliage badly, and must not be applied when the buds are at all advanced. In some seasons this delayed winter spraying may do all that is necessary against scab, but it is never safe to rely upon it. The orthodox summer spraying is done within a fortnight after the fall of the bloom; and it ought to be repeated about a month later. Bordeaux mixture is the most effective wash to use at this time, but it is so liable to russet the fruit and to scorch the foliage of certain varieties, that it has been given up by many growers in favour of lime-sulphur used at summer strength. This is rather less effective against scab, and there is some evidence that it causes a proportion of the crop to drop before reaching maturity ; but it does not russet the fruit, and is harm- 154 Ttver Ror 1x Norra Wauss, 1920-21. [May, — less to the foliage of all but a very few varieties if properly ap- plied. It will be seen that we have at present no entirely satis- factory fungicide for summer use, and it is most desirable that further research should be carried out to find one. Scab 1s controlled to some extent by pruning, and unless this has attention spraying is much less effective than it might be. On certain varieties, notably Cox’s Orange Pippin, the winter stage of the disease may be observed in a blistered or roughened appearance of the bark of the young shoots. Such shoots should be cut off during winter pruning and burned; otherwise the fungus breaks through the bark later on and distributes spores freely. All dead wood should also be cut out. It has been found, moreover, in the pruning experiments at the East Malling Re- search Station, that stab is less troublesome on the fruit of trees that have their leaders tipped every winter. This benefit is not confined to varieties which show the winter stage of scab on their young shoots. It is assumed, therefore, that it is due to the fact that the tipping produces tougher, more vigorous leaves which resist the disease. * * * * * * THE. LIVER: ROT: EPIDEMIGIN NORTH WALES, 1920-21. C. Li. Watton, M.Sc., Adviser in Agricultural Zoology, University College, Bangor. THE epidemic of Liver Rot which devastated the lowland flocks of North Wales in 1920-21 was undoubtedly the worst experienced since the noted outbreak of 1879-80, although, to judge by statements made by the older men, that attack was even more widespread. The present notes deal solely with the counties of Anglesey, Carnarvon, Denbigh and Flint. The writer had carried out work in the Aberystwyth area in connec- tion with this disease, more particularly regarding the life history of the host snail, Limnaea truncatula,* which experience proved very useful in dealing with the 1920-21 outbreak. The parasite causing the disease is the Flatworm, Fasciola hepatica, which inhabits the biliary duct, gall bladder and liver of sheep, cattle, rabbits, hares, ete. This worm has a complicated life history, and has as its intermediate host the small fresh-water snail, Limnaea truncatula, within which it * See The Liver Rot of Sheep and Bionomics of Limnaea truncatulu in the Aberystwyth Area. Parasitology, Vol. I1., December, 1917, pp. 252-266. 1922. | Liver Ror 1x Norra Waxes, 1920-21. 155 passes its early stages; the final hosts being infected through the ingestion of infected pastures or drinking water. L, truncatula is abundant and widespread, especially in shallow ditches and on ill-drained pastures, and more particularly on heavy lands, but is apparently very rare, or absent, on peaty soils, and infrequent on sands (for reasons to be explained below). The outbreak apparently commenced about August, 1920, on some of the worst infected pastures, but did not become serious until about November. The writer carried out a preliminary survey of the Agricul- tural Zoology of the Bangor district during the summer of 1920,* when data were obtained regarding some 800 holdings. These were almost all within a limited district, which contained relatively little of the worst affected land. It was discovered, however, that the Liver Fluke was endemic in the district examined, and caused persistent losses on a number of farms in most years: 25. such cases were recorded. In the light of subsequent experience it appears evident that a similar (or worse) state of affairs existed in most of the lowland districts of North Wales, and that on certain of the ill-drained clay soils 10 per cent. losses from this cause were not unusual; while from time to time serious (though local) losses occurred, at times involving an entire flock, or a number of neighbouring flocks. Such being the case it will be seen that the conditions favourable to an epidemic existed; which under the exceptional conditions that-followed, became serious. Owing to other duties, no further field work-was:done in connection with Agri- cultural Zoology until 29th December, 1920, by which time the outbreak was widespread-. and the losses very severe. During the following twelve months this disease occupied a large part of the writer’s attention. In all, 145 personal visits were made during the period, and a list of 260 affected farms and holdings has been made, though this is not by any means complete. é Localities affected.—The districts most severely affected were (1) the Vale of Clwyd, from Denbigh to the sea, and from Abergele to Prestatyn; (2) a narrow coastal area from Aber to near Bangor; (3) wide areas around Carnarvon; (4) about Ynys and Afonwen; (5) from Sarn Meyllteyrn to near Llanengan; (6) the vicinity of Aberdaron; (7) a wide area in south-west Anglesey extending from Lilanfair P. G. to Dwyran, thence * A Preliminary Note on the Agricultural Zoolog ry of North Ww ales, British Association, Cardiff, 1920. 156 Liver Ror 1n Norta Watss, 1920-21. [ May, northward through Llangaffo to the Malldraeth Marsh, and up to the vicinity of Holland Arms; (8) an adjacent district extend- ing from near Llangefni to Llangadwaladr and Bodorgan. In addition to these chief areas there were some 20 others in the four counties, mostly of smaller extent. It is interesting that in very few cases was the elevation greater than 300 ft., and the majority of the most severe losses occurred below the 100 ft. contour. Strictly speaking, the mountains escaped, the conditions there being unfavourable to a wide extension of the host snail. Owing to the custom of pasturing young sheep from the mountains to the lowlands during the period October to April, there was a concentration of sheep on the worst in- fected lands during that period, and many of these.‘‘ tack ”’ sheep were infected soon after arrival, so that in this way many upland farmers sustained heavy losses. For example, one sheep farmer wintered young sheep on six different lowland holdings, and four of these proved infective, causing the death of about 300. Heavy losses continued up to the end of spring, while deaths continued here and there until the late autumn of 1921. So far, up to the time of writing (January, 1922), no further fresh outbreaks have been reported, although a few chronic cases exist. Losses due to the Outbreak.—On first taking over the work, attention was given to gaining a general idea of the extent and severity of the outbreak, and in getting the flocks away from infected pastures on to the soundest land available, and under treatment. With this end in view many farms had to be rapidly surveyed, and farmers instructed as to procedure. In some seriously infected flocks the disease was detected and the sheep marketed sufficiently early to minimise the losses. In many others the infected sheep were not sold until they had become badly affected, and in such cases realised very low prices, ewes purchased but a few weeks or months previously at from £4 10s. to £7 10s., selling at from 30s. down to 2s. 6d. each. Other flocks were allowed to die; or died with a rapidity totally- unexpected by men who were accustomed to the com- paratively slow wasting associated with the usual “‘ chronic ”’ form of the disease. Indeed, these very rapid deaths while the animals were still fat, were a marked feature of the epidemic, and led to several prevalent ideas which had to be combated. The first was that the disease was not Liver Rot at all, since death was rapid and the accustomed symptoms did not always appear. This was due to the fact that in many cases the sheep 1922. | Liver Ror ry Norra Wass, 1920-21. 157 died while the flukes, although actually present in great num- bers, were frequently so small as to pass unnoticed even when the livers were examined. Again it was often contended that the disease was not endemic on the farm on which animals died, but had been imported from some other district, the sheep having been infected prior to purchase. ‘T’his idea also proved to be erroneous in the majority of cases, and if was generally possible to demonstrate this to the farmers concerned by taking all the facts connected with the flock, and surveying the land. By these methods the actual place where infection had taken place could often be demonstrated. On a number of farms cattle were also affected, and in one instance over 30 died. Three flukes were obtained from the liver of a pig—the only instance reported. As to the actual loss, 16 was found impossible to get even an accurate estimate, the data being incomplete, and many cases were very complicated. Very heavy individual losses were frequent, and reckoning only the price of those which died on the farm, and the difference between buying and sell- ing price, these individual losses ranged from £50 to £1,500; £400 to £800 being frequent figures. In addition, there is the loss of the expected lamb and wool crops, etc. Many methods Were recommended and tried during the year to endeavour to maintain remains of flocks free from further infection, and to prevent the infection of fresh flocks purchased during the autumn of 1921. Many farmers had to give up sheep keeping (at any rate for a time). Others, after survey of their land, were able to keep reduced flocks on their drier fields. Others fenced out or ploughed infected fields or parts of fields. Con- siderable drainage was undertaken, there being no doubt what- ever that certain cases were aggravated by neglect of ditches, etc., especially during the war period. The majority now recognise the dangers, and that is the great step to prevention, although there is always a small residue who cannot be reached by visit, leaflet, lecture or press. It is gratifying to be able to record that taken as a whole, the agricultural community have shown interest in the scientific side of the work, and have been most helpful as regards data, experiments and in many other ways. Causes Leading up to the Outbreak.—In a previous paper* the close connection between soil characters, meteorology, and the relative distribution and abundance of L. truncatula, the * Parasitoloyy, op. cit. 158 Liver Ror 1x Norra WatzEs, 1920-21. [ May, host snail, has been discussed: the epidemic of 1920-21 has illustrated some of these points in a most interesting manner. The snail, as already mentioned, has normally a distribution coincident with shallow ditches and pools, more particularly on clays and silts. From these centres, distribution takes place on to ill-drained adjacent land, and, in fact, anywhere where suitable conditions can be found, and it 1s surprising how soon such movements take place, the animals appearing to move almost automatically against any slight flow of water and so penetrating steadily during suitable weather from the centres to considerable distances in a few weeks. Such extensions of range undoubtedly occur each winter, and indeed throughout the year should wet weather prevail. The natural check to this distribution is drought, and normally, during the average spring and summer such periods occur, killing off those snails which have reached the least suitable (most readily dried). situations; such process being progressive as long as the dry weather lasts. Although the amount of annual rainfall is of great importance here, nevertheless, its distribution throughout the months is of hardly less importance. In West Wales all winters may be regarded as wet from this biological standpoint. It 1s those years in which rainfall is general and persistent throughout the spring and summer that lead up to marked extensions of range of L. truncatula, and to its further increase by uninterrupted breeding on the ground gained. Given the infection of such snails by means of the normally present chronic or mild cases of Fluke infection usually present among the flocks, we have the conditions which precede end eause an epidemic of *‘ Rot.’’ The following diagram shows the rainfall in months for North Wales during the period 1920-21, illustrating the pomts mentioned. It will be seen that we have a period comprising the autumn and winter of 1919-20, the wet and sunless summer of 1920, and the winter of 1920-21; a period of eighteen months during which distribution and in- fection could proceed simultaneously. The snails became remarkably abundant, particularly on some of the low-lying heavy land, some limited areas yielding up to 130 to the square foot, as on the Malldraeth Marsh in Anglesey. In some instances several hundred acres became heavily stocked, in others only certain limited spots were invaded. Effects of the Drought of 1921.—The long wet period de- scribed above was succeeded by the remarkable drought of 1921. This drought afforded an opportunity for studying the effects on Inches .°) 1922. | Liver Ror in Norra Wass, 1920-21. 159 L. truncatula, Colonies of the snail inhabiting land of different types were watched. For instance, in Anglesey, strong and widespread colonies on limestone, sandy, and heavy marshy soils were under observation; while in the other counties colonies on various grades of soil were similarly studied. As had been previously noted* the resistance of the snail to drought is en- yo SI Jur eo) ° vy iret tt June © co = o 2 “Se CTT Pert Tere m4 9 ° S O MEBs, ~ we ~~ ~~9 ’ SHRRUBRE, HUREASRE / } ‘ oF . 1 i | . ‘ i i \ é \ ; \ 3 | “4 / e : ; 1 rr =. =e : + = 4 | : ivi K ‘ Ee ian bas fa) X14 1920 @---------O 19a1 Fi1@. 1.—Monthly Rainfall for 1920 and 1921 at Penrhyn Gardens, Bangor. tirely dependent upon the environment. In many instances the snails were present in numbers on grass land that was wet, - but not actually under water, and such spots dried out rapidly. In such situations survival depended upon three factors (a) the amount and type of vegetative covering present, (b) soil charac- ters, (c) whether the soil was level, or had cracked or been trodden (‘‘ poached ’’) much by stock. If the land was bare and level, death speedily took place, but as the protection afforded was increased by long and dense vegetation or by shade * Parasitology, op. eit., pp. 251-2 and p. 257. 160 Liver Ror in Norta Wauss, 1920-21. (May, of any kind, survival was prolonged. In quite a number of cases such protection enabled up to 80 per cent. of the snail population to survive right through the drought, rendering such land unfit for stock almost as soon as moisture returned. The most favourable conditions for survival prevailed on old grass land on heavy soils which had been trodden into deep holes by horses and cattle during the winter and spring, and which dried into a series of miniature ridges, alternating with holes which were frequently from 4 to 6 in. in depth, and re- tained the form of the hoof, thus forming more or less over- hanging and cavernlike pits. In these pits water remained for a long time, while sufficient moisture was retained in many instances to sustain life throughout the drought. A heavy growth of coarse grasses, rushes, etc., further hindered drying by affording shade from sunlight, protection from winds, and retention of dew. Shaded and grass-grown ditches, especially if on the north side of a bank, and land to the north side and under the shade of woodlands, also afforded sufficient shelter for survival in several instances. During previous work it was found that the egg masses of L. truncatula dried to a hard scale, but on being replaced in water, speedily resumed their original form. It was further noted that even after prolonged drought large numbers of young snails re-appeared after the return of moisture (even in ditches, etc., that had remained dry for as long as 3 months, and where all snails had died). A number of laboratory and field experiments were undertaken at the time, but owing to mischance, etc., did not produce con- clusive proof of hatching of ova after drying, and since then time has not yet allowed of their repetition. Nevertheless, soon after the return of moisture numbers of minute snails appeared in many places during the autumn of 1921, so that should wet conditions again prevail during the spring and summer of 1922, there will be a further increase in the amount of land affected. It is hoped to carry out further’ investigations in this connection. Field Experiments against L. truncatula.—Owing to lack of time, no experiments were undertaken until June, 1921, by which time the land had become very dry and vegetation dense. Nevertheless, a series of spraying trials was commenced on 1st June on heavy grass land, very rough and much “‘ poached,”’ situated on the Malldraeth Marsh in Anglesey... Snails.were abundant and living. Plots of 1/10th and 1/20th acre were sprayed with copper sulphate in 1/1000, 1 per cent. and 2 per 1922. | Liver Ror ry Norra Waxes, 1920-21. 161 cent. solutions, using Holder Pneumatic and ‘‘ Mysto ’’ Knap- sack sprayers. It was found that from 100. to 120 gallons per acre was required to wet the surface, and the spraying had to be most carefully done owing to the adverse conditions. The solution 1/1000 did not give satisfactory results, and several plots failed to give conclusive evidence, since, although snails Were abundant enough when sprayed, but few could be re- covered a few days later. This was attributed to the activities of a number of Lapwings which frequented the plots between the time of spraying and the subsequent counting of the snails. However, one plot in another field sprayed with 1 per cent, solution yielded 112 snails, all dead, on 6th June (100 per cent. killed), while of 62 snails collected alongside the plot, on un- sprayed ground, 52 were living. In the following week several Jong and deep ditches near Conway heavily populated with both L. truncatula and L, peregra (an allied, but larger species) were cleared of rank vegetation, and sprayed with 1 per cent. solution of copper sulphate on 6th June. The ditches contained no water, but were still damp, and the snails living. On 14th June ditch (a) (160 yd. x 1 yd.) gave 72 per cent. tlead snails, and ditch (b) . (84 yd. x 1 yd.) 100 per cent. dead. Subsequently, the cost of this type of spray was worked cut for 5 acres so treated in Anglesey by a farmer. A horse-tlrawn 40 gallon barrel sprayer was used, 100 gallons of 1 per vent. solution being applied, and the cost was 6s. per acre. Subsequently, in October and November, a series of irials was made, using powders, which were distributed by means of hand bellows, and a Knapsack dry sprayer. This method proved very successful for narrow ditches and small wet patches, but did not give good results when tried on larger plots on the open field. The expense also was considerably higher than in the case of the copper sulphate solutions, the lowest cost working out at 16s. per acre. Nevertheless, this appears to be an excellent way of treating narrow ditches and small wet areas, being easy to carry out. The hand bellows gave the best results. The following are some of the typical results :— (1) Copper sulphate in powder form was first tried mixed with fine slaked lime as a dilutant and spreader. Lime was soon abandoned owing to a reaction with the copper sulphate, and being too light to ensure even spreading of the heavier copper sulphate; (2) one part copper sulphate mixed with two parts flour gave even distribution and excellent results. but flour was E 162 Liver Ror 1x Norta Watzs, 1920-21. [ May, too expensive for use on a large scale; (8) one part copper sulphate and two parts kaolin was finally used and was suc- cessful in every way, costing 16s. per acre. By means of (2) and (8) several ditches containing thousands of snails were com- pletely and rapidly cleared, the death rate working out at 98 per cent. to 100 per cent. Subsequent trials with two parts iron sulphate and one part kaolin failed (as did also a trial with a heavy dressing of undiluted iron sulphate, applied by an Anglesey farmer). As matters now stand, further extensive field trials on a commercial scale are needed to test the above results. For wet land the writer would favour a 2 per cent. solution of copper sulphate, while for narrow wet ditches dusting seems advisable, as the mixture is readily made and the apparatus cheap and easy to use. Mr. W. H. Savage, M.R.C.V.8., carried out experiments with sheep on the College Farm with both Male fern and anti- mony tartrate, with very considerable success. 1922. ] T'rraus or Poratogs, 1921. 163 eee Nisa RYS TRIALS OF Jee ten . OF, POTATOES, 1921. THE importance of the potato crop in the scheme of farming operations is demonstrated by the fact that in 1921 nearly 558,000 acres were planted in England and Wales, from which the yield was estimated to be nearly three million tons. The cost of production, for various reasons, is high, and in order that growers may be in a position to obtain the best return for their outlay the Ministry, with the co-operation of County Education Committees, has instituted a series of annual trials at numerous centres throughout the country with the object of providing in- formation as to the most profitable varieties. A report on the trials carried out in 1920 appeared in the issue of the Journal for June last, and the results of those conducted in 1921 are given in this article. Effect of Dry Weather.—The dry summer of 1921 to some extent impaired the value of the trials. On some porous soils the ripening process was so rapid that the haulm died away prematurely leaving a very small crop of undersized tubers in the soil. In other cases where the haulm was able to obtain even a meagre supply of moisture, it remained green although very little actual growth took place either at the roots or above ground. With the advent of heavier rainfall, “* second srowth’’ and ‘‘ growing out’’ set in. The latter occurred mainly in the South, South-Eastern and South- Western Counties and may briefly be described as_ the result of the first crop of undersized tubers producing tendrils from which a second crop was obtained later in the summer. This latter crop was in many cases considerably heavier than the original. In the Midlands, North and extreme West, where rain came earlier and in greater abundance, the original tubers became enlarged producing what is usually termed “‘ second srowth.”’ Where the crop ripened prematurely it was abnormally light, but where ripening was deferred and both crops were harvested togethér, almost average weights per acre were obtained. The proportion of seed to ware was, however, everywhere very high. In some crops few ware-sized tubers were found. Another characteristic of the 1921 crop was the tendency of all varieties of oval or kidney shape to produce an abnormal percentage of round tubers. E 2 164 Trraus oF Poratoss, 1921. | May, Scheme for Trials with First Early Varieties ——The growing of very early varieties for lifting ‘‘ green ’” is becoming an im- portant industry in many districts, and the Early trials were accordingly designed with the object of proving whether any of the first early immune varieties possessed sufficient merit to be suitable for cultivation for this purpose. Only those counties in which an early potato-growing industry exists were asked to undertake the Early trials. The main object of the trials was to provide information re- garding the comparative marketable value of the varieties lifted in the green state, and it was not intended to demonstrate the comparative earliness of the different varieties at maturity. The varieties immune to Wart Disease chosen for experiment were Ashleait (Broadleaf), Dargill Early, Resistant Snowdrop (or Witch Hill), and Arran Rose. These were compared with the non-immune varieties Ninetyfold and Epicure. Supply of Seed.—In order to obtain results fairly comparable, it was decided to obtain all the seed from the same source and arrangements were accordingly made with a seed merchant in Scotland for the supply of seed potatoes of the selected varieties, Sprouting Seed.—County Committees were asked to arrange for 28 lb. of each variety to be specially boxed and sprouted under approved methods and conditions, and for 28 lb. to be bagged and placed in the dark, in a cool store or clamp until the time of planting. Soil and Cultiwation.—It. was suggested that where possible the soil selected should be a deeply-worked light to medium loam, in good condition and with an aspect having a full exposure to the sun. Manures.—It was suggested that the soil should receive a dressing of farmyard manure in the drills at the rate of 15 tons per acre (about 2 ewt. per rod). This was to be supplemented on dates to be recorded by a dressing of artificial manures mixed in the following proportions per acre, and if possible, applied broadcast immediately before the seed was placed in the drills :— 2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia, 3 cwt. superphosphate (80 per cent. sol.), 1 ewt. steamed bone flour, and 1 cwt. sulphate of potash. The combined mixed dressing worked out at the rate of 5 |b. per rod. Planting.—The potatoes were to be planted on the usual dates ruling in each particular district in drills 24 in. apart, and sets 12 in. apart. The area for each variety was four rods (32 ft. by 84 ft.), which admitted of sixteen rows. Leonean cee cacaaaaamacaaaaaaaaacaaacaaaaaacaaaaaaaaaaaaammmmmammmmamaaa 1d = ZI g i) 6 61 OL 6 II OL OL OL Ol [ 6 0) 6 qT 8 pa ate Sa1jUOO £6E | *SOTR M pue puBsyjsug Ul o10v Jed plarx osVI0AV | £1 (Ol OL + Uk ul aul 6L FI 1 4 ee ¢ Gl ¢ at 9 Ol | OI ies see) C6 ‘SPTRM ul o10¥ Jad plalX IdVloaAy | oO 8 cl: 8 > ot L Ol e. 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Ul ‘puvpouy uy "solv A, UT ‘purjsug Uy ‘SoTVAA UT ‘puvpoug, UT SF —— ~~ ed U— +~-——-- ~ *£OLIV A, i ‘splog AAvOT UC ‘s[I0og WUNIpey UC ‘sTLOS 4UusI'yT UC nN —_ EE 5 ——— iii ol ‘sa)DM pup puvjbug us spos havay puv ‘wrapow Qyby uo saynuw, hywwg fo ason wad pjarx fo apy abosapy—T ATAV TL, 5 os 166 TrIaLs oF Potators, 1921. [ May, Tafting.—Committees were asked to arrange for the potatoes to be lifted as soon as they were ready for market, and to record the results of the crop in terms of money value as well as in weight and to make careful note of the date when each variety was lifted and marketed. Results of Trials with First Earlies.—These Karly trials were carried out in ten English and six Welsh counties and the average yield of each variety from light, medium, and heavy soils is shown in Table I. It will be seen that in the English counties “‘ Epicure ’’ still retained its reputation as the b- st early variety for a heavy soil although it was surpassed as a cropper on light soils by “‘ Snowdrop.’’ The yields in the Welsh counties showed a heavier average, and this was presumably due to the heavier rainfall experienced during the growing season. ‘‘ Arran Rose ’’ gave the heaviest yield on any class of soil, viz., 8 tons 14 cwt. per ecre on heavy soils in Wales, but it should be added that ‘‘ Epicure ’’ was not tested under these conditions. When the average rates of yield at all centres are examined, it will be found that “‘ Epicure ’’ again heads the list as a cropper. This is entirely due, however, to the behaviour of this variety in the Welsh counties. ‘‘ Snowdrop ’’ was the heaviest cropper in the English counties and a close second in the average for all centres. It would appear therefore that the latter variety is able to withstand drought. TaBLeE I].—Average Rate of Yield per acre of each First Early variety at all the Centres. Immune, | Susceptible. Arran Ashleaf | Dargill | een: (Broadleaf)| Early. ae ies Epicure. Ninety‘old, j tons cwt. |tons cwt. |tons cwt. | tons ewt. |tons cwt. |tons cwt. Average yield in England, 53 Centres 4 14 5 6 4% fi Average yield | in Wales, 38 Centres 6 5 6 3 5 13 6 3 7 7 be | os PAT & 14 4 | | | | | | | Average yield | in England : | ard Wales, | 91 Centres 5 4 5 ele or oO lor) Oo fer) = | The information afforded by the trials as to the earliness of the different varieties is far from conclusive, as it appears that 1922. | TRIALS OF Porarors, 1921. 167 most of the crops were left in the ground until they had fully matured instead of being lifted as was originally contemplated. The earliest lifting took place in Kast Sussex, where ‘* Arran Rose ’’ from sprouted seed was harvested on the 8th June and realised 21s. per cwt., as compared with 18s. per cwt. for the produce of unsprouted seed of the same variety lifted three weeks later. The difference in the period of lifting of the sprouted and unsprouted seed of the other varieties varied from 12 to 22 days in favour of the sprouted seed. The information supplied regarding market prices was, how- ever, interesting as showing that the date of lifting had not such a marked effect on early potatoes in 1921, as would probably be the case in normal seasons. There was a decided stiffening in prices after the very early districts of the country had been cleared and it seemed probable that there would be a serious shortage of potatoes, as second earlies were late in maturing and growers were anxious to leave them in the ground as long as possible. The effect on the prices realised by first earlies is illustrated in the returns obtained in Devonshire where crops lifted late made more money than those marketed from Kent three weeks earlier. For instance “* Epicure ’’ lifted in Devon on the 30th July made 16s. 3d. per cwt. while the same variety lifted in Kent on the 6th July made only 9s. per ewt. Sprouted and Unsprouted Seed.—Experiments with sprouted and unsprouted sets were carried out at twelve centres. Al- though in two cases the unsprouted sets produced slightly better crops than the sprouted, the general weight of evidence is de- cidedly in favour of using sprouted sets. The average yield of the sprouted sets for the twelve centres exceeded the average yield from the unsprouted sets by 1 ton 16 cwt. per acre. Not only did the former materially increase the crop (see Table III), but the maturity of the crop was hastened. Thus there is a dual advantage in favour of sprouting. Taste II].— Statement showing the average Rate of Yield per acre obtained with “ Sprouted” and ‘* Unsprouted” sets at 12 centres in Kent and East Sussex. Sprouted. Unsprouted. Variety. tons. ecwt, tons. cwt. Kent— Epicure ... 3 9 2 17 Ninetyfold 2 6 2 1 Dargill Early 3 1 | 1 Arran Rose 2 Ill 3 3 Ashleaf 3 4 2 14 Snowdrop 4 1 4 3 168 TRIALS OF Potatosrs, 1921. | May, Variety. Sprouted. Unsprouted, tons. cwt. tons. cwt. East Sussex— Arran Rose 4 2 2 8 if oes ae 3 2.19 7 0 Ashleaf sa ee Se 5 4 3 3 ” cee oa ee 1k Oe aie) bd 8 8 Dargill Early a Sc 3 7 1 8 i si bed ae OPiS Duke Ag Snowdrop war “bs ows 4 7 2 74 % aut oe ane 1 1 G18 Epicure are ea asi 4 i) 2 3 ” Ay ane Le 10 9 a ao) Ninetyfold pe Hus 3 SLAG 2 6 9 sic aa eat 15 6 2 Average rate of yield per acre at each centre ... — b> 16 fy; 4 0 The results obtained confirm the results of previous experi- ments, but there is still the greatest need to emphasise these facts and to impress them on the notice of all growers, both com- mercial and domestic. Trials with Second Early and Late Varieties—The main objects of these trials were to demonstrate :— 1. The comparative value of the immune varieties for each district. 2. Approved methods of potato culture. The second early and main crop varieties chosen for demon- stration were :—Ally, Arran Comrade, Early Market, Great Scot, King George, Kerr’s Pink, Lochar, Majestic, and Tinwald Perfection. Supply of Seed.—In order that the results obtained in the different counties should be capable of comparison it was decided to obtain all the seed used in these demonstrations from the same source. The Ministry accordingly made arrangements with a Scottish seed merchant to reserve a quantity of seed potatoes of the trial varieties, for planting on the demonstration plots. Quantity of Seed.—Committees were asked to arrange for 28 lb. of each variety to be planted on land wich had been pre- pared according to the instructions given below. Manures.—The land was to receive a dressing of farmyard manure at the rate of 15-20 tons per acre, applied in the drills at the time of planting. Artificial. manures were also to be applied, on dates to be recorded, in quantities somewhat as follows per acre :—Superphosphate (26 per cent. sol.) 43 cwt., sulphate of ammonia 1 ewt., sulphate of potash 1 ecwt. 1922. | TRIALS or Porarors, 1921. 169 It was not expected that the above system of manuring would be adopted in every county without variation, and Committees were asked to modify the above suggestions in accordance with local customs and conditions. Planting.—The time of planting was the usual time for this operation in each district. A distance of 80 in. between the drills, and 12 in. between the sets, was maintained throughout all the trials. Results of Trials.—In the case of second early and late varieties 323 centres were established. The results showed that the eficcts of the drought were most severely felt in the South- ern, Hastern and South-Eastern Counties. Conditions improved in the Midlands and West, while in the Northern Counties (York, Cumberland, Westmorland, Northumberland, and Dur- ham) heavy crops of all the varieties were obtained. An examination of the results obtained at all the centres shows that the average yields were not so inferior to those of 1920 as might have been expected. For varieties with which comparison is possible the yield was only one or two tons per acre lower than that of 1920. In the English counties the heaviest crop was produced in Yorkshire by ‘‘ Great Scot ’’ where the yield was at the rate of 19 tons 9 cwt. per acre. In Wales first place was taken by ‘‘ Kerr’s Pink ’’ with a yield at the rate of 21 tons 5 cwt. per acre in Flint: It will be seen from Table IV, p. 165, that the heaviest yields in every case were obtained in the Welsh counties, the average difference as compared with the English counties amounting in the case of “‘ Kerr’s Pink ’’ to over 4 tons per acre and in the case of ‘* Lochar ’’ to over 3 tons per acre; in no case was the difference Jess than 1} tons per acre. This difference was probably due to a more plentiful supply of mois- ture in the Welsh counties during the summer and autumn months. It will be seen that ‘‘ Great Scot’’ and ‘‘ King George ’ maintained their reputation as the heaviest cropping second earlies. ‘“‘ Ally,’’ which gave the lowest yield, appears to have been severely affected by the lack of moisture. Amongst the late and main crop varieties ‘‘ Kerr’s Pink ”’ and ‘‘ Lochar,’’ except at one centre in Hampshire, cropped most consistently in all parts of the country. ‘‘ Majestic ”’ came third amongst the late varieties at both the English and Welsh centres. The lightest cropping late variety in both England and Wales was ‘‘ Tinwald Perfection.’’ 170 TRIALS OF Poratosrs, 1921. T May, Taste V.— Average Yields of Second Early and late Varveties on light, medium, and heavy soils in England and Wales. Yield per acre Yield per acre Yield per acre on Light -oils. on Medium Soils. on Heavy Soils. ‘ tons cwt. tons cwt. tons cwt. Kerris: Pink ict dee dee il 11 11 10 11 15 Lochar di es nate 10 14 10 18 11 16 Gieat Scot ... ath ee: 10 4 10 11 10 16 King George... RG. ao 9 15 10 1 10 9 Majestic nes aa oer, a 6 !) 11 9 6 Ally Se on wes 8 13 8 19 9 16 Early Market ae a 8 10 9 0 i) 15 Arran Comrade ,,, he 8 7 ) 8 9 9 Tinwald Perfection... ie 8 6 S 2 8 18 Average yield of all varieties 9 10 9 Ai 10 ee If the above results are compared with those obtained in 1920, it at once becomes apparent that climatic conditions affect to some extent the relative productivity of the different soils. In 1920 the average rates of yield of all varieties were distinctly in favour of light soils; the figures being as follows :— Average yield of all varieties on light soils :—10 tons 2 ewt. per acre. Average yield of all varieties on medium soils :—9 tons 17 cwt. per acre. Average yield of all varieties on heavy soils :—8 tons 10 ewt. per acre. In 1921, however, the balance was cast in favour of medium and heavy soils, especially the latter. This is probably accounted for by the fact that the heavier soils retain natural moisture to a greater extent and for a longer period than the lighter soils. The latter would quickly dry out, save in special cases where the water table was high. Any rain which did fall would be retained longer by the heavy soils than the light; this appears to have been the case in Wales where the yields on the heavy soils were higher than in the English counties. It is very unsafe on the results of the past season to make any definite suggestion regarding the varieties particularly suitable for heavy soils, though it would appear that ‘‘ Lochar ’’ may be regarded as coming within that category. 1922. | Kaa anp Povuutrry Co-orpERATIVE SOCIETY. 171 A SUCCESSFUL EGG AND POULTRY CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY, EK. G. WarRREN, Manager-Secretary. THE Framlingham and Mastern Counties Co-operative Kgg and Poultry Society, Litd., is an offshoot of the very old- established Framlingham Iarmers’ Club, which has done good service in the past for agriculture. Co-operation was first introduced to its members by Sir Horace Plunkett, supplemented later by Mr. C. C. Smith (Chairman of the Eastern Counties Farmers’ Association, Ltd.), but it was left to the Agricultural Organisation Society to estab- lish the first co-operative society in Suffolk in 1903. The success of the Society is clearly shown by the following figures :— No. of Members. Shares. Sales, Collection of Eggs. Share Capital. 1903 114 1,600 £5,050 453,079 £400 1921 5,091 53,031 £282,353 24,146,059 £43,257 The Society has acquired valuable properties at some of the larger depdts, notably Ipswich, Framlingham and Wisbech, which originally cost (with improvements) £13,078, of which a proportion has been written off each year as depreciation. In accordance with the rules a reserve fund of £4,048 has been built up and the Committee receive loans at the same rate of interest as is paid on the share capital, the amount on December 31st, 1921, being £1,127. ‘he value of a share is 5s. (fully paid up) to admit of cottagers joining, since it is recognised that, proportionately, more eggs are col- lected from cottage homes in the winter months than from farms, on account of the warmer housing of the hens. The Society is registered under the Industrial and Friendly Societies Act, which affords the cheapest and simplest means of obtaining corporate existence. An individual can hold £200 worth or 800 shares, but needless to say there are many holding from one to four shares only. The Society has had no particular difficulty in obtaining share capital, interest on which is paid up to 6 per cent. There are 50 or 60 depéts or agencies established by the Society which collect from the villages by horse or motor vehicles. These depdts are controlled by salaried or commission agents. Hach agency collects, tests and despatches its own eggs in accordance with orders received from the Central Office, 172 Kae and PouutRy Co-opERATIVE Society. [ May, Ipswich. Agents are instructed to return all bad eggs, to be replaced by good ones at the next collection. Great care is taken in appointing an agent to see that his premises are near a railway station, to prevent waste of time, petrol or horseflesh in carting eggs to the station after collecting and testing. _ Hach depét has a set of books for recording in duplicate the collection and despatch of eggs, and sheets are detached and sent to the central office daily. Each agent is provided with a standing balance for the purchase of eggs, and on the purchas- ing daily sheet reaching the central office, the amount spent is forwarded to keep the standing balance normal. The day book of each depét is so ruled that the number of egos collected and despatched on any one day can be seen at a glance, which enables the allocator of eggs at the central office to telephone, wire or write any extra order received, according to the quantity in hand. For the first few years the Society supplied all agricultural requirements to its members, but in 1916 the Eastern Counties Farmers’ Co-operative Association, Ltd., took over the Goods Department in exchange for their Egg Department, thus leav- ing the Society free to specialise in eggs, with the whole of the Eastern Counties as its field. The Society had an uphill fight at first to secure reliable eggs, since producers were evidently unconcerned if an egg were fresh or not, and would not wash a dirty or stained egg, but sent as ‘‘ new laid’’ all eggs they came across, without troubling to keep back those that had been partly incubated. The members soon found, however, that effective combination for productive or commercial purposes was not to be accom- plished simply by recognition of the fact that it is necessary to combine. Certain regulations must be carried out, and it was thought advisable to adopt rules which would in time make the Society thoroughly reliable for the despatching of new laid eggs. The Committee enforced the Rules by fining for ‘‘ dirty egos ’’? and making a deduction for ‘‘ cookers.’’ It is interesting to give one member’s analysis at first joining, and the analysis a month later. kggs. Crood. Cookers. Smalls. Bad. First Collection fe 109 4 90 et 8 Later 5 os 160 150 3 7 It is regrettable to confess that the War completely upset this system for organising a supply of reliable eggs, because, the continental supply being cut off, the multiple shops invaded 1922. | Kae and Pouttry Co-oPpERATIVE Society. 173 the Society’s collecting areas and purchased good, bad or in- different eggs at a slightly higher price in order to secure them, thus affecting the good work the Society had done in levelling up the quality of eggs. At the commencement of operations each member was provided with a small rubber stamp, with which to number the eggs, but it was found that clients confused them with foreign eges, and refused them, thus defeating their own object of getting best English eggs. The Committee worked out several examples with the idea of purchasing eggs by weight, but taking the 2-oz. standard it was found that, as a whole, the cost would be about 5 per cent. more than if bought in the ordinary local way, and there were still the ‘‘ smalls ’’ to cope with. _ Each year the Society has shown a creditable trade profit, and during the last ten years has distributed in bonuses no less a sum than £19,973. 4s. 8d. Members therefore have con- fidence in the Society, and in many instances the bonus and interest are returned for investment in further shares. Since 1910 the Society has persevered in the preservation of eggs, and specially constructed tanks similar to those in Den- mark have been built at the Ipswich depét. Each measures 8 ft. x 7 ft. x 7 ft. 6 in., and each will accommodate 120,000 eges. Altogether with smaller tanks at Framlingham, Strad- broke and Wisbech, about two million eggs can be preserved. In order to prevent the selling of preserved eggs as new laid, a solution has been prepared which when applied to the shell of a preserved egg will cause it to “* blush,’’ but the solution will not affect a new laid ege. In the winter of each year, all agents are supplied with this solution, and lime or water glass eges can easily be detected. The Committee constantly urge members to improve their stock, by the introduction of pure bred cockerels of laying strains, either from some well-known breeder, or from members who keep reliable breeds. They also advise members to give the hens clean nests, to gather the eggs at least once daily, to keep the eggs in a cool place, and to kill or sell all male birds as early as possible save those required for stock purposes. During 1921 an increased trade in poultry, rabbits, butter, ete., is shown, which is due to the provision of at least 800 fattening coops at Ipswich. A record handling for Xmas week alone of some 3,060 turkeys, 1,298 fowls, 829 ducks and 101 geese is noteworthy. The Committee purchase live fowls (roasting chickens and 174 Kaa Anp Povuutry Co-oPERATIVE SOCIETY. [ May, hens) at all times at given weekly prices per pound, weighed at Ipswich. ‘They also purchase wild rabbits and hares during the season, and are buyers of butter, honey or other dairy produce. One great drawback to the Society’s working is the heavy charges for rail carriage, which increased 50 per cent. during 1921. 'T’o obviate this the Committee are negotiating for cen- tral premises in London where eggs can be sent in bulk by goods train, or otherwise, and by which it is estimated a con- siderable saving can be effected. The eges, poultry, and other produce are paid for at market rates and the profits realised by the Society are subsequently divided as a “‘ bonus’’ to members in proportion to their deliveries. The following application of profits for 1921 is of interest :— > hs. “ak: Interest on Share Capital, 6 per cent. ... ads 142 4 5 Bonus to Employees (as per Rules) ee oe. aap 0 0 Bonus to Members on Eggs, Poultry, etc., sold to the Society _... ona fee ie w=) 0008" 4. "0 Reserve Fund as per Rules oe see te 429 0 0 Balance carried forward ... ain sate wes 376 0 634 £5,510 8 11 1922. | CHOCOLATE Spot DISEASE. 175 CHOCOLATE SPOT DISEASE OR STREAK DISEASE OF BROAD BEANS. SypngEY G. Parne and Marcarer §. Lacey, Department of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College, London. Tuts disease occurred as a serious epidemic in the summer of 1920. It was recognised first by an extensive marking of the leaves with chocolate-coloured spots, and was in many places confounded with ‘‘ Rust ’’ (Uromyces fabae). Simultaneously with the occurrence of the spots on the leaves there appeared upon the stems long and short streak-like markings of a rich bronze-brown colour, which recalled very forcibly the markings on the stems of tomato plants suffering from the “‘ Stripe ”’ disease. Investigation has shown that the bean disease is caused by the same organism as that producing ‘‘ Stripe ’’ in tomatoes. Now this organism was first described by Manns and Taubenhaus as the cause of ‘‘ Streak ’’ disease in sweet-peas, and was subsequently shown by them to produce streak disease of many leguminous plants. It therefore seems advisable to use the term ‘‘ Streak ’’ for this disease of beans, although perhaps “‘ Chocolate Spot ’’ would more adequately describe the most obvious symptom. Occurrence of the Disease.—It is probable that field beans are never, or seldom, quite free from this disease, but it is only under exceptional weather conditions that it assumes the form of an epidemic, or does any considerable amount of damage. Such exceptional conditions prevailed in the spring and early summer of 1920. Hot, wet and thundery weather seems to have been general just previous to the appearance of the first symptoms of disease. The trouble was first reported from Hampshire in the latter part of April and South Wales in May, and rapidly spread from various centres. It was observed by the authors in Devon during June, in Sussex in July, and was reported to them successively from Buckinghamshire, Cam- bridgeshire and Lincolnshire. It was undoubtedly very general throughout a large part of England and Wales. Description of the Disease.—In a typical case, beans planted in October, 1919, first showed signs of disease on 25th May, 1920, small purplish-brown spots on the leaves and streak lesions on the stems being observed on plants about five feet high. When next observed, 8th June, the plants were largely 176 CHOCOLATE Spor DISEASE. [ May, defoliated, the remaining leaves showing a good deal of blacken- ing. On 10th July the canes in the central portion of the field were beaten down by rain, all the leaves had fallen except a bunch at the top of each stalk, and the whole plants were being rapidly rotted by Botrytis, which in all cases observed followed rapidly after the “‘ Streak ’’ disease. In many instances the plants in the outer parts of the field were observed to be less severely attacked than those in the centre, the conditions in the outer more exposed portions being naturally drier than at the centre and hence less favourable to the spread of the disease. Cause of the Disease.—As stated above, the organism causing this disease is the same bacillus which causes “* Streak ’’ in sweet-peas and “‘ Stripe ’’ in tomatoes—a small yellow bacillus named by Manns and Taubenhaus Bacillus lathyn. The entry of the organism into the plant may be through the stomata of the leaf; the apparent spread of the disease eastwards during 1920 would seem to suggest wind dispersal of the causative organism and entry into the leaf in this way. At the same time there is evidence that the organism is carried on the seed of winter beans, and especially, on those which have been bored by the bean beetle Bruchus rufimanus. In its attack upon the young pod this beetle may inoculate the plant at the time of laying its eggs, and the young larve which develop in the pod may infect the seed when they bore their way in. Foreign Bruchids, e.g., Bruchus obtectus, can continue to breed in stored beans, and this species is not infrequently introduced on Canadian Wonder bean seed, though at present there are no records of this beetle having been found amongst field beans. Control.—It should be remembered that the extent of the disease seems to be markedly influenced by weather conditions. The year 1920, when the disease was specially prevalent, was followed by the exceptionally dry season of 1921, in which the disease made its appearance in the early spring, but the plants soon recovered from the attack and a month later showed no sign of disease. Where disease has occurred to a serious extent it would be well, before another crop of beans is sown, to dress the land well with potash, since it has been shown that this treatment has successfully checked the ravages of the bacillus upon tomato plants. Further, it would be well to examine the seed carefully and to reject any showing an excessive amount of boring by beetles, and to sterilise the seed by soaking for 10 minutes in weak lysol Portion of Broad Bean Hanlm, showing Spots on the Leaves and Streak-like Markings on the Stem, ad th Ps pe — wee Lan = * 7 =e.” be ES . ern } pr tr - = y : 4, . 7 ; ‘ \ ‘ J ' ' ' i i ' ) i ' : ’ comes re " A a 3 ie ‘ : ii a J "y 2 rie ; he if) i I 7 ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ - } ; % 7 r a * : ” 1 Ay , | u - " ” ’ : 7 7 : Moy i 4 } i ° i =D Es eh i i i ns me v | a ' f . 1 vat 7 ik ~ wh a ' ‘ ' rf ' \ : by - L fs 1 aan e * ut ca j oe Lee eg, oe 54 cal v, fe Fa ae : A F : Pe : s : J te nt a ( = f 7 7 a a ( - A ca : sone r - ory a we - ai, , in * “ x, M 5 I ee a F : + ~ _ + ( . t - ‘ = 7 r 7 ; y : i fi ; : 7 ey : r —y . “a ma t = a eat y . A iz 1 + 2 \ s* , . a: ae i 7 a ~~ im u = * ; ™ _ — . 4 ~~ - on t = ph is x wi ast 7 4 oe ’ b i, . A i t , Y \ ‘ | i i y ; : _& - : 1922.:] MaARkROW-STEMMED KALE FOR PouutTry. 177 or formalin, or by dressing the seed with one of the tarry. pre- parations supplied for the purpose. In conclusion, the authors wish to express their thanks te Mr. W. P. Wiltshire, of the Long Ashton Experiment Station, for his reports of the disease as it occurred in South Wales, and to Mr. J. C. F. Fryer for notes upon the bean weevils. References. (1) Manns, T. F., and Taubenhaus, J. J.: “ Streak : A Bacterial Disease of the Sweet Pea and Clover.” Gard. Chron., 53, p. 215, 1915. (2) Manns, T. F.: “Some New Bacterial Diseases of Legumes.” Delaware College Agr. Exp. Sta Bul, 108, 1915. (3) Paine, S. G., and Bewley, W. F.: Studies in Bacteriosis, IV. ‘Stripe Disease of Tomato.” Ann. App. Biol., VI, p. 183, 1919. MARROW-STEMMED KALE FOR POULTRY. Lucy A. Hutcutnson, B.A. Hons. (Equivalent, Cambs.). Recent high prices have given a considerable impetus te intensive poultry-keeping and to ‘* back-yard’’ poultry- keeping. One of the chief difficulties poultry-keepers of these classes have to face is that of providing green food for their stock. Where the so-called ‘‘ yard’’ is of the nature of a garden, or where, in the case of larger poultry-keepers working intensively; a portion of the land can be devoted to the growing of ereens, the cultivation of marrow-stemmed kale will be found to yield excellent results. The seed should be sown in late April or early May, according to the season.- It may be sown in a seed bed, and the young seedlings planted out in rows 2 ft. apart and 14 or 2 ft. apart in the row—or, as a labour- saving method, a few seeds may be dibbled into holes at the required distances, the plants afterwards being thinned out to two or three in each group. The writer’s experience has been that the finest individual plants are obtained by the former method, but the greatest bulk of food by the latter. In the latter case, the thinnings supply some food from the outset. In both cases, during growth green leaves from the top of the stem can be gathered frequently, care being taken not to take sufficient to injure the growth of the plant. In this way a considerable amount of food is obtained throughout the F 178 MarrROW-STEMMED Kae For PouLtTrRy. | May, summer, but the real value of these greens is found when the first frosts have come, and succulent vegetables are scarcer. Any leaves left on the plants will succumb to the frost but the ‘‘ marrow ’’ contained in the stem, from the presence of which the plant obtains its name, will be protected by the outer covering which will by this time have become fibrous as in herbaceous plants. These stems should now be pulled up, and split in halves lengthwise, and thrown into the house or run. It will be found that the fowls readily eat the pith or marrow, leaving only the woody fibre of the outer coat of the stem, and in doing this they also obtain a good deal of exercise. In order to ascertain exactly how much food was contained in the stems, some of them were weighed before being put in the runs and the woody remains afterwards gathered up and weighed. ‘The following results were obtained :— 1. The finest individual stem was 34 in. in length, and had a circumference of 74 in. Its weight was 2 lb. 14 oz., and the weight of the outermost coat after the fowls had eaten the “‘ marrow ’’ was 18 oz. Thus the amount of food from the one stem was 2 lb. 1 oz. This plant had been grown in the seed bed and transplanted. 2. Seven of the transplanted individuals, not selected, but taken in order from the plot, weighed 15 lb. 8 oz. The greatest length of a single stem was 36 in., and the greatest girth 7 in. The waste amounted to 4 lb. 3 oz., the quantity of food from the 7 stems being 11 Ib. 5 oz.—an average of 1b. 10 Oz: 3. Five consecutive groups of plants from ‘* dibbled ’’ seeds had the following respective weights :—6 lb. 8 oz.; 2 lb. 10 oz.; eb 02:3" Ib 7907.3 1s 007.4 aotaliceis oy bias on: The greatest length of stem was 39 in., and the greatest circumference 8 in. The amount of waste was 7 lb. 2 oz., the food extracted weighing 18 lb. 1 oz.—an average from each hole of 3 lb. 10 oz. The results shown in (8) demonstrate clearly the superiority of the second method of sowing. The results as a whole show what a valuable green food this kale provides for poultry- keepers, especially when it is remembered that the food from the stems was available throughout a period of fairly keen frosts. : * * * * * * ae i ae Eee eee | | 1922. | Nores oN FEEDING STUFFS FOR May. 179 NOTES ONoFEEDING STUFFS FOR MAY. HK. T. Haunan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.), Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Composition of Wheat Offals—In a letter received recently, a correspondent stated that he experienced great difficulty in ascertaining the exact value of any wheat offals he bought, owing to the fact that the local names under which they were offered differed from those usually given in the Notes on Feeding Stuffs. It may be useful to give a brief account of our present knowledge of the composition of wheat offals, and it is hoped that this account will help readers to classify their own local products under the appropriate headings. The writer would also appreciate any information as to the local names of any wheat offals not given in the list below. A successful attempt to classify wheat offals was made by Prof. T. B. Wood and Mr. R. H. Adie in 1916, and very useful information was obtained as a result of their investigation. The following is a brief account of the chief facts established by this investigation. In milling wheat for flour, the process consists essentially of cracking and grinding the wheat kernels by passing them through series of steel or stone rollers and sifting out the finest particles by means of a fine silk sieve which has 130 meshes to the linear inch. The particles that pass through this sieve form the flour, and the remainder constitutes the ‘‘ wheat offals.’’ The subsequent history and separation of the constituents of the wheat offals depends to a large extent on the local milling practice and the nature of the machinery available for separa- tion. The coarser part of the offals, known under the name of ‘‘ bran ’’ is extracted by passing the offals over a wire sieve having 16 meshes to the linear inch. The bran is that portion which fails to pass through the sieve. The greatest variation in milling practice occurs in the separation of the finer particles of offals. As with bran, the separation is a mechanical one, the offals being graded according to whether or not they pass through sieves of a given mesh. Where separation is most complete, the intermediate offals are graded into three fractions, known respectively as pollards, coarse middlings, and fine middlings. Where separation is not so complete, the separate fractions above may be combined, so that a mixture of coarse F 2 DESCRIPTION, 1 Wheat, British - Barley, English Feeding | ,,. Canadian No.2 Feed | Oats,English White - ., Black & Grey ,, Canadian No.2 Feed ,» Argentine - - laize, as - - 450 mouth African: - | Beans, English Winter - | .,, . Rangoon + : Buckwheat, Manchurian | Millers’ offals Bran - - : Broad Bran - : Fine middlings (Im- ported) - . Coarse middlings” - Pollards (Imported) Barley Meal - 7 Maize: .,, = - Germ Meal - - | .,, -Gluten-feed : | Locust Bean Meal - f Bean Meal - - - age ere - - Linseed - - - Cake, English (9°/, oil) English (5°/, oil) Egyptian (5°/, oil) Ky » decorti- cated (7°/, oil) 1 Coconut Cake (6°/, oil) (Groundnut ,, (6°/, oil) (undecorticated) f Palm kernel Cake (6°/, oil) te 2 a Feeding Tre ae : Brewers’ grains,dried ale! 3 porter, wet, ale , wet, porter, Malt RE - : - 29 9° | Cottonseed ,, ” ” 29 p] ’ :P ’ 63/3* 59/- 2 a\5 + s Notes on Frepinc Sturrs ror May. Whole Milk (3°/, fat * Prices at Liverpool. -/Sd. per gal. Price es al Boe. a : eared ver bes Pon per {Value per fo S ae Starch ie a 100 Ib.| Equiv. Hquiv 2s... [coe £38. s. d. 11 18 1 LO FLOP TS 87:16 3/5 1°83 10 13 0 18 Set TL 2/9 1°47 9 10 0 18 Saleuin el | 2/5 1629 LT 310 OQ F9. |: LOV Ans 59°5)).3/7 1°92 10 13 0-19") 9 14°) 59°5 | 3/3 1‘74 10..-6 O19 9, 159-5 13/2 1-70 9 4 0-19 8. 5. 7559°5 2/9 1°47 10 13.)? Ook? | 9G" 6) SOA izes py ae aura cee Tuy pele Payee haere 13° 68), alesis alee 67. 3/5 183 8 0 APES 6 5 167 1/10 0°98 LG SLT 196°) Vb: 14) 53-4) Bi10N a1 if NO 1 k6 5 14 | 45 | 2/6 134 SS 1 16 6 19 | 45 3/1 1°65 10 | Pe Weer zow apes aaieoe (aes Ler 6 8 | 64 2/- 1°07 a 20 A Gast Ht) 5 5 | 60 ys) 0°94 1E.10 | O.A8e LO) 7 3/— | 1°61 8 27) FO AT 1 Ab) 81 Ll 1°03 8 10 145 Ts BS/'85°3 | LS 0°89 Sul) 16 EL. LEAD | osO [ail 1:12 9-30 Oaeg Wa if Re Ss 1°34 14 OCIS WS 16 116T ABys 1-96 16 10 5 LOL SOs 4/2 2°25 1S) 1 16 | 17 14 |119 | 3/- 161 14 5 DO We AOA eet 3/3 1‘74 8 12 2 6 6 6 | 42 | 3/- 161 8 2 2 6 5 16 | 42 2/9 dies bi 14 0*| Se LL et; 49 at el 2/11 1°56 9-10 P-19 He Ms 7 3 2/- 1:07 "pe 2 BS) 3. 5 D> 103) 47 Sf Mi E25 7 AOS Sil G al, Ho: fy Lifes Ons 610} 1 9] 5 1] 713/1/5 | 0-76 5: dip a ies 414} 51 1/10 0:98 10 5| 21 |- 814) 49 1376 1° 7-87 Si) BD 14 7 14 | 49 3/2 1°70 2 10 0 8 2 2 td 2/10 | 1°52 2 6 0 8 118 | 15 2/6 1°34 8 OF! 72563 5 17 | 43 2/9 =) eat | | TE Os Oe Ta 2 eG 409 | + Specially included—not market price. ——————S 1922. | Nores oN FEEDING Srurrs For May. 181 Value per Manurial Food 8.E. Value) farket - = er . panat vauves | — | — | Runs Valier vaattor yar BS vale pr | at 8 - oe) £8 Ibs. of i d Potatoes - - -| — a 2°7| 0-5) 2 2 | 18 | 2/4 1°25 Swedes - - ode Oe!) OF 8) OAR Zi 2/8t 4 ded Mangolds”~ - - -| — | —}-018;} 0 4! O14] 6 ! 2/4 1°25 Good Meadow Hay .|.— | — | 6 6|.018)| 5 8] 31 /|3/6 | 1°87 Good Oat Straw - | — | —/ 8 9| 010; 219]17 | 3/6 | 1°87 Good Clover Hay -| — | — 616|'1 4 5 12 | 32 | 3/6 |}: 1°87 Vetch and Oat Silage -| — | — 1S). 0:68 4 1 Al | 14, | 2/3. |.’ 1°10 NOTE.—The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, un'ess otherwise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were current at the end of March and are, as a rule, considerably lower than the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative prices of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, suppose palm kernel cake is offered locally at £10 per ton. Its manurial value is £1 9s. perton. The food valne per ton is therefore £8 11s. per ton. Dividing this figure by 75, the starch equivalent of palm kernel cake as given in the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 3d. Dividing this again by 22°4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in 1 unit, the cost per 1b. of starch equivalent is 121d. A similar -calculation will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the same local market. From the results of such calculations a buver can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices quoted on his own market. middlings and fine middlings constitutes the grade known as straight run middlings. A mixture of coarse middlings and pollards is similarly known as straight run pollards. The three fractions combined would constitute straight run offals. Given in the form of a diagram the results obtained are as follows :— 1. Flour Wheat kernel is } 2, Fine middlings Straishtr “ddline Straight separated into 3. Coarse middlings Soe Oe run 5 fractions. 4, Pollards Straight run pollards offals. 5. Bran The investigation also showed that fine middlings, coarse middlings, pollards and bran had a fairly definite chemical composition and each could be placed in its proper grade on its chemical composition. From the investigation it was also possible to group the local names into their proper grades. Thus fine middlings is identical with seconds, fine thirds and biscuit middlings. Coarse middlings is identical with sharps, thirds, parings and boxings. Pollards is identical with randans, coarse sharps and gurgeons. The composition and digestibility of the four important grades of wheat offals are given in the Ministry’s Miscellaneous Publication No. 32* (Rations for Farm Stock), and by compar- ing the analysis of any given sample of offals bought locally with these standard analyses it should be possible for the buyer * Obtainable from the offices of the Ministry, 10 Whitehall Place, S.W.1. Price 6d. post free. 182 EFFECT OF CoaL SMOKE ON PuANTS. [ May, to place with a fair degree of accuracy the nature of the offals sold. It is hoped eventually that millers will agree to classify their offals on a standard basis, as this will give the farmer an accurate idea of the feeding value of any wheat offal whatever its local name may be. The Feeding Value of Whole Miik.—A correspondent has written asking that the value of milk based on a price of 8d. a gallon, and a fat content of 3 per cent., may be given in the table. It has therefore been included. It will be seen that, at 8d. a gallon, milk is a dear feeding stuff. Its use could only be justified for feeding in special cir- cumstances, as in the case of very young stock, or where local conditions preclude its sale. In the latter case, it would be more profitable to manufacture cheese or butter for sale and to feed the residues rather than to feed the whole milk itself. * * * Bo * * Coat smoke and the presence of sulphurous acid in the atmosphere have for long been two of the greatest trials with Effect of Coal pen the oR ge BENS oink Be Gindleon Plants: ave to contend, and the winter conditions are so bad that it is almost impossible to cultivate certain evergreen trees. Winds from the north and north-east almost invariably carry coal smoke to Kew. In summer the smoke may only be noticeable as a slight haze, but in winter it takes the form of dense fog. A fog of a few hours’ duration causes the flowers and _ leaves of many indoor plants to fail, owing to the sulphurous acid in the atmosphere, whilst out of doors everything is covered with a thick deposit of fine greasy soot. This deposit is very notice- able upon water, glass, and the leaves of plants. The breathing pores of leaves become clogged and the plants are enfeebled; in fact, so disastrous is the dirt to health that it has become impossible to cultivate many of the firs and spruces. A temporary exhibit has been arranged in Museum III at Kew, consisting of leaf specimens showing the difference between clean foliage and smoke or soot-laden foliage, and of class from a greenhcuse showing the effect of fog. in order to increase the educational value of the Gardens, it is proposed from time to time to arrange other small exhibits at Kew, of objects of particular interest at the moment. 1922. | HorTICULTURE IN PENZANCE, 183 THE Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is prepared to receive, not later than the 15th May next, applications for grants in aid of scientific investigations bearing on > ae tot agriculture to be carried out in England and Agricultural Whee Wales during the academic year commenc- Research. ing 1st October, 1922. The conditions on which these grants are offered are set out on the prescribed form of application (A280/1), of which copies may be obtained from the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Whitehall Place, London, S.W.1. THE proposed new regulations for the control of Wart Disease, which were to have been brought into operation by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries at the conclu- sion of the 1922 planting season, are still under consideration by the Muinister’s Advisory Committees. The Ministry can, however, inform potato growers that no restrictions addi- tional to those operating in 1921 will be imposed which will affect the distribution of the 1922 potato crop, or of the entry into England and Wales of seed potatoes produced during 1922 in Scotland or Ireland. | Wart Disease of Potatoes Regulations. * * * * * * Tue Great Western Railway Company have drawn the Ministry’s attention to certain statements which appeared in an article in this Journal for November, 1921, entitled Horticuiture in the Penzance Area of Cornwall. The Company point out that the present arrangements for the receiving and forwarding of the Cornish broccoli and vegetable traffic had been already the subject. of discussion between the Railway Company and the Cornish Branch of the National Farmers’ Union, and had been agreed to by the latter. The whole question has recently been under discussion between the Ministry and the Railway Company, who are anxious to provide every facility for the transport of these com- modities under the most favourable conditions. The Ministry is glad to recognise the progressive and liberal attitude adopted by the Great Western Railway Company, Horticulture in the Penzance Area of Cornwall. 184 How to Propuck CLEAN MILK. [ May, especially as regards their willingness to give immediate atten- tion to any specific complaint by a grower, and to ensure the best possible transport of all perishable produce. ce Wits reference to the article entitled ‘“ How to Produce Clean Milk,’’ by James Mackintosh, O.B.E., N.D.A:, which ne to Produra appeared in the April issue of the Journal, Clean Milk, 22 View of recent experiments conducted at the University College, Reading, the writer wishes to make the following amendments to his article :— Methods of Washing.—Sealding is really an attempt to steri- hze, and will do much to lessen the contamination from the utensils; efficient steaming, however, will actually sterilize utensils with less labour and is therefore to be preferred. Where steam is not available utensils should be immersed in boiling water and boiled for 10 minutes; in the case of a large cooler or churns which cannot be placed in an ordinary copper, boil- mg water should be poured over or into them until they become unbearably hot. Steaming.-—Utensils may be enclosed in a box or tank into which steam is passed from a boiler. The steaming period will vary from 10 minutes upwards according to the supply of steam and the size of the box. If a thermometer is inserted through a small hole in the lid or side, a temperature of 210 degrees F'. is sufficient evidence that the utensils are being satisfactorily treated; steaming should be prolonged to allow the contents of the box to reach this temperature. Vessels mverted over a steam jet should be kept in position until every part of the vessel becomes too hot to touch with the hand and left for at least one minute thereafter. Strainers and Straining.—Strainers containing a layer of cotton wool which must be renewed at each milking, are the best, particularly those where the milk falls on a metal plate first instead of directly on to the straining material. The metal plate then bears the direct weight of the falling milk, and there ys less chance of particles of dirt being forced through the strainer. Cloths of a fine mesh are also in common use, but the difficulty of keeping such cloths clean, and the certainty that a dirty cloth will contaminate milk indicates clearly that cotton wool strainers are much to be preferred. Where cloths are used, two should be provided—one, used in the evening, oo is 1922. | ACARINE DISEASE IN BEES. 185 should be soaked in cold water overnight; the other, used next morning, should be soaked as soon as the morning milking is finished. Both should be rinsed repeatedly, then washed, boiled (or steamed) and hung in a clean place till again required. * * * * * x Tue Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries wishes to inform beekeepers that bees can now be examined for the presence of Acarine Disease, on payment of a fee of Qs. for each sample submitted. The following instructions should be carefully observed :— (1) Specimens should be lve bees, of not less than 30 in number,. taken from off the combs and not collected frem outside the hive. It is in this way only that the true condition of the colony can be diagnosed. Dead bees will not normally be accepted as they are unreliable for micro- scopic examination. (2) The bees should be placed in a small cage or box, prefer- ably of wood, provided with ventilation holes, and having a piece of muslin fastened across the inside for the bees to cling to during transit. (8) A supply of candy sufficient to last for a few days, or a lump of sugar moistened with water, should be wrapped in muslin and firmly fixed to the inside of the box. (4) The box should be secured with string and a label attached addressed to the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, S.W.1, with the name and address of the sender written on the reverse side, but crossed through to prevent an error in the post. (5) Not more than three samples may be submitted by a bee- keeper at any one time, but further samples may be sent at intervals.of four days. In all cases where more than one sample is sent at a time, these should be numbered 1, 2 and 8 as the case may be. (6) At the same time as the bees are despatched, a remittance at the rate of 2s. for each sample submitted should be forwarded under separate cover. No bees will be examined unless or until this remittance has been received. Payment should be made by cheque or Postal Order, payable to the order of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and not to any individual by name, and crossed ‘‘ Bank of England.’’ Postage Stamps will not be accepted. The Ministry will not be responsible for any loss occasioned by inattention to these instructions. Acarine Disease: Examination of Bees. 186 Brompron AGrRicuLTURAL Discussion Society. [ May, (7) In the letter forwarding the remittance, as much infor- mation as possible should be given with regard to the past history and present condition of the stocks from which the bees were taken. This may help the Ministry in giving advice when furnishing a report of the examination, and will assist in general bee-disease research. * * * » * * A NOVEL method of organising a series of agricultural lectures was adopted with success last winter by the Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education. In the pre- vious winter a course of twelve weekly lectures was given at Brompton, near Northallerton, which was only moderately attended. In order to stimulate interest in the proposed educa- tional courses in the subsequent season, the prominent members of the previous class formed themselves into the Brompton Agri- cultural Discussion Society. They elected a Treasurer, Secre- tary and a committee. The subscription for membership was 1s., a printed programme was drawn up, and a lecture was arranged for each week from December to the end of March. The subjects were chosen by the members, and the County Agricultural Organiser was then asked to assist in obtaining the services of specialists in the particular subjects, the result being a well constructed programme of which the scientific side was presented by the staff of Leeds University, while practice was preached by prominent agriculturists who freely gave their services. The lectures were followed by discussions and it was interest- ing to see in this small village a company of thirty to forty ae mers on a miserably wet night firing questions at the lecturer as quickly as possible ea. the ference of an hour which was open tor discussion. Not least important is the fact that full reports of these lectures appeared in the local press, which devoted one or two columns per week to the society's work. ‘The hearers therefore had an opportunity of reading the lecture again at their leisure. Another result of this work is shown in the keenness with which those who are members of the society are taking up the question of plot and variety trials, usually at their own expense. Their results form material which is periodically brought up in the discussions following certain lectures. Brompton Agricultural Discussion Society. * * * * * * 1922. | MILKING BY CONTRACT. 187 Tue followimg communication has been received from a correspondent :— MIDE PF aes for aay esto pete Contract. y ag perations very old-standing, but its adoption in the tending of livestock is a comparatively new departure, and in certain cases is impracticable. For a considerable time it has been customary for small bonuses to be paid to stockmen, shepherds, etc., for each animal successfully reared or fattened, and in some localities milking cows have been let out on a hiring system. Recently a large firm of dairymen, with over 400 cows on the outskirts of London, have contracted for the care and milking of their herd. Owing to the general fall in the price of agricultural products, this firm was faced with the alterna- tive of reducing individual wages or obtaining a greater output per man. Methods were therefore sought for placing their business on a sound economic basis, and it was finally agreed between the firm and their employees that piece-work rates for milking and tending the cows should be paid. The rate agreed to is 4s. per cow per week, and each man is now milking 16 cows against 12 before the agreement. In addition each man has a cottage or 3s. per week in lieu, and milk. The day’s work is done in two periods; the first commences at 4.30 a.m. and finishes at 9.80 a.m. During this period the cows are fed, milked, the sheds and mangers are cleaned and the animals are again fed. The second period commences about 12.30 p.m. The cows are milked at 4 p.m., after which the milk pails and churns are scalded ready for use the next morning, and the day is finished about 6.30 p.m. The farm steward supervises the head cowman. Milk records are taken weekly and thus care- less milking is quickly detected. It is stated that the men appear satisfied with the arrange- ment and no falling off in the milk supply or condition of the cows has occurred. The dairy is run on town lines, i.e., the cows are always housed, and when yielding below 6 quarts of milk per day they are sold for slaughter. Under the above conditions it is com- paratively easy to adopt factory methods, but in country herds it would be much more difficult to arrange an efficient system.’’ * * * * * * 188 LEAFLETS ISSUED BY THE MinIstTRY. [| May, Leaflets issued by the Ministry.—Since the date of the list given on page 1051 of the February issue of the Journal, the following five new leaflets, of which the one marked with an asterisk will, provisionally, be supplied free, have beea issued :— No. 363.—Insecticides and Fungicides. ,, 9382.—Liquid Manure Tanks. ,, 384.—Dig Breeding. ,, 385.—Lime and Its Uses on the Land.* 3 BOS s and Day-old Chicks for Improving the Breed of Poultry. The following have been revised or amended :— No. 180.—Dodder. 5, 201.—The Marketing of Poultry. 5 222.—Meadow Saffron. ,, 326.—Injurious Weed Seeds in Grasses and Clovers Harvested for Seed in Great Britain. ,, 229.—The Breeding and Rearing of Turkeys. ,;, 349.—Methods of Obtaining Strong Stocks of Bees for Wintering. 368.—The Cultivation of Flax for Fibre. The Plone Leaflets have been re-written :— No. 128.—Advice to Beginners in Bee-Keeping. ,, 157.—The Sale of Day-old Chickens. », 176.—The Fattening of Poultry for the Table. » 224—Narcissus Cultivation. The following Leaflets have been withdrawn :— No, 289.—A Disease of Wheat. », 171.—Rhizoctonia Diseases. * * * * * * NOTICES OF BOOKS. Farming Costs.—(C. 8. Orwin. London: Oxford University Press. Price 8s. 6d. net.) During the War the subject of farming costs received much attention, particularly in connection with the controversy surrounding the Corn Production Acts, and it still occupies a prominent position the in Agricultural Press. A revised edition of Mr, C. 8. Orwin’s well-known book on the subject must, therefore, be welcomed, for the author, as Director of the Institute of Agricultural Economics at Oxford, is in a position to speak with authority. The first edition (entitled ‘“‘ The Determination of Farming Costs ’’) was published in 1917 and was in great demand as the only authoritative work on the subject. Since that date further experience has enabled the author to speak with even greater authority as well as to make such modifications as extended observation and criticism have shown to be desirable. Certain matters still remain, however, in regard to which Mr. Orwin, in the absence of further experience, is not prepared to give firm directions. It may be permissible to suggest that the time has come when general agreement between experts is necessary, if it were only ona conventional basis, Not the least benefit of the keeping of costing accounts is the material which they provide for comparative study, whether from vear to year on the same farm, or in 1922, | Notices or Books. 189 relation to other farms similarly situated. For this purpose it is more important that the systems of costing pursued should be uniform than that they should be defensible in every detail on purely theoretical grounds. One of the matters as to which further experience has led the author to modify his views, relates to the trouble and expense involved in keeping cost accounts. “There is, however,” he states, ‘‘a degree of exactness required in cost determinations which may beso troublesome and so expensive of time and labour. . . .that it would not be profitable for the ordinary farmer.” “ But,’ as he properly goes on to say, “this, . . .does not affect the importance of having, . . .an exhaustive and scientific analysis of farming costs. . . .on a number of typical farms.” In this connection attention may also be drawn to Appendix I, which suggests an “ Alternative Basis for Cost Determination.” The system outlined therein, if successful, goes far to meet the objection that costing on the approved principles described in the body of the treatise is too expensive for adoption by the “ ordinary farmer.” One misses, it may be said, the refreshingly pungent criticisms of other writers. on the subject of costs with which the first edition closed. A.B.B. Fruit Farming: Practical and Scientific. —(Cecil H. Hooper. London: The Lockwood Press. Price 6s. net.) The Second Edition of this book which has now been published covers a wide field by including articles on most subjects of importance to the commercial fruit grower. Many of the articles have been written by Mr, Cecil Hooper, who has had experience of fruit growing in this country and Canada, while others have been written by well-known practical growers. The information, which is essentially of a practical nature, has been given in a condensed form readily understood by the average grower to whom this little book should appeal. H.V.T. Agricultural Geology.—(Frederick VY. Emerson, Ph.D., late Professor of Geology and Geologist for the State Experimental Station, Louisiana State University : pp. 319, 16s. 6d. net: Chapman and Hall.) This volume is suitable for University students of agriculture, but is too wide in scope and too advanced in character for those attending Farm Institutes. It should, however, find a place in the library of the latter. Obviously intended for the American student, it deals with soils and conditions which, in many cases, are unfamiliar to the British agriculturist. The portion dealing with the residual soils of various rocks, and with inherited soils, is very interesting, giving the causes of their agricultural value, and explaining many phenomena puzzling to the observer who is more agriculturist than geologist. Further, the chapter on the part played by wind in geological formations is as attractive as the account of the methods employed in binding the shifty soils most affected. Mention must be made of the discussion on “ ground water,” the facts in connection with which are perhaps not generally realised, while the account of alluvial terraces and the alluvial deposits of flowing water are also of interest. Glaciation and glacial soils are subjects very well illustrated : indeed, the photographs and diagrams throughout the volume arrest the eye and make particularly valuable those portions which the British student can read with advantage. A chapter on the mineral fertilisers, and their occurrence in nature, adds to the value and interest of the volume, 190 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. [ May, Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard.—(E. Dwight Sanderson. Second revised and enlarged edition by L. M. Peairs. London: Chapman Hall, 1921. Price 26s. net.) As indicated in the title, this book deals concisely with the insects east of the Rocky Mountains, except insects attacking citrus fruits. Material relating to some pests occurring also in Britain will be found in its pages, while some other American pests, familiar to us by evil repute, are absent, probably owing to the geographical range of consideration, the pests of the Pacific Coast and the irrigated country of the Far West not coming under review. The work goes further than its title, and includes insects injurious in the household, to domestic animals and to man directly, and should be distinctly useful to those whose interests lie also outside the British Isles. The statistics as to damage, and the popular names with which many of the insects are labelled combine to strike a strong and characteristic trans- atlantic note, carrying inspiration by their vigour. The baok is profusely illustrated by half tone and line blocks; these leave something to be desired, not on account of their lack of soundness, but, more particularly as regards many of the former, from poor production. For those who desire to explore literature additional to British works on plant pests, this American book may be recommended. ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous. Ernle, Lord.—English Farming Past and Present. (8rd Edition.) (504 pp.) London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1922, 12s. 6d. net. {63(09). | Geological Survey Memoirs. England and Wales.—The Water Supply of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdon and Rutland. (157 pp.) London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1922, 1s. net. [628.7.]- Woodhouse, T.—The Handicraft Art of Weaving. (162 pp.) (Oxford Technical Manuals.) London: Henry Frowde, Hodder & Stoughton, 1921, 6s. net. [63.193.] Field Crops, Hayes, H. K. and Garber, R. J.—Breeding Crop Plants (328 pp.) New York and London : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1921, 21s. [575-4.] - University of Leeds and Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education.— No. 121 :—Results of Experiments with Cereals, Swedes, Turnips and Potatoes in Yorkshire, 1921. (8 pp.) Leeds, 1922. [63.31(04); 63.332; 63.512 (04). ] University College of North Wales, Department of Agriculture.—College Farm: Varieties of Oats, 1920 and 1921. (11 pp.) Bangor, 1922. [63.3814 (04).] Horticulture. Royal Horticultural Society.—Report of the International Potato Confer- ence, Nov., 1921. (182 pp.) Juondon: Office of the Society, 1922, 3s. [63.512 (02). ] National Institute of Agricultural Botany.—Report of the Potato Synonym Committee, 1921, and Resolutions of the Potato Industry Conference. (23 pp.) Cambridge, 1922, 1s. 6d. [63.512 (04) ; 63.512-194. ] U.S. Department of Agricultuwre.—Bull. 1006 :—Accounting Records for Sampling Apples by Weight. (13 pp.) Washington, 1921. [63.41-198; 63.41(a). 1922. | ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 191 Fietcher, F. J.—Market Nursery Work Series. Vol. III :—Roses for Market (70 pp.). Vol. IV :—Carnations and Pinks (66 pp.). London : Benn Bros., 1922, 4s. 6d. net each. [63.52(02).] Plant Diseases. Ralfs, EH, Marguerite——An Abstract of the Legislation in Force in the British Empire dealing with Plant Pests and Diseases up to the Year 1920. (65 pp.) London: Imperial Bureau of Entomology, 1921, 2s. 6d. net. Royal Society.—Reports of the Grain Pests (War) Committee. No. 9. (52 pp.) London: Harrison & Sons, Ltd., 1921, ls. 6d. [63.27-31.] U.S. Department of Agriculture.—Bull. 1023 :—The Relative Toxicity of Strychnine to the Rat.. (19 pp.) Washington, 1922. [63.269.] Veterinary Science. Archer, A. H.—The Stockowner’s Veterinary Aid: Containing Elementary Principles and Outlines of Treatment of Diseases and Injuries for General and Army Requirements. (136 pp.) London: Crosby Lock- wood & Son, 1921, 7s. 6d. net. [619(02).} University College of North Wales, Department of Agriculture.—Notes on the Liver Rot Epidemic of 1920-21 in North Wales. (8 pp.) Bangor, 1922. (59.169; 619.3.] Dairying. West of Scotland Agricultural College.—Bull. 98 :—Butter-making on the Farm. (62 pp. + 8 plates.) Glasgow, 1921, 2s. [63.72(02).] Poultry. Toovey, I. W.—Commercial Poultry Farming: A Description of the King’s Langley Poultry Farm and its Modus Operandi. (2nd Edition.) (139 pp.) London : Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1922, 6s. net. [63.65(02).] Engineering. Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders.—Report. on the Tractor Trials held at Shrawardine, near Shrewsbury, Sept. 20th-24th, 1921. (100 pp.) London : Offices of the Society, 1921, 2s. 6d. [63.175(04).] Gougis, A.—Manuel du Conducteur de Machines Agricoles. (350 pp.) Paris: Librairie Agricole de la Maison Rustique, 1921, 12 fr. {63.17 (02). ] U.S. Department of Agriculture—Bull. 997 :—The Cost and Utilization of Power on Farms where Tractors are Owned. (61 pp.) Washington, 1921. [63.175.] Economics. U.S. Department of Ayriculture.—Bull. 987 :—Handbook of Foreign Agri- cultural Statistics. (69 pp.) Washington, 1921. [31(04).] U.S. Department of Agriculture-—Bull. 1043 :—Crop Insurance: Risks, eae and Principles of Protection. (27 pp.) Washington, 1922. 368.5. j 192 SELECTED. CONTENTS OF PERIODICALS. | May. 1922. SELECTED CONTENTS OF PERIODICAES: Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous. The Progress. of British Agriculture, Sir R. Henry Rew. (Jour. Roy. aoe on be 85, as T, 1922.) [63(09); 81(42).] ‘eather an arvest Cycles, W. H. Beveridge. (Econ. Jour., Vol. 31 No. 124, Dec., 1921.)° [551.5.] See, os ae 1 eres of Water from Soil: Influence of Soil Type and danurial Treatment, Bb. A. Keen. (Jour. Agric. Sci., Vol. xi., No. Oct., 1921.) [63.112.] 5 aa Field Crops. The Improvement of Poor Pasture, W. Somerville. (Jour. Farmers’ Club, 1922. Part 2.) [63.33-16.] The Latest Results of the Enquiry into the Spontaneous Combustion of Hay. (Int. Rev. Sci. and Prac. Agric:; xil:, «No. ‘4, yApril, .1921.) 163.1982. ] ; Horticulture. Genetic Studies in Potatoes; Sterility, R. N. Salaman and J. W. Lesley. (Jour. Agric:“Sei.; “Vol.'12,-Part. I) Jan. 1922) ps75.1] Pollination in Orchards (v. and vi.), A. N. Rawes and G. F. Wilson. (Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc., Vol. 47, Part I, Jan., 1922.) [68.41(08).] The Winter Study of Fruit Trees, H. A. Bunyard. (Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc., Vol. 47, Part I, Jan., 1922:) -[64.41(04).] Live Stock. Some Aspects of Beef Production, T. B. Wood. (Scottish Jour. Agric., Vol. v., No. 1, Jan., 1922.) [63.625.} On the Relative Growth and Development of Various Breeds and Crosses of Sheep, John Hammond. (Jour. Agric. Sci., Vol. xi., Part 4, Oct., 1921.) [63.63(04).] Scientific Pig Keeping with its relation to Vitamine , M. J.. Rowlands. (Jour. Farmers’ Club, Dec., 1921.) [63.64(04).] War-Time Substitute Fodders. (Live Stock Jour., March 24th, 1922.) [63.604 (a). ] Experiments with ‘‘ War Forages ’’ in Germany, Hungary, Switzerland and France. (Int. Rev. Sci. and Prac. Agric., xii., No. 4, April, 1921.) 163.604(a). | Dairying. Milk Recording Societies and their Effect upon the Dairy Farming Indus- try, James Mackintosh. . (Jour. Farmers’ Club, 1922, pp. 1-22.) [63.6 (06) ; 63.711 (b).] Outline for a Study of the Cost of Milk Production, J. A. Hopkins. (Jour. Dairy Sci., Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan., 1922.) [63.714.] The Possibility of Increasing Milk and Butter Fat Production by the Administration of Drugs, A. C. McCandlish and T. M. Olson. (Jour. Dairy Sci., Vol. 4, No. 6, Nov., 1921.) [63.711(a).] Engineering, The Planning and Construction of Farm Buildings, J. B. Mendham. (Specification, 1922, pp. 21-32.) [69(04).] Economics. The Cost of Tractor and Horse Labour, C. S. Orwin. Agric., Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan., 1922.) [63.19; 338.58. ] (Scottish Jour. Printed under the authority of HIS MAJESTY’s STATIONERY OFFICE, By Metchim:& Son, Princes Street, Westminster, S.W.1. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. x1 The FARMERS’ c WARDEN : FOR INSURANCE oF HORSES and CATTLE. | STALLIONS, BROOD MARES, FOALS. EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY. FIRE. DRIVERS’ ACCIDENTS. MOTOR CARS, FARM TRACTORS, and GENERAL INDEMNITIES. For Best Rates and Terms apply— |WARDEHIN INSURANCE COMPANY, LTD. ESTABLISHED 1875. Honoured with the Patronage cf H.M. THE KING. Chief Office—21, IRONMONGER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 2. MANAGER AND SECRETARY: R. R. WILSON. |'LARGE BLACK PIGs. SEVENTEEN HUNDRED BREEDERS with more joining daily TESTIFY TO POPULARITY of the Champion Bacon Breed. Try them for their following qualities: Length and Size — Prolificacy INCOM PARABLE ‘‘DOERS ”’ GREAT GRAZERS | Splendid Constitutions CHAMPION BACON PIGS, LONDON DAIRY SHOW, 1921. ‘ J 5 3 Champion over all Breeds, Bath and West Show, 1921. Champion over all Breeds, Tunbridge Wells Show, 19217. India, Brazil, Peru, Abyssinia, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Po aps South Africa, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, and other countries are buy ring Large Blacks. QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 5s. Per Annum. No. 6 just published, 1s. 2d. post free. Free Descriptive Pamphlet and all Information from LARGE BLACK PIG SOCIETY, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.1. xii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. BREEDERS’ ANNOUNCENENTS. CATILE; ABERDEEN—ANGUS. MACAINSH, JOHN, Congash, Grantown-on-Spey, N.B.—Pure-bred Aberdeen-Angus Cattle.—Particulars on application. DEVONS. STANTON, HARWICH.—REGISTERED HERD RED DEVON DAIRY CATTLE. Devons are the best English Dairy Cattle under all conditions and in any climate. FRIESIANS. GILSTON PARK HERD OF PEDIGREE BRITISH FRIESIANS, property of A.S. BOowLBy, Esq. Bulls and Bull Calves generally for sale, by imported and other leading sires—Apply Captain S. E. BUCKLEY, M.C., Gilston Park Iistate Office, Harlow, Essex. ROUGH HERD OF BRITISH FRIESIANS is the herd for production, colour, size, milk and butter-fat. The herd to buy your next bull calf sired by Routh Victory. third prize Dairy Show, 1920, weighing 1335 cwt. at 20 months old, whose dam gave 2,268 gallons, butter-fat 4-66 ; the only cow in the kingdom to produce 1,200 1b. of butter in 365 days. Inspection invited.— P. FORD, Molescroft, Beverley. SHORTHORNS. WELBECK HERD OF PEDIGREE SHORTHORNS, the property of the Duke of PORTLAND, K.G. Young Bulls and Heifers for sale, from the best strains.—Apply, ALEX. GALBRAITH, Norton, Cuckney, Mansfield. DAIRY SHORTHORNS. OHIVERS & SONS, LTD., Histon, CAMBS.—Pedigree Dairy Shorthorns. Over 100 head, mainly fashionably bred Bates Families. Milk recorded daily and checked by Ministry of Agriculture recorder. Champion Cow, reserve champion Bull, 100 Guinea Challenge Cup, R.A.S.E., Derby. 1921, etc. Bulls and Bull calves always for sale. LINCOLN RED SHORTHORNS. CORER, CHARLES E., BRACEBRIDGE HEATH, LINCOLN.—Lincoln Red Dairy Shorthorns. Prizes won in 1921; 2nd Breed Milking Trials, 3rd Open Butter Test (open to ail breeds) Royal. Average yield 1907 to 1914, 805 galls.; 1920-21, 821 galls. Official records kept. Young bulls from proved dairy cows on sale. THE STAPLEFORD PARK HERD. A few young Bulls from Royal Prize Winners always for sale from carefully tested milking strains only. Apply C. S. Harvey, Wymondham, Oakham. KERRY AND DEXTERS. PALMER, R. E. Pure Pedigree Kerry Cattle, Oaklands Park, Newdigate, Surrey. BERKSHIRES. For Sale—Pedigree Berkshires—Enfield Chase Herd. Young boars and gilts ready for service. Reasonable prices. Apply—Superintendent, Chase Farm Schools, Enfield, Middlesex. WHITE, W. J. S., ZEALS, WILTS.—Old-established Herd of Milking Herefords, Bulls and Calves, for Sale. SHEEP: OXFORD DOWN. AKERS & CO., BLACK BOURTON, OxXON.— Registered Oxford Downs, Rams and Ewe Lambs on Sale; inspection invited. LINCOLN LONGWOOL. HOYLES, GEO., SKIDBY MANOR, near HULL.—Pure Lincoln Longwool Sheep; true type, sound conditions, lustrous long wool, give satisfaction at home and abroad. SUFFOLKS. SHERWOOD, S. R, PLAYFORD, IPSWICH.—Registered Flock 105. Holder of Bristol Champiou Challenge Cup for Best Flock of the Breed, 1899 and 1919. Highest awards, Carcase Competition, Smithfield Club Show. Large winner at Royal and County Shows. Also Breeder of Pedigree Dairy Shorthorns. . THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xiil A OE EOE 2 ee BRICKS ARE TOO EXPENSIVE. THE CYCLOPS CONCRETE SYSTEM OF BUILDING SOLVES THE PROBLEM. You save money and save time by building the Cyclops way. Your building will be cool in summer and dry in winter. Whether you wish to build a new villa or just a silo, there is no better way than the Cyclops way. The Cyclops method is NOT AN EXPERIMENT. It has been tested for years throughout the world and never found wanting. It is equally suitable for temperate, arctic, or tropical zones. _ The method is protected by several patents. Suitable for Houses, Factories, Cinemas, Public Buildings, Garages, Silos, Farm Buildings, Drain Pipes, Fence Posts, etc., etc. Our 32 page catalogue tells you ail about it. May we send you a copy? The Cyclops Concrete Company, HILBRE STREET, LIVERPOOL, Telephone: ROYAL 1195. ESTAB. 1882. Telegrams: “ ASSESSOR.” CATCH CROPS must grow quickly and yield a large bulk, for a thin crop can give no profit. A top-dressing of J 7 ~ AT c of S 0 D A will give a large bulk in a short time. Write for special pamphlets, entitled: ‘‘ Farmer’s Handbook on the Use of Nitrate of Soda,’’ ‘‘The Improvement of Pastures and Meadows,’ ‘‘Catch Crops—The Farmer’s Stand-by,’’ supplied gratis and post free by The CHILEAN NITRATE COMMITTEE, Friars House, New Broad St., London, E.C. 2. be py’ xiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. PIGS, LARGE WHITE. OHIVHERS & SONS, LTD., HisToN, CAMBS.—Over 1,000 pigs bred annually. Breeding Stock live out in Large Grass Orchards. Stock Boars include Histon Thor, Champion Peterborough and Suffolk 1920, Histon Lion Heart, Champion Royal Norfolk 1918, Dalmeny Macbeth, ist Highiand and Edinburgh 1920, and own brother to 720-guinea Sow. Young Stock always for Sale. COLSTON & BORROWFIELD HERDS OF LARGE WHITE PIGS, the property of R. Millington Knowles, Hsq., The Hali, Colston Bassett, Notts —Numbers and quality equal to pre-war standard.—Particulars from AGEN'l, Estate Office, Colston Bassett, Notts. GREENALL, SIR GILBERT. BART., C.V.0., WALTON HALL, WARRINGTON. The Walton and Worsley Herd of Pedigree Large White Pigs. Selections of all ages for sale at moderate prices. Apply to the Manager, The Office, Bridge House, Higher- Walton, Warrington. Station: Warrington. Trains met by appointment. THE WARREN HERD OF PEDIGREE LARGE WHITE PIGS, the property of H. T. Williams, Esq.—Young Stock of the best straits for Sale, including a fine selection of in-pig Gilts—Apply to RAYMOND KEER, Warren Home Farm, Broughton, Ohester. . MIDDLE WHITE. OHIVERS, JOHN, Hisron, CAMBRIDGE.—Select Herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Champion Cup for Best Middle White Pig at Royal Show, 1919 and 1920 (von ontright). Champion Boar, 1st and reserve Champion Sow, Royal Show, Derby, 1921. Young Stock always for sale. EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTWAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Albany Herd of Pedigree Middle Whites, Bred on open air system, Wonderful doers and breeders. Will thrive anywhere. STAPLEFORD HERD OF MIDDLE WHITE PIGS. A few choice gilts and boars Sired by Royal Winners always for sale at reasonable prices. C. 8S. HARVEY, Wymondham, Oakham. SKIPWITH, Captain O., LOVERSAL HALL, DONCASTER.—Loversal herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Bred on open air system. Moderate Prices. LARGE BLACK. PICKWELL HERD, Pedigree Large Blacks. Young stock from best strains at reasonable prices.—CAPTAIN OLAUDE W. HEMP, tainbridge Farm, Bolney, Sussex. NEWHOUSE HERD of Pedigree Large Black Pigs. Boars and Gilts from best strains—ROBERT FORTUNE, Newhouse, Oranleigh, Surrey. DUNSTALL HERD of Pedigree Large Blacks, bred from prize strains under natural conditions. Prolific, hardy, grand deers and of choice type. Ycung Boars and Gilts. Prices Moderate.—LIONEL E. HORNE. Moreton-in-Marsh, Glos. EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Pedigree Large Blacks, marvellous open air strain. POURRA BOOTHROYD., F.—Breeder and Exhibitor of Pedigree Utility Rhode Island Reds S.C. White Wyandottes, Light Sussex, Black Leghorn. Eggs, Day old Chicks, Stock Birds. Catalogue Free. F. BOOTHROYD, Shustoke, Nr. Coleshill, Warwickshire. MAJOR, ARTHUR OC.—Breeder and Exhibitor thirty years. Champion Dark and Silver Grey Dorkings, “England’s best fowl.” Prizes at all Shows, and exported allover the world. Prices moderate. Eggs, ls. eachARTHUR O. MAJOR, Ditto, Langley, Bucks. White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, Light Sussex. Stock bred from Laying Competition Winners. Eggs, Day-old Chicks and Stock birds for sale. Illustrated List free— JOHN CHIVERS. Estate Office, Histon, Oambridge. MISCELLANEOUS ADVERTISEMENTS—(Cheap Prepaid). Advertiser having complete knowledge of tractors, farm machinery, including Marchell’s Thresher, milk recording, book-keeping, usual routine duties of farm, desires position as assistant to large farmer; free middle March, excellent references, security if required. Write Box 1495, SELLS, Fleet Street, E.C.4. All applications for Advertisements in “The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture” should be addressed to C. VERNON & SONS, LTD., 38, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. 1. THE JOURNAL OF janet MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Adverlisements. xv Eee & a eee es Eee Oe ee eee o¢ POTASH means ga etn. Weight and Quality on getting and Pesistance FRENCH POTASH. te Disease It makes RECORD / CROPS. / a _ Ai LATE SOWN GAOPS \ [w HEAT Will | make good OA TS et Se \ B A R L E Y ' ae panes 4 C LOVE R manure \Q BEANS containing PEAS Sylvinit FRENCH KAINIT Excelient for MANGOLDS and ALL ROOT CROPS. YS Re LE a A ee a | Auer & P. vse 2 For Supplies and Quotations apply to POTASH MANURE SALTS | 0 your Manare Merchant. 7 (K,0) Free copies of publications from vi U RIAT E OF POTAS H | | ao I 3 e The Alsace-Lorraine Development & Trading Cc., Lid. Q | 90 fo Purity Pinners Hail, Gid Broed St., London, E.C.2. SULPHATE OF PETASH | 9 3) Farm Lands in Canada —_—_ THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY (Colonisation Department) MAKE IT EASY for the British farmer and farm worker TO SETTLE IN CANADA. Easy terms of payment spread over 20 years if desired. Loans to settlers towards the cost of permanent improvements. Excellent land within easy distance of schools, churches, markets, towns, etc. Farms can be selected in the best agricultural districts. CONDUCTED PARTIES TO VIEW THE LAND AT FREQUENT INTERVALS. Regular steamship sailings from Liverpool, Glasgow and Southampton. Money transferred at lowest rates. For full particulars and Illustrated Pamphlets apply to: THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY, Colonisation and Development Department, 62-65, Charing Cross, London, S.W.1; or Local Agents. xvi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements. Kingsway Reinforced Concrete Block Silos It pays to feed silage and the less your silo costs, the more it pays, this is why you should have A KINGSWAY SIL6 with its new labour- saving features and sound construction, to COMPOUND FERTILISERS last for centuries together, with reduced For All Crops. Sue eae SUPERPHOSPHATES. [f desired you can hire Leno meee STEAMED BONE MEAL. your own Stilo by direct = n teboure SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. MOULDS ALSO SUITABLE FOR TANKS, BASIC SLAG. CISTERNS, RESERVOIRS, MANURE PITS, &c. SULPHATE OF COPPER. ALSO ON HIRE. Concrete Siio Contractor, HARROW. MIDDLESEX. 1 -ReRas nei ess WINS urn HALL & *Phone:=Purley~ 10: Lime Burners, COULSDON, LB. & S.C. Rly. TheNetting you will have eventually — BECAUSHit lies dead fat without curves or bulges and gives no trouble. Itismace to stand heavy strains too, being of fine grade wire, galva- _SA nized after manufacture. =” High quality and low price is another combination that makes “Faultless” the Netting you GROUND CARBONATE OF LIME (For Agricultural Purposes) 17/6 per Ton loaded in Bulk F.O.R. Coulsdon. Orders should be booked at once to secure prompt delivery. be Ni SP he QoS A t ¥ f ¥ should test NOW. | |WHITE LUMP & GROUND LIME apes aE eee ae your require- *| ments and we wi adly quote carriage |¥i} . paid prices for large or taal quantities, {14| For Agricultural Purposes. eee eee Al All kinds of GHALK supplied from Lump Chalk for road making down to extremely Fine Powdered Chalk for Pharmaceutical purposes. : avid. cs Co TAFF VALE IRONHORKS Seis ev eneeeperemenes mre o0 Sarwan terre neared + v7e= vee Head Office: Victoria Wharf, E. Croydon. Telegrams : Phone : ‘* CEMENT, CROYDON.” ‘Croypon, 1104. 4 Se Ba THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xvh The Colin Pullinger MOUSE & VOLE TRAP The Most Efficient and Durable Trap on the Market. BALANCE ACTION ALWAYS SET. Size 12 ins. lone. 3$ ins. wide, 3 ins, high. Price 4/9 each, post paid. To be obtained from all leading Ironmongers or direct from the Makers DUKE, WARING, CRISP & C0., Wireworkers, Merchants and Sieve Manufacturers. Scho Wire Werks, 139, Wardcur Street, Londen, W.1. Tel,—Gerrard 87298. Telegrams—Transpictus x., London. is the Farmer’s insur- | A SILO ON EVERY FARM : Ifyou want to know all : about Silos and Silage, : write for our 20 page : book, which will be sent : eis on mentioning : this Fape Yr. ance against shortage of food and drought. Prepare for next sea- son’s drought and erect one of our Creosoted Wood Stave Silos The quality and sound construction of our Silos are the best and cheap- est obtainable. The advantages‘in our make are :— Extra Strong con- struction, Secure Anchorage. Hinged Doors. Convenience in Filling and Emptying. Durability & Stability, iit Brothers Ltd INCORPORATED with GABRIEL . WADE & ENGLISH. WISBECH. FERTILISERS for ROOTS, 1922. TO SECURE INCREASED CROPS OF BETTER VALUE. Use along with Phosphates or Phosphates and Nitrogen— Kor MANGOLDS, 4 to 6 cwts. KAINIT to supply both potash and common s.It. For TURNIPS and SWEDES, 2 ewts. KAINIT or3 cwt. SULPHATE of POTASH (light soils). For SUGAR BEET, 1} cwt. MURIATE or SULPHATE of POTASH. Write for free booklet on manuring of root crops on modern scientific lines.. For sound literature and in- | : For prices of all Potash formation on use of Potash: | Fertilisers : G.A. COWIE, M.A, BSc, ALC, | © w pray po yoo 39, Victoria Street, c Westminster, S W.1. 1, Fenchurch Avenue, E.C.3. The “2 Minute” “a -\1~»Harness WwW Repairer. Making harness repairs with BIFURCATED RIVETS is simplicity itself. Whenever a Sfrap goes, just slip in a rivet and you have a strong, neat job. Every carter should carry them. Bifurcated Rivets are stocked by most ironmongers. If you cannot buy them locally, we will send you a good-sized box of assorted sizes for a special price of 2/-. Bifurcated and Tubular Rivet Co., Ltd. AYLESBURY BUCKS KVill eee os Ss Sit! yp |) WOE Bp wv ad he Miiistibieto st ot GASSING MACHINE for DESTRUCTION OF RATS, RABBITS, &c. producing sulphurous gas of high strength without danger to operator or domestic Animals. Unlike Poisons, Virus and Trapping, it Destroys not only Aduit Vermin, but also the Young in the Nests. Used by PUBLIC BODIES, ESTATE OWNERS, FARMERS, &c. Full Particulars from— CLAYTON FIRE EXTINGUISHING & DISINFECTING CG. LTD. 22, Craven Street, Strand, London. W.C.2. Agents HIGH-GRADE COMPOUND FERTILISERS WITH GUARANTEED ANALYSIS SUITABLE FOR ALL CROPS. ON AD PEs PEST DESTROYER AND FUNGICIDE. SOIL Just ProveH or Dic In. 4 ewt. per acre. No trouble. Write for full particulars and latest reduced price list ;— RENED RAY & CO. 3, CLD MILLS, HOUNSLOW. RESSICH & CAMPBELL, 118, Queen St.. Glasgow. W. 0. DAY, Church House, Lord Street, Liverpool. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. STEEL SILO Is the ONLY SLLO which is really AIRTIGHT— Perfect Silage. FIREPROOF—Ensured Food Supply. WEATHERPROOF — Cannot Shrink, Warp or Crack. EC-onom-ICAL—Holds more than any other the Same Size, and REMOVABLE—Put up and taken down in a week by two men. Write for all pirticulars to— THE GEO. H. GASCOIGNE CO. (A.O.), 3, Central Buildings, Westminster, S.W.1 ’Phone--Vict. 7048. ‘Grams —Phyrghen, Phone, London. DEFERRED PAYMEN'S IF DESIRED. OS NS in Used by Farmers, Gardeners nd Poultry Keepers. ‘¢ Windolite”’ supersedes glass for farm buildings, poultry and greenhouses, frames, huts and every outdoor structure. It is a specially prepared transparent coinposition, reinforced with rustless wire. Very strong and flexible, ight in weight yet durable, it is unaffected by weather con- ditions, heat or cold, and is eminently satisfactory for admitting light to buildings of all kinds, requiring only the lightest of framework. It can easily be cut to size with scissors, and fitted with- out putty or glazing. All plants thrive under ‘‘Windolite,” with the use of which any handy man can make light structures for protecting seedlings, fruit, ete. Wherever glass gets broken replace it with “ WINDOLITE.” If your lecal dealer does not stock, we will send any quantity from one yard upwards, carriage paid, on receipt of remittance. Widths 233in. 27in. 3lin. 35in. 39in. Price per yard ae 4/11 58 6/5 7/2 7/ll These prices are for single strength—clear. Also made in double and triple strength and in any colour. C. M. DAVIES & Cod. 179-185 (Dept H), GREAT PORTLAND STREET, LONDON, W. 1. —— ee” h UL ee THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture. Net Sale Certificate. I hereby certify that the average monthly net sales of The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture, all editions carrying advertisements, after deducting all free vouchers, complimentary and _ advertising copies, and all returns, for the half year ending 30th September, 1921, were 9,687 copies per issue. In addition to sales, the average number of copies distributed to Officials of the Ministry, County Inspectors, Agricultural Com- mittees, Agricultural Societies, and agricultural experts and writers, was 1,187 monthly, which, while not being a sale circulation, is never- theless effective and guaranteed. (Signed) F. L. C. Froup, Secretary and Accounting Officer. 7th November, 1921. Sole ie for ae ertisements : C. VERNON & SONS, LIMITED, 38, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C.1 Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire & North Wales. Messrs. BGULT, SON & NAPLES, VALUERS, SURVEYORS, ESTATE AGENTS, AND PROPERTY AUCTIONEERS. 5, COOK STREET, LIVERPOOL. Telegrams—“ Acres,’’ Liverpool. Telephones—187 Bank—2 lines. Estates, Farms, Residential and Business Properties only. Periodical Sales of Property at Liverpool, Chester and Preston. Offices: y.—Adver tisements. x1x THERE IS NO CATTLE, BETTER FOOD FOR SHEEP, PIGS, OR POULTRY THAN BiCOtL, PURE CONCENTRATED WHITE FISH MEAL Used in proportion of 10 °/, to the ordinary reed The Proportioy $s of Albuminoids and Phi phates are con- siderably greater and Oil and Sault less than the limits prescribed by the bourd of Agricullure experts. Write for samples and analysis to BICOL, Lid., Hope Street, Grimsby. Feed Your Land with K.C.C. NITROGENOUS MEAL and get better results. A purely animal product, containing approxi- mately 8°30°/. Ammunia, of which 85°,_ is soluble. The m st efficient Fertilizer for Wheat and all Cereals, supplies humus to the soil and stimulates growth, Prices and Samples to be hed on application. THE KENT CHEMICAL CO., LTD., 7. King Street, West Smithfield, E.0.1, TRANSPARENT BLOSSOM ENVELOPES. Specially prepared to withstand all y er couditions, FOR USE IN CROSS-FERTILIZATION iN HO RTICULTURE, Also a boon to ‘ ardeners aud Exhibitors for protecting show blooms from inclement weather LECOMMENDED BY THE HIGHEST AUTHORITIES. Samples and prices on applwation to sole maker's, JOHN MILLER, Ltd., 322, St. Georges Rd., Glasgow. "U. M1 PIG FENCING | -$:F. EDGE SAYS THE BEST< BECAUSE -=:- — ‘THE HORIZONTAL WIRES “ARE ONLY: 3": Ko 6" APART = = THE VERTICAL STAYES ARE. = ge? | — ONLY 6 Inches APART. = sn ; “AND. ‘STRONGEST = ‘BOAR’ CANNOT: BREAK: MK ‘“THROUGH™THE: SMALLEST PIG OWING .TO THE SMALL “SECTIONS iS:KEPT WITHIN <“BOUNDS xx THE JOURNAL OF THE MIN — OF BORIOL ES a ie LLIN YORKSHIRE| HARDING] INSURANCE COMPANY Limited. LEARN BY POST EES > TOCK I NS URANCH TO make farming pay really well. We have trained A SPECIALITY. hundreds to succeed. Why not you? SHOW AND TRANSIT RBISKS WE have courses of instruction in every branch of PROMPTLY ARRANGED. Mixed, Stock, Arable and Dairy Farming, Veterinary Science, Farm Accounts, &. Chief Offices: ALSO a special course in Land Agency for those going York: ST. HELEN'S SQUARE, in for the management of ated estates. THE College has been established 18 years. Send London: BANK BUILDINGS, PRINCES oils; Et. 2. postcard for a free prospectus to The Agricultural Correspondence College (Sec. N), Ripon. ees EA RIM IN G Soe Branches and Agencies throughont the Kingdom. The Advice Given by every Farmer who uses Trump’s Tested Seeds. A reputation of 50 years’ standing is behind every bag of seed that leaves our warehouses. TRUMP’S TESTED SEEDS are ‘‘THOROUGH-BRED” SEEDS OF HIGHEST PURITY AND GERMINATION, OFFERED AT PRICES WHICH ARE STRICTLY MODERATE. Licensed Private Seed Testing Station under the Seeds Act, 1920. Specialists in Tested Grass, Clover and Root Seeds. Western Counties Seed Warehouses, BARNSTAPLE. Branch Offices—24, Rood Lane, London, E.C.3, and 6, Oxford Chambers, Bristol. EAR IWIE: Fs Stop that Leaky Roof. A covering of Cuirass No. 6 Liquid Proofing will make it absolutely water- tight, not merely for this winter, but for winter after winter. It will save you the cost of renewals and the far ereater cost of the labour involved. Applied cold with a brush. Manufactured by Cuirass Products, Ltd., 69, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.1. Telephone : Victoria 5419. Telegrams: ** Kw erasspro London. tre si : _--—s« THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. |EPHOS BASIC |PHOSPHATE A vadw-active phosphatic ferithser, contammng 60-65% Phosphates. HIGHLY SOLUBLE. + For grain and roots “ KEPHOS” will give results | comparable to superphosphate and basic slag, while it excels both in the promotion of leaf and stem. “EPHOS” counteracts soil acidity. “EPHOS" is particularly well adapted for mixing in compound manures. CROOKSTON BROS., Telegrams—“' Croobres, 38, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W.1. Sowest, London.” THIS JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY wn anne AGRICULTURAL Ln LUMP OR GROUND. To All Cultivators of Land: USE OUR GENUINE GROUND LIME Specially Finely Ground for Mechanical Distribution. GROUND LIME is a FERTILISER, and secures HEAVIER CROPS with a MINIMUM of EXPENSE GROUND LIME, if applied to the land in quantities of about 10 cwt. or more per acre per annum, will produce greatly augmented CROPS, whether of Cereals, Clovers, or Leguminous Plants. | : THIS LIME is a SOIL FOOD, an INSECTICIDE, a FUNGICIDE, and the BEST REMEDY for “FINGER-AND-TOE” DISEASE in TURNIPS, &e. The Works are favourably situated for prompt delivery in EASTERN, SOUTH WIDLAND and SOUTHERN COUNTIES. For Prices of AGRICU LTURAL LIME GROUND a CARBONATE OF LIME | Write to— THE CEMENT MARKETING COMPANY, LIMITED, LIME DEPARTMENT, 8, LLOYDS AVENUE, LONDON, E.C3. Telegraphic Address: —** PORTLAND, FEN, LONDON.” Telephone No:—5690 AVENUE (Private Exchange). SS EL YN RE SE SO CNP Se Ne RT