_PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 8.
elie
“The 2 ‘Journal
OF THE
%
Mintatry of try of Agriculture
~~ NOVEMBER, 1922.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
.{For Complete List of Contents see page vii.)
Sir Arthur Boscawen’s Farewell Address to Farmers’ -
The Possibility of Using ° Town Refuse a as Manure. Sir John
Russell, D.Se., FRS. ‘ =
The Clydesdale. A. MacNeilaye - Sethe
Labour on the Farm. 4. (. Ruston, B.A., D.S8e., and J. 8. Simpson,
SC. ~
Ground Mineral Phosphates as Manures. Eeohioor D. 4
Gilchrist - - “
The Planning and Construction “of Farm Buildings : A
_- Modern Homestead. ated H. P. G. Maule, D.S.O., M.C.,
Ny
E CRD BAS. o:
Ee eece ao of Fruit and Vegetable Growing in Durham
“Cheshire. WW. G. Lobjott, J.P, O.B.E.- PAS
| The Potato Flour Industry in Holland. Th. I. Mansholt s
PEs A Safe Method of Preventing * Bunt” in Wheat. J. S.
Riss if _ Salmon and H. Wormald a C ti
The First Year's Working of the Seeds Act, 1920 Ua Sh
Redemption of Tithe Rentcharge by Annuity BOT aN mae”
seal of Clogs, Clog-Soles and Clog: Blocks. Katharine
. oods « = =
Food in Relation to Eee Production. Be J Dans - s
- A New Apple Pest. J. C. F. Fryer, UA. :
_A Local Investigation of Me Food of the Little Owl
Walter E. Collinge, D.Se., F.LS.
Manures for November. Sir John sails D. Se., PR. net:
Feeding Stuffs for error LE. T. Hainan, M.A .» Dip. Agric.
bis (Cantab.) - : - - - Suet s
i
LON D ON:
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_ THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. —Aaorticomants
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THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. i
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i THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
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iy THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
Farm Lands in Canada
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"tx SHIRLEY ROAD, CROYDON. |!
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES,
RECENT MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.
M.P. No. 18. Cultivation of Osiers. and Willows.—A new
edition of this publication has now been issued. It has been
largely re-written, a chapter on the growing of tree willows has
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expanded, greater stress being laid on the special methods
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Price 1s. 6d. net, post free.
M.P. No. 80. Manuring of Pastures for Meat and Milk
(WituiaM SomMERVILLE, M.A., D.Sc.).—The Ministry invited
Professor Somerville to prepare a new and up-to-date Report
covering the whole ground relating to the manuring of pasture
for meat and milk. In publishing this Report the Ministry
desires to direct the attention of farmers to the important and
practical character of the information here summarised for their
use. Price 6d. net, post free.
M.P. No. 32. Rations for Livestock (‘I’. B. Woop, C.B.E.,
M.A., F.R.S., F.1.C.).—In this pamphlet is described a
simple general method of working out rations for horses, cattle,
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Price 6d. net, post free.
M.P. No. 35. Report on a Test of Hedge and Stump Clearing
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together with the coloured plates may help towards their wider
- recognition. Price 4d. net, post free.
A full list of publications can be obtained from the Ministry,
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vi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
YOUR bic opportunity For PROFIT.
MANY FARMERS GO WITHOUT THE BEST WHEATS BECAUSE THEY THINK
THEY CANNOT AFFORD THEM.
When YOU go to a sale, you do not hesitate to pay more for a cow that will give 8,000 lb. of
milk yearly than for one that does not even pay for her keep. Mere lowness of price isn’t
everything. Itis WHAT YOU GET FOR WHAT YOU PAY that counts.
If YOU want to realise, once and for always, that there is as much difference between highly-
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TOOGOOD & SONS, LTD.,
Seedsmen to H.M. Tux Kiva, and Growers of ‘‘ Better Crops” Seeds only,
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“National Utility Poultry Society,”
2, Vincent. Square Wesimimsterm oi vy Jas
President : The Rr. Hon. Lorp Criaup Hamiuron.
Chairman - S. Street-PortTErR. Vice-Chairman: Marcus Suan.
Secretary: Mrs. Rawson.
Hon. Treasurer: Tuos. Savacr. Hon. Organising Secretary - T. R. Rosiyson, F.S.I.
The Society exists for the promotion of the Industry and protection of the interests
of the Poultry-Keeper.
The Society has special Committees to deal with the various aspects of the Industry.
The Society has many branches and facilitates the interchange of speakers at
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Members and staff of the Society advise by either correspondence or personal interview.
The Society was the organiser of Laying Tests.
For Prospectus, Year Book and publications apply to the Secretary at the above
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to unclude weekly “Journal,” ete. ; Life Membership, 5 yutineas.
“THE -NATIONAL POULTRY JOURNAL” JIS PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
Vil
CONTENTS.
NoTEs FOR THE MoNTH—
Sir Arthur Boscawen’s Farewell Address to Farmers—Importation of
Canadian Store Cattle—Clean Milk Production—Fluctuations in
Live Weight—Village History—Lectures on Agricultural Research
—Conciliation Committees—The Agricultural Index Number
THE PossIBILITY OF Ustna Town REFUSE AS Manure. Sir John Russell,
D.Sc., TORS: a ay shi . a ae
Tak CLYDESDALE. A. Renae
LABOUR ON THE Farm. A. G@. Ruston, B.A., D.Sc., and J. S. Siinpson,
B.Se. : ad ig Yaa
GrounD MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS MANURES. fp Me D. A. Gilchrist
THE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS: A MODERN
HomEsTEAD. Major H. P. G. Maule, D.S.O., M.C., F.R.IB.A.
POSSIBILITIES OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING IN DURHAM AND
CHESHIRE. W. G. Lobjoit, J.P., O.B.E. oo & ne
THE Potato FLtour INDUSTRY IN HoLLAND. Th. I. Manshott.
A Sare METHOD OF PREVENTING ‘‘ BuNT”’ IN WuHEaT. E. S. Salinon
and H. Wormald ... : ae =f a
Tue First YEAR’s WORKING OF THE SEEDs ACT, 1920...
REDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY
Tur MakING oF CLoGs, CLoa-SoLzs AND CLoG-BLocks. Katharine S.
Woods “ae
Foop IN RELATION To Eaa Propucrion, £. J. Davey ...
A New AppLe Pest. J.C. F. Fryer, M.A.
A Loca INVESTIGATION OF THE FooD oF THE LITTLE Own. Walter Z.
Collinge, D.Sc., F.L.S. a5 4
NotTEs oN MANURES FOR NOVEMBER. Sir John Russell, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Nores oF FEEDING Sturrs rok NovyemBer. JF. 7. Halnan, M.A., Dip.
Agric. (Cantab.) af “ea Rte ee oe aaa ~
Poultry Keeping in Gloucestershire
National Rat Week, 1922 5.
A Modern Method of Rat peed. :
Hereford Fruit Market: Sale of Guaranteed Lots ea ani
Gulval Fruit Plot
Yorkshire Fruit Demonstration Station
Olean Milk Production ...
Foot-and-Mouth Disease ‘
Licensing of Stallions under the Horse Br ae Act, 1918
PAGE
Any of the Articles in this Journal may be reproduced in any registered
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is acknowledged in each case.
The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and tii
statements made by contributors, nor for any statements made in the advertisement
eokumns of this Journal.
vii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements.
Telegrams :
“PAGANINI, CANNON, LONDON.”
Telephone: AVENUE 1729 (8 lines).
47-51, KING WILLIAM STREET,
LONDON, E.C. 4.
PRODUCE MORE
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BRITISH FRIESIANS
WHICH HAVE PRODUCED
47 2,000 gallon Cows.
17 10-gallon-a-day Cows.
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The Dairy Show Champion for two
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The Silcock Cup Winner for two
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Information gladly given by—
BRITISH FRIESIAN CATTLE SOCIETY,
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OR AT
STAND 478 at the ROYAL SHOW at CAMBRIDGE.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Wol.. XXIX. No. 8.
NOVEMBER, 1922.
NOTES FOR THE MONTH.
SPEAKING at the National Farmers’ Union Dinner on Wed-
nesday, 18th October, Sir Arthur Boscawen said that, as they
well knew, there was a very serious CTIIsIs
in political affairs, the result of which no-
body could foresee, but there might be
changes in the Government or a complete
change of Government in the near future.
This might, therefore, be the last occasion on which he should
address a meeting of the National Farmers’ Union as Minister
of Agriculture. In saying that, he would like to add that his
relations with the National Farmers’ Union had always been
most cordial and they had reposed in him confidence in a most
generous way. He should never forget their kindness and could
assure them that in whatever capacity he might be in the
future, he would always do his best to further the cause of
agriculture, and especially of those who were actually engaged
in the cultivation of the soil. The fact, however, that this
- might be the last occasion enabled him to speak more freely
than otherwise he might have done.
Agriculture was certainly going through a critical time, and
he had the deepest sympathy with all classes engaged in it,
owners, farmers and labourers. Undoubtedly, at the present
moment, in many departments the industry could not be made
to pay, but he thought there was a good future for the dairy
farmer and fair hopes for the live stock industry generally; he
did not see, however, how arable farmers, especially corn
growers, could carry on on anything like the present scale. The
result of this would be, as Mr. Orwin had pointed out in
The Times, that the country would revert to grass very rapidly,
that there would be a great decrease in the rural population and
much temporary unemployment and distress. It looked as if
the future of British agriculture lay in large farms cultivated
cheaply and with low production, interspersed with patches of
land intensively cultivated for fruit and vegetables in certain
(45571), P.1./R.3. 10,500, 10/22. M.&S. A
Sir Arthur Bos-
cawen’s Farewell
Address to
Farmers.
674 Sir ARTHUR BoscAWEN’S ADDRESS. [ Nov.,
favoured localities. What could be done to stop this? There
were two remedies which would be effective, but neither of
them he thought was politically practicable. One was a tariff .
and the other subsidies. He did not believe the country, which
was predominantiy urban, would stand either. ‘They must
recollect that the agricultural population was a small fraction
of the total population of the country, and the great majority
of the electors, of the House of Commons, and by consequence
of the Government of the day, whatever party the Government
belonged to, would be predominantly urban.
The fact was that the industry must work out its own
salvation on an economic basis, and all that the Government
could do or would do, was to assist by measures which he
would only describe as palliatives. Personally, he advocated
the following: First, a relief in the burden of rating where the
farmer was unfairly assessed compared with other people,
since he had to occupy such a very large amount of rateable
property in order to earn his living. But they must not expect
salvation from rating reform. He had seen the accounts of
several farms where accounts had been most scientifically kept,
and the rates only counted for about 3 per cent. of the total
outgoings. In the next place, rating reform was very difficult
because the urban ratepayers demanded relief also. In many
of our great towns the rates were over 20s. in the pound, and
it would be very difficult to deal with agricultural rates apart
from the rating question generally, but they should press for
a general revision of the rating system coupled with some
special relief to agricultural land.
In the next place, he thought it would be possible that the
Government should set up better credit facilities than existed
for farmers to-day. A small committee had been appointed
to investigate the possibility of establishing with Government
assistance co-operative land banks for the purpose of making
loans to land-owners for permanent improvements and _ also
short-term loans to farmers to enable them to carry on their
business. This was very necessary since the alteration in the
system of banking in this country and the elimination of the
country banker had made it difficult for farmers to obtain loans
on reasonable terms without collateral security.
Then he thought that inquiry should be instituted into the
question of railway rates in order to ascertain definitely whether
preference was or was not given to produce coming from over-
seas, and with a view to reducing the present rates.
1922. | Sir ArtTHUR BoscawEn’s ADDRESS. 675
But beyond all things. the question of distribution must be over-
hauled. He made no general charge against the middlemen that
they were making excessive profits. When we saw that English
wheat was selling to-day at little more than pre-war prices,
while bread was costing little less than twice pre-war prices.
there must be something radically wrong with our system of
distribution. ‘There were too many persons and too many
interests interposed between the producer and the consumer.
Here he thought the farmers had the remedy chiefly in their own
hands, and the Government could do little. Co-operation ap-
peared to be the solution. It was this difficulty between whole-
sale and retail prices that caused the chief trouble to-day. The
farmer, unable to see how to make a profit, attempts to do so
by cheapening the cost of production, and the only item where
he can secure a reduction worth mentioning is labour, which
accounts for nearly 50 per cent. of his costs. But the labourer,
owing to high retail prices, can scarcely live on a wage less than
he is getting now. There is the difficulty. The farmer says:
‘JT cannot pay more than 25s. a week,’’ and the labourer says :
‘“T cannot live on less than 30s.’’—-both appeal to the Govern-
ment. The Government is powerless to act, except by giving a
subsidy which would in effect be a subsidy to wages. We should
be getting back to the system of the old Poor Laws, when wages
were directly subsidized by the ratepayer, a system which was
condemned by all parties and was thoroughly unsound. He had
seriously thought of trying to reintroduce a subsidy on arable
land as a temporary expedient for one year, provided that the
farmers continued to employ as many men as now and to pay
not less than the present wages. His idea was to tide over an
acute crisis, but he did not think that the plan was possible.
Other industries. for example, the mining industry, which was
suffering seriously to-day, would claim the same assistance,
and we should not be sure that the experiment once made would
not have to be repeated next year.
All this he knew was but cold comfort, but they must fight
on and make the best of the situation. He did not believe the
depression would last. He believed the present distress was due
to temporary causes, the first being the thoroughly uneconomic
methods we employed during the War. and the second, the col-
lapse of foreign exchanges, which made this country the dump-
ing ground for the superfluous products of the whole world.
These causes would gradually disappear, and he thought a
period of high prices was not very far distant. In the meantime.
A 2
676 IMPORTATION OF CANADIAN StToRE Carre. { Nov.,
however, he feared that some farmers would go under and that
there would be much unemployment and distress among the
labourers, but he could honestly say that he had not failed to
bring the position in all its gravity before his colleagues.
As a member of the Government he would add one word. It
was not true that the present Government had neglected agri-
culture. Only this year we had altered the assessment for
income tax in the interest of the farmer, which he knew
brought substantial relief in many cases, and we had remitted
the duty on home-grown sugar in order to stimulate a new and
valuable industry. Then, we were spending very large sums
on agricultural education and research, which had in the past,
and would still more in the future, help to reduce the cost of
production. These were sound lines to proceed upon, and he
did not know what more could be done at the present, except
in the direction of those reforms to which he had alluded.
One word in conclusion. He had pointed out that agricul-
turists in this country were in a minority; then by all means
let them stand together. The interests of owner, farmer and
labourer were identical, yet too often we found them pulling
against each other. There was, however, certainly a tendency
to come. together now, which was largely due to the action
of the National Farmers’ Union. Unless they all stood to-
gether, they would not have much chance of making their
voices heard, and he would advise: keep agricultural policy and
party politics quite apart. The National Farmers’ Union did
this, and he could fairly say that while he had been Minister,
he had never approached agricultural questions from a party
point of view. With regard to the labourers, it was a matter
for regret that their Unions were tied to one political party.
He did not say this out of any disrespect for the leaders of the
Unions, for many of whom he had great respect, but it could
not be good that the interests of agricultural labour should be
identified with a political party.
* * * * * *
In consequence of the resolutions adopted by the House of
Commons on 24th July and by the House of Lords on 26th
July, a Conference was held at the Colonial
Godin Store Office on 14th arnt between representa-
Cattle. tives of H.M. Government and of the
Canadian Government to discuss the admis-
sion of Canadian cattle. Mr. Churchill presided, and in addition
there were present Sir Arthur G. Boscawen, Minister of Agri-
Importation of
1922. | Curan Mixx Propvuction. 677
culture and Fisheries; the Hon. W. S. Fielding, Minister of
Finance, Canada; the Hon. E. Lapointe, Minister of Marine,
Canada; the Hon. P. C. Larkin, High Commissioner for Canada
in London; and representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, the Scottish Office, the Board of Agriculture for
Scotland, and the Canadian Department of Agriculture.
A general discussion on principles having taken place, certain
technical questions were remitted to a committee of experts
representing both countries.
Further meetings of the Conference were held on the 18th
and 20th October, Sir Arthur G. Boscawen presiding, in the
absence of Mr. Churchill through illness. The conclusions of
the committee of experts were considered and the Conference
agreed upon the main conditions which should govern the impor-
tation of Canadian cattle into Great Britain, and these terms
will be submitted to the new Government with a view to the
introduction of the necessary Bill when Parliament next meets.
% * * * * *
Tae demand for clean milk is increasing. Great efforts are
being made to educate the public to appreciate clean milk and
; to call for its supply.
eae ae Quite apart from the fact that the produc-
Production. : Ayre ;
tion of milk in a cleanly manner brings its
own reward by causing the milk to keep sweet longer and hence
avoiding loss hy souring, the indications are that, in future.
elean fresh milk will command the most satisfactory market.
The section of the Milk and Dairies (Amendment) Act, 1922,
which refers to grading, is due to come into operation on Ist
January next. From that time more attention to the production
of milk of a definite grade is a matter deserving of the attention
of every dairy farmer.
The regulations applying to the different grades will be em-
bodied in an Order to be issued by the Ministry of Health.
When the Act was passed, it was contemplated that, apart from
ordinary milk, there would be two main grades, namely,
‘ Certified,’’ and “‘ Grade A,’’ but a provision was embodied
empowering tbe Minister of Health to establish additional grades.
The grade “‘ Certified ’’ will be what has hitherto been known
as “‘Grade A (Certified).’’ It is milk of the highest purity,
produced only from cows which have passed the tuberculin test
It must be bottled on the farm, and at any time before it reaches
the consumer if must not contain more than 30.000 bacteria per
3
eo
CuEAN Mink Propvuction. [ Nov.,
cubic centimetre. In addition it is necessary to comply with
certain specified conditions as judged by inspection. It follows
therefore that the production of ‘* Certified ’’ milk is a special-
ised business, and that such milk must be sold at an enhanced
price to meet additional costs in production and distribution.
It is not expected that this grade will monopolise the market,
but the demand for it is steadily growing, and for those who are
prepared to lay out capital in establishing a herd which passes
the tubereulin test, in providing the necessary equipment, and
who will take the trouble to train their employees, it does offer
economic possibilities.
‘“ Grade A’’ will, as at present suggested, be divided into
two sections, namely, “‘ Grade A, Raw,’’ and ‘* Grade A, Pas-
teurised.’” The herds producing milk of this grade (both sec-
tions) are not to be required to pass the tuberculin test, but they
will be required to pass a physical inspection made by an
approved veterinary surgeon. In the case of “‘ Grade A, Raw ”’
milk the only cther requirement which need be mentioned is
that it must not at any time before it reaches the consumer
contain more than the number of bacteria which will be specified
in the Order. To qualify for a licence to sell “‘ Grade A, Pas-
teurised ’’ milk the act of pasteurising must be performed in
accordance with a prescribed method, and the milk so treated
must afterwards comply, in respect of the number of bacteria
contained, with a much lower count than in the case of
“Grade A, Raw’’ milk. Generally speaking it is not expected
that the ordinary farmer will be able to produce and sell, directly,
‘Grade A, Pasteurised’’ milk. His part will be to supply
‘Grade A. Raw ’”’ milk either for direct consumption or to a
wholesale dealer or co-operative society who will carry out the
work of pasteurisation.
It is likely that in course of time there will be a considerable
demand for Grade A milk. No farmer need be afraid of the
conditions with which it will be necessary to comply in order
to obtain a Grade A certificate. There will be nothing in them
that any producer cannot meet provided he and his employees
will take the trouble to study and adopt the most approved
methods of guarding against contamination. and that he will
cool his milk well. What is wanted is an intelligent apprecia-
tion, by employer and employed, of the things that matter, and
a determination to carry them out.
The Ministry has had experience of the useful work which can
be done by County Instructors in helping farmers and farm
1922. | Fiuctuations In Live WEIGHT. 679
workers to master the art of clean milk production. It has been
found that such assistance is effectively rendered by holding
practical demonstrations on the farm followed by such lectures
as may be necessary to explain the why and wherefore of the
precautionary measures adopted, and by the organising of clean
milk competitions. Because of this experience, and because it
is expected that the farmers’ need for such assistance will be
greater in the future than it has been in the past the Ministry
has recently addressed a letter on the subject to all County Edu-
cation Authorities in England and Wales (see p. 764).
* 25 * * * *
Tue articles by Mr. KE. 8. Beaven which recently appeared
in the Journal on the subject of variety trials of cereals, point
. very emphatically to the need for greater
Fluctuations in és Peper en soo oe.
: ioht, Care and accuracy in carrying out agricu
Sge WSIS tural experiments of one description. That
equal care is needed in relation to another description of experi-
ments—feeding trials with cattle—may also be emphasised.
For example, in the Agricultural Journal of India for May ot
the present year, there appears an article entitled ‘‘ Normal
Fluctuations in Body Weight of Bovines.’’ It deals with a sub-
jeet which is of great importance to all experimenters undertaking
feeding experiments with cattle. In carrying out such trials it
is sometimes the practice to record only initial and final weights
of animals under experiment. In determining these weights it
is generally considered sufficient to ascertain the fasted live
weight on one or two succeeding days at the beginning and close
of the experiment. Jn the case of the experiments under notice.
however, daily weighings were made of a number of animals
(buffaloes) for a period of 88 days. Charts are published showing
the daily variation of two animals, one set of a “* control ’’ and
the other of an animal receiving a fattening ration. These charts
show the most surprising changes from day to-day. For example,
we have such figures as the following on successive days :—824,
329, 342, 336, 382, 329, 335 and (eleven days after) 305, 310,
320, 315 lb. Similar results were obtained from a large number
of animals. The principal conclusions arrived at are (1) that any
conclusions as to the suitability of a ration or feeding stuff when
based on data obtained from initial and final weighings, or
weekly or fortnivhtly weighings, are practically valueless, (2) that
weights should be taken daily, and conclusions based on the
averages of weighings of groups of at least ten successive days.
680 VILLAGE History. { Nov.,
It is improbable that the fluctuations observed were due to
conditions peculiar to India. The author quotes an American
experiment (Armsby, The Nutrition of Farm Animals, 1917)
which points to the same conclusions, and in which daily fluctua-
tions in the weight of a mature steer up to 5 per cent. of the
body weight were observed. Many American investigators now
take averages over ten successive days, in carrying out experi-
ments involving the live weights of cattle.
Then, in this country, variations of the same order were
recently observed in the course of certain experiments on the
nutrition of cows carried out at Leeds University by Crowther
and Woodman. Fluctuations in the weights of cows up to 48 |b.
on two successive days were observed.
Facts of this description show how necessary it 1s under modern
conditions to secure greater accuracy than has been observed in
the past in experimental work with animals. The sources of
error in feeding trials may be even greater than those with which
Mr. Beaven’s trenchant articles were concerned, for not only is
the weight of one animal subject to considerable fluctuations but
the variation from animal to animal is very large.
* * * * * *
Or the value of local history no one now needs to be con-
vinced. Its inspiration serves not only to preserve what is
best in the past, but to assure a higher
standard of living in the present. More
of us than ever now know those little towns of Flanders where
the unlovely creations of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies are replaced, sometimes, perhaps, with a too conscious
archaism, by worthier memorials of the genius of the country,
and where it is hard to escape Flemish pottery, Flemish lace,
Flemish silverwork, Flemish beer. Even if the emphasis is
a little overdone, if there is too much stage furniture designed
to please the eye of the visitor, vet commercialism at its worst
cannot undo the gdod that lies in building houses which really
do express something of the spirit of the people, and in making
wares which are known for what they are without the aid
of an inscription.
Mr. Guy Ewing, whose account of an interesting experi-
ment appeared in the October issue of this Journal, makes
an effective plea for the practical study of village history. He
has worked single-handed, hut lest others who are not equipped
as he is for the task should hesitate to follow his example, it
is not out of place to remind them that assistance may be had
Village History.
1922. | LrecTURES ON AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. 681
from several quarters. The Historical Association (22, Russell
Square, W.C.) is now a large body with branches all over the
country : one of its aims is to foster the study of local history,
and the co-operation of a neighbouring branch is almost certain
to be forthcoming. Archeological societies exist in many
counties, and the officers and members are always willing to
give advice and help in exploring the history of a village and
in the discovery of its antiquities. Much can be done, even
without such help, by anyone who will study such books as
Dr. Charles Cox’s ‘‘ How to write the History of a Parish,’’
the Victoria County Histories and the few other county his-
tories that rank with them, the publications of local archxo-
logical societies, and Dr. Hubert Hall’s *‘ Directory of British
Archives”’ and his ‘‘ List of Agrarian Surveys.’’ With the
aid of these books one may learn to know at least what docu-
ments to look for and where to look for them. Guidance in
the search of antiquities which are not documentary is not so
readily available, but Mr. and Mrs. Quinnell’s ** History of
Everyday Things’’ should at least prove suggestive. A flair
for recognising those things which will best illustrate the past
is as desirable as knowledge: and, unfortunately, there is no
recipe for acquiring a flair. But it is to be supposed that no
one would undertake the task of studying or demonstrating
village history on practical lines who did not possess a rudi-
mentary flair, which practice and enthusiasm would develop.
* * * * * ES
Tau Ministry endeavours in many ways to bring before
farmers the results of agricultural research—by its advisory
scheme, in which college and county staffs
play their part; by leaflets and articles in
this Journal; and by miscellaneous publica-
tions such as the recently-issued volume on
“ Agricultural Research and the Farmer.’’ It is now proposed
to bring research workers more directly into touch with the
farmer, and arrangements have been made with the National
Farmers’ Union to organise meetings which will be addressed
by specialists in the various branches of agricultural science.
The scheme is certainly an experiment, but if it proves to be
as successful as is anticipated this winter, it may well obtain
a permanent place in the organisation of the work of the
Ministry. Maun, D.35:0 Sage er i
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
THE planning and construction of a completely modern home-
stead is at the present time by no means an easy problem, and
the publication of the plans for the new farm buildings at
Seale-Hayne Agricultural College may be of interest, particu-
larly as the scheme presents at least one departure from the
accepted normal type.
The Traditional Type.—Since the middle of the last century,
although variations may be found in detail in different parts
of the country, the planning of the buildings of the larger
farms in England has followed a more or less definite type.
The generally accepted principle has been to place what
may be termed the administrative building, consisting of the -
accommodation for food storage and preparation and the accom-
panying necessary machinery, in a two-storied building on the
north side of the steading, with the buildings containing stock
arranged at right angles projecting southwards in two or more
arms. ‘The spaces between these ranges or wings are used as
covered or open stock yards in which the main bulk of the
farmyard manure is produced and kept until ready for distribu-
tion. Frequently, on the larger and more extensive holdings,
this arrangement is duplicated.
1922.] Prannine anp Construction or Farm BumLpIncs. 711
Broadly speaking, where completely new buildings have been
erected, the main objects have been to facilitate the economical
distribution of prepared food stuffs and to provide shelter and
accommodation for animals in the most concentrated manner.
In many cases the buildings have been elaborate and costly
in construction, conveying the idea that the then methods of
farming were fixed for all time and that ‘‘ adaptability ’" was
a word undreamed of.
Present Day Conditions.— Before describing the accompany-
ing plans it may be wise to analyse briefly a few of the more
pressing problems of the moment, pertaining to farm design
and construction, as applied to larger holdings.
Leaving the specialist out of account, it is probably correct
to say that for general farming purposes the primary need 1s
sound and economic planning designed in every possible way
to limit capital expenditure, to cheapen production by
ease and economy of labour and economy in annual mainten-
ance, while in addition to these there is an ever-growing
demand to find the best possible solution for the hygienic
well-being and improvement of stock of all kinds and at the
same time to increase production.
Another important factor is the demand for the production
of clean milk, which in turn compels action of a more or less
restrictive character to achieve the end in view.
In addition to these facts, there is the almost daily increas-
ing importance of scientific research applied to every branch
of husbandry, and it is therefore evident that the whole busi-
ness of farming is passing through an exceptional period of
transition. If these facts are admitted, it is all-important for
the farm architect to keep an open mind, to watch for any
signs of new ideas and methods designed to meet the problems
of the moment, or to forestall the advent of those to come in
the near future.
It is seriously suggested that the proper planning of farm
buildings offers to the designer at least as many problems in
arrangement and construction, albeit the latter may be of
simple type, as any other scientific or commercial undertaking,
but with one very important addition.
In most building undertakings of a commercial character
there are two chief factors: (1) The efficiency, health and
comfort of the human beings employed in the business, and
(2) the convenience and efficiency of the building for its imme-
diate purpose. In the planning of farm buildings we have
712 PLANNING AND ConsTRUCTION oF Farm Burmprnes. [Nov.,
in addition the very vital problem of the health and well-being
of various kinds of animals living under artificial conditions.
Our method of research into this latter problem is almost
entirely empirical, and the best results are only attained by
the somewhat crude method of trial and error and by examin-
ing into the causes of repeated failure or success.
It is true that a science of animal hygiene is being gradually
built up, but in actual practice it is frequently found that the
most elaborately planned and constructed buildings, where
every care has been taken to give effect to current ideas, have
failed to give the best results hoped for, while some simple and | (A
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1922.] PLANNING AND ConstRucTION or Farm BuipINGs. 713
With the economic stringency of the present time and the
necessity for an improved return on capital, it is obvious that
the line of attack must be one which embraces cheap construc-
tion and at the same time allows of adaptability for future
needs and improvements.
As has been said before in these articles any departure from
accepted principles should be watched with interest, and, if
found successful in practice, will form the basis for future
development.
CART i
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10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 7o 80 96 i0o
Fig. 2.—Original pian of Farm Buildings, Seale-Hayne Agricultural College.
A Traditional Pian, 1903.—The first plan (Fig. 1), given for
the purpose of illustrating the traditional type referred to
above, is that of a farm steading in Hampshire designed and
built in 1908. The farm contained about 300 acres, mostly
arable, and accommodation was required for a very limited
number of cows, provision being made for eight. The cow
house formed the centre range with a covered yard on one
side and an open yard on the other, but access for the cows
was provided without necessitating the crossing of either yard.
The distribution of fodder to each wing is simply and directly
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714 Puannine & Construction or Farm Burupines. [ Nov. ,1922.
arranged tor from the administrative block, and some care
was taken for the comfort of the farm workers by the provision
of a mess room. ‘The plan may be said to be compact and
straightforward, but the position of the cow house between
two stock yards should no longer be considered ideal.
A Traditional Plan, 1914.—The second illustration (Fig. 2)
shows the original pian for new farm buildings prepared for
the Governors of Seale-Hayne Agricultural College, Newton
Abbot, and is interesting as showing a distinct adherence to
traditional tvpe—in fact it is to all intents and purposes as
true to accepted principle as is the earlier plan of Newtown
farm shown in Fig. 1. Originally prepared before the War,
nothing was actually done with regard to building until 1920,
when the state of the existing farmstead at the Seale-Hayne
College made a reconstruction imperative.
A review of the then situation, however, made it clear that
the proposed plan, though excellent in itself, maintained the
traditional position for the cow shed with its obvious disadvan-
tages from the modern hygienic standpoint. Further, the plan
did not lend itself well to future extensions or modifications
in farming practice and was considered hardly sufficiently
adaptable for modern scientific and experimental farming.
A New Type.—The third illustration shows the general lay-
out plan of the new buildings as finally approved by the
Governors and passed by the Ministry of Agriculture. It
should be mentioned that the site is an exceptionally difficult
one owing to the uneven nature of the ground, the character
of the approaches, and the position of existing buildings, such
as the dairy and College workshop already erected in 1914.
In view of future legislation with regard to the production
of clean milk, and the intention of the Governors to keep a
herd of dairy cows, the authorities at the Ministry of Health
were consulted with regard to the placing and arrangement of
the cow-house. The suggestion of the Ministry of Agriculture
that the traditional position of the cow-house should be changed
so that it no longer abutted upon stock and manure yards was
welcomed, as it has long been proved that the main source
of milk contamination is from minute particles of manure,
from which it follows that proximity to a manure yard or pit
must of necessity increase the risk of contamination. It is
noteworthy that this departure from the normal and accepted
type was decided upon on its own merits and was not due in
any way to the falling ground or any peculiarity of site.
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716 PLANNING AND ConstTRUCTION oF Farm Buruprines. [Nov.,
A reference to the plan (Fig. 8) shows that the main ad-
ministrative range occupies a normal position to the north,
with Dutch barn and silo adjacent, but the cow house is placed
to the west, though still in immediate proximity to the mixing
floor and silo. Space has been provided for milk weighing and
recording and for the men’s lavatory. The cows enter off a
hard road on the south side and milk is taken out to the dairy
by a separate exit at the west end. The chief merit of this
arrangement is that the cow-house is no longer in an enclosed
position but is, as far as possible, isolated from the remainder
of the buildings, open to sun and air on three sides, and free
from the dust and flies inseparable from stock yards. The
disposal of manure from the cow-shed will be by a gravitation
trolley to a covered manure pit or into the stock yard.
The two southward projecting blocks are normally placed
with a yard between, which it is intended to cover in when
funds are available.
The position of the stables stretching eastwards from the
administrative block and the position of the cart and imple-
ment shed were largely dictated by the nature of the site and
the importance of obtaining an easy graded access.
Another point worth noting is the isolated position of the
pigsties, to which whey will be gravitated from the dairy on
the higher ground above.
The most careful consideration has been given to the prac-
tical arrangements for storing, preparing, and distributing
fodder, and a reference to the plan will show that the departure
from type, while it has distributed the buildings in a less con-
fined form, has not materially increased the difficulties of food
distribution.
It is not intended in this article to do more than draw
attention to the general principles involved in the planning
of these farm buildings, particularly with regard to any de-
parture from the normal type, but it is urged that in this
scheme the College authorities and their architect have intro-
duced an important new principle in the relative position of
the cow-shed to other buildings whereby the hygienic condi-
tions requisite to assist in the production of clean milk
must be materially better than could be the case were the
traditional lines followed. It is also claimed that, so far as
administration is concerned, both in feeding and cleaning,
there is no loss but rather gain in efficiency and economy.
1922. | Fruir AND VEGETABLE GROWING. tt
So far as the construction is concerned a permanent type
was decided upon for various reasons, but it is suggested that
this scheme lends itself to the method adopted by the Directors
of the National Institute for Research in Dairying—.e., the
administrative block, cow-house, and stables might be con-
structed in permanent materials, and the covered yard and
south ranges might be built of timber with a light truss roof
construction and cheap covering material. Such a method
would admit of easy and cheap extension to the east when the
conditions of farming required increased room for stock.
There can be little doubt that, at the present time when
initial cost in construction is high and farming conditions are
in a-state of transition, adaptability is a very important factor,
and there is therefore much to be said for building in such a
manner that alteration and extension may be easy and cheap.
In conclusion, the writer would like to express his thanks
to Mr. R. F. Gutteridge, of Messrs. Gutteridge, of Southamp-
ton, architects to the Governors of Seale-Hayne College, for
his kindness in permitting the publication of his plans and
for his cordial co-operation in all negotiations concerning them.
* * * * * *
POSS BILT Tres OF’ FRU“ AND
VEGETABLE GROWING IN DURHAM
AND CHESHIRE.
WesGuiloniormad).P 570: BR:
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
THERE are some things which philosophy seems unable to
account for. One is markets—why did they establish themselves
just where they are? Why do many of them persist in spite of
everything? Better alternative sites for Covent Garden Market
have been suggested : some attempts have even been made to estab-
lish rivals : none, however, has dethroned it. With all its incon-
veniences and its incongruities Covent Garden Market. still
remains a magriet, attracting produce to its congested space from
all parts of the world, and it continues to derange and obstruct
traffic in the heart of our metropolis.
Another problem is the areas of the country where market
gardening thrives. Why on just this spot or that spot has a
colony of intensive cultivators become established? Why
just here or there have men solved the smallholding problem for
themselves, and are thriving on holdings of smaller area than one
would like to pronounce as possible? Superficially some reasons
718 FRvuIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING. | Nov.,
leap to view. Proximity to some great market; some topo-
graphical peculiarity of site giving advantages of climate; some
particular geological formation of soil;some tradition of cultivation
handed on from generations back. It is when individual cases
are examined below these surface reasons that one is puzzled.
Other markets as great, or greater, have not attracted similar
colonies. Equal advantages of site can be pointed out where no
exploitation exists—soils of attractive suitability are calling in
many places for intensive cultivators but without response—
traditions of cultivation are kept alive in a few, whose number
does not increase.
Such reflections as these came home with great force when
the writer was recently visiting the County of Durham in connéc-
tion with the vew Horticultural Station at Houghall, and the
County of Cheshire for a Conference at Reaseheath.
At Houghall sixteen acres are being developed for demonstrat-
ing methods of culture and varieties of fruit and vegetables.
Very little cultivation of this nature is done in the county, and
an industrial population must draw its supplies of fruit and
vegetables burdened with transport charges either from overseas
or from other parts of the Kingdom—in either case losing the
valuable quality of freshness. It may be said that the climate
is atrocious or the soil unsuitable. but visits to some of the
few growers in the county, and inspections of some of the allut-
ments by no means support such a theory. In a village within
twenty miles of a city in the county of Durham there is a grower
who, on three-and-a-half acres is practising the most intensive
culture with complete success, producing flowers, vegetables and
fruit in profusion. He manages to get forced rhubarb, annuals,
and bedding geraniums, tomatoes and grapes, from the same
ereenhouse in the same year. His Victorias, Czary and Rivers
Prolific plums were breaking down with fruit. He had heavy
crops of Doyenne d’Eté and Fertility pears, as well as Grenadier,
Lord Grosvenor and Bramley’s Seedling apples. There was
nothing that one could see exceptional either in site or soil. At
another village in the same county there was a county council
smallholding where a plot of fruit—apples, pears, and plums,
with bush fruit and strawberries—had been planted under the
advice of the horticultural instructor, and these were all healthy
and thriving. One asks the question ‘‘ Why has not the splendid
market afforded by the large population in this area attracted
more growers to benefit by it, and in so doing benefit the people
therein as well®’’ It is to be hoped that Houghall will not only
1922. | Fruit AND VEGETABLE GROWING. 719
suggest improved methods and better types to the existing
growers, but will lead others to seize the opportunity which is
afforded them.
In Cheshire the surprises in store were of a different character.
Here, the county that in imagination had been pictured as
stocked with mottled herds and redolent with cheese making,
turned out to be carrying on extensive industries in intensive
cultivation of fruit, vegetables and flowers. How many know that
on the borders of Cheshire, overflowing into the neighbouring
Welsh county of Flint, there is a firm of growers who cultivate
800 acres of strawberries; whose undertaking extends to 1,200
acres, and is devoted to three crops, namely, potatoes, spring
cabbages, and strawherries—an establishment revealing a stan-
dard of cultivation, and an organisation that can challenge
comparison anywhere.
In another part of the county there is gathered a colony of
intensive cultivators whose holdings are admirable examples of
‘* How to make the most use of the land,’’ where clean cultiva-
tion, sustained fertility, and ingenious close cropping can be
seen as well as anywhere in the world. In another district one
finds that the soil. which is specially adapted to the growing of
pears, has Icng been discovered by the local growers, although
most of the sorts grown are of many old varieties, and the possi-
bilities of development still await exploiting. The enterprise of
a fruit merchant in planting out some 60 acres of top and bottom
fruit of all kinds should, if as successful as it promises to be, give
a stimulus to further development. In another area where some
seaside marshes have been reclaimed by draining and hedging
and years of intensive cultivation. there is a source of supply of
vegetables which must be of great value to the population of
Birkenhead and Liverpool, and one is surprised to know that
the cultivators are nervous of the possibility of their being
displaced by building operations.
In the midst of such a county, with so many alert and enter-
prising growers, and so many potentialities waiting for exploita-
tion, the Horticultural Department of Reaseheath Agricultural
Institute should have an important sphere of influence. There
are still new methods that could be demonstrated. There are
yet types of vegetables and fruit apparently unknown to the
local growers, and especially there is a wide field of opportunity
for demonstrating methods for combating diseases and pests.
The opening of two such demonstration stations is an event
of great importance, and one can only hope that other counties
in England will be able to follow along the same road.
720 Porato Fiour Inpusrry 1x Houuanp. | Nov.,
THE POTATO FLOUR INDUSTRY IN
HOLLAND.
Ta. I. MAnsHo.t,
Inspector of Agriculture, The Hague.
THE potato flour industry in Holland developed during the
second half of the 19th century on the ‘‘ fen-colonies ’’ in the
northern provinces of Holland—Groningen, Drenthe, Overysel
and Friesland—where circumstances were specially favourable
to the extension of this industry. These districts formerly con-
sisted of vast stretches of moorland sparsely inhabited, and
covered with layers of peat many feet deep. Even in the 17th
century some of these peat bogs were under cultivation, and
since that time hundreds of canals have been dug, affording excel-
lent means of transport by water. By the application of nitro-
genous and potash manures the soil has been rendered specially
suitable for the cultivation of potatoes, while fairly efficient and
inexpensive labour has been available among the peat workers
of the district. The development of the industry appears, in
fact, to have been due to the combination of suitable soil, good
canals, cheap fuel and labour, and the increasing demand for
potato flour for different purposes.
In 1840 the first potato flour factory was established in this
part of the country, and since then many more factories have
been built. After 1890 frequent disputes between the growers
and manufacturers about the price paid for the potatoes led to
the foundation of several factories on a co-operative basis, and
at the present time most factories work on a co-operative basis.
The members of these co-operative factories undertake to
deliver quantities of potatoes proportionate to the number of
shares they possess, and they are responsible for the debts of the
society in the same proportion. At the end of the financial year
every shareholder participates in the profit on the sale of flour.
The capital necessary for building a large modern mill, produc-
ing about 10,000 tons of flour, amounts to 1,200,000 Dutch
cuilders (about £100,000), while in addition a working capital
of about £60,000 is required. At the present time there are
over thirty potato flour mills in the Netherlands. The co-opera-
tive mills originally formed the ‘* Growers’ Association of Flour-
mills,’’ whilst the others formed the ‘* Association of Private
Flour Manufaciurers.’’ These associations were founded to
1922. | Poraro Fiour Inpustry 1x HOLLAND. 721
meet the need of the manufacturers for information and mutual
help, and had no concern with sales. The establishment in 1919
of the Co-operative Sales’ Office for Potato Flour has, however,
changed the system of seliing direct from the factory. The task
of this organisation is to sell the flour of its members in the
most economical and profitable way, and to assist the manufac-
turers to solve problems concerning the improvement of methods
of production, the increase of the output, and so forth. It is
the opinion of the interested’ growers that on the whole the
united co-operative factories now have a far greater influence
on market prices than formerly, and this is mostly due to the
activity of the Co-operative Sales’ Office. The development of
this office made the Growers’ Association of Flourmills super-
fluous and it has recently ceased to exist.
While most Dutch industries are suffering greatly from the
influence of the world crisis and the general trade depression,
the co-operative potato flour factories have on the whole no
reason to complain. Of late years the quantity of potatoes used
for flour-making has been large, especially in 1919-20 and
1920-21, and flour prices are said to have been remunerative.
The co-operative factories especially have profited by these
favourable circumstances, because while the other factories have
not always been able to obtain the necessary raw material, the
co-operative factories, owing to the supply guaranteed by their
members, have not met with this difficulty.
Of late years almost 70.000 acres of potatoes have been planted
in the fen-colonies, where the average yield per acre amounts to
8, 9 or 10 tons. Only a small part is used for direct human con-
sumption or cattle-food, the bulk being used for flour-making
unless a bad harvest or any other crisis in the neighbourhood
abnormally increases the demand for direct consumption.
All the Dutch factories together can use about 90.000 tons
of potatoes a week, but the factories only work at their topmost
capacity during harvest time and in the months of October,
November and December. There are, however, a few factories
that start in September and finish in January. During the
remaining months of the year the material undergoes further
manipulation, and in this way various qualities of flour are
manufactured.
The quantity of potatoes delivered to the flour factories
naturally varies with the harvest, and as mentioned above the
co-operative factories have now absorbed the bulk of the trade.
Figures for three years before and since the War are given below.
D
722 PREVENTING “* Bunt ’’ 1n WHEAT. [ Nov.,
Co-op. Mills. Other Mills. Total.
tons. fons. tons.
1910/11 ee 244,000 oe 305,000 mr 549,000
1921/12 aan 228,750 “ike 137,250 ae 366,000
1912/13 5h 405,650 ont 426,085 38 Sol, 73D
1919/20 eee 523,075 set 78,385 ae 601,460
1920/21 Sig 508,740 5A 5d,815 560 564,555
1921/22 bie 329,095 ee 14,333 343,430
The average PrOan itn of flour is estimated 4 380 lb. per ton
of potatoes delivered at the flour mill. In normal years about
25,000 tons of flour are used in the Netherlands, the balance
being exported. |
* * * * * *
AY SAFE METHOD, OF “PREVENTING
“BUNT ONS SORE AT.
HK. S. Sarmuon and H. Wormatp,
Mycological Department, South-Hastern Agricultural elec:
Wye, Kent.
THERE is perhaps none of the common fungus diseases of farm
crops that more urgently needs attention at the present time than
** Bunt,’ or “* Stinking Smut,’’ of Wheat.* In the years since
the War, complaints of its increasing prevalence have been
made from all parts of England. Professor R. H. Biffen,
referring more especially to the wheat lands in the Eastern
Counties, has written: +t*‘ Bunted wheat is far commoner than
it should be. In part this is due to the fact that a good deal of
the grain sold for seed purposes is infected. Buyers should be
more on their guard, and if a single ‘ bunted’ grain can be
detected in a seed sample, that should be a sufficient reason for
rejecting it. The reason for this apparently drastic course is
that many vendors are too prone to assume that wheat can be
adequately cleaned by the simple process of blowing out such
erains. But whilst it is true that the spore-filled grains
(bunt) can be removed in this manner, no wind current will dis-
pose of the myriads of spores which inevitably find their way
into the grooves of the grains or the brushes of hairs at their
tips during the threshing of the crop.”
Losses.—In a recent number of this Journal} outbreaks of
bunt were recorded in Herefordshire, Shropshire, Cambridge-
* An illustrated Leaflet (No. 92) on Bunt, giving the full life- history, can
be obtained post-free on application to the Cre retary, Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, 8. W.1.
+ Jour. Roy. Agri ic. Soc. of England, 81, p. 244 (1920).
eV OL MOR VITT, 1921 pe 730!
1922. | PREVENTING ‘‘ Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. 723
shire, Lancashire, Gloucestershire and Lincolnshire where from
95 to 55 per cent. of the ears were attacked. ‘The following
case is also recorded :—in a northern county a chance sheaf of
wheat was taken from the binder and the ears counted : 525 were
found affected with bunt and 568 free, i.e., 48 per cent. of the
wheat was infected! In Kent—East Kent, Mid-Kent and the
Weald—bunt is far too prevalent, and serious infestations have
occurred in crops of the varieties Standard Red, Yeoman and
Marshal Foch. In one case a farmer growing Marshal Foch tor
a firm of seedsmen, had the crop thrown on his hands on account
of the prevalences of bunt.
Whilst the worst infected fields are doubtless due to the farmer
saving seed from a bunt-infested crop, the disease is present
also in seed-wheat sold by seedsmen. In 1921, in a field of
wheat (Standard Red) grown on Wye College Farm from seed
supplied by a firm of seedsmen in the south of England, a
counting of a sample of 1,000 ears in the field showed 5.1 per
cent. of bunted ears—a serious infestation.
Pickling of Seed.—In 1921, in this Journal,* the writers
pointed out: (1) that the common method of ** pickling ’’ wheat
with a solution of ‘‘ bluestone ’’ (copper sulphate) was too dan-
gerous, experiments showing that a solution of bluestone suffi-
ciently strong to kil! the spores of bunt present on the seed-
wheat causes serious injury to the germination of the wheat;
and (2) that a certain method of using a solution of formalin
kills the bunt spores without appreciably affecting the germina-
tion of the seed-wheat.
Further field experiments have been carried out in 1921 and
1922, and their results, described below, show very clearly that
by the use of a very dilute solution of formalin a simple, safe
and cheap method exists for the prevention of bunt.
In our previcus article cited above we wrote: ‘‘ It is to be
feared that many cases of a ‘ poor plant ’ in wheat may have
been caused by the seed having been ‘ pickled’ with too strong
2 sclution of copper sulphate.’’ Evidence we have collected
since confirms this opinion. From inquiries we have made of
farmers we have ascertained that it is often the case that a field
sown with seed-wheat treated with a 10 per cent. solution of
‘bluestone will show a poor and tardy germination, while where
it has happened that a portion of the same field has been drilled
with untreated seed-wheat of the same kind the germination has
‘been good and quick. Tn one case a farmer (in Kast Kent) sent
#Vol XRVIT, 192, p. 1013.
DZ
—
724 PREVENTING
scien
ee
Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. [ Nov.,
us some seed-wheat (Standard Red) which he had “ pickled ’’ in
the traditional spe with a 10 per cent. solution of copper
sulphate (using ? gal. to the 4 bushels). Comparing the germina-
tion of this ceed with that of an untreated sample of the same
seed, it was found that the “‘ pickled ’’ seed germinated only 47
per cent. in 10 days, increasing after 15 days to 57 per cent.,
and reaching finally 60 per cent.; the untreated seed germinated
98 per cent. in 4 days. In another case, where the same method.
was employed, again by a farmer, the treated seed (Marshal
Foch) germinated only 70 per cent., while the untreated seed
gave 100 per cent. germination.* Here, then, the farmers were
killing from 80 to 40 per cent. of the seed-wheat before sowing
it. Assuming that 2} bushels of seed to the acre is the correct
amount to be sown, there may thus be a sheer waste of 2 to 1
bushel of seed-wheat to the acre. Sir Daniel Hall pointed out.t
in 1920, that ‘‘ if we could reduce the amount of seed used by
one bushel an acre the country would gain 3 per cent. on its.
output of wheat, worth well over £1,000,000 a year at the
present time.t
I. Experiments during 1920-21.—The object of the experi-
ments was to confirm previous results which showed that for-
malin was preferable to copper sulphate, and also to ascertain
whether a more dilute solution of formalin than that previously
used was equally effective.
The general method adopted was that described in the pre-
vious paper. Contaminated seed was obtained from the experi-
mental plots of the preceding season and divided into 5 lots for
treatment as shown in the table. Duplicate plots were sown (by
hend) with each lot of seed, samples being retained and sent to the
Official Seed Testing Station, where the percentage of germina-
tion was determined. As the plants grew the plots were examined
periodically to see whether the treatment had had any adverse
effect on the growth, but no difference in the general appearance
of the plots could be seen. When the crops were harvested 1,000
ears were taken at random from each plot and examined indi-
vidually for bunt. The results obtained were as follows :—
* We are indebted to Mr. 8. T. Parkinson, Head of the Botanical Depart-
ment, South-Hastern Agricultural College, Wye, for carrying out these
germination tests.
i This Journal, Vol. XX VII, 1920, p. 626.
+ As is, of course, well known, eood crops are frequently obtained from
seed ‘ ‘pickled with bluestone. Until scientific inv estigations as to the correct
rate of seeding have been made, it is open to any one to hold the view that a
better crop is obtained by sowing the lesser quantity of viable seed caused by
the bluestone treatment. The economic waste of seed would, of course, still ’
remain.
1922. | PREVENTING ‘* Bunt ’’ 1n WHEAT. 725
——— —- ———E
TaBue I.
Percentage Number of — Percentage
Treatment. Germina- Bunted Kars of Bunted
tn. per 1,000. ars.
Formalin 1: 320... Soe 98 (lias a
( ~») ) A UO.
S| 3
Formalin1l: 400... athe U8 (1) U { 0.35
, (2) Gi He
Formalin 1: 480... ried we. (1) 4 0.7
(2) "20 :
Copper Sulphate 2.5 per cent. * 99 (1) 46 5A
(2) 62
Untreated... a ee 99 (1) 1134 ;
¢ 7 £ 14.2
(2y° ETE 4
Discussion of Results, 1921.—In our previous article* we
recorded the fact that formalin diluted 1: 320 (1 pint to 40 gal.
water) was as effective in controlling bunt as the 1 : 240 solution
(1 pint to 80 gal. water) and was therefore to be preferred. The
diiution 1 : 8320 was the weakest used in all previous experiments ;
it was decided therefore to use in 1920-21, the weaker solutions
1:400 and 1:480, and contrast these with the solution pre-
viously used.
As will be seen from Table I all the formalin solutions gave
satisfactory results, reducing the percentage of ‘* bunted ”’ ears
from 14.2 to less than 1, the actual differences observed being
perhaps within the experimental error. Since it was clear that
the limit of dilution when formalin ceases to be effective had not
been reached, it was decided to carry out a further series of
experiments in the next year before publishing these results.
The one copper sulphate solution that was used, of 2.5 per
cent. strength (21 lb. to 10 gal. water), was the strongest that
our previous experiments had shown could be used without
seriously injuring the germination of the seed. As is shown in
Tabie I, the control of bunt when using this copper sulphate
solution was by no means satisfactory; the 5 per cent. of
‘““ bunted ’’ ears that appeared in the plots would represent a
very serious infestation in the field. In the writers’ opinion the
use of a copper sulphate solution, and also of the proprietary
articles containing copper sulphate which are sold as remedies
for bunt, should be abandoned in favour of formalin.
Il. Experiments during the season 1921-22.—The object of
these experiments was to test weaker solutions of formalin and
also to obtain some information relative to the effect that the
presence of whcle bunted grains, in samples of seed-wheat
treated by the formalin method, might have on the amount of
‘unt in the resulting crops.
* This Journal, Vol. XXVIT, 1921, p. 1013.
726 PREVENTING “‘ Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. | Now,
In the first place it seemed desirable to ascertain whether
whole bunted grains could be passed through a drill without
being broken up. The following method of testing this was
devised : 1,000 bunted grains were counted out and mixed with
a gallon of seed free from bunt; this was passed through a drill*
and collected. It was then steeped in water, when the bunted
grains floated to the top and were collected and counted: 996
of the original 1,000 were collected in this way. A few of these
were found burst in the water but this was probably due to water
soaking in through slight cracks, as this was found to occur when
slightly cracked bunted grains were put into water, but with
these exceptions the grains were recovered whole. There
appears then to be little danger of bunted grains becoming
broken up in passing through a drill of the type used.
The field experiments for 1922 were modified from those of
previous years in order to study the effect of deliberately sowing
whole bunted grains with the seed.
About 1 pint of bunted grains had been collected from the
plots of the previous season’s experiment. 90 c.c. of these were
measured out into each of 5 glasses; the rest were crushed up
with a pestle and mortar and the powder (consisting of the spores
of the bunt fungus) was sprinkled over about 14 bushels of seed-
wheat (Standard Red), the whole being mixed together until
every grain, so far as could be seen when examining a handful
of the seed, had a blackened tuft of hairs at the tip.
Ten separate gallons of this inoculated seed were then mea-
sured out, and to each of five of these were added 90 c.c. of the
whole bunted grains, i.e., approximately 2 per cent.
The samples were then treated as shown in the accompanying
table. The formalin, applied as in previous experiments, was
used at strenyths varying from 1:320 to 1:800. The plots
were sown on the second day after the treatment.
The plots were examined periodically but no difference in the
stand could be detected among the plots. At harvest time 1,000
ears were collected from each plot and the number of bunted
ears present ascertained.
Since, on the whole, the plots of which the seed contained
unbroken bunt grains showed no more bunt than those of which
* The drill used was a Massey Harris No. 5 Dise Drill (‘force feed ”), set
to sow 3 bushels to the acre, travelling at a speed of 2 miles per hour. The
machine was operated, for the object of the experiment, by means of a crank
turned by hand, so that the machine itself was stationary, thus enabling the
passed seed to be collected in a sheet placed below the drill. We wish to
thank Mr. C. Davies, Head of the Engineering Department, Wye College, for
his assistance in this matter
6 bi]
IN WHEAT. 125
1922. | PREVENTING “* Bunt
the seed had none, it is to be assumed that the presence of such
grains did not increase the amount of infection; the plots of
which the seed received similar treatment are therefore taken
together in calculating the percentage of bunt resulting from
each treatment.
Tasxe IT.
Whoie Bunted -
Grains absent Bunted Percentage
Treatment. or present (2 Percentage Kars per o Bunted
per cent.) in Germination, 1,000. Ears.
the seed.
Hormalinil): .320.-.\.-.¢'(1) Absent 98 0 0.05
(2) Present 100 1
Formalin 1: 480 ... (1) Absent oo 0 0.05
(2) Present dg i
Formalin 1: 640 _... (1) Absent 100 7 0.65
(2) Present 98 6
Formalin 1: 800... (1) Absent 99 Ly 1.4
(2) Present 100 ila |
Untreated ~ ..:. «os (1) Absent v7 409 38.95
(2) Present 100 370
Discussion of Results, 1922.—The formalin solutions were
used at the following dilutions: 1 pint of formalin to
respectively 40. 60, 80 and 100 gal. of water. The results
obtained, shown in Table II, showed clearly that the formalin
became less efficacious the more it was diluted below the 1 : 480
(1 pint to 60 gal.) limit. The presence of 2 per cent. of whole
‘* bunted ’’ grains in the seed produced no increase of disease.
The artificially contaminated seed produced in the two ** con-
trol ’’ plots as high a percentage of “‘ bunted ’’ ears as 37 and
40. In view of the intensity of the disease present its reduction
to 1.4 per cent. in the plots where the formalin was used at the
extreme dilution of 1: 800 (1 pint to 100 gal.) is noteworthy, as
indicating the efficacy of formalin as a fungicide against bunt.
The results show that the use of formalin, diluted 1: 480 (1 pint
to 60 gal.) gives a perfectly satisfactory control of bunt. With
formalin at this dilution no possible injury to the seed-wheat is
’ to be feared, provided that it is applied in the method described
below.
Summary.—1l. The old traditional method of ‘‘ pickling ’”’
wheat with a solution of ‘‘ bluestone ’’ (copper sulphate) should
be abandoned. Experiments have shown that a solution of the
strength necessary to kill the spores of bunt seriously injures the
germination of the seed-wheat.
728 PREVENTING “‘ Bunt ’”’ In WaHEart. [ Nov.,
2. An easier, cheaper and a safe method of preventing bunt
has been discovered in the use of a dilute solution of formalin,
applied in the following manner :—
(a) The diluted solution recommended for use is prepared by adding one
part of formalin* to 480 parts of water. (e.g. 1 pint formalin to
60 gal. of water, or for small quantities, 1 fluid oz. to 3 gal., or 1
tablespoonful to 13 gal.).
(b) The diluted solution is slowly sprinkled over the seed wheat at the rate
of 1 gal. of solution to 2 bushels of seed. The seed must be moved
about and stirred until the grains are all thoroughly wetted, but in no
circumstances must the solution be allowed to form pools under the
heap in which grains might soak.
(c) The seed is then placed in a heap and covered with sacks which have
been soaked in the formalin solution ; the sacks should be uniformly
wet but not dripping.
(d) The treated seed is left covered up for 4 hours, not longert; then
spread out to dry in a thin layer on a clean floor ; if the floor has been
previously used for untreated corn it should be wetted all over with
the formalin solution and allowed to dry before the treated seed is
spread on it.
(e) Precautions must be taken to prevent the re-infection of the treated
seed, e.g., sacks which have held untreated infected wheat must not
be used for the treated seed unless they have undergone treatment by
being soaked in the formalin solution or boiled in water.
(f) The treated seed when dry should be sown as soon as possible.
3. It would appear that a method involving the immersion
of the seed-wheat and skimming off the ‘‘ bunted ’’ grain, or the
use of machinery to secure the same end, is unnecessary.
Se a ees ee en
* Formalin is the trade name for a 40 per cent. solution of the gas
formaldehyde in water. Purchasers should obtain a guarantee that the forma-
lin sold ix of the above strength, and see that it is a clear solution free from
any precipitate. Formalin needs to be kept in a tightly closed bottle and
only freshly prepared diluted solutions should be used, as the gas is volatile.
T In one case, that came to the writers’ notice, of injury being caused, it
transpir-d that the farmer had left the treated grain in a heap 18 in, deep
from mid-afternoon till the following morning at 6.30.
1922.] First YEAR'S WoRKING OF THE SEEDS AcT, 1920. 729
THE! FIRST) YEAR'S WORKING) OF
eet eee A ae
Tue Seeds Act, 1920, and the Reguiations made under it have
now been in operation for twelve months and there is consider-
able evidence to show that farmers and others have already bene-
fited. The main object of the Act is to protect the farmer against
the danger of unknowingly purchasing and sowing inferior seeds.
With this end in view, in the case of a sale of any of the prin-
cipal farm or garden seeds the seller is required to declare in
writing to the purchaser, at or before the time cof sale or delivery,
certain specified particulars as to the quality of the seeds, such
as the percentage germination, percentage purity, presence of
injurious weed seeds, etc. Long before the disclosure of these
essential particulars was made obligatory by Government action,
all the well-known seed establishments made a practice of giving
these guarantees, but the distribution of seeds in this country is
‘earried on by a vast number of firms other than the large and
better known seedsmen, and it is by bringing these smaller firms
into line as regards guaranteeing the quality of. the seeds they
sell that the Seeds Act is doing good. It is also stimulating
the demand for good seed, and so forcing off the market much
of the low grade material. The value of seed is insignificant
when compared with the cost of labour and of other materials,
but the return from all expenditure on tillage depends largely on
the quality of the seeds which are sown, hence the value of the
Seeds Act in enabling the farmer or gardener to ascertain the
quality of the seeds he is sowing.
Licensed Private Seed Testing Stations.—One of the
greatest difficulties experienced in administering the Testing of
Seeds Order, which was the forerunner of the Seeds Act, arose
from the variation in results of tests carried out by different
analysts. In order to overcome this difficulty, it was proposed,
when the Seeds Act was being drafted, that there should be one
central testing station for the whole of Great Britain and Ireland,
and that all tests for the purposes of the Act should be carried
out at this station. It was hoped that by concentrating at one
station the most up-to-date apparatus, in the hands of a highly
efficient staff employing the latest scientific methods, it would
be possible to place seed testing on a sounder footing in this
country than in any other part of the world. This proposal,
‘however, did not find favour in Scotland and Ireland, both of
730 =F rst YEar’s WorgInG OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. [ Nov.,
which countries wished to retain their own official stations.
Nevertheless, the Seeds Act is so worded that the establishment
of a central official station is still possible.
Once it had been decided to have an official seed testing sta-
tion for each part of the United Kingdom, it was difficult to
withstand the claims of those old established seed firms who
had for many years tested their own seed in an efficient manner
to be allowed to continue these operations. It was therefore
agreed that tests for the purpose of the Act (except in the case
of garden seeds) should be allowed at private testing stations,
provided that they were licensed for that purpose by the Ministry.
Judging by the experience gained during the past twelve
months, the system of having licensed stations is not likely
to prove unsatisfactory. Variations in the results of tests occur
from time to time, but their number and seriousness have been
very considerably reduced.
Sixty-eight private stations in England and Wales have so far
been licensed to test. as follows :—Al! kinds of seeds covered by
the Act, 28; all kinds of seed except grass seed, 8; clover, rye-
crass, cereal and field seeds only, 1; field and cereal seeds only,
5; field seeds only, 5; cereal seeds only, 26. Except in one case,
the carrying out of tests for fees is not allowed in the case of
these licensed premises, the privileges being limited to tests for
the purpose of the purchase or sale of seeds in connection with
the licensee’s own business.
Among the conditions affecting these licences is one which
requires a portion of every sample tested to be preserved with
the necessary marks of identification for a period of three
months. A selection of these reserved samples is taken from
time to time by inspectors of the Ministry, for check tests at
the Official Seed Testing Station. So far, however, remarkably
few cases of serious discrepancy have occurred between the
results obtained at a Licensed Station and the check tests
carried out at the Official Station.
A number of analysts from these licensed stations, and others
who hope to qualify for similar posts, have attended a special
instructional course during the past summer at the Official Seed
Testing Station, Cambridge.
Inspection of Seedsmen’s Premises.—Visits to seedsmen’s
premises are carried out by the Ministry’s outdoor staff. The
total number of visits paid during the twelve months ended
July, 1922, was 11,000, including nearly 5,000 establishments
that had not been visited before in connection with the Seeds:
1922.] Frrst Year’s WORKING OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. 731
Act. Practically the whole of the 5,000 not previously visited
were firms where seeds are sold mainly in sealed packets only
during a very short period in the spring, entirely as a side-line
to the main business of the establishment. They included
chemists, genera! stores, hardware merchants, provision mer-
chants, confectioners, rural post-offices, ironmongers, coal
merchants, stationers, fishmongers, fruiterers, barbers, boot
dealers, dentists, newsagents, cattle dealers, butter merchants,
cycle dealers, tex merchants, drapers and butchers.
It has been suggested that the Ministry’s inspectors neglect
to visit the small trader of the kind above referred to, but the
figures given should disprove such a contention. It must be
remembered also that it is much more difficult for the inspectors
to discover shops which combine a small seed trade, limited
to a few weeks in the year, with another business, than it is to
find those establishments where the sale of seeds and kindred
material is the principal business.
Control Samples.—The principal object in visiting premises
on which seed is sold is to ascertain whether the provisions of
the Seeds Act are being properly carried out. With this end in
view it is necessary to draw a certain number of control samples
for the purpose of having check tests carried out at the Official
Seed Testing Station. During the season 1921-22 the number
of control samples so taken amounted to 950, including 282
samples of clover, 177 of grasses, 9 of field seeds, 20 of cereals,
95 of roots, and 356 of vegetables. In addition, 280 control
samples of sealed packets were taken and also 500 samples of
seeds placed in reserve at the licensed private seed testing
stations.
The check tests carried out at the Official Seed Testing
Station showed that in 97 out of the 950 samples, the declara-
tion as to germination, purity, etc., made by the seller was in-
accurate to a marked degree in one or other of the particulars.
These discrepancies were mainly in respect of clover, grasses
and garden seeds; 12 per cent. of the total number of clover
samples; 15 per cent. of the grass samples, and 8 per cent. of
the garden samples proving to be incorrectly described.
The principal source of error in the statements made by
vendors was in respect of the percentage of germination. In
12 cases the declared germination differed from the results of
the official check test by between 10 and 15 per cent. and in 25
eases the discrepancies were over 20 per cent. Ten cases showed
a discrepancy of between 3 and 5 per cent. in the percentage
732 First YEAR'S WORKING OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. [Nov.,
of purity and in 13 cases dodder was found in samples declared
to be dodder free.
In addition to the above, 76 of the control samples taken were
ot seeds in connection with which no declaration whatever was
being made. In the majority of these cases, however, the check
test showed the seed to be of good average quality.
It is impossible to draw general conclusions from the results
of the check tests on control samples as the figures are not strictly
comparable with those of the previous season on account of the
fresh ground broken by the inspectors. It is satisfactory to note,
however, that in spite of the fact that a large number of ‘* new ”’
premises were visited, the number of control samples that it
was considered desirable to take was considerably fewer than
last season, and that the proportion of these control samples
which were shown by the check test to be wrongly described by
the vendors was only 2 per cent. in excess of last year’s figure.
Control samples are taken as a rule only in cases where the
declaration of the vendor is suspected to be inaccurate.
In all cases where the check test showed a marked discrepancy
from the vendor’s particulars, the matter was taken up with the
person concerned, and in practically every instance the action
of the Ministry resulted either in the seeds being destroyed or
returned to the firm from which they were purchased, or in the
seller adopting the official test as the basis of his declaration in
further sales.
Packeted Seed.—As already indicated, one of the most help-
ful features of the Seeds Act is the effect it is having in regu-
lating the sale of seeds in small packets. It is well known that,
in the past, large quantities of seeds, the age and germination
of which left much to be desired, were sold in this manner.
Many small shopkeepers purchase a stock of packeted seed
which is offered for sale during the sowing season year after
year, until the supply is exhausted. As a result, much of this
is of very poor germination by the time it comes to be sown by
the unfortunate purchaser.
This practice is now prevented by the Seeds Regulations
which require a statement to be delivered to the purchaser of
packeted seed showing the percentage of germination and purity,
the date of testing, and the season in which the seeds were
packeted, etc. It cannot, of course, be claimed that the sale of
poor quality seeds in packets has been stopped during the short
period that these regulations have been in force, but there is
evidence to show that an improvement has been effected, and
1922. | REDEMPTION oF TiTHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY. 738
it is anticipated that the grading up process will continue, as
more experience 1s gained.
During the 1921-22 season, the Ministry’s inspectors dis-
covered a large number of cases in which, owing to ignorance
of the Regulations, the necessary particulars were not being
declared by the seller. Steps have now been taken to visit the
many comparatively small wholesale packeters who supply the
packets to the small shopkeepers, for the purpose of explaining
to them the provisions of the Regulations as affecting them-
selves, and as effecting the retailers to whom they sell their
stocks of packets. The beneficial result of these visits is already
apparent.
During the season 270 control samples of packeted seed were
taken. The result of the check test on these samples showed
that 83 per cent. were seeds germinating at or above the mini-
mum prescribed in the Seeds Regulations; 10 per cent. germi-
nated below the minimum but above two-thirds, and 7 per cent.
were below two-thirds. The corresponding figures for the
season 1920-21 were 81 per cent., 13. per cent., and 6 per cent.
respectively.
(To be concluded.)
REDEMPTION OF
Peete, me Te Lang By AN NUEFY.
(1) The Advantages of Redemption.—lt is generally agreed
by both landowners and titheowners that the redemption of
tithe rentcharge on reasonable terms is desirable. Redemption
saves the landowner the trouble of verifying the accuracy of
the demands sent to him half-yearly by the tithe collector and
of having to remit the payments for sums which, in many
instances, are very small. It also removes a possible cause
of complication and delay in sales and other dispositions of
land.
The chief advantages of redemption to the titheowner are
that it saves him the cost of collection, which in some parishes
is considerable, obviates a frequent cause of ill-feeling and
litigation and extinguishes the tithe rentcharge for all purposes
including the payment of rates and land tax, and thus relieves
him of the necessity for taking steps from time to time to
obtain a re-assessment of the tithe rentcharge for the purposes
734 REDEMPTION oF TrtHE RentcHarce By Annuity. [ Nov.,
of rating and taxation. It is not, however, always convenient
to landowners to find capital sums for the redemption of tithe
rentcharge on their lands, even though capital moneys are
under the Settled Land Acts applicable for such purpose, and
to meet such ceses the Tithe Act, 1918, provided facilities for
landowners to redeem by annuity.
(2) Calculation of Redemption Annuities.—By agreement
between the landowner and the titheowner under the Act the
consideration for redemption may be discharged by an annuity
payable yearly or half-yearly for a period not exceeding 50 years.
‘Section 4 (2) of the Act provides that the amount of the annuity
shall be calculated in the following manner :—To interest not
exceeding 5 per cent. per annum on the consideration money is
to be added such sum as would be sufficient, if the periodical
payments thereof were accumulated at compound interest at a
rate not exceeding 4 per cent. per annum, to produce an
amount equal to the consideration money at the end of the
said period. The total of these two sums will give the amount
of the yearly or half-yearly payment of the annuity as the
case may be.
In any such case the Minister by order charges the land
with the annuity, and the order contains provisions for giving
effect to the charge and for protecting the interests of persons
interested in the rentcharge.
(3) Consents necessary to Redemption by Annuity.— Under
Section 4 (8) of the Tithe Act, 1918, however, no such agree-
ment for redemption by annuity is valid :—
(a) If made by aspiritual person entitled in respect of his benefice or cure
except with the consent of Queen Anne’s Bounty ; or
(b) If made by a person (not being a spiritual person so entitled) who is
not empowered to sell the rentcharge unless he obtains the consent of
some other person, except with the consent of that other person.
(4) Redemption by Annuity of Clerical Tithe Rentcharge and
Welsh Tithe Rentcharge.—The Ministry understands that
Queen Anne’s Bounty will, as a rule, be prepared to consent
under certain conditions to the redemption of any tithe rent-
charge or tithe rentcharges amounting in all to not less than
£1 payable by a landowner to an incumbent, and to advise
the incumbent to agree to the same. The Ministry also under-
stands that the Welsh Church Commissioners, who own over
£200,000 tithe rentcharge in Wales and Monmouth, will, as a
rule, be ready to agree to applications for redemption by
annuity of any tithe rentcharge payable to the Commissioners,
1922. | REDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY.
(5) Former Objections to Redemption by Annuity now
removed.—When the Tithe Act, 1918, was passed the follow-
ing objections to redemption by annuity under that Act were
urged :—
(1) There was no statutory power whereby redemption annuities could be
apportioned except under the almost unworkable provisions of Sections
10 to 14 of the Inclosure Act, 1854, so that owners of land upon
which redemption annuities were charged were in a position of consider-
able difficulty when they came to sell portions of the land.
(2) There was no statutory power under which the landowner could, if he
thought fit, compel the redemption of a redemption annuity on fair
terms,
(3) Where land was held in settlement, capital moneys belonging to the
settled estate could not be applied in payment of the sinking fund
portion of the annuity and consequently the tenant for life or other
limited owner of the land who redeemed by annuity was liable, not only
for the interest on the consideration money for redemption which might
be said to take the place of the annual tithe rentcharge payment, but
also for the sinking fund payment which was really capital outlay.
These objections have now been partially met by the Tithe
Annuities Apportionment Act, 1921, and the position will be
further improved when the Law of Property Act which has just
been passed comes into force, i.e., on the 1st January, 1925.
(6) Apportionment of Redemption Annuities.—Facilities for
the apportionment of redemption annuities were provided by
the Tithe Annuities Apportionment Act, 1921. Under Sec-
tion 1 (1) of this Act an application for an order for such an
apportionment can be made to the Ministry by any person in-
terested in the land charged or any part of it without the con-
currence of any other person. Section 1 (2) empowers the
Ministry, on the application of an interested person, to require
as a condition of making the order that any apportioned part
of the annuity which does not exceed the yearly sum of £2
shall be redeemed forthwith.
(7) Redemption of Redemption Annuities.—When the Law of
Property Act comes into force, i.e., on the Ist January, 1925,
any person interested in the whole or any part of the land
affected by a redemption annuity will be empowered, without
the consent of the annuitant or any other person, to free his
land from the annuity by redemption under Section 92 of the
Act, which amends Section 45 of the Conveyancing and Law of
Property Act, 1881.
(8) Settled Lands.—Section 2 of the Act provides that Sec-
tion 21 of the Settled T.and Act, 1882. which sets out how
736 RevDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE By ANNuITY. [Nov.,
capital money arising under that Act may be applied, is to
have effect as if the modes of such application of capital money
included the discharge, purchase or redemption of any appor-
tioned part of a tithe redemption annuity charged on the
settled land or any part of it, or the discharge of such part
as does not represent interest (1.e., the sinking fund portion).
Section 64 (1) (iv) of the Law of Property Act provides in
effect that in addition to the modes authorised by Section 21
of the Settled Jiand Act, 1882, capital money shall be deemed
always to have been capable of being applied in the purchase
or discharge of an annuity charged under Section 4 of the
Tithe Act, 1918, on settled land or any part thereof or in the
discharge of such part of any such annuity as does not represent
interest.
Tt will be observed that these provisions of the recent Act
supplement the provisions of Section 2 of the Tithe Annuities
Apportionment Act~1921, and authorise the application of
capital money arising under the Settled Land Acts to un-
apportioned annuities. It is also to be noted that though the
Law of Property Act does not come into operation until 1925,
the provisions as regards the application of capital moneys of
settled estates to the purchase or discharge of an annuity or
to the discharge of the sinking fund portion of an annuity when
they come into operation will be retrospective.
(9) Preliminary Steps ior Redemption by Annuity.—It
seems not improbable that the alterations in law above referred
to may induce many persons interested in settled lands who
have hitherto hesitated to redeem by annuity to consider
whether they should not now take steps to avail themselves of
the facilities now provided for that purpose.
Landowners who desire to redeem by annuity the tithe rent-
charge owned by incumbents of benefices should, in the first
instance, communicate with Queen Anne’s Bounty, 8, Dean’s
Yard, Westminster, London, 8.W.1.
In other cases it will usually be convenient for the land-
owner to make apphcation for redemption to the Ministry in
the usual form No. 157/1..T. in the first instance. He should
at the same time send to this Office the usual search charge,
which is 5s. if the property does not exceed 10 acres, 10s. if
it exceeds 10 acres but does not exceed 30 acres, and a further
5s. for every additional 30 acres or part of 30 acres. For
example, if the area included in the redemption is 300 acres.
=
CO
bo
1
2. | 2EDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE By ANNUITY. 73
this preliminary charge will be 10s. plus nine times 5s., 1.e.,
£2 15s. Od. The amount thus paid will be credited to the
applicant as part of the office fee, calculated in accordance with
paragraph 19 of the Ministry’s !nstructions for Redemption,
Form No. 261/1:.T., which will eventually be payable by him
before the order for redemption is made.
On receiving such an application the Ministry will, in the
case of tithe rentcharge payable to the Welsh Church Com-
missioners, communicate with the Commissioners as regards
the amount of the annuity, and subsequently notify the same
to the applicant for his agreement. In cases where the tithe
rentcharge is not owned either by an incumbent or by the
Welsh Church Commissioners, the Ministry will itself suggest
to the applicant for redemption what, in its opiion, would be
a reasonable amount at which to fix the annuity and request
him to communicate with the titheowner with a view to obtain-
ing his agreement to the same, if possible.
(10) Redemption by Lump Sum does not require Consents.
—Where redemption by a lump sum is proposed it is still
possible for the landowner to redeem without the consent of
the titheowner or any other person. Im the absence of any
agreement as to the amount of the consideration money, the
Ministry determines the amount in accordance with the First
Schedule to the Tithe Act, 1918, the provisions of which are
explained in paragraph 4 of the Ministry’s Instructions for
Redemption No. 261/L.T.
(11) Redemption where Land has been taken fcr Public
Purposes.— Under Section 1 of the Tithe Act, 1878, as amended
by the Tithe Act, 1918, it is provided that where land charged
with tithe rentcharge is taken for any of the following
purposes, viz. :—
The building of any church, chapel, or other place of public worship ;
The making of any cemetery or other place of burial ;
The erection of any school under the Elementary Education Acts ;
The erection of any town hall, court of assize, gaol, lunatic asylum,
hospital, or any other building used for public purposes, or in the
carrying out of any improvements under the Housing of the Working
Classes Act, 1890 ;
The formation of any sewage farm under the provisions of the Sanitary
Acts, or the construction of any sewers, or sewage works, or any gas or
water works ;
Or the enlarging or improving of the premises or buildings occupied or used
for any of the above-mentioned purposes ;
B
736 Maxine or Ciocs, CLoG-Soites anp Cioc-Buiocks. [Nov.,
the person or persons proposing to carry out the above-men-
tioned works, buildings, or improvements, shall apply to the
Ministry to order the redemption of the tithe rentcharge.
Representations have been made to the Ministry that the
provisions of this Section are frequently disregarded by the
landowners concerned. ‘There may, perhaps, have been some
justification for this before the passing of the Tithe Act,
1918, when the consideration money for redemption had to
be calculated on the basis of 25 years’ purchase of the par
value of the tithe rentcharge. Now, however, that it is possible
to redeem on equitable terms it is desirable that in all cases to
which the Section applies application for redemption should
be made forthwith.
(12) Redemption of Corn Rents.—The provisions relating to
tithe rentcharge referred to in the foregoing paragraphs sub-
stantially apply also to corn rents, rentcharges, and money
payments (other than rentcharges payable under the Extra-
ordinary Tithe Redemption Act, 1886) which are liable to
redemption under the Tithe Acts, 1836 to 1891.
(13) Ferms.—The following forms will be supplied on
request :—
(a) Instructions for the redemption of tithe rentcharge and corn rents, etc.,
in cases where the application is made by the landowner (Form No.
261/L.T.).
(b) Application for the redemption of tithe rentcharge in such cases
(Form No. 157/U.T.).
(c) Application for the redemption of corn rents, etc., in such cases (Form
Nos 204/07):
(d) Forms of contmuation schedule for use in the redemption of tithe
rentcharge or of corn rents, etc., in cases where the schedule provided in
the form of application is not sufficient to show all the rentcharges
proposed to be redeemed (Form No. 133/L.T.).
THE MAKING OF CLOGS, CLOG-SOLES
AND CLOG-BLOCKS.
KATHARINE 5. Woops,
Agricultural Economics Institute, Oxford.
In the year 1837 a number of Flemish clothiers and weavers
‘settled in Bolton, Lancashire, and the weavers brought with
them their sabots or wooden shoes. ‘The sabots were made en-
tirely of wood, with lamb-skin linings to protect the feet. Wooden
1922.] MaxkING oF Ciocs, CLoG-SoLES AND CLoG-BLOCKS. 739
shoes are known to have been worn in London earlier than the
14th century, and may have been used in other parts of
the country, but they were new to Lancashire.*
Clogs are wooden shoes with leather uppers, and*pattens have
rings of iron to keep the shoe off the ground. No kind of foot-
gear could keep the feet warmer and dryer on wet ground, and
they are reputed to protect the women who work in the Lanca-
shire weaving sheds, which have damp floors, against rheumatisn
and other ills. Clogs are worn extensively in Lancashire, West
Yorkshire, and in neighbouring counties, by men, women and
children. They are useful for dairy-work, both on the farm and
in the cheese-factory, and are admirable for gardening, poultry-
keeping or other work that involves standing or walking in wet
places. Fashion has done ill-service to workers and children by
decreeing that boots, however poor in quality, are smarter to
wear than clogs. Clogs have light grooved irons underneath
the edge of the sole and heel to make them wear better. A piece
of leather is sometimes nailed on the sole within the irons to
deaden the clatter which is apt to provoke merriment in districts
where they are unfamiliar. Compared with thick boots they
are not unduly heavy. The uninitiated would suppose that a
rigid wooden sole would be most uncomfortable; but the clogs
are large enough for the foot to have freedom inside, and they
depend upon the buckled flaps or laces that meet over the ankle
to keep them on. There are several types, the ‘‘ Lancashire ”’
being distinct from the ‘‘ country,’’ and considered to be smarter
wear owing to the slightly pomted toe, which would be most
uncomfortable unless extra leneth were allowed. ‘‘ Country ”’
clog wearers desire no such decorative style. It has been said
that the habitual wearing of clogs from childhood checks the
development of certain muscles at the back of the leg, and that
clog-wearers may be known by their rocking walk as though they
bad runners or rockers on their feet. Shoes or slippers, how-
ever, could be procured for summer and indoor wear and for
running about at games, while clogs are greatly to be preferred
to the cold and sodden boots that must often be worn by children
who can have only cne pa‘r at a time.
Kind of Wood Used.—-Alder wood is preferred to any other
for making clog-soles. It is so scarce that gangs of clog-block
cutters visit the districts where it grows, sending off the roughed-
out pieces of alder to the northern counties where clog-soles are
fashioned from the blocks. The scarcity of material is no new
* From “ A Short Sketch of the Clog and Pa‘ten Trade,’ by Alderman
Broughton, published by the Amalgamated Society of Master Cloggers.
EY
740 Maxine or Ciocs, Cioc-SoLes anp Cioc-Buiocks. [Nov.,
SS}
difficulty. In the year 1456 the Clog and Patten Makers made
a pitiful appeal to the King to be allowed to use such pieces of
‘* tymber of Aspe “’ as would not serve to make arrows. Their
petition appears to have been granted for the time being, but
in view of a projected invasion from France, the restraint on the
use of this timber was again enforced on the clog-makers.
The ‘‘ Aspe ’’ timber is a kind of poplar, extensively grown
on the Scotch hills but seldom used by cloggers at the present
day. Birch is sometimes used, but alder makes the most
comicrtable clogs and is less apt to split than beech which
is also sometimes used. The hand-made alder soles are preferred
in Lancashire to the beech soles made in factories. Machinery
is of fairly recent introduction and improvements are expected
which will cause the machine-made soles to compete more effec-
tively with the hand-made. It is also rumoured that ready-made
soles may be sent over from the virgin woods cf North America.
By this means greater economy in transport than the English
clog-block cutter can secure will be effected through leaving
the waste material behind. He goes to the woods to work,
selling his waste as firewood if he can, and burning up the small
chips in his own fire. The clog-block, though it is cut to definite
sizes for children’s, women’s and men’s clogs, still has to be
reduced greatly by the clog-sole maker to whom it is sent. His
yard becomes littered with growing piles of chips as he cuts
away at the blocks. It is said that three-quarters of the blocks
are cut to waste. This ilustrates the truth that wood-industries
should not be isolated, disconnected crafts, but that the waste
or parts less suitable for one craft should be passed on to be
used for some other purpose with as much economy as possible
in time, material, skill and transport.
The interdependence of varicus wood-trades is also illustrated
by the fact that alder and birch are used both for broom-heads
and for clog-soles. A Devonshire wood-dealer whose principal
trade is in firewood, sets turners to make broom-heads and clog-
block makers to cut clog-blocks out of material sorted for each
purpose.
Cutting the Blocks.—The birch and alder, chiefly alder, is
bought where it can be obtained in fairly large quantities, either
felled or standing in the woods. The price is a matter of
arrangement with the owner of the woods, who will often give
credit until the returns from the finished clog-blocks come in.
This makes it easy for a workman to become a master, as capital
is only required for paying labour and board. During the War,
1922.] Maxine or CLocs, CLoc-SoLes AnD Cioc-Buocks. 741
when demand was keen and prices were high, many workmen
established businesses for themselves. For the roughest work
of felling and sawing labour is often hired on the spot, but for
the actual clog-block cutting skilled workers are employed who
travel in gangs of six or seven. ‘The system is the same as
that in the timber trade when gangs are sent out to fell trees.
Before the War, a Shropshire timber-merchant and clog-block
dealer employed some twenty-five to thirty clog-block cutters.
They traveiled from place to place in various parts of the country,
‘Salisbury, Oxford, Thetford and Southampton being amongst
the places mentioned by this Shropshire merchant. ‘Thus it
sometimes happens that a travelling clog-block cutter settles
down in a district where alder flourishes and sends off his blocks
to former employers or other acquaintances in the trade. Some
of the tlog-block dealers who are settled in the south and west
of England may be known by their speech and enterprise as
North-countrymen.
The tree or pole after being felled is sawn into fixed lengths
of four sizes, for men, women, boys and children. If the wood
is knotty there is more waste, and only the smaller sizes can
be cut. These lengths are then placed on wooden block supports
and cut into shape with a special tool. This is a knife made of
one piece of steel about 23 ft. in length, bent to an obtuse angle
in the middle, the lower half forming a blade about four inches
deep and terminating at the end in a strong hook. This secures
the knife to a weoden block driven firmly into the ground. This
block forms one of the two supports of a low bench on which the
piece of alder is placed and the knife is worked as on a pivot.
The cutter grips it with his right hand by a wooden handle at
right angles to the steel, stooping, and cutting downwards with
remarkable certainty and rapidity, while he holds and moves
the clog-block with his left hand. The cuts are made at angles,
and the block trimmed with an axe, so that it represents very
roughly the fina! shape of the clog-sole. The blocks are then
stacked to dry in bee-hive shaped heaps as high as a man can
reach, built as peat-ruckles are built with air spaces between
the blocks. When a truck-load of blocks is ready, it is sent off
to Lancashire.
Not a Whole-time Trade.—An employer did not consider
that pre-war earnings yielded a “‘ living wage ’’ but the men
are paid by piece-rates and their earnings varv with their skill.
The clog-block trade is not carried on by itself, for the masters,
and probably the men too, require some other source of income.
742 Maxine or Crocs, CLroc-Sorzs anp Croc-Buocks. [Nov.,
For example, a Shropshire employer is a timber merchant and
keeps a small inn, and an employer in Devonshire is a firewood
dealer who also has a small wood-turning industry, making brush-
stocks. ‘Ihe former sends gangs of cutters near and far; the
latter, as yet in a small way of business, had employed a single
cutter until others had learnt the art, and is only using wood
obtained near at hand.
No evidence has been found in the three counties under inves-
tigation (Shropshire, Staffordshire and Cheshire) to show that the
separate trades of the clog-soler who cuts the block to the final
shape, and the clog-maker who makes and fixes on the uppers,
are rural industries. The cloggers are often cobblers as well and
they are to be found in the towns. They buy the soles and attach
uppers which are frequently made from old boots.
Two very interesting cloggers were found in a country town
in Shropshire, and their business proves that clogging still sur-
vives as a complete self-contained craft. Of these two, one
has sons in the trade and the other has not. Material is obtained
in the neighbourhood, for present railway freights are prohibi-
tive to a small-scale business. Even on Jocal wood haulage costs
have been high. One of the cloggers, who would lke to get
his supplies close at hand, estimates that £100 a year could be
made from four and a-half acres of waste land near by if it were
planted with alder. Some alder can be cleared by thinning every
five years in such a way that other shoots grow strong, but the
best material for clogs comes from wood of twenty-five to thirty
years’ growth. The clogger held out his hand, palm upward,
with the thumb and fingers bent to show how five alder shoots
should be left to grow out from the stock and then shoot up
straight and strong. He does not care for older material as
there is more sawing and cutting to be done to it, and conse-
quently the costs are higher.
The son, who cuts the blocks and does a sawing and clearing
husiness for fences and firewood, prefers to work in his own shed
at home and not out in the woods. Therefore the problem of
waste wood, on which haulage to the vard has been. paid, is
seriously exercising his mind. He is thinking of toys and other
small wooden articles. Ye does not use the usual block-cutter’s
knife when working at home, but shapes the blocks with his saw,
which is worked by means of a small engine, after they have been
cross-sawn and cleft to the right size. He is also considering a
small portable saw which could be used out in the woods, and is
interested in engines whose furnaces can utilise chips and saw-
1922.] Maxine or Crocs, CioG-SoLes anp Cioc-Buocks. 743
dust as fuel. Al! their wood is cleft, the saw only being used
for cross-sawing and trimming the cleft pieces to the correct
shape for clog-blocks. Straightness of grain is important in this
trade, and cleaving secures this.
Making the Soles.—The sole-making is done with a_ tool ~
similar to that used for block-cutting. The craftsman seems to
know by heart the exact curve that is needed for comfort, and
with very little measurement ‘is able to make the right shapes
for every size in clogs. Some clog-makers get leather for
the uppers from the mulls; it is strong, thick and supple,
and impregnated with oil, which makes it soft and weather-proof.
The leather is in wide strips which have been used to cover
rollers in the mills. Once it has worn a little thinner in one
part than in another, it must be removed from the rollers, which
must be exactly cylindrical; 1t can therefore be had cheaper than
new leather and the thin parts can be cut away. A stretching
machine is used to shape the leather so as to give the necessary
spring for the instep. The uppers are made in two pieces only,
a third piece inside giving strength to the heel. They are sewn
together with a sewing machine, such as boot-repairers use, and
when the upper is nailed to the sole, and the irons and fastenings
are put on, the clog 1s complete. Some clogs are lined with felt.
The Outlook.—Cloggers are very scarce, as no boys have
been learning the trade. There was an abnormal demand during
the War, when no foreign clogs were coming in, and this appears
to have stimulated the use of machinery. Demand fell off some-
what during the latter part of the War, when boots were worn
owing to higher wages. and the trade appears to be feeling the
general depression at the present time.
There is said to be an opening for small clog-making enter-
prises in the south of England, where clogs are not unknown,
and might, it is thought, be popularised if light, comfortable
types were put on the market and the retailers induced to stock
the irons for replacement when worn out. This lengthens the
life of the clogs and makes them al! the more economical in com-
parison with boots. The irons and buckles can be procured from
Lancashire and would probably not be worth making locally, but
a small clogging firm would have to include a wood-dealer who
would be respons*ble for felling the wood and preparing the clog-
blocks, a skilled clog-sole maker, and a boot-maker or repairer
who could make and fasten on the leather tops. Such a partner-
ship would probably be the best means of working up a local
= ——— — 7a _ —_ ———————— CC rr—CS;SNCt;tC‘;373DP.mrt~™
744 Maxine or Crocs, CLoc-So.es anp Cioc-Buocks. [| Nov.,
bf
‘“ bespoke ’’ retail trade with customers who like their foot-
gear made to measure. A man might have a good chance of
working up a small local trade, but he could not increase it
largely without meeting competition from machine-made and
imported clogs. His success would depend on (1) real superi-
ority; (2) econsmies effected by getting local alder made up
locaily, which would otherwise go north as clog-blocks and come
south again as clogs; and (8) facilities for getting suitable leather
on special terms. It is not thought that clog-sole machinery
would be worth introducing into a small concern, and there is
no reason to suppose that a big industry would pay.
The presence of clog-block cutters in alder-growing districts
would be a helpful factor in launching small experiments, since
the cutters or their employers are in touch with other branches
of the industry. It would not be impossible to provide the essen-
tial safeguard for men undertaking a new venture; that is, to
see that they have some alternative outlet in case of decline or
failure in the trade. This could be done by connecting the
industry with wood-dealing and other wood-crafts and perhaps
also with boot-repairing. The small-scale craftsman can rarely
afford to be a ‘‘ one-job’’ man. Clog-solers are reputed to be
scarce because during the War they were wanted out in the
woods and did not care to settle ¢own again to indoor work.
Probably their real reason was the competition of machine-made
clogs which drove them away from their former occupation.
There is a tendency for skilled journeymen to. move away from
areas where machinery is displacing their special craft, and to
set up small businesses in some remote or rural district for a
market in which competition from the machine-made product 1s
not acutely felt. It may or may not be a local market, but it
is a special market in which their specialised skill, or personal
qualities, have value. It may, for instance, be a retail trade, in
an article of distinctive quality, made under conditions in which
the compensating advantages of personal skill and of any
economies in getting the small lots of material near at hand,
balance the advantages of big-scale production and wholesale
distribution.
1922. | Foop 1n Retation To EcG PRopucTIon. 745
FOOD IN RELATION TO EGG
PRODUCTION.
K. J. Davey,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
In the economies of egg production, the relaticn that feeding
costs bear to the total cost of production on one hand, and what
relation the cost of food bears to the value of the output of the
birds, always excite attention. It has become almost a truism
to say that feeding costs taking the year through should not
exceed the price of one egg per week, nevertheless it is difficult
to find satisfactory data on which such an opinion can be based.
The soundness of the opinion cannot be doubted, but it
obviously opens up questions that must be explored in the
immediate future, if the industry of commercial egg production
is to be continued successfully. The suggested limit of feeding
costs depends on two factors, the price of feeding stuffs and the
price of eggs. Both factors are variable and liable to have their
relationship materially altered by developments that are already
making their influence felt.
We have two well-defined schools of thought. On the one
hand we have those who by reducing production costs, feeding
of course being part, look for an increased profit on a compara-
tively low egg-yield per bird, and we have those who are prepared
to spend more on production and recoup themselves dy a higher
ega-yield.
So far, no detailed figures seem available showing the cost ot
production per thousand eggs, on a plant running successfully
with a low average egg production. It follows that if the plant
is successful on a low average, production costs must have been
eut rather heavily to show a profit at all, and the feeding costs
will have been cut with the others. In the absence, however,
of records of the system we are bound to approach the question
of feeding costs from the opposite angle, that is from the point of
view of comparatively high feeding costs, on a high flock average.
In passing, however, it might be as well to point out that low
feeding costs do not necessarily result in a low flock average.
Our knowledge of food stuffs is incomplete, and it is by no means
certain that through comparatively high priced grain and milling
offals lies the only way to feed the necessary food elements to
laying hens. In more than one case, individual breeders have
availed themselves of unconventional food due to cheap local
supplies, without damage either to the birds or their produce.
746 Foop 1x Retation to Hae Propuction. [ Nov.,
When we approach feeding costs in relation to egg production
from the point of view of high flock average, we have the figures
extending over three years of The Harper Adams College T.aying
Trials, which are summarised on the accompanying diagram.
Refore proceeding to deal with the costs in detail, it might be as
well to answer one or two criticisms that have been urged against
them.
In the first place it is claimed that the feeding cost per bird
is unduly high. This is not denied, but the point of view from
which these figures should be approached, must be that of poultry:
keepers and not the wholesale millers. The prices given month
by month do not represent so much the actual price paid for the
food, as the price at which smali poultry keepers locally were
buying the foods used during the same period. The difference
between the two levels of prices when worked out to cost per
bird, would only be a fraction of a farthing, but expressed as
price per ton is a much more considerable item. |
It has also been stated that the feeding costs are high because
the foods used were unduly expensive and that cheaper substitutes
could have been found. The main purpose of the Laying Trials,
however, is to get the maximum output in a definite period. a
very different problem to getting the maximum output on the
minimum cost. To let any outside consideration affect the
question of immediate output, would be foreign to the vrrnose
of the trials. The birds have to demonstrate their ability as.
producers between Ist November and 8rd October of the
following year, and in fairness to the breeder concerned no ques-
tion of experiments with feeding ought to be considered.
The accompanying diagram gives the average feeding cost and
the average output per bird during the last two years’ trials and
their relation can be seen at a glance.
This chart of comparative values is interesting as showing that
there is a relation between feeding costs and the value of eces
produced. A sharp rise in both values is experienced: from the
beginning of November until early in January, after which there
is a continuous drop until low values are reached in the errly
spring and summer, and the curves do not recover, until
November again comes along.
But this must not be pushed too far. Althongh this factor
has become a regular feature since these feeding costs were first
compiled three years ago, it may be due to the nature of the trials.
Although the value of food increased during this period, the
actual weight consumed was normal. It is obvious that the rise
1922. | Foop In Revation To Kiaa Propuction. 747
in egg values is due to scarcity during the winter, and in all
probability the rise in food values for the corresponding period
is due more to a personal, than an economic factor. The poultry-
man in charge of the trial was in all probability feeding heavily
the more expensive foods, in order to get his output auickly
up to its maximum, and just to what extent this personal factor
comes in, it is impossible to say until the conclusions arrived
at by the study of these figures can be checked by experimental
work on a commercial basis. But it must be very obvious that
if, while maintaining the high curve of egg values, the corre-
sponding curve of food value could be flattened to its summer
level a very material difference would be made in the profit.
While a few pence per bird is not a great item taken by itself,
it becomes so when spread over 740 birds, cr as will be the case
this year, nearly two thousand.
A study of comparative weights shows that while values are
related weights are not. The heaviest feeding weight does not
correspond with the greatest output.
But interesting as the study of comparative values and weights
may be, there is a further aspect of feeding for eeg production
that should not be lost sight of. In the ‘‘ Feathered World
Year Book’’ for 1921 the writer called attention to the
relation that exists between quality of food consumed and the
actual output of eggs. There can be little question that quality
of food is closely related to output, and it is interesting to notice
from the accompanying diagram, that during the years when
the quality of food was at its worst, the output cf eges per bird
was also the lowest registered. The same thing holds true of
the percentage of second grade eggs to first. The poorer the food
became the more second grade egos were recorded, as will be
seen from the following table :—
Summary of Second Grade Eggs during four Winter Menths.
1915-16, 1916 17 1917-18. 1918-19. 1919-20, 1920-21.
list, Grades cx En dtobul 51:8 54-] io? lio 75 69
2nd Grade ... ot ODO 48:2 LoS) 27:08 22°7 24°31
There is one aspect of feeding costs in its relation to pro-
duction that has not yet been dealt with. It is a mistake to
assume that eggs alone represent the output of value from any
given pen. In the growth of flesh and in the production of
manure we have two items less by far in value than the eggs,
but still considerable, to set off against the food and other costs.
While flesh and manure are usually disregarded in working out
values it is obvious they should be included. Even at the end of
748 A New Appie Psst. [ Nov.,
a season of heavy laying, some of our dual purpose breeds will
show an increase in carcass weight, and consequently a higher
killing price would be obtained. Similarly the manure produced
if properly stored and used is a most valuable commodity, and
its value should certainly be credited to the pen performance.
An ordinary pen, fed as the Harper Adams Laying Trial-hbirds
are fed, will produce a quarter of a ton of manure per annum
showing the following approximate analysis :—water 72-6 per
cent., nitrogen 1:42 per cent., phosphoric acid 2-01 per cent.,
potash 0°42 per cent. Expressed another way each pen of six
hens competing at the trials, produces roughly between 7 and
8 lb. of nitrogen. 10 lb. of phosphorie acid and 24 lb. of potash.
When it is remembered that this year the birds may be expected
to produce nearly one hundred tons of this highly concentrated
manure, to disregard it in relation to feeding costs appears to
be a mistake. The unsatisfactory state, in which the storage
and use of poultry manure is at present, opens up another
question outside the scope of this paper.
* * * * * *
A. NEW APPLES PEST,
J. C. F. Fryer, M.A.,
Pathological Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Harpenden.
A report has recently become current in horticultural circles
of the appearance in England of a weevil-allied to the Apple
Blossom Weevil but even more destructive in its habits, and it
may therefore be of interest to Journal readers to give a few
details with regard to the discovery.
In the spring of 1921 Mr. F. R. Petherbridge, of Cambridge
(Adviser to the East Anglian Province) found on the borders of
Norfolk one or two weevil larve resembling those of the Apple
Blossom Weevil, but feeding in the unexpanded leaf or truss buds
of apple and not in the actual blossom buds themselves. As
soon as one of these larve, after pupating, had turned into an
adult weevil, it was evident that a species different from the
Blossom Weevil had been obtained. In August of the same
year Mr. Harwood, when collecting beetles in Kent, obtained
under bark in eempany with Apple Blossom Weevils an example
of the same kind of beetle as had previously been reared by Mr.
Petherbridge. Both the Kent and Norfolk specimens have since
been identified as a species of weevil (Anthonomus cinctus,
Kollar, =A. pyri. Boh.) not previously recorded in Great Britain
and therefore of course without any English name.
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-------- —X Value of Eggs per bird per month.
Value of Food consumed per bird per
month.
Fic. 1—Average Values of Eggs produced and Food consumed, November, 1919, to
October, 1921.
2 4
1.—Bud Weevil.
“2.—Apple Bud from which a Bud Weevil has emerged.
3.—Blossom Weevil.
-4.—* Capped” Blossom from which a Blossom Weevil nas emerged.
3
i
1922. | A New Appie Psst. 749
This new weevil, which might perhaps be known as Bud
Weevil to distinguish it from the Blossom Weevil, has been
familiar on the Continent of Europe for very many years as a
pest of pears and to a less extent of apples. In France the insect
is called the Pear Anthonomus and also the Winter Worm. In
Germany it is known as the Pear Bud Killer or Pear Bud Stinger,
while there are also records of its doing considerable damage
both in Russia and Italy. In all cases it would seem to be pears
which are damaged rather than apples. In comparison with the
Apple Blossom Weevil, the pest usually appears to be regarded
as of less, and sometimes as of much less, importance. It is of
course quite impossible to predict the nature of the losses which
it may ultimately cause in Great Britain, while it is almost
equally difficult to judge whether the species is really new to
our orchards or whether it has persisted for years in small num-
bers undetected. It is undoubtedly the case that it might easily
be carried in the egg stage upon nursery stock from the Con-
tinent, and that nothing short of complete prohibition of the
entry of such stock could prevent its introduction. On the other
hand, if it were a recent arrival in England, it is decidedly
unlikely that it would appear simultaneously in two localities so
far apart as Kent and Norfolk, and on the whole it is more
probable that the insect has been present with us for at all events
a number of years and that if may even be native.
In regard to the life history of the new weevil, it is recorded
in Germany that eggs are laid in September and October in the
leaf and fruit buds of pear trees, that the larve are found in the
buds from the middle of February and that they pupate at the
beginning of May. the beetles emerging from 8 to 10 days after-
wards. It is further stated that the beetles appear to ‘“ sleep ”’
during the summer and not to reappear until the time for ege-
laying in the following autumn. Judging by the behaviour of
specimens which were kindly supplied by Mr. Goude (Horti-
cultural. Instructor for Norfolk), these statements correspond
fairly well with the habits of the insect in Great Britain, and
there is every reason to suppose that it will have a similar life
history here. Mr. Petherbridge, however, is investigating the
matter and may shortly be able to confirm or correct these notes.
In the meantime, it is suggested that pear and apple growers
should be on the look out at the end of winter and early spring
for buds which have been killed or have failed to expand, and
if on examination they are found to contain grubs, the Ministry
would be grateful for full particulars.
790 LocaL Investication- oF Foop or Lirrte Own. | Nov.,
A LOCAL INVESTIGATION POP: THE
FOOD OF THE Prt oon.
Wanrer E.. Connixen, D.Se., 2...
Keeper of the Yorkshire Museum, York.
Own the publication of my report on the food and feeding
habits of the Little Owl,* I received a letter from Mr. M.
Portal inquiring if I would like to have specimens of this bird
from a series of localities in Hampshire from the end of May
to the middle of July. Mr. Portal was of opinion that the
critical months were June and July ‘‘ when one might have
wished for 50 instead of 22 and 14 specimens for investigation.’
Mr. Portal’s kind offer was accepted and he thereupon made
arrangements with the owners and keepers of several estates.
In ali 98 birds have been received from different localities. Of
these 2 were received in May, 39 in ¢ une, and 55 in July. In
two cases the stomachs were empty, and are therefore not in-
cluded in these figures. Specimens have been received from 27
different estates, or an average of 3.63 from each.
In considering the resuits obtained it must be borne in mind
that this is a purely local investigation, and as Dr. Ritchie has
pointed out,f if we limit the area covered by any one study
of the food of birds, ‘‘ the farmer in any’ particular locality
begins to see that the statistics of the laboratory have some
close relation to the facts which force themselves upon his
notice throughout the year,’’ and he will “‘ begin to put faith
in the conclusions drawn from necrological surveys.’’ That the
value of such local investigations is considerable probably no
one will deny, but the danger is that those who read the results
of such will jump to the conclusion that these are typical of the
particular species of wild bird throughout the whole country,
whereas they only indicate the feeding habits of the species
in a limited area, and such habits are modified or vary accord-
ing to the particular nature of the locality, i.e., whether
agricultural, horticultural, game-breeding, moorland, etc. In
Hampshire and the surrounding district there is a large
quantity of game-birds bred.
Food oi the Adult.—Of the total bulk of food consumed by
these 98 specimens during May, June and July, 91.57 per
* Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feb., 1922, p. 1022, and March
1922, p. 1133.
+ Scottish Naturalist, 1918, p. 255.
) ie 7A
eT ee a ee
= iind
1922. | Loca, INVESTIGATION OF Foop or LirTLe Owl.L. Hl
cent. consisted of animal matter, and 8.43 per cent. of vege-
table matter. Of the animal content 57.84 per cent. consisted
of insects, 20.28 per cent. of earthworms, 7.71 per cent. of
voles and mice, 2.94 per cent. of wild birds (mostly house-
sparrows) and 1.78 per cent. of game birds and poultry.
Wireworms and click beetles constituted 10.10 per cent.
and cockchafers and their larve 5.10 per cent. of the insect
content. The neutral insects consisted in the main of Dung
Beetles (Geotrupes) and a few small moths.
Monthly Percentages of the Principal Food Items of the
Adult Little Owl.
Kind of Food. May. June. July. Average.
Seeds of Weeds ... ate ae a. — “14: = O5
Miscellaneous Vegetable See ae — 16°15 9-09 8°38
Slugs or Snails... ah ae ee = “+2 — “U4
Tnjurious Insects ... = cos = — 19°64 41:27 17:30
Beneficial Insects... aX. ue oe — iD "54 “D6
Neutral Insects ... ane oss - 32°50 42°30 23°63 39°48
Voles and Mice ... sb " By) — 8°96 14°18 171
Wild Birds ¥e Lee he ste — 7°82 1°GO 2-94
Game Birds are ae = ts — 525 “09 1:78
Earthworms ee ns ae 47°30 7°43 pL 20°28
Miscellaneous Aninal Metie 2. » — “04. 4°38 1:48
Total 2.00 4. we us: 40000» 100°00 100-00 160-00
If we add these food percentages to those previously obtained
and take the average we find a general corroboration of the
nature and quantities of the food even in a local investigation.
Comparison of the Food Percentayes of two Investigations
and Averages.
P revious Present Sy.
Investigation. Investigation. sta es
Seeds of Weeds ... ae : ps3) OD 30
Miscellaneous Vegetable Matter, 5°96 8°38 717
Slugs or Snails”... a = “02 “Ot "03
Injurious Insects... be ae 30°62 17°30 23°S6
Beneficial Insects Le te -99 “HG ¥ |
Neutral... ant i koe 17°63 39°48 28°56
Voles and Mice... Ne as 31°05 rat 19°38
Wild Birds at ae ¥F 4-45 2-94 3°70
Game Birds aad 8) re “51 . 1°78 1-14
Earthworms me fa 7°83 20°28 14°05
Miscellaneous Animal Matter ad “39 1-48 “94
Total > °<7! “as ies 100° 00 100-00 100-00
752 NorEes oN Manures ror NovEMBER. [ Nov.,
‘Summary and Conclusion.—The results obtained by this
further investigation of the stomach contents of 98 birds taken
in a local area where game birds are very generally reared,
shows that the bulk of this bird’s food during June and July
consists of neutral and injurious insects, voles and mice, and
earthworms. In comparison with other food items the amount
of game birds is infinitesimal.
As has been previously stated the writer does not contend
that the Little Owl does not destroy young game birds—it
is well known that it does—but the actual percentage of this
kind of food is so small, that, under ordinary circumstances,
it is negligible. On the other hand it must be borne in mind
that the bulk of its food is of such a nature.that it must be
regarded as of great value to the agriculturist. If we were to
reverse these figures, viz., 17.80 per cent. of injurious insects,
7.71 per cent. of voles and mice, and 1.78 per cent. of game
birds so that they were 25.01 per cent. of game birds and
1.78 of injurious insects, then there might be cause for alarm,
for it would prove that the Little Ow! was not an insect feeder
or a destroyer of voles and mice, but that the bulk of its food
consisted of game and other birds, but this cannot be stated
even for the months of June and July, and during the re-
mainder of the year the nature of the food is such that no
unprejudiced mind can do other than admit that as a factor
in the destruction of injurious insects and voles and mice, the
Little Owl is a most valuable ally.
In conclusion, the writer wishes to express sincere thanks
to Mr. M. Portal for the trouble, time and expense he has
taken, and also to the various land-owners and their keepers
for their kindness in forwarding specimens. —
NOTES ON MANURES FOR
NOVEMBER.
Sir Jonn Russevyt, D.Sc., F.B.S.,
Rothamsted Haperimental Station.
Does Good Farming Pay?—During the past three months
many farmers must have asked themselves the question whether
it is worth while to farm well. With prices fallen to the present
level there must be many who wonder if it would not be better to
cut down all expenditure and reduce all their outgoings to a
1922. | Novres ON MANURES FOR NOVEMBER. 758
minimum. There is high authority for the dictum that high
farming is no remedy for low prices. It was Lawes himself in
1879 (a time when as at present farmers were faced with a crisis
and when land was going down to grass, labour was being reduced
and the standard of farming was falling) who impressed upon
farmers the fact that large dressings of manures do not neces-
sarily bring in high profits. To enforce this point he quoted the
results of some of the experiments on the growth of wheat on
Broadbalk field, Rothamsted. Four plots were set out and
dressed with artificials, the dressings being as follows :—
Average per acre
per annum.
Dressed corn. Straw.
Wheat every yeur, 27 years, 1852-78. Bushels. Cut.
Complex mineral manure, alone ied dee A 152 one 133
‘ 5 +3 and 200 lb. ammonium salts... 244 a 22?
* a : », 400 1b. ‘3 irae 334 ee 332
- a Ms ,, 600 lb. $ Hid Lone 363 ~ 402
Barley every year, 6 years, 1852-57,
Superphosphate alone ... sf Ba JS 31% 164
F and 200 lb. ammonium salts sk at 453 ae 283
= 5 400 1b. . im ee ee 498 ise 34
The complex mineral manure consisted of 35 cwt. superphos-
phate, 200 Ib. sulphate of potash, 100 Ib. sulphate of soda and
100 lb. sulphate of magnesia per acre, or just over 7 cwt. in all.
The results showed that the 2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia in
addition to other artificiais gave an increased yield of 8% bushels
per acre, while 4 cwt. sulphate of ammonia gave an increased
yield of 174 bushels, but 6 cwt. gave an increase of only 21
bushels.
From these figures it is evident that an increase in the total
artificials from 11 cwt. to 18 ewt. per acre increased the yield of
grain only by 33 bushels per acre, and was therefore clearly un-
profitable. Lawes concludes: “* Assuming that the application
of 400 lb. of ammonia-salts was the limit of high farming with
wheat at 6s. per bushel I cannot see how it could be maintained
that a further 200 lb., yielding little more than a third as much
increase aS wher used in more moderate quantity, should be
employed because the price of wheat was reduced to 5s. per bushel.
On the contrary, the conclusion I should draw from the results
of these experiments is that the application of the 600 lb. of
ammonia-salts could only be profitable if the price of wheat were
to rise instead of fall.’’ Everyone would agree with this.
If any farmer were giving his wheat crop 11 cwt. of artificials
per acre, including 4 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, we could
F
754 Notes on Manvres ror NOVEMBER. | Nov.,
quite certainly advise him that he would gain nothing, and
probably lose, by adding still another 2 cwt. of sulphate of
ammonia, making 18 ewt. of artificials in all. So far as dressings
of this size are concerned there is no reason at all to suppose
that they are vrofitable.
No farmer nowadays, however, uses anything like these quan-
tities of artificials on wheat, not even the 4 ewt. of sulphate of
ammonia which Lawes spoke of as the possible limit, and there-
fore the results are not directly applicable to modern practice.
The experiment tells us nothing at all about the behaviour of
the wheat crop with smailer dressings such as 1 ewt. or 14 ewt.
of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia with or without 1 to
2 ewt. of superphosphate. Is it worth while using these? It
is obviously very unsafe to say that because it does not pay to
sive 18 ewt. of artificials to wheat, therefore it does not pay to
give 1 or 2ewt. The experiment, in other words, cannot properly
be quoted in relation to the modern problem. A more applic-
able experiment is now in hand at Rothamsted, and while the
results are not all available those to hand suggest that the old
conclusion does not apply to dressings of the size ordinarily given
by farmers. There are also recent experiments on other crops
that do not agree with this old conclusion. At the Midland Agri-
cultural College an interesting experiment was made on Arran
Chief potatoes in 1921. The whole field received 12 tons of farm-
yard manure per acre, but the various plots received different
quantities of a mixture of artificials (8 ewt. superphosphate,
1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia and 1 ewt. sulphate of potash). The
results were as follows :—
| | Cost of extra |
Manure at |
| | Value of | 41 cot. for | ;
Yield | Per- | Per- Ae ae ; is Superphos- | ss oer
Plot Manuring. in tons | centage | centage Seed ana, | PME saaitonsl
bas acre, | Ware. | Seed. Chats cwl., Sulph. Dresses
| | £2 per ton Amm.,15/- | spe
Pes Se MNC2UL. pile
| of Potash. |
Sy Dung | Artificials| A, | SCS aie a cl) ae ee s. d.
1 | 12tons| 6cewt.' ACSIA B53Sa1 42:3 | 46 Ta) — | =
2 12k Bae 13°63 56'9 29:3) 1-58 5-0 | 0.17 0 +1015 0
3 |.12,,|10,, | 1486 | 606 | 35:7 | 6310 0| 114 0/415 3 0
acl? to tek Ad 13-19' ety |e ase eee 80, ion menos oa o
| |
b bA2 ,, +14 ee ass | 589 1) aie 5A seo) Shes Oe eden
| | | |
6 Mi ih al Oger 11°34 58-4} 38:31:49) 1 00 Ae oh 0 be it Alaa 0)
|
1922. | Notes on Manures ror NOVEMBER. 755
Now it is quite obvious that the heaviest dressing (16 cwt.
artificials per acre in addition to 12 tons farmyard manure) has
not paid: nor kas 14 ewt. paid as well as 12 ewt.; but it would
be quite wrong to argue that therefore a farmer should not use
artificials at all. As a matter of fact the highest profit is obtained
not by the lowest dressing but by the 10 cwt. of artificials in
addition to the dung. A similar restflt is obtained if the potatoes
are written at half the cost. The true conclusion is that if it
pays to grow a crop at all it pays to grow a good one, and a
farmer should endeavour to find out what is the most advan-
tageous quantity of fertiliser to use: he will not want to give
too much, but he may lose if he gives too little. No one can say
beforehand exactly what this quantity is, and nothing but
experiment will show it; but an expert with local knowledge can
sive useful help.
Grass Land.—-In time of financial trouble farmers look to
grass to tide them over their difficulties and undoubtedly this is
a safe plan. Jf, however, grass is to give all the help it can it
must be properly treated. Fortunately this is not necessarily a
costly matter, and poor grass can commonly be improved at a
relatively small expenditure. Grazing land requires first and
foremost good stocking. Professor Gilchrist has obtained striking
results from mixed grazing at Cockle Park, the gain in live weight
of the animals per acre being about doubled when sheep and
cattle were used instead of sheep alone. He states “‘ sheep graze
only the fine bottom herbage and reject that of a stemmy charac-
ter, whereas cattle graze much more evenly and not so closely.
When a pasture is grazed with horses large areas soon become
coarse and benty where their droppings are deposited and very
bare on the parts where they graze. It is of the greatest import-
ance that a pasture should be grazed closely at least once a year.”’
Assuming good grazing, considerable further improvement may
be obtained by the use of basic slag or mineral phosphates. So
much has been written about basic slag that it might seem
superfluous to say more were it not-for the fact that one can
still find grass land that obviously needs it. Experiments have
not shown that one kind of slag is invariably better than another,
but there are a number of cases where high soluble slag has acted
better than one of low solubility. Numerous experiments are
being made in the various counties and the results should before
long be available. Farmers are, however, becoming increasingly
interested in mineral phosphates owing to their relative cheap-
F 2
756 Notes on FEEDING Srurrs ror NOVEMBER. Ny
ness. The following table has been drawn up by Professor
Gulchrist* <—
CoMPARATIVE Costs oF some PHOSPHATIC MANURES IN THE
SPRING oF 1922.
19 units
Phos- Price per Price per peracre Cost per
Manure. phate. ye unt. int acre.
ah d. Sy rd, cwt. a.) 7d.
Basic slag ae aan se TOD Ben 101 0 2 8 10 50 8
Basic slag core? ea e2 16 7s 5) 177; -. 52 3
Ground American phosphate vac MOE” Baer Zor 0 ee) 52 33 3
Ground African phosphate .,. 60 ... 115 0 1 ae Ps 36 5
Superphosphate (soluble) pt OOMS L295. 30 oy 123 60 2
Slags and minera! phosphates are podh cuaranteed “ ie 80
per cent. fineness (2.e., passing sieve with 100 meshes to the
linear inch). Satisfactory results have been obtained by Pro-
fessor Gilchrist with some of the mineral phosphates especially
when very finely ground (80 per cent. passing a sieve with 120
meshes to the tinear inch). In one case the result appeared to
be as good as, if not better than, that produced by high grade
basic slag. With less fine grinding the results are less
satisfactory.
The question often arises whether lime is needed in addition
to basic slag. In many cases it is not, but the rule is by no
means absolute. Dr. J. A. Hanley has found soils in Yorkshire
which are so sour that basic slag does not act until lime is added,
but then a remarkable effect 1s produced. Probably other soils
of the same character could be found; where basic slag has not
given the effect which might have been expected i it is worth while
consulting the county organiser with the view of having the soil
examined.
NOTES ON FEEDINC STUFFS FOR
NOVEMBER.
E. T. Hatnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.),
Mimstry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
The Use of Home-Grown Feeding Stufis for Stock Feeding.
—The prices of home-grown feeding stuffs, usually sold off
the farm, have now reached the stage when it becomes more -
economical for the farmer to feed his grain crops to stock
rather than to sell them for human food and purchase cakes
* Field experiments with Rock Phosphates and Basic Slag were described
in this Journal for September and October, 1922, and a further article appears
in this issue, p. 706.
+ Carriage paid to farmers’ stations.
+ Containing nearly 200 1b. phosphoric acid.
1922. | Nores oN FEEDING STUFFS FoR NOVEMBER. 151
and other foods for winter feeding. Notes have already
appeared in a previous issue of this Journal (September, 1922,
p. 562) on the use and method of feeding potatoes to stock.
Several farmers have inquired about the chief points to con-
sider in feeding grain crops, such as wheat, rye and barley.
All farmers are sufficiently familiar with the value and use
of oats to warrant not dealing with them in these notes, but
it is evident that barley, rye and wheat are somewhat un-
familiar feeding stuffs from a stock feeder’s standpoint. One
of the first points to note about grain crops is the fact that they
are all somewhat starchy foods, deficient in digestible protein.
The nutritive ratio of barley is 1:10, and that of rye and
wheat 1:7. Most farm rations for stock vary from 1:4 to 1:6,
1:6 being the most common ratio. It becomes necessary
therefore, in feeding barley, rye or wheat to give in addition
some nitrogenous. supplement, such as fish or meat meal,
earthnut cake or decorticated cotton cake.
A possible alternative method of supplying this protein de-
ficiency is to feed legume hay, such as tare or oat hay, or
clover hay as the bulky part of the ration.
One of the chief difficulties met with in feeding grain crops
is to know how best to use them. Wheat is generally so hard
that digestive troubles will occur unless it is cracked or broken.
On the other hand, if it is too finely ground, the meal forms a
pasty mass in the mouth and the stock find it almost a physical
impossibility to eat it. Wheat should always therefore be fed
in a cracked or broken state and should preferably first be
soaked.
For pig feeding, barley, wheat and rye are best fed in the
form of a coarse meal, soaked at least 12 hours before feeding.
For horses, both wheat and barley can be used in part re-
placement of oats. Barley may be fed whole, but wheat should
be cracked. Rye can also be used for horses, and should be
well soaked before feeding. The writer is aware of a farmer
whose usual practice is to feed rye alone, well soaked, and his
horses are kept in very good condition. Clover and vetch hay
form the bulky part of the ration and the horses are fed on
green vetches without any concentrated food throughout the
summer.
With cows and bullocks, wheat and barley may form from
one-third to one-half of the concentrated feeding stuffs given
in the ration. The recommendations given above for horses
apply equally to milch cows.
758 Notes on F'sepinc Sturrs ror NovEMBER. [ Nov.,
7 : 1 Price F
Price | Price |"Vatue | ood Starch] per | vor ts
DESCRIPTION. per Pon. per Value per am R raat Starch
Qr. Ton. Ton. 100 Ib. Equiv. Equiv.
8, lb. mess oes ees. Ss. d.
| Wheat, British - 42/-| 504 Sh i O17 ep WO Yk 6| yt 1°25
Barley, British Feeding oe) £00. | ORO) 20° L6 | 8S ee 2 ib 1°29
1. 4, Canadian No..7/3
Western] 36/-| 400 | 10 2 0 16 WB al Se ere 2h 1:38
| Oats, English White -| 29/6) 336 | 9°17 |' 0-18 |- 87119) "5953/0 161
+ Bee ORey 26/6) 396 | sSalv | 0. 18.1.. 7 19> (259%) 278 1°43
. Chilian . - 28/6), 320) "919", 0 18°), 9 1 ed ba 3/1 1°65
» | Canadian No.3 ) =-31/6),320M 0119 0) 0182) 107 e2a) oo aNi3 > 1°83
‘ , No. 2 Feed] 28/9} 320/10 1] 018| 9 3 | 59°5/3/1 | -1-65
» wmerican | <= “| 2e/dieac0e) 9, 18 | 0 18 | 9 Oe) 5959370 1°61
* sarcentine, “i =| 29/5! 320 120) (73)i) 70918. | <9) ob | (9%) S72 170
| Maize, Argentine - shal Oe COMERS alibi 0 T5979 Oalnsie eos 1°20
; «> -Ame»nean <= =| ot /6| £00 1) STOP oO. 15 | *S O07 Sle 1210 1°07
i, South African --|: 39/—) 480 OR Olay 8 are | SE pa 112
; Beans, Rangoon - sO) ae (120 is OC EelGs 56 4s 67 ~ | 1/10") 0-98
§ Millers’ offals—
Bran, British - lt Rl eg 6. OID a AS yy) 08
Broad Bran - SS C257) Eos ee 25 eb e216 1°34
Fine middlings (Im-
ported) - = sy fea | iS) oe Re dee) f Noe i273 212 eG
Coarse middlings
j (British) - J) ph SurrOu | pale eOS Ef TOR Monee ai2 116
Follards (imported) || y= Gobo) | 110s) bb 60 9 179 0°94
Barley Meal - - =| ON ONG 7) TOS a 2A We?
Maize , - - -| — | — 9 lof); 0 154) 9-0) St 1.2/3 1:20
oe ae So eA bhICa nya ae 910) Old Silos 38 22 1°16
, ,, Germ Meal - le 3) 5) IP 8) 8.68078! F/T] |) 1203
| ,, Gluten-feed =) ett 8) Oat TOR FT alOl) 75:6") 970 1:07
| Locust Bean Meal -| — | — 9 ON OMNy 6 OG hel As 4 1°25,
| Bean Meal - - -| — a9) oP LOG) eG) see eal 73/6 187
Mish fs.) 4 : oe ae IO (Ia eo ON oan 3/6 1°87
j Linseed - - so | 19 10 elo kr Voto 13/0 161
» Cake, English
(93/2 O11) ae SON eee tO son ia 12/9 1:47
1 Cottonseed ,, English
c (5°/, oil)| — — 7-15 Hy 10) Ded ol-49, 2/9 1°47
‘ » Hgyptian
Qi =" es 7 TO 2 On) a LOA 7 1°38
Coconut Cake (6°/, oil)) — | — O09) TG Sas 4 Ts 20 1:07
} Palm Kernel Cake
(6°/, oil)) — | — 1 ote tl Om ato AT) 8 a7, 0°85
: vue blieall
(1g=2°/. oil) ==") So Bo | Wa 87S) 18s | 0-67
| Feeding Treacle - —|— ANT D 2), SO SEQ 2.5 0) Day alia 0°85
| Brewers’ grains, caieol ells == 9 HO OE ay OY | SHE = Os 1‘29
ae 9) 9,porter]| — —- (ee 1 16 5 10 | 49 2/3 1°20
£ » wet,alel — | — Lael O40 ols 2 DE AO,
a ,, wet,porter} — --- 0 15 Ora7 OS, |) Toes /6 0°27
| Malt culms - - eo — | Si LO fies Oo | 43.0310 1°61
{ At Liverpool.
NOTE.—The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which actual wholesale
transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or
store. The prices were current at the end of September and are, as a rule, considerably lower than
the prices at local c.untry markets. the difference being due to carriage and dealers’ commission.
Buyers can, however, easily con } are the relative prices of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local
market by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, suppose palm kernel cake is offered
locally at £10 per ton. Its manurial value is £1 9s. per ton. The food value per ton is therefore
£8 lls. per ton. Dividing this figure by 75, the starch equivalent of palm kernel cake as given in
the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8d. Dividing this again by 22°4, the number
of pounds of starch equivalent in 1 unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent is 121d A similar
calculation will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent ot other feeding stuffs on the same
local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives
him the best value at the prices quoted on his own market.
1922. | Pouutry KEEPING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 759
In the case of young pigs, the chief point that arises is
whether it is possible to do without middlings, which prove
of such value to young pigs at the time of weaning. For such
a purpose a mixture of oats and wheat, half and half, ground
to a medium fine meal, might be used to replace middlings in
the ration.
Tue following note has been communicated by Mr. J. L.
Whytehead, one of the Ministry’s Inspectors :—
The County of Gloucester is rapidly
improving its position as an egg producing
district. The breeds of poultry kept are
elther the light breeds for egg production
or the dual purpose breeds, and purely table breeds are rarely
seen. The Ministry's Ege and Day Old Chick Distribution
Scheme has been in operation in Gloucestershire for several
seasons and has no doubt helped to show the advantages of keep-
ing well bred stock. Under the scheme trap-nested stock of the
utility breeds.of hens and of ducks are obtainable by cottagers,
small-holders and allotment holders.
Full advantage has been taken of the instruction in poultry
keeping provided by the County Agricultural Education Com-
mittee. During the last two winters evening lectures in
poultry keeping were given by the Poultry Instructor in widely
scattered districts, the days being spent in visits of advice.
Models of trap-nests, dry mash hoppers and drinking fountains,
made from materials which were practically waste, were ex-
hibited at every lecture and were often left behind to be copied
by poultry keepers in the district. At the end of each lecture
the names and addresses of those who wished to be visited were
noted. It gradually beezme known that a whole-time poultry
instructor was available, and the number of requests for advice,
for lectures, and for judging at local shows rapidly increased. A
stand is erected at the more important shows in the county
showing specimens of good and bad types of laying hens, good
and bad foods, appliances and samples of medicines, and visitors
are invited to ask questions.
One result of the work done during the last two years is that
about 5,000 more hens are being trap-nested than was the case
previously. In many villages there are poultry keepers who can
produce the records of eggs laid by their hens, and in some cases
by their ducks.. Many of these more advanced poultry keepers
are reaping a good reward.
Recent Advances
in Poultry Keeping
in Gloucestershire.
760 PouuttrRyY KEEPING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE. | Nov.,
This autumn a laying test has been started for birds belonging
to residents in the county of Gloucester only. The necessary
funds are being obtained by subscription. The start is in a small
way, but it is hoped that the standard will be high. Fifty pens
have been arranged for pullets, and ducks are also being
catered for.
The importance of poultry keeping by general farmers cannot
be overlooked; indeed, some of the largest and most successful
of the poultry farms in the county are the property of general
farmers who have acquired an expert knowledge of poultry.
The large poultry farm has come more into evidence in recent
years, and there are now about a dozen farms in Gloucestershire
where more than 1,000 head of laying stock are kept, and a large
number with from 500 to 1,000. There are eight Mammoth
Incubators in use in the county, nearly all having been erected
recently.
Two large egg-collecting depots are in existence at Ciren-
cester and Nailsworth. At the former over one and a
quarter million eggs were handled in 1921. The commercial egg
farmer who sends his eggs direct to the large markets in many
cases dispatches the consignments by goods train and this prac-
tice is increasing. It is found that there are fewer breakages
than when sent by passenger train and the cost is much less.
Gloucestershire is an important fruit growing county and for
this reason alone should carry a large stock of poultry. These
two branches of farming go very well together. Mr. P. M.
Hinton has kept poultry in some of his orchards near Tewkes-
bury for over 12 years with noticeably good results. The apple
trees in these orchards have borne good crops for each of the
past four years, including the years 1919 and 1920, which were
generally bad apple years in this district. The growth of new
wood has been very strong and it has been noticed that the
young fruit trees on the land under poultry have matured more
quickly than similar trees on adjoining ground not under poultry.
The keeping of a large number of birds on these orchards has
enabled the owner to maintain the trees in first rate condition,
and a very substantial saving of money has been effected in the
purchase of manures. A reduction in expenditure on spraying
has been possible owing to the destructicn of fruit pests by the
birds. For example, the Apple Blossom Weeevil is becoming
less in evidence each year in those orchards which are stocked
with poultry.
* * * * * *
‘Ree ee
® Orgccs -
Dapp
TT nT I " ——
gu EN ESTERL Dag | 7 :
‘ y CIRENCESTER. oe es
Phelo Ldnuss, UiMencesler.
Fig. 3.—Orchard at Tewkesbury stocked with Poultry.
2 Pe eat ot) eee epee ern ae ae ae
Pad
bat
‘
vi
ey
>
=n
--—
1
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Fy p t i ie 7
ra ae 7 2 =
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i eat - aot
4
1922. | National. Rat WEEK, 1922. 761
Tue week commencing on Monday, 6th November, 1922, has
been fixed by the Ministry as ‘‘ Rat Week.’? A memorandum
‘ containing suggestions as to the action that
National Rat Rowtgae ;
Week, 1922. may be taken by them and by the public has
been issued to all Local Authorities in
Englend responsible for the administration of the Rats and
Mice (Destruction) Act, 1919, and it is hoped that all agricul-
turists will co-operate in securing the greatest possible destruc-
tion of these vermin at the time when they are returning to their
winter quarters. Although an effort of this kind during one
week is not sufficient to keep down rats and mice, but is only a
feature in the continuous campaign which a number of local
authorities are actively carrying on, it should produce good
results not only by the destruction of a large number of rats, but
by calling attention to the enormous waste of foodstuffs caused
by their depredations, and by reminding the public that it is the
duty of all occupiers to destroy rats and mice upon their
premises.
The following are some simple suggestions for rat destruction :
Prevention being better than cure, begin by rendering rat-proof as far as
possible all ricks, barns and granaries. In urban districts see that drains are
intact.
To destroy rats proceed as follows :—
4) Provided the Local Authority has appointed an officer under the Act,
consult him, and, if he is authorised, entrust the destruction to him.
Gi) If you prefer to undertake the destruction yourself, consult a local
chemist, asking for poisons containing Red Squill or Barium Carbonate. If
there is absolutely no danger to domestic animals or human beings, one of the
standardised phosphorus preparations is effective.
(iii) If you wish to make your own bait, the following recipes will be
found effective :—
(a) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 6 0z.) This will make 1,000 baits
Meal Ee eae abe sv LG oz. of 6 grains each, 7.e.,
Dripping as re sos (4.02: pieces as large as a hazel
Salt = sft ng “3 #02 nut.
Mix with fat to a paste and
lay out in pieces the size
ot a hazel nut in places
where rats frequent.
(b) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 4 oz
Biscuit or Oat Meal... . 402,
Oil of Aniseed ... ane 5 drops
per cent.
(c) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 20
Fine Castor Sugar... sit 40
Fine Meal ok os ea 0
Thoroughly mix the in-
gredients,