_PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 8. elie “The 2 ‘Journal OF THE % Mintatry of try of Agriculture ~~ NOVEMBER, 1922. PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. .{For Complete List of Contents see page vii.) Sir Arthur Boscawen’s Farewell Address to Farmers’ - The Possibility of Using ° Town Refuse a as Manure. Sir John Russell, D.Se., FRS. ‘ = The Clydesdale. A. MacNeilaye - Sethe Labour on the Farm. 4. (. Ruston, B.A., D.S8e., and J. 8. Simpson, SC. ~ Ground Mineral Phosphates as Manures. Eeohioor D. 4 Gilchrist - - “ The Planning and Construction “of Farm Buildings : A _- Modern Homestead. ated H. P. G. Maule, D.S.O., M.C., Ny E CRD BAS. o: Ee eece ao of Fruit and Vegetable Growing in Durham “Cheshire. WW. G. Lobjott, J.P, O.B.E.- PAS | The Potato Flour Industry in Holland. Th. I. Mansholt s PEs A Safe Method of Preventing * Bunt” in Wheat. J. S. Riss if _ Salmon and H. Wormald a C ti The First Year's Working of the Seeds Act, 1920 Ua Sh Redemption of Tithe Rentcharge by Annuity BOT aN mae” seal of Clogs, Clog-Soles and Clog: Blocks. Katharine . oods « = = Food in Relation to Eee Production. Be J Dans - s - A New Apple Pest. J. C. F. Fryer, UA. : _A Local Investigation of Me Food of the Little Owl Walter E. Collinge, D.Se., F.LS. Manures for November. Sir John sails D. Se., PR. net: Feeding Stuffs for error LE. T. Hainan, M.A .» Dip. Agric. bis (Cantab.) - : - - - Suet s i LON D ON: PRINTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJRSTHs STATIONERY OFFICH, AND PUBLISHED RY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. (To be obtained from the Ministry's Offices, 10, Whitehall Piace, London, 8.W.1.) r ROITORIAL AND MONTHLY, AGENTS FOR ADVERTISSNENTS: POLISHING OFFICES : [PRIGE SIXPENCE. ] C. VERNON & SONS, Ltd., wb WHITZEALL PLACE, 88, Holborn Viaduet, B.C.1; _ EONDON, 8.W.1. Past fres. 66/52, Sonth Oastle Street, Liverpool. _ THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. —Aaorticomants . HW, (| a1} he eteeh ThA TA BUY ONLY THE BEST. The BUXTON LIME FIRMS e Th ROYAL EXCHANGE, ‘BUXTON. Telegrams—BUXTON LIME, BUXTON. ‘*Phone—312 BUXTON. THE PUREST LIME KNOWN IN COMMERCE AND THE LARGEST OUTPUT OF LIME AND LIMESTONE | IN THE WORLD. LIME BURNT IN SPECIAL KILNS FOR] SPECIAL: TRADES. 51° 3 m Agriculturists, Florists and Fruit Growers catered for specially. AGENTS THROUGHOUT GREAT ; BRITAIN, | . Pie im any Form, in any Gdanticy to suit vigil ds ; THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. i I i ee AN EXCELLENT TOP : DRESSING FOR GRASS | LAND is French Kainit 14°/, applied —‘| together with Basic Slag or Superphosphate during the | autumn or winter months. « The Combined Dressing tells | on all Classes of Grass Land. AUTUMN SOWNCROPS | Always derive great benefit from Potash .Manuring. (The Rich Sylvinites) Muriate of Potash | 50 and 60 per cent. Sulphate of Potash ; For sales and prices appl, to— The Alsaee Lorraine Development 902 30Y and 402 and Trading Company, Limited /o /o 0% (Sole Agents for United Kingdom and (olonies), g TRAN Ee Pinners Hall, Old Broad Street, B.C.2. FR RENCH For information and Publications re use of Potash apply to: SS The Agricultural Information 0) | N a Bureau for the French Potash } (] Mines, Dashwood House, New Broad Street, London, E.C.2. A Profitable Investment Good returns in the Saving of Labour and the Increased Healthiness of the stock will be secured by the use of CONCRETE on the ESTATE AND FARM. Write for free pamphlets to the CONCRETE UTILITIES BUREAU, : Dept. 1s, 35, GREAT ST. HELENS, LONDON, E.C.3. i THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. Build Substantial and Attractive Buildings You save money and save time by building the Cyclops way. Your building will be cool in summer and dry in winter. Whether you wish to build a new villa or just a silo, there is no better way than the Cyclops way. The Cyclops method is not an experiment. It has been tested for years throughout the world and never found wanting. It is equally suitable for temperate, arctic or tropical zones. The method is protected by several patents. Suitable for Houses, Factories, Cinemas, Public Buildings, Garages, Farm Buildings, Drain Pipes, Fence Posts, &c., &c. May we send you a copy of our Catalogue, EX-SERVICE MEN TAUGHT FREE OF CHARGE. The Cyclops indurating system so facilitates the hardening of concrete that roads can be used in a few days after treatment. The plant used is simple and can be applied to each Jength of road made ; this also applies to paving slabs. The Cyclops Concrete Company, 9/i, HILBRE. STREET, LIVERROOGL; CONTRACTORS FOR BUILDINGS OF ALL KINDS. Telephone: ROYAL 1195. ESTAB. 1882. Telegrams; “ ASSESSOR.” FERTILISERS British Manufactured POTASH SALTS, Minimum 12 % Pure Potash. 99 14% 99 93 99 20 % 39 99 MURIATE OF POTASH, 50% and 607% Pure Potash. SULPHATE OF POTASH FLUE DUST, Containing 18/25 % Sulphate. IMMEDIATE DELIVERY FROM WORKS. The .3-% BRITISH CYANIDES CO. LTD. SALES OFFICE: 49, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, E.C.4. Works at OLDBURY, near BIRMINGHAM. hae J SAN ENE OF THE sul Ds ae AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. ano BUMPER SECURES fT MeAVEST It is Dry - It does not cag - - It is Acid-free - It oo not absorb Atmospheric - Moisture - - It can be readily Drilled take - - . the Soil - - - /t is guaranteed to contain 253 % Ammonia. For prices and all details apply to: (Department M.A.) South Metropolitan Gas Company, 708, OLD KENT ROAD, LONDON, S.E.15. HIGH GRADE BESSE] Basic [ 38 Phosphates of Lime 427. Phosphates of Lime ENGLISH MAKE Manufactured by %LEEDS PHOSPHATE WORKS LD Te ee ee OES | pba iy THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. Farm Lands in Canada THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY (Colonisation Department) MAKE IT EASY for the British farmer and farm worker TO SETTLE IN CANADA. Easy terms of payment spread over 20 years if desired, Loans to settlers towards the cost of permanent improvements. Excellent land within easy distance of schools, churches, markets, towns, etc. Farms can be selected in the best agricultural districts. CONDUCTED PARTIES TO VIEW THE LAND AT FREQUENT INTERVALS. Regular steamship sailings from Liverpool, Glasgow and Southampton. Money transferred at lowest rates. For full particulars and Illustrated Pamphlets apply to:— THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY, Colonisation and Development Department, 62-65, Charing Cross, London, S.W.1; or Local Agents. BUILD YOUR OWN Farm Buildings, Poultry Houses, Workshops, &e., &e. The Frame is the important part; anyone can cut off boards and nail them on. We will, if desired, supply boards or the finished building, Have you any doubt that a building with mortised and tenoned joints is infinitely stronger than one simply nailed together? If so, ask any builder, joiner or experienced person, Are the majority of cheap portable buildings con- structed with these joints? Emphatically no. If you have any doubt examine them or ask the manufacturers, Are our frames simple to erect 2? Yes, every piece is numbered and a diagram provided, enabling you to erect a building covering 40 sq.feet in an hour. Are they portable when finished? Yes, the front, back and ends are assembled separately and then bolted together. A FEw SIzEs. LEAN-TO :— A FEW SIZES. SPAN ROOP :— Bift. high, 44ft. deep, 8ft. long ... SO/m | 54ft. high to eaves, 63ft. deep, 8ft.long 42/= Cf. Be Gait ore . 62/6 | 64ft. ., gee tee L2Et ., Oe Tait. G -Ghfti. ,,> 1ltts .. 6GO/= | 63ft._,, a Shite, 16it. , 100/= St. ¥y..Satt: |-\,,. 12tt.—,. Ke 75=-|S8 ft. ,, 5, Se lOstt.. .,,° BOE... .,, DSBBi= eft. 10}fts >, “12tt. “= A £20/=. 1.8 tt. = LOSE, .,.. RObt. gu) | oOo = The above heights and depths can be sappived in any lengths. SPECIAL QUOTATIONS FOR{ PIG, HOUSES AND/f‘APPLIANCES. FRAME BUILDINGS CO.) "tx SHIRLEY ROAD, CROYDON. |! MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES, RECENT MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. M.P. No. 18. Cultivation of Osiers. and Willows.—A new edition of this publication has now been issued. It has been largely re-written, a chapter on the growing of tree willows has been added, and the notes on the cultivation of basket willows expanded, greater stress being laid on the special methods employed in the various willow growing districts. Price 1s. 6d. net, post free. M.P. No. 80. Manuring of Pastures for Meat and Milk (WituiaM SomMERVILLE, M.A., D.Sc.).—The Ministry invited Professor Somerville to prepare a new and up-to-date Report covering the whole ground relating to the manuring of pasture for meat and milk. In publishing this Report the Ministry desires to direct the attention of farmers to the important and practical character of the information here summarised for their use. Price 6d. net, post free. M.P. No. 32. Rations for Livestock (‘I’. B. Woop, C.B.E., M.A., F.R.S., F.1.C.).—In this pamphlet is described a simple general method of working out rations for horses, cattle, sheep and pigs. The method is based on the tables giving the composition and nutritive value of a large number of feeding stuffs, and on the curves showing the relation between live weight and food requirements, which are given at the end of the pamphlet. Three impressions of the first edition of this publication have been sold, and the second edition, which has been brought up-to-date, is now obtainable. Price 6d. net, post free. M.P. No. 35. Report on a Test of Hedge and Stump Clearing Devices.—The description, method of operation and account of trial, is given in each case, for hand grubbing tools, timber jacks, stump extractor, triple horse puller, compound steam tractor, steam ploughing engine, motor tractor, farmer’s dyna- mite, liquid air and amatol. The Report is well illustrated and tables are given showing the detailed results of the test. Price 2s. 6d. net, post free. M.P. No. 37. Beneficial Insects.—Ladybirds, and Lacewing, Hover, Ichneumon and Tachinid Flies. Only too frequently these insects are mistaken for foes and destroyed. The brief descriptions of them and short outlines of their life-histories together with the coloured plates may help towards their wider - recognition. Price 4d. net, post free. A full list of publications can be obtained from the Ministry, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.1. vi THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. YOUR bic opportunity For PROFIT. MANY FARMERS GO WITHOUT THE BEST WHEATS BECAUSE THEY THINK THEY CANNOT AFFORD THEM. When YOU go to a sale, you do not hesitate to pay more for a cow that will give 8,000 lb. of milk yearly than for one that does not even pay for her keep. Mere lowness of price isn’t everything. Itis WHAT YOU GET FOR WHAT YOU PAY that counts. If YOU want to realise, once and for always, that there is as much difference between highly- bred and improved Seed Wheat and the other kinds as there is between the 8,000-lb.-of-milk cow and the worn-out scrub, make a trial this autumn with TOCGOOD’S SQUAREHEAD SUCCESS WHEAT and Increase your Wheat Profits 40 to 60 per cent. WRITE FOR FREE BOOK. Get a FREE COPY of our BOOK OF “BETTER CROPS” SEED WHEATS, OATS, BARLEYS, RYEKS, &c., and just look into the matter for yourself—now—to-day. Free samples, too. All carefully bred, rogued, sound, graded, and cleaned clean. Write to-day, addressing us personally : TOOGOOD & SONS, LTD., Seedsmen to H.M. Tux Kiva, and Growers of ‘‘ Better Crops” Seeds only, SOUTHAMPTON. “National Utility Poultry Society,” 2, Vincent. Square Wesimimsterm oi vy Jas President : The Rr. Hon. Lorp Criaup Hamiuron. Chairman - S. Street-PortTErR. Vice-Chairman: Marcus Suan. Secretary: Mrs. Rawson. Hon. Treasurer: Tuos. Savacr. Hon. Organising Secretary - T. R. Rosiyson, F.S.I. The Society exists for the promotion of the Industry and protection of the interests of the Poultry-Keeper. The Society has special Committees to deal with the various aspects of the Industry. The Society has many branches and facilitates the interchange of speakers at different meetings. Members and staff of the Society advise by either correspondence or personal interview. The Society was the organiser of Laying Tests. For Prospectus, Year Book and publications apply to the Secretary at the above address. Normal Subscription, 10s. ; Small Owners, 5s. ; Fellowships 1 guinea and 2. guineas, to unclude weekly “Journal,” ete. ; Life Membership, 5 yutineas. “THE -NATIONAL POULTRY JOURNAL” JIS PUBLISHED WEEKLY. Vil CONTENTS. NoTEs FOR THE MoNTH— Sir Arthur Boscawen’s Farewell Address to Farmers—Importation of Canadian Store Cattle—Clean Milk Production—Fluctuations in Live Weight—Village History—Lectures on Agricultural Research —Conciliation Committees—The Agricultural Index Number THE PossIBILITY OF Ustna Town REFUSE AS Manure. Sir John Russell, D.Sc., TORS: a ay shi . a ae Tak CLYDESDALE. A. Renae LABOUR ON THE Farm. A. G@. Ruston, B.A., D.Sc., and J. S. Siinpson, B.Se. : ad ig Yaa GrounD MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS MANURES. fp Me D. A. Gilchrist THE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS: A MODERN HomEsTEAD. Major H. P. G. Maule, D.S.O., M.C., F.R.IB.A. POSSIBILITIES OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING IN DURHAM AND CHESHIRE. W. G. Lobjoit, J.P., O.B.E. oo & ne THE Potato FLtour INDUSTRY IN HoLLAND. Th. I. Manshott. A Sare METHOD OF PREVENTING ‘‘ BuNT”’ IN WuHEaT. E. S. Salinon and H. Wormald ... : ae =f a Tue First YEAR’s WORKING OF THE SEEDs ACT, 1920... REDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY Tur MakING oF CLoGs, CLoa-SoLzs AND CLoG-BLocks. Katharine S. Woods “ae Foop IN RELATION To Eaa Propucrion, £. J. Davey ... A New AppLe Pest. J.C. F. Fryer, M.A. A Loca INVESTIGATION OF THE FooD oF THE LITTLE Own. Walter Z. Collinge, D.Sc., F.L.S. a5 4 NotTEs oN MANURES FOR NOVEMBER. Sir John Russell, D.Sc, F.R.S. Nores oF FEEDING Sturrs rok NovyemBer. JF. 7. Halnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.) af “ea Rte ee oe aaa ~ Poultry Keeping in Gloucestershire National Rat Week, 1922 5. A Modern Method of Rat peed. : Hereford Fruit Market: Sale of Guaranteed Lots ea ani Gulval Fruit Plot Yorkshire Fruit Demonstration Station Olean Milk Production ... Foot-and-Mouth Disease ‘ Licensing of Stallions under the Horse Br ae Act, 1918 PAGE Any of the Articles in this Journal may be reproduced in any registered newspaper or public periodical without special permission, provided that the source is acknowledged in each case. The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and tii statements made by contributors, nor for any statements made in the advertisement eokumns of this Journal. vii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements. Telegrams : “PAGANINI, CANNON, LONDON.” Telephone: AVENUE 1729 (8 lines). 47-51, KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON, E.C. 4. PRODUCE MORE MILK BY KEEPING BRITISH FRIESIANS WHICH HAVE PRODUCED 47 2,000 gallon Cows. 17 10-gallon-a-day Cows. 5 1,000 lbs. Butter Cows. The Dairy Show Champion for two years in succession. The Silcock Cup Winner for two years in succession. Information gladly given by— BRITISH FRIESIAN CATTLE SOCIETY, 4, SOUTHAMPTON ROW, LONDON, W.C.1. OR AT STAND 478 at the ROYAL SHOW at CAMBRIDGE. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE Wol.. XXIX. No. 8. NOVEMBER, 1922. NOTES FOR THE MONTH. SPEAKING at the National Farmers’ Union Dinner on Wed- nesday, 18th October, Sir Arthur Boscawen said that, as they well knew, there was a very serious CTIIsIs in political affairs, the result of which no- body could foresee, but there might be changes in the Government or a complete change of Government in the near future. This might, therefore, be the last occasion on which he should address a meeting of the National Farmers’ Union as Minister of Agriculture. In saying that, he would like to add that his relations with the National Farmers’ Union had always been most cordial and they had reposed in him confidence in a most generous way. He should never forget their kindness and could assure them that in whatever capacity he might be in the future, he would always do his best to further the cause of agriculture, and especially of those who were actually engaged in the cultivation of the soil. The fact, however, that this - might be the last occasion enabled him to speak more freely than otherwise he might have done. Agriculture was certainly going through a critical time, and he had the deepest sympathy with all classes engaged in it, owners, farmers and labourers. Undoubtedly, at the present moment, in many departments the industry could not be made to pay, but he thought there was a good future for the dairy farmer and fair hopes for the live stock industry generally; he did not see, however, how arable farmers, especially corn growers, could carry on on anything like the present scale. The result of this would be, as Mr. Orwin had pointed out in The Times, that the country would revert to grass very rapidly, that there would be a great decrease in the rural population and much temporary unemployment and distress. It looked as if the future of British agriculture lay in large farms cultivated cheaply and with low production, interspersed with patches of land intensively cultivated for fruit and vegetables in certain (45571), P.1./R.3. 10,500, 10/22. M.&S. A Sir Arthur Bos- cawen’s Farewell Address to Farmers. 674 Sir ARTHUR BoscAWEN’S ADDRESS. [ Nov., favoured localities. What could be done to stop this? There were two remedies which would be effective, but neither of them he thought was politically practicable. One was a tariff . and the other subsidies. He did not believe the country, which was predominantiy urban, would stand either. ‘They must recollect that the agricultural population was a small fraction of the total population of the country, and the great majority of the electors, of the House of Commons, and by consequence of the Government of the day, whatever party the Government belonged to, would be predominantly urban. The fact was that the industry must work out its own salvation on an economic basis, and all that the Government could do or would do, was to assist by measures which he would only describe as palliatives. Personally, he advocated the following: First, a relief in the burden of rating where the farmer was unfairly assessed compared with other people, since he had to occupy such a very large amount of rateable property in order to earn his living. But they must not expect salvation from rating reform. He had seen the accounts of several farms where accounts had been most scientifically kept, and the rates only counted for about 3 per cent. of the total outgoings. In the next place, rating reform was very difficult because the urban ratepayers demanded relief also. In many of our great towns the rates were over 20s. in the pound, and it would be very difficult to deal with agricultural rates apart from the rating question generally, but they should press for a general revision of the rating system coupled with some special relief to agricultural land. In the next place, he thought it would be possible that the Government should set up better credit facilities than existed for farmers to-day. A small committee had been appointed to investigate the possibility of establishing with Government assistance co-operative land banks for the purpose of making loans to land-owners for permanent improvements and _ also short-term loans to farmers to enable them to carry on their business. This was very necessary since the alteration in the system of banking in this country and the elimination of the country banker had made it difficult for farmers to obtain loans on reasonable terms without collateral security. Then he thought that inquiry should be instituted into the question of railway rates in order to ascertain definitely whether preference was or was not given to produce coming from over- seas, and with a view to reducing the present rates. 1922. | Sir ArtTHUR BoscawEn’s ADDRESS. 675 But beyond all things. the question of distribution must be over- hauled. He made no general charge against the middlemen that they were making excessive profits. When we saw that English wheat was selling to-day at little more than pre-war prices, while bread was costing little less than twice pre-war prices. there must be something radically wrong with our system of distribution. ‘There were too many persons and too many interests interposed between the producer and the consumer. Here he thought the farmers had the remedy chiefly in their own hands, and the Government could do little. Co-operation ap- peared to be the solution. It was this difficulty between whole- sale and retail prices that caused the chief trouble to-day. The farmer, unable to see how to make a profit, attempts to do so by cheapening the cost of production, and the only item where he can secure a reduction worth mentioning is labour, which accounts for nearly 50 per cent. of his costs. But the labourer, owing to high retail prices, can scarcely live on a wage less than he is getting now. There is the difficulty. The farmer says: ‘JT cannot pay more than 25s. a week,’’ and the labourer says : ‘“T cannot live on less than 30s.’’—-both appeal to the Govern- ment. The Government is powerless to act, except by giving a subsidy which would in effect be a subsidy to wages. We should be getting back to the system of the old Poor Laws, when wages were directly subsidized by the ratepayer, a system which was condemned by all parties and was thoroughly unsound. He had seriously thought of trying to reintroduce a subsidy on arable land as a temporary expedient for one year, provided that the farmers continued to employ as many men as now and to pay not less than the present wages. His idea was to tide over an acute crisis, but he did not think that the plan was possible. Other industries. for example, the mining industry, which was suffering seriously to-day, would claim the same assistance, and we should not be sure that the experiment once made would not have to be repeated next year. All this he knew was but cold comfort, but they must fight on and make the best of the situation. He did not believe the depression would last. He believed the present distress was due to temporary causes, the first being the thoroughly uneconomic methods we employed during the War. and the second, the col- lapse of foreign exchanges, which made this country the dump- ing ground for the superfluous products of the whole world. These causes would gradually disappear, and he thought a period of high prices was not very far distant. In the meantime. A 2 676 IMPORTATION OF CANADIAN StToRE Carre. { Nov., however, he feared that some farmers would go under and that there would be much unemployment and distress among the labourers, but he could honestly say that he had not failed to bring the position in all its gravity before his colleagues. As a member of the Government he would add one word. It was not true that the present Government had neglected agri- culture. Only this year we had altered the assessment for income tax in the interest of the farmer, which he knew brought substantial relief in many cases, and we had remitted the duty on home-grown sugar in order to stimulate a new and valuable industry. Then, we were spending very large sums on agricultural education and research, which had in the past, and would still more in the future, help to reduce the cost of production. These were sound lines to proceed upon, and he did not know what more could be done at the present, except in the direction of those reforms to which he had alluded. One word in conclusion. He had pointed out that agricul- turists in this country were in a minority; then by all means let them stand together. The interests of owner, farmer and labourer were identical, yet too often we found them pulling against each other. There was, however, certainly a tendency to come. together now, which was largely due to the action of the National Farmers’ Union. Unless they all stood to- gether, they would not have much chance of making their voices heard, and he would advise: keep agricultural policy and party politics quite apart. The National Farmers’ Union did this, and he could fairly say that while he had been Minister, he had never approached agricultural questions from a party point of view. With regard to the labourers, it was a matter for regret that their Unions were tied to one political party. He did not say this out of any disrespect for the leaders of the Unions, for many of whom he had great respect, but it could not be good that the interests of agricultural labour should be identified with a political party. * * * * * * In consequence of the resolutions adopted by the House of Commons on 24th July and by the House of Lords on 26th July, a Conference was held at the Colonial Godin Store Office on 14th arnt between representa- Cattle. tives of H.M. Government and of the Canadian Government to discuss the admis- sion of Canadian cattle. Mr. Churchill presided, and in addition there were present Sir Arthur G. Boscawen, Minister of Agri- Importation of 1922. | Curan Mixx Propvuction. 677 culture and Fisheries; the Hon. W. S. Fielding, Minister of Finance, Canada; the Hon. E. Lapointe, Minister of Marine, Canada; the Hon. P. C. Larkin, High Commissioner for Canada in London; and representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Scottish Office, the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, and the Canadian Department of Agriculture. A general discussion on principles having taken place, certain technical questions were remitted to a committee of experts representing both countries. Further meetings of the Conference were held on the 18th and 20th October, Sir Arthur G. Boscawen presiding, in the absence of Mr. Churchill through illness. The conclusions of the committee of experts were considered and the Conference agreed upon the main conditions which should govern the impor- tation of Canadian cattle into Great Britain, and these terms will be submitted to the new Government with a view to the introduction of the necessary Bill when Parliament next meets. % * * * * * Tae demand for clean milk is increasing. Great efforts are being made to educate the public to appreciate clean milk and ; to call for its supply. eae ae Quite apart from the fact that the produc- Production. : Ayre ; tion of milk in a cleanly manner brings its own reward by causing the milk to keep sweet longer and hence avoiding loss hy souring, the indications are that, in future. elean fresh milk will command the most satisfactory market. The section of the Milk and Dairies (Amendment) Act, 1922, which refers to grading, is due to come into operation on Ist January next. From that time more attention to the production of milk of a definite grade is a matter deserving of the attention of every dairy farmer. The regulations applying to the different grades will be em- bodied in an Order to be issued by the Ministry of Health. When the Act was passed, it was contemplated that, apart from ordinary milk, there would be two main grades, namely, ‘ Certified,’’ and “‘ Grade A,’’ but a provision was embodied empowering tbe Minister of Health to establish additional grades. The grade “‘ Certified ’’ will be what has hitherto been known as “‘Grade A (Certified).’’ It is milk of the highest purity, produced only from cows which have passed the tuberculin test It must be bottled on the farm, and at any time before it reaches the consumer if must not contain more than 30.000 bacteria per 3 eo CuEAN Mink Propvuction. [ Nov., cubic centimetre. In addition it is necessary to comply with certain specified conditions as judged by inspection. It follows therefore that the production of ‘* Certified ’’ milk is a special- ised business, and that such milk must be sold at an enhanced price to meet additional costs in production and distribution. It is not expected that this grade will monopolise the market, but the demand for it is steadily growing, and for those who are prepared to lay out capital in establishing a herd which passes the tubereulin test, in providing the necessary equipment, and who will take the trouble to train their employees, it does offer economic possibilities. ‘“ Grade A’’ will, as at present suggested, be divided into two sections, namely, “‘ Grade A, Raw,’’ and ‘* Grade A, Pas- teurised.’” The herds producing milk of this grade (both sec- tions) are not to be required to pass the tuberculin test, but they will be required to pass a physical inspection made by an approved veterinary surgeon. In the case of “‘ Grade A, Raw ”’ milk the only cther requirement which need be mentioned is that it must not at any time before it reaches the consumer contain more than the number of bacteria which will be specified in the Order. To qualify for a licence to sell “‘ Grade A, Pas- teurised ’’ milk the act of pasteurising must be performed in accordance with a prescribed method, and the milk so treated must afterwards comply, in respect of the number of bacteria contained, with a much lower count than in the case of “Grade A, Raw’’ milk. Generally speaking it is not expected that the ordinary farmer will be able to produce and sell, directly, ‘Grade A, Pasteurised’’ milk. His part will be to supply ‘Grade A. Raw ’”’ milk either for direct consumption or to a wholesale dealer or co-operative society who will carry out the work of pasteurisation. It is likely that in course of time there will be a considerable demand for Grade A milk. No farmer need be afraid of the conditions with which it will be necessary to comply in order to obtain a Grade A certificate. There will be nothing in them that any producer cannot meet provided he and his employees will take the trouble to study and adopt the most approved methods of guarding against contamination. and that he will cool his milk well. What is wanted is an intelligent apprecia- tion, by employer and employed, of the things that matter, and a determination to carry them out. The Ministry has had experience of the useful work which can be done by County Instructors in helping farmers and farm 1922. | Fiuctuations In Live WEIGHT. 679 workers to master the art of clean milk production. It has been found that such assistance is effectively rendered by holding practical demonstrations on the farm followed by such lectures as may be necessary to explain the why and wherefore of the precautionary measures adopted, and by the organising of clean milk competitions. Because of this experience, and because it is expected that the farmers’ need for such assistance will be greater in the future than it has been in the past the Ministry has recently addressed a letter on the subject to all County Edu- cation Authorities in England and Wales (see p. 764). * 25 * * * * Tue articles by Mr. KE. 8. Beaven which recently appeared in the Journal on the subject of variety trials of cereals, point . very emphatically to the need for greater Fluctuations in és Peper en soo oe. : ioht, Care and accuracy in carrying out agricu Sge WSIS tural experiments of one description. That equal care is needed in relation to another description of experi- ments—feeding trials with cattle—may also be emphasised. For example, in the Agricultural Journal of India for May ot the present year, there appears an article entitled ‘‘ Normal Fluctuations in Body Weight of Bovines.’’ It deals with a sub- jeet which is of great importance to all experimenters undertaking feeding experiments with cattle. In carrying out such trials it is sometimes the practice to record only initial and final weights of animals under experiment. In determining these weights it is generally considered sufficient to ascertain the fasted live weight on one or two succeeding days at the beginning and close of the experiment. Jn the case of the experiments under notice. however, daily weighings were made of a number of animals (buffaloes) for a period of 88 days. Charts are published showing the daily variation of two animals, one set of a “* control ’’ and the other of an animal receiving a fattening ration. These charts show the most surprising changes from day to-day. For example, we have such figures as the following on successive days :—824, 329, 342, 336, 382, 329, 335 and (eleven days after) 305, 310, 320, 315 lb. Similar results were obtained from a large number of animals. The principal conclusions arrived at are (1) that any conclusions as to the suitability of a ration or feeding stuff when based on data obtained from initial and final weighings, or weekly or fortnivhtly weighings, are practically valueless, (2) that weights should be taken daily, and conclusions based on the averages of weighings of groups of at least ten successive days. 680 VILLAGE History. { Nov., It is improbable that the fluctuations observed were due to conditions peculiar to India. The author quotes an American experiment (Armsby, The Nutrition of Farm Animals, 1917) which points to the same conclusions, and in which daily fluctua- tions in the weight of a mature steer up to 5 per cent. of the body weight were observed. Many American investigators now take averages over ten successive days, in carrying out experi- ments involving the live weights of cattle. Then, in this country, variations of the same order were recently observed in the course of certain experiments on the nutrition of cows carried out at Leeds University by Crowther and Woodman. Fluctuations in the weights of cows up to 48 |b. on two successive days were observed. Facts of this description show how necessary it 1s under modern conditions to secure greater accuracy than has been observed in the past in experimental work with animals. The sources of error in feeding trials may be even greater than those with which Mr. Beaven’s trenchant articles were concerned, for not only is the weight of one animal subject to considerable fluctuations but the variation from animal to animal is very large. * * * * * * Or the value of local history no one now needs to be con- vinced. Its inspiration serves not only to preserve what is best in the past, but to assure a higher standard of living in the present. More of us than ever now know those little towns of Flanders where the unlovely creations of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- turies are replaced, sometimes, perhaps, with a too conscious archaism, by worthier memorials of the genius of the country, and where it is hard to escape Flemish pottery, Flemish lace, Flemish silverwork, Flemish beer. Even if the emphasis is a little overdone, if there is too much stage furniture designed to please the eye of the visitor, vet commercialism at its worst cannot undo the gdod that lies in building houses which really do express something of the spirit of the people, and in making wares which are known for what they are without the aid of an inscription. Mr. Guy Ewing, whose account of an interesting experi- ment appeared in the October issue of this Journal, makes an effective plea for the practical study of village history. He has worked single-handed, hut lest others who are not equipped as he is for the task should hesitate to follow his example, it is not out of place to remind them that assistance may be had Village History. 1922. | LrecTURES ON AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. 681 from several quarters. The Historical Association (22, Russell Square, W.C.) is now a large body with branches all over the country : one of its aims is to foster the study of local history, and the co-operation of a neighbouring branch is almost certain to be forthcoming. Archeological societies exist in many counties, and the officers and members are always willing to give advice and help in exploring the history of a village and in the discovery of its antiquities. Much can be done, even without such help, by anyone who will study such books as Dr. Charles Cox’s ‘‘ How to write the History of a Parish,’’ the Victoria County Histories and the few other county his- tories that rank with them, the publications of local archxo- logical societies, and Dr. Hubert Hall’s *‘ Directory of British Archives”’ and his ‘‘ List of Agrarian Surveys.’’ With the aid of these books one may learn to know at least what docu- ments to look for and where to look for them. Guidance in the search of antiquities which are not documentary is not so readily available, but Mr. and Mrs. Quinnell’s ** History of Everyday Things’’ should at least prove suggestive. A flair for recognising those things which will best illustrate the past is as desirable as knowledge: and, unfortunately, there is no recipe for acquiring a flair. But it is to be supposed that no one would undertake the task of studying or demonstrating village history on practical lines who did not possess a rudi- mentary flair, which practice and enthusiasm would develop. * * * * * ES Tau Ministry endeavours in many ways to bring before farmers the results of agricultural research—by its advisory scheme, in which college and county staffs play their part; by leaflets and articles in this Journal; and by miscellaneous publica- tions such as the recently-issued volume on “ Agricultural Research and the Farmer.’’ It is now proposed to bring research workers more directly into touch with the farmer, and arrangements have been made with the National Farmers’ Union to organise meetings which will be addressed by specialists in the various branches of agricultural science. The scheme is certainly an experiment, but if it proves to be as successful as is anticipated this winter, it may well obtain a permanent place in the organisation of the work of the Ministry. Maun, D.35:0 Sage er i Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. THE planning and construction of a completely modern home- stead is at the present time by no means an easy problem, and the publication of the plans for the new farm buildings at Seale-Hayne Agricultural College may be of interest, particu- larly as the scheme presents at least one departure from the accepted normal type. The Traditional Type.—Since the middle of the last century, although variations may be found in detail in different parts of the country, the planning of the buildings of the larger farms in England has followed a more or less definite type. The generally accepted principle has been to place what may be termed the administrative building, consisting of the - accommodation for food storage and preparation and the accom- panying necessary machinery, in a two-storied building on the north side of the steading, with the buildings containing stock arranged at right angles projecting southwards in two or more arms. ‘The spaces between these ranges or wings are used as covered or open stock yards in which the main bulk of the farmyard manure is produced and kept until ready for distribu- tion. Frequently, on the larger and more extensive holdings, this arrangement is duplicated. 1922.] Prannine anp Construction or Farm BumLpIncs. 711 Broadly speaking, where completely new buildings have been erected, the main objects have been to facilitate the economical distribution of prepared food stuffs and to provide shelter and accommodation for animals in the most concentrated manner. In many cases the buildings have been elaborate and costly in construction, conveying the idea that the then methods of farming were fixed for all time and that ‘‘ adaptability ’" was a word undreamed of. Present Day Conditions.— Before describing the accompany- ing plans it may be wise to analyse briefly a few of the more pressing problems of the moment, pertaining to farm design and construction, as applied to larger holdings. Leaving the specialist out of account, it is probably correct to say that for general farming purposes the primary need 1s sound and economic planning designed in every possible way to limit capital expenditure, to cheapen production by ease and economy of labour and economy in annual mainten- ance, while in addition to these there is an ever-growing demand to find the best possible solution for the hygienic well-being and improvement of stock of all kinds and at the same time to increase production. Another important factor is the demand for the production of clean milk, which in turn compels action of a more or less restrictive character to achieve the end in view. In addition to these facts, there is the almost daily increas- ing importance of scientific research applied to every branch of husbandry, and it is therefore evident that the whole busi- ness of farming is passing through an exceptional period of transition. If these facts are admitted, it is all-important for the farm architect to keep an open mind, to watch for any signs of new ideas and methods designed to meet the problems of the moment, or to forestall the advent of those to come in the near future. It is seriously suggested that the proper planning of farm buildings offers to the designer at least as many problems in arrangement and construction, albeit the latter may be of simple type, as any other scientific or commercial undertaking, but with one very important addition. In most building undertakings of a commercial character there are two chief factors: (1) The efficiency, health and comfort of the human beings employed in the business, and (2) the convenience and efficiency of the building for its imme- diate purpose. In the planning of farm buildings we have 712 PLANNING AND ConsTRUCTION oF Farm Burmprnes. [Nov., in addition the very vital problem of the health and well-being of various kinds of animals living under artificial conditions. Our method of research into this latter problem is almost entirely empirical, and the best results are only attained by the somewhat crude method of trial and error and by examin- ing into the causes of repeated failure or success. It is true that a science of animal hygiene is being gradually built up, but in actual practice it is frequently found that the most elaborately planned and constructed buildings, where every care has been taken to give effect to current ideas, have failed to give the best results hoped for, while some simple and | (A =) GRAVEL FRTER elementary arrangement answers all purposes. } ! i. | i ra | | geet I i 1 LOOSE | Ry BOX 222 OXFCRD STREET, W. Fic. 1.—Plan of Farm Buildings, Newtown Farm, Lymington. | i] i | | | \ | ! i Sy | i | i i} | i | | \ i | | | | | | i j | | j | j i ! i : 7 i . sab iL ty an ‘) | : | 2 an ot | » | 1 i ' arene ce cere mene cm mn eye . ‘ . * a ee eee ae ae ee a eee ee ee ee ita ee ee de i ee et . 1922.] PLANNING AND ConstRucTION or Farm BuipINGs. 713 With the economic stringency of the present time and the necessity for an improved return on capital, it is obvious that the line of attack must be one which embraces cheap construc- tion and at the same time allows of adaptability for future needs and improvements. As has been said before in these articles any departure from accepted principles should be watched with interest, and, if found successful in practice, will form the basis for future development. CART i SE CARTS i SCALE OF FEET. 10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 7o 80 96 i0o Fig. 2.—Original pian of Farm Buildings, Seale-Hayne Agricultural College. A Traditional Pian, 1903.—The first plan (Fig. 1), given for the purpose of illustrating the traditional type referred to above, is that of a farm steading in Hampshire designed and built in 1908. The farm contained about 300 acres, mostly arable, and accommodation was required for a very limited number of cows, provision being made for eight. The cow house formed the centre range with a covered yard on one side and an open yard on the other, but access for the cows was provided without necessitating the crossing of either yard. The distribution of fodder to each wing is simply and directly i i v IMPLEMENTS | ale Foe Mi Roe N eRe a MARL Fy ee Be NG Whe at — ee) 714 Puannine & Construction or Farm Burupines. [ Nov. ,1922. arranged tor from the administrative block, and some care was taken for the comfort of the farm workers by the provision of a mess room. ‘The plan may be said to be compact and straightforward, but the position of the cow house between two stock yards should no longer be considered ideal. A Traditional Plan, 1914.—The second illustration (Fig. 2) shows the original pian for new farm buildings prepared for the Governors of Seale-Hayne Agricultural College, Newton Abbot, and is interesting as showing a distinct adherence to traditional tvpe—in fact it is to all intents and purposes as true to accepted principle as is the earlier plan of Newtown farm shown in Fig. 1. Originally prepared before the War, nothing was actually done with regard to building until 1920, when the state of the existing farmstead at the Seale-Hayne College made a reconstruction imperative. A review of the then situation, however, made it clear that the proposed plan, though excellent in itself, maintained the traditional position for the cow shed with its obvious disadvan- tages from the modern hygienic standpoint. Further, the plan did not lend itself well to future extensions or modifications in farming practice and was considered hardly sufficiently adaptable for modern scientific and experimental farming. A New Type.—The third illustration shows the general lay- out plan of the new buildings as finally approved by the Governors and passed by the Ministry of Agriculture. It should be mentioned that the site is an exceptionally difficult one owing to the uneven nature of the ground, the character of the approaches, and the position of existing buildings, such as the dairy and College workshop already erected in 1914. In view of future legislation with regard to the production of clean milk, and the intention of the Governors to keep a herd of dairy cows, the authorities at the Ministry of Health were consulted with regard to the placing and arrangement of the cow-house. The suggestion of the Ministry of Agriculture that the traditional position of the cow-house should be changed so that it no longer abutted upon stock and manure yards was welcomed, as it has long been proved that the main source of milk contamination is from minute particles of manure, from which it follows that proximity to a manure yard or pit must of necessity increase the risk of contamination. It is noteworthy that this departure from the normal and accepted type was decided upon on its own merits and was not due in any way to the falling ground or any peculiarity of site. wre em — See ‘QDoT[ON TVANI[LOLIS Y oUAVF{-a]VIg 4v ‘poqydope AT[Vuy Sv ssulpling UlIvy Jo Uv[g—¢ ‘OI NEARED RS ERR NA v a <= — = : os} ObF Of Ot Ol OM oo OF ao fo OF w Oo 4 oO ° “a ‘Lag3d dO 31YOS "NOLAWVHINOS “S.LOALIHDIY *SO00IMSLLND F JODUAALLND dOHS AYOM [ee oe ee owe 22 eee ess = Se ee Alva 716 PLANNING AND ConstTRUCTION oF Farm Buruprines. [Nov., A reference to the plan (Fig. 8) shows that the main ad- ministrative range occupies a normal position to the north, with Dutch barn and silo adjacent, but the cow house is placed to the west, though still in immediate proximity to the mixing floor and silo. Space has been provided for milk weighing and recording and for the men’s lavatory. The cows enter off a hard road on the south side and milk is taken out to the dairy by a separate exit at the west end. The chief merit of this arrangement is that the cow-house is no longer in an enclosed position but is, as far as possible, isolated from the remainder of the buildings, open to sun and air on three sides, and free from the dust and flies inseparable from stock yards. The disposal of manure from the cow-shed will be by a gravitation trolley to a covered manure pit or into the stock yard. The two southward projecting blocks are normally placed with a yard between, which it is intended to cover in when funds are available. The position of the stables stretching eastwards from the administrative block and the position of the cart and imple- ment shed were largely dictated by the nature of the site and the importance of obtaining an easy graded access. Another point worth noting is the isolated position of the pigsties, to which whey will be gravitated from the dairy on the higher ground above. The most careful consideration has been given to the prac- tical arrangements for storing, preparing, and distributing fodder, and a reference to the plan will show that the departure from type, while it has distributed the buildings in a less con- fined form, has not materially increased the difficulties of food distribution. It is not intended in this article to do more than draw attention to the general principles involved in the planning of these farm buildings, particularly with regard to any de- parture from the normal type, but it is urged that in this scheme the College authorities and their architect have intro- duced an important new principle in the relative position of the cow-shed to other buildings whereby the hygienic condi- tions requisite to assist in the production of clean milk must be materially better than could be the case were the traditional lines followed. It is also claimed that, so far as administration is concerned, both in feeding and cleaning, there is no loss but rather gain in efficiency and economy. 1922. | Fruir AND VEGETABLE GROWING. tt So far as the construction is concerned a permanent type was decided upon for various reasons, but it is suggested that this scheme lends itself to the method adopted by the Directors of the National Institute for Research in Dairying—.e., the administrative block, cow-house, and stables might be con- structed in permanent materials, and the covered yard and south ranges might be built of timber with a light truss roof construction and cheap covering material. Such a method would admit of easy and cheap extension to the east when the conditions of farming required increased room for stock. There can be little doubt that, at the present time when initial cost in construction is high and farming conditions are in a-state of transition, adaptability is a very important factor, and there is therefore much to be said for building in such a manner that alteration and extension may be easy and cheap. In conclusion, the writer would like to express his thanks to Mr. R. F. Gutteridge, of Messrs. Gutteridge, of Southamp- ton, architects to the Governors of Seale-Hayne College, for his kindness in permitting the publication of his plans and for his cordial co-operation in all negotiations concerning them. * * * * * * POSS BILT Tres OF’ FRU“ AND VEGETABLE GROWING IN DURHAM AND CHESHIRE. WesGuiloniormad).P 570: BR: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. THERE are some things which philosophy seems unable to account for. One is markets—why did they establish themselves just where they are? Why do many of them persist in spite of everything? Better alternative sites for Covent Garden Market have been suggested : some attempts have even been made to estab- lish rivals : none, however, has dethroned it. With all its incon- veniences and its incongruities Covent Garden Market. still remains a magriet, attracting produce to its congested space from all parts of the world, and it continues to derange and obstruct traffic in the heart of our metropolis. Another problem is the areas of the country where market gardening thrives. Why on just this spot or that spot has a colony of intensive cultivators become established? Why just here or there have men solved the smallholding problem for themselves, and are thriving on holdings of smaller area than one would like to pronounce as possible? Superficially some reasons 718 FRvuIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING. | Nov., leap to view. Proximity to some great market; some topo- graphical peculiarity of site giving advantages of climate; some particular geological formation of soil;some tradition of cultivation handed on from generations back. It is when individual cases are examined below these surface reasons that one is puzzled. Other markets as great, or greater, have not attracted similar colonies. Equal advantages of site can be pointed out where no exploitation exists—soils of attractive suitability are calling in many places for intensive cultivators but without response— traditions of cultivation are kept alive in a few, whose number does not increase. Such reflections as these came home with great force when the writer was recently visiting the County of Durham in connéc- tion with the vew Horticultural Station at Houghall, and the County of Cheshire for a Conference at Reaseheath. At Houghall sixteen acres are being developed for demonstrat- ing methods of culture and varieties of fruit and vegetables. Very little cultivation of this nature is done in the county, and an industrial population must draw its supplies of fruit and vegetables burdened with transport charges either from overseas or from other parts of the Kingdom—in either case losing the valuable quality of freshness. It may be said that the climate is atrocious or the soil unsuitable. but visits to some of the few growers in the county, and inspections of some of the allut- ments by no means support such a theory. In a village within twenty miles of a city in the county of Durham there is a grower who, on three-and-a-half acres is practising the most intensive culture with complete success, producing flowers, vegetables and fruit in profusion. He manages to get forced rhubarb, annuals, and bedding geraniums, tomatoes and grapes, from the same ereenhouse in the same year. His Victorias, Czary and Rivers Prolific plums were breaking down with fruit. He had heavy crops of Doyenne d’Eté and Fertility pears, as well as Grenadier, Lord Grosvenor and Bramley’s Seedling apples. There was nothing that one could see exceptional either in site or soil. At another village in the same county there was a county council smallholding where a plot of fruit—apples, pears, and plums, with bush fruit and strawberries—had been planted under the advice of the horticultural instructor, and these were all healthy and thriving. One asks the question ‘‘ Why has not the splendid market afforded by the large population in this area attracted more growers to benefit by it, and in so doing benefit the people therein as well®’’ It is to be hoped that Houghall will not only 1922. | Fruit AND VEGETABLE GROWING. 719 suggest improved methods and better types to the existing growers, but will lead others to seize the opportunity which is afforded them. In Cheshire the surprises in store were of a different character. Here, the county that in imagination had been pictured as stocked with mottled herds and redolent with cheese making, turned out to be carrying on extensive industries in intensive cultivation of fruit, vegetables and flowers. How many know that on the borders of Cheshire, overflowing into the neighbouring Welsh county of Flint, there is a firm of growers who cultivate 800 acres of strawberries; whose undertaking extends to 1,200 acres, and is devoted to three crops, namely, potatoes, spring cabbages, and strawherries—an establishment revealing a stan- dard of cultivation, and an organisation that can challenge comparison anywhere. In another part of the county there is gathered a colony of intensive cultivators whose holdings are admirable examples of ‘* How to make the most use of the land,’’ where clean cultiva- tion, sustained fertility, and ingenious close cropping can be seen as well as anywhere in the world. In another district one finds that the soil. which is specially adapted to the growing of pears, has Icng been discovered by the local growers, although most of the sorts grown are of many old varieties, and the possi- bilities of development still await exploiting. The enterprise of a fruit merchant in planting out some 60 acres of top and bottom fruit of all kinds should, if as successful as it promises to be, give a stimulus to further development. In another area where some seaside marshes have been reclaimed by draining and hedging and years of intensive cultivation. there is a source of supply of vegetables which must be of great value to the population of Birkenhead and Liverpool, and one is surprised to know that the cultivators are nervous of the possibility of their being displaced by building operations. In the midst of such a county, with so many alert and enter- prising growers, and so many potentialities waiting for exploita- tion, the Horticultural Department of Reaseheath Agricultural Institute should have an important sphere of influence. There are still new methods that could be demonstrated. There are yet types of vegetables and fruit apparently unknown to the local growers, and especially there is a wide field of opportunity for demonstrating methods for combating diseases and pests. The opening of two such demonstration stations is an event of great importance, and one can only hope that other counties in England will be able to follow along the same road. 720 Porato Fiour Inpusrry 1x Houuanp. | Nov., THE POTATO FLOUR INDUSTRY IN HOLLAND. Ta. I. MAnsHo.t, Inspector of Agriculture, The Hague. THE potato flour industry in Holland developed during the second half of the 19th century on the ‘‘ fen-colonies ’’ in the northern provinces of Holland—Groningen, Drenthe, Overysel and Friesland—where circumstances were specially favourable to the extension of this industry. These districts formerly con- sisted of vast stretches of moorland sparsely inhabited, and covered with layers of peat many feet deep. Even in the 17th century some of these peat bogs were under cultivation, and since that time hundreds of canals have been dug, affording excel- lent means of transport by water. By the application of nitro- genous and potash manures the soil has been rendered specially suitable for the cultivation of potatoes, while fairly efficient and inexpensive labour has been available among the peat workers of the district. The development of the industry appears, in fact, to have been due to the combination of suitable soil, good canals, cheap fuel and labour, and the increasing demand for potato flour for different purposes. In 1840 the first potato flour factory was established in this part of the country, and since then many more factories have been built. After 1890 frequent disputes between the growers and manufacturers about the price paid for the potatoes led to the foundation of several factories on a co-operative basis, and at the present time most factories work on a co-operative basis. The members of these co-operative factories undertake to deliver quantities of potatoes proportionate to the number of shares they possess, and they are responsible for the debts of the society in the same proportion. At the end of the financial year every shareholder participates in the profit on the sale of flour. The capital necessary for building a large modern mill, produc- ing about 10,000 tons of flour, amounts to 1,200,000 Dutch cuilders (about £100,000), while in addition a working capital of about £60,000 is required. At the present time there are over thirty potato flour mills in the Netherlands. The co-opera- tive mills originally formed the ‘* Growers’ Association of Flour- mills,’’ whilst the others formed the ‘* Association of Private Flour Manufaciurers.’’ These associations were founded to 1922. | Poraro Fiour Inpustry 1x HOLLAND. 721 meet the need of the manufacturers for information and mutual help, and had no concern with sales. The establishment in 1919 of the Co-operative Sales’ Office for Potato Flour has, however, changed the system of seliing direct from the factory. The task of this organisation is to sell the flour of its members in the most economical and profitable way, and to assist the manufac- turers to solve problems concerning the improvement of methods of production, the increase of the output, and so forth. It is the opinion of the interested’ growers that on the whole the united co-operative factories now have a far greater influence on market prices than formerly, and this is mostly due to the activity of the Co-operative Sales’ Office. The development of this office made the Growers’ Association of Flourmills super- fluous and it has recently ceased to exist. While most Dutch industries are suffering greatly from the influence of the world crisis and the general trade depression, the co-operative potato flour factories have on the whole no reason to complain. Of late years the quantity of potatoes used for flour-making has been large, especially in 1919-20 and 1920-21, and flour prices are said to have been remunerative. The co-operative factories especially have profited by these favourable circumstances, because while the other factories have not always been able to obtain the necessary raw material, the co-operative factories, owing to the supply guaranteed by their members, have not met with this difficulty. Of late years almost 70.000 acres of potatoes have been planted in the fen-colonies, where the average yield per acre amounts to 8, 9 or 10 tons. Only a small part is used for direct human con- sumption or cattle-food, the bulk being used for flour-making unless a bad harvest or any other crisis in the neighbourhood abnormally increases the demand for direct consumption. All the Dutch factories together can use about 90.000 tons of potatoes a week, but the factories only work at their topmost capacity during harvest time and in the months of October, November and December. There are, however, a few factories that start in September and finish in January. During the remaining months of the year the material undergoes further manipulation, and in this way various qualities of flour are manufactured. The quantity of potatoes delivered to the flour factories naturally varies with the harvest, and as mentioned above the co-operative factories have now absorbed the bulk of the trade. Figures for three years before and since the War are given below. D 722 PREVENTING “* Bunt ’’ 1n WHEAT. [ Nov., Co-op. Mills. Other Mills. Total. tons. fons. tons. 1910/11 ee 244,000 oe 305,000 mr 549,000 1921/12 aan 228,750 “ike 137,250 ae 366,000 1912/13 5h 405,650 ont 426,085 38 Sol, 73D 1919/20 eee 523,075 set 78,385 ae 601,460 1920/21 Sig 508,740 5A 5d,815 560 564,555 1921/22 bie 329,095 ee 14,333 343,430 The average PrOan itn of flour is estimated 4 380 lb. per ton of potatoes delivered at the flour mill. In normal years about 25,000 tons of flour are used in the Netherlands, the balance being exported. | * * * * * * AY SAFE METHOD, OF “PREVENTING “BUNT ONS SORE AT. HK. S. Sarmuon and H. Wormatp, Mycological Department, South-Hastern Agricultural elec: Wye, Kent. THERE is perhaps none of the common fungus diseases of farm crops that more urgently needs attention at the present time than ** Bunt,’ or “* Stinking Smut,’’ of Wheat.* In the years since the War, complaints of its increasing prevalence have been made from all parts of England. Professor R. H. Biffen, referring more especially to the wheat lands in the Eastern Counties, has written: +t*‘ Bunted wheat is far commoner than it should be. In part this is due to the fact that a good deal of the grain sold for seed purposes is infected. Buyers should be more on their guard, and if a single ‘ bunted’ grain can be detected in a seed sample, that should be a sufficient reason for rejecting it. The reason for this apparently drastic course is that many vendors are too prone to assume that wheat can be adequately cleaned by the simple process of blowing out such erains. But whilst it is true that the spore-filled grains (bunt) can be removed in this manner, no wind current will dis- pose of the myriads of spores which inevitably find their way into the grooves of the grains or the brushes of hairs at their tips during the threshing of the crop.” Losses.—In a recent number of this Journal} outbreaks of bunt were recorded in Herefordshire, Shropshire, Cambridge- * An illustrated Leaflet (No. 92) on Bunt, giving the full life- history, can be obtained post-free on application to the Cre retary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, 8. W.1. + Jour. Roy. Agri ic. Soc. of England, 81, p. 244 (1920). eV OL MOR VITT, 1921 pe 730! 1922. | PREVENTING ‘‘ Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. 723 shire, Lancashire, Gloucestershire and Lincolnshire where from 95 to 55 per cent. of the ears were attacked. ‘The following case is also recorded :—in a northern county a chance sheaf of wheat was taken from the binder and the ears counted : 525 were found affected with bunt and 568 free, i.e., 48 per cent. of the wheat was infected! In Kent—East Kent, Mid-Kent and the Weald—bunt is far too prevalent, and serious infestations have occurred in crops of the varieties Standard Red, Yeoman and Marshal Foch. In one case a farmer growing Marshal Foch tor a firm of seedsmen, had the crop thrown on his hands on account of the prevalences of bunt. Whilst the worst infected fields are doubtless due to the farmer saving seed from a bunt-infested crop, the disease is present also in seed-wheat sold by seedsmen. In 1921, in a field of wheat (Standard Red) grown on Wye College Farm from seed supplied by a firm of seedsmen in the south of England, a counting of a sample of 1,000 ears in the field showed 5.1 per cent. of bunted ears—a serious infestation. Pickling of Seed.—In 1921, in this Journal,* the writers pointed out: (1) that the common method of ** pickling ’’ wheat with a solution of ‘‘ bluestone ’’ (copper sulphate) was too dan- gerous, experiments showing that a solution of bluestone suffi- ciently strong to kil! the spores of bunt present on the seed- wheat causes serious injury to the germination of the wheat; and (2) that a certain method of using a solution of formalin kills the bunt spores without appreciably affecting the germina- tion of the seed-wheat. Further field experiments have been carried out in 1921 and 1922, and their results, described below, show very clearly that by the use of a very dilute solution of formalin a simple, safe and cheap method exists for the prevention of bunt. In our previcus article cited above we wrote: ‘‘ It is to be feared that many cases of a ‘ poor plant ’ in wheat may have been caused by the seed having been ‘ pickled’ with too strong 2 sclution of copper sulphate.’’ Evidence we have collected since confirms this opinion. From inquiries we have made of farmers we have ascertained that it is often the case that a field sown with seed-wheat treated with a 10 per cent. solution of ‘bluestone will show a poor and tardy germination, while where it has happened that a portion of the same field has been drilled with untreated seed-wheat of the same kind the germination has ‘been good and quick. Tn one case a farmer (in Kast Kent) sent #Vol XRVIT, 192, p. 1013. DZ — 724 PREVENTING scien ee Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. [ Nov., us some seed-wheat (Standard Red) which he had “ pickled ’’ in the traditional spe with a 10 per cent. solution of copper sulphate (using ? gal. to the 4 bushels). Comparing the germina- tion of this ceed with that of an untreated sample of the same seed, it was found that the “‘ pickled ’’ seed germinated only 47 per cent. in 10 days, increasing after 15 days to 57 per cent., and reaching finally 60 per cent.; the untreated seed germinated 98 per cent. in 4 days. In another case, where the same method. was employed, again by a farmer, the treated seed (Marshal Foch) germinated only 70 per cent., while the untreated seed gave 100 per cent. germination.* Here, then, the farmers were killing from 80 to 40 per cent. of the seed-wheat before sowing it. Assuming that 2} bushels of seed to the acre is the correct amount to be sown, there may thus be a sheer waste of 2 to 1 bushel of seed-wheat to the acre. Sir Daniel Hall pointed out.t in 1920, that ‘‘ if we could reduce the amount of seed used by one bushel an acre the country would gain 3 per cent. on its. output of wheat, worth well over £1,000,000 a year at the present time.t I. Experiments during 1920-21.—The object of the experi- ments was to confirm previous results which showed that for- malin was preferable to copper sulphate, and also to ascertain whether a more dilute solution of formalin than that previously used was equally effective. The general method adopted was that described in the pre- vious paper. Contaminated seed was obtained from the experi- mental plots of the preceding season and divided into 5 lots for treatment as shown in the table. Duplicate plots were sown (by hend) with each lot of seed, samples being retained and sent to the Official Seed Testing Station, where the percentage of germina- tion was determined. As the plants grew the plots were examined periodically to see whether the treatment had had any adverse effect on the growth, but no difference in the general appearance of the plots could be seen. When the crops were harvested 1,000 ears were taken at random from each plot and examined indi- vidually for bunt. The results obtained were as follows :— * We are indebted to Mr. 8. T. Parkinson, Head of the Botanical Depart- ment, South-Hastern Agricultural College, Wye, for carrying out these germination tests. i This Journal, Vol. XX VII, 1920, p. 626. + As is, of course, well known, eood crops are frequently obtained from seed ‘ ‘pickled with bluestone. Until scientific inv estigations as to the correct rate of seeding have been made, it is open to any one to hold the view that a better crop is obtained by sowing the lesser quantity of viable seed caused by the bluestone treatment. The economic waste of seed would, of course, still ’ remain. 1922. | PREVENTING ‘* Bunt ’’ 1n WHEAT. 725 ——— —- ———E TaBue I. Percentage Number of — Percentage Treatment. Germina- Bunted Kars of Bunted tn. per 1,000. ars. Formalin 1: 320... Soe 98 (lias a ( ~») ) A UO. S| 3 Formalin1l: 400... athe U8 (1) U { 0.35 , (2) Gi He Formalin 1: 480... ried we. (1) 4 0.7 (2) "20 : Copper Sulphate 2.5 per cent. * 99 (1) 46 5A (2) 62 Untreated... a ee 99 (1) 1134 ; ¢ 7 £ 14.2 (2y° ETE 4 Discussion of Results, 1921.—In our previous article* we recorded the fact that formalin diluted 1: 320 (1 pint to 40 gal. water) was as effective in controlling bunt as the 1 : 240 solution (1 pint to 80 gal. water) and was therefore to be preferred. The diiution 1 : 8320 was the weakest used in all previous experiments ; it was decided therefore to use in 1920-21, the weaker solutions 1:400 and 1:480, and contrast these with the solution pre- viously used. As will be seen from Table I all the formalin solutions gave satisfactory results, reducing the percentage of ‘* bunted ”’ ears from 14.2 to less than 1, the actual differences observed being perhaps within the experimental error. Since it was clear that the limit of dilution when formalin ceases to be effective had not been reached, it was decided to carry out a further series of experiments in the next year before publishing these results. The one copper sulphate solution that was used, of 2.5 per cent. strength (21 lb. to 10 gal. water), was the strongest that our previous experiments had shown could be used without seriously injuring the germination of the seed. As is shown in Tabie I, the control of bunt when using this copper sulphate solution was by no means satisfactory; the 5 per cent. of ‘““ bunted ’’ ears that appeared in the plots would represent a very serious infestation in the field. In the writers’ opinion the use of a copper sulphate solution, and also of the proprietary articles containing copper sulphate which are sold as remedies for bunt, should be abandoned in favour of formalin. Il. Experiments during the season 1921-22.—The object of these experiments was to test weaker solutions of formalin and also to obtain some information relative to the effect that the presence of whcle bunted grains, in samples of seed-wheat treated by the formalin method, might have on the amount of ‘unt in the resulting crops. * This Journal, Vol. XXVIT, 1921, p. 1013. 726 PREVENTING “‘ Bunt ’’ In WHEAT. | Now, In the first place it seemed desirable to ascertain whether whole bunted grains could be passed through a drill without being broken up. The following method of testing this was devised : 1,000 bunted grains were counted out and mixed with a gallon of seed free from bunt; this was passed through a drill* and collected. It was then steeped in water, when the bunted grains floated to the top and were collected and counted: 996 of the original 1,000 were collected in this way. A few of these were found burst in the water but this was probably due to water soaking in through slight cracks, as this was found to occur when slightly cracked bunted grains were put into water, but with these exceptions the grains were recovered whole. There appears then to be little danger of bunted grains becoming broken up in passing through a drill of the type used. The field experiments for 1922 were modified from those of previous years in order to study the effect of deliberately sowing whole bunted grains with the seed. About 1 pint of bunted grains had been collected from the plots of the previous season’s experiment. 90 c.c. of these were measured out into each of 5 glasses; the rest were crushed up with a pestle and mortar and the powder (consisting of the spores of the bunt fungus) was sprinkled over about 14 bushels of seed- wheat (Standard Red), the whole being mixed together until every grain, so far as could be seen when examining a handful of the seed, had a blackened tuft of hairs at the tip. Ten separate gallons of this inoculated seed were then mea- sured out, and to each of five of these were added 90 c.c. of the whole bunted grains, i.e., approximately 2 per cent. The samples were then treated as shown in the accompanying table. The formalin, applied as in previous experiments, was used at strenyths varying from 1:320 to 1:800. The plots were sown on the second day after the treatment. The plots were examined periodically but no difference in the stand could be detected among the plots. At harvest time 1,000 ears were collected from each plot and the number of bunted ears present ascertained. Since, on the whole, the plots of which the seed contained unbroken bunt grains showed no more bunt than those of which * The drill used was a Massey Harris No. 5 Dise Drill (‘force feed ”), set to sow 3 bushels to the acre, travelling at a speed of 2 miles per hour. The machine was operated, for the object of the experiment, by means of a crank turned by hand, so that the machine itself was stationary, thus enabling the passed seed to be collected in a sheet placed below the drill. We wish to thank Mr. C. Davies, Head of the Engineering Department, Wye College, for his assistance in this matter 6 bi] IN WHEAT. 125 1922. | PREVENTING “* Bunt the seed had none, it is to be assumed that the presence of such grains did not increase the amount of infection; the plots of which the seed received similar treatment are therefore taken together in calculating the percentage of bunt resulting from each treatment. Tasxe IT. Whoie Bunted - Grains absent Bunted Percentage Treatment. or present (2 Percentage Kars per o Bunted per cent.) in Germination, 1,000. Ears. the seed. Hormalinil): .320.-.\.-.¢'(1) Absent 98 0 0.05 (2) Present 100 1 Formalin 1: 480 ... (1) Absent oo 0 0.05 (2) Present dg i Formalin 1: 640 _... (1) Absent 100 7 0.65 (2) Present 98 6 Formalin 1: 800... (1) Absent 99 Ly 1.4 (2) Present 100 ila | Untreated ~ ..:. «os (1) Absent v7 409 38.95 (2) Present 100 370 Discussion of Results, 1922.—The formalin solutions were used at the following dilutions: 1 pint of formalin to respectively 40. 60, 80 and 100 gal. of water. The results obtained, shown in Table II, showed clearly that the formalin became less efficacious the more it was diluted below the 1 : 480 (1 pint to 60 gal.) limit. The presence of 2 per cent. of whole ‘* bunted ’’ grains in the seed produced no increase of disease. The artificially contaminated seed produced in the two ** con- trol ’’ plots as high a percentage of “‘ bunted ’’ ears as 37 and 40. In view of the intensity of the disease present its reduction to 1.4 per cent. in the plots where the formalin was used at the extreme dilution of 1: 800 (1 pint to 100 gal.) is noteworthy, as indicating the efficacy of formalin as a fungicide against bunt. The results show that the use of formalin, diluted 1: 480 (1 pint to 60 gal.) gives a perfectly satisfactory control of bunt. With formalin at this dilution no possible injury to the seed-wheat is ’ to be feared, provided that it is applied in the method described below. Summary.—1l. The old traditional method of ‘‘ pickling ’”’ wheat with a solution of ‘‘ bluestone ’’ (copper sulphate) should be abandoned. Experiments have shown that a solution of the strength necessary to kill the spores of bunt seriously injures the germination of the seed-wheat. 728 PREVENTING “‘ Bunt ’”’ In WaHEart. [ Nov., 2. An easier, cheaper and a safe method of preventing bunt has been discovered in the use of a dilute solution of formalin, applied in the following manner :— (a) The diluted solution recommended for use is prepared by adding one part of formalin* to 480 parts of water. (e.g. 1 pint formalin to 60 gal. of water, or for small quantities, 1 fluid oz. to 3 gal., or 1 tablespoonful to 13 gal.). (b) The diluted solution is slowly sprinkled over the seed wheat at the rate of 1 gal. of solution to 2 bushels of seed. The seed must be moved about and stirred until the grains are all thoroughly wetted, but in no circumstances must the solution be allowed to form pools under the heap in which grains might soak. (c) The seed is then placed in a heap and covered with sacks which have been soaked in the formalin solution ; the sacks should be uniformly wet but not dripping. (d) The treated seed is left covered up for 4 hours, not longert; then spread out to dry in a thin layer on a clean floor ; if the floor has been previously used for untreated corn it should be wetted all over with the formalin solution and allowed to dry before the treated seed is spread on it. (e) Precautions must be taken to prevent the re-infection of the treated seed, e.g., sacks which have held untreated infected wheat must not be used for the treated seed unless they have undergone treatment by being soaked in the formalin solution or boiled in water. (f) The treated seed when dry should be sown as soon as possible. 3. It would appear that a method involving the immersion of the seed-wheat and skimming off the ‘‘ bunted ’’ grain, or the use of machinery to secure the same end, is unnecessary. Se a ees ee en * Formalin is the trade name for a 40 per cent. solution of the gas formaldehyde in water. Purchasers should obtain a guarantee that the forma- lin sold ix of the above strength, and see that it is a clear solution free from any precipitate. Formalin needs to be kept in a tightly closed bottle and only freshly prepared diluted solutions should be used, as the gas is volatile. T In one case, that came to the writers’ notice, of injury being caused, it transpir-d that the farmer had left the treated grain in a heap 18 in, deep from mid-afternoon till the following morning at 6.30. 1922.] First YEAR'S WoRKING OF THE SEEDS AcT, 1920. 729 THE! FIRST) YEAR'S WORKING) OF eet eee A ae Tue Seeds Act, 1920, and the Reguiations made under it have now been in operation for twelve months and there is consider- able evidence to show that farmers and others have already bene- fited. The main object of the Act is to protect the farmer against the danger of unknowingly purchasing and sowing inferior seeds. With this end in view, in the case of a sale of any of the prin- cipal farm or garden seeds the seller is required to declare in writing to the purchaser, at or before the time cof sale or delivery, certain specified particulars as to the quality of the seeds, such as the percentage germination, percentage purity, presence of injurious weed seeds, etc. Long before the disclosure of these essential particulars was made obligatory by Government action, all the well-known seed establishments made a practice of giving these guarantees, but the distribution of seeds in this country is ‘earried on by a vast number of firms other than the large and better known seedsmen, and it is by bringing these smaller firms into line as regards guaranteeing the quality of. the seeds they sell that the Seeds Act is doing good. It is also stimulating the demand for good seed, and so forcing off the market much of the low grade material. The value of seed is insignificant when compared with the cost of labour and of other materials, but the return from all expenditure on tillage depends largely on the quality of the seeds which are sown, hence the value of the Seeds Act in enabling the farmer or gardener to ascertain the quality of the seeds he is sowing. Licensed Private Seed Testing Stations.—One of the greatest difficulties experienced in administering the Testing of Seeds Order, which was the forerunner of the Seeds Act, arose from the variation in results of tests carried out by different analysts. In order to overcome this difficulty, it was proposed, when the Seeds Act was being drafted, that there should be one central testing station for the whole of Great Britain and Ireland, and that all tests for the purposes of the Act should be carried out at this station. It was hoped that by concentrating at one station the most up-to-date apparatus, in the hands of a highly efficient staff employing the latest scientific methods, it would be possible to place seed testing on a sounder footing in this country than in any other part of the world. This proposal, ‘however, did not find favour in Scotland and Ireland, both of 730 =F rst YEar’s WorgInG OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. [ Nov., which countries wished to retain their own official stations. Nevertheless, the Seeds Act is so worded that the establishment of a central official station is still possible. Once it had been decided to have an official seed testing sta- tion for each part of the United Kingdom, it was difficult to withstand the claims of those old established seed firms who had for many years tested their own seed in an efficient manner to be allowed to continue these operations. It was therefore agreed that tests for the purpose of the Act (except in the case of garden seeds) should be allowed at private testing stations, provided that they were licensed for that purpose by the Ministry. Judging by the experience gained during the past twelve months, the system of having licensed stations is not likely to prove unsatisfactory. Variations in the results of tests occur from time to time, but their number and seriousness have been very considerably reduced. Sixty-eight private stations in England and Wales have so far been licensed to test. as follows :—Al! kinds of seeds covered by the Act, 28; all kinds of seed except grass seed, 8; clover, rye- crass, cereal and field seeds only, 1; field and cereal seeds only, 5; field seeds only, 5; cereal seeds only, 26. Except in one case, the carrying out of tests for fees is not allowed in the case of these licensed premises, the privileges being limited to tests for the purpose of the purchase or sale of seeds in connection with the licensee’s own business. Among the conditions affecting these licences is one which requires a portion of every sample tested to be preserved with the necessary marks of identification for a period of three months. A selection of these reserved samples is taken from time to time by inspectors of the Ministry, for check tests at the Official Seed Testing Station. So far, however, remarkably few cases of serious discrepancy have occurred between the results obtained at a Licensed Station and the check tests carried out at the Official Station. A number of analysts from these licensed stations, and others who hope to qualify for similar posts, have attended a special instructional course during the past summer at the Official Seed Testing Station, Cambridge. Inspection of Seedsmen’s Premises.—Visits to seedsmen’s premises are carried out by the Ministry’s outdoor staff. The total number of visits paid during the twelve months ended July, 1922, was 11,000, including nearly 5,000 establishments that had not been visited before in connection with the Seeds: 1922.] Frrst Year’s WORKING OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. 731 Act. Practically the whole of the 5,000 not previously visited were firms where seeds are sold mainly in sealed packets only during a very short period in the spring, entirely as a side-line to the main business of the establishment. They included chemists, genera! stores, hardware merchants, provision mer- chants, confectioners, rural post-offices, ironmongers, coal merchants, stationers, fishmongers, fruiterers, barbers, boot dealers, dentists, newsagents, cattle dealers, butter merchants, cycle dealers, tex merchants, drapers and butchers. It has been suggested that the Ministry’s inspectors neglect to visit the small trader of the kind above referred to, but the figures given should disprove such a contention. It must be remembered also that it is much more difficult for the inspectors to discover shops which combine a small seed trade, limited to a few weeks in the year, with another business, than it is to find those establishments where the sale of seeds and kindred material is the principal business. Control Samples.—The principal object in visiting premises on which seed is sold is to ascertain whether the provisions of the Seeds Act are being properly carried out. With this end in view it is necessary to draw a certain number of control samples for the purpose of having check tests carried out at the Official Seed Testing Station. During the season 1921-22 the number of control samples so taken amounted to 950, including 282 samples of clover, 177 of grasses, 9 of field seeds, 20 of cereals, 95 of roots, and 356 of vegetables. In addition, 280 control samples of sealed packets were taken and also 500 samples of seeds placed in reserve at the licensed private seed testing stations. The check tests carried out at the Official Seed Testing Station showed that in 97 out of the 950 samples, the declara- tion as to germination, purity, etc., made by the seller was in- accurate to a marked degree in one or other of the particulars. These discrepancies were mainly in respect of clover, grasses and garden seeds; 12 per cent. of the total number of clover samples; 15 per cent. of the grass samples, and 8 per cent. of the garden samples proving to be incorrectly described. The principal source of error in the statements made by vendors was in respect of the percentage of germination. In 12 cases the declared germination differed from the results of the official check test by between 10 and 15 per cent. and in 25 eases the discrepancies were over 20 per cent. Ten cases showed a discrepancy of between 3 and 5 per cent. in the percentage 732 First YEAR'S WORKING OF THE SEEDS Act, 1920. [Nov., of purity and in 13 cases dodder was found in samples declared to be dodder free. In addition to the above, 76 of the control samples taken were ot seeds in connection with which no declaration whatever was being made. In the majority of these cases, however, the check test showed the seed to be of good average quality. It is impossible to draw general conclusions from the results of the check tests on control samples as the figures are not strictly comparable with those of the previous season on account of the fresh ground broken by the inspectors. It is satisfactory to note, however, that in spite of the fact that a large number of ‘* new ”’ premises were visited, the number of control samples that it was considered desirable to take was considerably fewer than last season, and that the proportion of these control samples which were shown by the check test to be wrongly described by the vendors was only 2 per cent. in excess of last year’s figure. Control samples are taken as a rule only in cases where the declaration of the vendor is suspected to be inaccurate. In all cases where the check test showed a marked discrepancy from the vendor’s particulars, the matter was taken up with the person concerned, and in practically every instance the action of the Ministry resulted either in the seeds being destroyed or returned to the firm from which they were purchased, or in the seller adopting the official test as the basis of his declaration in further sales. Packeted Seed.—As already indicated, one of the most help- ful features of the Seeds Act is the effect it is having in regu- lating the sale of seeds in small packets. It is well known that, in the past, large quantities of seeds, the age and germination of which left much to be desired, were sold in this manner. Many small shopkeepers purchase a stock of packeted seed which is offered for sale during the sowing season year after year, until the supply is exhausted. As a result, much of this is of very poor germination by the time it comes to be sown by the unfortunate purchaser. This practice is now prevented by the Seeds Regulations which require a statement to be delivered to the purchaser of packeted seed showing the percentage of germination and purity, the date of testing, and the season in which the seeds were packeted, etc. It cannot, of course, be claimed that the sale of poor quality seeds in packets has been stopped during the short period that these regulations have been in force, but there is evidence to show that an improvement has been effected, and 1922. | REDEMPTION oF TiTHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY. 738 it is anticipated that the grading up process will continue, as more experience 1s gained. During the 1921-22 season, the Ministry’s inspectors dis- covered a large number of cases in which, owing to ignorance of the Regulations, the necessary particulars were not being declared by the seller. Steps have now been taken to visit the many comparatively small wholesale packeters who supply the packets to the small shopkeepers, for the purpose of explaining to them the provisions of the Regulations as affecting them- selves, and as effecting the retailers to whom they sell their stocks of packets. The beneficial result of these visits is already apparent. During the season 270 control samples of packeted seed were taken. The result of the check test on these samples showed that 83 per cent. were seeds germinating at or above the mini- mum prescribed in the Seeds Regulations; 10 per cent. germi- nated below the minimum but above two-thirds, and 7 per cent. were below two-thirds. The corresponding figures for the season 1920-21 were 81 per cent., 13. per cent., and 6 per cent. respectively. (To be concluded.) REDEMPTION OF Peete, me Te Lang By AN NUEFY. (1) The Advantages of Redemption.—lt is generally agreed by both landowners and titheowners that the redemption of tithe rentcharge on reasonable terms is desirable. Redemption saves the landowner the trouble of verifying the accuracy of the demands sent to him half-yearly by the tithe collector and of having to remit the payments for sums which, in many instances, are very small. It also removes a possible cause of complication and delay in sales and other dispositions of land. The chief advantages of redemption to the titheowner are that it saves him the cost of collection, which in some parishes is considerable, obviates a frequent cause of ill-feeling and litigation and extinguishes the tithe rentcharge for all purposes including the payment of rates and land tax, and thus relieves him of the necessity for taking steps from time to time to obtain a re-assessment of the tithe rentcharge for the purposes 734 REDEMPTION oF TrtHE RentcHarce By Annuity. [ Nov., of rating and taxation. It is not, however, always convenient to landowners to find capital sums for the redemption of tithe rentcharge on their lands, even though capital moneys are under the Settled Land Acts applicable for such purpose, and to meet such ceses the Tithe Act, 1918, provided facilities for landowners to redeem by annuity. (2) Calculation of Redemption Annuities.—By agreement between the landowner and the titheowner under the Act the consideration for redemption may be discharged by an annuity payable yearly or half-yearly for a period not exceeding 50 years. ‘Section 4 (2) of the Act provides that the amount of the annuity shall be calculated in the following manner :—To interest not exceeding 5 per cent. per annum on the consideration money is to be added such sum as would be sufficient, if the periodical payments thereof were accumulated at compound interest at a rate not exceeding 4 per cent. per annum, to produce an amount equal to the consideration money at the end of the said period. The total of these two sums will give the amount of the yearly or half-yearly payment of the annuity as the case may be. In any such case the Minister by order charges the land with the annuity, and the order contains provisions for giving effect to the charge and for protecting the interests of persons interested in the rentcharge. (3) Consents necessary to Redemption by Annuity.— Under Section 4 (8) of the Tithe Act, 1918, however, no such agree- ment for redemption by annuity is valid :— (a) If made by aspiritual person entitled in respect of his benefice or cure except with the consent of Queen Anne’s Bounty ; or (b) If made by a person (not being a spiritual person so entitled) who is not empowered to sell the rentcharge unless he obtains the consent of some other person, except with the consent of that other person. (4) Redemption by Annuity of Clerical Tithe Rentcharge and Welsh Tithe Rentcharge.—The Ministry understands that Queen Anne’s Bounty will, as a rule, be prepared to consent under certain conditions to the redemption of any tithe rent- charge or tithe rentcharges amounting in all to not less than £1 payable by a landowner to an incumbent, and to advise the incumbent to agree to the same. The Ministry also under- stands that the Welsh Church Commissioners, who own over £200,000 tithe rentcharge in Wales and Monmouth, will, as a rule, be ready to agree to applications for redemption by annuity of any tithe rentcharge payable to the Commissioners, 1922. | REDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE BY ANNUITY. (5) Former Objections to Redemption by Annuity now removed.—When the Tithe Act, 1918, was passed the follow- ing objections to redemption by annuity under that Act were urged :— (1) There was no statutory power whereby redemption annuities could be apportioned except under the almost unworkable provisions of Sections 10 to 14 of the Inclosure Act, 1854, so that owners of land upon which redemption annuities were charged were in a position of consider- able difficulty when they came to sell portions of the land. (2) There was no statutory power under which the landowner could, if he thought fit, compel the redemption of a redemption annuity on fair terms, (3) Where land was held in settlement, capital moneys belonging to the settled estate could not be applied in payment of the sinking fund portion of the annuity and consequently the tenant for life or other limited owner of the land who redeemed by annuity was liable, not only for the interest on the consideration money for redemption which might be said to take the place of the annual tithe rentcharge payment, but also for the sinking fund payment which was really capital outlay. These objections have now been partially met by the Tithe Annuities Apportionment Act, 1921, and the position will be further improved when the Law of Property Act which has just been passed comes into force, i.e., on the 1st January, 1925. (6) Apportionment of Redemption Annuities.—Facilities for the apportionment of redemption annuities were provided by the Tithe Annuities Apportionment Act, 1921. Under Sec- tion 1 (1) of this Act an application for an order for such an apportionment can be made to the Ministry by any person in- terested in the land charged or any part of it without the con- currence of any other person. Section 1 (2) empowers the Ministry, on the application of an interested person, to require as a condition of making the order that any apportioned part of the annuity which does not exceed the yearly sum of £2 shall be redeemed forthwith. (7) Redemption of Redemption Annuities.—When the Law of Property Act comes into force, i.e., on the Ist January, 1925, any person interested in the whole or any part of the land affected by a redemption annuity will be empowered, without the consent of the annuitant or any other person, to free his land from the annuity by redemption under Section 92 of the Act, which amends Section 45 of the Conveyancing and Law of Property Act, 1881. (8) Settled Lands.—Section 2 of the Act provides that Sec- tion 21 of the Settled T.and Act, 1882. which sets out how 736 RevDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE By ANNuITY. [Nov., capital money arising under that Act may be applied, is to have effect as if the modes of such application of capital money included the discharge, purchase or redemption of any appor- tioned part of a tithe redemption annuity charged on the settled land or any part of it, or the discharge of such part as does not represent interest (1.e., the sinking fund portion). Section 64 (1) (iv) of the Law of Property Act provides in effect that in addition to the modes authorised by Section 21 of the Settled Jiand Act, 1882, capital money shall be deemed always to have been capable of being applied in the purchase or discharge of an annuity charged under Section 4 of the Tithe Act, 1918, on settled land or any part thereof or in the discharge of such part of any such annuity as does not represent interest. Tt will be observed that these provisions of the recent Act supplement the provisions of Section 2 of the Tithe Annuities Apportionment Act~1921, and authorise the application of capital money arising under the Settled Land Acts to un- apportioned annuities. It is also to be noted that though the Law of Property Act does not come into operation until 1925, the provisions as regards the application of capital moneys of settled estates to the purchase or discharge of an annuity or to the discharge of the sinking fund portion of an annuity when they come into operation will be retrospective. (9) Preliminary Steps ior Redemption by Annuity.—It seems not improbable that the alterations in law above referred to may induce many persons interested in settled lands who have hitherto hesitated to redeem by annuity to consider whether they should not now take steps to avail themselves of the facilities now provided for that purpose. Landowners who desire to redeem by annuity the tithe rent- charge owned by incumbents of benefices should, in the first instance, communicate with Queen Anne’s Bounty, 8, Dean’s Yard, Westminster, London, 8.W.1. In other cases it will usually be convenient for the land- owner to make apphcation for redemption to the Ministry in the usual form No. 157/1..T. in the first instance. He should at the same time send to this Office the usual search charge, which is 5s. if the property does not exceed 10 acres, 10s. if it exceeds 10 acres but does not exceed 30 acres, and a further 5s. for every additional 30 acres or part of 30 acres. For example, if the area included in the redemption is 300 acres. = CO bo 1 2. | 2EDEMPTION OF TITHE RENTCHARGE By ANNUITY. 73 this preliminary charge will be 10s. plus nine times 5s., 1.e., £2 15s. Od. The amount thus paid will be credited to the applicant as part of the office fee, calculated in accordance with paragraph 19 of the Ministry’s !nstructions for Redemption, Form No. 261/1:.T., which will eventually be payable by him before the order for redemption is made. On receiving such an application the Ministry will, in the case of tithe rentcharge payable to the Welsh Church Com- missioners, communicate with the Commissioners as regards the amount of the annuity, and subsequently notify the same to the applicant for his agreement. In cases where the tithe rentcharge is not owned either by an incumbent or by the Welsh Church Commissioners, the Ministry will itself suggest to the applicant for redemption what, in its opiion, would be a reasonable amount at which to fix the annuity and request him to communicate with the titheowner with a view to obtain- ing his agreement to the same, if possible. (10) Redemption by Lump Sum does not require Consents. —Where redemption by a lump sum is proposed it is still possible for the landowner to redeem without the consent of the titheowner or any other person. Im the absence of any agreement as to the amount of the consideration money, the Ministry determines the amount in accordance with the First Schedule to the Tithe Act, 1918, the provisions of which are explained in paragraph 4 of the Ministry’s Instructions for Redemption No. 261/L.T. (11) Redemption where Land has been taken fcr Public Purposes.— Under Section 1 of the Tithe Act, 1878, as amended by the Tithe Act, 1918, it is provided that where land charged with tithe rentcharge is taken for any of the following purposes, viz. :— The building of any church, chapel, or other place of public worship ; The making of any cemetery or other place of burial ; The erection of any school under the Elementary Education Acts ; The erection of any town hall, court of assize, gaol, lunatic asylum, hospital, or any other building used for public purposes, or in the carrying out of any improvements under the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890 ; The formation of any sewage farm under the provisions of the Sanitary Acts, or the construction of any sewers, or sewage works, or any gas or water works ; Or the enlarging or improving of the premises or buildings occupied or used for any of the above-mentioned purposes ; B 736 Maxine or Ciocs, CLoG-Soites anp Cioc-Buiocks. [Nov., the person or persons proposing to carry out the above-men- tioned works, buildings, or improvements, shall apply to the Ministry to order the redemption of the tithe rentcharge. Representations have been made to the Ministry that the provisions of this Section are frequently disregarded by the landowners concerned. ‘There may, perhaps, have been some justification for this before the passing of the Tithe Act, 1918, when the consideration money for redemption had to be calculated on the basis of 25 years’ purchase of the par value of the tithe rentcharge. Now, however, that it is possible to redeem on equitable terms it is desirable that in all cases to which the Section applies application for redemption should be made forthwith. (12) Redemption of Corn Rents.—The provisions relating to tithe rentcharge referred to in the foregoing paragraphs sub- stantially apply also to corn rents, rentcharges, and money payments (other than rentcharges payable under the Extra- ordinary Tithe Redemption Act, 1886) which are liable to redemption under the Tithe Acts, 1836 to 1891. (13) Ferms.—The following forms will be supplied on request :— (a) Instructions for the redemption of tithe rentcharge and corn rents, etc., in cases where the application is made by the landowner (Form No. 261/L.T.). (b) Application for the redemption of tithe rentcharge in such cases (Form No. 157/U.T.). (c) Application for the redemption of corn rents, etc., in such cases (Form Nos 204/07): (d) Forms of contmuation schedule for use in the redemption of tithe rentcharge or of corn rents, etc., in cases where the schedule provided in the form of application is not sufficient to show all the rentcharges proposed to be redeemed (Form No. 133/L.T.). THE MAKING OF CLOGS, CLOG-SOLES AND CLOG-BLOCKS. KATHARINE 5. Woops, Agricultural Economics Institute, Oxford. In the year 1837 a number of Flemish clothiers and weavers ‘settled in Bolton, Lancashire, and the weavers brought with them their sabots or wooden shoes. ‘The sabots were made en- tirely of wood, with lamb-skin linings to protect the feet. Wooden 1922.] MaxkING oF Ciocs, CLoG-SoLES AND CLoG-BLOCKS. 739 shoes are known to have been worn in London earlier than the 14th century, and may have been used in other parts of the country, but they were new to Lancashire.* Clogs are wooden shoes with leather uppers, and*pattens have rings of iron to keep the shoe off the ground. No kind of foot- gear could keep the feet warmer and dryer on wet ground, and they are reputed to protect the women who work in the Lanca- shire weaving sheds, which have damp floors, against rheumatisn and other ills. Clogs are worn extensively in Lancashire, West Yorkshire, and in neighbouring counties, by men, women and children. They are useful for dairy-work, both on the farm and in the cheese-factory, and are admirable for gardening, poultry- keeping or other work that involves standing or walking in wet places. Fashion has done ill-service to workers and children by decreeing that boots, however poor in quality, are smarter to wear than clogs. Clogs have light grooved irons underneath the edge of the sole and heel to make them wear better. A piece of leather is sometimes nailed on the sole within the irons to deaden the clatter which is apt to provoke merriment in districts where they are unfamiliar. Compared with thick boots they are not unduly heavy. The uninitiated would suppose that a rigid wooden sole would be most uncomfortable; but the clogs are large enough for the foot to have freedom inside, and they depend upon the buckled flaps or laces that meet over the ankle to keep them on. There are several types, the ‘‘ Lancashire ”’ being distinct from the ‘‘ country,’’ and considered to be smarter wear owing to the slightly pomted toe, which would be most uncomfortable unless extra leneth were allowed. ‘‘ Country ”’ clog wearers desire no such decorative style. It has been said that the habitual wearing of clogs from childhood checks the development of certain muscles at the back of the leg, and that clog-wearers may be known by their rocking walk as though they bad runners or rockers on their feet. Shoes or slippers, how- ever, could be procured for summer and indoor wear and for running about at games, while clogs are greatly to be preferred to the cold and sodden boots that must often be worn by children who can have only cne pa‘r at a time. Kind of Wood Used.—-Alder wood is preferred to any other for making clog-soles. It is so scarce that gangs of clog-block cutters visit the districts where it grows, sending off the roughed- out pieces of alder to the northern counties where clog-soles are fashioned from the blocks. The scarcity of material is no new * From “ A Short Sketch of the Clog and Pa‘ten Trade,’ by Alderman Broughton, published by the Amalgamated Society of Master Cloggers. EY 740 Maxine or Ciocs, Cioc-SoLes anp Cioc-Buiocks. [Nov., SS} difficulty. In the year 1456 the Clog and Patten Makers made a pitiful appeal to the King to be allowed to use such pieces of ‘* tymber of Aspe “’ as would not serve to make arrows. Their petition appears to have been granted for the time being, but in view of a projected invasion from France, the restraint on the use of this timber was again enforced on the clog-makers. The ‘‘ Aspe ’’ timber is a kind of poplar, extensively grown on the Scotch hills but seldom used by cloggers at the present day. Birch is sometimes used, but alder makes the most comicrtable clogs and is less apt to split than beech which is also sometimes used. The hand-made alder soles are preferred in Lancashire to the beech soles made in factories. Machinery is of fairly recent introduction and improvements are expected which will cause the machine-made soles to compete more effec- tively with the hand-made. It is also rumoured that ready-made soles may be sent over from the virgin woods cf North America. By this means greater economy in transport than the English clog-block cutter can secure will be effected through leaving the waste material behind. He goes to the woods to work, selling his waste as firewood if he can, and burning up the small chips in his own fire. The clog-block, though it is cut to definite sizes for children’s, women’s and men’s clogs, still has to be reduced greatly by the clog-sole maker to whom it is sent. His yard becomes littered with growing piles of chips as he cuts away at the blocks. It is said that three-quarters of the blocks are cut to waste. This ilustrates the truth that wood-industries should not be isolated, disconnected crafts, but that the waste or parts less suitable for one craft should be passed on to be used for some other purpose with as much economy as possible in time, material, skill and transport. The interdependence of varicus wood-trades is also illustrated by the fact that alder and birch are used both for broom-heads and for clog-soles. A Devonshire wood-dealer whose principal trade is in firewood, sets turners to make broom-heads and clog- block makers to cut clog-blocks out of material sorted for each purpose. Cutting the Blocks.—The birch and alder, chiefly alder, is bought where it can be obtained in fairly large quantities, either felled or standing in the woods. The price is a matter of arrangement with the owner of the woods, who will often give credit until the returns from the finished clog-blocks come in. This makes it easy for a workman to become a master, as capital is only required for paying labour and board. During the War, 1922.] Maxine or CLocs, CLoc-SoLes AnD Cioc-Buocks. 741 when demand was keen and prices were high, many workmen established businesses for themselves. For the roughest work of felling and sawing labour is often hired on the spot, but for the actual clog-block cutting skilled workers are employed who travel in gangs of six or seven. ‘The system is the same as that in the timber trade when gangs are sent out to fell trees. Before the War, a Shropshire timber-merchant and clog-block dealer employed some twenty-five to thirty clog-block cutters. They traveiled from place to place in various parts of the country, ‘Salisbury, Oxford, Thetford and Southampton being amongst the places mentioned by this Shropshire merchant. ‘Thus it sometimes happens that a travelling clog-block cutter settles down in a district where alder flourishes and sends off his blocks to former employers or other acquaintances in the trade. Some of the tlog-block dealers who are settled in the south and west of England may be known by their speech and enterprise as North-countrymen. The tree or pole after being felled is sawn into fixed lengths of four sizes, for men, women, boys and children. If the wood is knotty there is more waste, and only the smaller sizes can be cut. These lengths are then placed on wooden block supports and cut into shape with a special tool. This is a knife made of one piece of steel about 23 ft. in length, bent to an obtuse angle in the middle, the lower half forming a blade about four inches deep and terminating at the end in a strong hook. This secures the knife to a weoden block driven firmly into the ground. This block forms one of the two supports of a low bench on which the piece of alder is placed and the knife is worked as on a pivot. The cutter grips it with his right hand by a wooden handle at right angles to the steel, stooping, and cutting downwards with remarkable certainty and rapidity, while he holds and moves the clog-block with his left hand. The cuts are made at angles, and the block trimmed with an axe, so that it represents very roughly the fina! shape of the clog-sole. The blocks are then stacked to dry in bee-hive shaped heaps as high as a man can reach, built as peat-ruckles are built with air spaces between the blocks. When a truck-load of blocks is ready, it is sent off to Lancashire. Not a Whole-time Trade.—An employer did not consider that pre-war earnings yielded a “‘ living wage ’’ but the men are paid by piece-rates and their earnings varv with their skill. The clog-block trade is not carried on by itself, for the masters, and probably the men too, require some other source of income. 742 Maxine or Crocs, CLroc-Sorzs anp Croc-Buocks. [Nov., For example, a Shropshire employer is a timber merchant and keeps a small inn, and an employer in Devonshire is a firewood dealer who also has a small wood-turning industry, making brush- stocks. ‘Ihe former sends gangs of cutters near and far; the latter, as yet in a small way of business, had employed a single cutter until others had learnt the art, and is only using wood obtained near at hand. No evidence has been found in the three counties under inves- tigation (Shropshire, Staffordshire and Cheshire) to show that the separate trades of the clog-soler who cuts the block to the final shape, and the clog-maker who makes and fixes on the uppers, are rural industries. The cloggers are often cobblers as well and they are to be found in the towns. They buy the soles and attach uppers which are frequently made from old boots. Two very interesting cloggers were found in a country town in Shropshire, and their business proves that clogging still sur- vives as a complete self-contained craft. Of these two, one has sons in the trade and the other has not. Material is obtained in the neighbourhood, for present railway freights are prohibi- tive to a small-scale business. Even on Jocal wood haulage costs have been high. One of the cloggers, who would lke to get his supplies close at hand, estimates that £100 a year could be made from four and a-half acres of waste land near by if it were planted with alder. Some alder can be cleared by thinning every five years in such a way that other shoots grow strong, but the best material for clogs comes from wood of twenty-five to thirty years’ growth. The clogger held out his hand, palm upward, with the thumb and fingers bent to show how five alder shoots should be left to grow out from the stock and then shoot up straight and strong. He does not care for older material as there is more sawing and cutting to be done to it, and conse- quently the costs are higher. The son, who cuts the blocks and does a sawing and clearing husiness for fences and firewood, prefers to work in his own shed at home and not out in the woods. Therefore the problem of waste wood, on which haulage to the vard has been. paid, is seriously exercising his mind. He is thinking of toys and other small wooden articles. Ye does not use the usual block-cutter’s knife when working at home, but shapes the blocks with his saw, which is worked by means of a small engine, after they have been cross-sawn and cleft to the right size. He is also considering a small portable saw which could be used out in the woods, and is interested in engines whose furnaces can utilise chips and saw- 1922.] Maxine or Crocs, CioG-SoLes anp Cioc-Buocks. 743 dust as fuel. Al! their wood is cleft, the saw only being used for cross-sawing and trimming the cleft pieces to the correct shape for clog-blocks. Straightness of grain is important in this trade, and cleaving secures this. Making the Soles.—The sole-making is done with a_ tool ~ similar to that used for block-cutting. The craftsman seems to know by heart the exact curve that is needed for comfort, and with very little measurement ‘is able to make the right shapes for every size in clogs. Some clog-makers get leather for the uppers from the mulls; it is strong, thick and supple, and impregnated with oil, which makes it soft and weather-proof. The leather is in wide strips which have been used to cover rollers in the mills. Once it has worn a little thinner in one part than in another, it must be removed from the rollers, which must be exactly cylindrical; 1t can therefore be had cheaper than new leather and the thin parts can be cut away. A stretching machine is used to shape the leather so as to give the necessary spring for the instep. The uppers are made in two pieces only, a third piece inside giving strength to the heel. They are sewn together with a sewing machine, such as boot-repairers use, and when the upper is nailed to the sole, and the irons and fastenings are put on, the clog 1s complete. Some clogs are lined with felt. The Outlook.—Cloggers are very scarce, as no boys have been learning the trade. There was an abnormal demand during the War, when no foreign clogs were coming in, and this appears to have stimulated the use of machinery. Demand fell off some- what during the latter part of the War, when boots were worn owing to higher wages. and the trade appears to be feeling the general depression at the present time. There is said to be an opening for small clog-making enter- prises in the south of England, where clogs are not unknown, and might, it is thought, be popularised if light, comfortable types were put on the market and the retailers induced to stock the irons for replacement when worn out. This lengthens the life of the clogs and makes them al! the more economical in com- parison with boots. The irons and buckles can be procured from Lancashire and would probably not be worth making locally, but a small clogging firm would have to include a wood-dealer who would be respons*ble for felling the wood and preparing the clog- blocks, a skilled clog-sole maker, and a boot-maker or repairer who could make and fasten on the leather tops. Such a partner- ship would probably be the best means of working up a local = ——— — 7a _ —_ ———————— CC rr—CS;SNCt;tC‘;373DP.mrt~™ 744 Maxine or Crocs, CLoc-So.es anp Cioc-Buocks. [| Nov., bf ‘“ bespoke ’’ retail trade with customers who like their foot- gear made to measure. A man might have a good chance of working up a small local trade, but he could not increase it largely without meeting competition from machine-made and imported clogs. His success would depend on (1) real superi- ority; (2) econsmies effected by getting local alder made up locaily, which would otherwise go north as clog-blocks and come south again as clogs; and (8) facilities for getting suitable leather on special terms. It is not thought that clog-sole machinery would be worth introducing into a small concern, and there is no reason to suppose that a big industry would pay. The presence of clog-block cutters in alder-growing districts would be a helpful factor in launching small experiments, since the cutters or their employers are in touch with other branches of the industry. It would not be impossible to provide the essen- tial safeguard for men undertaking a new venture; that is, to see that they have some alternative outlet in case of decline or failure in the trade. This could be done by connecting the industry with wood-dealing and other wood-crafts and perhaps also with boot-repairing. The small-scale craftsman can rarely afford to be a ‘‘ one-job’’ man. Clog-solers are reputed to be scarce because during the War they were wanted out in the woods and did not care to settle ¢own again to indoor work. Probably their real reason was the competition of machine-made clogs which drove them away from their former occupation. There is a tendency for skilled journeymen to. move away from areas where machinery is displacing their special craft, and to set up small businesses in some remote or rural district for a market in which competition from the machine-made product 1s not acutely felt. It may or may not be a local market, but it is a special market in which their specialised skill, or personal qualities, have value. It may, for instance, be a retail trade, in an article of distinctive quality, made under conditions in which the compensating advantages of personal skill and of any economies in getting the small lots of material near at hand, balance the advantages of big-scale production and wholesale distribution. 1922. | Foop 1n Retation To EcG PRopucTIon. 745 FOOD IN RELATION TO EGG PRODUCTION. K. J. Davey, Harper Adams Agricultural College. In the economies of egg production, the relaticn that feeding costs bear to the total cost of production on one hand, and what relation the cost of food bears to the value of the output of the birds, always excite attention. It has become almost a truism to say that feeding costs taking the year through should not exceed the price of one egg per week, nevertheless it is difficult to find satisfactory data on which such an opinion can be based. The soundness of the opinion cannot be doubted, but it obviously opens up questions that must be explored in the immediate future, if the industry of commercial egg production is to be continued successfully. The suggested limit of feeding costs depends on two factors, the price of feeding stuffs and the price of eggs. Both factors are variable and liable to have their relationship materially altered by developments that are already making their influence felt. We have two well-defined schools of thought. On the one hand we have those who by reducing production costs, feeding of course being part, look for an increased profit on a compara- tively low egg-yield per bird, and we have those who are prepared to spend more on production and recoup themselves dy a higher ega-yield. So far, no detailed figures seem available showing the cost ot production per thousand eggs, on a plant running successfully with a low average egg production. It follows that if the plant is successful on a low average, production costs must have been eut rather heavily to show a profit at all, and the feeding costs will have been cut with the others. In the absence, however, of records of the system we are bound to approach the question of feeding costs from the opposite angle, that is from the point of view of comparatively high feeding costs, on a high flock average. In passing, however, it might be as well to point out that low feeding costs do not necessarily result in a low flock average. Our knowledge of food stuffs is incomplete, and it is by no means certain that through comparatively high priced grain and milling offals lies the only way to feed the necessary food elements to laying hens. In more than one case, individual breeders have availed themselves of unconventional food due to cheap local supplies, without damage either to the birds or their produce. 746 Foop 1x Retation to Hae Propuction. [ Nov., When we approach feeding costs in relation to egg production from the point of view of high flock average, we have the figures extending over three years of The Harper Adams College T.aying Trials, which are summarised on the accompanying diagram. Refore proceeding to deal with the costs in detail, it might be as well to answer one or two criticisms that have been urged against them. In the first place it is claimed that the feeding cost per bird is unduly high. This is not denied, but the point of view from which these figures should be approached, must be that of poultry: keepers and not the wholesale millers. The prices given month by month do not represent so much the actual price paid for the food, as the price at which smali poultry keepers locally were buying the foods used during the same period. The difference between the two levels of prices when worked out to cost per bird, would only be a fraction of a farthing, but expressed as price per ton is a much more considerable item. | It has also been stated that the feeding costs are high because the foods used were unduly expensive and that cheaper substitutes could have been found. The main purpose of the Laying Trials, however, is to get the maximum output in a definite period. a very different problem to getting the maximum output on the minimum cost. To let any outside consideration affect the question of immediate output, would be foreign to the vrrnose of the trials. The birds have to demonstrate their ability as. producers between Ist November and 8rd October of the following year, and in fairness to the breeder concerned no ques- tion of experiments with feeding ought to be considered. The accompanying diagram gives the average feeding cost and the average output per bird during the last two years’ trials and their relation can be seen at a glance. This chart of comparative values is interesting as showing that there is a relation between feeding costs and the value of eces produced. A sharp rise in both values is experienced: from the beginning of November until early in January, after which there is a continuous drop until low values are reached in the errly spring and summer, and the curves do not recover, until November again comes along. But this must not be pushed too far. Althongh this factor has become a regular feature since these feeding costs were first compiled three years ago, it may be due to the nature of the trials. Although the value of food increased during this period, the actual weight consumed was normal. It is obvious that the rise 1922. | Foop In Revation To Kiaa Propuction. 747 in egg values is due to scarcity during the winter, and in all probability the rise in food values for the corresponding period is due more to a personal, than an economic factor. The poultry- man in charge of the trial was in all probability feeding heavily the more expensive foods, in order to get his output auickly up to its maximum, and just to what extent this personal factor comes in, it is impossible to say until the conclusions arrived at by the study of these figures can be checked by experimental work on a commercial basis. But it must be very obvious that if, while maintaining the high curve of egg values, the corre- sponding curve of food value could be flattened to its summer level a very material difference would be made in the profit. While a few pence per bird is not a great item taken by itself, it becomes so when spread over 740 birds, cr as will be the case this year, nearly two thousand. A study of comparative weights shows that while values are related weights are not. The heaviest feeding weight does not correspond with the greatest output. But interesting as the study of comparative values and weights may be, there is a further aspect of feeding for eeg production that should not be lost sight of. In the ‘‘ Feathered World Year Book’’ for 1921 the writer called attention to the relation that exists between quality of food consumed and the actual output of eggs. There can be little question that quality of food is closely related to output, and it is interesting to notice from the accompanying diagram, that during the years when the quality of food was at its worst, the output cf eges per bird was also the lowest registered. The same thing holds true of the percentage of second grade eggs to first. The poorer the food became the more second grade egos were recorded, as will be seen from the following table :— Summary of Second Grade Eggs during four Winter Menths. 1915-16, 1916 17 1917-18. 1918-19. 1919-20, 1920-21. list, Grades cx En dtobul 51:8 54-] io? lio 75 69 2nd Grade ... ot ODO 48:2 LoS) 27:08 22°7 24°31 There is one aspect of feeding costs in its relation to pro- duction that has not yet been dealt with. It is a mistake to assume that eggs alone represent the output of value from any given pen. In the growth of flesh and in the production of manure we have two items less by far in value than the eggs, but still considerable, to set off against the food and other costs. While flesh and manure are usually disregarded in working out values it is obvious they should be included. Even at the end of 748 A New Appie Psst. [ Nov., a season of heavy laying, some of our dual purpose breeds will show an increase in carcass weight, and consequently a higher killing price would be obtained. Similarly the manure produced if properly stored and used is a most valuable commodity, and its value should certainly be credited to the pen performance. An ordinary pen, fed as the Harper Adams Laying Trial-hbirds are fed, will produce a quarter of a ton of manure per annum showing the following approximate analysis :—water 72-6 per cent., nitrogen 1:42 per cent., phosphoric acid 2-01 per cent., potash 0°42 per cent. Expressed another way each pen of six hens competing at the trials, produces roughly between 7 and 8 lb. of nitrogen. 10 lb. of phosphorie acid and 24 lb. of potash. When it is remembered that this year the birds may be expected to produce nearly one hundred tons of this highly concentrated manure, to disregard it in relation to feeding costs appears to be a mistake. The unsatisfactory state, in which the storage and use of poultry manure is at present, opens up another question outside the scope of this paper. * * * * * * A. NEW APPLES PEST, J. C. F. Fryer, M.A., Pathological Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Harpenden. A report has recently become current in horticultural circles of the appearance in England of a weevil-allied to the Apple Blossom Weevil but even more destructive in its habits, and it may therefore be of interest to Journal readers to give a few details with regard to the discovery. In the spring of 1921 Mr. F. R. Petherbridge, of Cambridge (Adviser to the East Anglian Province) found on the borders of Norfolk one or two weevil larve resembling those of the Apple Blossom Weevil, but feeding in the unexpanded leaf or truss buds of apple and not in the actual blossom buds themselves. As soon as one of these larve, after pupating, had turned into an adult weevil, it was evident that a species different from the Blossom Weevil had been obtained. In August of the same year Mr. Harwood, when collecting beetles in Kent, obtained under bark in eempany with Apple Blossom Weevils an example of the same kind of beetle as had previously been reared by Mr. Petherbridge. Both the Kent and Norfolk specimens have since been identified as a species of weevil (Anthonomus cinctus, Kollar, =A. pyri. Boh.) not previously recorded in Great Britain and therefore of course without any English name. | <3 es a a Nee ae as (lo) Sia es SNe i gs bee | ae a 2 po eh aR EES Fa ors | | ‘eae neice i O eg eee Wee alc toa: | ee oe ee ee | | | 4/4} aia a fese a) Oe = ee at ieee ls elaleieley | es cy} ; & | j Of § S| 5 Oo| O|] oO; o| ojo (sia| a E oe PENS S/S, SS) = Sle) eet S os || vo] ais) ai glalg) 2/313 3 se | 8/8] S| s1a| 5] ela {s| 34] S ; oO fet} Sep Sy j; WT i rj ei : ja S| a === Ss Eee ebb: Re MeN Sede aa j | | | Se de 1-63, /4¢ (pe ele | 4 | les os? RES. eee eee eee Se ieS TA ak en ee es ee 7 | 2 Be Ee: | eS bs Be - rth coor | . b~ ° a ~ e > Os La YL ua Nad : © bh |p TR TR | @ejfjle|}e je Ca] | | [HE Role [PCa elele le je fe 1} TO} CO] 00 |GA [ON [ON AiR} HPI SIH | Hl) | RY e |@ =) P| ~*~ -------- —X Value of Eggs per bird per month. Value of Food consumed per bird per month. Fic. 1—Average Values of Eggs produced and Food consumed, November, 1919, to October, 1921. 2 4 1.—Bud Weevil. “2.—Apple Bud from which a Bud Weevil has emerged. 3.—Blossom Weevil. -4.—* Capped” Blossom from which a Blossom Weevil nas emerged. 3 i 1922. | A New Appie Psst. 749 This new weevil, which might perhaps be known as Bud Weevil to distinguish it from the Blossom Weevil, has been familiar on the Continent of Europe for very many years as a pest of pears and to a less extent of apples. In France the insect is called the Pear Anthonomus and also the Winter Worm. In Germany it is known as the Pear Bud Killer or Pear Bud Stinger, while there are also records of its doing considerable damage both in Russia and Italy. In all cases it would seem to be pears which are damaged rather than apples. In comparison with the Apple Blossom Weevil, the pest usually appears to be regarded as of less, and sometimes as of much less, importance. It is of course quite impossible to predict the nature of the losses which it may ultimately cause in Great Britain, while it is almost equally difficult to judge whether the species is really new to our orchards or whether it has persisted for years in small num- bers undetected. It is undoubtedly the case that it might easily be carried in the egg stage upon nursery stock from the Con- tinent, and that nothing short of complete prohibition of the entry of such stock could prevent its introduction. On the other hand, if it were a recent arrival in England, it is decidedly unlikely that it would appear simultaneously in two localities so far apart as Kent and Norfolk, and on the whole it is more probable that the insect has been present with us for at all events a number of years and that if may even be native. In regard to the life history of the new weevil, it is recorded in Germany that eggs are laid in September and October in the leaf and fruit buds of pear trees, that the larve are found in the buds from the middle of February and that they pupate at the beginning of May. the beetles emerging from 8 to 10 days after- wards. It is further stated that the beetles appear to ‘“ sleep ”’ during the summer and not to reappear until the time for ege- laying in the following autumn. Judging by the behaviour of specimens which were kindly supplied by Mr. Goude (Horti- cultural. Instructor for Norfolk), these statements correspond fairly well with the habits of the insect in Great Britain, and there is every reason to suppose that it will have a similar life history here. Mr. Petherbridge, however, is investigating the matter and may shortly be able to confirm or correct these notes. In the meantime, it is suggested that pear and apple growers should be on the look out at the end of winter and early spring for buds which have been killed or have failed to expand, and if on examination they are found to contain grubs, the Ministry would be grateful for full particulars. 790 LocaL Investication- oF Foop or Lirrte Own. | Nov., A LOCAL INVESTIGATION POP: THE FOOD OF THE Prt oon. Wanrer E.. Connixen, D.Se., 2... Keeper of the Yorkshire Museum, York. Own the publication of my report on the food and feeding habits of the Little Owl,* I received a letter from Mr. M. Portal inquiring if I would like to have specimens of this bird from a series of localities in Hampshire from the end of May to the middle of July. Mr. Portal was of opinion that the critical months were June and July ‘‘ when one might have wished for 50 instead of 22 and 14 specimens for investigation.’ Mr. Portal’s kind offer was accepted and he thereupon made arrangements with the owners and keepers of several estates. In ali 98 birds have been received from different localities. Of these 2 were received in May, 39 in ¢ une, and 55 in July. In two cases the stomachs were empty, and are therefore not in- cluded in these figures. Specimens have been received from 27 different estates, or an average of 3.63 from each. In considering the resuits obtained it must be borne in mind that this is a purely local investigation, and as Dr. Ritchie has pointed out,f if we limit the area covered by any one study of the food of birds, ‘‘ the farmer in any’ particular locality begins to see that the statistics of the laboratory have some close relation to the facts which force themselves upon his notice throughout the year,’’ and he will “‘ begin to put faith in the conclusions drawn from necrological surveys.’’ That the value of such local investigations is considerable probably no one will deny, but the danger is that those who read the results of such will jump to the conclusion that these are typical of the particular species of wild bird throughout the whole country, whereas they only indicate the feeding habits of the species in a limited area, and such habits are modified or vary accord- ing to the particular nature of the locality, i.e., whether agricultural, horticultural, game-breeding, moorland, etc. In Hampshire and the surrounding district there is a large quantity of game-birds bred. Food oi the Adult.—Of the total bulk of food consumed by these 98 specimens during May, June and July, 91.57 per * Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feb., 1922, p. 1022, and March 1922, p. 1133. + Scottish Naturalist, 1918, p. 255. ) ie 7A eT ee a ee = iind 1922. | Loca, INVESTIGATION OF Foop or LirTLe Owl.L. Hl cent. consisted of animal matter, and 8.43 per cent. of vege- table matter. Of the animal content 57.84 per cent. consisted of insects, 20.28 per cent. of earthworms, 7.71 per cent. of voles and mice, 2.94 per cent. of wild birds (mostly house- sparrows) and 1.78 per cent. of game birds and poultry. Wireworms and click beetles constituted 10.10 per cent. and cockchafers and their larve 5.10 per cent. of the insect content. The neutral insects consisted in the main of Dung Beetles (Geotrupes) and a few small moths. Monthly Percentages of the Principal Food Items of the Adult Little Owl. Kind of Food. May. June. July. Average. Seeds of Weeds ... ate ae a. — “14: = O5 Miscellaneous Vegetable See ae — 16°15 9-09 8°38 Slugs or Snails... ah ae ee = “+2 — “U4 Tnjurious Insects ... = cos = — 19°64 41:27 17:30 Beneficial Insects... aX. ue oe — iD "54 “D6 Neutral Insects ... ane oss - 32°50 42°30 23°63 39°48 Voles and Mice ... sb " By) — 8°96 14°18 171 Wild Birds ¥e Lee he ste — 7°82 1°GO 2-94 Game Birds are ae = ts — 525 “09 1:78 Earthworms ee ns ae 47°30 7°43 pL 20°28 Miscellaneous Aninal Metie 2. » — “04. 4°38 1:48 Total 2.00 4. we us: 40000» 100°00 100-00 160-00 If we add these food percentages to those previously obtained and take the average we find a general corroboration of the nature and quantities of the food even in a local investigation. Comparison of the Food Percentayes of two Investigations and Averages. P revious Present Sy. Investigation. Investigation. sta es Seeds of Weeds ... ae : ps3) OD 30 Miscellaneous Vegetable Matter, 5°96 8°38 717 Slugs or Snails”... a = “02 “Ot "03 Injurious Insects... be ae 30°62 17°30 23°S6 Beneficial Insects Le te -99 “HG ¥ | Neutral... ant i koe 17°63 39°48 28°56 Voles and Mice... Ne as 31°05 rat 19°38 Wild Birds at ae ¥F 4-45 2-94 3°70 Game Birds aad 8) re “51 . 1°78 1-14 Earthworms me fa 7°83 20°28 14°05 Miscellaneous Animal Matter ad “39 1-48 “94 Total > °<7! “as ies 100° 00 100-00 100-00 752 NorEes oN Manures ror NovEMBER. [ Nov., ‘Summary and Conclusion.—The results obtained by this further investigation of the stomach contents of 98 birds taken in a local area where game birds are very generally reared, shows that the bulk of this bird’s food during June and July consists of neutral and injurious insects, voles and mice, and earthworms. In comparison with other food items the amount of game birds is infinitesimal. As has been previously stated the writer does not contend that the Little Owl does not destroy young game birds—it is well known that it does—but the actual percentage of this kind of food is so small, that, under ordinary circumstances, it is negligible. On the other hand it must be borne in mind that the bulk of its food is of such a nature.that it must be regarded as of great value to the agriculturist. If we were to reverse these figures, viz., 17.80 per cent. of injurious insects, 7.71 per cent. of voles and mice, and 1.78 per cent. of game birds so that they were 25.01 per cent. of game birds and 1.78 of injurious insects, then there might be cause for alarm, for it would prove that the Little Ow! was not an insect feeder or a destroyer of voles and mice, but that the bulk of its food consisted of game and other birds, but this cannot be stated even for the months of June and July, and during the re- mainder of the year the nature of the food is such that no unprejudiced mind can do other than admit that as a factor in the destruction of injurious insects and voles and mice, the Little Owl is a most valuable ally. In conclusion, the writer wishes to express sincere thanks to Mr. M. Portal for the trouble, time and expense he has taken, and also to the various land-owners and their keepers for their kindness in forwarding specimens. — NOTES ON MANURES FOR NOVEMBER. Sir Jonn Russevyt, D.Sc., F.B.S., Rothamsted Haperimental Station. Does Good Farming Pay?—During the past three months many farmers must have asked themselves the question whether it is worth while to farm well. With prices fallen to the present level there must be many who wonder if it would not be better to cut down all expenditure and reduce all their outgoings to a 1922. | Novres ON MANURES FOR NOVEMBER. 758 minimum. There is high authority for the dictum that high farming is no remedy for low prices. It was Lawes himself in 1879 (a time when as at present farmers were faced with a crisis and when land was going down to grass, labour was being reduced and the standard of farming was falling) who impressed upon farmers the fact that large dressings of manures do not neces- sarily bring in high profits. To enforce this point he quoted the results of some of the experiments on the growth of wheat on Broadbalk field, Rothamsted. Four plots were set out and dressed with artificials, the dressings being as follows :— Average per acre per annum. Dressed corn. Straw. Wheat every yeur, 27 years, 1852-78. Bushels. Cut. Complex mineral manure, alone ied dee A 152 one 133 ‘ 5 +3 and 200 lb. ammonium salts... 244 a 22? * a : », 400 1b. ‘3 irae 334 ee 332 - a Ms ,, 600 lb. $ Hid Lone 363 ~ 402 Barley every year, 6 years, 1852-57, Superphosphate alone ... sf Ba JS 31% 164 F and 200 lb. ammonium salts sk at 453 ae 283 = 5 400 1b. . im ee ee 498 ise 34 The complex mineral manure consisted of 35 cwt. superphos- phate, 200 Ib. sulphate of potash, 100 Ib. sulphate of soda and 100 lb. sulphate of magnesia per acre, or just over 7 cwt. in all. The results showed that the 2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia in addition to other artificiais gave an increased yield of 8% bushels per acre, while 4 cwt. sulphate of ammonia gave an increased yield of 174 bushels, but 6 cwt. gave an increase of only 21 bushels. From these figures it is evident that an increase in the total artificials from 11 cwt. to 18 ewt. per acre increased the yield of grain only by 33 bushels per acre, and was therefore clearly un- profitable. Lawes concludes: “* Assuming that the application of 400 lb. of ammonia-salts was the limit of high farming with wheat at 6s. per bushel I cannot see how it could be maintained that a further 200 lb., yielding little more than a third as much increase aS wher used in more moderate quantity, should be employed because the price of wheat was reduced to 5s. per bushel. On the contrary, the conclusion I should draw from the results of these experiments is that the application of the 600 lb. of ammonia-salts could only be profitable if the price of wheat were to rise instead of fall.’’ Everyone would agree with this. If any farmer were giving his wheat crop 11 cwt. of artificials per acre, including 4 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, we could F 754 Notes on Manvres ror NOVEMBER. | Nov., quite certainly advise him that he would gain nothing, and probably lose, by adding still another 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, making 18 ewt. of artificials in all. So far as dressings of this size are concerned there is no reason at all to suppose that they are vrofitable. No farmer nowadays, however, uses anything like these quan- tities of artificials on wheat, not even the 4 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia which Lawes spoke of as the possible limit, and there- fore the results are not directly applicable to modern practice. The experiment tells us nothing at all about the behaviour of the wheat crop with smailer dressings such as 1 ewt. or 14 ewt. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia with or without 1 to 2 ewt. of superphosphate. Is it worth while using these? It is obviously very unsafe to say that because it does not pay to sive 18 ewt. of artificials to wheat, therefore it does not pay to give 1 or 2ewt. The experiment, in other words, cannot properly be quoted in relation to the modern problem. A more applic- able experiment is now in hand at Rothamsted, and while the results are not all available those to hand suggest that the old conclusion does not apply to dressings of the size ordinarily given by farmers. There are also recent experiments on other crops that do not agree with this old conclusion. At the Midland Agri- cultural College an interesting experiment was made on Arran Chief potatoes in 1921. The whole field received 12 tons of farm- yard manure per acre, but the various plots received different quantities of a mixture of artificials (8 ewt. superphosphate, 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia and 1 ewt. sulphate of potash). The results were as follows :— | | Cost of extra | Manure at | | | Value of | 41 cot. for | ; Yield | Per- | Per- Ae ae ; is Superphos- | ss oer Plot Manuring. in tons | centage | centage Seed ana, | PME saaitonsl bas acre, | Ware. | Seed. Chats cwl., Sulph. Dresses | | £2 per ton Amm.,15/- | spe Pes Se MNC2UL. pile | of Potash. | Sy Dung | Artificials| A, | SCS aie a cl) ae ee s. d. 1 | 12tons| 6cewt.' ACSIA B53Sa1 42:3 | 46 Ta) — | = 2 12k Bae 13°63 56'9 29:3) 1-58 5-0 | 0.17 0 +1015 0 3 |.12,,|10,, | 1486 | 606 | 35:7 | 6310 0| 114 0/415 3 0 acl? to tek Ad 13-19' ety |e ase eee 80, ion menos oa o | | b bA2 ,, +14 ee ass | 589 1) aie 5A seo) Shes Oe eden | | | | 6 Mi ih al Oger 11°34 58-4} 38:31:49) 1 00 Ae oh 0 be it Alaa 0) | 1922. | Notes on Manures ror NOVEMBER. 755 Now it is quite obvious that the heaviest dressing (16 cwt. artificials per acre in addition to 12 tons farmyard manure) has not paid: nor kas 14 ewt. paid as well as 12 ewt.; but it would be quite wrong to argue that therefore a farmer should not use artificials at all. As a matter of fact the highest profit is obtained not by the lowest dressing but by the 10 cwt. of artificials in addition to the dung. A similar restflt is obtained if the potatoes are written at half the cost. The true conclusion is that if it pays to grow a crop at all it pays to grow a good one, and a farmer should endeavour to find out what is the most advan- tageous quantity of fertiliser to use: he will not want to give too much, but he may lose if he gives too little. No one can say beforehand exactly what this quantity is, and nothing but experiment will show it; but an expert with local knowledge can sive useful help. Grass Land.—-In time of financial trouble farmers look to grass to tide them over their difficulties and undoubtedly this is a safe plan. Jf, however, grass is to give all the help it can it must be properly treated. Fortunately this is not necessarily a costly matter, and poor grass can commonly be improved at a relatively small expenditure. Grazing land requires first and foremost good stocking. Professor Gilchrist has obtained striking results from mixed grazing at Cockle Park, the gain in live weight of the animals per acre being about doubled when sheep and cattle were used instead of sheep alone. He states “‘ sheep graze only the fine bottom herbage and reject that of a stemmy charac- ter, whereas cattle graze much more evenly and not so closely. When a pasture is grazed with horses large areas soon become coarse and benty where their droppings are deposited and very bare on the parts where they graze. It is of the greatest import- ance that a pasture should be grazed closely at least once a year.”’ Assuming good grazing, considerable further improvement may be obtained by the use of basic slag or mineral phosphates. So much has been written about basic slag that it might seem superfluous to say more were it not-for the fact that one can still find grass land that obviously needs it. Experiments have not shown that one kind of slag is invariably better than another, but there are a number of cases where high soluble slag has acted better than one of low solubility. Numerous experiments are being made in the various counties and the results should before long be available. Farmers are, however, becoming increasingly interested in mineral phosphates owing to their relative cheap- F 2 756 Notes on FEEDING Srurrs ror NOVEMBER. Ny ness. The following table has been drawn up by Professor Gulchrist* <— CoMPARATIVE Costs oF some PHOSPHATIC MANURES IN THE SPRING oF 1922. 19 units Phos- Price per Price per peracre Cost per Manure. phate. ye unt. int acre. ah d. Sy rd, cwt. a.) 7d. Basic slag ae aan se TOD Ben 101 0 2 8 10 50 8 Basic slag core? ea e2 16 7s 5) 177; -. 52 3 Ground American phosphate vac MOE” Baer Zor 0 ee) 52 33 3 Ground African phosphate .,. 60 ... 115 0 1 ae Ps 36 5 Superphosphate (soluble) pt OOMS L295. 30 oy 123 60 2 Slags and minera! phosphates are podh cuaranteed “ ie 80 per cent. fineness (2.e., passing sieve with 100 meshes to the linear inch). Satisfactory results have been obtained by Pro- fessor Gilchrist with some of the mineral phosphates especially when very finely ground (80 per cent. passing a sieve with 120 meshes to the tinear inch). In one case the result appeared to be as good as, if not better than, that produced by high grade basic slag. With less fine grinding the results are less satisfactory. The question often arises whether lime is needed in addition to basic slag. In many cases it is not, but the rule is by no means absolute. Dr. J. A. Hanley has found soils in Yorkshire which are so sour that basic slag does not act until lime is added, but then a remarkable effect 1s produced. Probably other soils of the same character could be found; where basic slag has not given the effect which might have been expected i it is worth while consulting the county organiser with the view of having the soil examined. NOTES ON FEEDINC STUFFS FOR NOVEMBER. E. T. Hatnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.), Mimstry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Use of Home-Grown Feeding Stufis for Stock Feeding. —The prices of home-grown feeding stuffs, usually sold off the farm, have now reached the stage when it becomes more - economical for the farmer to feed his grain crops to stock rather than to sell them for human food and purchase cakes * Field experiments with Rock Phosphates and Basic Slag were described in this Journal for September and October, 1922, and a further article appears in this issue, p. 706. + Carriage paid to farmers’ stations. + Containing nearly 200 1b. phosphoric acid. 1922. | Nores oN FEEDING STUFFS FoR NOVEMBER. 151 and other foods for winter feeding. Notes have already appeared in a previous issue of this Journal (September, 1922, p. 562) on the use and method of feeding potatoes to stock. Several farmers have inquired about the chief points to con- sider in feeding grain crops, such as wheat, rye and barley. All farmers are sufficiently familiar with the value and use of oats to warrant not dealing with them in these notes, but it is evident that barley, rye and wheat are somewhat un- familiar feeding stuffs from a stock feeder’s standpoint. One of the first points to note about grain crops is the fact that they are all somewhat starchy foods, deficient in digestible protein. The nutritive ratio of barley is 1:10, and that of rye and wheat 1:7. Most farm rations for stock vary from 1:4 to 1:6, 1:6 being the most common ratio. It becomes necessary therefore, in feeding barley, rye or wheat to give in addition some nitrogenous. supplement, such as fish or meat meal, earthnut cake or decorticated cotton cake. A possible alternative method of supplying this protein de- ficiency is to feed legume hay, such as tare or oat hay, or clover hay as the bulky part of the ration. One of the chief difficulties met with in feeding grain crops is to know how best to use them. Wheat is generally so hard that digestive troubles will occur unless it is cracked or broken. On the other hand, if it is too finely ground, the meal forms a pasty mass in the mouth and the stock find it almost a physical impossibility to eat it. Wheat should always therefore be fed in a cracked or broken state and should preferably first be soaked. For pig feeding, barley, wheat and rye are best fed in the form of a coarse meal, soaked at least 12 hours before feeding. For horses, both wheat and barley can be used in part re- placement of oats. Barley may be fed whole, but wheat should be cracked. Rye can also be used for horses, and should be well soaked before feeding. The writer is aware of a farmer whose usual practice is to feed rye alone, well soaked, and his horses are kept in very good condition. Clover and vetch hay form the bulky part of the ration and the horses are fed on green vetches without any concentrated food throughout the summer. With cows and bullocks, wheat and barley may form from one-third to one-half of the concentrated feeding stuffs given in the ration. The recommendations given above for horses apply equally to milch cows. 758 Notes on F'sepinc Sturrs ror NovEMBER. [ Nov., 7 : 1 Price F Price | Price |"Vatue | ood Starch] per | vor ts DESCRIPTION. per Pon. per Value per am R raat Starch Qr. Ton. Ton. 100 Ib. Equiv. Equiv. 8, lb. mess oes ees. Ss. d. | Wheat, British - 42/-| 504 Sh i O17 ep WO Yk 6| yt 1°25 Barley, British Feeding oe) £00. | ORO) 20° L6 | 8S ee 2 ib 1°29 1. 4, Canadian No..7/3 Western] 36/-| 400 | 10 2 0 16 WB al Se ere 2h 1:38 | Oats, English White -| 29/6) 336 | 9°17 |' 0-18 |- 87119) "5953/0 161 + Bee ORey 26/6) 396 | sSalv | 0. 18.1.. 7 19> (259%) 278 1°43 . Chilian . - 28/6), 320) "919", 0 18°), 9 1 ed ba 3/1 1°65 » | Canadian No.3 ) =-31/6),320M 0119 0) 0182) 107 e2a) oo aNi3 > 1°83 ‘ , No. 2 Feed] 28/9} 320/10 1] 018| 9 3 | 59°5/3/1 | -1-65 » wmerican | <= “| 2e/dieac0e) 9, 18 | 0 18 | 9 Oe) 5959370 1°61 * sarcentine, “i =| 29/5! 320 120) (73)i) 70918. | <9) ob | (9%) S72 170 | Maize, Argentine - shal Oe COMERS alibi 0 T5979 Oalnsie eos 1°20 ; «> -Ame»nean <= =| ot /6| £00 1) STOP oO. 15 | *S O07 Sle 1210 1°07 i, South African --|: 39/—) 480 OR Olay 8 are | SE pa 112 ; Beans, Rangoon - sO) ae (120 is OC EelGs 56 4s 67 ~ | 1/10") 0-98 § Millers’ offals— Bran, British - lt Rl eg 6. OID a AS yy) 08 Broad Bran - SS C257) Eos ee 25 eb e216 1°34 Fine middlings (Im- ported) - = sy fea | iS) oe Re dee) f Noe i273 212 eG Coarse middlings j (British) - J) ph SurrOu | pale eOS Ef TOR Monee ai2 116 Follards (imported) || y= Gobo) | 110s) bb 60 9 179 0°94 Barley Meal - - =| ON ONG 7) TOS a 2A We? Maize , - - -| — | — 9 lof); 0 154) 9-0) St 1.2/3 1:20 oe ae So eA bhICa nya ae 910) Old Silos 38 22 1°16 , ,, Germ Meal - le 3) 5) IP 8) 8.68078! F/T] |) 1203 | ,, Gluten-feed =) ett 8) Oat TOR FT alOl) 75:6") 970 1:07 | Locust Bean Meal -| — | — 9 ON OMNy 6 OG hel As 4 1°25, | Bean Meal - - -| — a9) oP LOG) eG) see eal 73/6 187 Mish fs.) 4 : oe ae IO (Ia eo ON oan 3/6 1°87 j Linseed - - so | 19 10 elo kr Voto 13/0 161 » Cake, English (93/2 O11) ae SON eee tO son ia 12/9 1:47 1 Cottonseed ,, English c (5°/, oil)| — — 7-15 Hy 10) Ded ol-49, 2/9 1°47 ‘ » Hgyptian Qi =" es 7 TO 2 On) a LOA 7 1°38 Coconut Cake (6°/, oil)) — | — O09) TG Sas 4 Ts 20 1:07 } Palm Kernel Cake (6°/, oil)) — | — 1 ote tl Om ato AT) 8 a7, 0°85 : vue blieall (1g=2°/. oil) ==") So Bo | Wa 87S) 18s | 0-67 | Feeding Treacle - —|— ANT D 2), SO SEQ 2.5 0) Day alia 0°85 | Brewers’ grains, caieol ells == 9 HO OE ay OY | SHE = Os 1‘29 ae 9) 9,porter]| — —- (ee 1 16 5 10 | 49 2/3 1°20 £ » wet,alel — | — Lael O40 ols 2 DE AO, a ,, wet,porter} — --- 0 15 Ora7 OS, |) Toes /6 0°27 | Malt culms - - eo — | Si LO fies Oo | 43.0310 1°61 { At Liverpool. NOTE.—The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were current at the end of September and are, as a rule, considerably lower than the prices at local c.untry markets. the difference being due to carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily con } are the relative prices of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, suppose palm kernel cake is offered locally at £10 per ton. Its manurial value is £1 9s. per ton. The food value per ton is therefore £8 lls. per ton. Dividing this figure by 75, the starch equivalent of palm kernel cake as given in the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8d. Dividing this again by 22°4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in 1 unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent is 121d A similar calculation will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent ot other feeding stuffs on the same local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices quoted on his own market. 1922. | Pouutry KEEPING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 759 In the case of young pigs, the chief point that arises is whether it is possible to do without middlings, which prove of such value to young pigs at the time of weaning. For such a purpose a mixture of oats and wheat, half and half, ground to a medium fine meal, might be used to replace middlings in the ration. Tue following note has been communicated by Mr. J. L. Whytehead, one of the Ministry’s Inspectors :— The County of Gloucester is rapidly improving its position as an egg producing district. The breeds of poultry kept are elther the light breeds for egg production or the dual purpose breeds, and purely table breeds are rarely seen. The Ministry's Ege and Day Old Chick Distribution Scheme has been in operation in Gloucestershire for several seasons and has no doubt helped to show the advantages of keep- ing well bred stock. Under the scheme trap-nested stock of the utility breeds.of hens and of ducks are obtainable by cottagers, small-holders and allotment holders. Full advantage has been taken of the instruction in poultry keeping provided by the County Agricultural Education Com- mittee. During the last two winters evening lectures in poultry keeping were given by the Poultry Instructor in widely scattered districts, the days being spent in visits of advice. Models of trap-nests, dry mash hoppers and drinking fountains, made from materials which were practically waste, were ex- hibited at every lecture and were often left behind to be copied by poultry keepers in the district. At the end of each lecture the names and addresses of those who wished to be visited were noted. It gradually beezme known that a whole-time poultry instructor was available, and the number of requests for advice, for lectures, and for judging at local shows rapidly increased. A stand is erected at the more important shows in the county showing specimens of good and bad types of laying hens, good and bad foods, appliances and samples of medicines, and visitors are invited to ask questions. One result of the work done during the last two years is that about 5,000 more hens are being trap-nested than was the case previously. In many villages there are poultry keepers who can produce the records of eggs laid by their hens, and in some cases by their ducks.. Many of these more advanced poultry keepers are reaping a good reward. Recent Advances in Poultry Keeping in Gloucestershire. 760 PouuttrRyY KEEPING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE. | Nov., This autumn a laying test has been started for birds belonging to residents in the county of Gloucester only. The necessary funds are being obtained by subscription. The start is in a small way, but it is hoped that the standard will be high. Fifty pens have been arranged for pullets, and ducks are also being catered for. The importance of poultry keeping by general farmers cannot be overlooked; indeed, some of the largest and most successful of the poultry farms in the county are the property of general farmers who have acquired an expert knowledge of poultry. The large poultry farm has come more into evidence in recent years, and there are now about a dozen farms in Gloucestershire where more than 1,000 head of laying stock are kept, and a large number with from 500 to 1,000. There are eight Mammoth Incubators in use in the county, nearly all having been erected recently. Two large egg-collecting depots are in existence at Ciren- cester and Nailsworth. At the former over one and a quarter million eggs were handled in 1921. The commercial egg farmer who sends his eggs direct to the large markets in many cases dispatches the consignments by goods train and this prac- tice is increasing. It is found that there are fewer breakages than when sent by passenger train and the cost is much less. Gloucestershire is an important fruit growing county and for this reason alone should carry a large stock of poultry. These two branches of farming go very well together. Mr. P. M. Hinton has kept poultry in some of his orchards near Tewkes- bury for over 12 years with noticeably good results. The apple trees in these orchards have borne good crops for each of the past four years, including the years 1919 and 1920, which were generally bad apple years in this district. The growth of new wood has been very strong and it has been noticed that the young fruit trees on the land under poultry have matured more quickly than similar trees on adjoining ground not under poultry. The keeping of a large number of birds on these orchards has enabled the owner to maintain the trees in first rate condition, and a very substantial saving of money has been effected in the purchase of manures. A reduction in expenditure on spraying has been possible owing to the destructicn of fruit pests by the birds. For example, the Apple Blossom Weeevil is becoming less in evidence each year in those orchards which are stocked with poultry. * * * * * * ‘Ree ee ® Orgccs - Dapp TT nT I " —— gu EN ESTERL Dag | 7 : ‘ y CIRENCESTER. oe es Phelo Ldnuss, UiMencesler. Fig. 3.—Orchard at Tewkesbury stocked with Poultry. 2 Pe eat ot) eee epee ern ae ae ae Pad bat ‘ vi ey > =n --— 1 ne " 1 pstped cee reeset ray, 2 ee ‘ ¢ + 4 ci a FY Pr “ oe = = a are : iD = a 7 « “ = 7 sf Fy p t i ie 7 ra ae 7 2 = pea he 7 A*) - _ a y : we, F : ; a: a be < & 4 i ; i PASS ap rama 8 a a yt rein Bcf Serer it *) ee uae < : e Se » dae es ‘ oy rc d , a wr ‘ Fe < = “a — p ‘ p i ‘= ea yORe ee kee is Rie ee i 4 oe Be BERRIES = oj Sasi oe EI oD hort dds «da one pbeetnteere tract ag t= A be( oy ak MR gs abe SASS wma i eat - aot 4 1922. | National. Rat WEEK, 1922. 761 Tue week commencing on Monday, 6th November, 1922, has been fixed by the Ministry as ‘‘ Rat Week.’? A memorandum ‘ containing suggestions as to the action that National Rat Rowtgae ; Week, 1922. may be taken by them and by the public has been issued to all Local Authorities in Englend responsible for the administration of the Rats and Mice (Destruction) Act, 1919, and it is hoped that all agricul- turists will co-operate in securing the greatest possible destruc- tion of these vermin at the time when they are returning to their winter quarters. Although an effort of this kind during one week is not sufficient to keep down rats and mice, but is only a feature in the continuous campaign which a number of local authorities are actively carrying on, it should produce good results not only by the destruction of a large number of rats, but by calling attention to the enormous waste of foodstuffs caused by their depredations, and by reminding the public that it is the duty of all occupiers to destroy rats and mice upon their premises. The following are some simple suggestions for rat destruction : Prevention being better than cure, begin by rendering rat-proof as far as possible all ricks, barns and granaries. In urban districts see that drains are intact. To destroy rats proceed as follows :— 4) Provided the Local Authority has appointed an officer under the Act, consult him, and, if he is authorised, entrust the destruction to him. Gi) If you prefer to undertake the destruction yourself, consult a local chemist, asking for poisons containing Red Squill or Barium Carbonate. If there is absolutely no danger to domestic animals or human beings, one of the standardised phosphorus preparations is effective. (iii) If you wish to make your own bait, the following recipes will be found effective :— (a) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 6 0z.) This will make 1,000 baits Meal Ee eae abe sv LG oz. of 6 grains each, 7.e., Dripping as re sos (4.02: pieces as large as a hazel Salt = sft ng “3 #02 nut. Mix with fat to a paste and lay out in pieces the size ot a hazel nut in places where rats frequent. (b) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 4 oz Biscuit or Oat Meal... . 402, Oil of Aniseed ... ane 5 drops per cent. (c) Barium Carbonate (Commercial) 20 Fine Castor Sugar... sit 40 Fine Meal ok os ea 0 Thoroughly mix the in- gredients,